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= Louis H. Carpenter =
Louis Henry Carpenter ( February 11 , 1839 – January 21 , 1916 ) was a United States Army brigadier general and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions in the American Indian Wars .
He dropped out of college to enlist in the Union Army at the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861 , first as an enlisted soldier before being commissioned as an officer the following year . During the American Civil War , he participated in at least fourteen campaigns primarily with the 6th U.S. Cavalry Regiment and as regimental commander of the 5th U.S. Colored Cavalry Regiment . By the end of the Civil War , he held the rank of brevet lieutenant colonel , colonel of volunteers and also received a commission to first lieutenant in the Regular United States Army .
Carpenter received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Indian Wars while serving with the Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th U.S. Cavalry . He was noted several times for gallantry in official dispatches .
After the Civil War and until his transfer back East in 1887 , he served primarily on the western frontier . He engaged many Native American tribes , dealt with many types of renegades and explored vast areas of uncharted territory from Texas to Arizona . During the Spanish – American War , he commanded an occupation force and became the first military governor of Puerto Principe , Cuba . After 38 continuous years of service to his country , he retired from the Army on October 19 , 1899 , as a brigadier general . After his retirement , he became a speaker and a writer .
= = Early life and family = =
Louis H. Carpenter was a direct descendant ( great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandson ) of the notable immigrant Samuel Carpenter ( November 4 , 1649 Horsham , Sussex , England – April 10 , 1714 Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) , who came to America in early 1683 by way of Barbados .
The eldest son of eight children born to Edward Carpenter 2nd and Anna Maria ( Mary ) Howey , Carpenter was born in Glassboro , New Jersey . In 1843 , his family moved to Philadelphia where they attended Trinity Episcopal Church in West Philadelphia . L. Henry Carpenter attended A. B. Central High School in Philadelphia in 1856 and started attending Student University of Pennsylvania in 1859 .
His younger brother , James Edward Carpenter , served in the Union army as a private in the Eighth Pennsylvania Cavalry and later was commissioned a second lieutenant . He later became a first lieutenant , captain then a brevet major of volunteers .
= = Military service = =
= = = American Civil War = = =
In July 1861 , during his junior year , Carpenter dropped out of Dickinson College and joined the " The Fighting Sixth " Cavalry Regiment . He became a private in the Union Army which later became known as the Army of the Potomac . Carpenter was trained as an infantry soldier who was capable of riding a horse to the battlefield and as a mounted scout . As a " horse soldier " , Carpenter and others like him had a steep learning curve that proved difficult and frustrating during the first year of the conflict . He participated in the Peninsula Campaign and chased the audacious Jeb Stuart 's Cavalry that went completely around the Union Army ( June 13 – 15 , 1862 ) . This caused great psychological concerns to the Union cavalry commanders and men . The " horse soldiers " were a far second best compared to the dashing Confederate cavalry .
Rapid expansion of the Union Cavalry in the East was chaotic . At the beginning of the Civil War , officers were elected by the men or appointed politically . This resulted in many misguided and inept commanders . The tools and techniques of pre @-@ war cavalry often seemed inadequate , resulting in a steep learning curve that was costly in men and supplies . Slowly out the chaos came the tactics and leaders who proved worthy of the challenge . Union " horse soldiers " became cavalry troopers under this tough regimen and proved adept , dismounted and mounted on horseback , with their carbines , pistols , sabers and confident under their battle @-@ proven leaders .
After the Seven Days Battles ( June 25 to July 1 , 1862 ) , Carpenter was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Regular Army , 6th U. S. Cavalry , on July 17 , 1862 , for meritorious actions and leadership .
= = = = Gettysburg Campaign = = = =
The Gettysburg Campaign was a series of engagements before and after the Battle of Gettysburg . To better understand Carpenter 's role within the military organization , the following brief is provided . For more details , see Gettysburg Union order of battle .
The Army of the Potomac was initially under Major General Joseph Hooker then under Major General George G. Meade on June 28 , 1863 .
The Cavalry Corps was commanded by Major General Alfred Pleasonton , with divisions commanded by Brigadier Generals John Buford , David McM . Gregg , and H. Judson Kilpatrick .
The following list is the 6th US Cavalry Regiment 's documented battles and engagements of June and July 1863 which Carpenter participated . These battle were pivotal for Carpenter . He was a company commander until July 3 then acting executive officer of his regiment after that .
Beverly Ford , Virginia , June 9 , at the Battle of Brandy Station . The 6th was under Buford 's right wing .
Benton 's Mill , Virginia , June 17 , an engagement near Middleburg .
Middleburg , Virginia , June 21 , at the Battle of Middleburg .
Upperville , Virginia , June 21 , at the Battle of Upperville .
Fairfield , Pennsylvania , July 3 , at the Battle of Fairfield .
Williamsport , Maryland , July 6 , an engagement .
Funkstown , Maryland , July 7 , a small engagement .
Boonesboro , Maryland , July 8 and 9 , at the Battle of Boonesboro .
Funkstown , Maryland , July 10 , at the Battle of Funkstown .
= = = = = Battle of Brandy Station = = = = =
On June 9 , 1863 , opposing cavalry forces met at Brandy Station , near Culpeper , Virginia . The 9 @,@ 500 Confederate cavalrymen under Major General J.E.B. Stuart were surprised at dawn by Major General Alfred Pleasonton 's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions of some 8 @,@ 000 cavalry troops ( including the 6th U.S. Cavalry Regiment and Carpenter with his Company H ) and 3 @,@ 000 infantry . Stuart barely repulsed the Union attack and required more time to reorganize and rearm . This inconclusive battle was the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the Civil War to that time . This battle proved for the first time that the Union horse soldiers , like Carpenter , were equal to their Southern counterparts .
= = = = = Battle of Fairfield = = = = =
On July 3 , 1863 , reports of a slow moving Confederate wagon train in the vicinity of Fairfield , Pennsylvania , attracted the attention of newly commissioned Union Brigadier General Wesley Merritt of the Reserve Brigade , First Division , Cavalry Corps . He ordered the 6th U.S. Cavalry under Major Samuel H. Starr to scout Fairfield and locate the wagons , resulting in the Battle of Fairfield .
Carpenter 's next action was with Major Starr on July 3 , 1863 . Starr had his 400 troopers dismount in a field and an orchard on both sides of the road near Fairfield . Union troopers directed by their officers took up hasty defensive positions on this slight ridge . Carpenter 's troops and others threw back a mounted charge of the 7th Virginia Cavalry , just as the Confederate Chew 's Battery unlimbered and opened fire on the Federal cavalrymen . Supported by the 6th Virginia Cavalry , the 7th Virginia charged again , clearing Starr 's force off the ridge and inflicting heavy losses . General " Grumble " Jones , outnumbering the Union forces by more than 2 to 1 , pursued the retreating Federals for three miles to the Fairfield Gap , but was unable to eliminate his quarry . Major Starr who was wounded in the first attack was unable to escape and was captured . Small groups of the 6th Cavalry , " ... reformed several miles from the field of action by Lt. Louis H. Carpenter , " harassed the Virginia troopers giving the impression of the vanguard of a much larger force . Carpenter became then became the acting executive officer of the Regiment .
Carpenter , in this fight with others of his small regiment at Fairfield , stood against two of the crack brigades of Stuart 's cavalry . The 6th Cavalry 's stand was considered one of the most gallant in its history and helped influence the outcome the battles being fought around Gettysburg . While the 6th Cavalry regiment was cut to pieces , it fought so well that its squadrons were regarded as the advance of a large body of troops . The senior officer of those brigades was later criticized severely for being delayed by such an inferior force . Had the 6th Cavalry regiment not made their stand , the two brigades of Virginians could have caused serious problems to the Union rear areas .
Lieutenant Carpenter , of Troop H , was one of only three officers of the 6th U.S. Cavalry to escape from the deadly melee at Fairfield on July 3 , 1863 . Private George Crawford Platt , later Sergeant , an Irish immigrant serving in Carpenter 's Troop H , received the Medal of Honor on July 12 , 1895 , for his actions that day at Fairfield . His citation reads , " Seized the regimental flag upon the death of the standard bearer in a hand @-@ to @-@ hand fight and prevented it from falling into the hands of the enemy . " His " commander " , as an eyewitness , documented Private Platt 's " beyond the call of duty " behavior that day . Carpenter was brevetted from second lieutenant to first lieutenant for his gallant and meritorious conduct for his actions at Fairfield . During this time period , he was mentioned in official reports and dispatches .
= = = = Overland Campaign = = = =
On April 5 , 1864 , Major General Philip Sheridan was appointed to command the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the newly promoted general @-@ in @-@ chief Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant . Carpenter became his Aide @-@ de @-@ camp similar to today 's executive assistant known then as a Field & Staff ( F & S ) officer to the Cavalry Corps . It is unknown how much of an influence Carpenter had on Sheridan on the concept of deploying Union cavalry to become more effective and independent in roles such as long @-@ range raids . Carpenter 's treatise on " The Battle of Yellow Tavern " suggests that he had some influence on what was later called the Richmond or Sheridan 's Raid .
On May 8 , 1864 , at the beginning of the Overland Campaign , Sheridan went over his immediate superior , Major General Meade 's head and told Grant that if his Cavalry Corps were let loose to operate as an independent unit , he could defeat Confederate Major General J.E.B. Stuart . " Jeb " Stuart was the most prominent and able cavalry officer of the south . Grant was intrigued and convinced Meade of the value of Sheridan 's request .
The May 1864 Battle of Yellow Tavern was the first of four major so called strategic raids . The others being the Trevilian in June 1864 , the Wilson @-@ Kautz in late June , and the First Deep Bottom in July 1864 . Of all of these , only the Battle of Yellow Tavern can be considered a clear Union victory . The defeat and resulting death of " Jeb " Stuart made this clear during the first raid . At best , the follow @-@ up raids diverted Confederate forces required to deal with them from where they were needed elsewhere . Despite what Carpenter and other supporters of Sheridan have written , further raids of this caliber were less than successful . And these raids may have even hindered the Union effort by the lack of reconnaissance and intelligence Sheridan could have otherwise provided . How long Carpenter served with Sheridan is not currently known . Carpenter is not mentioned in Sheridan 's personal memoirs or other major books on Sheridan . Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Carpenter was promoted to first lieutenant in the Regular Army on September 28 , 1864 . He was then transferred the District of Kentucky , Department of Ohio and accepted a commission to lieutenant colonel of volunteers with the United States colored Troops .
= = = = 5th U.S. Colored Cavalry = = = =
Lieutenant Colonel of Volunteers L. Henry Carpenter arrived at Camp Nelson , Kentucky on October 1 , 1864 . The majority of 600 " colored " slaves , ex @-@ slaves and freedmen of what would become the 5th United States Colored Cavalry ( USCC ) were absent . The men were then in the field being led by Lieutenant Colonel James S. Brisbin under Brevet Major General Stephen G. Burbridge preparing for an attack on Saltville , Virginia . The 5th USCC would not be officially organized until October 24 , 1864 .
= = = = = First Battle of Saltville = = = = =
In late September 1864 , Burbridge led a raid into southwest Virginia against the salt works near the town of Saltville , Virginia as part of the Battle of Saltville on October 1 , 1864 . Burbridge controversially led white troops and some 600 mostly untrained black troops into that battle and , despite outstanding effort by the " coloured troops , " the raid ultimately failed . Burbridge quickly retreated the next day . Wounded troops ( black and white ) were left behind on the field of battle . By October 3 , an unknown number of surrendered and wounded Union soldiers were killed by Confederate regular , home guard and irregular soldiers , with special ire directed toward the black troops . To many this was a war crime and Champ Ferguson , a captain of partisan rangers , was later found guilty of murdering 53 white and black soldiers at the Battle of Saltville , and on October 20 , 1865 , he was hanged until dead . Ferguson and Henry Wirz were the only two Confederate soldiers during the Civil War tried for war crimes .
Union forces en route back to Camp Nelson had a brief engagement on October 21 , 1864 at Harrodsburg , Kentucky . A few days later , Carpenter faced the defeated but defiant Union troops as they returned to Camp Nelson in October . The reports of " Black Flag " behavior toward the " colored troops " and their white officers frightened many men . And it was widely reported in the press both North and South .
= = = = = Problems = = = = =
Carpenter became the executive officer of the 5th USCC in charge of training and getting the African @-@ American recruits ready for combat . Basic drill , weapon training and conditioning helped build confidence and preparedness . Carpenter faced another serious problem . Non @-@ commissioned officers were to be chosen from the ranks and with almost an entire regiment of recent ex @-@ slaves , Carpenter found it difficult to find men literate enough to handle the tasks assigned to sergeants . " Scarcely any of the Colored men enlisted into this regiment can read or write , " wrote Carpenter , to Captain O. Bates Dickson in a letter .
Carpenter 's solution , which was granted by his superiors , involved placing literate white non @-@ commissioned officers among the " colored sergeants . " This combined with a literacy program for African @-@ American NCOs corrected the problem in time .
Another problem was the rifles issued to the 5th USCC . These were muzzle loaded Enfield infantry rifles unsuited for mounted use because they could not be loaded on horseback . Carpenter taught tactics that involved dismounted fighting , going back to the concept of " mounted infantry " who dismounted to fight .
A final problem was white officers promoted from the ranks who were " unsuited " to command " colored troops . " Despite efforts of training by Carpenter and others , attrition was the only real solution for these junior officers .
= = = = = Stoneman ’ s 1864 Winter Raid = = = = =
In December 1864 , General George Stoneman ordered the 5th USCC to participate in a raid from East Tennessee into southwestern Virginia . This resulted in engagements that involved the 5th USCC at Hopkinsville , Kentucky on December 12 , Kingsport , Tennessee on December 13 , the Battle of Marion near Marion , Virginia on December 17 & 18 , and the second Battle of Saltville on December 20 & 21 near Saltville , Virginia . All were considered Union victories .
During the Battle of Marion , Division Commander Stephen G. Burbridge ordered the 5th USCC between two white units on the left flank of the Union line . Lieutenant Colonel James S. Brisbin and his second in command , Carpenter , led their dismounted soldiers forward toward the Confederate defensive works . The Confederates opened heavy fire upon the advancing Union troops that included four ten pound Parrott rifled cannons . The first Union charge wavered and fell back . Carpenter was seen giving clear orders to reform and rallied his men . With a mighty yell the 5th USCC rushed forward toward the breastworks but could not break the defensive line . Carpenter ordered the men to dig in and night fell . Volunteers went out between lines to rescue the wounded .
On December 18 , the morning was cold and rainy with a light fog . The second day began as a copy of the first with multiple Union charges . The Union center was able to breach the center of the Confederate breatworks but were pushed out by a Rebel counterattack . Carpenter led a mounted rescue force of colored soldiers to save white soldiers trapped near a cover bridge on the left flank . Carpenter made several attempts but could not rescue the soldiers . Most of those trapped soldiers would be captured later that afternoon , but released before giving their parole . Later that day the Confederate reinforcements delivered a wild rebel yelling charge on the Union left flank . The white unit adjacent to the 5th USCC was completely routed and the 5th USCC flank was threatened . Ordered to fall back , Carpenter and Brisbin tried to maintain an orderly retreat . Many " colored soldiers " remembering the murder of their comrades during the first battle of Saltville broke ranks to rescue their wounded comrades . The retreat threatened to become a rout . About 4 PM , Union reinforcements arrived and bolstered the Union line . During the night , Confederate forces were forced to retire due to the lack of ammunition . The next day Union forces buried the dead and helped the wounded . The costly victory marked the highpoint of Stoneman 's raid .
On the afternoon of December 20 , Union forces attacked Saltville , Virginia . Confederate forces were overwhelmed when the 5th & 6th USCC entered the fray with a cold vengeance . Outnumbered Confederate forces retreated and awaited promised reinforcements . Union forces hastily attempted to destroy the vital salt works . They destroyed about one third of the boiling kettles and most evaporating sheds . They also damaged portions of the Virginia & Tennessee railroad . But they failed to destroy or damage the actual salt wells . General Stoneman claimed a victory and retreated out of Virginia before Confederate forces could completely surround him . Carpenter 's role is strangely missing from letters and other documents that simply note that he was there . Within three months , the saltworks were back in full production . Carpenter later wrote a long letter home about this battle and how his men responded .
= = = = = Ambush at Simpsonville = = = = =
On January 23 , 1865 , 80 " colored " troops of Company E , 5th US Colored Cavalry , under command of 2nd Lieutenant Augustus Flint , were assigned to move almost a thousand head of cattle from Camp Nelson to the stock yard at Louisville , Kentucky . The men were mostly assigned to the front and rear of the spread out herd of cattle . About 41 men were bringing up the rear on January 25 near Simpsonville , when they were ambushed by Confederate guerrillas . Very few of the Union troops were able to fire their muzzle @-@ loaded Enfield infantry rifles , due to fouled powder . The guerrillas were armed with 6 @-@ shot revolvers , and most carried two or more . As Confederates quickly closed the distance , almost all of the " colored soldiers " bringing up the rear were wounded or dismounted . Only two escaped harm , one by playing dead , and the other hiding under an overturned wagon box . The forward group panicked and fled .
About an hour after the ambush , local citizens found 15 dead and 20 wounded soldiers stretched out on and near the road . Four more soldiers were later found dead of wounds or of exposure nearby . The men of Simpsonville took 20 wounded men back to town , 8 of the men so severely wounded they were not expected to live . A total of six soldiers died en route or in Louisville . Later it was determined that 19 Union soldiers had been murdered trying to surrender or after being disarmed . The remainder of the Union wounded were left to die in the freezing cold . Three soldiers remained missing in the final accounting . Flint , who was in town during the ambush , fled to Louisville . Authorities telegraphed Camp Nelson , and Carpenter immediately ordered ambulances , and a heavy escort was mounted . They arrived on scene on October 28 and took the surviving wounded to a hospital in Louisville . Locals reported what had happened and the boasts of the Confederate guerrillas , led by Captain Dick Taylor , who had murdered or shot many of the Union soldiers after they had been captured . The mass grave was located , and an effort was made to find the missing men . Carpenter wrote a report and documented the names of the known guerrillas and encouraged a hunt and their prosecution .
= = = = = Command of the 5th USCC = = = = =
In mid February 1865 , Colonel James F. Wade regimental commander of the 6th USCC was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers and moved to Division duties . A reorganization of command of 5th & 6th USCC resulted . Brevet Lieutenant Colonel James S. Brisbin of the 5th USCC took over the 6th USCC and Carpenter took command of the 5th USCC Regiment . The 5th USCC regiment was attached to the 1st Division , District of Kentucky , Department of Ohio until February 1865 . The regiment subsequently served under the Military District of Kentucky until December 1865 and the Department of Arkansas until March 20 , 1866 . During this later period of time the regiment performed scattered garrison duties and reportedly hunted rebel renegades .
= = = = End of the Civil War = = = =
Through the course of the Civil War , Carpenter served in at least 14 campaigns and over 150 battles related to them from the 1861 Peninsula Campaign , the 1862 Maryland Campaign , Campaign at Fredericksburg , the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign , Chancellorsville ( in Stoneman ’ s raid to the rear of Lee ’ s army ) , the 1864 The Wilderness and final battles in Kentucky and south @-@ West Virginia .
= = = = = Reconstruction = = = = =
After the fighting stopped and Reconstruction began , Carpenter did not go with the 6th Cavalry to Texas in October 1865 , as reported in some historical sketches . Carpenter stayed in Arkansas with the 5th USCC until March 1866 .
There was little or no fighting during the state of martial law imposed while the military closely supervised local government , enrolled freemen to vote , excluded former Confederate leaders for a period of time , supervised free elections , and tried to protect office holders and freedmen from the Ku Klux Klan and early versions of the White League violence . Carpenter and his men did face a low level of civil hostility and violence during this uneasy transition period by trying to keep the peace . Many former rebels resented occupation by " colored " soldiers . Carpenter saw this ugly racism daily and did his best to maintain the peace . Carpenter was promoted colonel of volunteers on November 2 , 1865 .
= = = = = Battles of the 5th USCC = = = = =
Summary of battles of the 5th USCC . All except the October 2 & 21 , 1864 battles had Carpenter present in the command structure .
1864
October 2 – Saltville , Virginia – Battle of Saltville I
October 21 – Harrodsburg , Kentucky – an engagement
December 12 – Hopkinsville , Kentucky – an engagement
December 13 – Kingsport , Tennessee ( flanking movement & skirmishing )
December 17 – 18 , 1864 , Marion , Virginia – Battle of Marion
December 20 – 21 – Saltville , Virginia – Battle of Saltville II
1865
January 25 – Simpsonville , KY – an ambush
= = = = = Retirement of the 5th USCC = = = = =
The 5th USCC Regimental Commander , Colonel of Volunteers , L. Henry Carpenter , had his final regimental review on March 16 , 1866 in Helena , Arkansas . The names of 46 officers and men still listed officially as missing in action and presumed murdered between October 2 & 8 , 1864 were read for a final time to the regiment . Then most of the officers , including Carpenter , were honorably discharged by ceremony . Over the next four days the men were mustered out and the regiment was officially retired on March 20 , 1866 . Official losses from October 24 , 1864 to March 16 , 1866 were 35 killed in action and 152 died in service from disease , wounds and other causes . After mustering out , Carpenter reverted to his Regular Army rank of first lieutenant and returned home to Philadelphia on leave . After his leave he reported to the new 10th United States Cavalry Regiment .
= = = = = Loyal Legion = = = = =
On January 2 , 1867 , Carpenter was elected as a companion of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States ( MOLLUS ) . He was assigned MOLLUS insignia number 433 .
= = = Indian Wars and frontier service = = =
= = = = 10th Cavalry Regiment – Buffalo Soldiers = = = =
After the Civil War , Carpenter was serving as a first lieutenant in the Regular U.S. Army and volunteered for cavalry duty with " Negro Troops " that were being raised . The 10th U.S. Cavalry was formed at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas in 1866 as an all African @-@ American regiment . By the end of July 1867 , eight companies of enlisted men had been recruited from the Departments of Missouri , Arkansas , and the Platte . Life at Leavenworth was not pleasant for the 10th Cavalry . The fort 's commander , who was openly opposed to African @-@ Americans serving in the Regular Army , made life for the new troops difficult . Benjamin Grierson sought to have his regiment transferred , and subsequently received orders moving the regiment to Fort Riley , Kansas . This began on the morning of August 6 , 1867 and was completed the next day in the afternoon of August 7 .
Carpenter accepted the rank of captain in the Regular Army on July 28 , 1866 and took command of the African American troops of " D " company , 10th U.S. Cavalry . The 10th U.S. Cavalry regiment was composed of black enlisted men and white officers , which was typical for that era . Carpenter was assigned to the newly formed Company H on July 21 , 1867 and served with these original " Buffalo Soldiers " for thirteen years of near continuous conflict with the Native Americans in the southwest United States . Carpenter was dispatched to Philadelphia to recruit non @-@ commissioned officers in late summer and fall of 1867 . His efforts contributed to the high level of veteran soldiers who became the core non @-@ commissioned officers of the 10th Cavalry .
Carpenter 's men respected him , and his company had the lowest documented desertion rate of the Regular Army during his charge . He was known as being fair , firm , and consistent . He learned , saw and understood , the hardships and racial bigotry his men faced . After his service with the 10th , he campaigned and defended what his Buffalo Soldiers had done and could do . His ability to train and lead was notable and set a standard for all cavalry units .
= = = = Battle of Beecher Island = = = =
On September 17 , 1868 , Lieutenant Colonel G. A. Forsyth with a mounted party of 48 white scouts , was attacked at dawn . Forsyth , seeing no viable route for retreat , made a stand on a sandbar in the river . He was attacked by a force of about 200 @-@ 300 Indian warriors on a sand island up the North Fork of the Republican River ; this action became the Battle of Beecher Island . The Indians were primarily Cheyenne , supported by members of the Arapaho tribe under the Cheyenne War Chief Roman Nose , who was killed during the battle . Forsyth dispatched Simpson " Jack " Stilwell and Pierre Trudeau to seek help from Fort Wallace , more than 60 miles ( 97 km ) away . They were both able to reach Fort Wallace where rescue plans were quickly made .
Three rescue parties went out on different routes to find the endangered party . The first , led by Lieutenant Colonel Carpenter in charge of Troop H & I of the 10th Cavalry Regiment , relieved Forsyth on September 25 . Forsyth had been shot in the thigh , breaking his leg , and in the forehead . He was not expected to survive another day .
= = = = Battle of Beaver Creek = = = =
On October 14 , 1868 , two weeks after Carpenter had returned to Fort Wallace with the survivors of Forsyth ’ s command , he was ordered out once again . Troops H and I of the 10th Cavalry sallied forth to escort Major Carr of the 5th Cavalry to his new command with supplies to Beaver Creek . Near there Carpenter 's supply train and command was attacked by a force of about 500 Indians with no sign of the 5th Cavalry present .
Carpenter , seeking a more defensive posture closer to Beaver Creek , advanced for a short period then circled the supply wagons in a defensible area . This was possible because his mounted troopers fought a mobile delaying action . On his command , Carpenter 's men rushed inside at the gallop . They dismounted and took up a defensive firing line at the gap between the wagons they had just entered .
On Carpenter 's command , several massive volleys of aimed Spencer repeating rifles hit the front waves of the mounted Indians . The volleys decimated them as if hit by cannon filled with musket balls . A number of warriors , dismounted and using their ponies as bullet breaks , returned fire . Nearly all of these warriors died along with their ponies . Only three warriors made it to within fifty yards of the wagons before their demise . The Indians were so traumatized and demoralized by Carpenter 's defense that they did not renew their attack .
Carpenter 's troopers then accomplished their primary task by sending out scouts to find the location of the 5th Cavalry . This was done without further incident and they arrived back to Fort Wallace on October 21 .
Carpenter 's command had traveled some 230 miles in a week , routed some 500 mounted Indians , delivered the needed supplies with the new commander of the 5th Cavalry and completed all as effectively and professionally as any other command could do . For their gallantry in this fight on Beaver Creek , the officers and men of the " Buffalo Soldiers " were thanked by General Sheridan in a general field order and in official dispatches to the War Department in Washington . Captain Carpenter was brevetted Colonel . " In 1898 , for his efforts in September and October 1868 , Carpenter became one of seven 10th Cavalry soldiers to be awarded the Medal of Honor during its service on the frontier .
= = = = Defense of the Wichita I = = = =
The 10th Regimental headquarters remained at Fort Gibson until March 31 , 1869 , when they moved to Camp Wichita , Indian Territory ( now the state of Oklahoma ) . They arrived on April 12 , 1869 . Camp Wichita was an old Indian village inhabited by the Wichita tribe on the Anadarko Reservation . General Sheridan had selected a site nearby for a military post and Carpenter with the rest of the 10th Cavalry was ordered there to establish and build it . Some time in the following month of August , the post was given the name of Fort Sill . Civil War Brigadier General Joshua W. Sill was a classmate and friend of Sheridan who was killed in action in 1862 .
On June 12 , 1869 , Camp Supply was attacked by a raiding party of Comanche intent on stealing cavalry mounts . The 3rd Infantry with Troops A & F of the 10th Cavalry pursued them , but were ambushed by the warriors . Carpenter with Troops H , I , & K flanked the Indians , forcing them to withdraw .
On August 22 & 23 , 1869 , Carpenter and other troopers became involved in a fierce attack by Kiowa and Naconee Indians , who were focused on destroying the buildings and settlement on the Anadarko Reservation . Carpenter , with Troops H and L , patrolled the area aggressively and engaged several groups of warriors who were setting prairie fires upwind of the settlement at different points . Further and increasingly violent assaults were made by the Native Americans , in numbers ranging from 50 to 500 at different points of the defensive lines . The decisive feature of the engagement was a charge made by Captain Carpenter 's troopers . His men routed a body of over 150 warriors , who were about to take up a commanding position in rear of other defenders . On June 5 , 1872 , the 10th left Fort Sill to elements of the 3rd Infantry and proceeded back to Fort Gibson .
= = = = Satank , Satanta and Big Tree = = = =
In May 1871 , Carpenter was involved in the capture and escort of the Kiowa warrior and medicine man Satank , along with the Kiowa War Chiefs Santana , and Big Tree at Fort Sill , Indian Territory , now in Oklahoma . General Sherman was present at the fort due to an inspection tour ; also present was Colonel Benjamin Grierson . These three Native American leaders were the first to be tried , for raids ( Warren Wagon Train Raid ) and murder , in a United States civil court instead of a military court . This would deny them any vestige of rights as prisoners of war by being tried as any common criminal in the Court of the Thirteenth Judicial District of Texas in Jacksboro , Texas near Fort Richardson .
The military leaders at the fort had been given written information from the Indian Agent regarding the killings during the raid . Plans were made to arrest the Indians involved . D Troop was hidden on foot behind the main office building . Carpenter had mounted troopers waiting nearby . Sherman and Grierson sat on the porch , reviewing the situation and waiting for the Indians to arrive . When the Indians came , they blatantly boasted of what they had done . After Sherman told the Indians they were under arrest , a signal was given and the dismounted troopers came forward with carbines and pistols in hand . Lone Wolf , supporting the Kiowa Chiefs , pulled a rifle out from under his blanket serape and pointed it at Sherman . Sherman , ready for any problem , quickly disarmed him before the trigger could be pulled . Big Tree made an attempt to escape but was quickly subdued by Carpenter 's mounted troopers . Sherman decided that these men were criminals to be tried in a civil court and Carpenter was told to get it done .
Carpenter faced many problems associated with this , including the possibility of the Indians being rescued by their followers or being lynched by angry settlers , during their transport to the civilian court . During transport , Satank hid himself under his red blanket in his wagon while he gnawed the base of his thumb to the bone . This allowed him to slip the manacle from his wrist while he sang his death chant . With a small hidden knife that was not found during two separate searches , he stabbed the driver ( who survived ) , both falling out of the wagon , grabbed a soldier 's unloaded carbine and was mortally wounded in his escape attempt .
The other two Kiowa were tried , found guilty , sentenced to death , had their sentences commuted to life and then paroled within a few years . They violated parole by raiding ; Satanta was sent to the Huntsville State Penitentiary in Texas where , in despair , he later killed himself . Big Tree , who presented witnesses to his non @-@ involvement , was returned to the reservation and accepted pacification . He lived on in the sadness of a warrior in exile . He later became a Christian and eventually , a minister in the Baptist church . The same Kiowa chief who had supervised the torture and burning of captives went about converting his own people to Christ . There were days , he would proudly recount his cruel acts against the white man , although it is faithfully recorded that he always concluded those tales with the solemn note that God had forgiven him for those " hideous " acts .
= = = = Defense of the Wichita II = = = =
In August 1874 , Carpenter became involved in fighting at Anadarko Reservation , Wichita , Indian Territory . This fighting is considered the first of many clashes during the Red River War ( 1874 – 75 ) . Carpenter , with Troops H & I was sent to support Fort Sill and by using aggressive patrols engaged several Kiowa and Comanche raiding parties . The relatively peaceful Wichita Indians on the reservation were targets of the hostile Indians because of their increasing positive status under pacification . The 10th were sent to Fort Concho in Texas where they were established on April 17 , 1875 . The exception was Carpenter 's troop stationed at Fort Davis as of May 1 , 1875 .
= = = = Victorio Campaign and map making = = = =
Carpenter became heavily involved in the Victorio Campaign of 1879 – 80 . Victorio was a warrior and chief of the Chihenne band of the Chiricahua Apaches . From January 12 , 1880 to May 12 , 1880 , Carpenter directed scouting missions into the isolated Chinati Mountains bordering the United States with Mexico . The surrounding area on the American side was the high desert of far West Texas . This is where Victorio and other Apaches had been making raids . These scouts helped provide the first reliable maps drawn in the areas of operation . Finding waterholes and mapping the area was a critical step in Victorio campaign . On May 12 , 1880 , when eight Apaches attacked a nearby wagon train . Captain Carpenter and H Company pursued the Apaches to the Rio Grande . There , under orders , Carpenter had to stop at the international border with Mexico .
= = = = = Rattlesnake Springs = = = = =
Colonel Grierson , commander of the 10th Cavalry , traversed the hot Chihuahuan Desert and then the narrow valleys of the Chinati Mountains , reaching Rattlesnake Springs on the morning of August 6 , 1880 . His cavalrymen and their mounts were worn down from the forced march of over 65 miles in 21 hours . After resting and getting water , Grierson carefully placed his men in ambush positions . Carpenter , with his two cavalry troops , arrived as reinforcements and were posted in reserve a short distance south of the spring . The cavalrymen settled down to wait as Indian scouts brushed away any sign of their presence .
A little after two o 'clock in the afternoon , Victorio and his Apaches slowly approached the springs . Victorio somehow sensed danger and halted his men . With the hostile Apaches in their sights appearing ready to bolt , the soldiers did not wait and opened fire on their own initiative ; Victorio 's men scattered and withdrew out of carbine range . Victorio 's people needed water and believing that there were only a few soldiers present , regrouped and attacked immediately . As the battle progressed , Victorio sent his warriors to flank the soldiers . Carpenter charged forward with Companies B and H and a few massed volleys from their carbines sent the hostiles scattering back up the canyon . Stunned by the presence of such a strong force but in desperate need of water , Victorio repeatedly charged the cavalrymen in attempts to reach the spring . Grierson 's cavalry defenders , now bolstered by Carpenter 's two companies , stood firm . The last such attempt to break the soldiers was conducted near nightfall and when it failed , Victorio and his followers withdrew into the westward into the mountains . Carpenter with his two companies remounted in pursuit until darkness halted the effort .
On August 7 , Carpenter , with Captain Nolan as second in command , and three companies of troopers headed out to Sulfur Springs to deny that source of water to the Apaches . In the early light of day , Victorio saw a string of wagons rounding a mountain spur to the southeast and about eight miles distant , crawling onto the plain . Victorio sent a band of warriors riding out of the mountains and attacked savagely . The wagons held a load of provisions for Fort Davis with a company of infantry riding in some of the wagons . The warriors were met with rifle fire , as the teamsters circled the wagons in defensive positions . Alerted by his Indian scouts , Carpenter and two companies charged to the rescue . The Apache attack disintegrated as the warriors fled in confusion to the southwest to rejoin Victorio 's main force as it moved deeper into the Carrizo Mountains . Nolan 's ambush was not ready and the scattered warriors were able to avoid them .
= = = = = Pursuit of Victorio = = = = =
On August 9 , fifteen Texas Rangers with their Indian scouts , located Victorio 's main supply camp on Sierra Diablo . The Rangers joined Carpenter in the attack while Nolan guarded Sulfur Springs . Carpenter 's attack scattered the Indian guards while the troopers secured 25 head of cattle , provisions and several pack animals . Victorio under increasing pressure , short of food and more importantly water , began to head south in two main groups . By August 11 , Carpenter was on the trail in pursuit but , with horses tired and thirsty from the campaign , the chase was slow . Carpenter divided his command , with Nolan with his company and Texas Rangers on one route , while he took the rest of the command on another route . On August 13 , Nolan reached the Rio Grande where Indian scouts reported that Victorio had crossed the border into Mexico the evening before . Carpenter arrived later and ordered the cavalrymen to rest near the river .
On October 14 , 1880 , a sharpshooter of the Mexican Army ended Victorio 's life at Cerro Tres Castillos , in the state of Chihuahua , Mexico . He was survived by his warrior sister Lozen who continued fighting . She was captured in 1886 by Buffalo Soldiers of the 9th Cavalry .
Over 34 @,@ 420 miles of uncharted terrain were charted from 1875 to 1885 by Carpenter and other officers of the 10th Cavalry in West Texas . They added 300 plus miles of new roads with over 200 miles of telegraph lines . The scouting expeditions took the Buffalo soldiers through some of the harshest and desolate terrain ever documented in the American west . Excellent maps were provided by Carpenter and other officers showing the scarce water holes , mountain passes and grazing areas . These efforts by Carpenter and others of the 10th Cavalry were completed under adverse weather , limited supplies and the primitive equipment of the day . They had to be on the alert for the unexpected hit and run raids from Apaches and other Native American hostiles and bandits of all types . "
= = = = First Fort commands = = = =
From August 30 , 1878 to May 29 , 1879 , Carpenter , while holding the rank of captain in the Regular Army , but brevetted as a colonel in the 10th Cavalry , served as Commanding Officer of Fort Davis . Later , he served another period of command at the fort , between June 13 to July 27 , 1879 . Carpenter was then transferred to the 5th Cavalry with promotion to major , Regular Army , on February 17 , 1883 .
On July 4 , 1888 , on the battlefield of Gettysburg , Carpenter was " court @-@ martialed " for being absent without leave the previous day . He proved that his absence was due to the Secretary of War who , unmindful of Carpenter 's duties as a former member of the Sixth U.S. Cavalry in the Civil War , had neglected to issue orders to Carpenter in time to allow him to reach Fairfield for their 5th annual veteran 's reunion . Major Carpenter , then commanding officer of Fort Myer , was on duty with a contingent of soldiers at the bequest of William Crowninshield Endicott , the Secretary of War , for the 25th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg and its Blue & Gray reunions .
= = = Late career and Spanish – American War = = =
Carpenter served as the first Director of the " Cavalry and Light Artillery School " at Fort Riley , Kansas as a lieutenant colonel , Regular Army , 7th Cavalry ( 1892 – 1897 ) . This school " formed the basis for practical instruction that enabled the officers and men who participated to study the duties of the soldier in garrison , in camp , and on the march . " He also served as President of the Board to Revise Cavalry Tactics for the United States Army .
In 1891 , the United States Army conducted an experiment to integrate Indian soldiers into Regular Army units . While the primary object was to give employment , another was to utilize the talents of warriors from the most dangerous tribes . A significant number were sent to the " Cavalry School " at Fort Riley starting in late 1892 . They received training not only in cavalry tactics , but in hygiene and classes in English . Unfortunately , probably by the lack of patience on part of the United States Army , and partly because of language difficulties and racial discrimination , the experiment failed and was discontinued in 1897 . Carpenter had handpicked Lieutenant Hugh L. Scott to organize and command Troop L ( composed of Kiowa , Comanche , and Apache Indians ) for the 7th Cavalry . Scott commanded Troop L from inception to release of duty . Troop L , noted for their " deportment and discipline " , was the last of these Native @-@ American Troops to be disbanded soon after the " final review " of the Cavalry School 's Director . Carpenter was promoted to lieutenant colonel , Regular Army , 2nd Cavalry on July 28 , 1892 and transferred to the 5th Cavalry on August 28 , 1892 serving at Fort Riley , Kansas . He was transferred to the 7th Cavalry on September 22 , 1894 . He was promoted to colonel , Regular Army , while stationed with the 7th Cavalry on June 2 , 1897 and on May 4 , 1898 , he was commissioned a brigadier general of volunteers for the duration of the Spanish – American War .
General Carpenter commanded the 1st Division , 3rd Corps at Chickamauga and afterwards commanded the 3rd Division , 4th Corps at Tampa , Florida . Later , he was ordered to Cuba to occupy the Providence of Puerto Principe with a force consisting of the 8th Cavalry , 15th Infantry and the 3rd Georgia Volunteers . His were the first troops to take station in Cuba after the Battle of Santiago de Cuba . Carpenter was appointed Military Governor of the province and remained in that capacity until June 12 , 1899 when he was honorably discharged and reverted to his regular army rank of colonel . Colonel Carpenter was promoted on October 18 , 1899 , to brigadier general , Regular Army ; he then retired the next day , at his own request , having served honorably for 38 years .
= = Retirement = =
After retiring from the Army Carpenter went home to Philadelphia but never married or had any children . He updated and completed the book his father Edward Carpenter started on his family 's genealogical research , publishing it in 1912 , regarding his immigrant ancestor Samuel Carpenter .
He spent time writing about his Civil War service and his time on the Western Frontier . His work on the May 1864 Richmond Raid , also known as Sheridan ’ s raid , with the resulting Battle of Yellow Tavern where Confederate Army Major General J.E.B. Stuart was mortally wounded is still used as a basic reference . He gave many talks and wrote articles for the G.A.R. The Grand Army of the Republic was a fraternal organization composed of veterans of the Union Army who had served in the American Civil War .
Brigadier General Carpenter died on January 21 , 1916 , at his home on 2318 De Lancey Place in Philadelphia and was buried in the family plot at Trinity Episcopal Church New Cemetery , Swedesboro , New Jersey .
= = Honors and awards = =
During his military career , Carpenter earned the Medal of Honor during the Indian campaigns . He received a brevet promotion for bravery and was mentioned in dispatches during the Civil War . He received another brevet promotion and mention in military dispatches during the Indian campaigns .
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Rank and organization : Captain , Company H , 10th U.S. Cavalry . Place and date : At Indian campaigns , Kansas and Colorado , September – October 1868 . Entered service at : Philadelphia , Pa . Birth : Glassboro , N.J. Date of issue April 8 , 1898 .
Citation :
Was gallant and meritorious throughout the campaigns , especially in the combat of October 15 and in the forced March on September 23 , 24 and 25 to the relief of Forsyth ’ s Scouts , who were known to be in danger of annihilation by largely superior forces of Indians .
= = = Military promotions = = =
= = = = Regular Army = = = =
Private : July 1861 , Company C , 6th US Cavalry
Corporal : November 1 , 1861 , Company C , 6th US Cavalry
Sergeant : February 1862 , Company L , 6th US Cavalry
= = = = Brevet promotions = = = =
Carpenter received a series of brevet promotions for gallantry and or meritorious service to the ranks of ;
First lieutenant on July 3 , 1863 for Gettysburg .
Captain ( United States ) on September 19 , 1864 for Winchester , Virginia .
Major ( United States ) on March 13 , 1865 for gallantry .
Lieutenant colonel ( United States ) on March 13 , 1865 for meritorious service during the Civil War .
Colonel ( United States ) on October 18 , 1868 for Beaver Creek , Kansas during the Indian Wars .
= = = = U.S. Volunteers = = = =
Lieutenant colonel on October 1 , 1864 , 5th US Colored Cavalry ( USCC )
Colonel on November 2 , 1865 , 5th USCC
Brigadier general on May 4 , 1898 , 1st Corps , 3rd Division
= = = Known commands = = =
Commanded the 5th US Colored Cavalry Regiment 1865 – 1866
Commanded Fort Davis in West Texas 1878 – 1879 .
Fort Robinson , Nebraska 1887
Fort Myer , Virginia 1887 – 1891
Director of Cavalry School Application , Fort Riley , Kansas 1892
Appointed to revise cavalry tactics 1896
Commanded Fort Sam Houston , Texas 1897 – 1898
Command of 1st Corps and 3rd Division , then 4th Corps in the Spanish – American War 1898
Military Governor of the Province of Puerto Principe , now Camagüey Province , Cuba 1898 – 1899 .
= = = Memberships and clubs = = =
Member of the Loyal Legion
Veteran of Foreign Wars
Society , American Numismatic ( 1897 ) . The Society of the Army of the Potomac . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
Society , American Numismatic ( 1897 ) . The Cavalry Society of the Armies of the United States . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
Historical Society of Pennsylvania
Academy of Natural Sciences
" Army and Navy Club ( Washington D.C. ) " . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
" Rittenhouse Club ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) " . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 .
Union League of Philadelphia
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= Hurricane Erick ( 2013 ) =
Hurricane Erick brought minor impact to the western coastline of Mexico in July 2013 . The fifth tropical cyclone and named storm , as well as the fourth hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Erick originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on June 18 . The wave tracked swiftly westward with little development , emerging into the eastern Pacific on July 1 . As a result of favorable environmental conditions , the wave developed into a tropical depression on July 4 , and further into Tropical Storm Erick at 0000 UTC on July 5 . Steered generally west @-@ northwest , Erick intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and reached its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on July 6 . Its proximity to land and track over increasingly cooler waters caused the storm to deteriorate into a tropical storm the following day , though it remained at such intensity until degenerating into a remnant low early on July 9 . The remnant circulation dissipated a few hours later , southwest of Baja California Sur .
In preparation for the cyclone , numerous tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for various portions of the coastline of Mexico . Ports were closed and residents in low @-@ lying areas were asked to evacuate to higher grounds . In addition , shipping by means of boat was suspended . Though the center of Erick remained offshore , the outer bands of the system brought gusty winds and isolated heavy rainfall to Western Mexico . In Guerrero , minor flooding was reported in the cities of Acapulco and Puerto Marques . A river overflowed its banks in Nayarit , flooding several cities in the state . Numerous cars , streets , and homes were damaged by flooding . A woman died as she attempted to flee her house , while a man was killed after being swept away by the river . Hundreds of people were rescued by the Mexican military and Nayarit officials . Across Baja California Sur , the storm produced widespread precipitation , leading to flooding .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 18 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coastline of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic . Tracking steadily westward , it maintained a small but organized area of convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — along its axis for the next several days . The wave crossed the Lesser Antilles on June 24 and Central America on June 29 , emerging into the eastern Pacific shortly thereafter . During the evening of July 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system , noting that environmental conditions were expected to become favorable for slow development . The wave interacted with a larger area of low pressure on July 2 , leading to an increase in convective coverage and the formation of a broad low @-@ pressure area . Continuing slowly westward , the system acquired enough organization to be declared a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on July 4 , while centered 205 mi ( 330 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Despite the initially exposed center of circulation , a byproduct of moderate wind shear , the depression soon began to organize as convective banding increased and gained more curvature . This led to the classification of Tropical Storm Erick at 0000 UTC on July 5 .
Under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge over the northwestern Caribbean Sea and an upper @-@ level ridge over the southwestern United States , the newly upgraded Erick tracked west @-@ northwest parallel to the coastline of Mexico . A central dense overcast formed by the daylight hours of July 5 , with tight banding noted on satellite . In addition , microwave imagery indicated the formative stages of an eyewall . Initially vertically decoupled , the storm became more vertically aligned throughout the following hours . A ragged eye became intermittently visible on satellite , and Erick was upgraded to Category 1 hurricane status at 0600 UTC , located approximately 105 mi ( 170 km ) west @-@ southwest of Lázaro Cárdenas , Mexico . In conjunction with satellite intensity estimates , it is estimated that Erick attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 983 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) at 1200 UTC . Shortly thereafter , its proximity to the coastline of Mexico and track over increasingly cooler waters caused the storm to begin a weakening trend . At 1800 UTC on July 7 , Erick weakened to a tropical storm as its associated convective mass warmed and the eye deteriorated . Wind shear caused the center of circulation to become exposed on July 9 as the system passed just south of Baja California Sur , leading to degeneration into a remnant low @-@ pressure area at 0600 UTC . The remnant vortex persisted for a few more hours , before dissipating over cold sea surface temperatures at 0000 UTC on July 10 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Following the system 's designation , a tropical storm watch was issued for the southwestern coastline of Mexico stretching from Acapulco to La Fortuna . By 0300 UTC on July 5 , the watch was extended from Acapulco to Manzanillo , while a tropical storm warning was issued from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo . Several hours later , the watch was discontinued for the coastline stretching from Acapulco to Lázaro Cárdenas and issued from La Fortuna to Cabo Corrientes . Meanwhile , the warning from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo was discontinued , with a new warning issued from Zihuatanejo to La Fortuna . All tropical storm watches in effect were discontinued by 0300 UTC the following morning , with the warning being extended from Zihuatanejo to Cabo Corrientes . After being upgraded to a hurricane , Erick prompted the issuance of hurricane watches stretching from Punta San Telmo to Cabo Corrientes . At 1500 UTC on July 6 , a tropical storm watch was issued from Santa Fe to La Paz , though this was upgraded to a warning several hours later . Following many other revisions , all tropical cyclone watches and warnings were discontinued after Erick degenerated into a remnant low early on July 9 .
In preparation for the tropical cyclone , an " orange " alert was issued for southern Michoacán , southern Jalisco , and the entire state of Colima , while a " yellow " alert was posted for the rest of the Jalisco coastline . The ports of Acapulco , Zihuatanejo , and Manzanillio were closed . In fear of flash flooding , residents along low @-@ lying areas of Acapulco were urged to evacuate . Meanwhile , the government of Michoacán ordered the suspension of shipping by boat .
Despite remaining offshore , the outer rainbands of the storm affected the southwestern coastline with gusty winds and heavy rainfall , with similar effects farther northwest . In Acapulco and Puerto Marques , the storm was responsible for minor flooding . Elsewhere across the state , damage was minor and mostly due to landslides . Along the coast of Colima , waves up to 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) were recorded . Although some flooding was reported across the state , damage was considered minor .
Further north , Erick brought extensive flood damage to Nayarit . A 74 @-@ year @-@ old woman died while trying to escape her flooded house , while dozens of vehicles were damaged and several other streets and homes were flooded . One river overflowed its banks , affecting numerous cities . Officials in Nayarit attempted to rescue hundreds of people affected by Hurricane Erick , many of whom waited on streets to be rescued . Dozens of families were directly affected by the storm . Substantial amounts of debris piled up on streets . Residents reported severe economical losses , especially in Xalisco , where a disaster declaration was necessary . Offshore , a waterspout was reported . In Tepic , Governor Roberto Sandoval ordered a state of emergency . Although the core of the system remained offshore , a " yellow " alert was issued for Baja California Sur . Heavy rain was recorded over much of the peninsula , resulting in flooding . The ports of La Paz , Cabo San Lucas , and San Jose del Cabo were closed due to high waves . Additionally , a " green " alert was issued for Baja California . In all , two people were killed while two others were missing . About 5 @,@ 500 people were homeless in Xalisco .
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= Mesa Verde National Park =
Mesa Verde National Park is a National Park and World Heritage Site located in Montezuma County , Colorado . It protects some of the best preserved Ancestral Puebloan archeological sites in the United States .
Created by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 , it occupies 52 @,@ 485 acres ( 21 @,@ 240 ha ) near the Four Corners region of the American Southwest , and with more than 4 @,@ 300 sites , including 600 cliff dwellings , it is the largest archeological preserve in the US . Mesa Verde ( Spanish for " green table " ) is best known for structures such as Cliff Palace , thought to be the largest cliff dwelling in North America .
Starting c . 7500 BCE , Mesa Verde was seasonally inhabited by a group of nomadic Paleo @-@ Indians known as the Foothills Mountain Complex . The variety of projectile points found in the region indicates they were influenced by surrounding areas , including the Great Basin , the San Juan Basin , and the Rio Grande Valley . Later , Archaic people established semi @-@ permanent rockshelters in and around the mesa . By 1000 BCE , the Basketmaker culture emerged from the local Archaic population , and by 750 CE the Ancestral Puebloans had developed from the Basketmaker culture .
The Mesa Verdeans survived using a combination of hunting , gathering , and subsistence farming of crops such as corn , beans , and squash . They built the mesa 's first pueblos sometime after 650 , and by the end of the 12th century , they began to construct the massive cliff dwellings for which the park is best known . By 1285 , following a period of social and environmental instability driven by a series of severe and prolonged droughts , they abandoned the area and moved south to locations in Arizona and New Mexico , including Rio Chama , Pajarito Plateau , and Santa Fe .
= = Inhabitants = =
= = = Paleo @-@ Indians = = =
The first occupants of the Mesa Verde region , which spans from southeastern Utah to northwestern New Mexico , were nomadic Paleo @-@ Indians who arrived in the area c . 9500 BCE . They followed herds of big game and camped near rivers and streams , many of which dried up as the glaciers that once covered parts of the San Juan Mountains receded . The earliest Paleo @-@ Indians were the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition , defined largely by the way in which they fashioned projectile points . Although they left evidence of their presence throughout the region , there is little indication that they lived in central Mesa Verde during this time .
After 9600 BCE , the area 's environment grew warmer and drier , a change that brought to central Mesa Verde pine forests and the animals that thrive in them . Paleo @-@ Indians began inhabiting the mesa in increasing numbers c . 7500 , though it is unclear whether they were seasonal occupants or year @-@ round residents . Development of the atlatl during this period made it easier for them to hunt smaller game , a crucial advance at a time when most of the region 's big game had disappeared from the landscape .
= = = Archaic = = =
6000 BCE marks the beginning of the Archaic period in North America . Archeologists differ as to the origin of the Mesa Verde Archaic population ; some believe they developed exclusively from local Paleo @-@ Indians , called the Foothills Mountain Complex , but others suggest that the variety of projectile points found in Mesa Verde indicates influence from surrounding areas , including the Great Basin , the San Juan Basin , and the Rio Grande Valley . The Archaic people probably developed locally , but were also influenced by contact , trade , and intermarriage with immigrants from these outlying areas .
The early Archaic people living near Mesa Verde utilized the atlatl and harvested a wider variety of plants and animals than the Paleo @-@ Indians had , while retaining their primarily nomadic lifestyle . They inhabited the outlying areas of the Mesa Verde region , but also the mountains , mesa tops , and canyons , where they created rockshelters and rock art , and left evidence of animal processing and chert knapping . Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration . Major warming and drying from 5000 to 2500 might have led middle Archaic people to seek the cooler climate of Mesa Verde , whose higher elevation brought increased snowpack that , when coupled with spring rains , provided relatively plentiful amounts of water .
By the late Archaic , more people were living in semi @-@ permanent rockshelters that preserved perishable goods such as baskets , sandals , and mats . They started to make a variety of twig figurines that usually resembled sheep or deer . The late Archaic is marked by increased trade in exotic materials such as obsidian and turquoise . Marine shells and abalone from the Pacific coast made their way to Mesa Verde from Arizona , and the Archaic people worked them into necklaces and pendants . Rock art flourished , and people lived in rudimentary houses made of mud and wood . Their early attempts at plant domestication eventually developed into the sustained agriculture that marked the end of the Archaic period , c . 1000 .
= = = Basketmaker culture = = =
With the introduction of corn to the Mesa Verde region c . 1000 BCE and the trend away from nomadism toward permanent pithouse settlements , the Archaic Mesa Verdeans transitioned into what archeologists call the Basketmaker culture . Basketmaker II people are characterized by their combination of foraging and farming skills , use of the atlatl , and creation of finely woven baskets in the absence of earthen pottery . By 300 , corn had become the preeminent staple of the Basketmaker II people 's diet , which relied less and less on wild food sources and more on domesticated crops .
In addition to the fine basketry for which they were named , Basketmaker II people fashioned a variety of household items from plant and animal materials , including sandals , robes , pouches , mats , and blankets . They also made clay pipes and gaming pieces . Basketmaker men were relatively short and muscular , averaging less than 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) tall . Their skeletal remains reveal signs of hard labor and extensive travel , including degenerative joint disease , healed fractures , and moderate anemia associated with iron deficiency . They buried their dead near or amongst their settlements , and often included luxury items as gifts , which might indicate differences in relative social status . Basketmaker II people are also known for their distinctive rock art , which can be found throughout Mesa Verde . They depicted animals and people , in both abstract and realistic forms , in single works and more elaborate panels . A common subject was the hunchbacked flute player that the Hopi call Kokopelli .
By 500 , CE atlatls were being supplanted by the bow and arrow and baskets by pottery , marking the end of the Basketmaker II Era and the beginning of the Basketmaker III Era . Ceramic vessels were a major improvement over pitch @-@ lined baskets , gourds , and animal hide containers , which had been the primary water storage containers in the region . Pottery also protected seeds against mold , insects , and rodents . By 600 , Mesa Verdeans were using clay pots to cook soups and stews . Year @-@ round settlements first appear around this time . The population of the San Juan Basin increased markedly after 575 , when there were very few Basketmaker III sites in Mesa Verde ; by the early 7th century , there were many such sites in the mesa . For the next 150 years , villages typically consisted of small groups of one to three residences . The population of Mesa Verde c . 675 was approximately 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 people .
Beans and new varieties of corn were introduced to the region c . 700 . By 775 , some settlements had grown to accommodate more than one hundred people ; the construction of large , above @-@ ground storage buildings began around this time . Basketmakers endeavored to store enough food for their family for one year , but also retained residential mobility so they could quickly relocate their dwellings in the event of resource depletion or consistently inadequate crop yields . By the end of the 8th century , the smaller hamlets , which were typically occupied for ten to forty years , had been supplanted by larger ones that saw continuous occupation for as many as two generations . Basketmaker III people established a tradition of holding large ceremonial gatherings near community pit structures .
= = = Ancestral Puebloans = = =
= = = = Pueblo I : 750 to 900 = = = =
750 marks the end of the Basketmaker III Era and the beginning of the Pueblo I period . The transition is characterized by major changes in the design and construction of buildings and the organization of household activities . Pueblo I people doubled their capacity for food storage from one year to two and built interconnected , year @-@ round residences called pueblos . Many household activities that had previously been reserved for subterranean pithouses were moved to these above @-@ ground dwellings . This altered the function of pithouses from all @-@ purpose spaces to ones used primarily for community ceremonies , although they continued to house large extended families , particularly during winter months . During the late 8th century , Mesa Verdeans began building square pit structures that archeologists call protokivas . They were typically 3 or 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 or 1 @.@ 22 m ) deep and 12 to 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide .
The first pueblos appeared at Mesa Verde sometime after 650 ; by 850 more than half of Mesa Verdeans lived in them . As local populations grew , Puebloans found it difficult to survive on hunting , foraging , and gardening , which made them increasingly reliant on domesticated corn . This shift from semi @-@ nomadism to a " sedentary and communal way of life changed ancestral Pueblo society forever " . Within a generation the average number of households in these settlements grew from one to three to fifteen to twenty , with average populations of two hundred people . Population density increased dramatically , with as many as a dozen families occupying roughly the same space that had formerly housed two . This brought increased security against raids and encouraged greater cooperation amongst residents . It also facilitated trade and intermarriage between clans , and by the late 8th century , as Mesa Verde 's population was being augmented by settlers from the south , four distinct cultural groups occupied the same villages .
Large Pueblo I settlements laid claim to the resources found within 15 to 30 square miles ( 39 to 78 km2 ) . They were typically organized in groups of at least three and spaced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart . By 860 , there were approximately 8 @,@ 000 people living in Mesa Verde . Within the plazas of larger villages , the Pueblo I people dug massive pit structures of 800 square feet ( 74 m2 ) that became central gathering places . These structures represent early architectural expressions of what would eventually develop into the Pueblo II Era great houses of Chaco Canyon . Despite robust growth during the early and mid @-@ 9th century , unpredictable rainfall and periodic drought led to a dramatic reversal of settlement trends in the area . Many late Pueblo I villages were abandoned after less than forty years of occupation , and by 880 Mesa Verde 's population was in steady decline . The beginning of the 10th century saw widespread depopulation of the region , as people emigrated south of the San Juan River to Chaco Canyon in search of reliable rains for farming . As Mesa Verdeans migrated south , to where many of their ancestors had emigrated two hundred years before , the influence of Chaco Canyon grew , and by 950 Chaco had supplanted Mesa Verde as the region 's cultural center .
= = = = Pueblo II : 900 to 1150 = = = =
The Pueblo II Period is marked by the growth and outreach of communities centered around the great houses of Chaco Canyon . Despite their participation in the vast Chacoan system , Mesa Verdeans retained a distinct cultural identity while melding regional innovation with ancient tradition , inspiring further architectural advancements ; the 9th century Mesa Verdean pueblos influenced two hundred years of Chacoan great house construction . Droughts during the late 9th century rendered Mesa Verdean dry land farming unreliable , which led to their growing crops only near drainages for the next 150 years . Crop yields returned to healthy levels by the early 11th century . By 1050 the population of the area began to rebound ; as agricultural prosperity increased , people immigrated to Mesa Verde from the south .
Mesa Verdean farmers increasingly relied on masonry reservoirs during the Pueblo II Era . During the 11th century , they built check dams and terraces near drainages and slopes in an effort to conserve soil and runoff . These fields offset the danger of crop failures in the larger dry land fields . By the mid @-@ 10th and early 11th centuries , protokivas had evolved into smaller circular structures called kivas , which were usually 12 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) across . These Mesa Verde @-@ style kivas included a feature from earlier times called a sipapu , which is a hole dug in the north of the chamber and symbolizes the Ancestral Puebloan 's place of emergence from the underworld . At this time , Mesa Verdeans began to move away from the post and mud jacal @-@ style buildings that marked the Pueblo I Period toward masonry construction , which had been utilized in the region as early as 700 , but was not widespread until the 11th and 12th centuries .
The expansion of Chacoan influence in the Mesa Verde area left its most visible mark in the form of Chaco @-@ style masonry great houses that became the focal point of many Mesa Verdean villages after 1075 . Far View House , the largest of these , is considered a classic Chaco " outlier , " on which construction likely began between 1075 and 1125 , although some archaeologists argue that it was begun as early as 1020 . The era 's timber and earth unit pueblos were typically inhabited for about twenty years . During the early 12th century , the locus of regional control shifted away from Chaco to Aztec , New Mexico , in the southern Mesa Verde region . By 1150 , drought had once again stressed the region 's inhabitants , leading to a temporary cessation of great house construction at Mesa Verde .
= = = = Pueblo III : 1150 to 1300 = = = =
A severe drought from 1130 to 1180 led to rapid depopulation in many parts of the San Juan Basin , particularly at Chaco Canyon . As the extensive Chacoan system collapsed , people increasingly migrated to Mesa Verde , causing major population growth in the area . This led to much larger settlements of six to eight hundred people , which reduced mobility for Mesa Verdeans , who had in the past frequently relocated their dwellings and fields as part of their agriculture strategy . In order to sustain these larger populations , they dedicated more and more of their labor to farming . Population increases also led to expanded tree felling that reduced habitat for many wild plant and animal species that the Mesa Verdeans had relied on , further deepening their dependency on domesticated crops that were susceptible to drought @-@ related failure .
The Chacoan system brought large quantities of imported goods to Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries , including pottery , shells , and turquoise , but by the late 12th century , as the system collapsed , the amount of goods imported by the mesa quickly declined , and Mesa Verde became isolated from the surrounding region . For approximately six hundred years , most Mesa Verdean farmers had lived in small , mesa @-@ top homesteads of one or two families . They were typically located near their fields and walking distance to sources of water . This practice continued into the mid- to late 12th century , but by the start of the 13th century they began living in canyon locations that were close to water sources and within walking distance of their fields .
Mesa Verdean villages thrived during the mid @-@ Pueblo III Era , when architects constructed massive , multi @-@ story buildings , and artisans adorned pottery with increasingly elaborate designs . Structures built during this period have been described as " among the world 's greatest archaeological treasures " . Pueblo III masonry buildings were typically occupied for approximately fifty years , more than double the usable lifespan of the Pueblo II jacal structures . Others were continuously inhabited for two hundred years or more . Architectural innovations such as towers and multi @-@ walled structures also appear during the Pueblo III Era . Mesa Verde 's population remained fairly stable during the 12th century drought . At the start of the 13th century , approximately 22 @,@ 000 people lived there . The area saw moderate population increases during the following decades , and dramatic ones from 1225 to 1260 . Most of the people in the region lived in the plains west of the mesa at locations such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo , near Cortez , Colorado . Others colonized canyon rims and slopes in multi @-@ family structures that grew to unprecedented size as populations swelled . By 1260 , the majority of Mesa Verdeans lived in large pueblos that housed several families and more than one hundred people .
The 13th century saw 69 years of below average rainfall in the Mesa Verde region , and after 1270 the area suffered from especially cold temperatures . Dendrochronology indicates that the last tree felled for construction on the mesa was cut in 1281 . There was a major decline in ceramic imports to the region during this time , but local production remained steady . Despite challenging conditions , the Puebloans continued to farm the area until a severely dry period from 1276 to 1299 ended seven hundred years of continuous human occupation at Mesa Verde . Archeologists refer to this period as the " Great Drought " . The last inhabitants of the mesa left the area c . 1285 .
= = = = Warfare = = = =
During the Pueblo III period ( 1150 to 1300 ) , Mesa Verdeans built numerous stone masonry towers that likely served as defensive structures . They often incorporated hidden tunnels connecting the towers to associated kivas . Warfare was conducted using the same tools the Mesa Verdeans used for hunting game , including bows and arrows , stone axes , and wooden clubs and spears . They also crafted hide and basket shields that were used only during battles . Periodic warfare occurred on the mesa throughout the 13th century . Civic leaders in the region likely attained power and prestige by distributing food during times of drought . This system probably broke down during the " Great Drought " , leading to intense warfare between competing clans . Increasing economic and social uncertainty during the century 's final decades led to widespread conflict . Evidence of partly burned villages and post @-@ mortem trauma has been uncovered , and the residents of one village appear to have been the victims of a site @-@ wide massacre .
Evidence of violence and cannibalism has been documented in the central Mesa Verde region . While most of the violence , which peaked between 1275 and 1285 , is generally ascribed to in @-@ fighting amongst Mesa Verdeans , archeological evidence found at Sand Canyon Pueblo , in Canyons of the Ancients National Monument , suggests that violent interactions also occurred between Mesa Verdeans and people from outside the region . Evidence of the attacks was discovered by members of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center during the 1990s . The assaults , which also occurred at the national monument 's Castle Rock Pueblo , were dated to c . 1280 , and are considered to have effectively ended several centuries of Puebloan occupation at those sites . Many of the victims showed signs of skull fractures , and the uniformity of the injuries suggest that most were inflicted with a small stone axe . Others were scalped , dismembered , and cannibalized . The anthropophagy ( cannibalism ) might have been undertaken as a survival strategy during times of starvation . The archeological record indicates that , rather than being isolated to the Mesa Verde region , violent conflict was widespread in North America during the late 13th and early 14th centuries , and was likely exacerbated by global climate changes that negatively affected food supplies throughout the continent .
= = = = Migration = = = =
The Mesa Verde region saw unusually cold and dry conditions during the beginning of the 13th century . This might have driven emigration to Mesa Verde from less hospitable locations . The added population stressed the mesa 's environment , further straining an agricultural society that was suffering from drought . The region 's bimodal precipitation pattern , which brought rainfall during spring and summer and snowfall during autumn and winter , began to fail post @-@ 1250 . After 1260 , there was a rapid depopulation of Mesa Verde , as " tens of thousands of people " emigrated or died from starvation . Many smaller communities in the Four Corners region were also abandoned during this period . The Ancestral Puebloans had a long history of migration in the face of environmental instability , but the depopulation of Mesa Verde at the end of the 13th century was different in that the region was almost completely emptied , and no descendants returned to build permanent settlements . While drought , resource depletion , and overpopulation all contributed to instability during the last two centuries of Ancestral Puebloan occupation , their overdependence on maize crops is considered the " fatal flaw " of their subsistence strategy .
The vacating Mesa Verdeans left almost no direct evidence of their migration , but they left behind household goods , including cooking utensils , tools , and clothing , which gave archeologists the impression that the emigration was haphazard or hurried . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 people lived in the region during the 13th century , but by the start of the 14th century the area was nearly uninhabited . Many emigrants relocated to southern Arizona and New Mexico . Although the rate of settlement is unclear , increases in sparsely populated areas , such as Rio Chama , Pajarito Plateau , and Santa Fe , correspond directly with the period of migration from Mesa Verde . Archeologists believe the Mesa Verdeans who settled in the areas near the Rio Grande , where Mesa Verde black @-@ on @-@ white pottery became widespread during the 14th century , were likely related to the households they joined and not unwelcome intruders . Archeologists view this migration as a continuation , versus a dissolution , of Ancestral Puebloan society and culture . Many others relocated to the banks of the Little Colorado River , in western New Mexico and eastern Arizona . While archeologists tend to focus on the " push " factors that drove the Mesa Verdeans away from the region , there were also several environmental " pull factors " , such as warmer temperatures , better farming conditions , plentiful timber , and bison herds , which incentivized relocation to the area near the Rio Grande . In addition to numerous settlements along the Rio Grande , contemporary descendants of the Mesa Verdeans live in pueblos at Acomo , Zuni , Jemez , and Laguna .
= = = = Organization = = = =
Although Chaco Canyon might have exerted regional control over Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries , most archeologists view the Mesa Verde region as a collection of smaller communities based on central sites and related outliers that were never fully integrated into a larger civic structure . Several ancient roads , averaging 15 to 45 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 7 m ) wide and lined with earthen berms , have been identified in the region . Most appear to connect communities and shrines ; others encircle great house sites . The extent of the network is unclear , but no roads have been discovered leading to the Chacoan Great North Road , or directly connecting Mesa Verde and Chacoan sites .
Ancestral Puebloan shrines , called herraduras , have been identified near road segments in the region . Their purpose is unclear , but several C @-@ shaped herraduras have been excavated , and they are thought to have been " directional shrines " used to indicate the location of great houses .
= = = = Architecture = = = =
Mesa Verde is best known for a large number of well @-@ preserved cliff dwellings , houses built in alcoves , or rock overhangs along the canyon walls . The structures contained within these alcoves were mostly blocks of hard sandstone , held together and plastered with adobe mortar . Specific constructions had many similarities but were generally unique in form due to the individual topography of different alcoves along the canyon walls . In marked contrast to earlier constructions and villages on top of the mesas , the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde reflected a region @-@ wide trend towards the aggregation of growing regional populations into close , highly defensible quarters during the 13th century .
Pueblo buildings were built with stone , windows facing south , and in U , E and L shapes . The buildings were located more closely together and reflected deepening religious celebration . Towers were built near kivas and likely used for lookouts . Pottery became more versatile , including pitchers , ladles , bowls , jars and dishware for food and drink . White pottery with black designs emerged , the pigments coming from plants . Water management and conservation techniques , including the use of reservoirs and silt @-@ retaining dams , also emerged during this period . Styles for these sandstone / mortar constructions , both surface and cliff dwellings , included T @-@ shaped windows and doors . This has been taken by some archaeologists , including Stephen H. Lekson , as evidence of the continuing reach of the Chacoan system . Other researchers see these elements as part of a more generalized Puebloan style and / or spiritual significance , rather than evidence of a continuing specific elite socioeconomic system .
While much of the construction in these sites is consistent with common Pueblo architectural forms , including kivas , towers , and pit @-@ houses , the space constrictions of these alcoves necessitated what seems to have been a far denser concentration of their populations . Mug House , a typical cliff dwelling of the period , was home to around 100 people who shared 94 small rooms and eight kivas built against each other and sharing many of their walls ; builders in these areas maximized space in any way they could , with no areas considered off @-@ limits to construction .
= = = = Astronomy = = = =
Mesa Verdeans used astronomical observations to plan their farming and religious ceremonies , drawing on both natural features in the landscape and masonry structures built for this purpose . Several great houses in the region were aligned to the cardinal directions , which positioned windows , doors , and walls along the path of the sun , whose rays would indicate the passing of seasons . Mesa Verde 's Sun Temple is thought to have been an astronomical observatory .
The temple is D @-@ shaped , and its alignment is 10 @.@ 7 degrees off true east @-@ west . Its location and orientation indicate that its builders understood the cycles of both the sun and the moon . It is aligned to the major lunar standstill , which occurs once every 18 @.@ 6 years , and the sunset during the winter solstice , which can be viewed setting over the temple from a platform at the south end of Cliff Palace , across Fewkes Canyon . At the bottom of the canyon is the Sun Temple fire pit , which is illuminated by the first rays of the rising sun during the winter solstice . Sun Temple is one of the largest exclusively ceremonial structures ever built by the Ancestral Puebloans .
= = = = Agriculture and water @-@ control systems = = = =
Starting in the 6th century , the farmers living in central Mesa Verde cultivated corn , beans , squash , and gourds . The combination of corn and beans provided the Mesa Verdeans with the amino acids of a complete protein . When conditions were good , 3 or 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 or 1 @.@ 6 ha ) of land would provide enough food for a family of three or four individuals for one year , providing they supplemented with game and wild plants . As Mesa Verdeans increasingly relied on corn as a dietary staple , the success or failure of crop yields factored heavily into their lives . The mesa tilts slightly to the south , which increased its exposure to the sun . Before the introduction of pottery , foods were baked , roasted , and parched . Hot rocks dropped into containers could bring water to a brief boil , but because beans must be boiled for an hour or more their use was not widespread until after pottery had disseminated throughout the region . With the increased availability of ceramics after 600 , beans became much easier to cook . This provided a high quality protein that reduced reliance on hunting . It also aided corn cultivation , as legumes add much needed nutrients to soils they are grown in , which likely increased corn yields .
The most Mesa Verdeans practiced dry farming , which relied on rain to water their crops , but others utilized runoff , springs , seeps , and natural collection pools . Starting in the 9th century , they dug and maintained reservoirs that caught runoff from summer showers and spring snowmelt ; some crops were watered by hand . Archeologists believe that prior to the 13th century , springs and other sources of water were considered shared public resources , but as Mesa Verdeans moved into increasingly larger pueblos built near or around water supplies control was privatized and limited to members of the surrounding community .
Between 750 and 800 , Mesa Verdeans began constructing two large water containment structures in canyon bottoms – the Morefield and Box Elder reservoirs . Soon afterward , work began on two more : the Far View and Sagebrush reservoirs , which were approximately 90 feet ( 27 m ) across and constructed on the mesa top . The reservoirs lie on an east @-@ west line that runs for approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , which suggests builders followed a centralized plan for the system . In 2004 , the American Society of Civil Engineers designated these four structures as National Civil Engineering Historic Landmarks . A 2014 geospatial analyses suggested that neither collection nor retention of water was possible in the Far View Reservoir . This interpretation views the structure as a ceremonial space with procession roads in an adaptation of Chacoan culture .
= = = = Hunting and foraging = = = =
Mesa Verdeans typically harvested local small game , but sometimes organized hunting parties that traveled long distances . Their main sources of animal protein came from mule deer and rabbits , but they occasionally hunted Bighorn sheep , antelope , and elk . They began to domesticate turkeys starting around 1000 , and by the 13th century consumption of the animal peaked , supplanting deer as the primary protein source at many sites . These domesticated turkeys consumed large amounts of corn , which further deepened reliance on the staple crop . Puebloans wove blankets from turkey feathers and rabbit fur , and made implements such as awls and needles from turkey and deer bones . Despite the availability of fish in the area 's rivers and streams , archeological evidence suggests that they were rarely eaten .
Mesa Verdeans supplemented their diet by gathering the seeds and fruits of wild plants , searching large expanses of land while procuring these resources . Depending on the season , they collected piñon nuts and juniper berries , weedy goosefoot , pigweed , purslane , tomatillo , tansy mustard , globe mallow , sunflower seeds , and yucca , as well as various species of grass and cacti . Prickly pear fruits provided a rare source of natural sugar . Wild seeds were cooked and ground up into porridge . They used sagebrush and mountain mahogany , along with piñon and juniper , for firewood . They also smoked wild tobacco . Because the Ancestral Puebloans considered all material consumed and discarded by their communities as sacred , their midden piles were viewed with reverence . Starting during the Basketmaker III period , c . 700 , Mesa Verdeans often buried their dead in these mounds .
= = = = Pottery = = = =
Scholars are divided as to whether pottery was invented in the Four Corners region or introduced from the south . Specimens of shallow , unfired clay bowls found at Canyon de Chelly indicate the innovation might have been derived from using clay bowls to parch seeds . Repeated uses rendered these bowls hard and impervious to water , which might represent the first fired pottery in the region . An alternate theory suggests that pottery originated in the Mogollon Rim area to the south , where brown @-@ paste bowls were used during the first few centuries of the common era . Others believe pottery was introduced to Mesa Verde from Mexico , c . 300 CE . There is no evidence of ancient pottery markets in the region , but archeologists believe that local potters exchanged decorative wares between families . Cooking pots made with crushed igneous rock tempers from places like Ute Mountain were more resilient and desirable , and Puebloans from throughout the region traded for them .
Neutron activation analysis indicates that much of the black @-@ on @-@ white pottery found at Mesa Verde was produced locally . Cretaceous clays from both the Dakota and Menefee Formations were used in black @-@ on @-@ white wares , and Mancos Formation clays for corrugated jars . Evidence that pottery of both types moved between several locations around the region suggests interaction between groups of ancient potters , or they might have shared a common source of raw materials . The Mesa Verde black @-@ on @-@ white pottery was produced at three locations : Sand Canyon , Castle Rock , and Mesa Verde . Archeological evidence indicates that nearly every household had at least one member who worked as a potter . Trench kilns were constructed away from pueblos and closer to sources of firewood . Their sizes vary , but the larger ones were up to 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long and thought to have been shared kilns that served several families . Designs were added to ceramic vessels with a Yucca @-@ leaf brush and paints made from iron , manganese , beeplant , and tansy mustard .
Most of the pottery found in 9th century pueblos was sized for individuals or small families , but as communal ceremonialism expanded during the 13th century , many larger , feast – sized vessels were produced . Corrugated decorations appear on Mesa Verde grey wares after 700 , and by 1000 entire vessels were crafted in this way . The technique created a rough exterior surface that was easier to hold on to than regular grey wares , which were smooth . By the 11th century these corrugated vessels , which dissipated heat more efficiently than smoother ones , had largely replaced the older style , whose tendency to retain heat made them prone to boiling over . Corrugation likely developed as ancient potters attempted to mimic the visual properties of coiled basketry . Corrugated wares were made using clay from formations other than Menefee , which suggests that ancient potters selected different clays for different styles . Potters also selected clays and altered firing conditions to achieve specific colors . Under normal conditions , pots made of Mancos shale turned grey when fired , and those made of Morrison Formation clay turned white . Clays from southeastern Utah turned red when fired in a high @-@ oxygen environment .
= = = = Rock art and murals = = = =
Rock art is found throughout the Mesa Verde region , but its dispersion is uneven and periodic . Some locations have numerous examples ; others have none , and some periods saw prolific creation , while others saw little . Styles also vary over time . Examples are relatively rare on Mesa Verde proper , but abundant in the middle San Juan River area , which might indicate the river 's importance as a travel route and key source of water . Common motifs in the rock art of the region include , anthropomorphic figures in procession and during copulation or childbirth , handprints , animal and people tracks , wavy lines , spirals , concentric circles , animals , and hunting scenes . As the region 's population plummeted during the late 13th century , the subject of Mesa Verdean rock art increasingly shifted to depictions of shields , warriors , and battle scenes . Modern Hopi have interpreted the petroglyphs at Mesa Verde 's Petroglyph Point as depictions of various clans of people .
Starting during the late Pueblo II period ( 1020 ) and continuing through Pueblo III ( 1300 ) , the Ancestral Puebloans of the Mesa Verde region created plaster murals in their great houses , particularly in their kivas . The murals contained both painted and inscribed images depicting animals , people , and designs used in textiles and pottery dating back as far as Basketmaker III , c . 500 . Others depict triangles and mounds thought to represent mountains and hills in the surrounding landscape . The murals were typically located on the face of the kiva bench and usually encircled the room . Geometric patterns that resemble symbols used in pottery and zigzag that represent stitches used in basket making are common motifs . The painted murals include the colors red , green , yellow , white , brown , and blue . The designs were still in use by the Hopi during the 15th and 16th centuries .
= = Anthropogenic ecology , geography , and climate = =
Anthropogenic ecology refers to the human impact on animals and plants in an ecosystem . A shift from medium and large game animals , such as deer , bighorn sheep , and antelope , to smaller ones like rabbits and turkey during the mid @-@ 10th to mid @-@ 13th centuries might indicate that Mesa Verdean subsistence hunting had dramatically altered faunal populations on the mesa . Analysis of pack rat midden indicates that , with the exception of invasive species such as tumbleweed and clover , the flora and fauna in the area have remained relatively consistent for the past 4 @,@ 000 years .
Mesa Verde 's canyons were created by streams that eroded the hard sandstone that covers the area . This resulted in Mesa Verde National Park elevations ranging from about 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 572 feet ( 1 @,@ 829 to 2 @,@ 613 m ) , the highest elevation at Park Point . The terrain in the park is now a transition zone between the low desert plateaus and the Rocky Mountains .
The region 's precipitation pattern is bimodal , meaning agriculture is sustained through snowfall during winter and autumn and rainfall during spring and summer . The climate is semi @-@ arid . Water for farming and consumption was provided by summer rains , winter snowfall , and seeps and springs in and near the Mesa Verde villages . At 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , the middle mesa areas were typically ten degrees cooler than the mesa top , which reduced the amount of water needed for farming . The cliff dwellings were built to take advantage of solar energy . The angle of the sun in winter warmed the masonry of the cliff dwellings , warm breezes blew from the valley , and the air was ten to twenty degrees warmer in the canyon alcoves than on the top of the mesa . In the summer , with the sun high overhead , much of the village was protected from direct sunlight in the high cliff dwellings .
= = Geology = =
Although the area 's first Spanish explorers named the feature Mesa Verde , the term is a misnomer , as true mesas are almost perfectly flat . Because Mesa Verde is slanted to the south , the proper geological term is cuesta , not mesa . The park is made up of several smaller cuestas located between canyons . Mesa Verde 's slant contributed to the formation of the alcoves that have preserved the area 's cliff dwellings .
In the late Cretaceous Period , the Mancos Shale was deposited on top of the Dakota Sandstone , which is the rock formation that can be found under much of Colorado . The beds of the Mancos Shale are " fine @-@ grained sand @-@ stones , mudstones , and shales " which accumulated in the deep water of the Cretaceous Sea . It has a high clay content which causes it to expand when wet leading to sliding of the terrain . On top of this shale , there are three formations in the Mesaverde group which reflect the changes in depositional environment in the area over time . The first is the Point Lookout Sandstone , which is named for the Point Lookout feature in the park ( elevation 8427 feet ) . This sandstone , which formed in the marine environment of shallow water when the Cretaceous sea was receding , is " massive , fine @-@ grained , cross @-@ bedded , and very resistant " , in its layers reflecting waves and currents that were present during the time of its formation . Its sediments are approximately 400 feet thick , and its upper layers feature fossiliferous invertebrates .
Next is the Menefee Formation , the middle formation whose content features interbedded carbonaceous shales , siltstones , and sandstones . These were deposited in semi @-@ marine environments of brackish water , such as swamps and lagoons . Due to its depositional environment and the organic material in its composition , there are thin coal seams running through the Menefee Formation . At the top , this formation is intruded upon by the Cliff House Sandstone .
The Cliff House Sandstone is the area 's youngest rock layer . It was formed after the Cretaceous sea had completely receded and as a result has a high sand content from beaches , dunes , etc. and from this receives its characteristic yellow tint to its canyon faces . Like the Point Lookout Sandstone , it is about 400 feet thick . It contains numerous fossil beds of different types of shells , fish teeth , and other invertebrate leftovers from the receded sea . The shale zones in this feature determine where alcoves formed where the Ancestral Puebloans constructed their dwellings .
Continuing through the Cretaceous period and into the early Tertiary , there was uplifting in the area of the Colorado Plateau , the San Juan Mountains , and the La Plata Mountains , which led to the formation of the Mesa Verde pediment with the help of erosion . Small channels of water ran across this formation depositing gravel . Later in the tertiary , the last period of uplift and rock tilting towards the south caused these streams to cut rapidly into the rock removing loose sediment and forming the vast canyons seen today . This caused the isolation of the Mesa Verde pediment from surrounding rock . Today , since the climate is more arid , these erosional processes are slowed .
= = Rediscovery = =
Mexican @-@ Spanish missionaries and explorers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , seeking a route from Santa Fe to California , faithfully recorded their travels in 1776 . They reached Mesa Verde ( green plateau ) region , which they named after its high , tree @-@ covered plateaus , but they never got close enough , or into the needed angle , to see the ancient stone villages . They were the first white men to travel the route through much of the Colorado Plateau into Utah and back through Arizona to New Mexico .
The Mesa Verde region has long been occupied by the Utes , and an 1868 treaty between them and the United States government recognized Ute ownership of all Colorado land west of the Continental Divide . After there had become an interest in land in western Colorado , a new treaty in 1873 left the Ute with a strip of land in southwestern Colorado between the border with New Mexico and 15 miles north . Most of Mesa Verde lies within this strip of land . The Ute wintered in the warm , deep canyons and found sanctuary there and the high plateaus of Mesa Verde . Believing the cliff dwellings to be sacred ancestral sites , they did not live in the ancient dwellings .
Occasional trappers and prospectors visited , with one prospector , John Moss , making his observations known in 1873 . The following year , Moss led eminent photographer William Henry Jackson through Mancos Canyon , at the base of Mesa Verde . There , Jackson both photographed and publicized a typical stone cliff dwelling . Geologist William H. Holmes retraced Jackson 's route in 1875 . Reports by both Jackson and Holmes were included in the 1876 report of the Hayden Survey , one of the four federally financed efforts to explore the American West . These and other publications led to proposals to systematically study Southwestern archeological sites .
In her quest to find Ancestral Puebloan settlements , Virginia McClurg , a journalist for the New York Daily Graphic , visited Mesa Verde in 1882 and 1885 . Her party rediscovered Echo Cliff House , Three Tier House , and Balcony House in 1885 ; these discoveries inspired her to protect the dwellings and artifacts .
= = = The Wetherills = = =
A family of cattle ranchers , the Wetherills , befriended members of the Ute tribe near their ranch southwest of Mancos , Colorado . With the Ute tribe 's approval , the Wetherills were allowed to bring cattle into the lower , warmer plateaus of the present Ute reservation during winter . Word of the Ancestral Puebloan great houses had spread , and Acowitz , a member of the Ute tribe , told the Wetherills of a special cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde : " Deep in that canyon and near its head are many houses of the old people – the Ancient Ones . One of those houses , high , high in the rocks , is bigger than all the others . Utes never go there , it is a sacred place . " On December 18 , 1888 , Richard Wetherill and cowboy Charlie Mason rediscovered Cliff Palace after spotting the ruins from the top of Mesa Verde . Wetherill gave the ruin its present @-@ day name . Richard Wetherill , family and friends explored the ruins and gathered artifacts , some of which they sold to the Historical Society of Colorado and much of which they kept . Among the people who stayed with the Wetherills and explored the cliff dwellings was mountaineer , photographer , and author Frederick H. Chapin , who visited the region during 1889 and 1890 . He described the landscape and ruins in an 1890 article and later in an 1892 book , The Land of the Cliff @-@ Dwellers , which he illustrated with hand @-@ drawn maps and personal photographs .
= = = Gustaf Nordenskiöld = = =
The Wetherills also hosted Gustaf Nordenskiöld , the son of polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld , in 1891 . Nordenskiöld was a trained mineralogist who introduced scientific methods to artifact collection , recorded locations , photographed extensively , diagrammed sites , and correlated what he observed with existing archeological literature as well as the home @-@ grown expertise of the Wetherills . He removed a lot of artifacts and sent them to Sweden , where they eventually went to the National Museum of Finland . Nordenskiöld published , in 1893 , The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde . When Nordenskiöld shipped the collection that he made of Mesa Verde artifacts , the event initiated concerns about the need to protect Mesa Verde land and its resources .
= = National Park = =
In 1889 , Goodman Point Pueblo became the first pre @-@ Columbian archeological site in the Mesa Verde region to gain federal protection . It was the first such site to be protected in the US . Virginia McClurg was diligent in her efforts between 1887 and 1906 to inform the United States and European community of the importance of protecting the important historical material and dwellings in Mesa Verde . Her efforts included enlisting support from 250 @,@ 000 women through the Federation of Women 's Clubs , writing and having published poems in popular magazines , giving speeches domestically and internationally , and forming the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Association . The Colorado Cliff Dwellers ' purpose was to protect the resources of Colorado cliff dwellings , reclaiming as much of the original artifacts as possible and sharing information about the people who dwelt there . A fellow activist for protection of Mesa Verde and prehistoric archeological sites included Lucy Peabody , who , located in Washington , D.C. , met with members of Congress to further the cause . Former Mesa Verde National Park superintendent Robert Heyder communicated his belief that the park might have been far more significant with the hundreds of artifacts taken by Nordenskiöld .
By the end of the 19th century , it was clear that Mesa Verde needed protection from people in general who came to Mesa Verde and created or sold their own collection of artifacts . In a report to the Secretary of the Interior , Smithsonian Institution Ethnologist Jesse Walter Fewkes described vandalism at Mesa Verde 's Cliff Palace :
Parties of " curio seekers " camped on the ruin for several winters , and it is reported that many hundred specimens there have been carried down the mesa and sold to private individuals . Some of these objects are now in museums , but many are forever lost to science . In order to secure this valuable archeological material , walls were broken down ... often simply to let light into the darker rooms ; floors were invariably opened and buried kivas mutilated . To facilitate this work and get rid of the dust , great openings were broken through the five walls which form the front of the ruin . Beams were used for firewood to so great an extent that not a single roof now remains . This work of destruction , added to that resulting from erosion due to rain , left Cliff Palace in a sad condition .
Many artifacts from Mesa Verde are now located in museums and private collections in the USA and across the world . A representative selection of pottery vessels and other objects , for example , is now in the British Museum in London . In 1906 , President Theodore Roosevelt approved creation of the Mesa Verde National Park and the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906 . The park was an effort to " preserve the works of man " and was the first of its kind . The park was named with the Spanish term for green table because of its forests of juniper and piñon trees .
= = = Excavation and protection = = =
From 1908 to 1922 , Spruce Tree House , Cliff Palace , and Sun Temple ruins were stabilized . Most of the early efforts were led by Jesse Walter Fewkes . During the 1930s and 40s , Civilian Conservation Corps workers , starting in 1932 , played key roles in excavation efforts , building trails and roads , creating museum exhibits and constructing buildings at Mesa Verde . From 1958 to 1965 , Wetherill Mesa Archeological Project included archeological excavations , stabilization of sites , and surveys . With excavation and study of eleven Wetherill Mesa sites , it is considered the largest archeological effort in the US . The project oversaw the excavation of Long House and Mug House .
In 1966 , as with all historical areas administered by the National Park Service , Mesa Verde was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and in 1987 , the Mesa Verde Administrative District was listed on the register . It was designated a World Heritage Site in 1978 . In its 2015 travel awards , Sunset magazine named Mesa Verde National Park " the best cultural attraction " in the Western United States .
= = = Services = = =
The entrance to Mesa Verde National Park is on U.S. Route 160 , approximately 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of the community of Cortez and 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Mancos , Colorado . The park covers 52 @,@ 485 acres ( 21 @,@ 240 ha ) It contains 4 @,@ 372 documented sites , including more than 600 cliff dwellings . It is the largest archeological preserve in the US . It protects some of the most important and best preserved archeological sites in the country . The park initiated the Archeological Site Conservation Program in 1995 . It analyses data pertaining to how sites are constructed and utilized .
The Mesa Verde Visitor and Research Center is located just off of Highway 160 and is before the park entrance booths . The Visitor and Research Center opened in December 2012 . Chapin Mesa ( the most popular area ) is 20 miles ( 32 km ) beyond the visitor center . Mesa Verde National Park is an area of federal exclusive jurisdiction . Because of this all law enforcement , emergency medical service , and wildland / structural fire duties are conducted by federal National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers . The Mesa Verde National Park Post Office has the ZIP code 81330 . Access to park facilities vary by season . Three of the cliff dwellings on Chapin Mesa are open to the public . The Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum is open all year . Spruce Tree House is also open all year , weather permitting . Balcony House , Long House and Cliff Palace require tour tickets for ranger @-@ guided tours . Many other dwellings are visible from the road but not open to tourists . The park offers hiking trails , a campground , and , during peak season , facilities for food , fuel , and lodging ; these are unavailable in the winter .
= = = Wildfires and culturally modified trees = = =
During the years 1996 to 2003 , the park suffered from several wildfires . The fires , many of which were started by lightning during times of drought , burned 28 @,@ 340 acres ( 11 @,@ 470 ha ) of forest , more than half the park . The fires also damaged many archeological sites and park buildings . They were named : Chapin V ( 1996 ) , Bircher and Pony ( 2000 ) , Long Mesa ( 2002 ) , and the Balcony House Complex fires ( 2003 ) , which were five fires that began on the same day . The Chapin V and Pony fires destroyed two rock art sites , and the Long Mesa fire nearly destroyed the museum – the first one ever built in the National Park System – and Spruce Tree House , the third largest cliff dwelling in the park .
Prior to the fires of 1996 to 2003 , archeologists had surveyed approximately ninety percent of the park . Dense undergrowth and tree cover kept many ancient sites hidden from view , but after the Chapin V , Bircher and Pony fires , 593 previously undiscovered sites were revealed – most of them date to the Basketmaker III and Pueblo I periods . Also uncovered during the fires were extensive water containment features , including 1 @,@ 189 check dams , 344 terraces , and five reservoirs that date to the Pueblo II and III periods . In February 2008 , the Colorado Historical Society decided to invest a part of its $ 7 million budget into a culturally modified trees project in the National Park .
= = = Ute Mountain Tribal Park = = =
The Ute Mountain Tribal Park , adjoining Mesa Verde National Park to the east of the mountains , is approximately 125 @,@ 000 acres ( 51 @,@ 000 ha ) along the Mancos River . Hundreds of surface sites , cliff dwellings , petroglyphs , and wall paintings of Ancestral Puebloan and Ute cultures are preserved in the park . Native American Ute tour guides provide background information about the people , culture , and history of the park lands . National Geographic Traveler chose it as one of " 80 World Destinations for Travel in the 21st Century " , one of only nine places selected in the US .
= = Key sites = =
In addition to the cliff dwellings , Mesa Verde boasts a number of mesa @-@ top ruins . Examples open to public access include the Far View Complex and Cedar Tree Tower on Chapin Mesa , and Badger House Community , on Wetherill Mesa .
= = = Balcony House = = =
Balcony House is set on a high ledge facing east . Its 45 rooms and 2 kivas would have been cold during the winter . Visitors on ranger @-@ guided tours enter by climbing a 32 @-@ foot ladder and a crawling through a 12 @-@ foot tunnel . The exit , a series of toe @-@ holds in a cleft of the cliff , was believed to be the only entry and exit route for the cliff dwellers , which made the small village easy to defend and secure . One log was dated at 1278 , so it was likely built not long before the Mesa Verde people migrated out of the area . It was officially excavated in 1910 by Jesse Nusbaum , one of the first Superintendents of Mesa Verde National Park . Visitors can enter Balcony House through ranger @-@ guided tours .
= = = Cliff Palace = = =
This multi @-@ storied ruin , the best @-@ known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde , is located in the largest alcove in the center of the Great Mesa . It was south- and southwest @-@ facing , providing greater warmth from the sun in the winter . Dating back more than 700 years , the dwelling is constructed of sandstone , wooden beams , and mortar . Many of the rooms were brightly painted . Cliff Palace was home to approximately 125 people , but was likely an important part of a larger community of sixty nearby pueblos , which housed a combined six hundred or more people . With 23 kivas and 150 rooms , Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde National Park .
= = = Long House = = =
Located on the Wetherill Mesa , Long House is the second @-@ largest Mesa Verdean village ; approximately 150 people lived there . The location was excavated from 1959 through 1961 , as part of the Wetherhill Mesa Archeological Project . Long House was built c . 1200 ; it was occupied until 1280 . The cliff dwelling features 150 rooms , a kiva , a tower , and a central plaza . Its rooms are not clustered like typical cliff dwellings . Stones were used without shaping for fit and stability . Two overhead ledges contain storage space for grain . One ledge seems to include an overlook with small holes in the wall to see the rest of the village below . A spring is accessible within several hundred feet , and seeps are located in the rear of the village .
= = = Mug , Oak Tree , Spruce Tree , and Square Tower houses = = =
Mug House is located on Wetherill Mesa ; it contains 94 rooms , a large kiva , and a nearby reservoir . It received its name from four mugs the Charles Mason and the Wetherill brothers found strung together at the site . Oak Tree House and neighboring Fire Temple can be visited via a 2 @-@ hour ranger @-@ guided hike . Spruce Tree House is the third @-@ largest village , within several hundred feet of a spring , and had 130 rooms and eight kivas . It was constructed sometime between 1211 and 1278 . It is believed anywhere from 60 to 80 people lived there at one time . Because of its protective location , it is well preserved . The short trail to Spruce Tree House begins at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum . The Square Tower House is one of the stops on the Mesa Top Loop Road driving tour . The tower is the tallest structure in Mesa Verde .
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= Soedjatmoko =
Soedjatmoko ( born Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat ; 10 January 1922 – 21 December 1989 ) , familiarly called Bung Koko , was an Indonesian intellectual and diplomat . Born to a noble father and mother in Sawahlunto , West Sumatra , after finishing his primary education , he went to Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) to study medicine ; in the city 's slums , he saw much poverty , which became an academic interest later in life . After being expelled from medical school by the Japanese in 1943 for his political activities , Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and practised medicine with his father . In 1947 , after Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Soedjatmoko and two other youths were deployed to Lake Success , New York , to represent Indonesia at the United Nations ( UN ) . They helped secure international recognition of the country 's sovereignty .
After his work at the UN , Soedjatmoko attempted to study at Harvard 's Littauer Center for Public Administration ( now the John F. Kennedy School of Government ) ; however , he was forced to resign due to pressure from other work , including serving as Indonesia 's first chargé d 'affaires in London for three months as well as establishing the political desk at the Embassy of Indonesia in Washington , D.C. By 1952 he had returned to Indonesia , where he became involved in the socialist press and joined the Socialist Party of Indonesia . He was elected as a member of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in 1955 , serving until 1959 ; he married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1958 . However , as President Sukarno 's government became more authoritarian Soedjatmoko began to criticise the government . To avoid censorship , he spent two years as a guest lecturer at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , and another three in self @-@ imposed unemployment in Indonesia .
After Sukarno was replaced by Suharto , Soedjatmoko returned to public service . In 1966 he was sent as one of Indonesia 's representatives at the UN , and in 1968 he became Indonesia 's ambassador to the US ; during this time he received several honorary doctoral degrees . He also advised foreign minister Adam Malik . After returning to Indonesia in 1971 , Soedjatmoko held a position in several think tanks . After the Malari incident in January 1974 , Soedjatmoko was held for interrogation for two and a half weeks and accused of masterminding the event . Although eventually released , he could not leave Indonesia for two and a half years . In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding , and in 1980 he was chosen as rector of the United Nations University in Tokyo . Two years after returning from Japan , Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest while teaching in Yogyakarta .
= = Early life = =
Soedjatmoko was born on 10 January 1922 in Sawahlunto , West Sumatra , with the name Soedjatmoko Mangoendiningrat . He was the eldest son of Saleh Mangoendiningrat , a Javanese physician of noble descent from Madiun , and Isnadikin , a Javanese housewife from Ponorogo ; the couple had three other children , as well as two adopted children . Soedjatmoko 's younger brother , Nugroho Wisnumurti , went on to work at the United Nations . When he was two years old , he and his family moved to the Netherlands after his father received a five @-@ year scholarship . After returning to Indonesia , Soedjatmoko continued his studies at an elementary school for European called ELS in Manado , North Sulawesi .
Soedjatmoko later attended the Surabaya HBS ( secondary school ) and graduated in 1940 . The school introduced him to Latin and Greek , and one of his teachers introduced him to European art ; he later recalled that this introduction had allowed him to see Europeans as more than colonists . He then continued to medical school in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) . Upon seeing the slums of Jakarta , he was drawn to the issue of poverty ; this later became an academic interest of his . However , during the Japanese occupation , in 1943 , he was expelled from the city due to his relationship with Sutan Sjahrir – who had married Soedjatmoko 's sister Siti Wahyunah – and participation in protests against the occupation .
After his expulsion , Soedjatmoko moved to Surakarta and studied Western history and political literature , which led to an interest in socialism . Some figure that affected him besides Karl Marx were Ortega y Gasset and Jan Romein . While in Surakarta he also worked at his father 's hospital . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence , Soedjatmoko was asked to become Deputy Head of the Foreign Press Department in the Ministry of Information . In 1946 , at the request of Prime Minister Sjahrir , he and two friends established a Dutch @-@ language weekly , Het Inzicht ( Inside ) , as a counter to the Dutch @-@ sponsored Het Uίtzicht ( Outlook ) . The next year , they launched a socialist @-@ oriented journal , Siasat ( Tactics ) , which was published weekly . During this period Soedjatmoko dropped the name Mangoendiningrat , as it reminded him of the feudal aspects of Indonesian culture .
= = Work in the US = =
In 1947 , Sjahrir sent Soedjatmoko to New York as a member of the Indonesian Republic 's " observer " delegation to the United Nations ( UN ) . The delegation travelled to the United States via the Philippines after a two @-@ month stay in Singapore ; while in the Philippines , President Manuel Roxas guaranteed support of the nascent nation 's case at the United Nations . Soedjatmoko stayed in Lake Success , New York , the temporary location of the UN , and participated in debates over international recognition of the new country . Towards the end of his stay in New York , Soedjatmoko enrolled at Harvard 's Littauer Center ; as , at the time , he was still part of the UN delegation , he commuted between New York and Boston for seven months . After being released from the delegation , he spent most of a year at the Center ; for a period of three months , however , he was chargé d 'affaires – the nation 's first – at the Dutch East Indies desk of the Dutch embassy in London , serving in a temporary capacity while the Indonesian embassy was being established .
In 1951 , Soedjatmoko moved to Washington D.C. to establish the political desk at the Indonesian embassy there ; he also became Alternate Permanent Representative of Indonesia at the UN . This busy schedule , demanding a commute between three cities , proved to be too much for him and he dropped out of the Littauer Center . In late 1951 , he resigned from his positions and went to Europe for nine months , seeking political inspiration . In Yugoslavia , he met Milovan Djilas , who impressed him greatly .
= = Return to Indonesia = =
Upon returning to Indonesia , Soedjatmoko once again became an editor of Siasat . In 1952 , he was one of the founders of Socialist Party daily Pedoman ( Guidance ) ; this was followed by a political journal , Konfrontasi ( Confrontation ) . He also helped to establish the Pembangunan publishing house , which he directed until 1961 . Soedjatmoko joined the Indonesian Socialist Party ( Partai Sosialis Indonesia , or PSI ) in 1955 , and was elected as a member of Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia in the 1955 elections until the dissolution of the assembly in 1959 . He served with the Indonesian delegation at the Bandung Conference in 1955 . Later the same year , he founded the Indonesian Institute of World Affairs and became its Secretary General for four years . Soedjatmoko married Ratmini Gandasubrata in 1958 . Together they had three daughters .
Towards the end of the 1950s , Soedjatmoko and President Sukarno , with whom he had had a warm working relationship , had a falling out over the president 's increasingly authoritarian policies . In 1960 Soedjatmoko co @-@ founded and headed the Democratic League , which attempted to promote democracy in the country ; he also opposed Sukarno 's Guided Democracy policy . When the effort failed , Soedjatmoko went to the US and took a position as guest lecturer at Cornell University . When he returned to Indonesia in 1962 , he discovered that key members of the PSI had been arrested and the party banned ; both Siasat and Pedoman were closed . To avoid trouble with the government , Soedjatmoko voluntarily left himself unemployed until 1965 , when he became co @-@ editor of An Introduction to Indonesian Historiography .
= = Ambassadorship and academic activities = =
After the failed coup d 'état in 1965 and the replacement of Sukarno by Suharto , Soedjatmoko returned to public service . He served as vice @-@ chairman of the Indonesian delegation at the UN in 1966 , becoming the delegation 's adviser in 1967 . Also in 1967 , Soedjatmoko became adviser to foreign minister Adam Malik , as well as a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies , a London @-@ based think tank ; the following year he became Indonesian ambassador to the United States , a position which he held until 1971 . During his time as ambassador , Soedjatmoko received honorary doctorates from several American universities , including Cedar Crest College in 1969 and Yale in 1970 . He also published another book , Southeast Asia Today and Tomorrow ( 1969 ) .
Soedjatmoko returned to Indonesia in 1971 ; upon his return he became Special Adviser on Social and Cultural Affairs to the Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency . That same year , he became a board member of the London @-@ based International Institute for Environment and Development , a position which he held until 1976 ; he also joined the Club of Rome . In 1972 Soedjatmoko was selected to the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation , in which position he served 12 years ; also in 1972 he became a governor of the Asian Institute of Management , a position which he held for two years . The following year he became a governor of the International Development Research Center . In 1974 , based on falsified documents , he was accused of planning the Malari incident of January 1974 , in which students protested and eventually rioted during a state visit by Prime Minister of Japan Kakuei Tanaka . Held for interrogation for two and a half weeks , Soedjatmoko was not allowed to leave Indonesia for two and a half years for his suspected involvement .
In 1978 Soedjatmoko received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding , often called Asia 's Nobel Prize . The citation read , in part :
Encouraging both Asians and outsiders to look more carefully at the village folkways they would modernize , [ Sodjatmoko ] is fostering awareness of the human dimension essential to all development . [ ... ] [ H ] is writings have added consequentially to the body of international thinking on what can be done to meet one of the greatest challenges of our time ; how to make life more decent and satisfying for the poorest 40 percent in Southeastern and southern Asia .
In response , Soedjatmoko said he felt " humbled , because of [ his ] awareness that whatever small contribution [ he ] may have made is dwarfed by the magnitude of the problem of persistent poverty and human suffering in Asia , and by the realization of how much still remains to be done . "
= = Later life and death = =
In 1980 Soedjatmoko moved to Tokyo , Japan . In September of that year he began service as the rector of the United Nations University , replacing James M. Hester ; he remained in that position until 1987 . In Japan he published two further books , The Primacy of Freedom in Development and Development and Freedom . He received the Asia Society Award in 1985 , and the Universities Field Staff International Award for Distinguished Service to the Advancement of International Understanding the following year . Soedjatmoko died of cardiac arrest on 21 December 1989 when he was lecturing at Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta .
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= Instinct ( Orphan Black ) =
" Instinct " is the second episode of the first season of the Canadian science fiction television series Orphan Black . It first aired in Canada on Space and the United States on BBC America on 6 April 2013 . The episode was written by Graeme Manson and directed by John Fawcett .
The plot follows Sarah Manning ( played by Tatiana Maslany ) as she continues to impersonate Beth Childs , a woman who looks identical to Sarah , in order to take Beth 's money after seeing her commit suicide . In the episode , Sarah deals with the aftermath of the death of another identical woman , Katja Obinger , and begins to discover more lookalikes . Maslany plays each of the identical women ; " Instinct " marked the first episode in which more than one of Maslany 's characters was present in a single shot , which necessitated specific planning and technology to film and edit these scenes . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who praised the episode 's plot development and Maslany 's performance .
= = Plot = =
After Katja is shot , Sarah flees in Beth 's car and receives a call from a woman on Beth 's phone . The woman , after hearing that Katja is dead , instructs Sarah to dispose of the body and retrieve Katja 's briefcase . While burying Katja 's body , Sarah finds a hotel key in her pocket and keeps it . She visits her foster brother Felix 's apartment and discovers that the $ 75 @,@ 000 she stole from Beth 's bank account has been taken by Beth 's detective partner Art . When she returns to Beth 's apartment she is surprised to find Beth 's boyfriend , Paul , who seems confused by Sarah 's demeanour but does not realise that she is not Beth . The next day , Sarah prepares to meet Art , and lies that the $ 75 @,@ 000 belongs to Paul , but Art says he will return the money only after the hearing Beth must attend about a suspicious shooting in which she was involved .
Sarah disguises herself as Katja and gains entrance to her hotel room in order to find Katja 's briefcase . The room has been ransacked by the time she arrives but a hotel employee gives her the briefcase , which had been left with security . Inside the briefcase Sarah finds medical images , vials of blood , and evidence of more lookalikes , including a woman named Alison Hendrix , whose address is written on a note . Believing Alison to be the woman on the phone , Sarah drives to her address and follows her van to a soccer field , where she discovers that Alison is another of her lookalikes . Alison confronts Sarah , assuming that she is Beth , and refuses to believe Sarah when she explains that Beth killed herself , telling her to leave and wait for another call .
At the police station , pretending to be Beth , Sarah manipulates the resident psychiatrist into approving her return to duty , but Art refuses to give Sarah the money until she is fully reinstated . She receives a call from Alison , who tells her to bring the briefcase to her house that night . When Sarah and Felix arrive at Alison 's house , Alison threatens them with a gun before relenting and introducing Sarah to another lookalike named Cosima .
= = Production = =
" Instinct " was filmed in a block with the series ' first episode , " Natural Selection " , under the direction of Orphan Black co @-@ creator John Fawcett . It was filmed in Canada , although it is never made clear where in North America the show takes place . The episode refers to the fictional suburb of Bailey Downs , where Alison is said to live , which is a homage to the setting of the 2000 Canadian horror film Ginger Snaps , which was directed by Fawcett . One of the filming locations used for the episode was the office used by the show 's writers , which served as Beth 's psychiatrist 's office .
The episode featured one of the first scenes in which Maslany plays multiple characters interacting in the same shot . To construct the scene in which Sarah and Alison meet in the soccer field shed , Maslany and her stunt double Kathryn Alexandre first shot a master version of the scene using a Technodolly , a programmable camera crane that can memorise camera movements . Two versions of the scene were then re @-@ filmed without Alexandre , with Maslany playing each of the characters . To simulate Alison placing her hand on Sarah 's shoulder , a grip stand was used in the place of Sarah 's shoulder for Maslany to hold when playing Alison , and to simulate Sarah slapping Alison 's arm away , Maslany slapped the air when playing Sarah and reacted as if she had been hit when playing Alison . The final scene was created through digital compositing , whereby both versions of the scene — with Maslany playing both characters separately — are combined to produce a single shot . Maslany felt that , as one of her early attempts at sharing a scene with herself , she over @-@ thought the process : " I think I was trying too hard to get it right . Nobody 's there when you 're shooting these things , so you overcompensate . "
= = Reception = =
Overall , " Instinct " was well received by critics . Caroline Framke of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A – grade , writing that the series " continues to walk a fine line with extraordinary subtlety and confidence " . She gave particular praise to Maslany 's acting , saying that she " handles every curveball , new character , and impersonation upon impersonation with extraordinary deftness " . Tor.com 's Robert H. Bedford commended the way the different storylines were integrated and particularly enjoyed the interactions between Art and Sarah . Den of Geek critic Rob Kemp thought that the episode was well developed and felt that it stood out from " the current crop of TV science fiction " . He praised the serious nature of the episode as well as " the effort that has gone into grounding the show into reality " . Simon Cocks of CultBox gave " Instinct " 4 out of 5 stars , describing it as " riveting television " . He found Maslany 's performance " incredible " and " effortless " , and felt that her scenes with Art at the police station provided the strongest material . In a more mixed review for Twitch Film , Todd Brown opined that " Instinct " sometimes crossed " the line between camp and believability " . He praised the development of the story and the characters but felt that while Maslany 's acting was " remarkably strong as both Sarah and Sarah @-@ Being @-@ Beth her performance as Alison ... feels a bit shrill " .
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= Pilot ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode aired on September 10 , 1993 on the Fox network in the United States and Canada , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Robert Mandel . As the pilot , it would set up the mythology storyline for the series . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 and was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households and 12 @.@ 0 million viewers . The episode itself was generally well received by fans and critics alike , which led to a growing cult following for the series before it hit the mainstream .
The pilot introduced the two main characters , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully who were portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively . The episode also featured William B. Davis , Charles Cioffi and Zachary Ansley as the recurring characters of the Smoking Man , Scott Blevins and Billy Miles . The Smoking Man would go on to become the series ' signature antagonist , appearing in every season except the eighth . The episode follows FBI Special Agents Mulder and Scully on their first X @-@ File case together , investigating a string of deaths which Mulder believes to be alien experiments .
Inspired by Kolchak : The Night Stalker , the series was conceived by Chris Carter in an attempt to " scare people 's pants off " . When creating the characters of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , Carter decided to play against established stereotypes , making the male character a believer and the female a skeptic , as the latter role had traditionally been a male one on television . Principal photography for " Pilot " took place over fourteen days during March 1993 ; using a budget of $ 2 million , the scenes were filmed in and around the Vancouver area . Vancouver would remain the area for production for the next five years , although production would move to Los Angeles from the beginning of the sixth season at the behest of David Duchovny .
= = Plot = =
In Bellefleur , Oregon , teenager Karen Swenson is seen fleeing through the forest . When she falls , a dark figure approaches , and they both become enveloped in light . Swenson 's body is later found by Bellefleur detectives , with two small marks on her back .
Later , in Washington , D.C. , FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is summoned to a meeting with Division Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) and a seemingly anonymous government official , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . Scully is assigned to work with Special Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) on the X @-@ Files , an obscure FBI section covering purportedly paranormal cases . Blevins has assigned Scully for the implicit purpose of using her scientific knowledge to discredit Mulder 's work , although Blevins never directly tells Scully this and is evasive when she asks if such is his intent .
Scully introduces herself to her new partner , who shows her evidence from the Swenson case . He notes that she was the fourth member of her high school class to die under mysterious circumstances . Mulder also notes an unknown chemical compound found on Swenson 's body , as well as similarities between her death and others from across the country . Mulder believes that Swenson 's death is due to extraterrestrial activity . However , the skeptical Scully expresses disbelief in Mulder 's theory .
When Mulder and Scully 's plane flies over Bellefleur , it encounters unexplained turbulence . As they drive in the woods near the town , the agents ' car radio malfunctions ; Mulder marks the spot of this event by spray @-@ painting an " X " onto the road . Mulder arranges for the exhumation of the third victim , Ray Soames , despite the protests of Dr. Jay Nemman , the county medical examiner . When Soames ' coffin is opened , a deformed body is found inside , which Scully concludes is not Soames , but an orangutan . However , she finds a metal implant in the body 's nasal cavity .
Mulder and Scully visit the psychiatric hospital where Soames was committed before his death and meet two of Soames ' former classmates — the comatose Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) ; and the wheelchair @-@ using Peggy O 'Dell . O 'Dell suffers from a nosebleed during the agents ' visit , and is seen to bear marks similar to Swenson 's . Outside the hospital , Mulder explains to Scully that he believes Miles , O 'Dell , and the victims to be alien abductees .
That night , the agents investigate the forest ; Scully discovers strange ash on the ground , leading her to suspect cult activity . However , a local detective arrives and orders them to leave . Driving back to their motel , Mulder and Scully encounter a flash of light at the spot their car had malfunctioned earlier . When the car loses power , Mulder realizes that nine minutes disappeared after the flash , a phenomenon reported by alien abductees .
At the motel , Mulder tells Scully that his sister Samantha vanished when he was twelve , which has driven his work in the paranormal . The agents receive an anonymous call telling them that O 'Dell was killed in traffic while on foot . They visit the scene , finding O 'Dell 's body and no wheelchair . They return to find the motel on fire and their evidence destroyed . Nemman 's daughter Theresa contacts the agents for help . She tells them that she has awakened in the middle of the woods several times , though her father and Detective Miles arrive and take her away .
Mulder and Scully return to the cemetery to exhume the other victims only to find the graves already dug up and the coffins missing . Mulder realizes that Billy Miles is responsible for bringing the victims to the woods . Returning to the woods , they again encounter Detective Miles , but hear a scream and find Billy nearby with Theresa in his arms . There is a flash of light , and Billy and Theresa are recovered unharmed .
Several months later , Miles is put under hypnosis . He recalls how he and his classmates were abducted in the forest as they celebrated their graduation ; they were subjected to tests by the aliens , and killed when the tests failed . Scully provides Blevins with the metal implant , the only remaining piece of evidence . However , she later learns from Mulder that Miles ' case files are missing . Meanwhile , The Smoking Man stores the implant away in a vast evidence room within the Pentagon .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
When conceiving the episode , Chris Carter wanted to " scare people 's pants off " . A noted influence on the episode 's conception was Kolchak : The Night Stalker , a series from the 1970s . This led to an idea of two agents investigating paranormal events . When creating the characters of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , Carter decided to play against established stereotypes , making the male character a believer and the female a skeptic , as the latter role had traditionally been a male one on television .
When casting the actors for the two main parts , Carter had difficulties finding an actor for Scully . When he cast Gillian Anderson for the part , the network wanted to replace her . Carter believed they responded negatively towards the casting because " she didn 't have the obvious qualities that network executives have come to associate with hit shows " . Calling her a " terrific actress " , Carter reacted overall positively towards Anderson 's audition saying " she came in and read the part with a seriousness and intensity that I knew the Scully character had to have and I knew [ ... ] she was the right person for the part " . David Duchovny on the other hand , was met with more positive response from the network , Carter even saying he was an " early favorite " . William B. Davis , who made his first appearance as the recurring villain The Smoking Man in this episode , had originally auditioned for a larger part in the episode , saying " I auditioned for the senior FBI agent who had three lines . I didn 't get that part — I got the part with no lines " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for " Pilot " took place over fourteen days during March 1993 ; using a budget of $ 2 million . Filming of the episode took place in and around Vancouver , British Columbia . The series would use the area for production for the next five years , although production would move to Los Angeles from the beginning of the sixth season at the behest of David Duchovny .
The scene set in the town 's graveyard was shot in Queen Elizabeth Park , marking the first time the location had been used to represent a graveyard ; the location would later be used for the same purpose in the fourth season episode " Kaddish " . The interior shots of the psychiatric hospital were filmed in a disused building owned by Riverview Hospital in Coquitlam , and marked the first time that the crew met with producer R. W. Goodwin . The episode 's final warehouse scene was filmed in a document warehouse belonging to the headquarters of the Canadian television network Knowledge . An office in the same building was also used for the boardroom meeting at the beginning of the episode . The scenes involving the Smoking Man required special permission to be filmed , in order to allow for actor William B. Davis to smoke in a public building . All of the interior shots of the FBI headquarters were filmed in the main newsroom of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , as the production crew found that the open plan offices they wished to represent no longer existed , having typically been converted into cubicles . However , it was found that working around the CBC 's broadcast schedule was too unwieldy , and later episodes of the series replicated the location on a sound stage . The forest scenes were shot on location in Lynn Valley , in the Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve — formerly known as the Seymour Demonstration Forest . The crew spent $ 9 @,@ 000 building wooden pathways for equipment , cast and crew to move easily through the area . Additional scenes were filmed at the headquarters for BC Hydro ; whilst Scully 's apartment was represented by a location used only in this episode and the third episode , " Squeeze " — use of this location was discontinued once it became apparent that most reverse angles would show a large car park across the street .
Make @-@ up effects artist Toby Lindala was tasked with creating a prop which would allow actress Sarah Koskoff to simulate a nosebleed on @-@ camera , rather than through the use of off @-@ screen make @-@ up and editing tricks . However , during test shots , the prop 's tubing burst , causing the stage blood to begin dripping down Koskoff 's forehead , rather than from her nose . Gillian Anderson has expressed displeasure over the scene in which her character , Dana Scully , visits Fox Mulder in his motel room in her underwear to have him examine a suspicious wound which turns out to be insect bites . The actress felt that the scene was too gratuitous , saying " there really wasn 't a reason for it . The bites could have been on my shoulder or something . " However , Carter has explained that the scene was simply intended to highlight the platonic relationship between the two lead roles .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Post @-@ production work on the episode was finished by May 1993 , with the final version of the episode being assembled only three hours before its preview screening for the network 's executives . Stock footage of the exterior of the J. Edgar Hoover Building was added to the episode , although later episodes would film new exterior shots using Simon Fraser University as a stand @-@ in location . The climactic abduction scene featuring Billy Miles in a forest clearing featured a swirling vortex of leaves created using computer imagery by the series ' visual designer Mat Beck ; which Carter has described as being more complicated to achieve than the Normandy landings .
= = = Deleted scenes = = =
The original script gives more insight into Scully 's visit to Scott Blevins ' office . The scene that introduces Scully in the script is set just before her visit and takes place at the FBI Academy in Quantico , Virginia , where she teaches a small group of trainees about the physiology of homicide , specifically electrocution and death by cattle prod . Her attention is distracted by an agent who enters the room and hands her a note that reads , " Your attendance is required in Washington at 1600 hrs. sharp " . Scully checks her digital watch , which reads 1 : 03 . The majority , at the least , of this scene was actually filmed but the scene was omitted from the final version of the episode . The next scene is that in which Scully reports to the receptionist at FBI headquarters ; the script includes Scully showing her badge to the receptionist and dialogue for the role of the receptionist as she tells Scully , " See Section Chief Blevins . Third floor , violent crime division . " In the final version of the episode , Scully 's badge does not appear in any of the scenes and the receptionist does not speak .
Two filmed scenes were cut from the final version of the episode . Both featured Tim Ransom as Scully 's boyfriend Ethan Minette . In the first , Minette and Scully meet , with Scully cancelling plans for a holiday the two had arranged , due to her assignment to the Oregon case . The second scene briefly shows Scully answering a telephone call from Mulder whilst asleep in bed with Minette , though the latter has no dialogue . The addition of Scully 's boyfriend was an attempt by the Fox executives to create the romantic interest that they felt was not there between Mulder and Scully . Chris Carter ultimately found that it was " very easy " to remove the character from the episode , both because his appearances seemed to slow down the scenes in which Mulder and Scully are together and due to the fact that Carter found Scully 's relationship with her FBI partner to actually be more interesting and exciting than her relationship with her boyfriend .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Pilot " premiered on the Fox network on September 10 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 19 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households and 12 @.@ 0 million viewers .
" Pilot " was well received by several of the series ' future crew members . Producer and writer Glen Morgan felt that the episode 's " merging of Silence of the Lambs and Close Encounters of the Third Kind " was impressive ; he also felt that it was the only truly scary series on television at the time . Writer Howard Gordon stated that " the pilot set the tone of the show really successfully " , noting the difficulty inherent in introducing both a series ' premise and its main cast in " forty @-@ eight minutes " and finding that the episode had achieved both , being " a tremendous synthesis of all the parts " . Chris Carter also recounted that the episode 's test screening for Rupert Murdoch and other Fox executives was met with " spontaneous applause " .
The episode was generally well received by fans and critics alike . Variety magazine criticized the episode for " using reworked concepts " , but praised the production and noted its potential . Of the acting , Variety stated , " Duchovny 's delineation of a serious scientist with a sense of humor should win him partisans , and Anderson 's wavering doubter connects well . They 're a solid team ... " . Variety also praised the writing and direction : " Mandel 's cool direction of Carter 's ingenious script and the artful presentation itself give TV sci @-@ fi a boost . " The magazine concluded , " Carter 's dialogue is fresh without being self @-@ conscious , and the characters are involving . Series kicks off with drive and imagination , both innovative in recent TV . " Entertainment Weekly noted that Scully " was set up as a scoffing skeptic " in the pilot but progressed toward belief throughout the season . After the airing of just four episodes , the magazine called The X @-@ Files " the most paranoid , subversive show on TV " , noting the " marvelous tension between Anderson — who is dubious about these events — and Duchovny , who has the haunted , imploring look of a true believer " . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the episode , rating it an A – . He felt that the episode 's premise worked well to " set a template " for future episodes , and noted that the chemistry between Duchovny and Anderson was " already there " from the outset . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode positively , praising the chemistry between the lead roles and the quality of the script . In 2012 , SFX named it the tenth best TV pilot in the science fiction and fantasy genre , saying that it " brought us everything we came to expect from the show " . The plot for " Pilot " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1995 by Les Martin , under the title X Marks the Spot .
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= ODB + + =
ODB + + is a proprietary CAD @-@ to @-@ CAM data exchange format used in the design and manufacture of electronic devices . Its purpose is to exchange printed circuit board design information between design and manufacturing and between design tools from different EDA / ECAD vendors . It was originally developed by Valor Computerized Systems , Ltd . ( acquired in 2010 by Mentor Graphics ) as the job description format for their CAM system .
ODB stands for open database , but its openness is disputed , as discussed below . The ' + + ' suffix , evocative of C + + , was added in 1997 with the addition of component descriptions . There are two versions of ODB + + : the original ( now controlled by Mentor ) and an XML version called ODB + + ( X ) that Valor developed and donated to the IPC organization in an attempt to merge GenCAM ( IPC @-@ 2511 ) and ODB + + into Offspring ( IPC @-@ 2581 ) .
= = Introduction = =
Inside almost every electronic device is a PCB onto which the semiconductor and other components are mechanically and electrically connected by soldering . These PCBs are designed using a computer @-@ aided design ( CAD ) system . To physically realize the design , the computerized design information must be transferred to a photolithographic computer @-@ aided manufacturing ( CAM ) system . Since the CAD and CAM systems are generally produced by different companies , they have to agree on a CAD @-@ to @-@ CAM data exchange format to transfer the data . ODB + + is one such file format for performing this transfer . Other formats are compared and contrasted below . After the bare board is manufactured , the electronic components are placed and soldered , for example by SMT placement equipment and wave or reflow soldering .
= = File structure = =
When in use , ODB + + data is stored in a hierarchy of files and file folders . However , for transmission it is convenient to use common operating system commands that create a single , compressed file that preserves the hierarchy information . For example , on Unix tar and gzip commands can be used . In ODB + + ( X ) , the database is contained in a single XML file by default .
ODB + + covers the specification of not only conductor layer artwork and drill data , but also material stack up , netlist with test points , component bill of materials , component placement , fabrication data , and dimension data .
= = History = =
Valor was founded in 1992 and it released ODB in 1995 . It added the + + suffix when component names were added in 1997 . The XML version was developed beginning 2000 , and ended in 2008 with the donation to IPC . Valor was acquired by Mentor in 2010 .
= = Adoption = =
In the late 1990s it became clear to industry participants that a second @-@ generation data transfer format would be more efficient than the prevalent , first @-@ generation Gerber format . However , it was very difficult to reach a consensus over which of two candidates should be selected :
ODB + + : proven but proprietary
IPC @-@ 2511 GenCAM : not widely used but open
In 2002 , a compromise format , ODB + + ( X ) , was recommended by National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative ( NEMI ; an industry body , subsequently renamed International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative , iNEMI ) after a two @-@ year mediation effort between the GenCAM and ODB + + camps . Companies that supported the recommendation at the time included Cadence , Hewlett @-@ Packard , Lucent , Easylogix , Mentor ( which acquired Valor some eight years later ) , Nokia and Xerox . But in fact adoption to date has been minimal . As a result , and as detailed below , the industry is still divided .
= = = Advocacy = = =
Lists of EDA tools that support import and / or export of ODB + + have been compiled by Artwork Conversion Software , Mentor itself , and on the Comparison of EDA packages table . Some companies that have adopted the ODB + + format are advocates for its use . Streamline Circuits reports that ODB + + provides much greater efficiency than the competing Gerber format , stating that " an 8 @-@ layer printed circuit board can take up to 5 hours to plan and tool using Gerber and only 1 hour when using ODB + + . " According to Streamline , manufacturers are adopting it to overcome the limitations of the simpler Gerber format . DownStream Technologies calls ODB + + " the defacto standard for intelligent data exchange in EDA " In 2002 , Dana Korf of Sanmina / SCI called ODB + + " the prevalent non @-@ Gerber format . " Kent Balius of Viasystems , states of ODB + + " ... really we don ’ t need anything else . "
= = = Opposition = = =
= = = = Lack of need = = = =
Ucamco , the developers of the Gerber format , argue that the prevalent Gerber @-@ based flow ( with some additions ) can be as complete and efficient as ODB + + .
= = = = Concerns = = = =
ODB + + is a proprietary format controlled by Valor and now Mentor , and so , like all proprietary standards , it comes with the risk of vendor lock @-@ in . CAD companies had some concerns about this when ODB + + was controlled by Valor , a CAM company , but these concerns were magnified when a rival CAD company , Mentor , acquired Valor . Although Mentor claims that it " ... openly supports inclusion of ODB + + and updates for other EDA tool vendors , " it used to restrict access to the specification and required a non @-@ disclosure agreement . The application form used to include a requirement to : " ... Demonstrate a customer need for this integration through references from mutual customers . Provide a recommendation from a Mentor Graphics product division or demonstrate the incremental value of this integration to both Mentor Graphics and the partner company . " Some direct competitors inferred this meant restricted access . This was a source of frustration not only for competitors but also for the Mentor user community .
In 2012 , Julian Coates , director of business development at Mentor 's Valor division claimed that , so far , all ODB + + partners , including competitors to Mentor , who have applied for assistance to build and maintain ODB + + interfaces via the ODB + + Solutions Alliance have been accepted without reservation or cost . In addition , the format specification is now openly available via the ODB + + Solutions Alliance without the need for NDA . Membership of the ODB + + Solutions Alliance is free of charge and open to anybody who registers . A no @-@ charge ODB + + Viewer and other software utilities are available to registrants .
= = = = Potential resolution = = = =
Critics of the proprietary nature of ODB + + point to several more open formats as models for a future consensus format :
RS @-@ 274X ( " extended Gerber format " ) : Although it is nominally proprietary to Ucamco , the specification can be downloaded freely making it de facto an open standard .
IPC @-@ 2511 ( " GenCAM " ) which resulted from a donation of certain technologies by Teradyne / GenRAD to IPC .
IPC @-@ 2581 ( " Offspring " ) an attempt to merge GenCAM with ODB + + ( X ) . The specification can be downloaded freely . In 2011 , an industry consortium was created to support it , motivated in part by frustration with the proprietary nature of ODB + + . Cadence Design Systems , Zuken , Artwork Conversion Software and the owners of Gerber format , Ucamco , joined it , but , initially , not Mentor . However , in 2012 , Mentor did join . This , combined with the 2012 announcement by Zuken that it would join the ODB + + Solutions Alliance , creates the possibility that PCB designers will have a choice of format no matter which EDA tool they choose .
OpenAccess , which resulted from a transfer of certain technologies by Cadence to the Si2 organization . Although it was originally designed for integrated circuits , it is now finding application for IC package and PCB design also .
JPCA @-@ EB02 ( " Fujiko " ) based on work by Prof. Tomokage of Fukuoka University .
EDIF - Electronic Design Interchange Format
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= 2009 Sony Ericsson Open =
The 2009 Sony Ericsson Open ( also known as 2009 Miami Masters ) was a men 's and women 's tennis tournament held from March 23 to April 5 , 2009 . It was the 25th edition of the Miami Masters event and was played on outdoor hard courts at the Tennis Center at Crandon Park in Key Biscayne , Florida , located near Miami . The tournament was part of 2009 ATP World Tour and 2009 WTA Tour , classified as ATP World Tour Masters 1000 and Premier Mandatory event respectively .
The men 's singles event was won by British player Andy Murray , who defeated Novak Djokovic in the final . Victoria Azarenka of Belarus won the women 's singles event by defeating defending champion Serena Williams . Both Murray and Azarenka were first @-@ time winners at the tournament and also the first to win from their respective countries . In the doubles events , Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram won the men 's title by defeating the team of Ashley Fisher and Stephen Huss . The women 's doubles title was won by Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo who overcame Květa Peschke and Lisa Raymond in the final match .
= = Tournament = =
The 2009 Sony Ericsson Open was the 25th edition of the Miami Masters tournament and was held at Tennis Center at Crandon Park , Key Biscayne near Miami , Florida . The tournament was a joint event between the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) and the Women 's Tennis Association ( WTA ) and was part of the 2009 ATP World Tour and the 2009 WTA Tour calendars . The tournament consisted of both men 's and women 's singles and doubles events which were played on 12 Laykold Cushion Plus hard courts . The total prize money for the tournament was US $ 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with $ 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 assigned equally to ATP and WTA events . Singles winners received $ 605 @,@ 500 each and doubles winning teams received $ 225 @,@ 000 each .
The tournament was conducted from March 23 to April 5 , with qualifying draws played on March 23 – 24 and main draws from March 25 to April 5 . Both the men 's and women 's singles draws consisted of 96 players and the doubles draws consisted of 32 teams . The qualifying draw consisted of 43 men and 42 women who competed for 12 positions each in the men 's and women 's final draw .
= = Players = =
47 of the top 50 players in the ATP rankings entered the men 's singles event at the tournament with Rafael Nadal seeded first , followed by Roger Federer , Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray . Defending champion Nikolay Davydenko withdrew ahead of the tournament due to a foot injury . Richard Gasquet , who was initially going to play , withdrew prior to his first match after suffering from right shoulder injury . Gasquet was replaced by lucky loser Björn Phau . 12 players progressed from the qualifying draws to the main draw and six players , including Lleyton Hewitt and Marcos Baghdatis , were given wildcard entries .
In the women 's singles field , defending champion Serena Williams was top seeded , with number two Dinara Safina only 311 points behind her in the WTA rankings at the start of the tournament . Maria Sharapova was expected to return to singles tennis at this tournament after playing doubles matches in the previous tournament , the 2009 BNP Paribas Open . Sharapova , who had not played singles matches since August 2008 , withdrew due to a continued lack of fitness . Jelena Dokić , Sania Mirza and Alexa Glatch were among the eight players who received wildcard entries . 12 players progressed from qualifying draws to main draw .
The doubles draws were led by defending champions Bob and Mike Bryan on the men 's side and Cara Black and Liezel Huber on the women 's side . Katarina Srebotnik , one of the women 's doubles defending champions , had not recovered from an injury picked up in December 2008 and did not participate . Her partner from the previous year , Ai Sugiyama partnered with Russian Daniela Hantuchová . Marina Erakovic – Sun Tiantian and Francesca Schiavone – Chan Yung @-@ jan withdrew from the tournament due to respective injuries to Erakovic and Chan . The doubles draws included five wildcard entries in total .
= = Events = =
= = = Men 's singles = = =
All the seeded players received a bye into the second round . Wildcards Marcos Baghdatis and Lleyton Hewitt were among the players progressing into the second round , while Germans Philipp Kohlschreiber and former World no . 2 Tommy Haas were the major upsets . Most seeded players continued their progress into the third round with eighth seed Fernando Verdasco winning his 200th ATP tour match in his career . Ivo Karlović and David Nalbandian were among the seeded players defeated in second round . Lucky loser Björn Phau was promoted into the third round after his opponent Albert Montañés suffered a hamstring injury during the second set of the match and was forced to withdraw . Frenchman Gaël Monfils took a hard @-@ fought win over 22nd seed and former world number 1 Marat Safin in a third round match played for nearly three hours . Qualifier Taylor Dent continued his successful run by defeating Tommy Robredo in the third round . Czechs Tomáš Berdych and Radek Štěpánek overcame higher seeded players James Blake and Fernando González en route to the fourth round .
Top seed Rafael Nadal faced an uphill battle against Stanislas Wawrinka in the fourth round match , facing a tiebreak in each set and eventually defeating him . Second seed Roger Federer defeated Dent in the fourth round to set up a quarterfinal match with longtime rival Andy Roddick , who overcame Gaël Monfils in a two @-@ set match . Novak Djokovic , Andy Murray , Juan Martín del Potro , Verdasco and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga made it into the quarterfinals . Del Potro defeated Nadal in the three @-@ set quarterfinal match to reach the first ATP Masters semifinal of his career . Del Potro took the final set on a tiebreak after losing the second set . Murray faced Verdasco in the second quarterfinal in a rematch of 2009 Australian Open fourth round . Verdasco suffered an injury in the second game of the match and had to be seen by his physio . He was not in good enough shape to compete with Murray and eventually lost . Federer defeated Roddick while Djokovic moved past Tsonga to advance to the semifinals . Djokovic rallied back to defeat Federer in the first semifinal after losing the first set . The third seed however kept his consistency in the next two sets and won them . Murray edged past del Potro in the second semifinal to enter his second straight Masters final . Murray faltered in the second set of the match conceding two service breaks . However he recovered in the final set , gaining an early break of serve , to win the match .
Djokovic and Murray appeared in their seventh and fourth Masters final and 19th and 17th career finals respectively . Djokovic led the head @-@ to @-@ head tally against Murray , but Murray had won the last two encounters between them . In the match , Murray moved into a 4 – 0 lead in the first set . Djokovic improved his serve from that point but lost the set . A role reversal in the second set saw Djokovic move into a 4 – 1 lead . Murray fought back , however , to level the score to 5 – 5 and won the set to secure the victory . This was Murray 's third title win of the season and eleventh of his career . It was also his third Masters win of the career . Murray credited his improved fitness for his win . Djokovic , who had struggled with excessive heat in the past , struggled once again to assimilate with the temperature . He admitted that he was impatient early in the match , which resulted in him making too many unforced errors .
Final score
Andy Murray defeated Novak Djokovic , 6 – 2 , 7 – 5 .
= = = Women 's singles = = =
All the seeded players received a bye into the second round . Seven seeded players were ousted from the second round including third seed Jelena Janković , who was defeated by Gisela Dulko , and eighth seed Marion Bartoli , who lost to qualifier Anastasiya Yakimova . Second seed Dinara Safina , Vera Zvonareva and Ana Ivanovic were among the nine seeded players who were eliminated in the third round . Three times former champion and fifth seed Venus Williams faced stiff competition from Agnieszka Radwańska in fourth round . Williams lost the first set but prevailed in later sets to win the match . Li Na and Ekaterina Makarova also fought hard for a place in the quarterfinals , with Li coming out strong in the three set match , winning .
Svetlana Kuznetsova beat Caroline Wozniacki in the first of the quarterfinals . Kuznetsova looked good to win the match in straight sets after building a big lead , however Wozniacki fought back to win the second set on a tiebreak . Kuznetsova ultimately won . Victoria Azarenka defeated Samantha Stosur in the second quarterfinal . Williams sisters Serena and Venus set up the second semifinal after defeating Li Na and Iveta Benešová respectively . The Williams sisters had met 19 times before their semifinal meeting , Venus leading the head @-@ to @-@ head tally 10 – 9 . Serena won this time in a closely fought match . Azarenka came on top in the second semifinal defeating Kuznetsova .
Serena and Azarenka met in their careers ' 46th and seventh career finals respectively , with Serena appearing in her third consecutive final at the event , having won on the last two occasions . Azarenka dominated the final match , as Serena was playing while nursing a leg injury . Azarenka won the match , securing third title of her career . Azarenka stated that she was very nervous in the final game of the match and described her win as " the biggest moment in [ her ] career " . Serena mentioned that it was difficult for her to move to the left , but she still played with maximum effort .
Final score
Victoria Azarenka defeated Serena Williams , 6 – 3 , 6 – 1 .
= = = Men 's doubles = = =
Four seeded teams were eliminated in the first round of the event . Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić were the highest ranked team to lose , falling to Nicolás Almagro and David Ferrer , along with third seeds Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles , who lost to French duo Julien Benneteau and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Bennetau and Tsonga continued their progress into the third round defeating Rik de Voest and Bobby Reynolds . They were joined by Julian Knowle and Jürgen Melzer , who triumphed over Almagro and Ferrer . Only two seeded teams , those of Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan and of Bruno Soares and Kevin Ullyett , made it into the quarterfinals , and faced each other in that round . The Bryan brothers , who were the defending champions , overcame Soares and Ullyett in a two @-@ set match . Ashley Fisher and Stephen Huss , Knowle and Melzer and Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram were the other teams who made it into the semifinals .
The Bryan brothers faced Fisher and Huss in the first semifinal and lost , ending their streak of winning 13 consecutive matches . Mirnyi and Ram encountered much harder competition against Knowle and Melzer and saved five match points before winning . In the final , there were no service breaks in the first set , with Fisher and Huss winning it in the tiebreak . Mirnyi and Ram came back strong to win the second set . The match @-@ tiebreak decided the outcome of the final , with Mirnyi and Ram winning the tiebreak and the match . It was Mirnyi 's 36th and Ram 's 16th men 's doubles title of the career and their second title as a team .
Final score
Max Mirnyi / Andy Ram defeated Ashley Fisher / Stephen Huss , 6 – 7 ( 4 – 7 ) , 6 – 2 , [ 10 – 7 ] .
= = = Women 's doubles = = =
Daniela Hantuchová and Ai Sugiyama , who lost to wildcard entrants Petra Martić and Coco Vandeweghe , were the only seeded pair to drop out in the first round . Another wildcard team of Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo defeated the top seeds Cara Black and Liezel Huber in the second round . Eighth seeds Maria Kirilenko and Flavia Pennetta were also eliminated in second round , losing to Chuang Chia @-@ jung and Sania Mirza . Chuang and Mirza continued their march into the semifinal defeating second seeds Anabel Medina Garrigues and Virginia Ruano Pascual . They were joined by Kuznetsova and Mauresmo , Anna @-@ Lena Grönefeld and Patty Schnyder , and Květa Peschke and Lisa Raymond , the only seeded team left in the draw .
Kuznetsova and Mauresmo defeated Grönefeld and Schnyder to enter their third final as a team . Peschke and Raymond overcame Chuang and Mirza to secure the second spot in the final . Kuznetsova and Mauresmo continued their winning streak in the final , defeating Peschke and Raymond . The title was Kuznetsova 's 14th , Mauresmo 's third and their second as a team .
Final score
Svetlana Kuznetsova / Amélie Mauresmo defeated Květa Peschke / Lisa Raymond , 4 – 6 , 6 – 3 , [ 10 – 3 ] .
= = Viewership = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
The tournament was broadcast on television channels worldwide . The British television station Sky Sports held rights to broadcast the tournament from the first round through to the final . Both the men 's and women 's finals were shown on CBS in the United States . The tournament also had around 44 hours of live coverage in the United States . The tournament was broadcast for more than 2000 hours and seen by over 153 million people worldwide .
= = = Attendance = = =
According to the event organisers , 293 @,@ 228 people attended the 22 sessions across the 12 days of the tournament . This was the second highest attendance in the tournament 's history and four sessions were sellouts .
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= Thomas Trueblood =
Thomas Clarkson Trueblood ( April 6 , 1856 – June 5 , 1951 ) was an American professor of elocution and oratory and the first coach of the University of Michigan golf and debate teams . He was affiliated with the University of Michigan for 67 years from 1884 to 1951 , and was a nationally known writer and speaker on oratory and debate . He founded UM 's Department of Elocution and Oratory as well as the campus debate program . He became the subject of national media attention in 1903 when the Chicago Tribune ran an article stating that he was offering a new " course in love making . " His golf teams won two NCAA National Championships and five Big Ten Conference championships . He was posthumously inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 .
= = Professor of Elocution and Oratory = =
Trueblood was a native of Salem , Indiana . He attended Earlham College in Richmond , Indiana and received an A.M. degree . In 1878 , Trueblood and Robert I. Fulton established the Fulton and Trueblood School of Oratory in Kansas City , Missouri , which became " one of the largest and best known institutions of its kind in the United States . " In 1884 , Trueblood came to Ann Arbor as a lecturer on public speaking , intending to give a six @-@ week course . The next year he was invited back . At the time he also was lecturing at Missouri , Kentucky and Ohio Wesleyan , and working out of Fulton and Trueblood School . Michigan asked him to join the faculty , and he stayed for 67 years . In 1892 , he founded the Department of Elocution and Oratory and became its first chairman . Michigan 's Oratory and Elocution Department was the first such unit in any major university or college in the country . He also established the first credit course in speech at any American university . At the turn of the century , speech and oratory played an important role in American society and academia , so much so that Trueblood was the highest paid professor on the University of Michigan faculty , and students were required to take Trueblood 's courses .
In addition , Trueblood organized and coached the competitive debate and oratory contests at Michigan . He established the Northern Oratorical League , and later the Central Debating League , for the purpose of conducting competitive debates among Midwestern Universities , including Michigan , the University of Chicago , Northwestern , Oberlin College , Iowa , and Minnesota . In 1903 , an Iowa newspaper noted : " It was due to his zeal in organization , his success in persuading students to enter the competitive contests , and his skill in drilling them , that has enabled Michigan to take so high a rank in oratory in these league contests , with seven first honors to her credit in ten years , and nine of the twelve victories in debate . "
Trueblood also delivered speeches and gave dramatic readings on tours all over the world . One newspaper noted : " As a reader Prof. Trueblood is well known throughout the west . His readings are taken from the best literature , with special attention to Shakespearean work . It is his plan to give the principal scenes of the play , narrating the unimportant parts , thus providing an entertainment acceptable to those who do not attend the theater . " After a performance of Hamlet in 1908 , an Iowa newspaper wrote : " Prof. Trueblood is a man of remarkable personality . His cuttings of the play were taken from the most dramatic parts , giving a wide range of understanding of all the characters . Not only were the different parts interpreted with extremely keen judgment of the most real kind , but the speaker introduced each division with a brief description and delineation of the men and women who appeared . Prof. Trueblood 's manner of speaking and his diction are acquirements of a very high character and he held the interest of his hearers from beginning to end . "
Trueblood was president of the National Association of Elocutionists when they met in June 1899 for their annual convention at Chautauqua Institute , New York . He brought with him Charles Casper Simons , a law student who coached the debate team for Trueblood . Simons had won first honors in a speech contest with his oration on abolitionist John Brown . Knowing that Southern elocutionists would be in attendance , Trueblood asked Simons to deliver his tribute to Brown at the conference . One account of the conference states : " The introduction was delivered without much reaction ; but when Simons intoned , ' The South had slain the man , but the spirit which animated him was beyond the reach of earthly power , ' the Southerners were distressed . Simons went on to proclaim that John Brown ' taught the South that a new era had begun , that not by persuasion , threat or rant , but by force was slavery to be exterminated . ' The Southern members of the association walked out of the amphitheater in angry protest . "
= = Michigan 's first African @-@ American debate champion = =
In the early 1900s , Michigan 's athletic teams ( and those throughout the country ) were re @-@ segregated . While George Jewett had played for the Michigan football team in 1890 and 1892 , the next African @-@ American to play on the football team was Willis Ward , forty years later in 1932 . During this period of athletic segregation , an African @-@ American , Eugene Joseph Marshall , was permitted to compete in Trueblood 's debate competitions and won the university debate championship in 1903 . The Ann Arbor Argus reported : " For the first time in the history of American universities , a colored man has won his highest honors in oratory in fair and free competition with all comers . The announcement of his victory will be read with pleasure by all who are working for the betterment of the colored race . " Trueblood entertained Marshall at his home and presented him with the Chicago Alumni Medal . Marshall subsequently placed second in the Midwest regional collegiate competition .
= = The Jam Handy incident = =
In May 1903 , Trueblood became the subject of national media attention as a result of a newspaper article written by a 17 @-@ year @-@ old freshman student claiming Trueblood was teaching a new " course in lovemaking . " The student , Jam Handy , was a campus correspondent for the Chicago Tribune . In the class , Trueblood taught " the delivery of short extracts from masterpieces of oratory . " One such extract involved a scene from a play in which a man kneels in front of a woman pleading for her hand . In his 1893 textbook Practical Elements of Elocution , Trueblood used the scene to illustrate the " aspirate explosive " form of speech .
After watching Trueblood act out the kneeling scene , Handy wrote an article that was published on the front page of the Chicago Tribune on May 8 , 1903 , with a headline stating : " Learn Sly Cupid 's Tricks ; Students at Ann Arbor Take Lessons in Love Making . " The article suggested that Trueblood was instructing his male students on romance rather than oratory technique . The next day , the Chicago Record @-@ Herald published a three @-@ panel cartoon of " Professor Foxy Truesport " dreaming up ways to " teach his class how to properly make love . " Newspapers across the country picked up the story . The Daily Northwestern wrote : " Professor Trueblood of Michigan University has inaugurated a course in love making , his motive being to stimulate interest in his classes . The oratorical students are compelled to kneel and make fervid declarations to lady students . " The Newark Advocate 's headline read : " Lovemaking Lessons : Novel Course In the University of Michigan ; Sly Cupid 's Tricks Taught . " The Salt Lake Tribune reported :
" Lessons in Lovemaking . The University of Michigan has added a new course to the curriculum , one that may best be styled a course in love making . Prof. Trueblood is the inventor of the novel scheme , and his course , which has been hitherto shunned as one of the toughest at the university , now seems likely to become the most popular on campus ... Early this week he hit upon the successful plan , and now the many visitors who attend his classes are spectators of thrilling love scenes . Fifty times a day Prof. Trueblood is forced to kneel to some maiden and show his pupils the right way to declare their devotion to their sweethearts ... Each budding orator takes his place before a blushing maid , and no matter how smoothly the pair may have progressed in private the professor finds some fault with the public demonstration . ' No , kneel on both knees — now hold her hand , it impresses her more @-@ so , ' and the old professor again kneels and goes through it all over again . "
On May 12 , the Chicago Tribune ran a photograph of Trueblood with the caption : " Trueblood has nearly worn out his trousers at the knees , showing young men how to kneel , and has strained his voice and eyes in efforts to show his pupils how to throw fire and passion into their appeals . "
The story was an embarrassment for Trueblood and the university . In his memoirs , Handy recalled being summoned to Trueblood 's office : " His desk was piled high with letters ... and clippings ... from around the country ... and he also had a copy of the McCutcheon cartoon . ( He ) was taking all of this as ridicule , although I had publicized the story with sincere enthusiasm for a new advance in education of which I felt the University of Michigan should be proud . " The faculty voted unanimously to suspend Handy for a year for " publishing false and injurious statements affecting the character of the work of one of the Professors . " In addition to the suspension , Handy was charged as a " faker " in the press :
Henry J. Handy , the student @-@ correspondent at the University of Michigan who sent a sensational story to the Chicago newspapers , relating how Professor Thomas C. Trueblood had a class in love @-@ making , has been suspended for one year and the story has been branded as a ' fake . ' Handy based the story on an incident that occurred during the rehearsal of a drama , when Professor Trueblood showed one of the students how to kneel to propose .
Shortly after the incident , Trueblood left for a trip giving dramatic readings on the West Coast . Handy went on to become a successful public relations man .
= = Golf coach = =
Trueblood was the faculty tennis champion , but at age 40 his doctor told him to give up the game because it was too strenuous . He took up golf , and enjoyed success in that sport , too . " I took it up in August and in October I won the Ann Arbor Golf Club championship , " he said . In 1901 , Trueblood organized the first Michigan golf team . On October 24 – 25 , 1902 , Michigan defeated the University of Chicago 16 @-@ 12 in " the first intercollegiate golf match held in the West . "
In 1921 , golf became a varsity sport , and Trueblood was the school 's first official coach . In 1926 , Trueblood retired as a professor emeritus at age 70 . At that time , he turned his attention full @-@ time to coaching . His coaching record at Michigan was 71 @-@ 9 @-@ 2 . During his 15 official seasons as golf coach , his teams won two NCAA National Championships ( 1934 @-@ 1935 ) and five Big Ten Conference championships ( 1932 @-@ 1936 ) , and were Big Ten runners @-@ up eight times . He coached two NCAA individual champions , John Fischer ( 1932 ) and Chuck Kocsis ( 1936 ) . Trueblood continued as golf coach until he was 80 , when athletic director Fielding H. Yost named him emeritus coach .
In 1932 , Chuck Kocsis ( the first golfer inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor ) , enrolled at the university . When a promised alumni pledge to pay his expenses fell through , Trueblood agreed to make a loan ( at five percent interest ) so Kocsis could pay his tuition . The Wolverines with Kocsis won the NCAA championship twice . Kocsis recalled that the team often traveled to tournaments in Trueblood 's car . " Professor Trueblood had a seven @-@ passenger Buick , " Kocsis said . " He designated me as the chauffeur . So if we had a golf match , we 'd all get into the car and go to Chicago , or go to Ohio , wherever we were going to play . " Another teammate recalled the trips in Trueblood 's car : " It wasn 't a very big Buick , as I recall . We rode with six guys . Chuck used to do most of the driving . I remember that trip down to Washington ( for the 1935 national championship at Congressional , which Michigan won ) . We started in the morning and drove all the way down there . Professor Trueblood was a big guy , too . " Trueblood took the team on a side trip to Mount Vernon , where one of the players accidentally bumped the shifter into gear and hit the accelerator as he exited Trueblood 's car . The car lurched forward ; the open door hit something and was torn off its hinges .
Ralph M. Cole , a member of the golf team of 1926 @-@ 1928 , later wrote of a humorous incident involving the septuagenarian Coach Trueblood . Cole recalled : " As golf coach he could add very little about the mechanics of the game . But he added one piece of advice which was very helpful when followed , and which he drilled into us at every practice session . It was : ' Up and out in two , boys . ' As any golfer would know , it meant , when hitting a short approach shot , get it close enough to the pin to make the next putt . Now for the humorous part of that admonition . We had played Purdue in Lafayette on a Thursday and were to play Illinois on Friday . The Professor was to call us at 4 : 30 a.m. to catch a 5 : 30 train for Urbana . Well , he got confused on our room number and awakened a man who called the front desk and told the night clerk that there must be some nut calling at 4 : 30 a.m. and shouting , ' Up and out in two boys ! ' We did make the train , anyway . "
A.H. Jolly , Jr . , captain of the 1933 golf team , noted : " Truby , as he was referred to when out of earshot , was still a most active and attentive coach . But the only club or clubs I recall seeing him handle in those days , was a Left @-@ Handed Putter ! "
= = Death and honors = =
Trueblood died in Bradenton , Florida in 1951 at age 95 . At the time , the Associated Press noted : " He pioneered the teaching of speech in the nation 's colleges during his 42 years on the University of Michigan faculty . " His brother , Professor Edwin P. Trueblood , also a speech professor at Earlham College , died earlier the same year . Thomas Trueblood 's obituary reported that he " devised the famous college cheer ' The Locomotive . ' " He devised the University 's famous " locomotive " cheer in 1903 while returning to Ann Arbor on a train from a Big Ten football game . However , other sources indicate that the locomotive cheer began at Princeton in the 1890s .
Trueblood 's papers are at the Bentley Historical Library in Ann Arbor . Trueblood has been the subject of two articles by Linda Robinson Walker in the University of Michigan alumni publication Michigan Today . Much of the factual information in this article is distilled from Walker 's articles .
In 1921 , students of Professor Trueblood honored him by establishing the Trueblood Fund . Today , the Trueblood Fellowship is open to students majoring in Screen Arts & Cultures . In 1981 , Trueblood was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor as part of the fourth induction class . The Trueblood Theater was located in the Henry S. Frieze Building at the University of Michigan School of Music , Theater and Dance and named in Trueblood 's honor . The Trueblood Theater closed its doors in 2006 when the Frieze Building was razed to make room for the North Quad Residential and Academic Complex .
A portrait of Trueblood painted in 1920 by Merton Grenhagen was originally hung first in Alumni Hall ( now the Museum of Art ) and then in the Theater Library in the Frieze Building . In 1998 , the Trueblood portrait was hung at the University of Michigan Golf Course . At the time of the installation , the University Record noted : " Known as ' Chief ' to his teaching associates and ' Trueby ' to his students , Thomas C. Trueblood now resides among U @-@ M 's golf history . "
= = Books by Trueblood = =
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , " Choice Readings From Standard and Popular Authors " ( Ginn and Company 1890 )
Thomas C. Trueblood and Robert I. Fulton , " Practical Elements of Elocution : Designed as a Text @-@ Book for the Guidance of Teachers and Students of Expression " ( Ginn & Company Publishers / The Anthenaeum Press 1893 )
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , " Patriotic Eloquence Relating to the Spanish @-@ American War and Its Issues " ( Charles Scribner 's Sons 1900 )
Robert I. Fulton , Thomas C. Trueblood , and Edwin P. Trueblood , " Standard Selections " ( Ginn & Company 1907 )
Thomas C. Trueblood , William G. Caskey , and Henry E. Gordon , " Winning Speeches in the Contests of the Northern Oratorical League " ( American Book Company 1909 )
Robert I. Fulton , Thomas C. Trueblood , " Essentials of Public Speaking for Secondary Schools " ( Ginn & Company 1910 )
Robert Irving Fulton and Thomas Clarkson Trueblood , " British and American Eloquence " ( Ginn and Company 1912 )
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood , " Choice Readings from Standard and Popular Authors Embracing a Complete Classification of Selections , a Comprehensive Diagram of the Principles of Vocal Expression , and Indexes to the Choicest Readings from Shakespeare , The Bible , and Hymn @-@ Books " ( Ginn & Company 1912 )
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= The Red and the Black ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Red and the Black " is the fourteenth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , directed by Carter and aired in the United States on March 8 , 1998 on the Fox network . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 0 , being watched by 19 @.@ 98 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received moderately positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder has Scully put under hypnosis to learn the truth about her abduction after Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) goes missing and her son Jeffrey ( Chris Owens ) angrily attempts to push his way up in the FBI . The Syndicate , meanwhile , quicken their tests for the black oil vaccine , sacrificing their own to do so .
" The Red and the Black " continues from the previous episode , " Patient X " and features the return of Mulder 's belief in extraterrestrials , a belief he initially lost in the season opener " Redux " . Director Rob Bowman was originally slated to direct the episode , but filming issues resulted in Carter directing it . Carter later described the episode , along with " Patient X " , as being " the most challenging and logically complex projects of the season . "
= = Plot = =
In the mountain wilderness of Canada , someone in a cabin writes a letter , addressed to " Son " and expresses hopes that they may reconcile . The envelope is addressed to the FBI , and is given to a boy courier for mailing .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) arrives at the Ruskin Dam and finds a number of burned corpses , including those belonging to Quiet Willy and Dmitri . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is found with only minor burns , one of approximately fifty survivors who were found nearby in the woods . Jeffrey Spender arrives looking for his mother , Cassandra ( Veronica Cartwright ) , who is missing . Mulder meets with Scully about the incident , but she does not remember anything . Jeffrey sees Mulder and warns him not to get involved with his mother , who remains missing .
The Well @-@ Manicured Man ( John Neville ) and other Syndicate Elders watch as their black oil vaccine is administered to Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , which has yet to work . Later , The Well @-@ Manicured Man meets with Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , who is being held captive aboard a Russian freighter . The Well @-@ Manicured Man believes that the Russians possess a functional vaccine to the black oil , or else Krycek would not have infected the boy . With a working vaccine , resistance to the alien Colonists is possible .
A spacecraft crashes at Wiekamp Air Force base in West Virginia , and the surviving Rebel passenger is captured by the military . Mulder shows Scully more photos of the victims and , having found more implants in them , believes the implant in Scully may be able to answer all of their questions . The Syndicate meets over the capture of the Rebel . The Well @-@ Manicured Man wants to align with the Rebels , but the other Syndicate members are reluctant and want to make sure the Russian vaccine from Krycek works .
Under hypnosis , Scully recalls the Rebels burning her fellow abductees , and recalls a Colonist spacecraft killing the Rebels and abducting Cassandra . During a meeting with Walter Skinner , Mulder continues to insist that the events have been orchestrated by the military and not by aliens . Meanwhile , the Russian vaccine seems to have no effect on Marita . The First Elder tells the Well @-@ Manicured Man that they have already decided to turn the Rebel over to the Colonists . Jeffrey shows Scully a video of him talking about aliens while under hypnosis while he was a child , claiming his mother had forced him to make those statements .
Krycek is released and attacks Mulder in his apartment . He claims that a war is raging between the aliens and that the Rebel immolations are meant to halt the impending colonization of Earth . He also claims that the captured Rebel is critical to their plans and must not die . Mulder and Scully head to Wiekamp Air Force Base , where the Alien Bounty Hunter — who is disguised as Quiet Willy — has come to kill the Rebel . However , Mulder witnesses a second Rebel arriving to seemingly kill the Bounty Hunter and rescue the captured Rebel . The Well @-@ Manicured Man watches as the Russian vaccine is revealed to have been successful on Marita . Mulder is released by the military but is confused by what he saw . At FBI Headquarters , Spender receives the letter from Canada . In Canada we see the boy return the unopened letter to the cabin and the sender is revealed to be The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Series creator Chris Carter explained that the cast listing for the episode , along with " Patient X " was " longer than most cast lists you 'll ever see on a TV series " . In order to allow for the increased expenses of hiring additional actors , Carter and the producers of the series talked Fox into allowing the episodes to be slightly more expensive because they would lead into the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released X @-@ Files movie . Carter explained , " we convinced them to spend the extra money to do this extra special work because it was all leading up to [ ... ] when the X @-@ Files movie would be released . " In addition , the child he gave the message to was a young boy and the son of production manager J.P. Finn . Rob Bowman originally intended to direct the episode but , due to reshoots , he was unable to do it , resulting in Carter directing . Bowman later recounted , " I was supposed to direct ' The Red and the Black ' [ … ] but we were prepping for the reshoots [ of The X @-@ Files movie ] so I couldn 't do it . [ … ] Chris had to direct this episode . He was so mad at me . " When filming the scene where Mulder and Scully go to a medic station , Carter made homage to the medical drama ER , filming it entirely with a Steadicam .
The opening scene was filmed at Grouse Mountain , above the city of Vancouver , Canada . Most of the scenes at the Ruskin Dam were shot approximately 50 miles east of Vancouver , while the abduction sequence involved a full @-@ scale replica of the dam . The various scenes with the Syndicate testing the black oil vaccine on Marita Covarrubias were filmed at an abandoned hospital in Vancouver . Carter commented that they chose it because it had " an interesting observation space above it that we used " , which was difficult to shoot in .
= = = Effects = = =
" The Red and the Black " was a technically difficult episode , which Carter later described , along with " Patient X " , as " the most challenging and logically complex projects of the season . " The scene where Cassandra Spender was elevated into the colonist craft was shot by having a stuntwoman sit in Cassandra 's wheelchair and be lifted upward via a crane , which was removed from the shot during post @-@ production . The lights of the alien spacecraft were shot using a lighting rig combined with computer effects by Special Effects Supervisor Laurie Kalisen @-@ George . The crashed alien spacecraft was sixty feet in diameter , twice the length of any other spaceship seen before on the show , and dragged along the ground to create a skidmark . Twenty @-@ five explosions were set off to simulate the saucer crash ; the remains of the wreckage were then burned to create the rest of the footage . The scene took an entire night to film .
The opening scene featuring the alien rebels incinerating a group of Russian alien abductees was filmed without actual Russian cars . Picture car coordination Bigel Habgood noted , " I couldn 't get real Russian cars , so I decided to get creative and go seriously European . We burned a couple Saabs , and a BMW 2002 . I 'm sorry we couldn 't get any Yugos . " For the scene after the intro wherein Mulder discovers the charred remains of abductees , the prop and the production design departments had to create specialized fake bodies . Carter later noted that it 's " harder than it looks to create a charred , dead body . " The stage for the alien abduction scene was built from scratch : construction supervisor Rob Maier was tasked with creating a full @-@ scale replica of the Ruskin Dam bridge in order to ease up the shots . The tagline for this episode is " Resist or Serve " . The tagline was later used for The X @-@ Files game , The X @-@ Files : Resist or Serve as well as the official book covering the fifth season of the show . The list of victims viewed by Scully in her hospital room was made up of X @-@ Files staffers .
= = Reception = =
" The Red and the Black " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 8 , 1998 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 19 @.@ 98 million viewers . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . The A.V. Club reviewer Zack Handlen gave " The Red and the Black " an A – , and wrote positively of the " galactic war " between the colonists and the rebels that is referenced in the episode , noting that it marked the point where " shit is about to get real " . Despite this , Handlen criticized the series for not following through on its tale of alien war , noting that the premise " never really [ took off ] --at least [ … ] I 've never heard anyone refer to [ the last seasons of the show ] as ' the seasons when the The X @-@ Files mythology finally paid off . ' " Handlen , however noted that " The Red and the Black " worked because " the performances are great as always , and because the second part of this two parter rarely feels bogged down or draggy . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two called the episode a " typical mythology runaround " and noted that the plot was " complicated but the simpler scenes of confrontation are very well handled . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Vitaris praised the episode 's premise and wrote that it represented " a second half of a two @-@ parter that is as strong as the first half . "
A variety of critics praised the hypnotism scene . Robert Shearman called the scene " gorgeous " and praised Gillian Anderson 's acting abilities . Paula Vitaris was extremely impressed with the scene 's blocking , calling the rendition " virtually orgasmic in intensity " and concluded that " Anderson is marvelous " .
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= Port Authority of New York and New Jersey =
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey ( PANYNJ ) is a joint venture between the U.S. states of New York and New Jersey , established in 1921 through an interstate compact authorized by the United States Congress . The Port Authority oversees much of the regional transportation infrastructure , including bridges , tunnels , airports , and seaports , within the geographical jurisdiction of the Port of New York and New Jersey . This 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km ² ) port district is generally encompassed within a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument . The Port Authority is headquartered at 4 World Trade Center .
The Port Authority operates the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal , which handled the third @-@ largest volume of shipping among all ports in the United States in 2004 and the largest on the Eastern Seaboard . The Port Authority also operates Hudson River crossings , including the Holland Tunnel , Lincoln Tunnel , and George Washington Bridge connecting New Jersey with Manhattan , and three crossings that connect New Jersey with Staten Island . The Port Authority Bus Terminal and the PATH rail system are also run by the Port Authority , as well as LaGuardia Airport , John F. Kennedy International Airport , Newark Liberty International Airport , Teterboro Airport , Stewart International Airport and Atlantic City International Airport . The agency has its own 1 @,@ 600 @-@ member Port Authority Police Department .
Although the Port Authority manages much of the transportation infrastructure in the area , most bridges , tunnels , and other transportation facilities are not included . The New York City Department of Transportation is responsible for the Staten Island Ferry and for the majority of bridges in the city . The Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority is responsible for other bridges and tunnels in the area . New York City Transit Authority buses and subways , Metro North and Long Island Rail Road ( all four are divisions of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority ) , and buses , commuter rail , and light rail operated by NJ Transit are also independent of PANYNJ .
It is a member of REBNY .
= = History = =
The Port of New York and New Jersey comprised the main point of embarkation for U.S. troops and supplies sent to Europe during World War I , via the New York Port of Embarkation . The congestion at the port led experts to realize the need for a port authority to supervise the extremely complex system of bridges , highways , subways , and port facilities in the New York @-@ New Jersey area . The solution was the 1921 creation of the Port Authority under the supervision of the governors of the two states . By issuing its own bonds , it was financially independent of either state ; the bonds were paid off from tolls and fees , not from taxes . It became one of the major agencies of the metropolitan area for large @-@ scale projects .
= = = Previous disputes = = =
In the early years of the 20th century , there were disputes between the states of New Jersey and New York over rail freights and boundaries . At the time , rail lines terminated on the New Jersey side of the harbor , while ocean shipping was centered on Manhattan and Brooklyn . Freight had to be shipped across the Hudson River in barges . In 1916 , New Jersey launched a lawsuit against New York over issues of rail freight , with the Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) issuing an order that the two states work together , subordinating their own interests to the public interest . The Harbor Development Commission , a joint advisory board set @-@ up in 1917 , recommended that a bi @-@ state authority be established to oversee efficient economic development of the port district . The Port of New York Authority was established on April 30 , 1921 , through an interstate compact between the states of New Jersey and New York . This was the first such agency in the United States , created under a provision in the Constitution of the United States permitting interstate compacts . The idea for the Port Authority was conceived during the Progressive Era , which aimed at the reduction of political corruption and at increasing the efficiency of government . With the Port Authority at a distance from political pressures , it was able to carry longer @-@ term infrastructure projects irrespective of the election cycles and in a more efficient manner . In 1972 it was renamed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to better reflect its status as a partnership between the two states .
Throughout its history , there have been concerns about democratic accountability , or lack thereof at the Port Authority . The Port District is irregularly shaped but comprises a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) area roughly within a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) radius of the Statue of Liberty .
= = = Interstate crossings = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , there were no road bridge or tunnel crossings between the two states . The initial tunnel crossings were completed privately by the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in 1908 and 1909 ( " Hudson Tubes " ) , followed by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1910 ( " North River Tunnels " ) . Under an independent agency , the Holland Tunnel was opened in 1927 , with some planning and construction pre @-@ dating the Port Authority . With the rise in automobile traffic , there was demand for more Hudson River crossings . Using its ability to issue bonds and collect revenue , the Port Authority has built and managed major infrastructure projects . Early projects included bridges across the Arthur Kill , which separates Staten Island from New Jersey . The Goethals Bridge , named after chief engineer of the Panama Canal Commission General George Washington Goethals , connected Elizabeth , New Jersey and Howland Hook , Staten Island . At the south end of Arthur Kill , the Outerbridge Crossing was built and named after the Port Authority 's first chairman , Eugenius Harvey Outerbridge . Construction of both bridges was completed in 1928 . The Bayonne Bridge , opened in 1931 , was built across the Kill van Kull , connecting Staten Island with Bayonne , New Jersey .
Construction began in 1927 on the George Washington Bridge , linking the northern part of Manhattan with Fort Lee , New Jersey , with Port Authority chief engineer , Othmar Ammann , overseeing the project . The bridge was completed in October 1931 , ahead of schedule and well under the estimated costs . This efficiency exhibited by the Port Authority impressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who used this as a model in creating the Tennessee Valley Authority and other such entities .
In 1930 , the Holland Tunnel was placed under control of the Port Authority , providing significant toll revenues . During the late 1930s and early 1940s , the Lincoln Tunnel was built , connecting New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan .
In 1962 , the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad was absorbed by the Port Authority , the Hudson Tubes restyled PATH ( Port Authority Trans @-@ Hudson ) and Hudson & Manhattan Railroad ( Hudson Terminal ) razed for the future World Trade Center .
= = = Austin J. Tobin era = = =
= = = = Airports = = = =
In 1942 , Austin J. Tobin became the Executive Director of the Port Authority . In the post @-@ World War II period , the Port Authority expanded its operations to include airports , and marine terminals , with projects including Newark Liberty International Airport and Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminals . Meanwhile , the city @-@ owned La Guardia Field was nearing capacity in 1939 , and needed expensive upgrades and expansion . At the time , airports were operated as loss leaders , and the city was having difficulties maintaining the status quo , losing money and unable to undertake needed expansions . The city was looking to hand the airports over to a public authority , possibly to Robert Moses ' Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority . After long negotiations with the City of New York , a 50 @-@ year lease , commencing on May 31 , 1947 , went to the Port Authority of New York to rehabilitate , develop , and operate La Guardia Airport ( La Guardia Field ) , John F. Kennedy International Airport ( Idlewild Airport ) , and Floyd Bennett Field . The Port Authority transformed the airports into fee @-@ generating facilities , adding stores and restaurants .
= = = = World Trade Center = = = =
David Rockefeller , president of Chase Manhattan Bank , who envisioned a World Trade Center for lower Manhattan , realizing he needed public funding in order to construct the massive project , approached Tobin . Although many questioned the Port Authority 's entry into the real estate market , Tobin saw the project as a way to enhance the agency 's power and prestige , and agreed to the project . The Port Authority was the overseer of the World Trade Center , hiring the architect Minoru Yamasaki and engineer Leslie Robertson .
Yamasaki ultimately settled on the idea of twin towers . To meet the Port Authority 's requirement to build 10 million square feet ( 930 @,@ 000 m ² ) of office space , the towers would each be 110 @-@ stories tall . The size of the project raised ire from the owner of the Empire State Building , which would lose its title of tallest building in the world . Other critics objected to the idea of this much " subsidized " office space going on the open market , competing with the private sector . Others questioned the cost of the project , which in 1966 had risen to $ 575 million . Final negotiations between The City of New York and the Port Authority centered on tax issues . A final agreement was made that the Port Authority would make annual payments in lieu of taxes , for the 40 % of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants . The remaining space was to be occupied by state and federal government agencies . In 1962 , the Port Authority signed the United States Customs Service as a tenant , and in 1964 they inked a deal with the State of New York to locate government offices at the World Trade Center .
In August 1968 , construction on the World Trade Center 's north tower started , with construction on the south tower beginning in January 1969 . When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed , the total cost to the Port Authority had reached $ 900 million . The buildings were dedicated on April 4 , 1973 , with Tobin , who had retired the year before , absent from the ceremonies .
In 1986 , Port Authority sold rights to the World Trade Center name for $ 10 to an organization run by an outgoing executive , Guy F. Tozzoli . He in turn made millions of dollars selling the use of the name in up to 28 different states .
= = = September 11 attacks = = =
The terrorist attacks of September 11 , 2001 , and the subsequent collapse of the World Trade Center buildings impacted the Port Authority . With the Port Authority 's headquarters located in 1 World Trade Center , it became deprived of a base of operations and sustained a great number of casualties . An estimated 1 @,@ 400 Port Authority employees worked in the World Trade Center . Eighty @-@ four employees , including 37 Port Authority police officers , its Executive Director , Neil D. Levin , and police superintendent , Fred V. Morrone , died . In rescue efforts following the collapse , two Port Authority police officers , John McLoughlin and Will Jimeno , were pulled out alive after spending nearly 24 hours beneath 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) of rubble . Their rescue was later portrayed in the Oliver Stone film World Trade Center .
= = = Fort Lee lane closure scandal = = =
The Fort Lee lane closure scandal was a U.S. political scandal that concerns New Jersey Governor Chris Christie 's staff and his Port Authority political appointees conspiring to create a traffic jam in Fort Lee , New Jersey as political retribution , and their attempts to cover up these actions and suppress internal and public disclosures . Dedicated toll lanes for one of the Fort Lee entrances ( used by local traffic from Fort Lee and surrounding communities ) to the upper level on the George Washington Bridge , which connects to Manhattan , were reduced from three to one from September 9 – 13 , 2013 . The toll lane closures caused massive Fort Lee traffic back @-@ ups , which affected public safety due to extensive delays by police and emergency service providers and disrupted schools due to the delayed arrivals of students and teachers . Two Port Authority officials ( who were appointed by Christie and would later resign ) claimed that reallocating two of the toll lanes from the local Fort Lee entrance to the major highways was due to a traffic study evaluating " traffic safety patterns " at the bridge , but the Executive Director of the Port Authority was unaware of a traffic study .
As of March 2014 , the repercussions and controversy surrounding these actions continue to be under investigation by the Port Authority , federal prosecutors , and a New Jersey legislature committee . The Port Authority 's chairman , David Samson , who was appointed by Governor Christie , resigned on March 28 , 2014 amid allegations of his involvement in the scandal and other controversies .
= = Governance = =
The Port Authority is jointly controlled by the governors of New York and New Jersey , who appoint the members of the agency 's Board of Commissioners and retain the right to veto the actions of the Commissioners from his or her own state . Each governor appoints six members to the Board of Commissioners , who are subject to state senate confirmation and serve overlapping six @-@ year terms without pay . An Executive Director is appointed by the Board of Commissioners to deal with day @-@ to @-@ day operations and to execute the Port Authority 's policies . Under an informal power @-@ sharing agreement , the Governor of New Jersey chooses the chairman of the board and the deputy executive director , while the Governor of New York selects the vice @-@ chairman and Executive Director .
As of March 2014 , the appointed commissioners are as follows :
Meetings of the Board of Commissioners are public . Members of the public may address the Board at these meetings , subject to a prior registration process via email . Public records of the Port Authority may be requested via the Office of the Secretary according to an internal Freedom of Information policy which is intended to be consistent with and similar to the state Freedom of Information policies of both New York and New Jersey .
Members of the Board of Commissioners are typically business titans and political power brokers who maintain close relationships with their respective Governors . On February 3 , 2011 , Former New Jersey Attorney General David Samson was named new chairman of the Port Authority .
Financially , the Port Authority has no power to tax and does not receive tax money from any local or state governments . Instead , it operates on the revenues it makes from its rents , tolls , fees , and facilities .
Patrick J. Foye became Executive Director on November 1 , 2011 . Prior to joining the Port Authority , he served as Deputy Secretary for Economic Development for Governor Andrew M. Cuomo .
= = = List of Executive Directors = = =
John E. Ramsey ( CEO 1926 – 1930 , General Manager 1930 – 1942 )
Austin J. Tobin ( 1942 – 1972 )
Matthias Lukens ( acting , 1972 – 1973 )
A. Gerdes Kuhbach ( 1973 – 1977 ; acting 1973 – August 1974 )
Peter C. Goldmark , Jr . ( 1977 – 1985 )
Patrick J. Falvey ( acting , 1985 )
Stephen Berger ( 1986 – 1990 )
Stanley Brezenoff ( 1990 – 1995 )
George Marlin ( 1995 – 1997 )
Robert E. Boyle ( 1997 – 2001 )
Neil D. Levin ( March 2001 – Sep 11 , 2001 )
Joseph J. Seymour ( 2002 – 2004 )
Kenneth J. Ringler , Jr . ( 2004 – 2006 )
Anthony Shorris ( 2006 – 2008 )
Christopher O. Ward ( 2008 – 2011 )
Patrick J. Foye ( 2011 – Present )
= = Facilities = =
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey manages and maintains infrastructure critical to the New York / New Jersey region ’ s trade and transportation network — five of the region ’ s airports , the New York / New Jersey seaport , the PATH rail transit system , six tunnels and bridges between New York and New Jersey , the Port Authority Bus Terminal and George Washington Bridge Bus Station in Manhattan and The World Trade Center site .
= = = Seaports = = =
The Port of New York and New Jersey is the largest port complex on the East Coast of North America and is located at the hub of the most concentrated and affluent consumer market in the world , with immediate access to the most extensive interstate highway and rail networks in the region . In addition , The Port Authority directly oversees the operation of seven cargo terminals in the New York – New Jersey region . Each terminal offers comprehensive shipping services , rail and trucking services .
The Port Authority operates the following seaports :
Port Jersey Marine Terminal in Bayonne and Jersey City
Brooklyn Port Authority Marine Terminal comprising the Brooklyn Piers and Red Hook Container Terminal in Red Hook , Brooklyn
Howland Hook Marine Terminal on Staten Island .
Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal in Newark and Elizabeth .
The Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the first in the nation to containerize , As of 2004 , Port Authority seaports handle the third largest amount of shipping of all U.S. ports , as measured in tonnage .
ExpressRail is a rail network supporting intermodal freight transport at the major container terminals including dockside trackage and railyards for transloading . Various switching and terminal railroads , including the Conrail Shared Assets Operations ( CRCX ) on the Chemical Coast Secondary , connect to the East Coast rail freight network carriers Norfolk Southern ( NS ) , CSX Transportation ( CSX ) , and Canadian Pacific ( CP ) . From January through October 2014 the system handled 391 @,@ 596 rail lifts . As of 2014 , three ExpressRail systems ( Elizabeth , Newark , Staten Island ) were in operation with the construction of a fourth at Port Jersey underway .
New York New Jersey Rail , LLC ( NYNJ ) is a switching and terminal railroad operates a car float operation across Upper New York Bay between the Greenville Yard in Jersey City and Brooklyn .
= = = Airports = = =
The Port Authority operates the following airports :
Atlantic City International Airport , ( Egg Harbor Township , New Jersey ) ( performs select management duties )
John F. Kennedy International Airport ( Queens , New York )
LaGuardia Airport ( Queens , New York )
Newark Liberty International Airport ( Newark and Elizabeth , New Jersey )
Stewart International Airport , ( Newburgh , New York )
Teterboro Airport ( Teterboro , New Jersey )
Both Kennedy and LaGuardia airports are owned by the City of New York and leased to the Port Authority for operating purposes . Newark Liberty is owned by the City of Newark and also leased to the Authority . In 2007 , Stewart International Airport , owned by the State of New York , was leased to the Port Authority . The Port Authority officially took over select management functions of the Atlantic City International Airport on July 1 , 2013 , in conjunction with the South Jersey Transportation Authority , which leases the airport site from the FAA .
JFK , LaGuardia , and Newark Liberty as a whole form the largest airport system in the United States , second in the world in terms of passenger traffic , and first in the world by total flight operations , with JFK being the 19th busiest in the world and the 6th busiest in the US . Unfortunately , the three airports also share the dubious distinction of being consistently rated as some of the worst in the US and even the world . Frommer 's recently picked JFK 's Terminal 3 as the worst airport terminal in the world .
= = = Heliports = = =
The Authority operates the Downtown Manhattan Heliport ( Manhattan , New York ) .
= = = Bridges and tunnels = = =
Other facilities managed by the Port Authority include the George Washington Bridge , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the Holland Tunnel , which all connect Manhattan and Northern New Jersey ; the Goethals Bridge , the Bayonne Bridge , and the Outerbridge Crossing which connect Staten Island and New Jersey .
= = = Bus and rail transit = = =
The Port Authority operates the PATH rapid transit system linking lower and midtown Manhattan with New Jersey , the AirTrain Newark system linking Newark International Airport with NJ Transit and Amtrak via a station on the Northeast Corridor rail line , and the AirTrain JFK system linking JFK with Howard Beach ( subway ) and Jamaica ( subway and Long Island Rail Road ) .
Major bus depots include the Port Authority Bus Terminal at 42nd Street , the George Washington Bridge Bus Station , and the Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City .
= = = Real estate = = =
The Port Authority also participates in joint development ventures around the region , including the Teleport business park on Staten Island , Bathgate Industrial Park in the Bronx , the Essex County Resource Recovery Facility , Newark Legal Center , Queens West in Queens , and the South Waterfront in Hoboken . However , by April 2015 , the agency was considering divesting itself of the properties to raise run and return to core mission of supporting transportation infrastructure .
= = = Current and future projects = = =
Major projects by the Port Authority include the One World Trade Center and other construction at the World Trade Center site . Other projects include a new passenger terminal at JFK International Airport , and redevelopment of Newark Liberty International Airport 's Terminal B , and replacement of the Goethals Bridge . The Port Authority also has plans to buy 340 new PATH cars and begin major expansion of Stewart International Airport .
As owner of the World Trade Center site , the Port Authority has worked since 2001 on plans for reconstruction of the site , along with Silverstein Properties , and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation . In 2006 , the Port Authority reached a deal with Larry Silverstein , which ceded control of One World Trade Center to the Port Authority . The deal gave Silverstein rights to build three towers along the eastern side of the site , including 150 Greenwich Street , 175 Greenwich Street , and 200 Greenwich Street . Also part of the plans is the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , which will replace the temporary PATH station that opened in November 2003 .
= = Law enforcement = =
The Port Authority has its own police department . The department currently employs approximately 1 @,@ 700 police officers and supervisors who have full police status in New York and New Jersey .
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= Flesh and Stone =
" Flesh and Stone " is the fifth episode of the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who . Written by showrunner Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith , the episode was first broadcast on 1 May 2010 on BBC One . It is the conclusion of a two @-@ episode story that began with " The Time of Angels " that features the Weeping Angels as primary villains and sees the return of the character River Song ( Alex Kingston ) .
Following the cliffhanger of the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) , his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) , River Song , and Father Octavian ( Iain Glen ) and his militarised clerics have escaped entrapment by the Weeping Angels , creatures who only move when unobserved by others . They take refuge inside the crashed starship Byzantium , but the Angels pursue them and Amy is on the brink of dying from the imprint of an Angel in her eye . Both the Angels and the Doctor 's team face danger from a widening crack in space and time which has the power to erase persons from history .
Moffat wrote the two @-@ part story as a more action @-@ packed sequel to his 2007 episode " Blink " , inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens . The episode contains vital information concerning the main story arc of the cracks in time , and contains many instances which are character @-@ motivated . " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " were the first two episodes to be filmed ; filming for " Flesh and Stone " took place in late July , with location filming in Puzzlewood and Southerndown beach . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 495 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received mostly positive reviews from critics , though many commented that it did not live up to the quality to the first part and disagreed about the decision to show the Angels moving . Additionally , a scene in which Amy attempts to seduce the Doctor generated some complaints to the BBC .
= = Plot = =
Continuing from the cliffhanger of the previous episode , the destruction of the gravity globe allows the Doctor , Amy , Dr. River Song , and Father Octavian and his clerics to jump into the localised gravity well of the starship Byzantium and escape the horde of approaching Weeping Angels . The Angels follow them into the ship and the Doctor directs everyone into the ship 's oxygen factory , a forest contained within the starship . While in the secondary control room , the Doctor observes a familiar crack in the wall and realizes that it is the same one from Amy 's bedroom ( " The Eleventh Hour " ) . He determines that it is leaking time energy from which the Angels are attempting to feed .
In the forest , the Doctor and River find Amy struggling with an image of an Angel imprinted in her brain . Amy has been counting down backwards and is close to being killed by the Angel when The Doctor instructs her to keep her eyes closed to starve the angel . With Amy unable to move , The Doctor , River and Octavian attempt to reach the primary control room on the other side of the forest . River and Octavian reveal to the Doctor that she is a prisoner in Octavian 's custody , with a pardon promised should she help them complete their mission . Octavian is captured and killed by an Angel as the Doctor and River enter the control room . As Amy and the clerics wait for rescue , the crack in the secondary control room opens further and the Angels move away from it . When some of the clerics approach it to investigate , they disappear completely ; while Amy remembers them , the remaining clerics have no knowledge of their existence . Amy is soon left alone as the remaining clerics also disappear investigating the crack . The Doctor instructs Amy to begin moving towards the primary control room , keeping her eyes closed but acting as if she is still able to see in order to fool the Angels . Amy trips and reveals her blindness to the Angels , but before they can kill her River teleports her to the control room .
The Doctor reveals that the crack is due to an explosion somewhere in time , a date that he and River are able to determine . The Doctor warns that anything that falls into it is erased from time ; this is why the Angels fear the crack . The only way of temporarily closing the crack is to send a " complicated space @-@ time event " such as the Doctor himself or the whole of the Angels into the crack . The Angels continue to drain power from the Byzantium until they cause the artificial gravity to fail , dropping the Angels into the crack and sealing it while the Doctor , Amy , and River hang on to the controls . With the Angels gone , the Angel in Amy 's mind never existed , and she is able to recover . River is teleported away by the clerics ; she tells the Doctor that they will meet again soon when the " Pandorica " opens , which is dismissed by the Doctor as a fairy tale .
Aboard the TARDIS , Amy asks the Doctor to return her to Earth on the night they left because she wants to show him something . In her room , she shows the Doctor her engagement ring and wedding dress and tells him that she is to wed Rory the next day . Amy then attempts to seduce the Doctor . Alarmed by this , the Doctor tries to deter her by pointing out that kind of relationship she is suggesting will not work between them , and that she is engaged . He then realises that Amy 's wedding the next day , 26 June 2010 , happens on the same day as the time explosion epicenter and he takes Amy away so that he can figure out what is going on .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer Steven Moffat came up with the concept for " The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " when he was thinking of the worst possible situations to be in with the Weeping Angels and thought of the inability to see . His first idea was blindness , though this developed into the situation that Amy ends up in . Moffat designed the two @-@ part story to be a more action @-@ oriented sequel to " Blink " , an episode he wrote for the third series that introduced the Weeping Angels . He was inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens , which he referred to as " the best conceived movie sequel ever " , describing it as being more " highly coloured " as opposed to Alien 's more low @-@ key tone . He also intended for the Angels to have a plan that could become " almost like a war " , in contrast to the way they were struggling to survive in " Blink " . The title " Flesh and Stone " was suggested by Moffat 's son .
The episode is also important in the main story arc concerning the cracks in time and space . The idea of the crack was inspired by a similar crack in the wall of Moffat 's son . As the crack reappears , several facts about it are revealed . In the episode , the Doctor speculates that they are connected to the fact that Amy could not remember the events of several previous episodes , as well as events in history that had occurred in " The Next Doctor " . He also discovers that the time explosion that caused the crack is 26 June 2010 , which is also the original airdate of the final episode of the series , " The Big Bang " . Before the Doctor , River , and Octavian leave Amy and the other clerics , the Doctor briefly returns to console Amy and to ask her to trust him and remember what he told her when she was younger ; however , the Doctor in this scene is shown wearing his jacket , which he had lost to the Angels earlier in the episode , as well as a different wristwatch . It is revealed in " The Big Bang " that this was in fact the Doctor from later in his timeline , setting up events in Amy 's past to try to help her remember him after he has rebooted the universe . River Song tells the Doctor she will see him again when the Pandorica opens ; the Pandorica was previously referred to by Prisoner Zero in " The Eleventh Hour " and is revealed in " The Pandorica Opens " , which also sees the return of River Song .
Many instances in the episode were character @-@ driven . The action of the Angel to torture Amy " for fun " was met with anger from the Doctor but also gave him courage to defeat the Angels and save Amy . Moffat stated that in the scene in which the Doctor must figure out how to save Amy in a matter of seconds he was " very basic ... very pure , simple Doctor " and did not have time to comfort Amy because his compassion would get in the way of his thinking process . River was also meant to understand this and explain to Amy that he needed to think . Moffat believed that Amy was " passionate and a fighter and ... also really smart " which he showcased in the scene where Amy could not open her eyes for more than a second but was determined to do it for less than one . Moffat also believed that Amy 's decision to attempt to seduce the Doctor was consistent with the character he had built up from her first episode . It was also a reflection of how the two had just escaped from death and shared a hard time together , and Amy 's tendency to do things " in the heat of the moment " . The Doctor 's reaction was intended to be a reflection of how he often acted embarrassed and flustered when women behaved that way .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" The Time of Angels " and " Flesh and Stone " were the first two episodes to be produced in the series . The read @-@ through for " Flesh and Stone " took place on 15 July 2009 following the read @-@ through of " The Time of Angels " . The forest scenes in the Byzantium were filmed at Puzzlewood , in the Forest of Dean over nine nights in July 2009 . The final scenes on a beach were shot at Southerndown , Vale of Glamorgan in Wales during 20 – 21 July 2009 , the first filming done for the new series .
Most of the Weeping Angels are not statue props but young women wearing masks , costumes , and paint that took two to three hours to apply . Director Adam Smith called them " an absolute nightmare to film with " because it took a long time for them to get ready and they had to stand still for long periods of time . In the climactic scene Gillan had to walk with her eyes closed , which she said was difficult and challenging as the ground was uneven and muddy . She stated that " it was the most scary thing " when she had to trip over a step and fall , even though she was aware of the crash mat . As she was not able to express herself through her eyes , Gillan had to make herself more animated to convey emotion . The scene in which the Doctor , Amy and River are horizontal in mid @-@ air when the gravity field fails on the Byzantium was achieved by using wires and powerful wind machines . The blue in Amy 's bedroom was an idea of Adam Smith to show that it was inspired by the TARDIS from Amy 's encounter with the Doctor when she was young .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Flesh and Stone " was first broadcast on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 1 May 2010 . Overnight figures showed that " Flesh and Stone " was watched by 6 @.@ 87 million viewers ; 6 @.@ 53 million watched on BBC One , with a further 0 @.@ 34 on BBC HD . This was a slight increase from the previous episode , but " Flesh and Stone " was still second for the night behind Britain 's Got Talent . Final consolidated ratings showed that 8 @.@ 495 million viewers had watched the episode , with 8 @.@ 019 on BBC One and 476 @,@ 000 on BBC HD , the fifth and first most @-@ watched programme on each channel respectively . It achieved an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing " Flesh and Stone " together with the episodes " The Time of Angels " and " The Vampires of Venice " was released on 5 July 2010 . It was re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Flesh and Stone " has received mostly positive reviews . Daniel Martin gave the episode a positive review on The Guardian 's guardian.co.uk , saying that it " can lay credible claim to being the greatest episode of Doctor Who there has ever been " . He went on to declare : " It 's just ridiculously good — so much that there 's scarcely any point in picking out moments because there was an iconic sequence every couple of seconds . " In particular he praised Father Octavian 's death scene , noting how " despair creeps over Matt Smith 's face as he realises he is going to have to leave him to die ; Octavian 's final speech weeps with honour and elegance " . IGN 's Matt Wales gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating , saying it was " packed with huge , iconic moments " and stated , " by the end of it , we were left with more questions than answers and a far better sense of Moffat 's meticulous planning " .
Gavin Fuller , writing for The Daily Telegraph 's website , described the episode as " a rollercoaster ride of thrills and spills " . He praised the forest scenes , saying they were " easily the highlight of the episode , taking in a whole range of emotions as the nature and scale of the threat facing the Doctor , Amy , River and the clerics shifted as the episode progressed . " However he expressed uncertainty over Amy 's " attempted seduction of the Doctor " , claiming that it " did seem out of keeping with the usual tone of the series " , and that " Given the number of young children who watch , it may not have been the most appropriate of scenes to screen " . Patrick Mulkern , writing for the Radio Times , gave the episode a positive review , describing it and its predecessor " The Time of Angels " as " two episodes of Who that deserve 10 out of 10 in anybody 's scorebook " , although he felt that of the two " The Time of Angels " was " marginally more dazzling " , as he found the Angels in that episode more " macabre " , but he still thought that " Flesh and Stone " " bombards us with shudders and tension " . He also stated that he was " much amused by Amy 's amorous antics at the end " .
Steven Cooper of Slant Magazine called it " an exciting , action @-@ packed roller coaster " and praised director Adam Smith 's " top @-@ notch visuals " as well of the performances of Smith , Gillan , and Kingston . He noted the difference between Moffat 's more obvious story arc as opposed to others in the revived series , believing it to be possibly a " long @-@ overdue innovation " for the show . Though he praised the final defeat of the Angels for making use of what the viewer had forgotten , he thought that being able to see the Angels moving was " creepy and well @-@ done " , but made them " much less original and interesting " and the reason behind it weak , considering that the scene had " no significance at all " and was just to fill up time . SFX Magazine 's Dave Golder agreed , calling the scene " very creepy " and the Angels moving " effective " , but feeling that " these once great monsters come across a bit wussy and stupid " . He also thought that it did not live up the " brilliant first part " , feeling " a bit one @-@ note " and lacking " a really good jawdropping revelation " . However , he thought it was " a solid , exciting , pulse @-@ pounding 45 minutes " that was " tense , action @-@ packed , and stuffed with memorable one @-@ liners and touching character moments " , particularly praising Amy 's countdown and Octavian 's death , and gave the episode four out of five stars .
The Daily Mail claimed that the seduction scene led to complaints from some viewers who accused the BBC of trying to " ' sex up ' the show to attract more adult viewers . " The article quotes a representative from pressure group Mediawatch @-@ uk and an anonymous contributor to an internet message board . A BBC spokesman confirmed they had received 43 complaints of the scene out of the millions who watched the episode .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= HD 217107 b =
HD 217107 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 64 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Pisces ( the Fish ) . The planet was discovered orbiting the star HD 217107 approximately every seven days , classifying the planet as a hot Jupiter . Because of the planet 's somewhat eccentric orbit , scientists were able to confirm another planet within the system ( HD 217107 c ) .
= = Discovery = =
As with the majority of extrasolar planet discoveries so far , it was found by detecting small variations in the radial velocity of the star it orbits , caused by the tug of its gravity . A study of the radial velocity of HD 217107 carried out in 1998 revealed that its motion along the line of sight varied over a 7 @.@ 1 day cycle . The period and amplitude of this variation indicated that it was caused by a planetary companion in orbit around the star , with a minimum mass slightly greater than that of Jupiter . The planet 's mean distance from the star is less than one fifth of Mercury 's distance from the Sun .
= = = Indication of second planet = = =
While most planets with orbital periods of less than 10 days have almost circular orbits , HD 217107 b has a somewhat eccentric orbit , and its discoverers hypothesized that this could be due to the gravitational influence of a second planet in the system at a distance of several astronomical units ( AU ) . Confirmation of the existence of a second planet , HD 217107 c , followed in 2005 .
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= Stephen Colbert at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner =
On April 29 , 2006 , American comedian Stephen Colbert appeared as the featured entertainer at the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , which was held in Washington , D.C. , at the Hilton Washington hotel . Colbert 's performance , consisting of a 16 @-@ minute podium speech and a 7 @-@ minute video presentation , was broadcast live across the United States on the cable television networks C @-@ SPAN and MSNBC . Standing a few feet from U.S. President George W. Bush , in front of an audience of celebrities , politicians , and members of the White House Press Corps , Colbert delivered a controversial , searing routine targeting the president and the media . He spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report , a parody of conservative pundits such as Bill O 'Reilly and Sean Hannity .
Colbert 's performance quickly became an Internet and media sensation . Commentators remarked on the humor of Colbert 's performance , the political nature of his remarks , and speculated as to whether there was a cover @-@ up by the media in the way the event was reported . James Poniewozik of Time noted that whether or not one liked the speech , it had become a " political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 — like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term ' freedom fries ' " .
= = Performance at the dinner = =
American comedian Stephen Colbert was the featured entertainer at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner , held at the Hilton Washington hotel in Washington , D.C. on April 29 , 2006 . He was invited to speak by Mark Smith , the outgoing president of the White House Press Corps Association . Smith later told reporters that he had not seen much of Colbert 's work . Since 1983 , the event has featured well @-@ known stand @-@ up comics . Previous performances included President Gerald Ford and Chevy Chase making fun of Ford 's alleged clumsiness in 1975 , and Ronald Reagan and Rich Little performing together in 1981 .
Colbert gave his after @-@ dinner remarks in front of an audience described by the Associated Press as a " Who 's Who of power and celebrity " . More than 2 @,@ 500 guests attended the event , including First Lady Laura Bush , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace , U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales , China 's Ambassador Zhou Wenzhong , AOL co @-@ founder Steve Case , model and tennis player Anna Kournikova , and actor George Clooney . Colbert spoke directly to President Bush several times , satirically praising his foreign policy , lifestyle , and beliefs , and referring to his declining approval rating and popular reputation .
Colbert spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report , a parody of a conservative pundit in the fashion of Bill O 'Reilly and Sean Hannity . He began by satirizing mass surveillance , joking " If anybody needs anything else at their tables , just speak slowly and clearly into your table numbers . Someone from the NSA will be right over with a cocktail . " While many of his jokes were directed at President Bush , he also lampooned the journalists and other figures present at the dinner . Most of the speech was prepared specifically for the event , but several segments were lifted — largely unchanged — from The Colbert Report , including parts of the " truthiness " monologue from the first episode of the show , where Colbert advocated speaking from " the gut " rather than the brain and denounced books as " all fact , no heart " . Colbert framed this part of the speech as though he were agreeing with Bush 's philosophies , saying that he and Bush are " not brainiacs on the nerd patrol " , implicitly criticizing the way Bush positioned himself as an anti @-@ intellectual .
Following this introduction to his style and philosophy , Colbert listed a series of absurd " beliefs that I live by " , such as " I believe in America . I believe it exists . " He alluded to outsourcing to China and satirized the traditional Republican opposition to " big government " by referencing the Iraq War . " I believe the government that governs best is the government that governs least . And by these standards , we have set up a fabulous government in Iraq . "
Colbert then mocked Bush 's sinking approval ratings :
Now , I know there are some polls out there saying this man has a 32 percent approval rating . But guys like us , we don 't pay attention to the polls . We know that polls are just a collection of statistics that reflect what people are thinking in reality . And reality has a well @-@ known liberal bias ... Sir , pay no attention to the people who say the glass is half empty , [ ... ] because 32 percent means it 's two @-@ thirds empty . There 's still some liquid in that glass , is my point . But I wouldn 't drink it . The last third is usually backwash .
He continued his mock defense of Bush by satirizing Bush 's appearances aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln , at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center , and in cities devastated by Hurricane Katrina :
I stand by this man . I stand by this man because he stands for things . Not only for things , he stands on things . Things like aircraft carriers , and rubble , and recently flooded city squares . And that sends a strong message : that no matter what happens to America , she will always rebound — with the most powerfully staged photo ops in the world .
Colbert ended the monologue specifically directed at Bush by parodying his energy policy . He then used Laura Bush 's reading initiative as a springboard to mock @-@ criticize books for being " elitist " , and harshly criticized the White House Press Corps — hosts of the event — and the media in general . Addressing the audience , he remarked :
Over the last five years , you people were so good — over tax cuts , WMD intelligence , the effect of global warming . We Americans didn 't want to know , and you had the courtesy not to try to find out , [ ... ] And then you write , [ ... ] " Oh , they 're just rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic . " First of all , that is a terrible metaphor . This administration is not sinking . This administration is soaring . If anything , they are rearranging the deck chairs on the Hindenburg !
Colbert also criticized the White House Press Corps for what was widely perceived as its reluctance to question the administration 's policies , particularly in regards to the lead up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , saying :
But , listen , let 's review the rules . Here 's how it works . The President makes decisions . He 's the decider . The press secretary announces those decisions , and you people of the press type those decisions down . Make , announce , type . Just put ' em through a spell check and go home . Get to know your family again . Make love to your wife . Write that novel you got kicking around in your head . You know , the one about the intrepid Washington reporter with the courage to stand up to the administration ? You know , fiction !
For the remainder of his speech , Colbert joked about other people in the audience , including Peter Pace , Antonin Scalia , John McCain , and Joe Wilson . During this section , he made another reference to global warming while talking about interviewing Jesse Jackson : " You can ask him anything , but he 's going to say what he wants , at the pace that he wants . It 's like boxing a glacier . Enjoy that metaphor , by the way , because your grandchildren will have no idea what a glacier is . "
Colbert received a chilly reception from the audience . His jokes were often met with silence and muttering , although some in the audience , such as Scalia , laughed heartily as Colbert teased them . This was in stark contrast to the warm reception accorded to a skit featuring Bush and his look @-@ alike , Steve Bridges , which immediately preceded Colbert 's monologue .
At the end of his monologue , Colbert introduced what he characterized as an " audition " video to become the new White House Press Secretary — Scott McClellan had recently left the position . The video spliced clips of difficult questions from the White House press corps with responses from Colbert as Press Secretary . Colbert 's podium included controls marked " eject " , " Gannon " ( a reference to erstwhile White House reporter Jeff Gannon , who was suspected of asking planted questions ) , and " volume " , which he used to silence a critical question from journalist David Gregory . The video continued with Colbert fleeing the briefing room and the White House , only to be pursued by White House correspondent Helen Thomas , who had been a vocal critic of the Bush administration . At one point , Colbert picks up an emergency phone and explains that Thomas " won 't stop asking why we invaded Iraq " . The dispatcher responds with , " Hey , why did we invade Iraq ? " The entire second half of the video is a spoof of horror film clichés , particularly the film Westworld , with melodramatic music accompanying Thomas 's slow , unwavering pursuit of Colbert , and Colbert loudly screaming " No ! " at intervals . Widely available online , a portion of the mock audition tape aired on The Colbert Report on May 2 , 2006 .
Although President Bush shook Colbert 's hand after his presentation , several of Bush 's aides and supporters walked out during Colbert 's speech , and one former aide commented that the President had " that look that he 's ready to blow " . Colbert recalled that " not a lot of people laughed in the front row " during the speech , and that " when it was over , no one was even making eye contact with me ... no one is talking to me in the whole damn room " ; only Scalia came to him afterward , praising Colbert 's imitation of a gesture the justice had recently been photographed doing .
= = Early press coverage and allegations of a media blackout = =
Cable channel C @-@ SPAN broadcast the White House Correspondents ' Dinner live , and rebroadcast the event several times in the next 24 hours , but aired a segment that excluded Colbert 's speech . The trade journal Editor & Publisher was the first news outlet to report in detail on Colbert 's performance , calling it a " blistering comedy ' tribute ' " that did not make the Bushes laugh . The reviewer noted that others on the podium were uncomfortable during the speech , " perhaps feeling the material was a little too biting — or too much speaking ' truthiness ' to power " .
The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune covered the dinner , but not Colbert 's remarks . The wire services Reuters and the Associated Press each devoted three paragraphs to discuss Colbert 's routine in their coverage of the event , and The Washington Post mentioned Colbert several times throughout its article . The most extensive print coverage came from USA Today , which dedicated more space to Colbert 's performance than to President Bush 's skit . The day after the dinner , Howard Kurtz played clips of Colbert 's performance on his CNN show Reliable Sources . On the Fox News show Fox & Friends , the hosts mentioned Colbert 's performance , criticizing him for going " over the line " . Tucker Carlson , a frequent target of The Colbert Report before and after the event , criticized Colbert as being " unfunny " on his MSNBC show Tucker .
Much of the initial coverage of the event highlighted the difference between the reaction to Bush and Bridges ( very positive ) and that for Colbert ( far more muted ) . " The president killed . He 's a tough act to follow — at all times , " said Colbert . On his show , Colbert joked that the unenthusiastic reception was actually " very respectful silence " and added that the crowd " practically carried me out on their shoulders " even though he was not ready to leave . On the May 1 , 2006 , episode of The Daily Show , on which Colbert had formerly been a correspondent , host Jon Stewart called Colbert 's performance " balls @-@ alicious " and stated , " We 've never been prouder of our Mr. Colbert , and , ah — holy shit ! "
Lloyd Grove , gossip columnist for the New York Daily News , said that Colbert " bombed badly " , and BET founder Bob Johnson remarked , " It was an insider crowd , as insider a crowd as you 'll ever have , and [ Colbert ] didn 't do the insider jokes " . Congressional Quarterly columnist and CBS commentator Craig Crawford found Colbert 's performance hilarious , but observed that most other people at the dinner did not find the speech amusing . Time magazine TV critic James Poniewozik thought that Colbert 's critics missed the point : " Colbert wasn 't playing to the room , I suspect , but to the wide audience of people who would later watch on the Internet . If anything , he was playing against the room . " Poniewozik called the pained , uncomfortable reactions to Colbert 's jokes " the money shots . They were the whole point . "
Some commentators , while noting the popularity of Colbert 's dinner speech , were critical of the perceived snubbing he was receiving from the press corps , even though he was the featured entertainer for the evening . The Washington Post columnist Dan Froomkin , calling it " The Colbert Blackout " , lambasted the traditional media for ignoring Colbert while focusing on the " much safer " topic of President Bush 's routine with Bridges . Amy Goodman of Democracy Now noted that initial coverage ignored Colbert entirely . Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism professor Todd Gitlin remarked , " It 's too hot to handle . [ Colbert ] was scathing toward Bush and it was absolutely devastating . [ The mainstream media doesn 't ] know how to handle such a pointed and aggressive criticism . "
Others saw no intentional snub of Colbert by the press . Responding to a question about why The Washington Post 's article about the dinner did not go into any detail about Colbert 's speech , Media Backtalk writer Howard Kurtz responded , " The problem in part is one of deadline . The presses were already rolling by the time Colbert came on at 10 : 30 , so the story had to be largely written by then . " Asked why television news favored Bush 's performance over Colbert 's , Elizabeth Fishman , an assistant dean at the Columbia School of Journalism and a former 60 Minutes producer , told MTV that the " quick hit " for television news shows would have been to use footage of Bush standing beside his impersonator . " It 's an easier set up for visual effect " , she noted . Steve Scully , president of the White House Correspondents ' Association ( which hosted the dinner ) and political editor of C @-@ SPAN ( which broadcast the dinner ) , scoffed at the whole idea of the press intentionally ignoring Colbert : " Bush hit such a home run with Steve Bridges that he got all of the coverage . I think that exceeded expectations . There was no right @-@ wing conspiracy or left @-@ wing conspiracy . " Time columnist Ana Marie Cox dismissed allegations of a deliberate media blackout , because Colbert 's performance received coverage in The New York Times , The Washington Post , and the major wire services . Fellow commentator Kurtz concurred , noting that the video was carried on C @-@ SPAN and was freely available online ; he also played two clips on his own show . " Apparently I didn 't get the memo , " he said .
In an article published on May 3 , 2006 , The New York Times addressed the controversy . The paper acknowledged that the mainstream media — itself included — had been criticized for focusing on Bush 's act with Bridges while ignoring Colbert 's speech . The paper then quoted several passages of Colbert 's more substantial criticism of the president and discussed various reactions to the event . On May 15 , The New York Times ' public editor , Byron Calame , wrote on his blog that more than two hundred readers had written to complain about the exclusion of any mention of Colbert from the paper 's initial lengthy article covering the dinner . Calame quoted his deputy bureau chief in Washington , who said that a mention of Colbert in the first article could not have been long enough to do his routine justice . But he also noted that the paper should have printed an in @-@ depth article specifically covering Colbert 's speech in the same issue , rather than waiting until days after the fact .
= = Internet popularity = =
Even though Colbert 's performance " landed with a thud " among the live audience , clips of Colbert at the dinner were an overnight sensation , becoming viral videos that appeared on numerous web sites in several forms . Sites offering the video experienced massive increases in traffic . According to CNET 's News.com site , Colbert 's speech was " one of the Internet 's hottest acts " . Searches for Colbert on Yahoo ! were up 5 @,@ 625 percent . During the days after the speech , there were twice as many Google searches for " C @-@ SPAN " as for " Jennifer Aniston " — an uncommon occurrence — as well as a surge in Colbert @-@ related searches . Nielsen BuzzMetrics ranked the post of the video clip as the second most popular blog post for all of 2006 . Clips of Colbert 's comic tribute climbed to the number 1 , 2 , and 3 spots atop YouTube 's " Most Viewed " video list . The various clips of Colbert 's speech had been viewed 2 @.@ 7 million times in less than 48 hours . In an unprecedented move for the network , C @-@ SPAN demanded that YouTube and iFilm remove unauthorized copies of the video from their sites . Google Video subsequently purchased the exclusive rights to retransmit the video , and it remained at or near the top of Google 's most popular videos for the next two weeks .
Both Editor and Publisher and Salon , which published extensive and early coverage of the Colbert speech , drew record and near @-@ record numbers of viewers to their web sites . 70 @,@ 000 articles were posted to blogs about Colbert 's roast of Bush on the Thursday after the event , the most of any topic , and " Colbert " remained the top search term at Technorati for days . Chicago Sun @-@ Times TV critic Doug Elfman credited the Internet with promoting an event that would have otherwise been overlooked , stating that " Internet stables for liberals , like the behemoth dailykos.com , began rumbling as soon as the correspondents ' dinner was reported in the mainstream press , with scant word of Colbert 's combustive address " . Three weeks after the dinner , audio of Colbert 's performance went on sale at the iTunes Music Store and became the No. 1 album purchased , outselling new releases by the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Pearl Jam , and Paul Simon . The CEO of Audible.com , which provided the recording sold at iTunes , explained its success by saying , " you had to not be there to get it " . It continued to be a top download at iTunes for the next five months .
= = Response = =
Colbert 's performance received a variety of reactions from the media . In Washington , the response from both politicians and the press corps was negative — both groups having been targets of Colbert 's satire . The Washington press corps felt that Colbert had bombed . The Washington Post columnist Richard Cohen found that Colbert 's jokes were " lame and insulting " and wrote that Colbert was " rude " and a " bully " . Politician Steny Hoyer felt that Colbert had gone too far , telling the newspaper The Hill that " [ Bush ] is the President of the United States , and he deserves some respect " . Conservative pundit Mary Matalin called Colbert 's performance a " predictable , Bush @-@ bashing kind of humor " . Columnist Ana Marie Cox chastised those who praised Colbert as a hero : " I somehow doubt that Bush has never heard these criticisms before " . She added , " Comedy can have a political point but it is not political action " .
On The Daily Show , Jon Stewart remarked , tongue in cheek , " apparently [ Colbert ] was under the impression that they 'd hired him to do what he does every night on television " . While comics were expected to tell jokes about the administration , the 2006 dinner was held at a time when the relationship between the administration and the media was under great strain , and the administration was sensitive to criticism . Attorney and columnist Julie Hilden concluded that Colbert 's " vituperative parody " might have been unfair under different circumstances , but noted that Bush 's record of controlling bad press created a heightened justification for people to criticize him when they got the chance . Media Matters and Editor & Publisher came to Colbert 's defense , calling his detractors hypocrites . They contrasted the critical reaction to Colbert to the praise that many in the press had for a controversial routine that Bush performed at a similar media dinner in 2004 , where Bush was shown looking for WMDs in the Oval Office and joking , " Those weapons of mass destruction must be somewhere ! " and " Nope , no weapons over there ! "
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation News Online columnist Heather Mallick wrote , " Colbert had the wit and raw courage to do to Bush what Mark Antony did to Brutus , murderer of Caesar . As the American media has self @-@ destructed , it takes Colbert to damn Bush with devastatingly ironic praise . " Comedian and eventual Democratic U.S. Senator Al Franken , who performed at similar dinners twice during the Bill Clinton administration , admired what Colbert had done . In its year @-@ end issue , New York magazine described Colbert 's performance as one of the most " brilliant " moments of 2006 . Time 's James Poniewozik noted that in the " days after Stephen Colbert performed at the White House Correspondents ' Dinner , this has become the political @-@ cultural touchstone issue of 2006 — like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term ' freedom fries ' " .
For the 2007 dinner , the White House Correspondents ' Association brought back the less controversial Rich Little . Arianna Huffington reported that Colbert told her he had specifically avoided reading any reviews of his performance , and remained unaware of the public 's reaction . On June 13 , 2007 , he was presented with a Spike TV Guys ' Choice Award for " Gutsiest Move " . He accepted the award via video conference . Six months later , New York Times columnist Frank Rich called Colbert 's after @-@ dinner speech a " cultural primary " , christening it the " defining moment " of the United States ' 2006 midterm elections . Three and a half years after the speech , Frank Rich referenced it again , calling it " brilliant " and " good for the country " , while columnist Dan Savage referred to it as " one of the things that kept people like me sane during the darkest days of the Bush years " . The editor of the The Realist , Paul Krassner , later put Colbert 's performance in historical context , saying that it stands out among contemporary US satire as the only example of the spirit of the satire by Lenny Bruce , George Carlin , and Richard Pryor , which took risks and broke barriers to free speech , " rather than just proudly exercising it as comedians do now . "
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= Chrono Trigger =
Chrono Trigger ( Japanese : クロノ ・ トリガー , Hepburn : Kurono Torigā ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1995 . Chrono Trigger 's development team included three designers that Square dubbed the " Dream Team " : Hironobu Sakaguchi , the creator of Square 's Final Fantasy series ; Yuji Horii , a freelance designer and creator of Enix 's popular Dragon Quest series ; and Akira Toriyama , a freelance manga artist famed for his work with Dragon Quest and Dragon Ball . Kazuhiko Aoki produced the game , Masato Kato wrote most of the plot , while composer Yasunori Mitsuda scored most of the game before falling ill and deferring the remaining tracks to Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The game 's story follows a group of adventurers who travel through time to prevent a global catastrophe .
Square re @-@ released a ported version by Tose in Japan for the PlayStation in 1999 , later repackaged with a Final Fantasy IV port as Final Fantasy Chronicles in 2001 for the North American market . A slightly enhanced Chrono Trigger , again ported by Tose , was released for the Nintendo DS on November 25 , 2008 , in North America and Japan , and went on sale in Australia on February 3 , 2009 , and in Europe on February 6 , 2009 . The game was never released in PAL territories before the Nintendo DS version .
Chrono Trigger was a critical and commercial success upon release and is frequently cited as one of the best video games of all time . Nintendo Power magazine described aspects of Chrono Trigger as revolutionary , including its multiple endings , plot @-@ related sidequests focusing on character development , unique battle system , and detailed graphics . Chrono Trigger was the third best @-@ selling game of 1995 , and the game 's SNES and PlayStation iterations have shipped 2 @.@ 65 million copies as of March 2003 . The version for the Nintendo DS sold 790 @,@ 000 copies as of March 2009 . Chrono Trigger was also ported to mobile phones , Virtual Console , the PlayStation Network , iOS devices , and Android devices .
= = Gameplay = =
Chrono Trigger features standard role @-@ playing video game gameplay . The player controls the protagonist and his companions in the game 's two @-@ dimensional fictional world , consisting of various forests , cities , and dungeons . Navigation occurs via an overworld map , depicting the landscape from a scaled @-@ down overhead view . Areas such as forests , cities , and similar places are depicted as more realistic scaled @-@ down maps , in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services , solve puzzles and challenges , or encounter enemies . Chrono Trigger 's gameplay deviates from that of traditional Japanese RPGs in that , rather than appearing in random encounters , many enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party . Contact with enemies on a field map initiates a battle that occurs directly on the map rather than on a separate battle screen .
Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle , and players may use items to heal or protect themselves . Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points ; successful attacks reduce that character 's hit points , which can be restored with potions and spells . When a playable character loses all hit points , he or she faints ; if all the player 's characters fall in battle , the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter , except in specific storyline @-@ related battles that allow or force the player to lose . Between battles , the player can equip his / her characters with weapons , armor , helmets , and accessories that provide special effects ( such as increased attack power or defense against magic ) , and various consumable items can be used both in and out of battles . Items and equipment can be purchased in shops or found on field maps , often in treasure chests . By exploring new areas and fighting enemies , players progress through Chrono Trigger 's story .
Chrono Trigger uses an Active Time Battle system — a staple of Square 's Final Fantasy game series designed by Hiroyuki Ito for Final Fantasy IV — named " Active Time Battle 2 @.@ 0 . " Each character can take action in battle once a personal timer dependent on the character 's speed statistic counts to zero . Magic and special physical techniques are handled through a system called " Techs . " Techs deplete a character 's magic points ( a numerical meter like hit points ) , and often have special areas of effect ; some spells damage huddled monsters , while others can harm enemies spread in a line . Enemies often change positions during battle , creating opportunities for tactical Tech use . A unique feature of Chrono Trigger 's Tech system is that numerous cooperative techniques exist . Each character receives eight personal Techs which can be used in conjunction with others ' to create Double and Triple Techs for greater effect . For instance , Crono 's sword @-@ spinning Cyclone Tech can be combined with Lucca 's Flame Toss to create Flame Whirl . When characters with compatible Techs have enough magic points available to perform their techniques , the game automatically displays the combo as an option .
Chrono Trigger features several other unique gameplay traits , including time travel . Players have access to seven eras of the game world 's history , and past actions affect future events . Throughout history , players find new allies , complete side quests , and search for keynote villains . Time travel is accomplished via portals and pillars of light called " time gates " , as well as a time machine named Epoch . The game contains thirteen unique endings ; the ending the player receives depends on when and how he or she reaches and completes the game 's final battle . Chrono Trigger DS features a new ending that can be accessed from the End of Time upon completion of the final extra dungeon and optional final boss . Chrono Trigger also introduces a New Game + option ; after completing the game , the player may begin a new game with the same character levels , techniques , and equipment , excluding money , with which he or she ended the previous play through . However , certain items central to the storyline are removed and must be found again , such as the sword Masamune . Square has since employed the New Game + concept in later titles , including Chrono Cross , Parasite Eve , Vagrant Story , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Chrono Trigger takes place in a world familiar to Earth , with eras such as the prehistoric age , in which primitive humans and dinosaurs share the earth ; the Middle Ages , replete with knights , monsters , and magic ; and the post @-@ apocalyptic future , where destitute humans and sentient robots struggle to survive . The characters frequently travel through time to obtain allies , gather equipment , and learn information to help them in their quest . The party also gains access to the End of Time ( represented as year ∞ ) , which serves as a hub to travel back to other time periods . The party eventually acquires a time @-@ machine vehicle known as the Wings of Time , nicknamed the Epoch . The vehicle is capable of time travel between any time period without first having to travel to the End of Time .
= = = Characters = = =
Chrono Trigger 's six playable characters ( plus one optional character ) come from different eras of history . Chrono Trigger begins in AD 1000 with Crono , Marle and Lucca . Crono is the silent protagonist , characterized as a fearless young man who wields a katana in battle . Marle ( Princess Nadia ) lives in Guardia Castle ; though sheltered , at heart she 's a princess who enjoys hiding her royal identity . Lucca is a friend of Crono 's and a mechanical genius ; her home is filled with laboratory equipment and machinery . From the era of AD 2300 comes Robo , or Prometheus ( designation R @-@ 66Y ) , a robot with near @-@ human personality created to assist humans . Lying dormant in the future , Robo is found and repaired by Lucca , and joins the group out of gratitude . The fiercely confident Ayla dwells in 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 BC . Unmatched in raw strength , Ayla is the chief of Ioka Village and leads her people in war against a species of humanoid reptiles known as Reptites .
The last two playable characters are Frog and Magus . Frog originated in AD 600 . He is a former squire once named Glenn , who was turned into an anthropomorphic frog by Magus , who also killed his friend Cyrus . Chivalrous but mired in regret , Frog dedicates his life to protecting Leene , the queen of Guardia , and avenging Cyrus . Meanwhile , Guardia in AD 600 is in a state of conflict against the Mystics ( known as Fiends in the US / DS port ) , a race of demons and intelligent animals who wage war against humanity under the leadership of Magus , a powerful sorcerer . Magus 's seclusion conceals a long @-@ lost past ; he was formerly known as Janus , the young prince of the Kingdom of Zeal , which was destroyed by Lavos in 12 @,@ 000 BC . The incident sent him forward through time , and as he ages , he plots revenge against Lavos and broods over the fate of his sister , Schala . Lavos , the game 's main antagonist who awakens and ravages the world in AD 1999 , is an extraterrestrial , parasitic creature that harvests DNA and the Earth 's energy for its own growth .
= = = Story = = =
In AD 1000 , Crono and Marle watch Lucca and her father demonstrate her new teleporter at the Millennial Fair . When Marle volunteers to be teleported , her pendant interferes with the device and creates a time portal into which she is drawn . After Crono and Lucca separately recreate the portal and find themselves in AD 600 , they find Marle only to see her vanish before their eyes . Lucca realizes that this time period 's kingdom has mistaken Marle for an ancestor of hers who had been kidnapped , thus putting off the recovery effort for her ancestor and creating a grandfather paradox . Crono and Lucca , with the help of Frog , restore history to normal by recovering the kidnapped queen . After the three part ways with Frog and return to the present , Crono is arrested on charges of kidnapping the princess and sentenced to death by the current chancellor of Guardia . Lucca and Marle help Crono to flee , haphazardly using another time portal to escape their pursuers . This portal lands them in AD 2300 , where they learn that an advanced civilization has been wiped out by a giant creature known as Lavos that appeared in 1999 . The three vow to find a way to prevent the future destruction of their world . After meeting and repairing Robo , Crono and his friends find Gaspar , an old sage at the End of Time , who helps them acquire magical powers and travel through time by way of several pillars of light .
Their party expands to include Ayla and Frog after they visit the prehistoric era to repair Frog 's sword . They return to AD 600 to challenge Magus , believing him to be the source of Lavos ; after the battle , a summoning spell causes a time gate that throws Crono and his friends to the past . In prehistory , the group battle the Reptites and witness the origin of Lavos . They learn that Lavos was an alien being that arrived on the planet millions of years in the past , and began to absorb DNA and energy from every living creature before arising and razing the planet 's surface in 1999 so that it could spawn a new generation . In 12 @,@ 000 BC , Crono and friends find that the Kingdom of Zeal recently discovered Lavos and seeks to drain its power to achieve immortality through the Mammon Machine . However Zeal 's leader , Queen Zeal imprisons Crono and friends . Though Zeal 's daughter Schala frees them , the Prophet , a mysterious figure who has recently begun advising the queen , forces her to banish them from the realm and seal the time gate they used to travel to the Dark Ages . They return next to AD 2300 to find a time machine called the Wings of Time ( or Epoch ) , which can access any time period without using a time gate . They travel back to Zeal for the Mammon Machine 's activation at the Ocean Palace . Lavos awakens , disturbed by the Mammon Machine , and the Prophet reveals himself to be Magus and tries to kill the creature . Crono stands up to Lavos but is vaporized by a powerful blast , after which Lavos destroys the Kingdom of Zeal .
Crono 's friends awake in a village and find Magus , who confesses that he used to be prince Janus of Zeal . In his memories , it is revealed that the disaster at the Ocean Palace scattered the Gurus of Zeal across time and sent him to the Middle Ages . Janus took the alias of Magus and gained a cult of followers while plotting to summon and kill Lavos in revenge for the death of his sister , Schala , but when Lavos appeared after his battle with Crono and his allies he was cast back to the time of Zeal and presented himself to them as a prophet . As Crono 's friends depart , the Ocean Palace rises into the air as the Black Omen . The group turns to Gaspar for help , and he gives them a " Chrono Trigger , " an egg @-@ shaped device that allows the group to replace Crono just before the moment of death with a Dopple Doll . Crono and his friends then gather power by helping people across time with Gaspar 's instructions . Their journeys involve defeating the remnants of the Mystics , stopping Robo 's maniacal AI creator , addressing Frog 's feelings towards Cyrus , locating and charging up the mythical Sun Stone , retrieving the Rainbow Shell , and helping restore a forest destroyed by a desert monster . The group enters the Black Omen and defeats Queen Zeal , then successfully battles Lavos , saving the future of their world .
If Magus joined the party , he departs to search for Schala . Crono 's mother accidentally enters the time gate at the fair before it closes , prompting Crono , Marle , and Lucca to set out in the Epoch to find her while fireworks light up the night sky . Alternatively , if the party used the Epoch to break Lavos 's outer shell , Marle will help her father hang Nadia 's bell at the festival and accidentally get carried away by several balloons . Crono jumps on to help her , but cannot bring them down to earth . Hanging on in each other 's arms , the pair travel through the cloudy , moonlit sky .
Chrono Trigger DS added two new scenarios to the game . In the first , Crono and his friends can help a " lost sanctum " of Reptites , who reward powerful items and armor . The second scenario adds ties to Trigger 's sequel , Chrono Cross . In a New Game + , the group can explore several temporal distortions to combat shadow versions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca , and to fight Dalton , who promises in defeat to raise an army in the town of Porre to destroy the Kingdom of Guardia . The group can then fight the Dream Devourer , a prototypical form of the Time Devourer — a fusion of Schala and Lavos seen in Chrono Cross . A version of Magus pleads with Schala to resist ; though she recognizes him as her brother , she refuses to be helped and sends him away . Schala subsequently erases his memories and Magus awakens in a forest , determined to find what he had lost .
= = Development = =
Chrono Trigger was conceived in 1992 by Hironobu Sakaguchi , producer and creator of the Final Fantasy series ; Yuji Horii , director and creator of the Dragon Quest series ; and Akira Toriyama , creator of the Dragon Ball comics series . Traveling to the United States to research computer graphics , the three decided to create something that " no one had done before " . After spending over a year considering the difficulties of developing a new game , they received a call from Kazuhiko Aoki , who offered to produce . The four met and spent four days brainstorming ideas for the game . Square convened 50 – 60 developers , including scenario writer Masato Kato , whom Square designated story planner . Development started in early 1993 . An uncredited Square employee suggested that the team develop a time travel @-@ themed game , which Kato initially opposed , fearing repetitive , dull gameplay . Kato and Horii then met several hours per day during the first year of development to write the game 's plot . Square intended to license the work under the Seiken Densetsu franchise and gave it the working title of " Maru Island " ; Hiromichi Tanaka ( the future director of Chrono Cross ) monitored Toriyama 's early designs . The team hoped to release it on Nintendo 's planned Super Famicom Disk Drive ; when Nintendo canceled the project , Square reoriented the game for release on a Super Famicom cartridge and rebranded it as Chrono Trigger . Tanaka credited the ROM catridge platform for enabling seamless transition to battles on the field map .
Aoki ultimately produced Chrono Trigger , while director credits were attributed to Akihiko Matsui , Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita . Toriyama designed the game 's aesthetic , including characters , monsters , vehicles , and the look of each era . Masato Kato also contributed character ideas and designs . Kato planned to feature Gaspar as a playable character and Toriyama sketched him , but he was cut early in development . The development staff studied the drawings of Toriyama to approximate his style . Sakaguchi and Horii supervised ; Sakaguchi was responsible for the game 's overall system and contributed several monster ideas . Other notable designers include Tetsuya Takahashi , the graphic director , and Yasuyuki Honne , Tetsuya Nomura , and Yusuke Naora , who worked as field graphic artists . Yasuhika Kamata programmed graphics , and cited Ridley Scott 's visual work in the film Alien as an inspiration for the game 's lighting . Kamata made the game 's luminosity and color choice lay between that of Secret of Mana and the Final Fantasy series . Features originally intended to be used in Secret of Mana or Final Fantasy IV , also under development at the same time , were appropriated by the Chrono Trigger team .
Yuji Horii , a fan of time travel fiction ( such as the TV series The Time Tunnel ) , fostered a theme of time travel in his general story outline of Chrono Trigger with input from Akira Toriyama . Horii liked the scenario of the grandfather paradox surrounding Marle . Concerning story planning , Horii commented , " If there 's a fairground , I just write that there 's a fairground ; I don 't write down any of the details . Then the staff brainstorm and come up with a variety of attractions to put in . " Sakaguchi contributed some minor elements , including the character Gato ; he liked Marle 's drama and reconciliation with her father . Masato Kato subsequently edited and completed the outline by writing the majority of the game 's story , including all the events of the 12 @,@ 000 BC era . He took pains to avoid what he described as " a long string of errands ... [ such as ] ' do this ' , ' take this ' , ' defeat these monsters ' , or ' plant this flag ' . " Kato and other developers held a series of meetings to ensure continuity , usually attended by around 30 personnel . Kato and Horii initially proposed Crono 's death , though they intended he stay dead ; the party would have retrieved an earlier , living version of him to complete the quest . Square deemed the scenario too depressing and asked that Crono be brought back to life later in the story . Kato also devised the system of multiple endings because he could not branch the story out to different paths . Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita then wrote various subplots . Kato became friends with composer Yasunori Mitsuda during development , and they would collaborate on several future projects . Katsuhisa Higuchi programmed the battle system , which hosted combat on the map without transition to a special battleground as most previous Square games had done . Higuchi noted extreme difficulty in loading battles properly without slow @-@ downs or a brief , black loading screen . The game 's use of animated monster sprites consumed much more memory than previous Final Fantasy games , which used static enemy graphics .
Hironobu Sakaguchi likened the development of Chrono Trigger to " play [ ing ] around with Toriyama 's universe , " citing the inclusion of humorous sequences in the game that would have been " impossible with something like Final Fantasy . " When Square Co. suggested a non @-@ human player character , developers created Frog by adapting one of Toriyama 's sketches . The team created the End of Time to help players with hints , worrying that they might become stuck and need to consult a walkthrough . The game 's testers had previously complained that Chrono Trigger was too difficult ; as Horii explained , " It 's because we know too much . The developers think the game 's just right ; that they 're being too soft . They 're thinking from their own experience . The puzzles were the same . Lots of players didn 't figure out things we thought they 'd get easily . " Sakaguchi later cited the unusual desire of beta testers to play the game a second time or " travel through time again " as an affirmation of the New Game + feature : " Wherever we could , we tried to make it so that a slight change in your behavior caused subtle differences in people 's reactions , even down to the smallest details ... I think the second playthrough will hold a whole new interest . " The game 's reuse of locations due to time traveling made bug @-@ fixing difficult , as corrections would cause unintended consequences in other eras .
= = = Music = = =
Chrono Trigger was scored primarily by Yasunori Mitsuda , with contributions from veteran Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu , and one track composed by Noriko Matsueda . A sound programmer at the time , Mitsuda was unhappy with his pay and threatened to leave Square if he could not compose music . Hironobu Sakaguchi suggested he score Chrono Trigger , remarking , " maybe your salary will go up . " Mitsuda composed new music and drew on a personal collection of pieces composed over the previous two years . He reflected , " I wanted to create music that wouldn 't fit into any established genre ... music of an imaginary world . The game 's director , Masato Kato , was my close friend , and so I 'd always talk with him about the setting and the scene before going into writing . " Mitsuda slept in his studio several nights , and attributed certain pieces — such as the game 's ending theme , To Far Away Times — to inspiring dreams . He later attributed this song to an idea he was developing before Chrono Trigger , reflecting that the tune was made in dedication to " a certain person with whom [ he ] wanted to share a generation " . He also tried to use leitmotifs of the Chrono Trigger main theme to create a sense of consistency in the soundtrack . Mitsuda wrote each tune to be around two minutes long before repeating , unusual for Square 's games at the time . Mitsuda suffered a hard drive crash that lost around forty in @-@ progress tracks . After Mitsuda contracted stomach ulcers , Uematsu joined the project to compose ten pieces and finish the score . Mitsuda returned to watch the ending with the staff before the game 's release , crying upon seeing the finished scene .
At the time of the game 's release , the number of tracks and sound effects was unprecedented — the soundtrack spanned three discs in its 1995 commercial pressing . Square also released a one @-@ disc acid jazz arrangement called " The Brink of Time " by Guido that year . The Brink of Time came about because Mitsuda wanted to do something that no one else was doing , and he noted that acid jazz and its related genres were uncommon in the Japanese market . Mitsuda considers Chrono Trigger a landmark title which helped mature his talent . While Mitsuda later held that the title piece was " rough around the edges " , he maintains that it had " significant influence on [ his ] life as a composer " . In 1999 , Square produced another one @-@ disc soundtrack to complement the PlayStation release of Trigger , featuring orchestral tracks used in cut scenes . Tsuyoshi Sekito composed four new pieces for the game 's bonus features which weren 't included on the soundtrack . Some fans were displeased by Mitsuda 's absence in creating the port , whose instruments sometimes aurally differed from the original game 's . Mitsuda arranged versions of music from the Chrono series for Play ! video game music concerts , presenting the main theme , Frog 's Theme , and To Far Away Times . He worked with Square Enix to ensure that the music for the Nintendo DS would sound closer to the Super NES version . Mitsuda encouraged feedback about the game 's soundtrack from contemporary children ( who he thought would expect " full symphonic scores blaring out of the speakers " ) . Fans who preordered Chrono Trigger DS received a special music disc containing two orchestral arrangements of Chrono Trigger music directed by Natsumi Kameoka ; Square Enix also held a random prize drawing for two signed copies of Chrono Trigger sheet music . Mitsuda expressed difficulty in selecting the tune for the orchestral medley , eventually picking a tune from each era and certain character themes . Mitsuda later wrote :
I feel that the way we interact with music has changed greatly in the last 13 years , even for me . For better or for worse , I think it would be extremely difficult to create something as " powerful " as I did 13 years ago today . But instead , all that I have learned in these 13 years allows me to compose something much more intricate . To be perfectly honest , I find it so hard to believe that songs from 13 years ago are loved this much . Keeping these feelings in mind , I hope to continue composing songs which are powerful , and yet intricate ... I hope that the extras like this bonus CD will help expand the world of Chrono Trigger , especially since we did a live recording . I hope there 's another opportunity to release an album of this sort one day .
Fans have heavily remixed the soundtrack , producing over 700 tributes and several cover performance albums released over the internet or sold at retail . These include Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda and Chrono Symphonic , the latter released by the remix website OverClocked ReMix . Japanese fans often sell their remix work in compilation albums popularly called " Dōjin " by Western fans .
Music from Chrono Trigger was performed live by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra in 1996 at the Orchestral Game Concert in Tokyo , Japan . A suite of music including Chrono Trigger is a part of the symphonic world @-@ tour with video game music Play ! A Video Game Symphony , where Mitsuda was in attendance for the concert 's world @-@ premiere in Chicago on May 27 , 2006 . His suite of Chrono music , comprising " Reminiscence " , " Chrono Trigger " , " Chrono Cross ~ Time 's Scar " , " Frog 's Theme " , and " To Far Away Times " was performed . Mitsuda has also appeared with the Eminence Symphony Orchestra as a special guest . Video Games Live has also featured medleys from Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross . A medley of Music from Chrono Trigger made of one of the four suites of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 which was produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series , conducted by Arnie Roth . Square Enix re @-@ released the game 's soundtrack , along with a video interview with Mitsuda in July 2009 .
= = = Original release = = =
The team planned to release Chrono Trigger in late 1994 , but release was pushed back to the following year . Early alpha versions of Chrono Trigger were demonstrated at the 1994 and 1995 V @-@ Jump festivals in Japan . A few months prior to the game 's release , Square shipped a beta version to magazine reviewers and game stores for review . An unfinished build of the game dated November 17 , 1994 , it contains unused music tracks , locations , and other features changed or removed from the final release — such as a dungeon named " Singing Mountain " and its eponymous tune . Some names also differed ; the character Soysaw ( Slash in the US version ) was known as Wiener , while Mayonnay ( Flea in the US version ) was named Ketchappa . The ROM image for this early version was eventually uploaded to the internet , prompting fans to explore and document the game 's differences , including two unused world map NPC character sprites and presumed additional sprites for certain non @-@ player characters . Around the game 's release , Yuji Horii commented that Chrono Trigger " went beyond [ the development team 's ] expectations " , and Hironobu Sakaguchi congratulated the game 's graphic artists and field designers . Sakaguchi intended to perfect the " sense of dancing you get from exploring Toriyama 's worlds " in the event that they would make a sequel .
Chrono Trigger used a 32 @-@ megabit ROM cartridge with battery @-@ backed RAM for saved games , lacking special on @-@ cartridge coprocessors . The Japanese release of Chrono Trigger included art for the game 's ending and running counts of items in the player 's status menu . Developers created the North American version before adding these features to the original build , inadvertently leaving in vestiges of Chrono Trigger 's early development ( such as the piece " Singing Mountain " ) . Hironobu Sakaguchi asked translator Ted Woolsey to localize Chrono Trigger for English audiences and gave him roughly thirty days to work . Lacking the help of a modern translation team , he memorized scenarios and looked at drafts of commercial player 's guides to put dialogue in context . Woolsey later reflected that he would have preferred two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , and blames his rushed schedule on the prevailing attitude in Japan that games were children 's toys rather than serious works . Some of his work was cut due to space constraints , though he still considered Trigger " one of the most satisfying games [ he ] ever worked on or played " . Nintendo of America censored certain dialogue , including references to breastfeeding , consumption of alcohol , and religion . Square shipped Trigger with two world maps , and Japanese buyers who preordered received holographic foil cards .
The original SNES edition of Chrono Trigger was released on the Wii download service Virtual Console in Japan on April 26 , 2011 , in the US on May 16 , 2011 , and in Europe on May 20 , 2011 . Previously in April 2008 , a Nintendo Power reader poll had identified Chrono Trigger as the third @-@ most wanted game for the Virtual Console . It went on to receive a perfect score of 10 out 10 on IGN .
= = = PlayStation release = = =
Square released an enhanced port of Chrono Trigger developed by Tose in Japan for the Sony PlayStation in 1999 . Square timed its release before that of Chrono Cross , the 1999 sequel to Chrono Trigger , to familiarize new players with story leading up to it . This version included anime cut scenes created by original character designer Akira Toriyama 's Bird Studio and animated by Toei Animation , as well as several bonus features , accessible after achieving various endings in the game . Scenarist Masato Kato attended planning meetings at Bird Studio to discuss how the ending cut scenes would illustrate subtle ties to Chrono Cross . The port was later released in North America in 2001 — along with a newly translated version of Final Fantasy IV — under the package title Final Fantasy Chronicles . Reviewers criticized Chronicles for its lengthy load times and an absence of new in @-@ game features . This same iteration was also re @-@ released as a downloadable game on the Playstation Network on October 4 , 2011 , for the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation Vita , and PlayStation Portable .
= = = Nintendo DS release = = =
On July 2 , 2008 , Square Enix announced that they were officially planning to bring Chrono Trigger to the Nintendo DS handheld platform . Composer Yasunori Mitsuda was pleased with the project , exclaiming " finally ! " after receiving the news from Square Enix and maintaining , " it 's still a very deep , very high @-@ quality game even when you play it today . I 'm very interested in seeing what kids today think about it when they play it . " Square retained Masato Kato to oversee the port , and Tose to program it . Kato explained , " I wanted it to be based on the original Super NES release rather than the PlayStation version . I thought we should look at the additional elements from the Playstation version , re @-@ examine and re @-@ work them to make it a complete edition . That ’ s how it struck me and I told the staff so later on . " Square Enix touted the game by displaying Akira Toriyama 's original art at the 2008 Tokyo Game Show .
The DS re @-@ release contains all of the bonus material from the PlayStation port , as well as other enhancements . The added features include a more accurate and revised translation by Tom Slattery , a dual @-@ screen mode which clears the top screen of all menus , a self @-@ completing map screen , and a default " run " option . It also featured the option to choose between two control schemes : one mirroring the original SNES controls , and the other making use of the DS 's touch screen . Masato Kato participated in development , overseeing the addition of the monster @-@ battling Arena , two new areas , the Lost Sanctum and the Dimensional Vortex , and a new ending that further foreshadows the events of Chrono Cross . One of the areas within the Vortex uses the " Singing Mountain " song that was featured on the original Chrono Trigger soundtrack . These new dungeons met with mixed reviews ; GameSpot called them " frustrating " and " repetitive " , while IGN noted that " the extra quests in the game connect extremely well . " It was a nominee for " Best RPG for the Nintendo DS " in IGN 's 2008 video game awards . The Nintendo DS version of Chrono Trigger was the 22nd best @-@ selling game of 2008 in Japan .
= = = Mobile release = = =
A cellphone version was released in Japan on i @-@ mode distribution service on August 25 , 2011 . An iOS version was released on December 8 , 2011 . This version is based on the Nintendo DS version , with graphics optimized for iOS . The game was later released for Android on October 29 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
The game was a bestseller in Japan . The game 's SNES and PS1 iterations have shipped more than 2 @.@ 36 million copies in Japan and 290 @,@ 000 abroad . The first two million copies sold in Japan were delivered in only two months , and the game ended 1995 as the third best @-@ selling game of the year behind Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation and Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest . The game was met with substantial success upon release in North America , and its rerelease on the PlayStation as part of the Final Fantasy Chronicles package topped the NPD TRSTS PlayStation sales charts for over six weeks . This version was later re @-@ released again in 2003 as part of Sony 's Greatest Hits line . Chrono Trigger DS has sold 490 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , 240 @,@ 000 in North America and 60 @,@ 000 in Europe as of March 2009 .
Chrono Trigger garnered much critical praise in addition to its brisk sales . Famicom Tsūshin gave Chrono Trigger first an 8 out of 10 and later a 9 out of 10 in their Reader Cross Review . Nintendo Power compared it favorably with Secret of Mana , Final Fantasy , and The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past , citing improved graphics , sound , story and gameplay over past RPG titles . GamePro praised the varied gameplay , the humor , the ability to replay the game with previously built @-@ up characters , and the graphics , which they said far exceed even those of Final Fantasy VI . They commented that combat is easier and more simplistic than in most RPGs , but argued that " Most players would choose an easier RPG of this caliber over a hundred more complicated , but less developed , fantasy role @-@ playing adventures . " They gave the game a perfect 5 out of 5 in all four categories : graphics , sound , control , and funfactor . Chrono Trigger won multiple awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 1995 video game awards , including Best Role @-@ Playing Game , Best Music in a Cartridge @-@ Based Game , and Best Super NES Game . Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Trigger as " original and extremely captivating " , singling out its graphics , sound and story as particularly impressive . IGN commented that " it may be filled with every imaginable console RPG cliché , but Chrono Trigger manages to stand out among the pack " with " a [ captivating ] story that doesn 't take itself too serious [ sic ] " and " one of the best videogame soundtracks ever produced " . Other reviewers ( such as the staff of RPGFan and RPGamer ) have criticized the game 's short length and relative ease compared to its peers . Victoria Earl of Gamasutra praised the game design for balancing " developer control with player freedom using carefully @-@ designed mechanics and a modular approach to narrative . "
Overall , critics lauded Chrono Trigger for its " fantastic yet not overly complex " story , simple but innovative gameplay , and high replay value afforded by multiple endings . Online score aggregator GameRankings lists the original Super NES version as the 2nd highest scoring RPG and 24th highest scoring game ever reviewed . In 2009 , Guinness World Records listed it as the 32nd most influential video game in history . Nintendo Power listed the ending to Chrono Trigger as one of the greatest endings in Nintendo history , due to over a dozen endings that players can experience . Tom Hall drew inspiration from Chrono Trigger and other console games in creating Anachronox , and used the campfire scene to illustrate the dramatic depth of Japanese RPGs .
Chrono Trigger is frequently listed among the greatest video games of all time . It has placed highly on all six of multimedia website IGN 's " top 100 games of all time " lists — 4th in 2002 , 6th in early 2005 , 13th in late 2005 , 2nd in 2006 , 18th in 2007 , and 2nd in 2008 . Game Informer called it its 15th favourite game in 2001 . Its staff thought that it was the best non @-@ Final Fantasy title Square had produced at the time . GameSpot included Chrono Trigger in " The Greatest Games of All Time " list released in April 2006 , and it also appeared as 28th on an " All Time Top 100 " list in a poll conducted by Japanese magazine Famitsu the same year . In 2004 , Chrono Trigger finished runner up to Final Fantasy VII in the inaugural GameFAQs video game battle . In 2008 , readers of Dengeki Online voted it the eighth best game ever made . Nintendo Power 's twentieth anniversary issue named it the fifth best Super NES game . In 2012 , it came 32nd place on GamesRadar 's " 100 best games of all time " list , and 1st place on its " Best JRPGs " list . GamesRadar named Chrono Trigger the 2nd best Super NES game of all time , behind Super Metroid .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Add @-@ ons = = =
Chrono Trigger inspired several related releases ; the first were three titles released for the Satellaview on July 31 , 1995 . They included Chrono Trigger : Jet Bike Special , a racing video game based on a minigame from the original ; Chrono Trigger : Character Library , featuring profiles on characters and monsters from the game ; and Chrono Trigger : Music Library , a collection of music from the game 's soundtrack . The contents of Character Library and Music Library were later included as extras in the PlayStation rerelease of Chrono Trigger . Production I.G created a 16 @-@ minute OVA entitled " Nuumamonja : Time and Space Adventures " which was shown at the Japanese V @-@ Jump Festival of July 31 , 1996 .
= = = Fangames = = =
There have been two notable attempts by Chrono Trigger fans to unofficially remake parts of the game for PC with a 3D graphics engine . Chrono Resurrection , an attempt at remaking ten small interactive cut scenes from Chrono Trigger , and Chrono Trigger Remake Project , which sought to remake the entire game , were forcibly terminated by Square Enix by way of a cease and desist order . Another group of fans created a sequel via a ROM hack of Chrono Trigger called Chrono Trigger : Crimson Echoes ; developed from 2004 to 2009 ; although feature @-@ length and virtually finished , it also was terminated through a cease & desist letter days before its May 2009 release . The letter also banned the dissemination of existing Chrono Trigger ROM hacks and documentation . After the cease and desist was issued , an incomplete version of the game was leaked in May 2009 , though due to the early state of the game , playability was limited . This was followed by a more complete ROM leak in January 2011 , which allowed the game to be played from beginning to end .
= = = Sequels = = =
Square released a fourth Satellaview game in 1996 , named Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki . Having thought that Trigger ended with " unfinished business " , scenarist Masato Kato wrote and directed the game . Dreamers functioned as a side story to Chrono Trigger , resolving a loose subplot from its predecessor . A short , text @-@ based game relying on minimal graphics and atmospheric music , the game never received an official release outside Japan — though it was translated by fans to English in April 2003 . Square planned to release Radical Dreamers as an easter egg in the PlayStation edition of Chrono Trigger , but Kato was unhappy with his work and halted its inclusion .
Square released Chrono Cross for the Sony PlayStation in 1999 . Cross is a sequel to Chrono Trigger featuring a new setting and cast of characters . Presenting a theme of parallel worlds , the story followed the protagonist Serge — a teenage boy thrust into an alternate reality in which he died years earlier . With the help of a thief named Kid , Serge endeavors to discover the truth behind his apparent death and obtain the Frozen Flame , a mythical artifact . Regarded by writer and director Masato Kato as an effort to " redo Radical Dreamers properly " , Chrono Cross borrowed certain themes , scenarios , characters , and settings from Dreamers . Yasunori Mitsuda also adapted certain songs from Radical Dreamers while scoring Cross . Radical Dreamers was consequently removed from the series ' main continuity , considered an alternate dimension . Chrono Cross shipped 1 @.@ 5 million copies and was almost universally praised by critics .
There are no plans for a new title , despite a statement from Hironobu Sakaguchi in 2001 that the developers of Chrono Cross wanted to make a new Chrono game . The same year , Square applied for a trademark for the names Chrono Break in the United States and Chrono Brake in Japan . However , the United States trademark was dropped in 2003 . Director Takashi Tokita mentioned " Chrono Trigger 2 " in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English . Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005 , while Hironobu Sakaguchi remarked in April 2007 that his creation Blue Dragon was an " extension of [ Chrono Trigger ] . " During a Cubed ³ interview on February 1 , 2007 , Square Enix 's Senior Vice President Hiromichi Tanaka said that although no sequel is currently planned , some sort of sequel is still possible if the Chrono Cross developers can be reunited . Yasunori Mitsuda has expressed interest in scoring a new game , but warned that " there are a lot of politics involved " with the series . He stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development . The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking , " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " In Electronic Gaming Monthly 's June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the first May Famitsu of 2009 , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked , " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! "
In July 2010 , Feargus Urquhart , replying to an interview question about what franchises he would like to work on , said that " if [ he ] could come across everything that [ he ] played " , he would choose a Chrono Trigger game . At the time , Urquhart 's company Obsidian Entertainment was making Dungeon Siege III for Square Enix . Urquhart said : " You make RPGs , we make RPGs , it would be great to see what we could do together . And they really wanted to start getting into Western RPGs . And , so it kind of all ended up fitting together . " Yoshinori Kitase revealed in 2011 that he used the time travel mechanics of Chrono Trigger as a starting point for that of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 .
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= Battle of Belgium =
The Battle of Belgium or Belgian Campaign , often referred to within Belgium as the 18 Days ' Campaign ( French : Campagne des 18 jours , Dutch : Achttiendaagse Veldtocht ) , formed part of the greater Battle of France , an offensive campaign by Germany during the Second World War . It took place over 18 days in May 1940 and ended with the German occupation of Belgium following the surrender of the Belgian Army .
On 10 May 1940 , Germany invaded Luxembourg , the Netherlands , and Belgium under the operational plan Fall Gelb ( Case Yellow ) . The Allied armies attempted to halt the German Army in Belgium , believing it to be the main German thrust . After the French had fully committed the best of the Allied armies to Belgium between 10 and 12 May , the Germans enacted the second phase of their operation , a break @-@ through , or sickle cut , through the Ardennes , and advanced toward the English Channel . The German Army ( Heer ) reached the Channel after five days , encircling the Allied armies . The Germans gradually reduced the pocket of Allied forces , forcing them back to the sea . The Belgian Army surrendered on 28 May 1940 , ending the battle .
The Battle of Belgium included the first tank battle of the war , the Battle of Hannut . It was the largest tank battle in history up to that date but was later surpassed by the battles of the North African campaign and the Eastern Front . The battle also included the Battle of Fort Eben @-@ Emael , the first strategic airborne operation using paratroopers ever attempted .
The German official history stated that in the 18 days of bitter fighting , the Belgian Army were tough opponents , and spoke of the " extraordinary bravery " of its soldiers . The Belgian collapse forced the Allied withdrawal from continental Europe . The British Royal Navy subsequently evacuated Belgian ports during Operation Dynamo , allowing the British Army to escape and continue military operations . France reached its own armistice with Germany in June 1940 . Belgium was occupied by the Germans until the autumn of 1944 , when it was liberated by the Western Allies .
= = Pre @-@ battle plans = =
= = = Belgium 's strained alliances = = =
The Belgian strategy for a defence against German aggression faced political as well as military problems . In terms of military strategy , the Belgians were unwilling to stake everything on a linear defence of the Belgian – German border , in an extension of the Maginot Line . Such a move would leave the Belgians vulnerable to a German assault in their rear , through an attack on the Netherlands . Such a strategy would also rely on the French to move quickly into Belgium and support the garrison there .
Politically , the Belgians did not trust the French . Marshal Philippe Pétain had suggested a French strike at Germany 's Ruhr area using Belgium as a spring @-@ board in October 1930 and again in January 1933 . Belgium feared it would be drawn into a war regardless , and sought to avoid that eventuality . The Belgians also feared being drawn into a war as a result of the French – Soviet pact of May 1935 . The Franco @-@ Belgian agreement stipulated Belgium was to mobilise if the Germans did , but what was not clear was whether Belgium would have to mobilise in the event of a German invasion of Poland .
The Belgians much preferred an alliance with the United Kingdom . The British had entered the First World War in response to the German violation of Belgian neutrality . The Belgian Channel ports had offered the German Imperial Navy valuable bases , and such an attack would offer the German Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe bases to engage in strategic offensive operations against the United Kingdom in the coming conflict . But the British government paid little attention to the concerns of the Belgians . The lack of this commitment ensured the Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance , the day before the remilitarisation of the Rhineland . The lack of opposition to the remilitarisation served to convince the Belgians that France and Britain were unwilling to fight for their own strategic interests , let alone Belgium 's . The Belgian General Staff was determined to fight for its own interests , alone if necessary .
= = = Belgian place in Allied strategy = = =
The French were infuriated at King Leopold III 's open declaration of neutrality in October 1936 . The French Army saw its strategic assumptions undermined ; it could no longer expect closer cooperation with the Belgians in defending the latter 's eastern borders , enabling a German attack to be checked well forward of the French border . The French were dependent on how much cooperation they could extract from the Belgians . Such a situation deprived the French any prepared defences in Belgium to forestall an attack , a situation which the French had wanted to avoid as it meant engaging the German Panzer Divisions in a mobile battle . The French considered invading Belgium immediately in response to a German attack on the country . The Belgians , recognising the danger posed by the Germans , secretly made their own defence policies , troop movement information , communications , fixed defence dispositions , intelligence and air reconnaissance arrangements available to the French military attaché in Brussels .
The Allied plan to aid Belgium was the Dyle Plan ; the cream of the Allied forces , which included the French armoured divisions , would advance to the Dyle river in response to a German invasion . The choice of an established Allied line lay in either reinforcing the Belgians in the east of the country , at the Meuse – Albert Canal line , and holding the Scheldt Estuary , thus linking the French defences in the south with the Belgian forces protecting Ghent and Antwerp , seemed to be the soundest defensive strategy . The weakness of the plan was that , politically at least , it abandoned most of eastern Belgium to the Germans . Militarily it would put the Allied rear at right angles to the French frontier defences ; while for the British , their communications located at the Bay of Biscay ports , would be parallel to their front . Despite the risk of committing forces to central Belgium and an advance to the Schedlt or Dyle lines , which would be vulnerable to an outflanking move , Maurice Gamelin , the French commander , approved the plan and it remained the Allied strategy upon the outbreak of war .
The British , with no army in the field and behind in rearmament , was in no position to challenge French strategy , which had assumed the prominent role of the Western Alliance . Having little ability to oppose the French , the British strategy for military action came in the form of strategic bombing of the Ruhr industry .
= = = Belgian military strategy = = =
Upon the official Belgian withdrawal from the Western Alliance , the Belgians refused to engage in any official staff meetings with the French or British military staff for fear of compromising its neutrality . The Belgians did not regard a German invasion as inevitable and were determined that if an invasion did take place it would be effectively resisted by new fortifications such as Eben Emael . The Belgians had taken measures to reconstruct their defences along the border with the German state upon Adolf Hitler 's rise to power in January 1933 . The Belgian government had watched with increasing alarm the German withdrawal from the League of Nations , its repudiation of the Treaty of Versailles and its violation of the Locarno Treaties . The government increased expenditure on modernising the fortifications at Namur and Liège . New lines of defence were established along the Maastricht – Bois @-@ le @-@ Duc canal , joining the Meuse , Scheldt and the Albert Canal . The protection of the eastern frontier , based mainly on the destruction of a number of roads , was entrusted to new formations ( frontier cyclist units and the newly formed Chasseurs Ardennais ) . By 1935 , the Belgian defences had been completed . Even so , it was felt that the defences were no longer adequate . A significant mobile reserve was needed to guard the rear areas , and as a result it was considered that the protection against a sudden assault by German forces was not sufficient . Significant manpower reserves were also needed , but a bill made for the provision of longer military service and training for the army was rejected by the public on the basis that it would increase Belgium 's military commitments as well as the request of the Allies to engage in conflicts far from home .
King Leopold III made a speech on 14 October 1936 in front of the Council of Ministers , in an attempt to persuade the people ( and its Government ) that the defences needed strengthening . He outlined three main military points for Belgium 's increased rearmament :
a ) German rearmament , following upon the complete re @-@ militarisation of Italy and Russia ( the Soviet Union ) , caused most other states , even those that were deliberately pacifistic , like Switzerland and the Netherlands , to take exceptional precautions .
b ) There has been such a vast change in the methods of warfare as a result of technical progress , particularly in aviation and mechanization , that the initial operations of armed conflict could now be of such force , speed and magnitude as to be particularly alarming to small countries like Belgium .
c ) Our anxieties have been increased by the lightning reoccupation of the Rhineland and the fact that bases for the start of a possible German invasion have been moved near to our frontier .
On 24 April 1937 , the French and British delivered a public declaration that Belgium 's security was paramount to the Western Allies and that they would defend their frontiers accordingly against aggression of any sort , whether this aggression was directed solely at Belgium , or as a means of obtaining bases from which to wage war against " other states " . The British and French , under those circumstances , released Belgium from her Locarno obligations to render mutual assistance in the event of German aggression toward Poland , while the British and French maintained their military obligations to Belgium .
Militarily , the Belgians considered the Wehrmacht to be stronger than the Allies , particular the British Army and engaging in overtures to the Allies would result in Belgium becoming a battleground without adequate Allies . The Belgians and French remained confused about what was expected of each other if or when , hostilities commenced . The Belgians were determined to hold the border fortifications along the Albert Canal and the Meuse , without withdrawing , until the French Army arrived to support them . Gamelin was not keen on pushing his Dyle plan that far . He was concerned that the Belgians would be driven out of their defences and would retreat to Antwerp , as in 1914 . In fact , the Belgian divisions protecting the border were to withdraw and retreat southward to link up with French forces . This information was not given to Gamelin . As far as the Belgians were concerned , the Dyle Plan had advantages . Instead of the limited Allied advance to the Scheldt , or meeting the Germans on the Franco @-@ Belgian border , the move to the Dyle river would reduce the Allied front in central Belgium by 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) , freeing more forces for use as a strategic reserve . It was felt it would save more Belgian territory , in particular the eastern industrial regions . It also had the advantage of absorbing Dutch and Belgian Army formations ( including some 20 Belgian divisions ) . Gamelin was to justify the Dyle Plan after the defeat using these arguments .
On 10 January 1940 , in an episode known as the Mechelen Incident , a German Army Major Hellmuth Reinberger crash @-@ landed in a Messerschmitt Bf 108 near Mechelen @-@ aan @-@ de @-@ Maas . Reinberger was carrying the first plans for the German invasion of western Europe which , as Gamelin had expected , entailed a repeat of the 1914 Schlieffen Plan and a German thrust through the Belgium ( which was expanded by the Wehrmacht to include the Netherlands ) and into France .
The Belgians suspected a ruse , but the plans were taken seriously . Belgian intelligence and the military attaché in Cologne correctly suggested the Germans would not commence the invasion with this plan . It suggested that the Germans would try an attack through the Belgian Ardennes and advance to Calais with the aim of encircling the Allied armies in Belgium . The Belgians had correctly predicted the Germans would attempt a Kesselschlacht ( literally " Cauldron battle " , meaning encirclement ) , to destroy its enemies . The Belgians had predicted the exact German plan as offered by Erich von Manstein .
The Belgian High Command warned the French and British of their concerns . They feared that the Dyle plan would put not just the Belgian strategic position in danger , but also the entire left wing of the Allied front . King Leopold and General Raoul Van Overstraeten , the King 's Aide de Camp , warned Gamelin and the French Army Command of their concerns on 8 March and 14 April . They were ignored .
= = = Belgian plans for defensive operations = = =
The Belgian plan , in the event of German aggression [ italics in original ] provided for :
( a ) A delaying position along the Albert Canal from Antwerp to Liège and the Meuse from Liège to Namur , which was to be held long enough to allow French and British troops to occupy the line Antwerp – Namur – Givet . It was anticipated that the forces of the guarantor Powers would be in action on the third day of an invasion .
( b ) Withdrawal to the Antwerp – Namur position .
( c ) The Belgian Army was to hold the sector – excluding Leuven , but including Antwerp – as part of the main Allied defensive position .
In an agreement with the British and French Armies , the French 7th Army under the command of Henri Giraud was to advance into Belgium , past the Scheldt Estuary in Zeeland if possible , to Breda , in the Netherlands . The British Army 's British Expeditionary Force or BEF , commanded by General John Vereker , Lord Gort , was to occupy the central position in the Brussels – Ghent gap supporting the Belgian Army holding the main defensive positions some 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of Brussels . The main defensive position ringing Antwerp would be protected by the Belgians , barely 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the city . The French 7th Army was to reach the Zeeland or Breda , just inside the Dutch border . The French would then be in a position to protect the left flank of the Belgian Army forces protecting Antwerp and threaten the German northern flank .
Further east , delaying positions were constructed in the immediate tactical zones along the Albert Canal , which joined with the defences of the Meuse west of Maastricht . The line deviated southward , and continued to Liege . The Maastricht – Liège gap was heavily protected . Fort Eben @-@ Emael guarded the city 's northern flank , the tank country lying in the strategic depths of the Belgian forces occupying the city and the axis of advance into the west of the country . Further lines of defence ran south west , covering the Liege – Namur axis . The Belgian Army also had the added benefit of the French 1st Army , advancing toward Gembloux and Hannut , on the southern flank of the BEF and covering the Sambre sector . This covered the gap in the Belgian defences between the main Belgian positions on the Dyle line with Namur to the south . Further south still , the French 9th Army advanced to the Givet – Dinant axis on the Meuse river . The French 2nd Army was responsible for the last 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of front , covering Sedan , the lower Meuse , the Belgian – Luxembourg border and the northern flank of the Maginot line .
= = = German operational plans = = =
The German plan of attack required that Army Group B would advance and draw in the Allied First Army Group into central Belgium , while Army Group A conducted the surprise assault through the Ardennes . Belgium was to act as a secondary front with regard to importance . Army Group B was given only limited numbers of armoured and mobile units while the vast majority of the Army Group comprised infantry divisions . After the English Channel was reached , all Panzer division units and most motorised infantry were removed from Army Group B and given to Army Group A , to strengthen the German lines of communication and to prevent an Allied breakout .
Such a plan would still fail if sufficient ground could not be taken quickly in Belgium to squeeze the allies against two fronts . Preventing this from happening were the defences of Fort Eben @-@ Emael and the Albert Canal . The three bridges over the canal were the key to allowing Army Group B a high operational tempo . The bridges at Veldwezelt , Vroenhoven and Kanne in Belgium , and Maastricht on the Dutch border were the target . Failure to capture the bridges would leave Reichenau 's German 6th Army , the southern @-@ most army of Group B , trapped in the Maastricht @-@ Albert Canal enclave and subjected to the fire of Eben @-@ Emael . The fort had to be captured or destroyed .
Adolf Hitler summoned Lieutenant @-@ General Kurt Student of the 7 . Flieger @-@ Division ( 7th Air Division ) to discuss the assault . It was first suggested that a conventional parachute drop be made by airborne forces to seize and destroy the forts ' guns before the land units approached . Such a suggestion was rejected as the Junkers Ju 52 transports were too slow and were likely to be vulnerable to Dutch and Belgian anti @-@ aircraft guns . Other factors for its refusal were the weather conditions , which might blow the paratroopers away from the fort and disperse them too widely . A seven @-@ second drop from a Ju 52 at minimum operational height led to a dispersion over 300 metres alone .
Hitler had noticed one potential flaw in the defences . The roofs were flat and unprotected ; he demanded to know if a glider , such as the DFS 230 , could land on them . Student replied that it could be done , but only by 12 aircraft and in daylight ; this would deliver 80 – 90 paratroopers onto the target . Hitler then revealed the tactical weapon that would make this strategic operation work , introducing the Hohlladungwaffe ( hollow @-@ charge ) – a 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) explosive weapon which would destroy the Belgian gun emplacements . It was this tactical unit that would spearhead the first strategic airborne operation in history .
= = Forces involved = =
= = = Belgian forces = = =
The Belgian Army could muster 22 divisions , which contained 1 @,@ 338 artillery pieces but just 10 AMC 35 tanks . However , the Belgian combat vehicles included 200 T @-@ 13 tank destroyers . These had an excellent 47 mm antitank gun and a coaxial FN30 machine gun in a turret . The Belgians also possessed 42 T @-@ 15s . They were officially described as armoured cars but were actually fully tracked tanks with a 13 @.@ 2 mm turret machine gun . The standard Belgian anti @-@ tank gun was the 47 mm FRC , towed either by trucks or by fully tracked armoured Utilitie B @-@ tractors . One report states that a round from a 47 mm gun went straight through a Sd kfz 231 and penetrated the armour of the Panzer IV behind it . These Belgian guns were better than the 25 mm and 37 mm guns of respectively the French and the Germans .
The Belgians began mobilisation on 25 August 1939 and by May 1940 mounted a field army of 18 infantry divisions , two divisions of partly motorised Chasseurs Ardennais and two motorised cavalry divisions , a force totaling some 600 @,@ 000 men . Belgian reserves may have been able to field 900 @,@ 000 men . The army lacked armour and anti @-@ aircraft guns .
After the completion of the Belgian Army 's mobilisation , it could muster five Regular Corps and two reserve Army Corps consisting of 12 regular infantry divisions , two divisions of Chasseurs Ardennais , six reserve infantry divisions , one brigade of Cyclist Frontier Guards , one Cavalry Corps of two divisions , and one brigade of motorised cavalry . The Army contained two anti @-@ aircraft artillery and four artillery regiments , and an unknown number of fortress , engineer , and signals force personnel .
The Belgian Naval Corps ( Corps de Marine ) was resurrected in 1939 . Most of the Belgian merchant fleet , some 100 ships , evaded capture by the Germans . Under the terms of a Belgian – Royal Navy agreement , these ships and their 3 @,@ 350 crewmen were placed under British control for the duration of hostilities . The General Headquarters of the Belgian Admiralty was at Ostend under the command of Major Henry Decarpentrie . The First Naval Division was based at Ostend , while the Second and Third divisions were based at Zeebrugge and Antwerp .
The Aéronautique Militaire Belge ( Belgian Air Force - AéMI ) had barely begun to modernise their aircraft technology . The AéMI had ordered Brewster Buffalo , Fiat CR.42 , and Hawker Hurricane fighters , Koolhoven F.K.56 trainers , Fairey Battle and Caproni Ca.312 light bombers , and Caproni Ca.335 fighter @-@ reconnaissance aircraft , but only the Fiats , Hurricanes , and Battles had been delivered . The shortage of modern types meant single @-@ seat versions of the Fairey Fox light bomber were being used as fighters . The AéMI possessed 250 combat aircraft . At least 90 were fighters , 12 were bombers and 12 were reconnaissance aircraft . Only 50 were of reasonably modern standard . When liaison and transport aircraft from all services are included , the total strength was 377 ; however only 118 of these were serviceable on 10 May 1940 . Of this number around 78 were fighters and 40 were bombers .
The AéMI was commanded by Paul Hiernaux , who had received his pilot 's license just before the outbreak of World War I , and had risen to the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in 1938 . Hiernaux organised the service into three Régiments d 'Aéronautique ( air regiments ) : the 1er with 60 aircraft , the 2ème with 53 aircraft , and the 3ème with 79 aircraft .
= = = French forces = = =
The Belgians were afforded substantial support by the French Army . The French 1st Army included General René Prioux 's Cavalry Corps . The Corps was given the 2nd Light Mechanized Division ( 2e Division Légère Mécanique , or 2e DLM ) and the 3rd Light Mechanized Division ( 3e DLM ) , which were allocated to defend the Gembloux gap . The armoured forces consisted of 176 of the formidable SOMUA S35s and 239 Hotchkiss H35 light tanks . Both of these types , in armour and firepower , were superior to most German types . The 3e DLM contained 90 S35s and some 140 H35s alone .
The French 7th Army was assigned to protect the northernmost part of the Allied front . It contained the 1st Light Mechanized Division ( 1re DLM ) , the 25th Motorised Infantry Division ( 25e Division d 'Infanterie Motorisée , or 25e DIM ) and the 9th Motorised Infantry Division ( 9e DIM ) . This force would advance to Breda in the Netherlands .
The third French army to see action on Belgian soil was the 9th . It was weaker than both the 7th and the 1st Armies . The 9th Army was allocated infantry divisions , with the exception of the 5th Motorised Infantry Division ( 5e DIM ) . Its mission was to protect the southern flank of the Allied armies , south of the Sambre river and just north of Sedan . Further south , in France , was the French 2nd Army , protecting the Franco @-@ Belgian border between Sedan and Montmédy . The two weakest French armies were thus protecting the area of the main German thrust .
= = = British forces = = =
The British contributed the weakest force to Belgium . The BEF , under the command of General Lord Gort VC , consisted of just 152 @,@ 000 men in two corps of two divisions each . It was hoped to field two armies of two Corps each , but this scale of mobilisation never took place . The I Corps was commanded by Lt @-@ Gen. John Dill , later Lt @-@ Gen. Michael Barker , who was in turn replaced by Major @-@ General Harold Alexander . Lt @-@ Gen. Alan Brooke commanded II Corps . Later the III Corps under Lt @-@ Gen. Ronald Adam was added to the British order of battle . A further 9 @,@ 392 Royal Air Force ( RAF ) personnel of the RAF Advanced Air Striking Force under the command of Air Vice @-@ Marshal Patrick Playfair was to support operations in Belgium . By May 1940 the BEF had grown to 394 @,@ 165 men , of whom more than 150 @,@ 000 were part of the logistical rear area organisations and had little military training . On 10 May 1940 , the BEF comprised just 10 divisions ( not all at full strength ) , 1 @,@ 280 artillery pieces and 310 tanks .
= = = German forces = = =
Army Group B was commanded by Fedor von Bock . It was allocated 26 infantry and three Panzer divisions for the invasion of the Netherlands and Belgium . Of the three Panzer Divisions , the 3rd and 4th were to operate in Belgium under the command of the 6th Army 's XVI Corps . The 9th Panzer Division was attached to the 18th Army which , after the Battle of the Netherlands , would support the push into Belgium alongside the 18th Army and cover its northern flank .
Armour strength in Army Group B amounted to 808 tanks , of which 282 were Panzer Is , 288 were Panzer IIs , 123 were Panzer IIIs and 66 were Panzer IVs ; 49 command tanks were also operational . The 3rd Panzer Division 's armoured regiments consisted of 117 Panzer Is , 128 Panzer IIs , 42 Panzer IIIs , 26 Panzer IVs and 27 command tanks . The 4th Panzer Division had 136 Panzer Is , 105 Panzer IIs , 40 Panzer IIIs , 24 Panzer IVs and 10 command tanks . The 9th Panzer , scheduled initially for operations in the Netherlands , was the weakest division with only 30 Panzer Is , 54 Panzer IIs , 123 , 66 Panzer IIIs and 49 Panzer IVs . The elements drawn from the 7th Air Division and the 22nd Airlanding Division , that were to take part in the attack on Fort Eben @-@ Emael , were named Sturmabteilung Koch ( Assault Detachment Koch ) ; named after the commanding officer of the group , Hauptmann Walter Koch . The force was assembled in November 1939 . It was primarily composed of parachutists from the 1st Parachute Regiment and engineers from the 7th Air Division , as well as a small group of Luftwaffe pilots . The Luftwaffe allocated 1 @,@ 815 combat , 487 transport aircraft and 50 gliders for the assault on the Low Countries .
The initial air strikes over Belgian air space were to be conducted by IV . Fliegerkorps under General der Flieger Generaloberst Alfred Keller . Keller 's force consisted of Lehrgeschwader 1 ( Stab . I. , II . , III . , IV . ) , Kampfgeschwader 30 ( Stab . I. , II . , III . ) and Kampfgeschwader 27 ( III . ) . On 10 May Keller had 363 aircraft ( 224 serviceable ) augmented by Generalmajor Wolfram von Richthofen 's VIII . Fliegerkorps with 550 ( 420 serviceable ) aircraft . They in turn were supported by Oberst Kurt @-@ Bertram von Döring 's Jagdfliegerführer 2 , with 462 fighters ( 313 serviceable ) .
Keller 's IV . Fliegerkorps headquarters would operate from Düsseldorf , LG 1 . Kampfgeschwader 30 which was based at Oldenburg and its III . Gruppe were based at Marx . Support for Döring and Von Richthofen came from present @-@ day North Rhine @-@ Westphalia and bases in Grevenbroich , Mönchengladbach , Dortmund and Essen .
= = Battle = =
= = = Luftwaffe operations : 10 May = = =
During the evening of 9 May , the Belgian Military attaché in Berlin intimated that the Germans intended to attack the following day . Offensive movement of enemy forces were detected on the border . At 00 : 10 on 10 May 1940 , at General Headquarters an unspecified squadron in Brussels gave the alarm . A full state of alert was instigated at 01 : 30 am . Belgian forces took up their deployment positions . The Allied armies had enacted their Dyle plan on the morning of 10 May , and were approaching the Belgian rear . King Leopold had gone to his Headquarters near Briedgen , Antwerp .
The Luftwaffe was to spearhead the aerial battle in the low countries . Its first task was the elimination of the Belgian air contingent . Despite an overwhelming numerical superiority of 1 @,@ 375 aircraft , 957 of which were serviceable , the air campaign in Belgium had limited success overall on the first day . At roughly 04 : 00 , the first air raids were conducted against airfields and communication centres . It still had a tremendous impact on the AéMI , which had only 179 aircraft on 10 May .
Much of the success achieved was down to Richthofen 's subordinates , particularly Kampfgeschwader 77 and its commander Oberst Dr. Johann @-@ Volkmar Fisser whose attachment to VIII . Fliegerkorps , was noted by Generalmajor Wilhelm Speidel . He commented it " ... was the result of the well @-@ known tendency of the commanding general to conduct his own private war " . Fisser 's KG 77 destroyed the AéMI main bases , with help from KG 54 . Fighters from Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 ) eliminated two Belgian squadrons at Neerhespen , and during the afternoon , I. / St.G 2 destroyed nine of the 15 Fiat CR.42 fighters at Brusthem . At Schaffen @-@ Diest , three Hawker Hurricanes of Escadrille 2 / I / 2 were destroyed and another six damaged when a wave of He 111s caught them as they were about to take off . A further two were lost in destroyed hangars . At Nivelles airfield , 13 CR42s were destroyed . The only other success was KG 27s destruction of eight aircraft at Belesle .
In aerial combat the battles were also one @-@ sided . Two He 111s , two Do 17s and three Messerschmitt Bf 109s were shot down by Gloster Gladiators and Hurricanes . In return , eight Belgian Gladiators , five Fairey Foxs and one CR42 was shot down by JG 1 , 21 and 27 . No. 18 Squadron RAF sent two Bristol Blenheims on operations over the Belgian front , but lost both to Bf 109s . By the end of the 10 May , the official German figures indicate claims for 30 Belgian aircraft destroyed on the ground , and 14 ( plus the two RAF bombers ) in the air for 10 losses . The victory claims are likely an undercount . A total of 83 Belgian machines – mostly trainers and " squadron hacks " , were destroyed . The AéMI flew only 146 sorties in the first six days . Between 16 May and 28 May , the AéMI flew just 77 operations . It spent most of its time retreating and fuel withdrawing in the face of Luftwaffe attacks .
= = = 10 – 11 May : The border Battles = = =
The German planners had recognised the need to eliminate Fort Eben @-@ Emael if their army was to break into the interior of Belgium . It decided to deploy airborne forces ( Fallschirmjäger ) to land inside the fortress perimeter using gliders.Using special explosives ( and flamethrowers ) to disable the defences , the Fallschirmjäger then entered the fortress . In the ensuing battle , German infantry overcame the defenders of the I Belgian Corps ' 7th Infantry Division in 24 hours . The main Belgian defence line had been breached and German infantry of the 18th Army had passed through it rapidly . Moreover , German soldiers had established bridgeheads across the Albert Canal before the British were able to reach it some 48 hours later . The Chasseurs Ardennais further south , on the orders of their commander , withdrew behind the Meuse , destroying some bridges in their wake . The German airborne forces were assisted by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas of III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ( StG 2 ) and I. / Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( StG 77 ) helped suppress the defences . Henschel Hs 123s of II . ( S ) . / Lehrgeschwader 2 ( LG 2 ) which assisted in the capture of the bridges at Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt in the immediate area .
Further successful German airborne offensive operations were carried out in Luxembourg which seized five crossings and communication routes leading into central Belgium . The offensive , carried out by 125 volunteers of the 34th Infantry Division under the command of Wenner Hedderich , achieved their missions by flying to their objectives using Fieseler Fi 156 Störche . The cost was the loss of five aircraft and 30 dead . With the fort breached , the Belgian 4th and 7th Infantry Divisions were confronted by the prospect of fighting an enemy on relatively sound terrain ( for armour operations ) . The 7th Division , with its 2nd and 18th Grenadier Regiments and 2nd Carabineers , struggled to hold their positions and contain the German infantry on the west bank . The Belgian tactical units engaged in several counterattacks . At one point , at Briedgen , they succeeded in retaking the bridge and blowing it up . At the other points , Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt , the Germans had had time to establish strong bridgeheads and repulsed the attacks .
A little known third airborne operation , Operation Niwi , was also conducted on 10 May in southern Belgium . The objectives of this operation was to land two companies of the 3rd battalion Grossdeutschland Infantry Regiment by Fi 156 aircraft at Nives and Witry in the south of the country , in order to clear a path for the 1st and 2nd Panzer divisions which were advancing through the Belgian – Luxembourg Ardennes . The original plan called for the use of Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft , but the short landing capability of the Fi 156 ( 27 metres ) saw 200 of these aircraft used in the assault . The operational mission was to :
1 . Cut signal communications and message links on the Neufchâteau – Bastogne and Neufchâteau – Martelange roads . [ Neufchâteau being the largest southern @-@ most city in Belgium ]
2 . Prevent the approach of reserves from the Neufchâteau area
3 . Facilitate the capture of pillboxes and the advance by exerting pressure against the line of pillboxes along the border from the rear .
The German infantry were engaged by several Belgian patrols equipped with T @-@ 15 armoured cars . Several Belgian counterattacks were repulsed , among them an attack by the 1st Light Chasseurs Ardennais Division . Unsupported , the Germans faced a counterattack later in the evening by elements of the French 5th Cavalry Division , dispatched by General Charles Huntziger from the French 2nd Army , which had " massive " tank strength . The Germans were forced to retreat . The French , however , failed to pursue the fleeing German units , stopping at a dummy barrier . By the next morning , the 2nd Panzer Division had reached the area , and the mission had largely been accomplished . From the German perspective , the operation hindered rather than helped Heinz Guderian 's Panzer Corps . The regiment had blocked the roads and , against the odds , prevented French reinforcements reaching the Belgian – Franco @-@ Luxembourg border , but it also destroyed Belgian telephone communications . This inadvertently prevented the Belgian field command recalling the units along the border . The 1st Belgian Light Infantry did not receive the signal to retreat and engaged in a severe fire @-@ fight with the German armour , slowing down their advance .
The failure of the Franco – Belgian forces to hold the Ardennes gap was fatal . The Belgians had withdrawn laterally upon the initial invasion and had demolished and blocked routes of advance , which held up the French 2nd Army units moving north toward Namur and Huy . Devoid of any centre of resistance , the German assault engineers had cleared the obstacles unchallenged . The delay that the Belgian Ardennes Light Infantry , considered to be an elite formation , could have inflicted upon the advancing German armour was proved by the fight for Bodange , where the 1st Panzer Division was held up for a total of eight hours . This battle was a result of a breakdown in communications and ran contrary to the operational intentions of the Belgian Army .
Meanwhile , in the central Belgian sector , having failed to restore their front by means of ground attack , the Belgians attempted to bomb the bridges and positions that the Germans had captured intact and were holding on 11 May . Belgian Fairey Battles of 5 / III / 3 escorted by six Gloster Gladiators attacked the Albert Canal bridges . Bf 109s from I. / Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) and I. / JG 27 intercepted and JG 1 shot down four Gladiators and both units destroyed six Battles and heavily damaged the remaining three . Eight CR.42s were evacuated from Brustem to Grimbergen near Brussels but seven Gladiators and the last remaining Hurricanes from 2 / I / 2 Escadrille were destroyed at Beauvechain Air Base and Le Culot by He 111s and I. / JG 27 respectively . The RAF contributed to the effort to attack the bridges . The British dispatched Bristol Blenheims from 110 and 21 Squadron — the first squadron lost two , one to I. / JG 27 . 21 Squadron suffered damage to most of the bombers because of intense ground @-@ fire . The French Armée de l 'air dispatched LeO 451s from GBI / 12 and GBII / 12 escorted by 18 Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 of GCIII / 3 and GCII / 6 . The operation failed and one bomber was lost while four M.S.406s fell to I.JG 1 . The French claimed five . Meanwhile , 114 Squadron lost six Blenheims destroyed when Dornier Do 17s of Kampfgeschwader 2 bombed their airfield at Vraux . Another Battle of No. 150 Squadron RAF was lost in another raid .
The German counter @-@ air operations were spearheaded by Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) under the command of Hans @-@ Hugo Witt , which was responsible for 82 of the German claims in aerial combat between 11 and 13 May . Despite the apparent success of the German fighter units , the air battle was not one @-@ sided . On the morning of 11 May ten Ju 87s of StG 2 were shot down attacking Belgian forces in the Namur – Dinant gap , despite the presence of two Jagdgeschwader — 27 and 51 . Nevertheless , the Germans reported a weakening in Allied air resistance in northern Belgium by 13 May .
During the night of 11 May , the British 3rd Infantry Division under the command of General Bernard Law Montgomery , reached its position on the Dyle river at Leuven . As it did so the Belgian 10th Infantry Division , occupying the position , mistook them for German parachutists and fired on them . The Belgians refused to yield but Montgomery claimed to have got his way by placing himself under the command of the Belgian forces , knowing that when the Germans came within artillery range the Belgians would withdraw .
Alan Brooke , commander of the British II Corps sought to put the matter of cooperation right with King Leopold . The King discussed the matter with Brooke , who felt a compromise could be reached . Van Overstraeten , the King 's military aide , stepped in and said that the 10th Belgian Infantry Division could not be moved . Instead , the British should move further south and remain completely clear of Brussels . Brooke told the King that the 10th Belgian Division was on the wrong side of the Gamelin line and was exposed . Leopold deferred to his advisor and chief of staff . Brooke found Overstaeten to be ignorant of the situation and the dispositions of the BEF . Given that the left flank of the BEF rested on its Belgian ally , the British were now unsure about Belgian military capabilities . The Allies had more serious grounds for complaint about the Belgian anti @-@ tank defences along the Dyle line , that covered the Namur – Perwez gap which was not protected by any natural obstacles . Only a few days before the attack , General Headquarters had discovered the Belgians had sited their anti @-@ tank defences ( de Cointet defences ) several miles east of the Dyle between Namur – Perwez .
After holding onto the Albert Canal 's west bank for nearly 36 hours , the 4th and 7th Belgian infantry divisions withdrew . The capture of Eben @-@ Emael allowed the Germans to force through the Panzers of the 6th Army . The situation for the Belgian divisions was either to withdraw or be encircled . The Germans had advanced beyond Tongeren and were now in a position to sweep south to Namur , which would threaten to envelop the entire Albert Canal and Liège positions . Under the circumstances , both divisions withdrew . On the evening of 11 May , the Belgian Command withdrew its forces behind the Namur – Antwerp line . The following day , the French 1st Army arrived at Gembloux , between Wavre and Namur , to cover the " Gembloux gap " . It was a flat area , devoid of prepared or entrenched positions .
The French 7th Army , on the northern flank of the Belgian line , protected the Bruges – Ghent – Ostend axis and , covering the Channel ports , had advanced into Belgium and into the Netherlands with speed . It reached Breda in the Netherlands , on 11 May . But German parachute forces had seized the Moerdijk bridge on the Hollands Diep river , south of Rotterdam , making it impossible for the French to link up with the Dutch Army . The Dutch Army withdrew north to Rotterdam and Amsterdam . The French 7th Army turned east and met the 9th Panzer Division about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of Breda at Tilburg . The battle resulted in the French retiring , in the face of Luftwaffe air assaults , to Antwerp . It would later help in the defence of the city . The Luftwaffe had given priority to attacking the French 7th Army 's spearhead into the Netherlands as it threatened the Moerdijk bridgehead . Kampfgeschwader 40 and 54 supported by Ju 87s from VIII . Fliegerkorps helped drive them back . Fears of Allied reinforcements reaching Antwerp forced the Luftwaffe to cover the Scheldt estuary . KG 30 bombed and sank two Dutch gunboats and three Dutch destroyers , as well as badly damaging two Royal Navy destroyers . But overall the bombing had a limited effect .
= = = 12 – 14 May : Battles of the central Belgian plain = = =
During the night of 11 / 12 May , the Belgians were fully engaged in withdrawing to the Dyle line , covered by a network of demolitions and rearguards astride Tongeren . During the morning of 12 May , King Leopold III , General van Overstraeten , Édouard Daladier , General Alphonse Georges ( commander of the First Allied army Group , comprising the BEF , French 1st , 2nd , 7th and 9th Armies ) , General Gaston Billotte ( coordinator of the Allied Armies ) and General Henry Royds Pownall , Gort 's chief of staff , met for a military conference near Mons . It was agreed the Belgian Army would man the Antwerp – Leuven line , while its allies took up the responsibility of defending the extreme north and south of the country .
The Belgian III Corps , and its 1st Chasseurs Ardennais , 2nd Infantry and 3rd Infantry Divisions had withdrawn from the Liège fortifications to avoid being encircled . One regiment , the Liège Fortress Regiment , stayed behind to disrupt German communications . Further to the south , the Namur fortress , manned by VI Corps ' 5th Infantry Division and the 2nd Chasseurs Ardennais with the 12th French Infantry Division , fought delaying actions and participated in a lot of demolition work while guarding the position . As far as the Belgians were concerned , it had accomplished the only independent mission assigned to it : to hold the Liège – Albert Canal line long enough for the Allied units to reach friendly forces occupying the Namur – Antwerp – Givet line . For the remainder of the campaign , the Belgians would execute their operations in accordance with the overall Allied plan .
Belgian soldiers fought rearguard actions while other Belgian units already on the Dyle line worked tirelessly to organise better defensive positions in the Leuven – Antwerp gap . The 2nd Regiment of Guides and the 2nd Carabineers Cyclists of the 2nd Belgian Cavalry Division covered the retreat of the 4th and 7th Belgian divisions and were particularly distinguished at the Battle of Tirlemont and the Battle of Halen .
In support of Belgian forces in the area , the RAF and French flew air defence operations in the Tirlemont and Louvain area . The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force committed 3 , 504 , 79 , 57 , 59 , 85 , 87 , 605 , and 242 squadrons to battle . A series of air battles were fought with JG 1 , 2 , 26 , 27 and 3 . Messerschmitt Bf 110s from Zerstörergeschwader 26 ( ZG 26 ) , and bomber units LG 1 , 2 and KG 27 were also involved . Over Belgium and France , the day was disastrous for the British : 27 Hurricanes were shot down . In light of the withdrawal to the main defensive line , which was now being supported by the British and French Armies , King Leopold issued the following proclamation to improve morale after the defeats at the Albert Canal :
Soldiers
The Belgian Army , brutally assailed by an unparalleled surprise attack , grappling with forces that are better equipped and have the advantage of a formidable air force , has for three days carried out difficult operations , the success of which is of the utmost importance to the general conduct of the battle and to the result of war .
These operations require from all of us – officers and men – exceptional efforts , sustained day and night , despite a moral tension tested to its limits by the sight of the devastation wrought by a pitiless invader . However severe the trial may be , you will come through it gallantly .
Our position improves with every hour ; our ranks are closing up . In the critical days that are ahead of us , you will summon up all your energies , you will make every sacrifice , to stem the invasion .
Just as they did in 1914 on the Yser , so now the French and British troops are counting on you : the safety and honour of the country are in your hands .
Leopold .
To the Allies , the Belgian failure to hold onto its eastern frontiers ( they were thought to be capable of holding out for two weeks ) , was a disappointment . The Allied Chiefs of Staff had sought to avoid an encounter mobile battle without any strong fixed defences to fall back on and hoped Belgian resistance would last long enough for a defensive line to be established . Nevertheless , a brief lull fell on the Dyle front on 11 May which enabled the Allied armies to get into position by the time the first major assault was launched the following day . Allied cavalry had moved into position and infantry and artillery were reaching the front more slowly , by rail . Although unaware of it , the First Allied army Group and the Belgian Army outnumbered and outgunned Walther von Reichenau 's German 6th Army .
On the morning of 12 May , in response to Belgian pressure and necessity , the Royal Air Force and the Armée de l 'Air undertook several air attacks on the German @-@ held Maastricht and Meuse bridges to prevent German forces flowing into Belgium . 74 sorties had been flown by the Allies since 10 May . On 12 May , eleven out of eighteen French Breguet 693 bombers were shot down . The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force , which included the largest Allied bomber force , was reduced to 72 aircraft out of 135 by 12 May . For the next 24 hours , missions were postponed as the German anti @-@ aircraft and fighter defences were too strong .
The results of the bombing is difficult to determine . The German XIX Corps war diary 's situation summary at 20 : 00 on 14 May noted :
The completion of the military bridge at Donchery had not yet been carried out owing to heavy flanking artillery fire and long bombing attacks on the bridging point … Throughout the day all three divisions have had to endure constant air attack — especially at the crossing and bridging points . Our fighter cover is inadequate . Requests [ for increased fighter protection ] are still unsuccessful .
The Luftwaffe 's operations includes a note of " vigorous enemy fighter activity through which our close reconnaissance in particular is severely impeded " . Nevertheless , inadequate protection was given to cover RAF bombers against the strength of German opposition over the target area . In all , out of 109 Fairey Battles and Bristol Blenheims which had attacked enemy columns and communications in the Sedan area , 45 had been lost . On 15 May , daylight bombing was significantly reduced . Of 23 aircraft employed , four failed to return . Equally , owing to the Allied fighter presence , the German XIX Corps War Diary states , " Corps no longer has at its disposal its own long @-@ range reconnaissance … [ Reconnaissance squadrons ] are no longer in a position to carry out vigorous , extensive reconnaissance , as , owing to casualties , more than half of their aircraft are not now available . "
The most serious combat to evolve on 12 May 1940 was the beginning of the Battle of Hannut ( 12 – 14 May ) . While the German Army Group A advanced through the Belgian Ardennes , Army Group B 's 6th Army launched an offensive operation toward the Gembloux gap . Gembloux occupied a position in the Belgian plain ; it was an unfortified , untrenched space in the main Belgian defensive line . The Gap stretched from the southern end of the Dyle line , from Wavre in the north , to Namur in the south , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) to 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) . After attacking out of the Maastricht bulge and defeating the Belgian defences at Liege , which compelled the Belgian I Corps to retreat , the German 6th Army 's XVI Panzer @-@ Motorized Corps , under the command of General Erich Hoepner and containing the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions , launched an offensive in the area where the French mistakenly expected the main German thrust .
The Gembloux gap was defended by the French 1st Army , with six elite divisions including the 2nd ( 2e Division Légère Mécanique , or 2e DLM ) and 3rd Light Mechanized Divisions . The Prioux Cavalry Corps , under the command of Rene @-@ Jacques @-@ Adolphe Prioux , was to advance 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) beyond the line ( east ) to provide a screen for the move . The French 1st and 2nd Armoured Divisions were to be moved behind the French 1st Army to defend its main lines in depth . The Prioux Cavalry Corps was equal to a German Panzer Corps and was to occupy a screening line on the Tirlemont – Hannut – Huy axis . The operational plan called for the Corps to delay the German advance on Gembloux and Hannut until the main elements of the French 1st Army had reached Gembloux and dug in .
Hoepner 's Panzer Corps and Prioux ' Cavalry clashed head @-@ on near Hannut , Belgium , on 12 May . Contrary to popular belief , the Germans did not outnumber the French . Frequently , figures of 623 German and 415 French tanks are given . The German 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions numbered 280 and 343 respectively . The 2e DLM and 3e DLM numbered 176 Somuas and 239 Hotchkiss H35s . Added to this force were the considerable number of Renault AMR @-@ ZT @-@ 63s in the Cavalry Corps . The R35 was equal or superior to the Panzer I and Panzer IIs in armament terms . This applies all the more to the 90 Panhard 178 armoured cars of the French Army . Its 25mm main gun could penetrate the armour of the Panzer IV . In terms of tanks that were capable of engaging and surviving a tank @-@ vs @-@ tank action , the Germans possessed just 73 Panzer IIIs and 52 Panzer IVs . The French had 176 SOMUA and 239 Hotchkisses . German tank units also contained 486 Panzer I and IIs , which were of dubious combat value given their losses in the Polish Campaign .
The German forces were able to communicate by radio during the battle and they could shift the point of the main effort unexpectedly . The Germans also practiced combined arms tactics , while the French tactical deployment was a rigid and linear leftover from the First World War . French tanks did not possess radios and often the commanders had to dismount to issue orders . Despite the disadvantages experienced by the Germans in armour , they were able to gain the upper hand in the morning battle on 12 May , encircling several French battalions . The combat power of the French 2e DLM managed to defeat the German defences guarding the pockets and freeing the trapped units . Contrary to German reports , the French were victorious on that first day , preventing a Wehrmacht break @-@ through to Gembloux or seizing Hannut . The result of the first day 's battle was :
The effect on the German light tanks was catastrophic . Virtually every French weapon from 25mm upward penetrated the 7 @-@ 13mm of the Panzer I. Although the Panzer II fared somewhat better , especially those that had been up @-@ armoured since the Polish Campaign , their losses were high . Such was the sheer frustration of the crews of these light Panzers in [ the ] face of heavier armoured French machines that some resorted to desperate expedients . One account speaks of a German Panzer commander attempting to climb on a Hotchkiss H @-@ 35 with a hammer , presumably to smash the machine 's periscopes , but falling off and being crushed by the tank 's tracks . Certainly by day 's end , Prioux had reason to claim that his tanks had come off best . The battlefield around Hannut was littered with knocked @-@ out tanks – the bulk of which were German Panzers – with by far and away the bulk of them being Panzer Is and IIs .
The following day , 13 May , the French were undone by their poor tactical deployment . They strung their armour out in a thin line between Hannut and Huy , leaving no defence in depth , which was the point of sending the French armour to the Gembloux gap in the first place . This left Hoepner with a chance to mass against one of the French Light Divisions ( the 3e DLM ) and achieve a breakthrough in that sector . Moreover , with no reserves behind the front , the French denied themselves the chance of a counterattack . The victory saw the Panzer Corps out @-@ manoeuvre the 2e DLM on its left flank . The Belgian III Corps , retreating from Liege , offered to support the French front held by the 3e DLM . This offer was rejected .
On 12 and 13 May , 2e DLM lost no AFVs , but the 3e DLM lost 30 SOMUAs and 75 Hotchkisses . The French had disabled 160 German tanks . But as the poor linear deployment had allowed the Germans the chance of breaking through in one spot , the entire battlefield had to be abandoned , the Germans repaired nearly three quarters of their tanks ; 49 were destroyed and 111 were repaired . They had 60 men killed and another 80 wounded . In terms of battlefield casualties , the Hannut battle had resulted in the French knocking @-@ out 160 German tanks , losing 105 themselves . Prioux had achieved his tactical mission and withdrew .
Hoepner now pursued the retreating French . Being impatient , he did not wait for his infantry divisions to catch up . Instead , he hoped to continue pushing the French back and not give them time to construct a coherent defence line . German formations pursued the enemy to Gembloux . The Panzer Corps ran into retreating French columns and inflicted heavy losses on them . The pursuit created severe problems for the French artillery . The combat was so closely fought that the danger of friendly fire incidents were very real . Nevertheless , the French , setting up new anti @-@ tank screens and Hoepner , lacking infantry support , caused the Germans to attack positions head @-@ on . During the following Battle of Gembloux the two Panzer Divisions reported heavy losses during 14 May and were forced to slow their pursuit . The German attempts to capture Gembloux were repulsed .
Although suffering numerous tactical reverses , operationally the Germans diverted the Allied First Army Group from the lower Ardennes area . In the process his forces , along with the Luftwaffe depleted Prioux ' Cavalry Corps . When news of the German breakthrough at Sedan reached Prioux , he withdrew from Gembloux . With the Gembloux gap breached , the German Panzer Corps , the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions , were no longer required by Army Group B and were handed over to Army Group A. Army Group B would continue its own offensive to force the collapse of the Meuse front . The Army Group was in a position to advance westward to Mons , outflank the BEF and Belgian Army protecting the Dyle – Brussels sector , or turn south to outflank the French 9th Army . German losses had been heavy at Hannut and Gembloux . The 4th Panzer Division was down to 137 tanks on 16 May , including just four Panzer IVs . The 3rd Panzer Division was down by 20 – 25 percent of its operational force , while the 4th Panzer Division 45 – 50 percent of its tanks were not combat ready . Damaged tanks were quickly repaired , but its strength was initially greatly weakened . The French 1st Army had also taken a battering and despite winning several tactical defensive victories it was forced to retreat on 15 May owing to developments elsewhere , leaving its tanks on the battlefield , while the Germans were free to recover theirs .
= = = 15 – 21 May : Counterattacks and retreat to the coast = = =
On the morning of 15 May , German Army Group A broke the defences at Sedan and was now free to drive for the English Channel . The Allies considered a wholesale withdrawal from the Belgian trap . The withdrawal would reflect three stages : the night of 16 / 17 May to the River Senne , the night of 17 / 18 May to the river Dendre and the night of 18 / 19 May to the river Scheldt . The Belgians were reluctant to abandon Brussels and Leuven , especially as the Dyle line had withstood German pressure well . The Belgian Army , the BEF and the French 1st Army , in a domino effect , was ordered / forced to retire on 16 May to avoid their southern flanks from being turned by the German armoured forces advancing through the French Ardennes and the German 6th Army advancing through Gembloux . The Belgian Army was holding the German Fourteenth Army on the KW @-@ line , along with the French 7th and British armies . Had it not been for the collapse of the French 2nd Army at Sedan , the Belgians were confident that they could have checked the German advance .
The situation called for the French and British to abandon the Antwerp – Namur line and strong positions in favour of improvised positions behind the Scheldt , without facing any real resistance . In the South , General Deffontaine of the Belgian VII Corps retreated from the Namur and Liège regions , the Liège fortress region put up stiff resistance to the German 6th Army . In the North , the 7th Army was diverted to Antwerp after the surrender of the Dutch on 15 May , but was then diverted to support the French 1st Army . In the centre , the Belgian Army and the BEF suffered little German pressure . On 15 May , the only sector to really be tested was around Leuven , which was held by the British 3rd Division . The BEF was not pursued vigorously to the Scheldt .
After the withdrawal of the French Army from the northern sector , the Belgians were left to guard the fortified city of Antwerp . Four infantry divisions ( including the 13th and 17th Reserve Infantry Divisions ) engaged the German Eighteenth Army 's 208th , 225th and 526th Infantry Divisions . The Belgians successfully defended the northern part of the city , delaying the German infantry forces while starting to withdraw from Antwerp on 16 May . The city fell on 18 / 19 May after considerable Belgian resistance . On 18 May the Belgians received word that Namur 's Fort Marchovelette had fallen ; Suarlee fell on 19 May ; St. Heribert and Malonne on 21 May ; Dave , Maizeret and Andoy on 23 May .
Between 16 and 17 May , the British and French withdrew behind the Willebroek Canal , as the volume of Allied forces in Belgium fell and moved toward the German armoured thrust from the Ardennes . The Belgian I Corps and V Corps also retreated to what the Belgians called the Ghent bridgehead , behind the Dendre and Scheldt . The Belgian Artillery Corps and its infantry support defeated attacks by the Eighteenth Army 's infantry and in a communiqué from London , the British recognized the " Belgian Army has contributed largely toward the success of the defensive battle now being fought . Nevertheless , the now @-@ outnumbered Belgians abandoned Brussels and the Government fled to Ostend . The city was occupied by the German Army on 17 May . The very next morning , Hoepner , the German XVI Corps commander , was ordered to release the 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions to Army Group A. This left the 9th Panzer Division attached to the Eighteenth Army as the only armoured unit on the Belgian front .
By 19 May , the Germans were hours away from reaching the French Channel coast . Gort had discovered the French had neither plan nor reserves and little hope for stopping the German thrust to the channel . He was concerned that the French 1st Army on its southern flank had been reduced to a disorganized mass of " fag @-@ ends " , fearing that German armour might appear on their right flank at Arras or Péronne , striking for the channel ports at Calais or Boulogne or north west into the British flank . Their position in Belgium massively compromised , the BEF considered abandoning Belgium and retreating to Ostend , Bruges or Dunkirk , the latter lying some 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) inside the French border .
The proposals of a British strategic withdrawal from the continent was rejected by the War Cabinet and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff ( CIGS ) . They dispatched General Ironside to inform Gort of their decision and to order him to conduct an offensive to the south @-@ west " through all opposition " to reach the " main French forces " in the south [ the strongest French forces were actually in the north ] . The Belgian Army was asked to conform to the plan , or should they choose , the British Royal Navy would evacuate what units they could . The British cabinet decided that even if the " Somme offensive " was carried out successfully , some units may still need to be evacuated , and ordered Admiral Ramsay to assemble a large number of vessels . This was the beginning of Operation Dynamo . Ironside arrived at British General Headquarters at 06 : 00 am on 20 May , the same day that continental communications between the France and Belgium were cut . When Ironside made his proposals known to Gort , Gort replied such an attack was impossible . Seven of his nine divisions were engaged on the Scheldt and even if it was possible to withdraw them , it would create a gap between the Belgians and British which the enemy could exploit and encircle the former . The BEF had been marching and fighting for nine days and was now running short of ammunition . The main effort had to be made by the French to the south .
The Belgian position on any offensive move was made clear by Leopold III . As far as he was concerned , the Belgian Army could not conduct offensive operations as it lacked tanks and aircraft ; it existed solely for defence . The King also made clear that in the rapidly shrinking area of Belgium still free , there was only enough food for two weeks . Leopold did not expect the BEF to jeopardize its own position in order to keep contact with the Belgian Army , but he warned the British that if it persisted with the southern offensive the Belgians would be overstretched and their army would collapse . King Leopold suggested the best recourse was to establish a beach @-@ head covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports . The will of the CIGS won out . Gort committed just two infantry battalions and the only armoured battalion in the BEF to the attack , which despite some initial tactical success , failed to break the German defensive line at the Battle of Arras on 21 May .
In the aftermath of this failure , the Belgians were asked to fall back to the Yser river and protect the Allied left flank and rear areas . The King 's aide , General Overstraten said that such a move could not be made and would lead to the Belgian Army disintegrating . Another plan for further offensives was suggested . The French requested the Belgians withdraw to the Leie and the British to the French frontier between Maulde and Halluin , the Belgians were then to extend their front to free further parts of the BEF for the attack . The French 1st Army would relieve two more divisions on the right flank . Leopold was reluctant to undertake such a move because it would abandon all but a small portion of Belgium . The Belgian Army was exhausted and it was an enormous technical task that would take too long to complete .
At this time , the Belgians and the British concluded that the French were beaten and the Allied Armies in the pocket on the Belgian – Franco border would be destroyed if action was not taken . The British , having lost confidence in their Allies , decided to look to the survival of the BEF .
= = = 22 – 28 May : Last defensive battles = = =
The Belgian battle @-@ front on the morning of 22 May extended some 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) from north to south , beginning with the Cavalry Corps , which checked its advance at Terneuzen . V , II , VI , VII and IV Corps ( all Belgian ) were drawn up side by side . Two further signal Corps were guarding the coast . These formations were then largely holding the eastern front as the BEF and French forces withdrew to the west to protect Dunkirk , which was vulnerable to German assault on 22 May . The eastern front remained intact , but the Belgians now occupied their last fortified position at Leie . The Belgian I Corps , with only two incomplete divisions , had been heavily engaged in the fighting and their line was wearing thin . On that day , Winston Churchill visited the front and pressed for the French and British Armies to break out from the north @-@ east . He assumed that the Belgian Cavalry Corps could support the offensives ' right flank . Churchill dispatched the following message to Gort :
1 . That the Belgian Army should withdraw to the line of the Yser and stand there , the sluices being opened .
2 . That the British Army and French 1st Army should attack south @-@ west toward Bapaume and Cambrai at the earliest moment , certainly tomorrow , with about eight divisions , and with the Belgian Cavalry Corps on the right of the British .
Such an order ignored the fact that the Belgian Army could not withdraw to the Yser , and there was little chance of any Belgian Cavalry joining in the attack . The plan for the Belgian withdrawal was sound ; the Yser river covered Dunkirk to the east and south , while the La Bassée Canal covered it from the west . The ring of the Yser also dramatically shorted the Belgian Army 's area of operations . Such a move would have abandoned Passchendaele and Ypres and would have certainly meant the capture of Ostend while further reducing the amount of Belgian territory still free by a few square miles . And it would have meant the loss of all Belgian ports to the east of the Yser , such as Zeebrugge and Ostend .
On 23 May , the French tried to conduct a series of offensives against the German defensive line on the Ardennes – Calais axis but failed to make any meaningful gains . Meanwhile , on the Belgian front , the Belgians , under pressure , retreated further , and the Germans captured Terneuzen and Ghent that day . The Belgians also had trouble moving the oil , food and ammunition that they had left . The Luftwaffe had air superiority and made everyday life hazardous in logistical terms . Air support could only be called in by " wireless " and the RAF was operating from bases in southern England which made communication more difficult . The French denied the use of the Dunkirk , Bourbourg and Gravelines bases to the Belgians , which had initially been placed at its disposal . The Belgians were forced to use the only harbours left to them , at Nieuport and Ostend .
Churchill and Maxime Weygand , who had taken over command from Gamelin , were still determined to break the German line and extricate their forces to the south . When they communicated their intentions to King Leopold and van Overstraten on 24 May , the latter was stunned . A dangerous gap was starting to open between the British and Belgians between Ypres and Menen , which threatened what remained of the Belgian front . The Belgians could not cover it ; such a move would have overstretched them . Without consulting the French or asking permission from his government , Gort immediately and decisively ordered the British 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions to plug the gap and abandon any offensive operations further south .
On the afternoon of 24 May , von Bock had thrown four divisions , of Reichenau 's 6th Army , against the Belgian IV Corps position at the Kortrijk area of the Leie during the Battle of the Lys ( 1940 ) . The Germans managed , against fierce resistance , to cross the river at night and force a one @-@ mile penetration along a 13 @-@ mile front between Wervik and Kortrijk . The Germans , with superior numbers and in command of the air , had won the bridgehead . Nevertheless , the Belgians had inflicted many casualties and several tactical defeats on the Germans . The 1st , 3rd , 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions , acting as reinforcements , had counterattacked several times and managed to capture 200 German prisoners . Belgian artillery and infantry were then heavily attacked by the Luftwaffe , which forced their defeat . The Belgians blamed the French and British for not providing air cover . The German bridgehead dangerously exposed the eastern flank of the southward stretched BEF 's 4th Infantry Division . Montgomery dispatched several units of the 3rd Infantry Division ( including the heavy infantry of the 1st and 7th Middlesex battalions and the 99th Battery , 20th Anti @-@ Tank Regiment ) , as an improvised defence .
A critical point of the " Weygand Plan " and the British government and French Army 's argument for a thrust south , was the withdrawal of forces to see the offensive through which had left the Belgian Army over @-@ extended and was instrumental in its collapse . It was forced to cover the areas held by the BEF in order to enable the latter to engage in the offensive . Such a collapse could have resulted in the loss of the Channel ports behind the Allied front , leading to a complete strategic encirclement . The BEF could have done more to counterattack von Bock 's left flank to relieve the Belgians as von Bock attacked across the fortified British position at Kortrijk . The Belgian High Command made at least five appeals for the British to attack the vulnerable left flank of the German divisions between the Scheldt and the Leie to avert disaster .
Admiral Sir Roger Keyes transmitted the following message to GHQ :
Van Overstraten is desperately keen for strong British counterattack . Either north or south of Leie could help restore the situation . Belgians expect to be attacked on the Ghent front tomorrow . Germans already have a bridgehead over canal west of Eecloo . There can be no question of the Belgian withdrawal to Yser . One battalion on march NE of Ypres was practically wiped out today in attack by sixty aircraft . Withdrawal over open roads without adequate fighter support very costly . Whole of their supplies are east of Yser . They strongly represent attempt should be made to restore the situation on Leie by British counter @-@ attack for which opportunity may last another few hours only .
No such attack came . The Germans brought fresh reserves to cover the gap ( Menen – Ypres ) . This nearly cut the Belgians off from the British . The 2nd , 6th and 10th Cavalry Divisions frustrated German attempts to exploit the gap in depth but the situation was still critical . On 26 May , Operation Dynamo officially commenced , in which large French and British contingents were to be evacuated to the United Kingdom . By that time , the Royal Navy had already withdrawn 28 @,@ 000 British non @-@ fighting troops . Boulogne had fallen and Calais was about to , leaving Dunkirk , Ostend and Zeebrugge as the only viable ports which could be used for evacuation . The advance of the 14th German Army would not leave Ostend available for much longer . To the west , the German Army Group A had reached Dunkirk and were 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from its centre on the morning of 27 May , bringing the port within artillery range .
The situation on 27 May had changed considerably from just 24 hours earlier . The Belgian Army had been forced from the Leie line on 26 May , and Nevele , Vynckt , Tielt and Iseghem had fallen on the western and central part of the Leie front . In the east , the Germans had reached the outskirts of Bruges , and captured Ursel . In the west , the Menen – Ypres line had broken at Kortrijk and the Belgians were now using railway trucks to help form anti @-@ tank defences on a line from Ypres – Passchendaele – Roulers . Further to the west the BEF had been forced back , north of Lille just over the French border and was now in danger of allowing a gap to develop between themselves and the Belgian southern flank on the Ypres – Lille axis . The danger in allowing a German advance to Dunkirk would mean the loss of the port which was now too great . The British withdrew to the port on 26 May . In doing so , they left the French 1st Army 's north @-@ eastern flank near Lille exposed . As the British moved out , the Germans moved in , encircling the bulk of the French Army . Both Gort and his Chief of Staff , General Henry Pownall , accepted that their withdrawal would mean the destruction of the French 1st Army , and they would be blamed for it .
The fighting of 26 – 27 May had brought the Belgian Army to the brink of collapse . The Belgians still held the Ypres – Roulers line to the west , and the Bruges – Thelt line to the east . However , on 27 May , the central front collapsed in the Iseghem – Thelt sector . There was now nothing to prevent a German thrust to the east to take Ostend and Bruges , or west to take the ports at Nieuport or La Panne , deep in the Allied rear . The Belgians had practically exhausted all available means of resistance . The disintegration of the Belgian Army and its front caused many erroneous accusations by the British . In fact , on numerous occasions , the Belgians had held on after British withdrawals . One example was the taking over of the Scheldt line , where they relieved the British 44th Infantry Division , allowing it to retire through their ranks . Despite this , Gort and to a greater extent Pownall , showed anger at the Belgian King 's decision to surrender on 28 May , considering it undercut the war effort . . When it was inquired if any Belgians were to be evacuated , Pownall was reported to have replied , " We don 't care a bugger what happens to the Belgians " .
= = = Belgian surrender = = =
The Belgian Army was stretched from Cadzand south to Menen on the river Leie , and west , from Menin , to Bruges without any sort of reserves . With the exception of a few RAF sorties , the air was exclusively under the control of the Luftwaffe , and the Belgians reported attacks against all targets considered an objective , with resulting casualties . No natural obstacles remained between the Belgians and the German Army , retreat was not feasible . The Luftwaffe had destroyed most of the rail networks to Dunkirk , just three roads were left : Bruges – Torhout – Dixmude , Bruges – Ghistelles – Nieuport and Bruges – Ostend – Nieuport . Using such axes of retreat was impossible without losses owing to German air supremacy ( as opposed to air superiority ) . Water supplies were damaged and cut off , gas and electricity supplies were also cut . Canals were drained and used as supply dumps for whatever ammunition and food @-@ stuffs were left . The total remaining area covered just 1 @,@ 700 km ² , and compacted military and civilians alike , of which the latter numbered some 3 million people . Under these circumstances Leopold deemed further resistance useless . On the evening of 27 May , he requested an armistice .
Churchill sent a message to Keyes the same day , and made clear what he thought of the request :
Belgian Embassy here assumes from King 's decision to remain that he regards the war as lost and contemplates [ a ] separate peace . It is in order to dissociate itself from this that the constitutional Belgian Government has reassembled on foreign soil . Even if present Belgian Army has to lay down its arms , there are 200 @,@ 000 Belgians of military age in France , and greater resources than Belgium had in 1914 which to fight back . By present decision the King is dividing the Nation and delivering it into Hitler 's protection . Please convey these considerations to the King , and impress upon him the disastrous consequences to the Allies and to Belgium of his present choice .
The Royal Navy evacuated General Headquarters at Middelkerke and Sint @-@ Andries , east of Bruges , during the night . Leopold III , and his mother Queen Mother Elisabeth , stayed in Belgium to endure five years of self @-@ imposed captivity . In response to the advice of his government to set up a government @-@ in @-@ exile Leopold said , " I have decided to stay . The cause of the Allies is lost . " The Belgian surrender came into effect at 04 : 00 on 28 May . Recriminations abounded with the British and French claiming the Belgians had betrayed the alliance . In Paris , the French Premier Paul Reynaud denounced Leopold 's surrender , and the Belgian Premier Hubert Pierlot informed the people that Leopold had taken action against the unanimous advice of the government . As a result , the king was no longer in a position to govern and the Belgian government in exile that was located in Paris ( later moved to London following the fall of France ) would continue the struggle . The chief complaint was that the Belgians had not given any prior warning that their situation was so serious as to capitulate . Such claims were largely unjust . The Allies had known , and admitted it privately on 25 May through contact with the Belgians , that the latter were on the verge of collapse .
Churchill 's and the British response was officially restrained . This was due to the strong @-@ willed defence of the Belgian defensive campaign presented to the cabinet by Sir Roger Keyes at 11 : 30 am 28 May . The French and Belgian ministers had referred to Leopold 's actions as treacherous , but they were unaware of the true events : Leopold had not signed an agreement with Hitler in order to form a collaborative government , but an unconditional surrender as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Belgian Armed Forces .
= = Casualties = =
The casualty reports include total losses at this point in the campaign . The figures for the Battle of Belgium , 10 – 28 May 1940 , cannot be known with any certainty .
= = = Belgian = = =
Belgian casualties stood at :
Killed in action : 6 @,@ 093 and 2 @,@ 000 Belgian prisoners died in captivity
Missing : more than 500
Captured : 200 @,@ 000
Wounded : 15 @,@ 850
Aircraft : 112 destroyed
= = = French = = =
Numbers for the Battle of Belgium are unknown , but the French suffered the following losses throughout the entire western campaign , 10 May – 22 June :
Killed in action : 90 @,@ 000
Wounded : 200 @,@ 000
Prisoners of War : 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 .
Total French losses in aircraft numbered 264 from 12 to 25 May , and 50 for 26 May to 1 June .
= = = British = = =
Numbers for the Battle of Belgium are unknown , but the British suffered the following losses throughout the entire campaign , 10 May – 22 June :
68 @,@ 111 killed in action , wounded or captured .
64 @,@ 000 vehicles destroyed or abandoned
2 @,@ 472 guns destroyed or abandoned
RAF losses throughout the entire campaign ( 10 May – 22 June ) amounted to 931 aircraft and 1 @,@ 526 casualties . Casualties to 28 May are unknown . Total British losses in the air numbered 344 between 12 and 25 May , and 138 between 26 May and 1 June .
= = = German = = =
The consolidated report of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht regarding the operations in the west from 10 May to 4 June ( German : Zusammenfassender Bericht des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht über die Operationen im Westen vom 10 . Mai bis 4 . Juni ) reports :
Killed in action : 10 @,@ 232 officers and soldiers
Missing : 8 @,@ 463 officers and soldiers
Wounded : 42 @,@ 523 officers and soldiers
Losses of the Luftwaffe from 10 May to 3 June : 432 aircraft
Losses of the Kriegsmarine : none
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= LW3 ( classification ) =
LW3 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) for skiers with a disability affecting both legs , with double below knee amputation or a combined strength total for both legs of 60 , with 80 as the baseline for people without disabilities . For international skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . The classification has two subclasses for para @-@ Alpine skiing : LW3.1 which is for people with double below the knee amputations or similar disabilities , and LW3.2 which is for people with cerebral palsy that involves moderate athetoid , moderate ataxic impairment or slight diplegic involvement .
Skiers in this classification compete with two skis and two ski poles in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing . In training , they may use different types of equipment depending on the type of disability the skier has . As this class includes skiers with paralysis , amputations and cerebral palsy , a variety of skiing techniques and training types are needed . For skiers with balance issues , ski bras are used to learn how to balance on skis .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different sport classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring for LW3 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 8929 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9157 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9307 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9429 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 87 @-@ 94 % for classic and 80 @-@ 96 % for free . This class has been able to compete at the Paralympic Games and World Championships dating back to at least the 1990s . Skiers in this class include Australian Marty Mayberry and Canadian LW3.1 skier Lauren Woolstencroft .
= = Definition = =
LW3 is as para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . Competitors in this class have a disability affecting both legs , with double below knee amputation or a combined strength total for both of 60 , with 80 as the baseline for people without disabilities . For para @-@ Alpine skiing , the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) explicitly defines this sport class as " Competitors with disabilities in both lower limbs , and skiing with two normal skis and two poles or stabilizers ... Typical disability profile of the class is double below @-@ knee amputations . " The Australian Paralympic Committee summarized this classification in 2002 as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , two poles , disability in both legs below the knees . " For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this classification as " those with impairment in two lower limbs , which includes whole and / or partial limb dysfunction . " Cross Country Canada summarized this classification as " Impairment in two lower limbs which include whole and or partial limb dysfunction . " A skier may be able to stand and jump on one leg depending on the nature of their disability .
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this sport class , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = = LW3.1 = = =
LW3.1 is a para @-@ Alpine skiing subclass for people with double below the knee amputations or similar disabilities . It is defined by the IPC as " a . Double below @-@ knee amputation , minimal through the ankle joint. b. disabilities of both lower limbs with a maximum of 60 muscle points ( normal 80 ) , i.e. , those competitors who are able to edge skis belong to class 3 @.@ 2 . "
= = = LW3.2 = = =
LW3.2 is a subclass for people with cerebral palsy that involves moderate athetoid , moderate ataxic impairment or slight diplegic involvement . The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Alpine skiing as " a . CP5 : moderate @-@ to @-@ slight diplegic involvement b . CP6 : moderate athetoid or ataxic impairment " .
= = Equipment = =
Skiers in this classification compete with two skis and two ski poles in both para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing . During training , skiers may use prosthesis , cants , wedges , ski @-@ bras , outriggers or short skis . For skiers using a prosthesis , a special skiing prosthesis is used and they may also require the user of outriggers . The nature of their disability will dictate the type of equipment required . Ski bras are devices clamped to the tips of skis , which result in the skis being attached to each other . Outriggers are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . Cants are wedges that sit under the binding that are intended to more evenly distribute weight . They are customised for the specific needs of the skier . The ski boot for below the knee amputees often has the prosthetic built into it , though for all competitors in this class , FIS rules for para @-@ Alpine ski boots and binding heights are modified for this class from rules applied to able bodied competitor 's equipment . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
As this class includes skiers with paralysis , amputations and cerebral palsy , a variety of skiing techniques and training types are needed . Skiers in this classification who have paralysis as a result of hemiplegia , stroke or polio tend to initially favour a strong side of their body when they learn to ski , which sometimes results in overskiing . Ski @-@ bras and bungie cords are used in training to correct this . If this is not corrected , skiers are likely to fall over when their skis cross in front of them . Skiers with below the knee amputations get on and off the ski lift using the same technique as able @-@ bodied skiers .
In this classification , skiers with cerebral palsy have difficulty walking in ski boots and sometimes require assistance when walking in them . When going up hill , they often have their weaker side on the uphill side . In learning to ski , a ski bra is often used to teach the proper technique . Skiers sometimes have difficulty with the snowplough technique . In teaching skiers with cerebral palsy , instructors are encouraged to delay the introduction ski poles as skiers may overgrip them . Use of a ski bra is also encourage as it helps the skier learn correct knee and hip placement . Some skiers with cerebral palsy have better balance while using skis than they would otherwise . This presents challenges for coaches who are working with the skier . Compared to other skiers in the class , the skier with cerebral palsy may tie more quickly .
One method of learning to ski for LW3 competitors with cerebral palsy is the American Teaching System . They first thing skiers learn is what their equipment is , and how to put it on and take it off . Next , skiers learn about positioning their body in a standing position on flat terrain . After this , the skier learns how to side step , and then how to fall down and get back up again . The skier then learns how to do a straight run , and then is taught how to get on and off the chair lift . This is followed by learning wedge turns and weight transfers , wedge turns , wide track parallel turns , how to use ski poles , and advanced parallel turns .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for the classic technique was 87 % and percentage for free was 80 @-@ 91 % . The factoring for LW3 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 8929 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9157 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9307 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9429 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 87 @-@ 94 % for classic and 80 @-@ 96 % for free .
In para @-@ Alpine @-@ skiing events , LW3 is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . For alpine events , a skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last .
= = Events = =
While LW3 was not grouped with others classes at an event in the 1980s , it was grouped with other classifications during the 1990s and 2000s . At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and giant slalom . This classification was not grouped with others for medal events for men . At the 1992 Winter Paralympics , LW1 and LW3 were grouped together for men 's medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 1994 Winter Paralympics , LW1 and LW3 were grouped together for men 's medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships , Lech , Austria , men 's LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were grouped together for medal events . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the women 's LW1 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes competed in one group , while LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were grouped for men 's medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , LW3 , LW5 / 7 and LW9 were grouped for the men 's downhill , Super @-@ G , Slalom and Giant Slalom events , while women 's LW3 , LW4 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 were grouped for the Super @-@ G event and the women 's LW3 , LW4 , and LW9 classes were grouped for the slalom and giant slalom events . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there were two men and two women from this class the standing downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this class include Australian Marty Mayberry , and Canadian LW3.1 skier Lauren Woolstencroft .
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= Zero ( Mega Man ) =
Zero ( ゼロ ) is a video game character present throughout Capcom 's Mega Man franchise . First appearing in the 1993 game Mega Man X for the Super NES , Zero is a Maverick Hunter , a mechanical soldier in charge of defeating Mavericks , robots who turned against humanity . He continues his job as the main character of the Mega Man Zero series . Zero has also played a supporting role in other game series such as the Mega Man ZX series and appeared in crossover video games as a guest character .
First developed by Keiji Inafune when he was attempting to create a new design for Mega Man for the X series , Zero was instead used as a secondary character . In the Zero series , which was developed by Inti Creates , Zero is the protagonist and had a change in his design , which was meant to create a more " human feel " to him . Zero has since played a minor role in the ZX series as Model Z. His inclusion in the Mega Man X series has generally received positive critical response from video games reviewers .
= = Conception and creation = =
Zero was created by designer Keiji Inafune when he was told to recreate Mega Man for a new series on the Super NES , Mega Man X. He wanted to design a Mega Man different from the original one . However , Inafune realized afterwards that the character he created was too different from Mega Man 's old appearance to be viewed positively by fans . Deciding to let another designer work on the character that eventually became Mega Man X while he developed Zero , Inafune created the character intending him to be " the ' other main character ' that would " steal all the good scenes " . He further described Zero as representing the idea that " nothing is absolute " , and circumstances can change anything . When asked if Zero had killed the cast of the original Mega Man titles , suspected due to their absence in the X series , he replied no , adding that given how he had designed the character , " Zero is not such a person--it is not in his profile . "
The concept of Zero starring in his own series was proposed by Inafune . Inafune proposed that Zero star in his own series , and planned to go forward with the idea at the end of Mega Man X5 . However , he was unable to after Capcom announced another Mega Man title without his involvement . Designed by Toru Nakayama of Inti Creates , Zero was meant to have a more " human feel " rather than the complete " mechanical feel " of the X series . Nakayama wanted the public to recognize that this series was different from the X series . Since Capcom wanted Zero 's general structure to be the same , Inti @-@ Creates concentrated on how different they could make him , rather than how similar . Zero 's depiction in the series was intended to be morally ambiguous and depend on the perspective , appearing as a hero from one point of view and a terrorist from another .
= = = Design = = =
Designed to be " harder and wilder " than the original Mega Man , Zero 's design ultimately resembled Mega Man X in several ways due to his initial character concept , Inafune 's insistence on drawing the character , and input from other project artists . In the X series , Zero has red and white armor with twin " horns " on his helmet . Zero also has his signature long blonde hair . His main weapon is the Z @-@ saber , an energy @-@ based sword that introduced melee combat to the Mega Man games . His secondary weapon is the Z @-@ buster , a cannon mounted at the end of his right arm , similar to Mega Man X 's primary weapon . A tertiary weapon that would orbit around Zero was also considered , but left uncompleted . Unlike the original Mega Man , who had a full head of hair under his helmet , Zero has a smooth secondary helmet , intended to imply the characters were older . In Mega Man X4 , Zero was going to receive his own enhanced armor in the same way X does , but the development team decided not to finish it .
In the Zero series , Zero still possesses his blonde hair and general structure , though it has much less of a " cartoon " feel and more of a " realistic " feel . Instead of having red and white armor , Zero has black upper arms and wears a red vest , armparts , and boots . His helmet has horns , though they are more smoothly designed . The Z @-@ saber was also redesigned in Zero 3 , and has a more triangular shape compared to the original Z @-@ saber , which is similar to a katana and the Z @-@ buster was replaced with a handgun . Early concept art featured Zero with solid @-@ black , pupil @-@ less eyes , though this changed to a normal set of eyes as development progressed .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Mega Man video game series = = =
Zero made his debut appearance in Mega Man X in 1993 , and a cameo appearance in Mega Man 2 : The Power Fighters . Zero was revealed to have been originally created by Dr. Wily sometime during the Mega Man series . Zero works as a Maverick Hunter , a soldier in charge of defeating Mavericks , robots who turned against humanity . He plays the role as X 's comrade and best friend in the X series . The two , later accompanied by Axl , fight Sigma , Vile , and other enemies throughout the series . While in the first two titles he only assists X during gameplay , he becomes an optional character in X3 . In Mega Man X4 , Zero is one of two playable characters , along with X. In his scenario , Zero is haunted by nightmares of a shadowy figure ( implied to be Wily ) awakening him and giving him orders to destroy an unknown individual , and visions of ensuing carnage . Additionally , during his scenario , Sigma reminds him of the time that he led the Maverick Hunters , and the encounter between the two that led to a vicious battle that led to Sigma punching out the crystal on Zero 's helmet , leading to Sigma later becoming infected with the Maverick Virus . Depending on the story development , Zero can be fought as a boss character in Mega Man X5 . In Mega Man X6 , Zero is not initially present in the game since he went missing in the end of Mega Man X5 during a fight against Sigma , and he becomes an optional character depending on how the story develops throughout the game . In the spin @-@ off title Mega Man Xtreme , he is an assistant character but becomes playable in the sequel , Mega Man Xtreme 2 . He is also playable during the prologue and the last chapters from the role @-@ playing video game Mega Man X : Command Mission .
The Mega Man Zero series features Zero as the title character and protagonist . Set around 100 years after the X series , Zero helps a scientist named Ciel fight the human city of Neo Arcadia , during which he destroys Omega - his original body , Dr. Weil , and Copy X , leader of Neo Arcadia , twice . Zero makes an appearance in the ZX series as Model Z , who plays a minor supporting role in the plot in the first ZX game . In ZX Advent , Zero plays an even smaller role , only having a few lines throughout the game . Zero 's Mega Man Battle Network counterpart , Zero.EXE makes an appearance in Mega Man Network Transmission as the antagonist of the first half of the game . He later aids Mega Man against the true villain , The " Professor " .
= = = Other appearances = = =
The Mega Man Zero version of Zero 's character appears as a sub @-@ boss in Playmore 's crossover fighting game SNK vs. Capcom : SVC Chaos and as a hidden character in Onimusha Blade Warriors . The Mega Man X version of Zero appears as a hidden character in Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars and as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds . In the latter titles , Zero was chosen to represent the " Mega Man " franchise over Mega Man himself , as director Ryota Niitsuma thought he had more variation in his moves . Zero also appears in Project X Zone and its sequel Project X Zone 2 as a playable character paired with X and as a collectable trophy and costume for the Mii Fighters in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U.
Zero 's appearances in the two manga series based on the Mega Man X series resemble his video games one . However , in the Mega Man Zero manga , Zero is depicted as a Reploid having two personalities depending on his usage of a helmet : without his helmet he is portrayed as cowardly whereas the other one resembles his video games counterpart .
= = Reception = =
Zero 's character was met with positive critical response by publications for video games . Game Revolution called him " mysterious , androgynous " and compared him to Proto Man " with a ponytail " . Jeese Scheeden from IGN named him one of his ten favorite sword @-@ wielding characters in the video games , describing him as an answer to the question of how Mega Man would fight if armed with a sword , and noted his fighting style as popular with gamers . GameZone writer Michael Knutson praised the inclusion of Zero in the Mega Man X series , citing his playability as popular amongst series fan as it expanded the gameplay . Jeremy Parish from 1UP.com stated that his appearance as a playable character with his own story in Mega Man X4 by itself made it the best game in the X series . GameSpot noted the contrast in his gameplay to that of Mega Man X in Mega Man X4 increased the difficulty of using him in the title . Additionally , Brett Elston from GamesRadar credited Zero as one of the reasons the X series became so popular and that his own popularity within gamers earned him his own video game series .
IGN repeated their positive sentiments about Zero in their list of characters they wished to see appear in a future Marvel vs. Capcom title , describing him as " arguably cooler than Mega Man " , regardless of version in comparison . PSM praised the character as well , stating " [ he ] might wear some funky shoes , but that doesn 't stop him from kicking some robot butt " . While reviewing Mega Man X : Command Mission , 1UP.com criticized that his English voice acting makes him " sound like a surfer " .
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= The Boat Race 1875 =
The 32nd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on the 20 March 1875 . The Cambridge crew contained four Blues to Oxford 's two , the latter went into the race without a win since the 1869 race . In a race umpired by Joseph William Chitty , Oxford won by ten lengths in a time of 22 minutes 2 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 17 – 15 in their favour . One of the Cambridge crew broke his slide during the race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's fifteen .
Cambridge were coached by John Goldie , the Cambridge boat club president and rower for the 1869 , 1870 and 1871 races , and Charles Stokes Read who had rowed for Cambridge in the previous three races . Oxford 's coaches were S. D. Darbishire who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1868 , 1869 and 1870 races , F. H. Hall who had coxed for three races between 1870 and 1872 , Robert Wells Risley who had rowed four times between the 1857 and 1860 races , Edmund Warre ( represented Oxford in 1857 and 1858 ) , Frank Willan ( four @-@ time winning rower between 1866 and 1869 ) and Walter Bradford Woodgate who had rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races . Joseph William Chitty was the umpire for the race . He had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in March and December ) and the 1852 race . The starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 12 @.@ 375 lb ( 75 @.@ 3 kg ) , 1 @.@ 625 pounds ( 0 @.@ 7 kg ) more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew contained four former Blues , including Herbert Edward Rhodes who was making his third appearance in the race . Oxford saw two rowers return from the 1874 race , in H. J. Stayner and J. P. Way . According to Drinkwater , the Oxford University Boat Club towards the end of 1874 produced a " fine crew " , and of particular note was the inclusion of the former Eton Captain of the Boats Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss . In contrast , Cambridge 's crew , with just two returning from the previous year 's race , was completed with " material ... not of a very high order " .
= = Race = =
Oxford were considered clear pre @-@ race favourites to win their first Boat Race in five years ; conditions were inclement with a " nasty north @-@ west wind " but a " fair tide " . They lost the toss and Cambridge elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing Oxford the Surrey side of the river . The race commenced at 1 : 13 p.m. , and Cambridge made the better start , taking the lead from the outset with a higher stroke rate . Half a length ahead after a minute , the Light Blues nearly had a clear water advantage but tired in the strong headwind , and started to be caught by Craven Steps , around 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) along the course . About a mile into the race , one of the Cambridge crew broke a slide .
The crews were level at the Crab Tree pub and by Hammersmith Bridge , and with the advantage of the bend in the river , Oxford were clear and went on to win by ten lengths in a time of 22 minutes 2 seconds . It was their first victory since 1869 and took the overall record in the event to 17 – 15 in their favour .
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= Rachel Carson =
Rachel Louise Carson ( May 27 , 1907 – April 14 , 1964 ) was an American marine biologist and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement .
Carson began her career as an aquatic biologist in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries , and became a full @-@ time nature writer in the 1950s . Her widely praised 1951 bestseller The Sea Around Us won her a U.S. National Book Award , recognition as a gifted writer , and financial security . Her next book , The Edge of the Sea , and the reissued version of her first book , Under the Sea Wind , were also bestsellers . This sea trilogy explores the whole of ocean life from the shores to the depths .
Late in the 1950s , Carson turned her attention to conservation , especially some environmental problems that she believed were caused by synthetic pesticides . The result was the book Silent Spring ( 1962 ) , which brought environmental concerns to an unprecedented share of the American people . Although Silent Spring was met with fierce opposition by chemical companies , it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy , which led to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides , and it inspired a grassroots environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . Carson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter .
= = Life and work = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Carson was born on May 27 , 1907 , on a small family farm near Springdale , Pennsylvania , just up the Allegheny River from Pittsburgh . She was the daughter of Maria Frazier ( McLean ) and Robert Warden Carson , an insurance salesman . An avid reader , she also spent a lot of time exploring around her family 's 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) farm . She began writing stories ( often involving animals ) at age eight , and had her first story published at age ten . She especially enjoyed the St. Nicholas Magazine ( which carried her first published stories ) , the works of Beatrix Potter , and the novels of Gene Stratton Porter , and in her teen years , Herman Melville , Joseph Conrad and Robert Louis Stevenson . The natural world , particularly the ocean , was the common thread of her favorite literature . Carson attended Springdale 's small school through tenth grade , then completed high school in nearby Parnassus , Pennsylvania , graduating in 1925 at the top of her class of forty @-@ five students .
At the Pennsylvania College for Women ( today known as Chatham University ) , as in high school , Carson was somewhat of a loner . She originally studied English , but switched her major to biology in January 1928 , though she continued contributing to the school 's student newspaper and literary supplement . Though admitted to graduate standing at Johns Hopkins University in 1928 , she was forced to remain at the Pennsylvania College for Women for her senior year due to financial difficulties ; she graduated magna cum laude in 1929 . After a summer course at the Marine Biological Laboratory , she continued her studies in zoology and genetics at Johns Hopkins in the fall of 1929 .
After her first year of graduate school , Carson became a part @-@ time student , taking an assistantship in Raymond Pearl 's laboratory , where she worked with rats and Drosophila , to earn money for tuition . After false starts with pit vipers and squirrels , she completed a dissertation project on the embryonic development of the pronephros in fish . She earned a master 's degree in zoology in June 1932 . She had intended to continue for a doctorate , but in 1934 Carson was forced to leave Johns Hopkins to search for a full @-@ time teaching position to help support her family . In 1935 , her father died suddenly , leaving Carson to care for her aging mother and making the financial situation even more critical . At the urging of her undergraduate biology mentor Mary Scott Skinker , she settled for a temporary position with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries , writing radio copy for a series of weekly educational broadcasts entitled Romance Under the Waters . The series of fifty @-@ two seven @-@ minute programs focused on aquatic life and was intended to generate public interest in fish biology and in the work of the bureau — a task the several writers before Carson had not managed . Carson also began submitting articles on marine life in the Chesapeake Bay , based on her research for the series , to local newspapers and magazines .
Carson 's supervisor , pleased with the success of the radio series , asked her to write the introduction to a public brochure about the fisheries bureau ; he also worked to secure her the first full @-@ time position that became available . Sitting for the civil service exam , she outscored all other applicants and , in 1936 , became only the second woman the Bureau of Fisheries hired for a full @-@ time professional position , as a junior aquatic biologist .
= = = Early career and publications = = =
At the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries , Carson 's main responsibilities were to analyze and report field data on fish populations , and to write brochures and other literature for the public . Using her research and consultations with marine biologists as starting points , she also wrote a steady stream of articles for The Baltimore Sun and other newspapers . However , her family responsibilities further increased in January 1937 when her older sister died , leaving Carson as the sole breadwinner for her mother and two nieces .
In July 1937 , the Atlantic Monthly accepted a revised version of an essay , The World of Waters , that she originally wrote for her first fisheries bureau brochure . Her supervisor had deemed it too good for that purpose . The essay , published as Undersea , was a vivid narrative of a journey along the ocean floor . It marked a major turning point in Carson 's writing career . Publishing house Simon & Schuster , impressed by Undersea , contacted Carson and suggested that she expand it into a book . Several years of writing resulted in Under the Sea Wind ( 1941 ) , which received excellent reviews but sold poorly . In the meantime , Carson 's article @-@ writing success continued — her features appeared in Sun Magazine , Nature , and Collier 's .
Carson attempted to leave the Bureau ( by then transformed into the Fish and Wildlife Service ) in 1945 , but few jobs for naturalists were available as most money for science was focused on technical fields in the wake of the Manhattan Project . In mid @-@ 1945 , Carson first encountered the subject of DDT , a revolutionary new pesticide ( lauded as the " insect bomb " after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) that was only beginning to undergo tests for safety and ecological effects . DDT was but one of Carson 's many writing interests at the time , and editors found the subject unappealing ; she published nothing on DDT until 1962 .
Carson rose within the Fish and Wildlife Service , supervising a small writing staff by 1945 and becoming chief editor of publications in 1949 . Though her position provided increasing opportunities for fieldwork and freedom in choosing her writing projects , it also entailed increasingly tedious administrative responsibilities . By 1948 , Carson was working on material for a second book , and had made the conscious decision to begin a transition to writing full @-@ time . That year , she took on a literary agent , Marie Rodell ; they formed a close professional relationship that would last the rest of Carson 's career .
Oxford University Press expressed interest in Carson 's book proposal for a life history of the ocean , spurring her to complete the manuscript of what would become The Sea Around Us by early 1950 . Chapters appeared in Science Digest and the Yale Review — the latter chapter , The Birth of an Island , winning the American Association for the Advancement of Science 's George Westinghouse Science Writing Prize . Nine chapters were serialized in The New Yorker beginning June 1951 and the book was published July 2 , 1951 , by Oxford University Press . The Sea Around Us remained on the New York Times Best Seller List for 86 weeks , was abridged by Reader 's Digest , won the 1952 National Book Award for Nonfiction and the Burroughs Medal , and resulted in Carson 's being awarded two honorary doctorates . She also licensed a documentary film based on it . The Sea 's success led to the republication of Under the Sea Wind , which became a bestseller itself . With success came financial security , and Carson was able to give up her job in 1952 to concentrate on writing full @-@ time .
Carson was inundated with speaking engagements , fan mail and other correspondence regarding The Sea Around Us , along with work on the documentary script that she had secured the right to review . She was very unhappy with the final version of the script by writer , director and producer Irwin Allen ; she found it untrue to the atmosphere of the book and scientifically embarrassing , describing it as " a cross between a believe @-@ it @-@ or @-@ not and a breezy travelogue . " She discovered , however , that her right to review the script did not extend to any control over its content . Allen proceeded in spite of Carson 's objections to produce a very successful documentary . It won the 1953 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature , but Carson was so embittered by the experience that she never again sold film rights to her work .
= = = Relationship with Dorothy Freeman = = =
Carson moved with her mother to Southport Island , Maine , in 1953 , and in July of that year met Dorothy Freeman ( 1898 – 1978 ) — the beginning of an extremely close relationship that would last the rest of Carson 's life . A summer resident of the island along with her husband , Freeman had written to Carson to welcome her . Freeman had read The Sea Around Us , a gift from her son , and was excited to have the prominent author as a neighbor . Carson 's biographer , Linda Lear , writes that " Carson sorely needed a devoted friend and kindred spirit who would listen to her without advising and accept her wholly , the writer as well as the woman . " She found this in Freeman . The two women had a number of common interests , nature chief among them , and began exchanging letters regularly while apart . They would share summers for the remainder of Carson 's life , and meet whenever else their schedules permitted .
In regards to the extent of their relationship , commentators have said that : " the expression of their love was limited almost wholly to letters and very occasional farewell kisses or holding of hands " . Freeman shared parts of Carson 's letters with her husband to help him understand the relationship , but much of their correspondence was carefully guarded .
Shortly before Carson 's death , she and Freeman destroyed hundreds of letters . The surviving correspondence was published in 1995 as Always , Rachel : The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman , 1952 – 1964 : An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship , edited by Freeman 's granddaughter . According to one reviewer , the pair " fit Carolyn Heilbrun 's characterization of a strong female friendship , where what matters is ' not whether friends are homosexual or heterosexual , lovers or not , but whether they share the wonderful energy of work in the public sphere ' . "
= = = The Edge of the Sea and transition to conservation work = = =
Early in 1953 , Carson began library and field research on the ecology and organisms of the Atlantic shore . In 1955 , she completed the third volume of her sea trilogy , The Edge of the Sea , which focuses on life in coastal ecosystems ( particularly along the Eastern Seaboard ) . It appeared in The New Yorker in two condensed installments shortly before its October 26 book release by Houghton Mifflin ( again a new publisher ) . By this time , Carson 's reputation for clear and poetical prose was well established ; The Edge of the Sea received highly favorable reviews , if not quite as enthusiastic as for The Sea Around Us .
Through 1955 and 1956 , Carson worked on a number of projects — including the script for an Omnibus episode , " Something About the Sky " — and wrote articles for popular magazines . Her plan for the next book was to address evolution , but the publication of Julian Huxley 's Evolution in Action — and her own difficulty in finding a clear and compelling approach to the topic — led her to abandon the project . Instead , her interests were turning to conservation . She considered an environment @-@ themed book project tentatively entitled Remembrance of the Earth and became involved with The Nature Conservancy and other conservation groups . She also made plans to buy and preserve from development an area in Maine she and Freeman called the " Lost Woods . "
Early in 1957 , family tragedy struck a third time when one of the nieces she had cared for in the 1940s died at the age of 31 , leaving a five @-@ year @-@ old orphan son , Roger Christie . Carson took on that responsibility , adopting the boy , alongside continuing to care for her aging mother ; this took a considerable toll on Carson . She moved to Silver Spring , Maryland , to care for Roger , and much of 1957 was spent putting their new living situation in order and focusing on specific environmental threats .
By late 1957 , Carson was closely following federal proposals for widespread pesticide spraying ; the USDA planned to eradicate fire ants , and other spraying programs involving chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates were on the rise . For the rest of her life , Carson 's main professional focus would be the dangers of pesticide overuse .
= = = Silent Spring = = =
Silent Spring , Carson 's most well @-@ known book , was published by Houghton Mifflin on 27 September 1962 . The book described the harmful effects of pesticides on the environment , and is widely credited with helping launch the environmental movement . In 1994 , an edition of Silent Spring was published with an introduction written by Vice President Al Gore . In 2012 Silent Spring was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society for its role in the development of the modern environmental movement .
= = = = Research and writing = = = =
Starting in the mid @-@ 1940s , Carson had become concerned about the use of synthetic pesticides , many of which had been developed through the military funding of science since World War II . It was the US federal government 's 1957 gypsy moth eradication program , however , that prompted Carson to devote her research , and her next book , to pesticides and environmental poisons . The gypsy moth program involved aerial spraying of DDT and other pesticides ( mixed with fuel oil ) , including the spraying of private land . Landowners on Long Island filed a suit to have the spraying stopped , and many in affected regions followed the case closely . Though the suit was lost , the Supreme Court granted petitioners the right to gain injunctions against potential environmental damage in the future ; this laid the basis for later successful environmental actions .
The Washington , D.C. chapter of the Audubon Society also actively opposed such spraying programs , and recruited Carson to help make public the government 's exact spraying practices and the related research . Carson began the four @-@ year project of what would become Silent Spring by gathering examples of environmental damage attributed to DDT . She also attempted to enlist others to join the cause : essayist E. B. White , and a number of journalists and scientists . By 1958 , Carson had arranged a book deal , with plans to co @-@ write with Newsweek science journalist Edwin Diamond . However , when The New Yorker commissioned a long and well @-@ paid article on the topic from Carson , she began considering writing more than simply the introduction and conclusion as planned ; soon it was a solo project . ( Diamond would later write one of the harshest critiques of Silent Spring ) .
As her research progressed , Carson found a sizable community of scientists who were documenting the physiological and environmental effects of pesticides . She also took advantage of her personal connections with many government scientists , who supplied her with confidential information . From reading the scientific literature and interviewing scientists , Carson found two scientific camps when it came to pesticides : those who dismissed the possible danger of pesticide spraying barring conclusive proof , and those who were open to the possibility of harm and willing to consider alternative methods such as biological pest control .
By 1959 , the USDA 's Agricultural Research Service responded to the criticism by Carson and others with a public service film , Fire Ants on Trial ; Carson characterized it as " flagrant propaganda " that ignored the dangers that spraying pesticides ( especially dieldrin and heptachlor ) posed to humans and wildlife . That spring , Carson wrote a letter , published in The Washington Post , that attributed the recent decline in bird populations — in her words , the " silencing of birds " — to pesticide overuse . That was also the year of the " Great Cranberry Scandal " : the 1957 , 1958 , and 1959 crops of U.S. cranberries were found to contain high levels of the herbicide aminotriazole ( which caused cancer in laboratory rats ) and the sale of all cranberry products was halted . Carson attended the ensuing FDA hearings on revising pesticide regulations ; she came away discouraged by the aggressive tactics of the chemical industry representatives , which included expert testimony that was firmly contradicted by the bulk of the scientific literature she had been studying . She also wondered about the possible " financial inducements behind certain pesticide programs . "
Research at the Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health brought Carson into contact with medical researchers investigating the gamut of cancer @-@ causing chemicals . Of particular significance was the work of National Cancer Institute researcher and environmental cancer section founding director Wilhelm Hueper , who classified many pesticides as carcinogens . Carson and her research assistant Jeanne Davis , with the help of NIH librarian Dorothy Algire , found evidence to support the pesticide @-@ cancer connection ; to Carson the evidence for the toxicity of a wide array of synthetic pesticides was clear @-@ cut , though such conclusions were very controversial beyond the small community of scientists studying pesticide carcinogenesis .
By 1960 , Carson had more than enough research material , and the writing was progressing rapidly . In addition to the thorough literature search , she had investigated hundreds of individual incidents of pesticide exposure and the human sickness and ecological damage that resulted . However , in January , a duodenal ulcer followed by several infections kept her bedridden for weeks , greatly delaying the completion of Silent Spring . As she was nearing full recovery in March ( just as she was completing drafts of the two cancer chapters of her book ) , she discovered cysts in her left breast , one of which necessitated a mastectomy . Though her doctor described the procedure as precautionary and recommended no further treatment , by December Carson discovered that the tumor was in fact malignant and the cancer had metastasized . Her research was also delayed by revision work for a new edition of The Sea Around Us , and by a collaborative photo essay with Erich Hartmann . Most of the research and writing was done by the fall of 1960 , except for the discussion of recent research on biological controls and investigations of a handful of new pesticides . However , further health troubles slowed the final revisions in 1961 and early 1962 .
It was difficult finding a title for the book ; " Silent Spring " was initially suggested as a title for the chapter on birds . By August 1961 , Carson finally agreed to the suggestion of her literary agent Marie Rodell : Silent Spring would be a metaphorical title for the entire book — suggesting a bleak future for the whole natural world — rather than a literal chapter title about the absence of birdsong . With Carson 's approval , editor Paul Brooks at Houghton Mifflin arranged for illustrations by Louis and Lois Darling , who also designed the cover . The final writing was the first chapter , A Fable for Tomorrow , which Carson intended as a gentle introduction to what might otherwise be a forbiddingly serious topic . By mid @-@ 1962 , Brooks and Carson had largely finished the editing , and were laying the groundwork for promoting the book by sending the manuscript out to select individuals for final suggestions .
= = = = Content = = = =
As biographer Mark Hamilton Lytle writes , Carson " quite self @-@ consciously decided to write a book calling into question the paradigm of scientific progress that defined postwar American culture . " The overriding theme of Silent Spring is the powerful — and often negative — effect humans have on the natural world .
Carson 's main argument is that pesticides have detrimental effects on the environment ; they are more properly termed biocides , she argues , because their effects are rarely limited to the target pests . DDT is a prime example , but other synthetic pesticides come under scrutiny as well — many of which are subject to bioaccumulation . Carson also accuses the chemical industry of intentionally spreading disinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically . Most of the book is devoted to pesticides ' effects on natural ecosystems , but four chapters also detail cases of human pesticide poisoning , cancer , and other illnesses attributed to pesticides . About DDT and cancer , the subject of so much subsequent debate , Carson says only a little :
In laboratory tests on animal subjects , DDT has produced suspicious liver tumors . Scientists of the Food and Drug Administration who reported the discovery of these tumors were uncertain how to classify them , but felt there was some " justification for considering them low grade hepatic cell carcinomas . " Dr. Hueper [ author of Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases ] now gives DDT the definite rating of a " chemical carcinogen . "
Carson predicted increased consequences in the future , especially as targeted pests develop resistance to pesticides , while weakened ecosystems fall prey to unanticipated invasive species . The book closes with a call for a biotic approach to pest control as an alternative to chemical pesticides .
In regards to the pesticide DDT , Carson never actually called for an outright ban . Part of the argument she made in Silent Spring was that even if DDT and other insecticides had no environmental side effects , their indiscriminate overuse was counter @-@ productive because it would create insect resistance to the pesticide ( s ) , making the pesticides useless in eliminating the target insect populations :
No responsible person contends that insect @-@ borne disease should be ignored . The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is either wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse . The world has heard much of the triumphant war against disease through the control of insect vectors of infection , but it has heard little of the other side of the story — the defeats , the short @-@ lived triumphs that now strongly support the alarming view that the insect enemy has been made actually stronger by our efforts . Even worse , we may have destroyed our very means of fighting .
Carson further noted that " Malaria programmes are threatened by resistance among mosquitoes " and emphasized the advice given by the director of Holland 's Plant Protection Service : " Practical advice should be ' Spray as little as you possibly can ' rather than ' Spray to the limit of your capacity ' ... Pressure on the pest population should always be as slight as possible . "
= = = = Promotion and reception = = = =
Carson and the others involved with publication of Silent Spring expected fierce criticism . They were particularly concerned about the possibility of being sued for libel . Carson was also undergoing radiation therapy to combat her spreading cancer , and expected to have little energy to devote to defending her work and responding to critics . In preparation for the anticipated attacks , Carson and her agent attempted to amass as many prominent supporters as possible before the book 's release .
Most of the book 's scientific chapters were reviewed by scientists with relevant expertise , among whom Carson found strong support . Carson attended the White House Conference on Conservation in May 1962 ; Houghton Mifflin distributed proof copies of Silent Spring to many of the delegates , and promoted the upcoming New Yorker serialization . Among many others , Carson also sent a proof copy to Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas , a long @-@ time environmental advocate who had argued against the court 's rejection of the Long Island pesticide spraying case ( and who had provided Carson with some of the material included in her chapter on herbicides ) .
Though Silent Spring had generated a fairly high level of interest based on pre @-@ publication promotion , this became much more intense with the serialization in The New Yorker , which began in the June 16 , 1962 , issue . This brought the book to the attention of the chemical industry and its lobbyists , as well as a wide swath of the American populace . Around that time Carson also learned that Silent Spring had been selected as the Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month for October ; as she put it , this would " carry it to farms and hamlets all over that country that don 't know what a bookstore looks like — much less The New Yorker . " Other publicity included a positive editorial in The New York Times and excerpts of the serialized version in Audubon magazine , with another round of publicity in July and August as chemical companies responded . The story of the birth defect @-@ causing drug thalidomide broke just before the book 's publication as well , inviting comparisons between Carson and Frances Oldham Kelsey , the Food and Drug Administration reviewer who had blocked the drug 's sale in the United States .
In the weeks leading up to the September 27 , 1962 , publication , there was strong opposition to Silent Spring from the chemical industry . DuPont ( a main manufacturer of DDT and 2 @,@ 4 @-@ D ) and Velsicol Chemical Company ( exclusive manufacturer of chlordane and heptachlor ) were among the first to respond . DuPont compiled an extensive report on the book 's press coverage and estimated impact on public opinion . Velsicol threatened legal action against Houghton Mifflin as well as The New Yorker and Audubon unless the planned Silent Spring features were canceled . Chemical industry representatives and lobbyists also lodged a range of non @-@ specific complaints , some anonymously . Chemical companies and associated organizations produced a number of their own brochures and articles promoting and defending pesticide use . However , Carson 's and the publishers ' lawyers were confident in the vetting process Silent Spring had undergone . The magazine and book publications proceeded as planned , as did the large Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month printing ( which included a pamphlet endorsing the book by William O. Douglas ) .
American Cyanamid biochemist Robert White @-@ Stevens and former Cyanamid chemist Thomas Jukes were among the most aggressive critics , especially of Carson 's analysis of DDT . According to White @-@ Stevens , " If man were to follow the teachings of Miss Carson , we would return to the Dark Ages , and the insects and diseases and vermin would once again inherit the earth . " Others went further , attacking Carson 's scientific credentials ( because her training was in marine biology rather than biochemistry ) and her personal character . White @-@ Stevens labeled her " ... a fanatic defender of the cult of the balance of nature , " while former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson — in a letter to former President Dwight D. Eisenhower — reportedly concluded that because she was unmarried despite being physically attractive , she was " probably a Communist . "
Many critics repeatedly asserted that she was calling for the elimination of all pesticides . Yet Carson had made it clear she was not advocating the banning or complete withdrawal of helpful pesticides , but was instead encouraging responsible and carefully managed use with an awareness of the chemicals ' impact on the entire ecosystem . In fact , she concludes her section on DDT in Silent Spring not by urging a total ban , but with advice for spraying as little as possible to limit the development of resistance .
The academic community — including prominent defenders such as H. J. Muller , Loren Eisley , Clarence Cottam , and Frank Egler — by and large backed the book 's scientific claims ; public opinion soon turned Carson 's way as well . The chemical industry campaign backfired , as the controversy greatly increased public awareness of potential pesticide dangers , as well as Silent Spring book sales . Pesticide use became a major public issue , especially after the CBS Reports TV special " The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson " that aired April 3 , 1963 . The program included segments of Carson reading from Silent Spring and interviews with a number of other experts , mostly critics ( including White @-@ Stevens ) ; according to biographer Linda Lear , " in juxtaposition to the wild @-@ eyed , loud @-@ voiced Dr. Robert White @-@ Stevens in white lab coat , Carson appeared anything but the hysterical alarmist that her critics contended . " Reactions from the estimated audience of ten to fifteen million were overwhelmingly positive , and the program spurred a congressional review of pesticide dangers and the public release of a pesticide report by the President 's Science Advisory Committee . Within a year or so of publication , the attacks on the book and on Carson had largely lost momentum .
In one of her last public appearances , Carson testified before President John F. Kennedy 's Science Advisory Committee . The committee issued its report on May 15 , 1963 , largely backing Carson 's scientific claims . Following the report 's release , she also testified before a U.S. Senate subcommittee to make policy recommendations . Though Carson received hundreds of other speaking invitations , she was unable to accept the great majority of them . Her health was steadily declining as her cancer outpaced the radiation therapy , with only brief periods of remission . She spoke as much as she was physically able , however , including a notable appearance on The Today Show and speeches at several dinners held in her honor . In late 1963 , she received a flurry of awards and honors : the Audubon Medal ( from the National Audubon Society ) , the Cullum Geographical Medal ( from the American Geographical Society ) , and induction into the American Academy of Arts and Letters .
= = = Death = = =
Weakened from breast cancer and her treatment regimen , Carson became ill with a respiratory virus in January 1964 . Her condition worsened , and in February , doctors found that she had severe anemia from her radiation treatments and in March they discovered that the cancer had reached her liver . She died of a heart attack on April 14 , 1964 , in her home in Silver Spring , Maryland .
Her body was cremated . Half of the ashes were buried in her mother 's grave at Parklawn Memorial Cemetery in Rockville , Maryland .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Collected papers and posthumous publications = = =
Carson bequeathed her manuscripts and papers to Yale University , to take advantage of the new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art preservations facilities of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library . Her longtime agent and literary executor Marie Rodell spent nearly two years organizing and cataloging Carson 's papers and correspondence , distributing all the letters to their senders so that only what each correspondent approved of would be submitted to the archive .
In 1965 , Rodell arranged for the publication of an essay Carson had intended to expand into a book : A Sense of Wonder . The essay , which was combined with photographs by Charles Pratt and others , exhorts parents to help their children experience the " ... lasting pleasures of contact with the natural world [ ... ] available to anyone who will place himself under the influence of earth , sea and sky and their amazing life . "
In addition to the letters in Always Rachel , in 1998 a volume of Carson 's previously unpublished work was published as Lost Woods : The Discovered Writing of Rachel Carson , edited by Linda Lear . All of Carson 's books remain in print .
= = = Grassroots environmentalism and the EPA = = =
Carson 's work had a powerful impact on the environmental movement . Silent Spring , in particular , was a rallying point for the fledgling social movement in the 1960s . According to environmental engineer and Carson scholar H. Patricia Hynes , " Silent Spring altered the balance of power in the world . No one since would be able to sell pollution as the necessary underside of progress so easily or uncritically . " Carson 's work , and the activism it inspired , are at least partly responsible for the deep ecology movement , and the overall strength of the grassroots environmental movement since the 1960s . It was also influential on the rise of ecofeminism and on many feminist scientists .
Carson 's most direct legacy in the environmental movement was the campaign to ban the use of DDT in the United States ( and related efforts to ban or limit its use throughout the world ) . Though environmental concerns about DDT had been considered by government agencies as early as Carson 's testimony before the President 's Science Advisory Committee , the 1967 formation of the Environmental Defense Fund was the first major milestone in the campaign against DDT . The organization brought lawsuits against the government to " establish a citizen 's right to a clean environment , " and the arguments employed against DDT largely mirrored Carson 's . By 1972 , the Environmental Defense Fund and other activist groups had succeeded in securing a phase @-@ out of DDT use in the United States ( except in emergency cases ) .
The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency by the Nixon Administration in 1970 addressed another concern that Carson had brought to light . Until then , the same agency ( the USDA ) was responsible both for regulating pesticides and promoting the concerns of the agriculture industry ; Carson saw this as a conflict of interest , since the agency was not responsible for effects on wildlife or other environmental concerns beyond farm policy . Fifteen years after its creation , one journalist described the EPA as " the extended shadow of Silent Spring . " Much of the agency 's early work , such as enforcing the 1972 Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act , was directly related to Carson 's work .
In the 1980s , the policies of the Reagan Administration emphasized economic growth , rolling back many of the environmental policies adopted in response to Carson and her work .
= = = Criticisms of environmentalism and DDT restrictions = = =
Carson and the environmental movement were , and continue to be , criticized by some who argue that restrictions placed on pesticides , specifically DDT , have caused tens of millions of needless deaths and hampered agriculture ( and , implicitly , that Carson bears responsibility for inciting such restrictions ) . These arguments have been dismissed as " outrageous " by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios . May Berenbaum , University of Illinois entomologist , says , " to blame environmentalists who oppose DDT for more deaths than Hitler is worse than irresponsible . " Investigative journalist Adam Sarvana and others characterize this notion as a " myth " promoted principally by Roger Bate of the pro @-@ DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria ( AFM ) .
In the 2000s , however , criticism of the real and alleged ban ( s ) of DDT her work prompted became much more intense . In 2009 , the libertarian think tank Competitive Enterprise Institute set up a website asserting " Millions of people around the world suffer the painful and often deadly effects of malaria because one person sounded a false alarm . That person is Rachel Carson . " A 2012 review article in Nature by Rob Dunn commemorating the 50th anniversary of Silent Spring prompted a response in a letter written by Anthony Trewavas and co @-@ signed by 10 others , including Christopher Leaver , Bruce Ames , Richard Tren and Peter Lachmann , who quote estimates of 60 to 80 million deaths " as a result of misguided fears based on poorly understood evidence . "
Biographer Hamilton Lytle believes these estimates unrealistic , even assuming that Carson can be " blamed " for worldwide DDT policies . John Quiggin and Tim Lambert have written that " the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted . " DDT was never banned for anti @-@ malarial use , ( its ban for agricultural use in the United States in 1972 did not apply outside the US or to anti @-@ malaria spraying ; the international treaty that banned most uses of DDT and other organochlorine pesticides — the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants — included an exemption for DDT for the use of malaria control until affordable substitutes could be found . ) Mass outdoor spraying of DDT was abandoned in poor countries subject to malaria , such as Sri Lanka , in the 1970s and 1980s , not because of government prohibitions , but because the DDT had lost its ability to kill the mosquitoes ( because of insects ' very short breeding cycle and large number of offspring , the most resistant insects that survive and pass on their genetic traits to their offspring replace the pesticide @-@ slain insects relatively rapidly . Agricultural spraying of pesticides produces resistance to the pesticide in seven to ten years ) .
Consequently , some experts have argued that restrictions placed on the agricultural use of DDT have increased its effectiveness as a tool for battling malaria . According to pro @-@ DDT advocate Amir Attaran the result of the 2004 Stockholm Convention banning DDT 's use in agriculture " is arguably better than the status quo ... For the first time , there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only , meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before . "
= = = Posthumous honors = = =
A variety of groups ranging from government institutions to environmental and conservation organizations to scholarly societies have celebrated Carson 's life and work since her death . Perhaps most significantly , on June 9 , 1980 , Carson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian honor in the United States A 17 ¢ Great Americans series postage stamp was issued in her honor the following year ; several other countries have since issued Carson postage as well .
Carson 's birthplace and childhood home in Springdale , Pennsylvania — now known as the Rachel Carson Homestead — became a National Register of Historic Places site , and the nonprofit Rachel Carson Homestead Association was created in 1975 to manage it . Her home in Colesville , Maryland where she wrote Silent Spring was named a National Historic Landmark in 1991 . Near Pittsburgh , a 35 @.@ 7 miles ( 57 km ) hiking trail , called the Rachel Carson Trail and maintained by the Rachel Carson Trails Conservancy , was dedicated to Carson in 1975 . A Pittsburgh bridge was also renamed in Carson 's honor as the Rachel Carson Bridge . The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection State Office Building in Harrisburg is named in her honor . Elementary schools in Gaithersburg , Montgomery County , Maryland , Sammamish , Washington and San Jose , California were named in her honor , as were middle schools in Beaverton , Oregon and Herndon , Virginia ( Rachel Carson Middle School ) , and a high school in Brooklyn , New York .
Two research vessels currently sail in the US bearing the name R / V Rachel Carson . One is on the west coast , owned by MBARI , and the other is on the east coast , operated by the University of Maryland . Another vessel of the name , now scrapped , was a former naval vessel obtained and converted by the US EPA. it operated on the Great Lakes .
In Woods Hole , Massachusetts , near the US Fisheries building and adjacent to the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , the Marine Biological Laboratory has erected a life @-@ sized bronze statue of Rachel , sitting on a bench , with a book .
The ceremonial auditorium on the third floor of U.S. EPA 's main headquarters , the Ariel Rios Building , is named after Rachel Carson . The Rachel Carson room is just a few feet away from the EPA administrator 's office and has been the site of numerous important announcements , including the Clean Air Interstate Rule , since the Agency moved to Ariel Rios in 2001 .
A number of conservation areas have been named for Carson as well . Between 1964 and 1990 , 650 acres ( 3 km2 ) near Brookeville in Montgomery County , Maryland were acquired and set aside as the Rachel Carson Conservation Park , administered by the Maryland @-@ National Capital Park and Planning Commission . In 1969 , the Coastal Maine National Wildlife Refuge became the Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge ; expansions will bring the size of the refuge to about 9 @,@ 125 acres ( 37 km2 ) . In 1985 , North Carolina renamed one of its estuarine reserves in honor of Carson , in Beaufort .
Carson is also a frequent namesake for prizes awarded by philanthropic , educational and scholarly institutions . The Rachel Carson Prize , founded in Stavanger , Norway in 1991 , is awarded to women who have made a contribution in the field of environmental protection . The American Society for Environmental History has awarded the Rachel Carson Prize for Best Dissertation since 1993 . Since 1998 , the Society for Social Studies of Science has awarded an annual Rachel Carson Book Prize for " a book length work of social or political relevance in the area of science and technology studies . "
Google created a Google Doodle for Carson 's 107th birthday on May 27 , 2014 . OnlineCollege.org named Carson as the sixth best science writer of all time , under the category of Zoology and Naturalism .
= = = = Centennial events = = = =
2007 was the centennial of Carson 's birth . On Earth Day ( April 22 , 2007 ) , Courage for the Earth : Writers , Scientists , and Activists Celebrate the Life and Writing of Rachel Carson was released as " a centennial appreciation of Rachel Carson 's brave life and transformative writing . " It contained thirteen essays by environmental writers and scientists . Democratic Senator Benjamin L. Cardin of Maryland had intended to submit a resolution celebrating Carson for her " legacy of scientific rigor coupled with poetic sensibility " on the 100th anniversary of her birth . The resolution was blocked by Republican Senator Tom Coburn of Oklahoma , who said that " The junk science and stigma surrounding DDT — the cheapest and most effective insecticide on the planet — have finally been jettisoned . " The Rachel Carson Homestead Association held a May 27 birthday party and sustainable feast at her birthplace and home in Springdale , Pennsylvania , and the first Rachel Carson Legacy Conference in Pittsburgh with E. O. Wilson as keynote speaker . Both Rachel 's Sustainable Feast and the conference continue as annual events .
Also in 2007 American author Ginger Wadsworth wrote a biography of Carson .
= = List of works = =
Under the Sea Wind , 1941 , Simon & Schuster , Penguin Group , 1996 , ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 025380 @-@ 7
" Fishes of the Middle West " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1943 .
" Fish and Shellfish of the Middle Atlantic Coast " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1945 .
" Chincoteague : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1947 .
" Mattamuskeet : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1947 .
" Parker River : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1947 .
" Bear River : A National Wildlife Refuge " ( PDF ) . United States Government Printing Office . 1950 . ( with Vanez T. Wilson )
The Sea Around Us , Oxford University Press , 1951 ; Oxford University Press , 1991 , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 506997 @-@ 8
The Edge of the Sea , Houghton Mifflin 1955 ; Mariner Books , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 395 @-@ 92496 @-@ 0
Silent Spring , Houghton Mifflin , 1962 ; Mariner Books , 2002 , ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 24906 @-@ 0
Silent Spring initially appeared serialized in three parts in the June 16 , June 23 , and June 30 , 1962 issues of The New Yorker magazine
The Sense of Wonder , 1965 , HarperCollins , 1998 : ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 757520 @-@ X published posthumously
Always , Rachel : The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman 1952 – 1964 An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship , Beacon Press , 1995 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 7010 @-@ 6 edited by Martha Freeman ( granddaughter of Dorothy Freeman )
Lost Woods : The Discovered Writing of Rachel Carson , Beacon Press , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 8547 @-@ 2
Bedrock : Writers on the Wonders of Geology , edited by Lauret E. Savoy , Eldridge M. Moores , and Judith E. Moores , Trinity University Press , 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 59534 @-@ 022 @-@ X
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= Email Surveillance =
" Email Surveillance " is the ninth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifteenth episode overall . Written by Jennifer Celotta , and directed by Paul Feig , the episode first aired in the United States on November 22 , 2005 on NBC . The episode guest starred Ken Jeong and Omi Vaidya .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , the company tech support employee gives Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) the ability to read his employees ' emails , causing him to find out that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is throwing a party that Michael was not invited to . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) begins to suspect that Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) might secretly be having a relationship .
Ken Jeong explained that , while all the scenes were scripted , the actors were allowed to improvise their lines during the improv shots . Omi Vaidya revealed that , during the party scenes , the cast were allowed to drink real beer and play video games on an Xbox 360 . " Email Surveillance " received largely positive reviews from television critics . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic and was viewed by 8 @.@ 3 million viewers in its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Dunder Mifflin 's tech support employee , Sadiq ( Omi Vaidya ) , arrives at the Scranton branch to set up a system that allows Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to monitor his employees ' emails . When everyone in the office finds out , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) worries that Michael will discover the party he is throwing that night , to which Michael is not invited . Inevitably , Michael notices and tries to get Jim to admit that he 's having a party , while Jim acts nonchalantly as if nothing is happening . In order to keep Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) from exposing the party , Jim tells him that it 's a surprise party for Michael .
Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) notices some things that lead her to suspect that Dwight and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) are dating . However , she discreetly abandons her suspicions when she asks Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) if she noticed any office romances and Phyllis guesses that Pam meant her and Jim . Jim and Pam bond when she sees Jim 's room for the first time and looks through his high school year book .
After ruining an improv class , Michael decides to crash Jim 's party , much to the staff 's dismay and Dwight 's naïve delight . Michael awkwardly tries his hand at karaoke but Jim then joins in , easing the tension considerably . The documentary crew catches Angela and Dwight making out in Jim 's backyard .
= = Production = =
" Email Surveillance " was written by Jennifer Celotta , making it her first writing contribution to the series . This episode was the fourth episode of the series directed by Paul Feig . Feig had previously directed episode " Office Olympics " , " Halloween " , and " Performance Review " .
When filming the scene with Michael in the improv class , Ken Jeong , who played Bill , said that " they ( the crew ) would shoot the scenes as scripted the first few takes , and then we would improvise after that . " For example " the scene where I ( Ken Jeong ) say ' Good job ' to Michael and he says ' Nice job , Bill ... not ' was improvised . " Jeong , who had previously taken part in an actual improv class , noted that " Anyone who 's ever taken an improv class appreciates that bit [ with Michael starting every session with a gun ] . "
The episode guest starred Omi Vaidya , who played the part of Sadiq , the IT assistant . Vaidya later explained that , originally , " a lot of people auditioned for that role , bigger Indian American actors " . However Vaidya , who had watched the British version and was familiar with the camera style , " took a scarf , created a turban out of it and walked to the audition room with it on " because he thought that " that was what was needed for the character and the show " . He later called his guest appearance " one of the best productions in the United States that I have been a part of . " Vaidya said that he enjoyed shooting the party scenes the most because they got to drink real beer and play video games on an Xbox 360 , which had not been released at the time . Vaidya said that " it was like being at a real party with everyone from The Office except that we had to shoot a few scenes while we were chatting and relaxing . "
= = Cultural references = =
After Oscar confronts Michael about reading the staff 's emails , Michael references Big Brother , from the novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and does an impression of The Tin Man from the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . Michael invites Dwight over to his house to watch the 2004 version of Battlestar Galactica , but he misidentifies the show as " Battleship Galaxy " . At his improv class , Michael , in an attempt to get the instructors attention , asks " Mr. Kot @-@ ter " , a reference to the 1975 series Welcome Back , Kotter . During Jim 's party , Phyllis sings a karaoke version of the 1987 hit " Here I Go Again " by hard rock band Whitesnake , and Kevin sings Cake 's 1996 cover of " I Will Survive " , originally by Gloria Gaynor . Finally , Michael and Jim share a duet of the 1983 single " Islands in the Stream " , originally sung by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton . At one point during the party , Kevin tells Ryan " Not so fast ... ' Fire Guy ' " . This is a reference to the earlier second season episode " The Fire " , in which Ryan accidentally started a fire in the office building . As a result , Dwight and Michael gave him the nickname " The Fire Guy " .
= = Reception = =
" Email Surveillance " originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 22 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 1 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 9 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode retained 76 percent of its lead @-@ in My Name is Earl audience , and was tied with an episode of the medical drama House as the number one television show in the 18 – 34 male demographic . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 20 , 2006 , received 2 @.@ 1 rating / 7 % share was viewed by over 5 million viewers , ranking it as the number one program in the 18 – 34 demographic .
" Email Surveillance " received generally positive reviews from television critics . TV Squad 's Michael Sciannamea said that " Email Surveillance " was " a solid episode " , and that even though " Michael 's vulnerabilities were again exposed " , in the end " you walk away from the episode feeling good that he did make it to Jim 's party . " M. Giant from Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A- " . Dan Phillips from IGN named " Michael Crashes Jim 's Party " the fifth most awkward moment of the show , noting that , " Few things are more awkward than a party crasher , especially when the party crasher happens to be named Michael Scott . "
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and wrote positively of the way the show was able to write @-@ in the presence of the Documentarians into the episode 's plot ; he compared this to the story arc in the ninth season involving Brian the boom mic operator , noting that the documentarians presence in " Email Surveillance " was much better executed than then the aforementioned Brian plot . He also called the episode 's conclusion , featuring Michael and Jim singing a duet , " emotionally satisfying " because it relies " on what these people mean to each other outside of the office " .
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= Euonymeia =
Euonymeia ( Greek : Ευωνύμεια , Evonímia ) , also known by its medieval name Trachones ( Greek : Τράχωνες ) , and by its modern colloquial Ano Kalamaki ( Greek : Άνω Καλαμάκι , Upper Kalamaki ) , is a historic settlement in Attica and currently a residential neighborhood within the municipality of Alimos on the southern suburbs of Athens , Greece . The area is an inland part of the south Athenian plain , situated between the foothills of Mount Hymettus and the southern coastal zone of Athens on the Saronic Gulf . The land is characterized by limestone hills and streams running from Hymettus toward the coast . Situated 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of the center of Athens , Euonymeia has been developed and incorporated into the urban sprawl of the Greek capital .
The area displays some of the earliest urban settlements in Europe , with archeological sites showing continuous development from the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods . Major archeological finds include Early Helladic fortifications , Mycenaean era workshops and necropolis , a classical era amphitheater , and Paleochristian and Byzantine temples . Some of the earliest and best preserved specimens of Athenian Geometric pottery have been attributed to the Trachones workshop and are featured in museum collections , including two kraters on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City .
At its peak during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE , the area was the center of the Deme of Euonymos , one of the most populous communities of Ancient Athens . Euonymos had its own acropolis , theater , industrial installations , and religious festivals . Several Euonymeians played a major role in Athenian politics and civic life , most notably in the trial of Socrates and in the expeditions of the Peloponnesian War .
= = Etymology = =
The name Euonymeia is documented in the Ethnica ( Greek : Ἐθνικά ) , the gazetteer by 6th century CE scholar Stephanus of Byzantium , considered the earliest authoritative work on Mediterranean toponyms . Therein , Stephanus attributes the name to Euonymus of Greek Mythology – son of Gaia with either Uranus or Cephissus . The name itself derives from the Greek root @-@ words eû ( Greek : εὖ ) " good , well " , and onoma ( Greek : όνομα ) " name " . Alternative interpretations for the origin of the name are that it is a direct reference to the area being " well named " or " of good repute " , or that it comes from the spindle tree Euonymus europaeus . The medieval name Trachones derives from the word trachoni ( Greek : τραχώνι ) meaning " rock " , derived from the ancient Greek adjective trachys ( Greek : τραχύς ) meaning " coarse " . The modern colloquial name Ano Kalamaki ( upper Kalamaki ) arose in 1968 when Euonymeia was administratively linked with the coastal settlement of Kalamaki to the west , creating the contemporary Municipality of Alimos .
= = History = =
Systematic archeological excavation of the area has not been conducted , yet numerous construction projects during the intensive urban development of the later half of the twentieth century led to important circumstantial discoveries , which shed light on the historic timeline of the settlement .
= = = Prehistoric and Bronze Age = = =
The hills of Euonymeia , together with the adjacent coastal promontory of Agios Kosmas are the two most important sites of Neolithic and Aegean Bronze Age development in the area of Athens prior to ca . 3000 BCE . Ceramics and obsidian tools found on both sites were identified as originating from the island of Melos , indicating close ties of these settlements with the obsidian @-@ rich islands of the cycladic civilization . The commonality of findings in Agios Kosmas and Euonymeia suggests that the two settlements were functionally linked coastal and inland communities .
The earliest signs of prehistoric settlement in Euonymeia were recognized in the 1950s and ' 60s at the Kontopigado site . During expansion work on the Vouliagmenis Avenue , neolithic era masonry was identified around a small hill rising 6 metres ( 20 ft ) above the surrounding ground . In 2012 , prehistoric masonry , which has yet to be dated , was recognized on the summit of Pan 's Hill ( Greek : λόφος Πανί , lofos Pani ) , the highest elevation point in Euonymeia . Several thousand obsidian tool specimens have been collected from both Kontopigado , and Pan 's Hill . Findings from this first settlement period come to an abrupt end around 2000 BCE , indicating a catastrophic event theorized to involve Pelasgian invaders .
Excavations at construction sites adjacent to the Kontopigado mound in the 1980s and ' 90s led to the discovery of an Early Helladic settlement ( third millennium BCE ) , and an overlying Mycenaean complex dated from Late Helladic IIIB to Late Helladic IIIC ( ca . 1300 BCE ) , marking the second period of intense development in Euonymeia . In 2006 , work on the Alimos Metro station 300 metres ( 980 ft ) South from the mound unearthed a large workshop complex from the same era with installations for ceramic production , including a kiln and potters wheel . This workshop included hydraulic installations with wells and water conduits used in the processing of flax into textiles for the production of table wares , and for sails and ropes used on Mycenaean era ships . Altogether the Mycenaean complex at Kontopigado , 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of the Mycenaean Palace on the Acropolis of Athens , is one of the largest of its kind found to date . This Bronze Age community and installations at Euonymeia are thought to have had close links to the central palatial authority in Athens , possibly supplying the sails and ropes for the 50 ships that Athens is said to have contributed to the Trojan war .
= = = Geometric = = =
During the Geometric period of the Hellenic Dark Ages ( 10th to 8th centuries BCE ) , the area continued to be inhabited , with notable pottery production from the Trachones workshop . Geometric era finds in Euonymeia concentrate 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to the West of the Myceneaen site at Kontopigado , on a hill by the Trachones stream on the current Geroulanou Estate . While excavations have not yet been performed , the Geroulanou Estate is presumed to have been the site of the Acropolis of Euonymeia , based on surface finds of 8th - 7th century BCE fortifications . Geometric graves and pottery have been found around the estate providing evidence that unlike in Athens and neighboring communities , Euonymeia , together with Anavyssos further south , were peculiar in practicing cremation as the main burial rite during this period . Nonetheless , the 8th @-@ century ceremonial Kraters attributed to the Trachones workshop and used in burial tombs throughout Geometric Greece are considered some of the best examples of Athenian Geometric Pottery that have been discovered to date . In 1914 , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City acquired two specimens , which are on display as part of its permanent collection of Greek and Roman Art .
= = = Classical : Deme of Euonymos = = =
The area was recognized as the site of the ancient Deme of Euonymos ( Greek : Δῆμος Εὐώνυμος ) in 1975 when construction work uncovered a 4th @-@ century BCE theater . An inscription to the god Dionysus identified it as the Euonymos Theater , previously known only from ancient texts as one of the Deme Theaters of Attica . The theater at Euonymos was constructed in the mid 5th century BCE ( making it one of the earliest known Deme theaters ) with Hymettian Marble from quarries in nearby Mount Hymettus . It had an estimated capacity of 2000 – 3000 spectators and is unique among ancient theaters found in Greece owing to the rectangular shape of its orchestra . The theatre was destroyed during the Chremonidean War of the 260s BCE and never rebuilt . Two headless statues of Dionysus were found on the site of the theater , and together with the discovery in 2012 of Dionysian depictions on Red @-@ figure pottery from the area , and undated finds from the Kontopigado site of clay figures seemingly representing Maenades , the rabid female companions of Dionysus , suggest a possible early affiliation of Euonymeia with the Cult of Dionysus and Pan .
The town was on the Urban Way ( Greek : Αστική Ὁδός , Astiki Hodós ) , the major ancient road linking Athens to the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion , and the all @-@ important silver mines at Laurium . Remains of the Urban Way have been unearthed in multiple sites along the modern Vouliagmenis Avenue , positioning this ancient thoroughfare adjacent to the most important installations in Euonymos . The old Mycenaean hydraulic installations 300 metres ( 980 ft ) Northeast of the theater show continued use through the classical era . In this period , water flowing through the installations from the Trachones stream and wells were used primarily for agriculture , stockbreeding , and cottage industries . The hill with Geometric @-@ era fortifications on the Geroulanou Estate 300 metres ( 980 ft ) Northwest of the theater is thought to have been the site of the Acropolis of Euonymos . Construction in the 1960s and work on the Argyroupoli Metro station 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) South of the theater in 2003 uncovered a cemetery at the Hasani site with over 150 graves dating from the 7th to the 4th centuries BCE , and inscriptions identifying it as the cemetery of the Deme of Euonymos . Together , these findings conclusively position the center and extent of the classical Deme of Euonymos as a continuation of the early Euonymeia settlements .
The Deme of Euonymos was designated as one of the 139 Athenian Demes by the Reform of Cleisthenes . Euonymos was a " city " deme ( Greek : Άστυ , Asty ) of the Erechtheis tribe , the first in the hierarchy of the Athenian democracy as descending from Erechtheus , the autochthonous founder of Athens . The Deme contributed 10 bouleutai ( increased to 12 in 306 BCE ) to the 500 member @-@ strong Boule , and as such was one of Athens ' largest demes . Several Euonymeians were notable public officials in Ancient Athens , such as Hieropoios Eunomos of Euonymon , and high @-@ ranking military figures associated with the Peloponnesian Wars , including Taxiarch Strombichides , Nauarch Diotimos of Euonymon , and Strategoi Autocles and Anytus , the latter also known as a main prosecutor in the trial of Socrates .
= = = Medieval = = =
Euonymeia declined in medieval times together with Athens after Christian reforms brought on the Decline of Greco @-@ Roman polytheism . At some point during this time the settlement 's name changed to the village of Trachones . Nonetheless , it retained urban settlement throughout the Early Christian and Byzantine eras as testified by the ruins of the Paleochristian Basilica of the Holy Apostles ( ca . 7th @-@ 9th centuries CE ) that can be found 200 metres ( 660 ft ) North of Euonymos Theater in the courtyard of the contemporary Church of the Life @-@ giving Spring of Trachones .
During the later Middle Ages , Athens was conquered by the fourth crusade , which established the 13th @-@ century crusader state of the Duchy of Athens . During this time , in defiance of the Roman Catholic allegiance to the Frankish lord of Athens Othon de la Roche , the Orthodox church of the " Presentation of Mary of Trachones " ( Greek : Εισοδίων Θεοτόκου Τραχώνων , Isodíon Theotókou Trachónon ) was constructed 300 metres ( 980 ft ) West of the Euonymos Theater . This church is currently in operation within the grounds of the Geroulanou Estate , making it one of the oldest continuously operational churches in Athens .
After the invasion of Greece by the Ottoman Turks , the area of Trachones was turned into a Chiflik , and administered according to the Ottoman feudal system , with the local population becoming mandatory land peasants ( koligoi ) . The church of the Presentation of Mary appears to remain the center of the area 's civic life in the following centuries of Ottoman rule .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
Modern written use of the toponym Trachones appears right before the Greek Revolution in an 1820 tax record of villages in Attica , while its location , corresponding to the area of Euonymeia , is revealed in 19th century maps , including John Thomson 's 1814 map of Attica ( therein labeled as Traconi ) , and an 1881 map from the German Archeological Institute . During the preceding years , the Trachones Estate , corresponding to a large part of what is now South Athens , was sold to Mufti Hamza , an 18th @-@ century Muslim religious leader of Athens . Records show that the feudal estate had a small population of landless farmers , and that ownership passed on through the Mufti 's progeny . In 1912 , the settlement of Trachones was incorporated into the Municipality of Athens , while the land of the estate was sold in 1918 by the Greek State to the Geroulanou family for 680 @.@ 000 drachma . In 1952 , a large part of the estate was converted from farm to urban plots , including land for the creation of the Hellenicon Airport . This led to a rapid urbanization following the expanding urban sprawl of the Greek capital , and to the establishment of the current residential community . In 1968 the modern Municipality of Alimos was established , administratively linking the community of Trachones with the coastal community of Kalamaki 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) to the West , giving rise to the term Ano Kalamaki ( upper Kalamaki ) to refer to the area of Euonymeia .
= = Geography = =
The neighborhood is approximately bounded by the avenues of Vouliagmenis in the East , Ionias in the North and West , and Alimou in the South , and includes the " Alimos " Metro station . The area is rocky , a feature that gave it its medieval name , Trachones . The main physical features of Euonymeia are several small limestone hills , the largest of which is Pan 's Hill ( Lofos Pani ) , and the Trachones stream that runs from the Western slopes of Hemyttus , through Euonymeia , to the Saronic Gulf at Alimos beach . Mount Hymettus to the East is the dominant backdrop visible from most areas of the neighborhood .
= = Civic life = =
Euonymeia is largely a residential area , with small shops and businesses along Ionias and Dodecanesou avenues . The central public space of the community stretches along the path of the Trachones stream , most of which now runs underground . This area features Karaiskakis square and park , which includes the " Klouva " outdoor public basketball court , and the municipal amphitheater , where the major community events take place . Adjacent to the square is a large school complex with two public elementary schools , and the 2nd Lyceum of Alimos public high school . Next to the school complex is the Municipal Indoor Gymnasium of Trachones with a capacity for 350 seated spectators , the home court of the three local Basketball teams Trachones - Dias Union , A.L.F. Alimos , A.O. Kalamaki , and the Trachones Volleyball team . Along the same axis next to the Geroulanou Estate is Trachones Field ( Greek : Γήπεδο Τραχώνων , Gipedo Trachonon ) , a 457 @-@ seat track and field stadium that is the seat of the local soccer team , FC Trachones .
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= K Foundation Burn a Million Quid =
K Foundation Burn a Million Quid was an action on 23 August 1994 in which the K Foundation ( an art duo consisting of Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty ) burned cash in the amount of one million pounds sterling in a disused boathouse on the Ardfin Estate on the Scottish island of Jura . The money represented the bulk of the K Foundation 's funds , earned by Drummond and Cauty as The KLF , one of the United Kingdom 's most successful pop groups of the early 1990s .
The incineration was recorded on a Hi @-@ 8 video camera by K Foundation collaborator Gimpo . In August 1995 , the film — Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid — was toured around the UK , with Drummond and Cauty engaging each audience in debate about the burning and its meaning . In November 1995 , the duo pledged to dissolve the K Foundation and to refrain from public discussion of the burning for a period of 23 years , but Drummond spoke about the burning in 2000 and 2004 . At first he was unrepentant but in 2004 he admitted to the BBC that he regretted burning the money .
A book entitled K Foundation Burn A Million Quid , edited and compiled by collaborator Chris Brook — was published by Ellipsis Books in 1997 , compiling stills from the film , accounts of events and viewer reactions . The book also contains an image of the house brick that was manufactured from the fire 's ashes .
= = Background = =
As The KLF , Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty were the biggest @-@ selling singles act in the world for 1991 . They had also enjoyed considerable success with their album The White Room and a number one hit single – " Doctorin ' the Tardis " – as The Timelords . In May 1992 , The KLF staged an incendiary performance at the BRIT Awards , and retired from the music industry shortly thereafter in typically enigmatic fashion .
By their own account , neither Drummond nor Cauty kept any of the money they made as The KLF ; it was all ploughed back into their extravagant productions . Cauty told an Australian Big Issue writer in 2003 that all the money they made as The KLF was spent , and that the royalties they accrued post @-@ retirement amounted to approximately one million pounds :
I think we made about £ 6m . We paid nearly half that in tax and spent the rest on production costs . When we stopped , the production costs stopped too , so over the next few months we amassed a surplus of cash still coming in from record sales ; this amounted to about £ 1.8m. After tax we were left with about £ 1m . This was the money that later became the K Foundation fund for the ' advancement of kreation.'
Initially The KLF 's earnings were to be distributed by way of a fund for struggling artists managed by the K Foundation , Drummond and Cauty 's new post @-@ KLF art project , but , said Drummond , " We realised that struggling artists are meant to struggle , that 's the whole point . " Instead the duo decided to create art with the money . Nailed to the Wall was the first piece of art produced by the Foundation , and the major piece in their planned art exhibition , Money : A Major Body Of Cash . Consisting of one million pounds in cash nailed to a pine frame , the piece was presented to the press on 23 November 1993 during the buildup to the Foundation 's announcement of the " winner " of their " worst artist of the year award " , the K Foundation art award .
= = Decision and burning = =
During the first half of 1994 , the K Foundation attempted to interest galleries in staging Money : A Major Body of Cash , but even old friend Jayne Casey , director of the Liverpool Festival Trust , was unable to persuade a major gallery to participate . " ' The Tate , in Liverpool , wanted to be part of the 21st Century Festival I 'm involved with , ' says Casey . ' I suggested they put on the K Foundation exhibition ; at first they were encouraging , but they seemed nervous about the personalities involved . ' A curt fax from ... the gallery curator , informed Casey that the K Foundation 's exhibition of money had been done before and more interestingly " , leaving Drummond and Cauty obliged to pursue other options . The duo considered taking the exhibition across the former Soviet Union by train and on to the United States , but no insurer would touch the project . An exhibition at Kilmainham Jail in Dublin was then considered , but no sooner had a provisional August date been set for it than the duo changed their minds yet again . " Jimmy said : ' Why don 't we just burn it ? ' remembers Drummond . ' He said it in a light @-@ hearted way , I suppose , hoping I 'd say : ' No , we can 't do that , let 's do this ... ' But it seemed the most powerful thing to do . " Cauty : " We were just sitting in a cafe talking about what we were going to spend the money on and then we decided it would be better if we burned it . That was about six weeks before we did it . It was too long , it was a bit of a nightmare . "
The journey from deciding to burn the money to deciding how to burn the money to actually burning the money was a long one . Jim Reid , a freelance journalist and the only independent witness to the burning , reported the various schemes the K Foundation considered . The first was offering Nailed To The Wall to the Tate Gallery as the " 1995 K Foundation Bequest To The Nation . " The condition was that the gallery must agree to display the piece for at least 10 years . If they refused , the money would be burnt . A second idea was to hire Bankside Power Station , " the future site of the Tate Gallery extension and an imposing building downstream from the South Bank " , as a bonfire venue . In typical KLF ' guerrilla communication ' style , " posters were to appear on 15 August bearing the legend ' The 1995 K Foundation Bequest To The Nation ' , under which would have been an image of Nailed To The Wall on an easel and two flame @-@ throwers lying on the floor . On 24 August a new poster would go up , exactly the same as the first except that this time the work would be burnt . "
The K Foundation 's final solution for their one @-@ million @-@ pound " problem " was rather less showbiz , but dramatic nonetheless , the Foundation having decided that making a public spectacle of the event would lessen its impact . On 22 August , Reid , Drummond , Cauty and Gimpo touched down at Islay Airport in the Inner Hebrides and took a ferry to the island of Jura , previously the scene of a wicker man burning ceremony by The KLF . Early in the morning of 23 August 1994 , in an abandoned boathouse on Jura , Drummond and Cauty incinerated the money . The burning was witnessed by Reid , who subsequently wrote an article about the act for The Observer , and it was filmed on a Hi @-@ 8 video camera by collaborator Gimpo . As the burning began Reid said he felt guilt and shock . These feelings , he reported , quickly turned to boredom .
The money took well over an hour to burn as Drummond and Cauty fed £ 50 notes into the fire . According to Drummond , only about £ 900 @,@ 000 of the money was actually burnt , with the remainder flying straight up the chimney . Two days later , according to Reid , Jimmy Cauty destroyed all film and photographic evidence of the burning . Ten months later , Gimpo revealed to them that he had secretly kept a copy .
= = Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid film = =
Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid starts with a short description of the event , and then consists of Drummond and Cauty throwing £ 50 notes onto the fire . Burning the entire amount takes around 67 minutes . NME wrote :
At the start , Cauty is agitated and says he doesn 't think the money will burn because it is too wet . The camera shows 20 thick bundles of £ 50 notes , each bundle containing £ 50 @,@ 000 in new bank notes and sealed in cellophane . When the money ignites , Drummond starts to laugh as he and Cauty stand above a small fireplace throwing £ 50 notes on to the fire . Cauty constantly stokes the blaze with a large wooden plank and at one stage burns his hand on a flaming note . As the fire starts to dim , he scuttles around the floor sweeping stray notes into the flames . The cameraman shows a view from outside the building with charred £ 50 notes billowing out of the chimney .
In November 1995 , the BBC aired an edition of the Omnibus documentary series about The K Foundation entitled A Foundation Course in Art . Amongst the footage broadcast were scenes from Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid . Thomas Sutcliffe , reviewing the programme in The Independent , wrote :
The Omnibus film about this intriguing pair was in part a rear @-@ guard action in their continuing battle for recognition ( and a victory – for some people , after all , art is what appears on Omnibus ) . It was also a peculiarly modern fable about what constitutes an artist – will the artist 's say @-@ so do , or do you need the validation of the galleries ? " You can 't simply decide you 're going to become an artist , " said one gallery owner haughtily , which left you wondering how else the vocation might operate . A lottery system ? Secret @-@ ballot election ?
For my money ( meagre though it is ) , the video which recorded the laborious process of immolation was a decidedly intriguing work – rather more provoking than some contemporary work I 've seen . For established galleries , the medium used ( video , bank @-@ notes , fire ) is obviously an embarrassment , but if poverty of material is not to disqualify artworks ( bricks or lard , say ) why should the expense of material ?
= = = Screening tour = = =
The first public screening of Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid was on Jura on 23 August 1995 – exactly one year after the burning . " We feel we should face them and answer their questions " said one of the duo . Two weeks later an advert appeared in The Guardian ( pictured right ) , announcing a world tour of the film over the next 12 months at " relevant locations " . The second screening was at In The City music industry convention on 5 September in Manchester . After the film was shown , Drummond and Cauty held a question @-@ and @-@ answer session with the theme " Is It Rock 'n'Roll ? " . A week later , the pair travelled as guests of alternative radio station B92 to Belgrade , where the post @-@ screening discussion was titled " Is it a crime against humanity ? " An unauthorised screening at the BBC Television Centre was curtailed and Drummond and Cauty were escorted from the building .
On the weekend of 3 November 1995 , the film was screened at several locations in Glasgow , including at football matches involving Celtic and Rangers ; a planned screening at Barlinnie prison was cancelled after the Scottish Prison Service withdrew permission . Glasgow 's artistic community broadly seemed to welcome the screenings . A further public screening on Glasgow Green on 5 November was announced by various newspapers , but there is no record of the showing having ever occurred . The K Foundation disappeared from Glasgow ; they later issued a statement that on 5 November 1995 they had signed a " contract " at Cape Wrath in northern Scotland agreeing to wind up the K Foundation and not to speak about the money burning for a period of 23 years .
Despite the K Foundation 's reported moratorium , further national screenings of the film organised by Chris Brook took place as planned . At each screening , Drummond and Cauty announced they would not answer questions after the film ; instead , they would ask questions of the audience . These screenings were held in Bradford , Hull , Liverpool , Cheltenham Ladies College , Eton College , Bristol , Aberystwyth , Glastonbury Tor and Brick Lane , London .
The Brick Lane screening – on 8 December 1995 – had been previewed in NME , and was chaotically busy . It was originally planned for a car park , but freezing conditions and snow forced a rethink and the screening was moved indoors , to the basement of the nearby Seven Stars pub . Hundreds of people crammed in to watch the screening , which was eventually abandoned partway through due to the cramped conditions . The NME preview had claimed that after the screening the film would be cut up and individual frames sold off to the public . Gimpo , the owner of the film , had no intention of doing so , but after the screening was nearly overwhelmed by a mob of people wanting to take home a piece of the film .
Gimpo has continued to show the film at events such as literary festivals and underground film evenings over the years since the initial tour . On 23 August 2007 , after a screening in Berlin , Germany , the DVD briefly disappeared . A few hours later , the film was released on several BitTorrent trackers .
= = Burning as a theme = =
Ritualistic burnings had already been a recurring aspect of Drummond and Cauty 's work . In 1987 , the duo disposed of copies of their copyright @-@ breaching debut album — The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu 's 1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) — by burning them in a Swedish field . This event was pictured on the back sleeve of their second album , Who Killed The JAMs ? , and celebrated in the song " Burn the Bastards " . During the 1991 summer solstice , they burnt a 60 feet ( 18 m ) wicker man . This was chronicled in The KLF movie The Rites of Mu .
As the K Foundation , Drummond and Cauty threatened to burn the K Foundation art award prize money ( Gimpo was fumbling with matches and lighter fluid when , at the last moment , Rachel Whiteread accepted the prize ) . In the seventh K Foundation press advert they asked " What would you do with a million pounds ? Burn it ? "
= = Reaction and analysis = =
Jim Reid 's piece appeared in The Observer on 25 September 1994 . This is " one of the most peculiar stories of the year " , he cautioned readers . " Peculiar because pretty much everyone who comes across this magazine is going to have trouble believing a word of it . Peculiar because every last dot and comma of what is to come is the truth . " " It took about two hours for that cash to go up in flames " , he added . " I looked at it closely , it was real . It came from a bona fide security firm and was not swapped at any time on our journey . More importantly , perhaps , after working with the K Foundation I know they are capable of this . "
The Daily Express ran the story on 1 October 1994 . They reported that charred £ 50 notes were being found by islanders , who did not doubt the burning had really taken place . Drummond and Cauty had been seen eating in a hotel bar on Jura before leaving with two suitcases , the newspaper reported .
The Times followed with essentially the same story on 4 October 1994 , adding that the burning " [ had ] left many on the island bewildered , incredulous and angry " . £ 1500 had been handed in by a local fisherman to Islay police : " Sergeant Lachlan Maclean checked the money with both banks on Islay and with Customs and Excise , who pronounced it genuine . ' I telephoned Mr Drummond in London and told him the money had been found . I asked him if it was his . He said he would get in touch with his partner , Mr Cauty . So far he has not telephoned back ' " .
The media returned to the story in earnest in October and November 1995 , previewing and then reviewing Foundation Course In Art , and reporting on the K Foundation 's tour screening Watch the K Foundation Burn a Million Quid .
An October 1995 feature quoted Kevin Hull , the BBC documentary maker responsible for the Omnibus item , saying he had found " the boys rather depressed , and almost in a state of shock " . " Every day I wake up and I think ' Oh God , I 've burnt a million quid and everyone thinks it 's wrong ' " , Cauty told him .
A piece in The Times on 5 November 1995 , coinciding with the Glasgow screenings , reported that the K Foundation had no solid reason for burning the money or view of what , if anything , the act represented , but concluded " The K Foundation may not have changed or challenged much but they have certainly provoked thousands to question and analyse the power of money and the responsibilities of those who possess it . And what could be more artistic than that ? " In the same issue , the newspaper 's K Foundation art award witness , Robert Sandall , wrote that the Foundation 's award , million @-@ pound artwork and the burning were all " entertaining , and satirically quite sharp " , but " the art world has chosen not to think [ of it as art ] .... The general view remains that the K Foundation 's preoccupation with money , though undoubtedly sincere , simply isn 't very original . Although they didn 't blow their entire life 's savings along the way , other artists , notably Yves Klein and Chris Burden , have been here before . "
The Guardian 's TV reviewer was sceptical . " Snag is , the K men have always dealt in myth and sown a trail of confusion , so nobody quite believes they really burned the money . And if they did , they must be nuts . Confucius says : Aston Martin dealer will not accept suitcase full of ash as down payment . "
= = = Later reaction = = =
In the following years , the burning would be mentioned regularly in the press , with Drummond and Cauty often relegated to a cultural status of " the men who burnt a million quid " .
A February 2000 article in The Observer newspaper again insisted that the duo really had burnt one million pounds . " It wasn 't a stunt . They really did it . If you want to rile Bill Drummond , you call him a hoaxer . ' I knew it was real , ' a long @-@ time friend and associate of his group The KLF tells me , ' because afterwards , Jimmy and Bill looked so harrowed and haunted . And to be honest , they 've never really been the same since ' " .
A 2004 listener poll by BBC Radio 6 Music saw The KLF / K Foundation placed second after The Who in a list of " rock excesses " .
Drummond 's former protegé Julian Cope was unimpressed , claiming that Drummond still owed him money . " He burned a million pounds which was not all his , and some of it was mine . People should pay off their creditors before they pull intellectual dry @-@ wank stunts like that . "
= = Legacy = =
On 17 September 1997 , a new film , This Brick , was premiered . The film consisted of one three @-@ minute shot of a brick made from the ashes of the money burnt at Jura . It was shown at the Barbican Centre prior to Drummond and Cauty 's performance as 2K .
On 27 September 1997 , K Foundation Burn A Million Quid ( ISBN 0 @-@ 9541656 @-@ 5 @-@ 9 , ISBN 1 @-@ 899858 @-@ 37 @-@ 7 paperback ) was published . The book , by Chris Brook and Gimpo , contains stills from the film and transcriptions of various Q & A sessions from the tour . It also includes a timeline of K Foundation activity and sundry essays including one from Alan Moore . Publisher Ellipsis promoted the book with an advert modelled on those of the K Foundation – " Why did Ellipsis publish K Foundation Burn A Million Quid ? " they asked .
Initially , Drummond was unrepentant , telling The Observer in 2000 that he couldn 't imagine ever feeling regret unless his child was ill and only " an expensive clinic " could cure him . By 2004 , however , he had admitted to the BBC the difficulty of justifying his decision . " It 's a hard one to explain to your kids and it doesn 't get any easier . I wish I could explain why I did it so people would understand . "
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= Top Thrill Dragster =
Top Thrill Dragster is a steel accelerator roller coaster built by Intamin at Cedar Point in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . It was the sixteenth roller coaster built at the park since the Blue Streak in 1964 . When built in 2003 , it was the first full circuit roller coaster to exceed 400 feet ( 120 m ) in height , and was the tallest roller coaster in the world , before being surpassed by Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure in May 2005 . Top Thrill Dragster , along with Kingda Ka , are the only strata coasters in existence . It was the second hydraulically launched roller coaster built by Intamin , following Xcelerator at Knott 's Berry Farm . The tagline for Top Thrill Dragster is " Race for the Sky " .
= = History = =
Planning for Top Thrill Dragster started around 2000 when Millennium Force opened . Footers started being poured during the winter of 2001 / 2002 then were covered up during the 2002 operating season . To construct the roller coaster , the park had to use a 480 feet ( 150 m ) crane , only one of four in the United States . Vertical construction by Martin & Vleminckx started in fall 2002 , months before the announcement . By October 2002 , the roller coaster had reached 200 feet ( 61 m ) . The ride was announced on January 9 , 2003 and the structure , built by Intamin 's subcontractor Stakotra , was finished shortly after . It is tied with Millennium Force for being the two largest investments in Cedar Point history . The announcement revealed the park 's goal to build " the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth " , reaching 420 feet ( 130 m ) and accelerating up to 120 miles per hour ( 193 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 8 seconds . On March 10 , 2003 , Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Top Thrill Dragster .
Top Thrill Dragster 's media day was held on May 1 , 2003 then it officially opened to the public on May 4 . It became the " tallest " and " fastest " roller coaster in the world overtaking both world records from Steel Dragon 2000 at Nagashima Spa Land that was just built three years earlier . It lost the title of being the world 's tallest and fastest roller coaster when Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure opened in May 2005 . Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster , and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by the theme and the additional hill featured on Kingda Ka .
The ride had constant downtime in its first couple seasons . Several problems such as the ride 's hydraulic system and launch cable caused the ride to experience downtime . Top Thrill Dragster was also closed in 2003 for the annual event , CoasterMania .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Layout = = =
After leaving the station , the train enters the launch area . To the left of the launch area is a " Christmas tree " light , similar to those employed at the starting line of a drag strip . A brief message is played to the riders to : " keep arms down , head back , and hold on . " Once the train is prepared to launch , a motor revving sound effect is played and its magnetic braking fins are lowered from the launch track . It then launches , accelerating to a speed of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) in 3 @.@ 8 seconds . Shortly after reaching its maximum velocity , the train begins its ascent up a 90 @-@ degree incline , twisting 90 degrees clockwise before climbing over the 420 @-@ foot ( 130 m ) top hat . Upon descending , the track twists 270 degrees before leveling out , allowing the train to be stopped by the magnetic brakes .
= = = Theme / trains = = =
The roller coaster is based on the Top Fuel Drag Racing motor sport . A real Top Fuel dragster weighs approximately one ton , while each train on the coaster weighs 15 tons . Its dragster themed trains once had decorative spoilers and engines , but these were removed soon after opening , allowing an extra row of seats to be added to each one . Also , when the ride opened , it had only four cars on each train , including the decals . By the middle of the 2003 season , the fifth cars were added to all trains , making them the five cars long that they are now . The fifth cars were added on shortly before the decals were removed . The ride 's theme song , " Ready to Go " by Republica , is played while in the station .
= = = Rollbacks = = =
Occasionally , a train is launched with not enough speed to clear the crest . This typically happens in cool , wet , or breezy weather , or when the wind is working against it . In these conditions , the launch often does not provide it with enough speed to climb over the hill , which causes it to stop short of the top , and roll back down the hill in reverse , hence the term " rollback " . The launch track is equipped with retractable magnetic braking fins which are raised after the train is launched in order to slow one that did not crest the hill .
On very rare occasions a combination of the weight distribution of the train , the force of the launch , and the wind can stall a train on the top of the tower . When this happens , a mechanic takes the elevator to the top and pushes the train down the hill . This has only happened three times with passengers on board , June 24 , 2005 , October 25 , 2008 , and May 25 , 2009 .
= = World records = =
When Top Thrill Dragster debuted , it set four new records :
World 's tallest complete circuit roller coaster
World 's tallest roller coaster
World 's tallest roller coaster drop
World 's fastest roller coaster
It was the fourth roller coaster to break the 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) speed barrier . It was preceded by Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld , Superman : Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Dodonpa at Fuji @-@ Q Highland . The previous record holder for overall height was Superman : Escape from Krypton at Six Flags Magic Mountain , standing at 415 feet ( 126 m ) . Its record was broken in 2005 when Kingda Ka opened at Six Flags Great Adventure , standing 456 feet ( 139 m ) tall . The previous record holder for speed was Dodonpa , at 107 miles per hour ( 172 km / h ) . This record was broken by Top Thrill Dragster , which reaches speeds up to 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) , which was later broken by Kingda Ka which reached a top speed of 128 miles per hour ( 206 km / h ) . In November 2010 , Formula Rossa at Ferrari World broke the record for fastest roller coaster , with a top speed of 149 @.@ 1 miles per hour ( 240 @.@ 0 km / h ) .
As of 2015 , Top Thrill Dragster has the second tallest lift , the third fastest speed , and the second @-@ highest drop among steel roller coasters in the world .
= = Operation = =
Top Thrill Dragster is negatively affected by unfavourable weather conditions as both a high altitude and high velocity ride . " Rain , high winds , and / or lightning " may result in the closing of the ride depending on the severity . It will close in high winds and any kind of precipitation .
There is no minimum age requirement , but passengers must meet the miniumum height requirement of 52 inches and a maximum of 78 inches to ride . Some persons over a certain weight / waist size will not be permitted to ride if the seat and lapbar harness cannot accommodate them . Passengers on Dragster may not bring any loose articles onto the train and will be required to wear shirts and footwear . Headphones must be removed before boarding .
Passengers are advised that they must not ride Dragster if they have " a history of recent surgery , heart trouble / high blood pressure , neck trouble , back trouble , or any other condition that may be aggravated by riding , or who are pregnant " .
= = Incident = =
On July 14 , 2004 , four people were struck by flying debris while riding the coaster . Reports indicated that a metal cable frayed during launch , shearing off shards of metal that struck the riders . The injuries were mainly arm abrasions , with one passenger experiencing cuts to the face . They were treated at the park 's first aid station , and two later sought further medical attention .
= = Awards = =
= = Records = =
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= 1983 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1983 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Tropical storms formed in the entire west Pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names .
The season had a late start , as the first system did not form until late June for the first time since 1973 . The last tropical cyclone dissipated in mid @-@ December . A total of 26 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 23 became tropical storms . Of the 26 tropical cyclones , one formed in June , three formed in July , six formed in August , three formed in September , seven formed in October , five formed in November , and two formed in December . Twelve storms reached typhoon intensity , of which four reached super typhoon strength . Fifteen of the tropical cyclones made landfall , with six moving through the Philippines , six striking China , six moving into Vietnam , and three moving in Japan . Vera , Wayne , Kim , and Lex led to over half of the fatalities from tropical cyclones this season . Forrest became the fastest @-@ developing tropical cyclone on record for the western Pacific ocean , with a pressure drop of 92 hectopascals ( 2 @.@ 7 inHg ) in a 24 ‑ hour period .
= = Season summary = =
The season had a late start , as the first system did not form until late June for the first time since 1973 . The last tropical cyclone dissipated in mid @-@ December . A total of 26 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 23 became tropical storms . Of the 26 tropical cyclones , one formed in June , three formed in July , six formed in August , three formed in September , seven formed in October , five formed in November , and two formed in December . Ten storms reached typhoon intensity , of which four reached super typhoon strength . Fifteen of the tropical cyclones made landfall , with six moving through the Philippines , six striking China , six moving into Vietnam , and three moving in Japan . Tropical cyclones accounted for 24 percent of the annual rainfall in Hong Kong this season .
Wayne formed east of the Philippines , becoming the first super typhoon of the season before striking mainland China on July 25 . Abby was a long @-@ lived system , forming near Guam and remaining an intense typhoon for a number of days before recurving into Japan as a weakening tropical storm on August 17 . Ellen was a strong typhoon which tracked from the International Dateline westward near the northern Philippines and mainland China by September 9 . Forrest formed well east of the Philippines in late September , becoming the fastest @-@ developing tropical cyclone on record for the western Pacific ocean , with a pressure drop of 92 hectopascals ( 2 @.@ 7 inHg ) in a 24 ‑ hour period . Marge was an intense typhoon which recurved well off the coast of Asia during the first week of November . Orchid was a long @-@ lived and erratic tropical cyclone which moved slowly just east of the Philippines during late November , absorbing Percy along the way . Vera , Wayne , Kim , and Lex led to over half of the fatalities from tropical cyclones this season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Sarah = = =
When Tropical Storm Sarah formed in the South China Sea on June 24 , it became the latest start of a western Pacific season since 1973 . The initial tropical disturbance formed south of Guam on June 16 . By June 19 , a low level circulation formed as the system moved westward . As a tropical disturbance , the low crossed the Philippines with light winds . The system finally organized into a tropical depression and then a tropical storm on June 25 . Sarah moved west @-@ northwestward across the South China Sea , striking Vietnam before dissipating on June 26 . Damage across the Philippines totaled 2 @.@ 77 billion Philippine Pesos ( 1983 pesos ) , or US $ 249 @.@ 3 million ( 1983 dollars ) .
= = = Typhoon Tip ( Auring ) = = =
A tropical disturbance first noted east of the Philippines , the system moved through the archipelago as a tropical depression before strengthening briefly to a typhoon in the South China Sea . A combination of northeasterly vertical wind shear and proximity to land weakened the cyclone to a tropical storm before its landfall on Hai @-@ nan and struck Chan Chiang , China as a tropical depression . Winds peaked at 34 knots ( 63 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn in Hong Kong .
= = = Typhoon Vera ( Bebeng ) = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on July 12 , east of the Philippines . It headed westward , strengthening to a tropical storm that night and a typhoon on the 13th . Vera made landfall on the 14th as an 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) typhoon in the Philippines , weakened over the islands , and restrengthened over the South China Sea to a 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) typhoon . Damage totaled US $ 9 million in the Philippines . In Hong Kong , winds peaked at 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn . Vera struck Hainan Island on the 17th , crossed the Gulf of Tonkin , and dissipated over Vietnam on the 18th . Vera brought torrential flooding , resulting in the deaths of 106 people .
= = = Super Typhoon Wayne ( Katring ) = = =
Becoming a tropical depression east of the Philippines , Wayne strengthened rapidly to become a tropical storm on July 22 , a typhoon on July 23 , and a super typhoon around midday on July 24 before moving south of Taiwan into mainland China on July 25 and dissipating . In the Philippines , 20 perished due to flash flooding . Wayne was the fifth most intense tropical cyclone to impact Fujian between 1960 and 2005 . Heavy rainfall led to severe flooding in Fujian and Guangdong . The total death toll reached 105 .
= = = Super Typhoon Abby ( Diding ) = = =
First noted southeast of Guam on July 31 , this system slowly matured into the season 's second super typhoon as it moved west @-@ northwest over the following nine days . Intensification was most rapid as it was slowly recurving northward on August 7 and August 8 . After peaking early on August 9 , Abby slowly weakened as it interacted with the main belt of the Westerlies . It managed to remain a major typhoon , with winds at or above 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) , for a week . Abby finally weakened back into a tropical storm on August 17 just before its landfall at Hamamatsu , Japan . By late that night , Abby completed the transition to an extratropical cyclone after moving through central Japan . Two perished from Abby in Japan . Its deluge led to numerous landslides and the destruction of 19 bridges . Commercial traffic by land , sea , and air was also paralyzed by the cyclone .
= = = Tropical Storm Carmen ( Etang ) = = =
Originating in the monsoon trough in the South China Sea in early August , a low level circulation was first spotted about 370 km east of Vietnam on August 8 . Slow development ensued , and the system became a tropical depression during the night of August 12 . Tracking slowly north @-@ northeast , Carmen began to accelerate to the east @-@ northeast towards the Luzon Strait , steered by Abby . This acceleration was likely a redevelopment of the low pressure area downshear . The system became a tropical storm early morning of August 14 as it continued to close the distance to Abby . By late morning on August 15 , absorption into Abby was complete .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ben = = =
An area of strong thunderstorms formed east of Abby , developing a low level center on August 12 on the western side of the thunderstorm activity , due to westerly vertical wind shear from nearby Abby . It developed into a tropical storm that night and moved northwest due to Abby 's influence on the steering across the western Pacific at that time . Turning to the west , Ben moved along the southern coast of Honshū and made landfall west of Hamamatsu . Due to land interaction and increasing upper level westerly wind shear , Ben became an exposed low level circulation on August 14 in the Sea of Japan , eventually dissipating late on August 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dom ( Gening ) = = =
On August 17 , a tropical disturbance was noted west of Guam . Slow development ensued , and the system became a tropical storm late on August 19 . As a deep cyclone near Japan linked up with the monsoon trough , the cyclone turned sharply northeast on August 20 . Persisitently sheared by strong northeasterly flow aloft initially , once Dom recurved its convection was left completely behind , weakening the system to a tropical depression on August 21 . Thunderstorms began to redevelop near the center , and by midday on August 23 Dom was a tropical storm once more . At this point Dom was moving erratically as the trough near Japan moved off to the east , and by August 24 Dom turned back to the north @-@ northwest . By August 25 strong winds aloft weakened Dom once more , and the cyclone dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 26 .
= = = Tropical Depression 09W = = =
This system formed well north of the normal climatological position to the west of Dom , as the monsoon trough was similarly displaced . It was first noted on August 25 , but showed no further development . Thunderstorms were located about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of the center , but since the central pressure was under 1000 mb , it was considered a tropical depression while an exposed low level swirl . The system did develop some central convection , and moved northward into South Korea , bringing showers to the region , and dissipated late on August 27 .
= = = Typhoon Ellen ( Herming ) = = =
It was first noted as a tropical disturbance east of the International Dateline on August 26 , and became a tropical storm soon after crossing in the dateline on the morning of August 29 . A strong high pressure ridge offshore Japan led to no further development over the next 5 days , and the cyclone began to track south of west . Dropping down to a weak tropical depression late on September 1 , conditions aloft finally improved and the cyclone strengthened into a typhoon on September 3 as it tracked west @-@ northwest . Approaching Luzon late on September 5 , Ellen intensified rapidly into a strong typhoon before the terrain began to weaken the cyclone . Its final landfall was at Macau on the morning of September 9 as a minor typhoon .
Hong Kong experienced extensive damage , with six killed and 277 injured . Winds gusted to 134 knots ( 248 km / h ) at Stanley . Twenty @-@ two ships ran aground in the harbor . Rainfall totaled 231 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 13 in ) at Hong Kong 's Royal Observatory . The second tornado ever recorded in Hong Kong , and the first during a typhoon passage , occurred during Ellen . Ellen was Hong Kong 's worst typhoon since Typhoon Hope of 1979 . By late on the 9th , Ellen was rapidly dissipating in mainland China .
= = = Tropical Depression 02C = = =
= = = Super Typhoon Forrest ( Ising ) = = =
Super Typhoon Forrest developed in the Western Pacific Ocean in September over the open ocean . It was the fastest @-@ developing tropical cyclone on record , with a pressure drop of 100 mbar in a 24 ‑ hour period . A tornado struck Inza Island , destroying 26 homes and injuring 26 people , as the cyclone passed by Okinawa . Forrest struck Japan as a tropical storm on the 28th . Kadena Air Force base reported winds gusting to 74 knots ( 137 km / h ) and rainfall totaling 300 millimetres ( 12 in ) during Forrest 's passage . Up to 483 millimetres ( 19 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall fell across Japan , damaging 46 @,@ 000 homes . Overall , the storm caused 21 casualties and moderate damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Luding = = =
= = = Typhoon Georgia ( Mameng ) = = =
A large area of thunderstorm activity formed west of the Philippines . Rapidly organizing on September 28 , Georgia became a tropical storm by the next morning . Moving westward , it tracked across Hainan Island to the south of China . Wind gusts reached 60 knots ( 110 km / h ) both at Tate 's Cairn and Kowloon Tsai Hill in Hong Kong . Ultimately the storm made its final landfall in Vietnam before dissipating while entering Laos . Georgia killed 26 , damaged 7000 buildings , and led to a loss of 247 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of rice . The 13 to 14 inches ( 330 to 360 mm ) of rainfall it brought to Vietnam relieved drought conditions .
= = = Tropical Depression Neneng = = =
This system was recognized by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory and PAGASA . A tropical depression formed in the South China Sea near Xisha Dao on October 2 , and moved northwest , dissipating near Hanoi a couple days later .
= = = Tropical Storm Herbert = = =
The initial disturbance was first spotted 250 miles ( 402 km ) east of Mindanao . Moving westward for the next few days without development , the system moved into the South China Sea . The system became a tropical storm on October 7 to due significantly increased low @-@ level southwesterlies spinning up its circulation . The cyclone then moved west @-@ northwest , striking Nha Trang , Vietnam . The convective pattern was slow to fade as it drifted westward across Indochina over the next few days . Forty perished during this tropical cyclone .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ida ( Oniang ) = = =
An inverted trough appeared near Saipan on October 6 , which appears to be linked with pre @-@ existing convection within an upper @-@ level cyclone , which appeared as early as October 3 . By late on the 6th , a closed circulation formed . Continuing to develop , the system became a tropical depression on the morning of October 8 as it moved northwest . Becoming a typhoon on October 10 as it was recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies , the cyclone passed only 150 km southeast of Honshū . Since it was a small cyclone , no damage occurred within Japan . By late on October 11 , Ida evolved into an extratropical cyclone which moved eastward through the northern Pacific .
= = = Tropical Depression Pepang = = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Joe ( Rosing ) = = =
One of three consecutive tropical cyclones to form in the South China Sea , the initial disturbance was first noted well south of Guam on October 6 . The system moved westward , and developed a closed wind circulation by midday on October 9 . A new center formed to the south , which complicated the system 's development . Remaining poorly organized in the Philippine Sea due to northerly vertical wind shear , the tropical depression crossed central Luzon . Now in the South China Sea , the system became better organized and developed into a tropical storm and typhoon as it moved northwest . Soon after becoming a typhoon , Joe moved into southern China about 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) west of Hong Kong and quickly dissipated inland . Wind gusts reached 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tai O , while rainfall amounts of 183 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 24 in ) fell at Tate 's Cairn .
= = = Tropical Storm Kim = = =
Tropical Storm Kim , which formed in the South China Sea on October 14 , hit southeastern Vietnam late on October 16 . It weakened over land , but retained its circulation , and redeveloped into a tropical depression on October 19 in the northeastern Bay of Bengal in the North Indian Ocean . Kim continued northwestward , and dissipated on October 20 over Myanmar . Even though Tropical Storm Kim was a weak storm , its heavy rains caused serious flash flooding and mudslides in Vietnam and Thailand . In Thailand , already deluged by an earlier tropical storm , there was moderate flooding in Bangkok . Elsewhere , over 300 boats and 3 @,@ 000 homes and buildings were destroyed and the storm severely damaged much of the rice harvest . Kim caused 200 fatalities and extensive crop damage from heavy rainfall .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Lex ( Sisang ) = = =
First noted near the Marshall Islands on October 14 , the tropical disturbance moved westward for the next couple of days without and further development . An upper level ridge built over the system on October 16 while near Truk , which encouraged slow development . The system developed a weak surface circulation which progressed across the central Philippines . Once it entered the South China Sea , development increased and it became a tropical depression , then tropical storm , on October 22 . Transcribing a cyclonic loop , Lex continued to intensify and was a typhoon by October 25 .
Moving close to Hainan Island , Lex weakened to a tropical storm while entering the Gulf of Tonkin . Winds gusted to 48 knots ( 89 km / h ) at Waglan Island . The cyclone made landfall near Dong Hoi , Vietnam on October 26 as a moderate tropical storm , and then rapidly weakened after moving inland . At least 200 fishermen were killed , with 81 of the total from an oil drilling ship which sank during the storm .
= = = Tropical Depression Trining = = =
= = = Super Typhoon Marge ( Uring ) = = =
This system began as a tropical disturbance with a weak circulation near 7N 172E . Becoming the fourth super typhoon of the season , Marge stairstepped west @-@ northwest east of the Philippines before recurving east of Japan . During recurvature , its forward motion reached 54 knots ( 100 km / h ) , becoming one of the fastest known tropical cyclones on record .
= = = Tropical Storm Norris = = =
This system was spawned just ahead of a frontal boundary extending from the extratropical cyclone formerly known as Marge . A midget tropical storm , Norris quickly evolved on November 8 and recurved ahead of the frontal boundary well east of Asia , primarily threatening shipping in the western Pacific . Within three days of formation , Norris had been absorbed by the advancing cold front .
= = = Typhoon Orchid ( Warling ) = = =
A tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression on November 14 over the open West Pacific . It tracked southwestward then westward , slowly organizing into a tropical storm on the 17th . Orchid 's motion became erratic , and it drifted northward , always remaining within 850 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 570 km ) of Typhoon Percy , a slow @-@ moving typhoon in the South China Sea . Orchid reached her peak of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) winds on the 23rd , before vertical shear caused it to weaken . The storm turned southward , where it dissipated on the 27th . A total of 167 fatalities occurred when the Philippine vessel MV Dona Cassandra capsized due to high waves off the coast of Mindanao . A total of 219 people survived the shipwreck , including 98 that were rescued . In addition , 89 persons were injured , 18 at sea . At the time of the shipwreck , the boat had 387 passengers and 36 crew members . Onshore the Philippines , three people were killed and thousands were displaced .
= = = Typhoon Percy ( Yayang ) = = =
Located not too distant to the southwest of Orchid , Percy thrived in a divergent region created by Orchid 's outflow pattern beginning on November 17 . Rapid development occurred on the morning of November 19 while in the South China Sea , and the system meandered due to the weakness in steering created by Orchid to its northeast . The cyclone managed 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) of movement through November 23 . Briefly becoming a typhoon , eventually Percy became entrained in Orchid 's inflow band and began to be sheared by Orchid 's opposing outflow pattern . Other than moving through the Philippines while in the initial tropical depression phase , Percy affected no other land masses .
= = = November Tropical Depression = = =
This system was only recognized by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory . A tropical depression formed and moved westward through the Caroline Islands between November 21 and 24 before dissipating .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ruth ( Ading ) = = =
This system began along the near equatorial trough southeast of Guam on November 15 . Moving slowly westward , there was little additional development until November 19 . Thunderstorm activity significantly increased in coverage along a 1 @,@ 670 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 040 mi ) east @-@ west axis , with a center forming near 5N 147E . The system moved slowly northwest until November 23 . Orchid acted to limit its development by robbing inflow from this disturbance . On the 23rd it became a tropical depression before executing an anticyclonic loop . Upper level conditions became hostile soon afterwards , and the depression weakened . Into November 27 the system moved erratically and went through cycles of convective development and shearing . When Orchid weakened into a tropical depression , Ruth began to develop rapidly and became a tropical storm early on November 28 . A frontal zone on its northwest side led to an intense gale in that quadrant , which led to the upgrade . The cyclone nearly became a typhoon later that day before vertical wind shear returned , introduced by a fresh cold outbreak from Asia . The cyclone degenerated to an exposed low @-@ level swirl on November 30 .
= = = Tropical Storm Sperry ( Barang ) = = =
The initial disturbance formed along the near equatorial trough after Ruth dissipated . On November 30 a surface circulation formed 740 kilometres ( 460 mi ) south of Guam . By December 1 , the system appeared to be forming into a tropical cyclone but its thunderstorm activity shifted over 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) to the northwest of the center . Taking a day to recover , the system attempted to reorganize and became a tropical storm early on December 3 . Southerly vertical wind shear limited its development for much of its life cycle . Turning eastward , it reached its maximum intensity late on the 3rd before shearing apart on December 4 . Early on December 5 , the system degenerated into a weak area of low pressure .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Thelma ( Krising ) = = =
This system formed east of the Caroline Islands on December 11 near 4N 170E . Over the next couple days , an upper cyclone to its north shifted westward , which helped lead to increased outflow and a low @-@ level circulation . It moved rapidly westward for the next 60 hours as a poorly defined low despite increasing convective organization . By late morning on December 16 , it became a tropical storm . The system tracked along a smooth parabola east of the Philippines becoming a moderately strong tropical storm . Intense vertical wind shear struck the cyclone as it moved northeast at a clip up to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ) , and the system rapidly weakened .
= = = Tropical Depression Dadang = = =
= = Storm names = =
During the season 23 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list from 1979 .
= = = Philippines = = =
The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1987 season . This is the same list used for the 1979 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray .
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= Michael Tippett =
Sir Michael Kemp Tippett OM CH CBE ( 2 January 1905 – 8 January 1998 ) was an English composer who rose to prominence during and immediately after the Second World War . In his lifetime he was sometimes ranked with his contemporary Benjamin Britten as one of the leading British composers of the 20th century . Among his best @-@ known works are the oratorio A Child of Our Time , the orchestral Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli , and the opera The Midsummer Marriage .
Tippett 's talent developed slowly . He withdrew or destroyed his earliest compositions , and was 30 before any of his works were published . Until the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1950s his music was broadly lyrical in character , before changing to a more astringent and experimental style . New influences , including those of jazz and blues after his first visit to America in 1965 , became increasingly evident in his compositions . While Tippett 's stature with the public continued to grow , not all critics approved of these changes in style , some believing that the quality of his work suffered as a consequence . From around 1976 Tippett 's late works began to reflect the works of his youth through a return to lyricism . Although he was much honoured in his lifetime , critical judgement on Tippett 's legacy has been uneven , the greatest praise being generally reserved for his earlier works . His centenary in 2005 was a muted affair ; apart from the few best @-@ known works , his music has been performed infrequently in the 21st century .
Having briefly embraced communism in the 1930s , Tippett avoided identifying with any political party . A pacifist after 1940 , he was imprisoned in 1943 for refusing to carry out war @-@ related duties required by his military exemption . His initial difficulties in accepting his homosexuality led him in 1939 to Jungian psychoanalysis ; the Jungian dichotomy of " shadow " and " light " remained a recurring factor in his music . He was a strong advocate of music education , and was active for much of his life as a radio broadcaster and writer on music .
= = Life = =
= = = Family background = = =
The Tippett family originated in Cornwall . Michael Tippett 's grandfather , George Tippett , left the county in 1854 to make his fortune in London through property speculation and other business schemes . A flamboyant character , he had a strong tenor voice that was a popular feature at Christian revivalist meetings . In later life his business enterprises faltered , leading to debts , prosecution for fraud , and a term of imprisonment . His son Henry , born in 1858 , was Michael 's father . A lawyer by training , he was successful in business and was independently wealthy by the time of his marriage in April 1903 . Unusually for his background and upbringing , Henry Tippett was a progressive liberal and a religious sceptic .
Henry Tippett 's bride was Isabel Kemp , from a large upper @-@ middle class family based in Kent . Among her mother 's cousins was Charlotte Despard , a well @-@ known campaigner for women 's rights , suffragism , and Irish home rule . Despard was a powerful influence on the young Isabel , who was herself briefly imprisoned after participating in an illegal suffragette protest in Trafalgar Square . Although neither she nor Henry was musical , she had inherited an artistic talent from her mother , who had exhibited at the Royal Academy . After their marriage the couple settled outside London in Eastcote where two sons were born , the second , Michael , on 2 January 1905 .
= = = Childhood and schooling = = =
Shortly after Michael 's birth , the family moved to Wetherden in Suffolk . Michael 's education began in 1909 , with a nursery governess and various private tutors who followed a curriculum that included piano lessons — his first formal contact with music . There was a piano in the house , on which he " took to improvising crazily ... which I called ' composing ' , though I had only the vaguest notion of what that meant " . In September 1914 Michael became a boarder at Brookfield Preparatory School in Swanage , Dorset . He spent four years there , at one point earning notoriety by writing an essay that challenged the existence of God . In 1918 he won a scholarship to Fettes College , a boarding school in Edinburgh , where he studied the piano , sang in the choir , and began to learn to play the pipe organ . The school was not a happy place ; sadistic bullying of the younger pupils was commonplace . When Michael revealed to his parents in March 1920 that he had formed a homosexual relationship with another boy , they removed him . He transferred to Stamford School in Lincolnshire , where a decade previously Malcolm Sargent had been a pupil .
Around this time Henry Tippett decided to live in France , and the house in Wetherden was sold . The 15 @-@ year @-@ old Michael and his brother Peter remained at school in England , travelling to France for their holidays . Michael found Stamford much more congenial than Fettes , and developed both academically and musically . He found an inspiring piano teacher in Frances Tinkler , who introduced him to the music of Bach , Beethoven , Schubert and Chopin . Sargent had maintained his connection with the school , and was present when Tippett and another boy played a C minor Concerto for Two Harpsichords by Bach on pianos with a local string orchestra . Tippett sang in the chorus when Sargent directed a local performance of Robert Planquette 's operetta Les Cloches de Corneville . Despite his parents ' wish that he follow an orthodox path by proceeding to Cambridge University , Tippett had firmly decided on a career as a composer , a prospect that alarmed them and was discouraged by his headmaster and by Sargent .
By mid @-@ 1922 Tippett had developed a rebellious streak . His overt atheism particularly troubled the school , and he was required to leave . He remained in Stamford in private lodgings , while continuing lessons with Tinkler and with the organist of the local St Mary 's Church . He also began studying Charles Villiers Stanford 's book Musical Composition which , he later wrote , " became the basis of all my compositional efforts for decades to come " . In 1923 Henry Tippett was persuaded that some form of musical career , perhaps as a concert pianist , was possible , and agreed to support his son in a course of study at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) . After an interview with the college principal , Sir Hugh Allen , Tippett was accepted despite his lack of formal entry qualifications .
= = = Royal College of Music = = =
Tippett began at the RCM in the summer term of 1923 , when he was 18 years old . At the time , his biographer Meirion Bowen records , " his aspirations were Olympian , though his knowledge rudimentary " . Life in London widened his musical awareness , especially the Proms at the Queen 's Hall , opera at Covent Garden ( where he saw Dame Nellie Melba 's farewell performance in La bohème ) and the Diaghilev Ballet . He heard Chaliapin sing , and attended concerts conducted by , among others , Stravinsky and Ravel — the last @-@ named " a tiny man who stood bolt upright and conducted with what to me looked like a pencil " . Tippett overcame his initial ignorance of early music by attending Palestrina masses at Westminster Cathedral , following the music with the help of a borrowed score .
At the RCM , Tippett 's first composition tutor was Charles Wood , who used the models of Bach , Mozart and Beethoven to instil a solid understanding of musical forms and syntax . When Wood died in 1926 , Tippett chose to study with C.H. Kitson , whose pedantic approach and lack of sympathy with Tippett 's compositional aims strained the relationship between teacher and pupil . Tippett studied conducting with Sargent and Adrian Boult , finding the latter a particularly empathetic mentor — he let Tippett stand with him on the rostrum during rehearsals and follow the music from the conductor 's score . By this means Tippett became familiar with the music of composers then new to him , such as Delius and Debussy , and learned much about the sounds of orchestral instruments .
In 1924 Tippett became the conductor of an amateur choir in the Surrey village of Oxted . Although he saw this initially as a means of advancing his knowledge of English madrigals , his association with the choir lasted many years . Under his direction it combined with a local theatrical group , the Oxted and Limpsfield Players , to give performances of Vaughan Williams 's opera The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains and of Tippett 's own adaptation of an 18th @-@ century ballad opera , The Village Opera . He passed his Bachelor of Music ( BMus ) exams , at his second attempt , in December 1928 . Rather than continuing to study for a doctorate , Tippett decided to leave the academic environment . The RCM years had brought him intense and lasting friendships with members of both sexes , in particular with Francesca Allinson and David Ayerst .
= = = Early career = = =
= = = = False start = = = =
On leaving the RCM , Tippett settled in Oxted to continue his work with the choir and theatrical group and to compose . To support himself he taught French at Hazelwood , a small preparatory school in Limpsfield , which provided him with a salary of £ 80 a year and a cottage . Also teaching at the school was Christopher Fry , the future poet and playwright who later collaborated with Tippett on several of the composer 's early works .
In February 1930 Tippett provided the incidental music for a performance by his theatrical group of James Elroy Flecker 's Don Juan , and in October he directed them in his own adaptation of Stanford 's opera The Travelling Companion . His compositional output was such that on 5 April 1930 he gave a concert in Oxted consisting entirely of his own works — a Concerto in D for flutes , oboe , horns and strings ; settings for tenor of poems by Charlotte Mew ; Psalm in C for chorus and orchestra , with a text by Christopher Fry ; piano variations on the song " Jockey to the Fair " ; and a string quartet . Professional soloists and orchestral players were engaged , and the concert was conducted by David Moule @-@ Evans , a friend from the RCM . Despite encouraging comments from The Times and the Daily Telegraph , Tippett was deeply dissatisfied with the works , and decided that he needed further tuition . He withdrew the music , and in September 1930 re @-@ enrolled at the RCM for a special course of study in counterpoint with R. O. Morris , an expert on 16th @-@ century music . This second RCM period , during which he learned to write fugues in the style of Bach and received additional tuition in orchestration from Gordon Jacob , was central to Tippett 's eventual discovery of what he termed his " individual voice " .
On 15 November 1931 Tippett conducted his Oxted choir in a performance of Handel 's Messiah , using choral and orchestral forces close to Handel 's original intentions . Such performances were rare at that time , and the event attracted considerable interest .
= = = = Friendships , politics and music = = = =
In mid @-@ 1932 Tippett moved to a cottage in neighbouring Limpsfield , provided by friends as a haven in which he could concentrate on composition . His friendships with Ayerst and Allinson had opened up new cultural and political vistas . Through Ayerst he met W. H. Auden , who in due course introduced him to T. S. Eliot . Although no deep friendship developed with either poet , Tippett came to consider Eliot as his " spiritual father " . Ayerst also introduced him to a young artist , Wilfred Franks . By this time Tippett was coming to terms with his homosexuality , while not always at ease with it . Franks provided him with what he described as " the deepest , most shattering experience of falling in love " . This intense relationship ran alongside a political awakening . Tippett 's natural sympathies had always been leftish , and became more consciously so from his inclusion in Allinson 's circle of left @-@ wing activists . As a result , he gave up his teaching position at Hazelwood to become the conductor of the South London Orchestra , a project financed by the London County Council and made up of unemployed musicians . Its first public concert was held on 5 March 1933 at Morley College , later to become Tippett 's professional base .
In the summers of 1933 and 1934 Tippett took charge of musical activities at miners ' work camps near Boosbeck in the north of England . These camps were run by a munificent local landowner , Major Pennyman , to give unemployed miners a sense of purpose and independence . In 1933 Tippett arranged the staging of a shortened version of John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera , with locals playing the main parts , and the following year he provided the music for a new folk opera , Robin Hood , with words by Ayerst , himself and Ruth Pennyman . Both works proved hugely popular with their audiences , and although most of the music has disappeared , some of Robin Hood was revived by Tippett for use in his Birthday Suite for Prince Charles of 1948 . In October 1934 Tippett and the South London Orchestra performed at a centenary celebration of the Tolpuddle Martyrs , as part of a grand Pageant of Labour at the Crystal Palace .
Tippett was not formally a member of any political party or group until 1935 , when he joined the British Communist Party at the urging of his cousin , Phyllis Kemp . This membership was brief ; the influence of Trotsky 's History of the Russian Revolution had led him to embrace Trotskyism , while the party maintained a strict Stalinist line . Tippett resigned after a few months when he saw no chance of converting his local party to his Trotskyist views . According to his obituarist J.J. Plant , Tippett then joined the Bolshevik @-@ Leninist Group within the Labour Party , where he continued to advocate Trotskyism until at least 1938 . Although Tippett 's radical instincts always remained strong , he was aware that excessive political activism would distract him from his overriding objective of becoming recognised as a composer . A significant step towards professional recognition came in December 1935 , when his String Quartet No. 1 was performed by the Brosa Quartet at the Mercury Theatre in Notting Hill , London . This work , which he dedicated to Franks , is the first in the recognised canon of Tippett 's music .
= = = Towards maturity = = =
= = = = Personal crisis = = = =
Before the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , Tippett released two further works : the Piano Sonata No. 1 , first performed by Phyllis Sellick at the Queen Mary Hall , London , on 11 November 1938 , and the Concerto for Double String Orchestra , which was not performed until 1940 . In a climate of increasing political and military tension , Tippett 's compositional efforts were overwhelmed by an emotional crisis . When his relationship with Franks ended acrimoniously in August 1938 he was thrown into doubt and confusion about both his homosexuality and his worth as an artist . He was saved from despair when , at Ayerst 's suggestion , he undertook a course of Jungian analysis with the psychotherapist John Layard . Through an extended course of therapy , Layard provided Tippett with the means to analyse and interpret his dreams . Tippett 's biographer Ian Kemp describes this experience as " the major turning point in [ his ] life " , both emotionally and artistically . His particular discovery from dream analysis was " the Jungian ' shadow ' and ' light ' in the single , individual psyche ... the need for the individual to accept his divided nature and profit from its conflicting demands " . This brought him to terms with his homosexuality , and he was able to pursue his creativity without being distracted by personal relationships . While still unsure of his sexuality , Tippett had considered marriage with Francesca Allinson , who had expressed the wish that they should have children together . After his psychotherapy he enjoyed several committed — and sometimes overlapping — same @-@ sex relationships . Among the most enduring , and most tempestuous , was that with the artist Karl Hawker , whom he first met in 1941 .
= = = = A Child of Our Time = = = =
While his therapy proceeded , Tippett was searching for a theme for a major work — an opera or an oratorio — that could reflect both the contemporary turmoil in the world and his own recent catharsis . Having briefly considered the theme of the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916 , he based his work on a more immediate event : the murder in Paris of a German diplomat by a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Jewish refugee , Herschel Grynszpan . This murder triggered Kristallnacht ( Crystal Night ) , a coordinated attack on Jews and their property throughout Nazi Germany on 9 – 10 November 1938 . Tippett hoped that Eliot would provide a libretto for the oratorio , and the poet showed interest . However , when Tippett presented him with a more detailed scenario , Eliot advised him to write his own text , suggesting that the poetic quality of the words might otherwise dominate the music . Tippett called the oratorio A Child of Our Time , taking the title from Ein Kind unserer Zeit , a contemporary protest novel by the Austro @-@ Hungarian writer Ödön von Horváth . Within a three @-@ part structure based on Handel 's Messiah , Tippett took the novel step of using North American spirituals in place of the traditional chorales that punctuate oratorio texts . According to Kenneth Gloag 's commentary , the spirituals provide " moments of focus and repose ... giving shape to both the musical and literary dimensions of the work " . Tippett began composing the oratorio in September 1939 , on the conclusion of his dream therapy and immediately after the outbreak of war .
= = = = Morley , war , imprisonment = = = =
With the South London Orchestra temporarily disbanded because of the war , Tippett returned to teaching at Hazelwood . In October 1940 he accepted the post of Director of Music at Morley College , just after its buildings were almost completely destroyed by a bomb . Tippett 's challenge was to rebuild the musical life of the college , using temporary premises and whatever resources he could muster . He revived the Morley College Choir and orchestra , and arranged innovative concert programmes that typically mixed early music ( Orlando Gibbons , Monteverdi , Dowland ) , with contemporary works by Stravinsky , Hindemith and Bartók . He continued the college 's established association with the music of Purcell ; a performance in November 1941 of Purcell 's Ode to St. Cecilia , with improvised instruments and rearrangements of voice parts , attracted considerable attention . The music staff at Morley was augmented by the recruitment of refugee musicians from Europe , including Walter Bergmann , Mátyás Seiber , and Walter Goehr who took charge of the college orchestra .
A Child of Our Time was finished in 1941 and put aside with no immediate prospects of performance . Tippett 's Fantasia on a Theme of Handel for piano and orchestra was performed at the Wigmore Hall in March 1942 , with Sellick again the soloist , and the same venue saw the première of the composer 's String Quartet No. 2 a year later . The first recording of Tippett 's music , the Piano Sonata No. 1 played by Sellick , was issued in August 1941 . The recording was well received by the critics , Wilfrid Mellers predicting a leading role for the composer in the future of English music . In 1942 , Schott Music began to publish Tippett 's works , establishing an association that continued until the end of the composer 's life .
The question of Tippett 's liability for war service remained unresolved until mid @-@ 1943 . In November 1940 he had formalised his pacifism by joining the Peace Pledge Union and applying for registration as a conscientious objector . His case was heard by a tribunal in February 1942 , when he was assigned to non @-@ combatant duties . Tippett rejected such work as an unacceptable compromise with his principles and in June 1943 , after several further hearings and statements on his behalf from distinguished musical figures , he was sentenced to three months ' imprisonment in HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs . He served two months , and although thereafter he was technically liable to further charges for failing to comply with the terms set by his tribunal , the authorities left him alone .
= = = Recognition and controversy = = =
On his release , Tippett returned to his duties at Morley , where he boosted the college 's Purcell tradition by persuading Alfred Deller , the countertenor , to sing several Purcell odes at a concert on 21 October 1944 — the first modern use of a countertenor in Purcell 's music . Tippett formed a fruitful musical friendship with Benjamin Britten and Peter Pears , for whom he wrote the cantata Boyhood 's End for tenor and piano . Encouraged by Britten , Tippett made arrangements for the first performance of A Child of Our Time , at London 's Adelphi Theatre on 19 March 1944 . Goehr conducted the London Philharmonic Orchestra , and Morley 's choral forces were augmented by the London Regional Civil Defence Choir . Pears sang the tenor solo part , and other soloists were borrowed from Sadler 's Wells Opera . The work was well received by critics and the public , and eventually became one of the most frequently performed large @-@ scale choral works of the post @-@ Second World War period , in Britain and overseas . Tippett 's immediate reward was a commission from the BBC for a motet , The Weeping Babe , which became his first broadcast work when it was aired on 24 December 1944 . He also began to give regular radio talks on music .
In 1946 Tippett organised at Morley the first British performance of Monteverdi 's Vespers , adding his own organ Preludio for the occasion . Tippett 's compositions in the immediate postwar years included his First Symphony , performed under Sargent in November 1945 , and the String Quartet No. 3 , premiered in October 1946 by the Zorian Quartet . His main creative energies were increasingly devoted to his first major opera , The Midsummer Marriage . During the six years from 1946 he composed almost no other music , apart from the Birthday Suite for Prince Charles ( 1948 ) .
The musical and philosophical ideas behind the opera had begun in Tippett 's mind several years earlier . The story , which he wrote himself , charts the fortunes of two contrasting couples in a manner which has brought comparisons with Mozart 's The Magic Flute . The strain of composition , combined with his continuing responsibilities at Morley and his BBC work , affected Tippett 's health and slowed progress . Following the death in 1949 of Morley 's principal , Eva Hubback , Tippett 's personal commitment to the college waned . His now @-@ regular BBC fees had made him less dependent on his Morley salary , and he resigned his college post in 1951 . His farewell took the form of three concerts which he conducted at the new Royal Festival Hall , in which the programmes included A Child of Our Time , the British première of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana , and Thomas Tallis 's rarely performed 40 @-@ part motet Spem in alium .
In 1951 Tippett moved from Limpsfield to a large , dilapidated house , Tidebrook Manor in Wadhurst , Sussex . As The Midsummer Marriage neared completion he wrote a song cycle for tenor and piano , The Heart 's Assurance . This work , a long @-@ delayed tribute to Francesca Allinson ( who had committed suicide in 1945 ) , was performed by Britten and Pears at the Wigmore Hall on 7 May 1951 . The Midsummer Marriage was finished in 1952 , after which Tippett arranged some of the music as a concert suite , the Ritual Dances , performed in Basel , Switzerland , in April 1953 . The opera itself was staged at Covent Garden on 27 January 1955 . The lavish production , with costumes and stage designs by Barbara Hepworth and choreography by John Cranko , perplexed the opera @-@ going public and divided critical opinion . According to Bowen , most " were simply unprepared for a work that departed so far from the methods of Puccini and Verdi " . Tippett 's libretto was variously described as " one of the worst in the 350 @-@ year history of opera " and " a complex network of verbal symbolism " , and the music as " intoxicating beauty " with " passages of superbly conceived orchestral writing " . A year after the première , the critic A.E.F. Dickinson concluded that " in spite of notable gaps in continuity and distracting infelicities of language , [ there is ] strong evidence that the composer has found the right music for his ends " .
Much of the music Tippett composed following the opera 's completion reflected its lyrical style . Among these works was the Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli ( 1953 ) for string orchestra , written to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the composer Arcangelo Corelli 's birth . The Fantasia would eventually become one of Tippett 's most popular works , though The Times 's critic lamented the " excessive complexity of the contrapuntal writing ... there was so much going on that the perplexed ear knew not where to turn or fasten itself " . Such comments helped to foster a view that Tippett was a " difficult " composer , or even that his music was amateurish and poorly prepared . These perceptions were strengthened by controversies around several of his works in the late 1950s . The Piano Concerto ( 1955 ) was declared unplayable by its scheduled soloist , Julius Katchen , who had to be replaced before the première by Louis Kentner . The Dennis Brain Wind Ensemble , for whom Tippett had written the Sonata for Four Horns ( 1955 ) , complained that the work was in too high a key and required it to be transposed down . When the Second Symphony was premièred by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Boult , in a live broadcast from the Royal Festival Hall on 5 February 1958 , the work broke down after a few minutes and had to be restarted by the apologetic conductor : " Entirely my mistake , ladies and gentlemen " . The BBC 's Controller of Music defended the orchestra in The Times , writing that it " is equal to all reasonable demands " , a wording that implied the fault was the composer 's .
= = = International acclaim = = =
= = = = King Priam and after = = = =
In 1960 Tippett moved to a house in the Wiltshire village of Corsham , where he lived with his long @-@ term partner Karl Hawker . By then Tippett had begun work on his second major opera , King Priam . He chose for his theme the tragedy of Priam , mythological king of the Trojans , as recorded in Homer 's Iliad , and again he prepared his own libretto . As with The Midsummer Marriage , Tippett 's preoccupation with the opera meant that his compositional output was limited for several years to a few minor works , including a Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis written in 1961 for the 450th anniversary of the foundation of St John 's College , Cambridge . King Priam was premièred in Coventry by the Covent Garden Opera on 29 May 1962 as part of a festival celebrating the consecration of the new Coventry Cathedral . The production was by Sam Wanamaker and the lighting by Sean Kenny . John Pritchard was the conductor . The music for the new work displayed a marked stylistic departure from what Tippett had written hitherto , heralding what a later commentator , Iain Stannard , refers to as a " great divide " between the works before and after King Priam . Although some commentators questioned the wisdom of so radical a departure from his established voice , the opera was a considerable success with critics and the public . Lewis later called it " one of the most powerful operatic experiences in the modern theatre " . This reception , combined with the fresh acclaim for The Midsummer Marriage following a well @-@ received BBC broadcast in 1963 , did much to rescue Tippett 's reputation and establish him as a leading figure among British composers .
As earlier with The Midsummer Marriage , the compositions that followed King Priam retained the musical idiom of the opera , notably the Piano Sonata No. 2 ( 1962 ) and the Concerto for Orchestra ( 1963 ) , the latter written for the Edinburgh Festival and dedicated to Britten for his 50th birthday . Tippett 's main work in the mid @-@ 1960s was the cantata The Vision of Saint Augustine , commissioned by the BBC , which Bowen marks as a peak of Tippett 's compositional career : " Not since The Midsummer Marriage had he unleashed such a torrent of musical invention " . His status as a national figure was now being increasingly recognised . He had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1959 ; in 1961 he was made an honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Music ( HonFRCM ) , and in 1964 he received from Cambridge University the first of many honorary doctorates . In 1966 he was awarded a knighthood .
= = = = Wider horizons = = = =
In 1965 Tippett made the first of several visits to the United States , to serve as composer in residence at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado . Tippett 's American experiences had a significant effect on the music he composed in the late 1960s and early 1970s , with jazz and blues elements particularly evident in his third opera , The Knot Garden ( 1966 – 69 ) , and in the Symphony No. 3 ( 1970 – 72 ) . At home in 1969 , Tippett worked with the conductor Colin Davis to rescue the Bath International Music Festival from a financial crisis , and became the festival 's artistic director for the following five seasons . In 1970 , following the collapse of his relationship with Hawker , he left Corsham and moved to a secluded house on the Marlborough Downs . Among the works he wrote in this period were In Memoriam Magistri ( 1971 ) , a chamber piece commissioned by Tempo magazine as a memorial to Stravinsky , who had died on 6 April 1971 , and the Piano Sonata No. 3 ( 1973 ) .
In February 1974 Tippett attended a " Michael Tippett Festival " , arranged in his honour by Tufts University , near Boston , Massachusetts . He was also present at a performance of The Knot Garden at Northwestern University at Evanston , Illinois — the first Tippett opera to be performed in the US . Two years later he was again in the country , engaged on a lecture tour that included the Doty Lectures in Fine Art at the University of Texas . Between these American journeys , Tippett travelled to Lusaka for the first African performance of A Child of Our Time , at which the Zambian president , Kenneth Kaunda , was present .
In 1976 Tippett was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society . The following few years saw journeys to Java and Bali — where he was much attracted by the sounds of gamelan ensembles — and to Australia , where he conducted a performance of his Fourth Symphony in Adelaide . In 1979 , with funds available from the sale of some of his original manuscripts to the British Library , Tippett inaugurated the Michael Tippett Musical Foundation , which provided financial support to young musicians and music education initiatives .
Tippett maintained his pacifist beliefs , while becoming generally less public in expressing them , and from 1959 served as president of the Peace Pledge Union . In 1977 he made a rare political statement when , opening a PPU exhibition at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields , he attacked President Carter 's plans to develop a neutron bomb .
= = = Later life = = =
In his seventies , Tippett continued to compose and travel , although now handicapped by health problems . His eyesight was deteriorating as a result of macular dystrophy , and he relied increasingly on his musical amanuensis and near namesake Michael Tillett , and on Meirion Bowen , who became Tippett 's assistant and closest companion in the remaining years of the composer 's life . The main works of the late 1970s were a new opera , The Ice Break , the Symphony No. 4 , the String Quartet No. 4 and the Triple Concerto for violin , viola and cello . The Ice Break was a reflection of Tippett 's American experiences , with a contemporary storyline incorporating race riots and drug @-@ taking . His libretto has been criticised for its awkward attempts at American street vernacular , and the opera has not found a place in the general repertory . Mellers finds that its fusion of " art music , rock ritual and performance art fail to gel " . The Triple Concerto includes a finale inspired by the gamelan music that Tippett absorbed during his visit to Java .
In 1979 Tippett was made a Companion of Honour ( CH ) . The main composition that occupied him in the early 1980s was his oratorio The Mask of Time , loosely based on Jacob Bronowski 's 1973 TV series The Ascent of Man . In Tippett 's words , this is an attempt to deal " with those fundamental matters that bear upon man , his relationship with Time , his place in the world as we know it and in the mysterious universe at large " . The oratorio was commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra for its centenary , and was one of several of Tippett 's late compositions that were premièred in America .
In 1983 Tippett became president of the London College of Music and was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit ( OM ) . By the time of his 80th birthday in 1985 he was blind in his right eye , and his output had slowed . Nevertheless , in his final active years he wrote his last opera , New Year . This futuristic fable involving flying saucers , time travel and urban violence was indifferently received on its première in Houston , Texas , on 17 October 1989 . Donal Henahan in The New York Times wrote that " Unlike Wagner , Tippett does not provide music of enough quality to allow one to overlook textual absurdities and commonplaces . " The opera was introduced to Britain in the Glyndebourne Festival of 1990 .
In spite of his deteriorating health , Tippett toured Australia in 1989 – 90 , and also visited Senegal . His last major works , written between 1988 and 1993 , were : Byzantium , for soprano and orchestra ; the String Quartet No. 5 ; and The Rose Lake , a " song without words for orchestra " inspired by a visit to Lake Retba in Senegal during his 1990 trip . He intended The Rose Lake to be his farewell , but in 1996 he broke his retirement to write " Caliban 's Song " as a contribution to the Purcell tercentenary . In 1997 he moved from Wiltshire to London to be closer to his friends and carers ; in November of that year he made his last overseas trip , to Stockholm for a festival of his music . After suffering a stroke he was taken home , where he died on 8 January 1998 , six days after his 93rd birthday . He was cremated on 15 January , at Hanworth crematorium , after a secular service .
= = Music = =
= = = General character = = =
Bowen has described Tippett as " a composer of our time " , one who engaged with the social , political and cultural issues of his day . Arnold Whittall sees the music as embodying Tippett 's philosophy of " ultimately optimistic humanism " . Rather than ignoring the barbarism of the 20th century , says Kemp , Tippett chose through his works to seek " to preserve or remake those values that have been perverted , while at the same time never losing sight of the contemporary reality " . The key early work in this respect is A Child of Our Time , of which Clarke writes : " [ t ] he words of the oratorio 's closing ensemble , ' I would know my shadow and my light , So shall I at last be whole ' , have become canonical in commentary on Tippett ... this [ Jungian ] statement crystallizes an ethic , and aesthetic , central to his world @-@ view , and one which underlies all his text @-@ based works " . Sceptical critics such as the musicologist Derrick Puffett have argued that Tippett 's craft as a composer was insufficient for him to deal adequately with the task that he had set himself of " transmut [ ing ] his personal and private agonies into ... something universal and impersonal " . Michael Kennedy has referred to Tippett 's " open ‐ eyed , even naive outlook on the world " , while accepting the technical sophistication of his music . Others have acknowledged his creative ingenuity and his willingness to adopt whatever means or techniques were necessary to fit his intentions .
Tippett 's music is marked by the expansive nature of his melodic line — the Daily Telegraph 's Ivan Hewett refers to his " astonishingly long @-@ breathed melodies " . According to Jones , a further element of the " individual voice " that emerged in 1935 was Tippett 's handling of rhythm and counterpoint , demonstrated in the First String Quartet — Tippett 's first use of the additive rhythm and cross @-@ rhythm polyphony which became part of his musical signature . This approach to metre and rhythm is derived in part from Bartók and Stravinsky but also from the English madrigalists . Sympathy with the past , observed by Colin Mason in an early appraisal of the composer 's work , was at the root of the neoclassicism that is a feature of Tippett 's music , at least until the Second Symphony ( 1957 ) .
In terms of tonality , Tippett shifted his ground in the course of his career . His earlier works , up to The Midsummer Marriage , are key @-@ centred , but thereafter he moved through bitonality into what the composer Charles Fussell has summarised as " the freely @-@ organized harmonic worlds " of the Third Symphony and The Ice Break . Although Tippett flirted with the " twelve @-@ tone " technique — he introduced a twelve @-@ tone theme into the " storm " prelude that begins The Knot Garden — Bowen records that he generally rejected serialism , as incompatible with his musical aims .
= = = Compositional process = = =
Tippett described himself as the receiver of inspiration rather than its originator , the creative spark coming from a particular personal experience , which might take one of many forms but was most often associated with listening to music . The process of composing was lengthy and laborious , the actual writing down of the music being preceded by several stages of gestation ; as Tippett put it , " the concepts come first , and then a lot of work and imaginative processes until eventually , when you 're ready , finally ready , you look for the actual notes " . Tippett elaborated : " I compose by first developing an overall sense of the length of the work , then of how it will divide itself into sections or movements , then of the kind of texture or instruments or voices that will be performing it . I prefer not to consider the actual notes of the composition until this process ... has gone as far as possible " . Sometimes the time required to see a project through from conception to completion was very lengthy — seven years , Tippett says , in the case of the Third Symphony . In the earlier , contemplative stages he might be simultaneously engaged on other works , but once these stages were complete he would dedicate entirely himself to the completion of the work in hand . Tippett preferred to compose in full score ; once the writing began , progress was often not fluent , as evidenced by Tippett 's first pencil draft manuscripts which show multiple rubbings @-@ out and reworkings . In this , the musicologist Thomas Schuttenhelm says , his methods resembled those of Beethoven , with the difference that " whereas Beethoven 's struggle is considered a virtue of his work , and almost universally admired , Tippett 's was the source and subject of a debate about his competency as a composer " .
= = = Influences = = =
The style that emerged from Tippett 's long compositional apprenticeship was the product of many diverse influences . Beethoven and Handel were initial models ( Handel above Bach , who in Tippett 's view lacked drama ) , supplemented by 16th- and 17th @-@ century masters of counterpoint and madrigal — Thomas Weelkes , Monteverdi and Dowland . Purcell became significant later , and Tippett came to lament his ignorance of Purcell during his RCM years : " It seems to me incomprehensible now that his work was not even recommended in composition lessons as a basic study for the setting of English " .
Tippett recognised the importance to his compositional development of several 19th- and 20th @-@ century composers : Berlioz for his clear melodic lines , Debussy for his inventive sound , Bartók for his colourful dissonance , Hindemith for his skills at counterpoint , and Sibelius for his originality in musical forms . He revered Stravinsky , sharing the Russian composer 's deep interest in older music . Tippett had heard early ragtime as a small child before the First World War ; he noted in his later writings that , in the early years of the 20th century , ragtime and jazz " attracted many serious composers thinking to find ... a means to refresh serious music by the primitive " . His interest in these forms led to his fascination with blues , articulated in several of his later works . Among his contemporary composers , Tippett admired Britten and shared his desire to end the perception of English music as provincial . He also had a high regard for Alan Bush , with whom he joined forces to produce the 1934 Pageant of Labour . " I can remember the excitement I felt when he outlined to me his plan for a major string quartet " .
Although influences of folk music from all parts of the British Isles are evident in Tippett 's early works , he was wary of the English folksong revival of the early 20th century , believing that much of the music presented as " English " by Cecil Sharp and his followers originated elsewhere . Notwithstanding his doubts , Tippett took some inspiration from these sources . The composer David Matthews writes of passages in Tippett 's music which " evoke the ' sweet especial rural scene ' as vividly as Elgar or Vaughan Williams ... perhaps redolent of the Suffolk landscape with its gently undulating horizons , wide skies and soft lights . "
= = = Works = = =
After the withdrawn works written in the 1920s and early 1930s , analysts generally divide Tippett 's mature compositional career into three main phases , with fairly fluid boundaries and some internal subdivision in each main period . The first phase extends from the completion of the String Quartet No. 1 in 1935 to the end of the 1950s , a period in which Tippett drew on the past for his main inspiration . The 1960s marked the beginning of a new phase in which Tippett 's style became more experimental , reflecting both the social and cultural changes of that era and the broadening of his own experiences . The mid @-@ 1970s produced a further stylistic change , less marked and sudden than that of the early 1960s , after which what Clarke calls the " extremes " of the experimental phase were gradually replaced by a return to the lyricism characteristic of the first period , a trend that was particularly manifested in the final works .
= = = = Withdrawn compositions = = = =
Tippett 's earliest compositions cover several genres . Kemp writes that the works indicate Tippett 's deep commitment to the learning of his craft , his early ability to manipulate traditional forms , and a general willingness to experiment . Clarke observes that in these youthful efforts , characteristics which would mark his mature work were already discernible . Some of the early work is of high quality — the Symphony in B flat of 1933 was , in Kemp 's view , comparable to William Walton 's contemporaneous First Symphony . Tippett pondered for years whether to include this work in his formal canon before deciding that its debt to Sibelius was too great . Nevertheless , it foreshadows techniques that feature in the String Quartet No. 1 and in the Corelli Fantasia .
Other accomplished early works include the two string quartets , composed between 1928 and 1930 , in which Tippett sought to combine the styles of Beethoven and Haydn respectively with folk @-@ song , as Beethoven had in his Rasumovsky quartets of 1806 . Tippett explains the withdrawal of these and the other early works : " I realised very clearly that they were not totally consonant with myself . I didn 't think they had the stamp of artistic durability . So I took the whole lot along to R.O. Morris who agreed that they didn 't show enough technical mastery . "
= = = = First period : 1935 to late 1950s = = = =
Kemp identifies the String Quartet No. 1 ( 1935 ) as marking Tippett 's discovery of his individual voice . According to the composer Alan Ridout , the work stamped its character on Tippett 's first period , and together with the second and third quartets of 1942 and 1946 it typifies his style up to The Midsummer Marriage . In the two works that immediately followed the first quartet , Bowen finds the Piano Sonata No. 1 ( 1938 ) full of the young composer 's inventiveness , while Matthews writes of the Concerto for Double String Orchestra ( 1939 ) : " [ I ] t is the rhythmic freedom of the music , its joyful liberation from orthodox notions of stress and phrase length , that contributes so much to its vitality " . Both of these works show influence of folk music , and the finale of the Piano Sonata is marked by innovative jazz syncopations . According to Schuttenhelm , the Double Concerto marks the proper beginning of Tippett 's maturity as an orchestral composer .
In A Child of Our Time Tippett was , in Kemp 's view , wholly successful in integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style . Tippett had obtained recordings of American singing groups , especially the Hall Johnson Choir , which provided him with a model for determining the relationships between solo voices and chorus in the spirituals . Thus , Kemp believes , the fourth spiritual " O by and by " sounds almost as if it had been composed by Tippett . The composer 's instructions in the score specify that " the spirituals should not be thought of as congregational hymns , but as integral parts of the Oratorio ; nor should they be sentimentalised but sung with a strong underlying beat and slightly ' swung ' " .
In Tippett 's Symphony No. 1 ( 1945 ) , his only large @-@ scale work between A Child of Our Time and The Midsummer Marriage , his " gift for launching a confident flow of sharply characterized , contrapuntally combined ideas " is acknowledged by Whittall . The same critic found the symphony 's quality uneven , and the orchestral writing weaker than in the Double Concerto . Whittall offers nearly unqualified praise for The Midsummer Marriage , a view largely echoed by Mellers , who saw the perceived " difficulty " of the music as " an aspect of its truth " . He considered the opera one of the best musical @-@ theatrical works of its era .
Three major works of the 1950s round off Tippett 's first period : the Corelli Fantasia ( 1953 ) , in which Clarke sees , in the alla pastorale section , the composer 's instrumental writing at its best ; the mildly controversial Piano Concerto ( 1955 ) which Whittall regards as one of the composer 's most intriguing works — an attempt to " make the piano sing " ; and the Symphony No. 2 ( 1957 ) which Tippett acknowledges as a turning @-@ point in his music . Until this point , says Matthews , Tippett 's style had remained broadly tonal . The Second Symphony was his first essay in polytonality , paving the way to the dissonance and chromaticism of subsequent works . Milner , too , recognises the pivotal position of this symphony in Tippett 's development which , he says , both sums up the style of the late 1950s and presages the changes to come .
= = = = Second period : King Priam to 1976 = = = =
In his analysis of King Priam , Bowen argues that the change in Tippett 's musical style arose initially from the nature of the opera , a tragedy radically different in tone from the warm optimism of The Midsummer Marriage . Clarke sees the change as something more fundamental , the increases in dissonance and atonality in Priam being representative of a trend that continued and reached a climax of astringency a few years later in Tippett 's third opera , The Knot Garden . Tippett 's new modernistic language , writes Clarke , was rooted in his desire to represent a wider range of human experiences , characteristic of a changing world : " War , violence , sex , homoeroticism , and social and interpersonal alienation [ would now feature ] much more overtly in [ his ] dramatic works or works with text " . Critics acknowledged Priam as a considerable achievement , but received the new musical style cautiously . While Gloag thought the change was not an absolute departure from Tippett 's earlier style , Milner viewed King Priam as a complete break with Tippett 's previous work , pointing out the lack of counterpoint , the considerably increased dissonances , and the move towards atonality : " very little of the music is in a definite key " .
Many of the minor works that Tippett wrote in the wake of King Priam reflect the musical style of the opera , in some cases quoting directly from it . In the first purely instrumental post @-@ Priam work , the Piano Sonata No. 2 ( 1962 ) , Milner thought the new style worked better in the theatre than in the concert or recital hall , although he found the music in the Concerto for Orchestra ( 1963 ) had matured into a form that fully justified the earlier experiments . The critic Tim Souster refers to Tippett 's " new , hard , sparse instrumental style " evident in The Vision of Saint Augustine ( 1965 ) , written for baritone soloist , chorus and orchestra , a work which Bowen considers one of the peaks of Tippett 's career .
During the late 1960s Tippett worked on a series of compositions that reflected the influence of his American experiences after 1965 : The Shires Suite ( 1970 ) , The Knot Garden ( 1970 ) and the Symphony No. 3 ( 1972 ) . In The Knot Garden Mellers discerns Tippett 's " wonderfully acute " ear only intermittently , otherwise : " thirty years on , the piece still sounds and looks knotty indeed , exhausting alike to participants and audience " . The Third Symphony is overtly linked by Tippett to Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony through a vocal finale of four blues songs , introduced by a direct quotation from Beethoven 's finale . Tippett 's intention , explained by the music critic Calum MacDonald , was to explore the contemporary relevance of the grand , universal sentiments in Schiller 's Ode to Joy , as set by Beethoven . Tippett 's conclusion is that while the need to rejoice remains , the twentieth century has put paid to the Romantic ideals of universality and certainty .
After completing his Piano Sonata No. 3 ( 1973 ) , " a formidable piece of abstract composition " according to Bowen , Tippett returned to the modern vernacular in his fourth opera The Ice Break ( 1976 ) . Describing the music in an introduction to the published libretto , Tippett identifies " two archetypal sounds : one relating to the frightening but exhilarating sound of the ice breaking on the great northern rivers in the spring ; the other related to the exciting or terrifying sound of the slogan @-@ shouting crowds , which can lift you on your shoulders in triumph , or stamp you to death " . Although the work was generally regarded as a critical and public failure , aspects of its music have been recognised as among Tippett 's best . The critic John Warrack writes that , after the violence of the opening acts , the third act 's music has a lyrical warmth comparable to that of The Midsummer Marriage " . William Mann in The Times was equally enthusiastic , finding the music compelling and worthy of many a rehearing .
= = = = Third period : 1977 to 1995 = = = =
In the late 1970s Tippett produced three single @-@ movement instrumental works : the Symphony No. 4 ( 1977 ) , the String Quartet No. 4 ( 1978 ) , and the Triple Concerto for violin , viola and cello ( 1979 ) . The symphony , written in the manner of the tone poem or symphonic fantasia exemplified by Sibelius , represents what Tippett describes as a birth @-@ to @-@ death cycle , beginning and ending with the sounds of breathing . This effect was initially provided by a wind machine , although other means have been tried , with mixed results — according to Bowen " the sounds emitted can turn out to be redolent of a space @-@ fiction film or a bordello " . The Fourth String Quartet , Tippett explains , is an exercise in " finding a sound " that he first encountered in the incidental music to a television programme on Rembrandt . In the Triple Concerto , which is thematically related to the Fourth Quartet and quotes from it , the three solo instruments perform individually rather than as a formal grouping . The work acknowledges Tippett 's past with quotations from The Midsummer Marriage .
Tippett described the longest and most ambitious of his late works , the oratorio The Mask of Time ( 1982 ) , as " a pageant of sorts with an ultimately lofty message " . Mellers called the work " a mind @-@ boggling cosmic history of the universe " . Paul Driver , who had been a critic of Tippett 's new style , wrote that the Mask revealed " the authentic early Tippett " , with a return to the lyricism of The Midsummer Marriage and multiple acknowledgements of his early compositions .
Tippett had intended The Ice Break to be his final opera , but in 1985 he began work on New Year . Bowen saw this work as a summary of ideas and images that had attracted Tippett throughout his working life . Donal Henahan was dismissive of the music : " ... the score generally natters along in the numbing , not @-@ quite @-@ atonal but antimelodic style familiar from other Tippett works . " In Byzantium ( 1990 ) , Tippett set the five stanzas of W. B. Yeats 's poem , with added orchestral interludes . By this time he was professing little interest in his own work beyond its creation ; performance and reception had become irrelevant to him . In 1996 he told an interviewer : " I 'm outside the music I 've made , I have no interest in it " . After the String Quartet No. 5 ( 1991 ) , which connects thematically with earlier works , Tippett closed his main output with The Rose Lake ( 1993 ) , described in Tippett 's Daily Telegraph obituary as " of luminous beauty ... a worthy ending to a remarkable career . "
= = Reputation and legacy = =
In a joint study of Tippett and Britten published in 1982 , Whittall designated the pair as " the two best British composers of that ... generation born between 1900 and the outbreak of the First World War , and among the best of all composers born in the first two decades of the twentieth century " . After Britten 's death in 1976 , Tippett became widely regarded as the doyen of British music , but critical opinion of his later works was not always positive . After the first performance of the Triple Concerto in 1980 , Driver wrote that " not since The Knot Garden has [ he ] produced anything worthy of his early masterpieces " . In 1982 , in his comparative study of Britten and Tippett , Whittall asserted that " it would be difficult to claim that any of the works [ Tippett ] has begun in his seventies are the equal of earlier compositions " . Although both Driver and Whittall later modified their opinions , such comments represented a general view among critics that Tippett 's creative powers had begun to decline after the triumph of King Priam . This perception was strongly expressed by Derek Puffett , who argued that the decline followed Tippett 's abandonment of myth — seen as the key to the success of The Midsummer Marriage and King Priam — and stemmed from his increasingly futile efforts to universalise his private agonies and express them musically . Despite his admiration for the early works , Puffett consigned Tippett " to the ranks of those noble but tragic composers who have lived beyond their time " . The critic Norman Lebrecht , writing in 2005 , dismissed almost all Tippett 's output , labelling him " a composer to forget " . With the forthcoming centenary celebrations in mind , Lebrecht wrote : " I cannot begin to assess the damage to British music that will ensue from the coming year 's purblind promotion of a composer who failed so insistently to observe the rules of his craft " . Against these criticisms Kemp maintained that while the style had become less immediately accessible , Tippett 's later works showed no loss of creative power . The critic Peter Wright , writing in 1999 , challenged the " decline " theory with the view that the later compositions are " harder to come to terms with ... because of the more challenging nature of their musical language " , a theme he developed in a detailed study of the Fifth String Quartet .
After Tippett 's death the more popular pieces from his first period continued to be played , but there was little public enthusiasm for the later works . After the relatively muted 2005 centenary celebrations , performances and recordings tailed off . In October 2012 Hewett wrote in the Daily Telegraph of a " calamitous fall " in Tippett 's reputation since his death . Geraint Lewis acknowledges that " no consensus yet exists in respect of the works composed from the 1960s onwards " , while forecasting that Tippett will in due course be recognised as one of the most original and powerful musical voices of twentieth @-@ century Britain " .
Many of Tippett 's articles and broadcast talks were issued in collections between 1959 and 1995 . In 1991 he published an episodic autobiography , Those Twentieth Century Blues , notable for its frank discussions of personal issues and relationships . Collectively , Tippett 's writings define his aesthetic standpoint , which Clarke summarises thus : " Tippett holds that art 's role in post @-@ Enlightenment culture is to offer a corrective to society 's spiritually injurious domination by mass technology . Art , he suggests , can articulate areas of human experience , unapproachable through scientific rationality , by presenting ' images ' of the inner world of the psyche . "
Although Tippett did not found a compositional school , composers who have acknowledged his influence include David Matthews and William Mathias . More generally , his musical and educational influence continues through the Michael Tippett Foundation . He is also commemorated in the Michael Tippett Centre , a concert venue within the Newton Park campus of Bath Spa University . In Lambeth , home of Morley College , is the Michael Tippett School , an educational facility for young people aged 11 – 19 with complex learning disabilities . Within the school 's campus is the Tippett Music Centre , which offers music education for children of all ages and levels of ability .
= = Writings = =
Three collections of Tippett 's articles and broadcast talks have been published :
Moving into Aquarius ( 1959 ) . London , Routledge and Kegan Paul . OCLC 3351563
Music of the Angels : essays and sketchbooks of Michael Tippett ( 1980 ) . London , Eulenburg Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 903873 @-@ 60 @-@ 5
Tippett on Music ( 1995 ) . Oxford , Clarendon Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 816541 @-@ 2
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= Porter ( MBTA station ) =
Porter is an MBTA transfer station serving the rapid transit Red Line and the commuter rail Fitchburg Line , located at Porter Square in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Positioned at the intersection of Massachusetts and Somerville Avenues , the station provides rapid transit access to northern Cambridge and the western portions of Somerville . Porter is 14 minutes from Park Street on the Red Line , and about 10 minutes from North Station on commuter rail trains . Several local MBTA Bus routes also stop at the station .
A series of commuter rail depots have been located at Porter Square under various names since the 1840s . The modern station with both subway and commuter rail levels was designed by Cambridge Seven Associates and opened on December 8 , 1984 . At 105 feet ( 32 m ) below ground , the subway section is the deepest station on the MBTA system . The station originally had six artworks installed as part of the Arts on the Line program ; five remain , including Gift of the Wind and Glove Cycle .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
There has been a railroad station at Porter Square since the Fitchburg Railroad began operations in the early 1840s . The first station , built in 1843 – 45 , was called Porter 's Station . Later stations at the site were known as North Cambridge , then later simply as Cambridge . In 1869 , the original station was moved to the North Avenue ( now Massachusetts Avenue ) bridge over the tracks .
= = = B & M era = = =
A new station was built in 1897 , slightly to the southeast , behind the Lovell Block . In 1927 , the Fitchburg Cutoff became freight @-@ only between the Alewife area and Somerville Junction . Passenger trains from the Lexington Branch and the Central Massachusetts Railroad were diverted to the Fitchburg mainline and began to stop at Cambridge station . In 1937 , the Boston and Maine Railroad built a two @-@ story brick depot by the bridge , with the ticket office at street level and the waiting room and platforms below .
= = = MBTA era = = =
By the time the newly formed Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority began subsidizing northside commuter rail operations in the late 1960s , both the Lexington Branch and the Central Mass Branch had been reduced to single rush hour round trips on poorly maintained track . The South Sudbury run on the Central Mass was terminated on November 26 , 1971 . The Bedford round trip on the Lexington Branch ended after a major snowstorm on January 10 , 1977 , leaving the Fitchburg Line ( with multiple daily round trips ) as the only rail service at Cambridge station .
= = = Adding the Red Line = = =
In the late 1970s , Cambridge station was renamed to Porter when it became certain that the Red Line Northwest Extension would include a stop there . ( " Cambridge " , while sufficient for a commuter @-@ rail station , would have been confusing for a rapid @-@ transit station , because the Red Line has multiple stations — six in total — in the City of Cambridge . ) The Red Line platforms were built in a deep @-@ bore tunnel , while the commuter platform was rebuilt with an accessible mini @-@ high platform . During construction , commuter trains were accessed via a still @-@ extant staircase from Somerville Avenue .
A new glass and concrete headhouse was built around 1982 , and the complete new transfer station opened on December 8 , 1984 along with the renovated Harvard station and the new Davis station . The new station , designed by Cambridge Seven Associates , won awards from the American Institute of Architects and the American Consulting Engineering Council of New England .
Because of its Red Line connection , Porter Square can serve as a temporary inbound terminus for the Fitchburg Line service when commuter rail service is disrupted between Porter and Boston 's North Station . It served this role during the 2004 Democratic National Convention , when North Station was closed for a week for security purposes , and during Green Line Extension construction in 2015 .
= = Station layout = =
The subway station at Porter is , at 105 feet below ground level , the deepest in the MBTA system . Porter 's unusual depth is due to the MBTA 's decision to build the station in bedrock rather than soft clay , saving time and money in the construction process . Passengers reach Red Line platforms via a series of escalators , stairs totalling 199 steps , or a set of elevators . The longest single span of the escalators is 143 feet , the longest in the MBTA system . In 2005 , a man was killed when his sweatshirt tangled in the bottom of the escalator .
The subway tracks and platforms are enclosed in a single cylindrical concrete shell , similar to most underground stations of the Washington Metro . The two platforms are at different levels , with portions of the inbound platform projecting over the outbound platform . Both tracks are on the outer side of their platforms . On the MBTA subway network , only State , North Station , and Harvard have similar split platforms . ( Several downtown transfer stations have multiple platform levels , but these are the only four with multiple @-@ level platforms for a single line . )
Porter has five levels : the street @-@ level entrances , the below @-@ grade commuter platforms , the fare mezzanine , and two subway platform levels underground .
Porter has a refreshment vendor outside the fare gates on the mezzanine level , and , unlike most MBTA stations , public restrooms .
= = Arts on the Line = =
As a part of the Red Line Northwest Extension , Porter was included as one of the stations involved in the Arts on the Line program , devised to bring art into the MBTA 's subway stations in the late 1970s and early 1980s . It was the first program of its kind in the United States and became the model for similar drives for art across the country .
Six works , five of which remain , were placed at Porter :
Gift of the Wind by Susumu Shingu , a 46 @-@ foot tall kinetic sculpture with three large red " wings " that rotate the structure in response to the wind
Ondas by Carlos Dorrien , a 24 @-@ foot tall piece of undulating granite affixed to the station wall both inside the station and outside
Glove Cycle by Mags Harries , a large number of bronze gloves of varying types and sizes scattered inside the station , including alongside one of the escalators
Untitled by William Reimann , six granite bollards with various ethnic designs carved into them
Porter Square Megaliths by David Phillips , four boulders with large " slices " removed and replaced with bronze casts of the missing pieces
The Lights at the End of the Tunnel by William Wainwright , a large reflective mobile in the station 's mezzanine . It was removed in 1986 after a lead weight fell off .
= = Accessibility = =
Porter is fully handicapped accessible ; elevators lead from street level to the mezzanine with its accessible bathroom , to the commuter rail platform , and to both Red Line platform levels . Although most of the commuter platform is low , there is a " mini @-@ high platform " - a one car @-@ length high section - that allows level boarding .
As a result of a 2006 settlement of a lawsuit filed by the Boston Center for Independent Living and a group of individuals , the MBTA installed additional elevators at Porter and four other busy MBTA subway stations . The elevator to the Red Line was out of service for 15 months beginning in March 2011 for car replacement and the installation of a second , redundant , elevator . An accessible shuttle bus ran between Porter and Davis .
The elevator to the commuter rail platform was also temporarily out of service for maintenance during the same period ; a shuttle bus ran between Harvard , Porter and Waltham . The Red Line elevator was returned to service on June 22 , 2012 , and the commuter rail elevator returned to service on July 30 , 2012 .
= = Bus connections = =
Porter serves several MBTA Bus local routes via shelters on Massachusetts Avenue and Somerville Avenue :
77 Arlington Heights - Harvard Station via Massachusetts Avenue
83 Rindge Ave . - Central Square , Cambridge via Porter Square Station
96 Medford Square - Harvard Station via George Street & Davis Square Station
The 77 and 96 run on Massachusetts Avenue , while the 83 turns from Somerville Avenue to Massachusetts Avenue at Porter Square . Additionally , the 87 Arlington Center or Clarendon Hill - Lechmere Station via Somerville Avenue bus stops on Elm Street at the Porter Square Shopping Center , one block northeast of Porter station .
The 77A short turn of the 77 operates as a trolleybus on a limited number of runs , as trolleybuses on other routes are brought to and from the North Cambridge Carhouse .
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= Frédéric Chopin =
Frédéric François Chopin ( / ˈʃoʊpæn / ; French : [ fʁedeʁik fʁɑ ̃ swa ʃɔpɛ ̃ ] ; 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849 ) , born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin , was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era who wrote primarily for the solo piano . He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as a leading musician of his era , whose " poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation . " Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw and grew up in Warsaw , which in 1815 became part of Congress Poland . A child prodigy , he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20 , less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising .
At 21 he settled in Paris . Thereafter , during the last 18 years of his life , he gave only some 30 public performances , preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon . He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano , for which he was in high demand . Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries , including Robert Schumann . In 1835 he obtained French citizenship . After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska , from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand . A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838 – 39 was one of his most productive periods of composition . In his last years , he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling , who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848 . Through most of his life , Chopin suffered from poor health . He died in Paris in 1849 , at the age of 39 , probably of tuberculosis .
All of Chopin 's compositions include the piano . Most are for solo piano , though he also wrote two piano concertos , a few chamber pieces , and some songs to Polish lyrics . His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding ; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity . Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade . His major piano works also include mazurkas , waltzes , nocturnes , polonaises , études , impromptus , scherzos , preludes and sonatas , some published only after his death . Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music , the classical tradition of J. S. Bach , Mozart and Schubert , the music of all of whom he admired , as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest . His innovations in style , musical form , and harmony , and his association of music with nationalism , were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period .
Chopin 's music , his status as one of music 's earliest superstars , his association ( if only indirect ) with political insurrection , his love life and his early death have made him a leading symbol of the Romantic era in the public consciousness . His works remain popular , and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Fryderyk Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola , 46 kilometres ( 29 miles ) west of Warsaw , in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw , a Polish state established by Napoleon . The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810 , and cites his given names in the Latin form Fridericus Franciscus ( in Polish , he was Fryderyk Franciszek ) . However , the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March , which is now generally accepted as the correct date .
Fryderyk 's father , Nicolas Chopin , was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen . Nicolas tutored children of the Polish aristocracy , and in 1806 married Justyna Krzyżanowska , a poor relative of the Skarbeks , one of the families for whom he worked . Fryderyk was baptized on Easter Sunday , 23 April 1810 , in the same church where his parents had married , in Brochów . His eighteen @-@ year @-@ old godfather , for whom he was named , was Fryderyk Skarbek , a pupil of Nicolas Chopin . Fryderyk was the couple 's second child and only son ; he had an elder sister , Ludwika ( 1807 – 55 ) , and two younger sisters , Izabela ( 1811 – 81 ) and Emilia ( 1812 – 27 ) . Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland , and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household .
In October 1810 , six months after Fryderyk 's birth , the family moved to Warsaw , where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum , then housed in the Saxon Palace . Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds . The father played the flute and violin ; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept . Chopin was of slight build , and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses .
Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother , but his first professional music tutor , from 1816 to 1821 , was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny . His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny , and occasionally played duets with her brother . It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy . By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts , and in 1817 he composed two polonaises , in G minor and B @-@ flat major . His next work , a polonaise in A @-@ flat major of 1821 , dedicated to Żywny , is his earliest surviving musical manuscript .
In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw 's Russian governor for military use , and the Warsaw Lyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace ( today the rectorate of Warsaw University ) . Fryderyk and his family moved to a building , which still survives , adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace . During this period , Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland , Grand Duke Constantine ; he played the piano for the Duke and composed a march for him . Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , in his dramatic eclogue , " Nasze Przebiegi " ( " Our Discourses " , 1818 ) , attested to " little Chopin 's " popularity .
= = = Education = = =
From September 1823 to 1826 , Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum , where he received organ lessons from the Czech musician Wilhelm Würfel during his first year . In the autumn of 1826 he began a three @-@ year course under the Silesian composer Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory , studying music theory , figured bass and composition . Throughout this period he continued to compose and to give recitals in concerts and salons in Warsaw . He was engaged by the inventors of a mechanical organ , the " eolomelodicon " , and on this instrument in May 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by Moscheles . The success of this concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital on the instrument before Tsar Alexander I , who was visiting Warsaw ; the Tsar presented him with a diamond ring . At a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 June 1825 , Chopin performed his Rondo Op. 1 . This was the first of his works to be commercially published and earned him his first mention in the foreign press , when the Leipzig Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung praised his " wealth of musical ideas " .
During 1824 – 28 Chopin spent his vacations away from Warsaw , at a number of locales . In 1824 and 1825 , at Szafarnia , he was a guest of Dominik Dziewanowski , the father of a schoolmate . Here for the first time he encountered Polish rural folk music . His letters home from Szafarnia ( to which he gave the title " The Szafarnia Courier " ) , written in a very modern and lively Polish , amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster 's literary gift .
In 1827 , soon after the death of Chopin 's youngest sister Emilia , the family moved from the Warsaw University building , adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace , to lodgings just across the street from the university , in the south annex of the Krasiński Palace on Krakowskie Przedmieście , where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in 1830 . Here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students ; the Chopin Family Parlour ( Salonik Chopinów ) became a museum in the 20th century . In 1829 the artist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of Chopin family members , including the first known portrait of the composer .
Four boarders at his parents ' apartments became Chopin 's intimates : Tytus Woyciechowski , Jan Nepomucen Białobłocki , Jan Matuszyński and Julian Fontana ; the latter two would become part of his Paris milieu . He was friendly with members of Warsaw 's young artistic and intellectual world , including Fontana , Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Stefan Witwicki . He was also attracted to the singing student Konstancja Gładkowska . In letters to Woyciechowski , he indicated which of his works , and even which of their passages , were influenced by his fascination with her ; his letter of 15 May 1830 revealed that the slow movement ( Larghetto ) of his Piano Concerto No. 1 ( in E minor ) was secretly dedicated to her – " It should be like dreaming in beautiful springtime – by moonlight . " His final Conservatory report ( July 1829 ) read : " Chopin F. , third @-@ year student , exceptional talent , musical genius . "
= = = Travel and domestic success = = =
In September 1828 Chopin , while still a student , visited Berlin with a family friend , zoologist Feliks Jarocki , enjoying operas directed by Gaspare Spontini and attending concerts by Carl Friedrich Zelter , Felix Mendelssohn and other celebrities . On an 1829 return trip to Berlin , he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł , governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen — himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist . For the prince and his pianist daughter Wanda , he composed his Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano , Op. 3 .
Back in Warsaw that year , Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play the violin , and composed a set of variations , Souvenir de Paganini . It may have been this experience which encouraged him to commence writing his first Études , ( 1829 – 32 ) , exploring the capacities of his own instrument . On 11 August , three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory , he made his debut in Vienna . He gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews — in addition to some commenting ( in Chopin 's own words ) that he was " too delicate for those accustomed to the piano @-@ bashing of local artists " . In one of these concerts , he premiered his Variations on Là ci darem la mano , Op. 2 ( variations on an aria from Mozart 's opera Don Giovanni ) for piano and orchestra . He returned to Warsaw in September 1829 , where he premiered his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor , Op. 21 on 17 March 1830 .
Chopin 's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western Europe for him , and on 2 November 1830 , he set out , in the words of Zdzisław Jachimecki , " into the wide world , with no very clearly defined aim , forever . " With Woyciechowski , he headed for Austria , intending to go on to Italy . Later that month , in Warsaw , the November 1830 Uprising broke out , and Woyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist . Chopin , now alone in Vienna , was nostalgic for his homeland , and wrote to a friend , " I curse the moment of my departure . " When in September 1831 he learned , while travelling from Vienna to Paris , that the uprising had been crushed , he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal : " Oh God ! ... You are there , and yet you do not take vengeance ! " Jachimecki ascribes to these events the composer 's maturing " into an inspired national bard who intuited the past , present and future of his native Poland . "
= = = Paris = = =
Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831 ; he would never return to Poland , thus becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish Great Emigration . In France he used the French versions of his given names , and after receiving French citizenship in 1835 , he travelled on a French passport . However , Chopin remained close to his fellow Poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking French . Chopin 's biographer Adam Zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be French , despite his father 's French origins , and always saw himself as a Pole .
In Paris , Chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures , and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity . During his years in Paris he was to become acquainted with , among many others , Hector Berlioz , Franz Liszt , Ferdinand Hiller , Heinrich Heine , Eugène Delacroix , and Alfred de Vigny . Chopin was also acquainted with the poet Adam Mickiewicz , principal of the Polish Literary Society , some of whose verses he set as songs .
Two Polish friends in Paris were also to play important roles in Chopin 's life there . His fellow student at the Warsaw Conservatory , Julian Fontana , had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in England ; Albert Grzymała , who in Paris became a wealthy financier and society figure , often acted as Chopin 's adviser and " gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in [ his ] life . " Fontana was to become , in the words of Michałowski and Samson , Chopin 's " general factotum and copyist " .
At the end of 1831 , Chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when Robert Schumann , reviewing the Op. 2 Variations in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung ( his first published article on music ) , declared : " Hats off , gentlemen ! A genius . " On 26 February 1832 Chopin gave a debut Paris concert at the Salle Pleyel which drew universal admiration . The critic François @-@ Joseph Fétis wrote in the Revue et gazette musicale : " Here is a young man who ... taking no model , has found , if not a complete renewal of piano music , ... an abundance of original ideas of a kind to be found nowhere else ... " After this concert , Chopin realized that his essentially intimate keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces . Later that year he was introduced to the wealthy Rothschild banking family , whose patronage also opened doors for him to other private salons ( social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite ) . By the end of 1832 Chopin had established himself among the Parisian musical elite , and had earned the respect of his peers such as Hiller , Liszt , and Berlioz . He no longer depended financially upon his father , and in the winter of 1832 he began earning a handsome income from publishing his works and teaching piano to affluent students from all over Europe . This freed him from the strains of public concert @-@ giving , which he disliked .
Chopin seldom performed publicly in Paris . In later years he generally gave a single annual concert at the Salle Pleyel , a venue that seated three hundred . He played more frequently at salons , but preferred playing at his own Paris apartment for small groups of friends . The musicologist Arthur Hedley has observed that " As a pianist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation of the highest order on the basis of a minimum of public appearances — few more than thirty in the course of his lifetime . " The list of musicians who took part in some of his concerts provides an indication of the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period . Examples include a concert on 23 March 1833 , in which Chopin , Liszt and Hiller performed ( on pianos ) a concerto by J.S. Bach for three keyboards ; and , on 3 March 1838 , a concert in which Chopin , his pupil Adolphe Gutmann , Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan , and Alkan 's teacher Joseph Zimmermann performed Alkan 's arrangement , for eight hands , of two movements from Beethoven 's 7th symphony . Chopin was also involved in the composition of Liszt 's Hexameron ; he wrote the sixth ( and final ) variation on Bellini 's theme . Chopin 's music soon found success with publishers , and in 1833 he contracted with Maurice Schlesinger , who arranged for it to be published not only in France but , through his family connections , also in Germany and England .
In the spring of 1834 , Chopin attended the Lower Rhenish Music Festival in Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle with Hiller , and it was there that Chopin met Felix Mendelssohn . After the festival , the three visited Düsseldorf , where Mendelssohn had been appointed musical director . They spent what Mendelssohn described as " a very agreeable day " , playing and discussing music at his piano , and met Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow , director of the Academy of Art , and some of his eminent pupils such as Lessing , Bendemann , Hildebrandt and Sohn . In 1835 Chopin went to Carlsbad , where he spent time with his parents ; it was the last time he would see them . On his way back to Paris , he met old friends from Warsaw , the Wodzińskis . He had made the acquaintance of their daughter Maria in Poland five years earlier , when she was eleven . This meeting prompted him to stay for two weeks in Dresden , when he had previously intended to return to Paris via Leipzig . The sixteen @-@ year @-@ old girl 's portrait of the composer is considered , along with Delacroix 's , as among Chopin 's best likenesses . In October he finally reached Leipzig , where he met Schumann , Clara Wieck and Felix Mendelssohn , who organised for him a performance of his own oratorio St. Paul , and who considered him " a perfect musician " . In July 1836 Chopin travelled to Marienbad and Dresden to be with the Wodziński family , and in September he proposed to Maria , whose mother Countess Wodzińska approved in principle . Chopin went on to Leipzig , where he presented Schumann with his G minor Ballade . At the end of 1836 he sent Maria an album in which his sister Ludwika had inscribed seven of his songs , and his 1835 Nocturne in C @-@ sharp minor , Op. 27 , No. 1 . The anodyne thanks he received from Maria proved to be the last letter he was to have from her .
= = = Franz Liszt = = =
Although it is not known exactly when Chopin first met Liszt after arriving in Paris , on 12 December 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend Woyciechowski that " I have met Rossini , Cherubini , Baillot , etc . — also Kalkbrenner . You would not believe how curious I was about Herz , Liszt , Hiller , etc . " Liszt was in attendance at Chopin 's Parisian debut on 26 February 1832 at the Salle Pleyel , which led him to remark : " The most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician , who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art . "
The two became friends , and for many years lived in close proximity in Paris , Chopin at 38 Rue de la Chaussée @-@ d 'Antin , and Liszt at the Hôtel de France on the Rue Lafitte , a few blocks away . They performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841 . The first , on 2 April 1833 , was at a benefit concert organized by Hector Berlioz for his bankrupt Shakespearean actress wife Harriet Smithson , during which they played George Onslow 's Sonata in F minor for piano duet . Later joint appearances included a benefit concert for the Benevolent Association of Polish Ladies in Paris . Their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the Beethoven Memorial in Bonn , held at the Salle Pleyel and the Paris Conservatory on 25 and 26 April 1841 .
Although the two displayed great respect and admiration for each other , their friendship was uneasy and had some qualities of a love @-@ hate relationship . Harold C. Schonberg believes that Chopin displayed a " tinge of jealousy and spite " towards Liszt 's virtuosity on the piano , and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with Liszt 's theatricality , showmanship and success . Liszt was the dedicatee of Chopin 's Op. 10 Études , and his performance of them prompted the composer to write to Hiller , " I should like to rob him of the way he plays my studies . " However , Chopin expressed annoyance in 1843 when Liszt performed one of his nocturnes with the addition of numerous intricate embellishments , at which Chopin remarked that he should play the music as written or not play it at all , forcing an apology . Most biographers of Chopin state that after this the two had little to do with each other , although in his letters dated as late as 1848 he still referred to him as " my friend Liszt " . Some commentators point to events in the two men 's romantic lives which led to a rift between them ; there are claims that Liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress Marie d 'Agoult 's obsession with Chopin , while others believe that Chopin had become concerned about Liszt 's growing relationship with George Sand .
= = = George Sand = = =
In 1836 , at a party hosted by Marie d 'Agoult , Chopin met the French author George Sand ( born [ Amantine ] Aurore [ Lucile ] Dupin ) . Short ( under five feet , or 152 cm ) , dark , big @-@ eyed and a cigar smoker , she initially repelled Chopin , who remarked , " What an unattractive person la Sand is . Is she really a woman ? " However , by early 1837 Maria Wodzińska 's mother had made it clear to Chopin in correspondence that a marriage with her daughter was unlikely to proceed . It is thought that she was influenced by his poor health and possibly also by rumours about his associations with women such as d 'Agoult and Sand . Chopin finally placed the letters from Maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote , in Polish , " My tragedy " . Sand , in a letter to Grzymała of June 1838 , admitted strong feelings for the composer and debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with Chopin ; she asked Grzymała to assess Chopin 's relationship with Maria Wodzińska , without realising that the affair , at least from Maria 's side , was over .
In June 1837 Chopin visited London incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer Camille Pleyel where he played at a musical soirée at the house of English piano maker James Broadwood . On his return to Paris , his association with Sand began in earnest , and by the end of June 1838 they had become lovers . Sand , who was six years older than the composer , and who had had a series of lovers , wrote at this time : " I must say I was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me ... I have still not recovered from my astonishment , and if I were a proud person I should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away ... " The two spent a miserable winter on Majorca ( 8 November 1838 to 13 February 1839 ) , where , together with Sand 's two children , they had journeyed in the hope of improving the health of Chopin and that of Sand 's 15 @-@ year @-@ old son Maurice , and also to escape the threats of Sand 's former lover Félicien Mallefille . After discovering that the couple were not married , the deeply traditional Catholic people of Majorca became inhospitable , making accommodation difficult to find . This compelled the group to take lodgings in a former Carthusian monastery in Valldemossa , which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather .
On 3 December , Chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca : " Three doctors have visited me ... The first said I was dead ; the second said I was dying ; and the third said I was about to die . " He also had problems having his Pleyel piano sent to him . It finally arrived from Paris in December . Chopin wrote to Pleyel in January 1839 : " I am sending you my Preludes [ ( Op. 28 ) ] . I finished them on your little piano , which arrived in the best possible condition in spite of the sea , the bad weather and the Palma customs . " Chopin was also able to undertake work on his Ballade No. 2 , Op. 38 ; two Polonaises , Op. 40 ; and the Scherzo No. 3 , Op. 39 .
Although this period had been productive , the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on Chopin 's health that Sand determined to leave the island . To avoid further customs duties , Sand sold the piano to a local French couple , the Canuts . The group traveled first to Barcelona , then to Marseilles , where they stayed for a few months while Chopin convalesced . In May 1839 they headed for the summer to Sand 's estate at Nohant , where they spent most summers until 1846 . In autumn they returned to Paris , where Chopin 's apartment at 5 rue Tronchet was close to Sand 's rented accommodation at the rue Pigalle . He frequently visited Sand in the evenings , but both retained some independence . In 1842 he and Sand moved to the Square d 'Orléans , living in adjacent buildings .
At the funeral of the tenor Adolphe Nourrit in Paris in 1839 , Chopin made a rare appearance at the organ , playing a transcription of Franz Schubert 's lied Die Gestirne . On 26 July 1840 Chopin and Sand were present at the dress rehearsal of Berlioz 's Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale , composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the July Revolution . Chopin was reportedly unimpressed with the composition .
During the summers at Nohant , particularly in the years 1839 – 43 , Chopin found quiet , productive days during which he composed many works , including his Polonaise in A @-@ flat major , Op. 53 . Among the visitors to Nohant were Delacroix and the mezzo @-@ soprano Pauline Viardot , whom Chopin had advised on piano technique and composition . Delacroix gives an account of staying at Nohant in a letter of 7 June 1842 :
The hosts could not be more pleasant in entertaining me . When we are not all together at dinner , lunch , playing billiards , or walking , each of us stays in his room , reading or lounging around on a couch . Sometimes , through the window which opens on the garden , a gust of music wafts up from Chopin at work . All this mingles with the songs of nightingales and the fragrance of roses .
= = = Decline = = =
From 1842 onwards , Chopin showed signs of serious illness . After a solo recital in Paris on 21 February 1842 , he wrote to Grzymała : " I have to lie in bed all day long , my mouth and tonsils are aching so much . " He was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from Alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the Beethoven Seventh Symphony arrangement at Erard 's on 1 March 1843 . Late in 1844 , Charles Hallé visited Chopin and found him " hardly able to move , bent like a half @-@ opened penknife and evidently in great pain " , although his spirits returned when he started to play the piano for his visitor . Chopin 's health continued to deteriorate , particularly from this time onwards . Modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses , he may also have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy .
Chopin 's relations with Sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter Solange and Solange 's fiancé , the young fortune @-@ hunting sculptor Auguste Clésinger . The composer frequently took Solange 's side in quarrels with her mother ; he also faced jealousy from Sand 's son Maurice . Chopin was utterly indifferent to Sand 's radical political pursuits , while Sand looked on his society friends with disdain . As the composer 's illness progressed , Sand had become less of a lover and more of a nurse to Chopin , whom she called her " third child " . In letters to third parties , she vented her impatience , referring to him as a " child , " a " little angel " , a " sufferer " and a " beloved little corpse . " In 1847 Sand published her novel Lucrezia Floriani , whose main characters — a rich actress and a prince in weak health — could be interpreted as Sand and Chopin ; the story was uncomplimentary to Chopin , who could not have missed the allusions as he helped Sand correct the printer 's galleys . In 1847 he did not visit Nohant , and he quietly ended their ten @-@ year relationship following an angry correspondence which , in Sand 's words , made " a strange conclusion to nine years of exclusive friendship . " The two would never meet again .
Chopin 's output as a composer throughout this period declined in quantity year by year . Whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works , only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843 . In 1844 he wrote only the Op. 58 sonata . 1845 saw the completion of three mazurkas ( Op. 59 ) . Although these works were more refined than many of his earlier compositions , Zamoyski concludes that " his powers of concentration were failing and his inspiration was beset by anguish , both emotional and intellectual . "
= = = Tour of England and Scotland = = =
Chopin 's public popularity as a virtuoso began to wane , as did the number of his pupils , and this , together with the political strife and instability of the time , caused him to struggle financially . In February 1848 , with the cellist Auguste Franchomme , he gave his last Paris concert , which included three movements of the Cello Sonata Op. 65 .
In April , during the Revolution of 1848 in Paris , he left for London , where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses . This tour was suggested to him by his Scottish pupil Jane Stirling and her elder sister . Stirling also made all the logistical arrangements and provided much of the necessary funding .
In London Chopin took lodgings at Dover Street , where the firm of Broadwood provided him with a grand piano . At his first engagement , on 15 May at Stafford House , the audience included Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . The Prince , who was himself a talented musician , moved close to the keyboard to view Chopin 's technique . Broadwood also arranged concerts for him ; among those attending were Thackeray and the singer Jenny Lind . Chopin was also sought after for piano lessons , for which he charged the high fee of one guinea ( £ 1 @.@ 05 in present British currency ) per hour , and for private recitals for which the fee was 20 guineas . At a concert on 7 July he shared the platform with Viardot , who sang arrangements of some of his mazurkas to Spanish texts . On 28 August , he played at a concert in Manchester 's Concert Hall , sharing the stage with Marietta Alboni and Lorenzo Salvi .
In late summer he was invited by Jane Stirling to visit Scotland , where he stayed at Calder House near Edinburgh and at Johnstone Castle in Renfrewshire , both owned by members of Stirling 's family . She clearly had a notion of going beyond mere friendship , and Chopin was obliged to make it clear to her that this could not be so . He wrote at this time to Grzymała " My Scottish ladies are kind , but such bores " , and responding to a rumour about his involvement , answered that he was " closer to the grave than the nuptial bed . " He gave a public concert in Glasgow on 27 September , and another in Edinburgh , at the Hopetoun Rooms on Queen Street ( now Erskine House ) on 4 October . In late October 1848 , while staying at 10 Warriston Crescent in Edinburgh with the Polish physician Adam Łyszczyński , he wrote out his last will and testament — " a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future , if I should drop dead somewhere " , he wrote to Grzymała .
Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London 's Guildhall on 16 November 1848 , when , in a final patriotic gesture , he played for the benefit of Polish refugees . By this time he was very seriously ill , weighing under 99 pounds ( i.e. less than 45 kg ) , and his doctors were aware that his sickness was at a terminal stage .
At the end of November , Chopin returned to Paris . He passed the winter in unremitting illness , but gave occasional lessons and was visited by friends , including Delacroix and Franchomme . Occasionally he played , or accompanied the singing of Delfina Potocka , for his friends . During the summer of 1849 , his friends found him an apartment in Chaillot , out of the centre of the city , for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer , Princess Obreskoff . Here in June 1849 he was visited by Jenny Lind .
= = = Death and funeral = = =
With his health further deteriorating , Chopin desired to have a family member with him . In June 1849 his sister Ludwika came to Paris with her husband and daughter , and in September , supported by a loan from Jane Stirling , he took an apartment at Place Vendôme 12 . After 15 October , when his condition took a marked turn for the worse , only a handful of his closest friends remained with him , although Viardot remarked sardonically that " all the grand Parisian ladies considered it de rigueur to faint in his room . "
Some of his friends provided music at his request ; among them , Potocka sang and Franchomme played the cello . Chopin requested that his body be opened after death ( for fear of being buried alive ) and his heart returned to Warsaw where it rests at the Church of the Holy Cross . He also bequeathed his unfinished notes on a piano tuition method , Projet de méthode , to Alkan for completion . On 17 October , after midnight , the physician leaned over him and asked whether he was suffering greatly . " No longer " , he replied . He died a few minutes before two o 'clock in the morning . Those present at the deathbed appear to have included his sister Ludwika , Princess Marcelina Czartoryska , Sand 's daughter Solange , and his close friend Thomas Albrecht . Later that morning , Solange 's husband Clésinger made Chopin 's death mask and a cast of his left hand .
Chopin 's disease and the cause of his death have since been a matter of discussion . His death certificate gave the cause as tuberculosis , and his physician , Jean Cruveilhier , was then the leading French authority on this disease . Other possibilities have been advanced including cystic fibrosis , cirrhosis and alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency . However , the attribution of tuberculosis as principal cause of death has not been disproved . Permission for DNA testing , which could put the matter to rest , has been denied by the Polish government .
The funeral , held at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris , was delayed almost two weeks , until 30 October . Entrance was restricted to ticket holders as many people were expected to attend . Over 3 @,@ 000 people arrived without invitations , from as far as London , Berlin and Vienna , and were excluded .
Mozart 's Requiem was sung at the funeral ; the soloists were the soprano Jeanne @-@ Anais Castellan , the mezzo @-@ soprano Pauline Viardot , the tenor Alexis Dupont , and the bass Luigi Lablache ; Chopin 's Preludes No. 4 in E minor and No. 6 in B minor were also played . The organist at the funeral was Louis Lefébure @-@ Wély . The funeral procession to Père Lachaise Cemetery , which included Chopin 's sister Ludwika , was led by the aged Prince Adam Czartoryski . The pallbearers included Delacroix , Franchomme , and Camille Pleyel . At the graveside , the Funeral March from Chopin 's Piano Sonata No. 2 was played , in Reber 's instrumentation .
Chopin 's tombstone , featuring the muse of music , Euterpe , weeping over a broken lyre , was designed and sculpted by Clésinger . The expenses of the funeral and monument , amounting to 5 @,@ 000 francs , were covered by Jane Stirling , who also paid for the return of the composer 's sister Ludwika to Warsaw . Ludwika took Chopin 's heart in an urn , preserved in alcohol , back to Poland in 1850 . She also took a collection of two hundred letters from Sand to Chopin ; after 1851 these were returned to Sand , who seems to have destroyed them .
= = Music = =
= = = Overview = = =
Over 230 works of Chopin survive ; some compositions from early childhood have been lost . All his known works involve the piano , and only a few range beyond solo piano music , as either piano concertos , songs or chamber music .
Chopin was educated in the tradition of Beethoven , Haydn , Mozart and Clementi ; he used Clementi 's piano method with his own students . He was also influenced by Hummel 's development of virtuoso , yet Mozartian , piano technique . He cited Bach and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook . Chopin 's early works are in the style of the " brilliant " keyboard pieces of his era as exemplified by the works of Ignaz Moscheles , Friedrich Kalkbrenner , and others . Less direct in the earlier period are the influences of Polish folk music and of Italian opera . Much of what became his typical style of ornamentation ( for example , his fioriture ) is taken from singing . His melodic lines were increasingly reminiscent of the modes and features of the music of his native country , such as drones .
Chopin took the new salon genre of the nocturne , invented by the Irish composer John Field , to a deeper level of sophistication . He was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual concert pieces . He essentially established a new genre with his own set of free @-@ standing preludes ( Op. 28 , published 1839 ) . He exploited the poetic potential of the concept of the concert étude , already being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by Liszt , Clementi and Moscheles , in his two sets of studies ( Op. 10 published in 1833 , Op. 25 in 1837 ) .
Chopin also endowed popular dance forms with a greater range of melody and expression . Chopin 's mazurkas , while originating in the traditional Polish dance ( the mazurek ) , differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall ; " it was Chopin who put the mazurka on the European musical map . " The series of seven polonaises published in his lifetime ( another nine were published posthumously ) , beginning with the Op. 26 pair ( published 1836 ) , set a new standard for music in the form . His waltzes were also written specifically for the salon recital rather than the ballroom and are frequently at rather faster tempos than their dance @-@ floor equivalents .
= = = Titles , opus numbers and editions = = =
Some of Chopin 's well @-@ known pieces have acquired descriptive titles , such as the Revolutionary Étude ( Op. 10 , No. 12 ) , and the Minute Waltz ( Op. 64 , No. 1 ) . However , with the exception of his Funeral March , the composer never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number , leaving all potential extramusical associations to the listener ; the names by which many of his pieces are known were invented by others . There is no evidence to suggest that the Revolutionary Étude was written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind ; it merely appeared at that time . The Funeral March , the third movement of his Sonata No. 2 ( Op. 35 ) , the one case where he did give a title , was written before the rest of the sonata , but no specific event or death is known to have inspired it .
The last opus number that Chopin himself used was 65 , allocated to the Cello Sonata in G minor . He expressed a deathbed wish that all his unpublished manuscripts be destroyed . At the request of the composer 's mother and sisters , however , his musical executor Julian Fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers ( Opp . 66 – 73 ) , published in 1855 . In 1857 , 17 Polish songs that Chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as Op. 74 , though their order within the opus did not reflect the order of composition .
Works published since 1857 have received alternative catalogue designations instead of opus numbers . The present standard musicological reference for Chopin 's works is the Kobylańska Catalogue ( usually represented by the initials ' KK ' ) , named for its compiler , the Polish musicologist Krystyna Kobylańska .
Chopin 's original publishers included Maurice Schlesinger and Camille Pleyel . His works soon began to appear in popular 19th @-@ century piano anthologies . The first collected edition was by Breitkopf & Härtel ( 1878 – 1902 ) . Among modern scholarly editions of Chopin 's works are the version under the name of Paderewski published between 1937 and 1966 and the more recent Polish " National Edition " , edited by Jan Ekier , both of which contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources .
= = = Form and harmony = = =
Improvisation stands at the centre of Chopin 's creative processes . However , this does not imply impulsive rambling : Nicholas Temperley writes that " improvisation is designed for an audience , and its starting @-@ point is that audience 's expectations , which include the current conventions of musical form . " The works for piano and orchestra , including the two concertos , are held by Temperley to be " merely vehicles for brilliant piano playing ... formally longwinded and extremely conservative " . After the piano concertos ( which are both early , dating from 1830 ) , Chopin made no attempts at large @-@ scale multi @-@ movement forms , save for his late sonatas for piano and for cello ; " instead he achieved near @-@ perfection in pieces of simple general design but subtle and complex cell @-@ structure . " Rosen suggests that an important aspect of Chopin 's individuality is his flexible handling of the four @-@ bar phrase as a structural unit .
J. Barrie Jones suggests that " amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use , the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme " , and adds that " the Barcarolle Op. 60 stands apart as an example of Chopin 's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody . " Temperley opines that these works , which contain " immense variety of mood , thematic material and structural detail " , are based on an extended " departure and return " form ; " the more the middle section is extended , and the further it departs in key , mood and theme , from the opening idea , the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes . "
Chopin 's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward ternary or episodic form , sometimes with a coda . The mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works , sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses . However , some also show unusual sophistication , for example Op. 63 No. 3 , which includes a canon at one beat 's distance , a great rarity in music .
Chopin 's polonaises show a marked advance on those of his Polish predecessors in the form ( who included his teachers Zywny and Elsner ) . As with the traditional polonaise , Chopin 's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies , accompaniments and cadences . Unlike most of their precursors , they also require a formidable playing technique .
The 21 nocturnes are more structured , and of greater emotional depth , than those of Field ( whom Chopin met in 1833 ) . Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression ( and often making very difficult demands on the performer ) which heightens their dramatic character .
Chopin 's études are largely in straightforward ternary form . He used them to teach his own technique of piano playing — for instance playing double thirds ( Op. 25 , No. 6 ) , playing in octaves ( Op. 25 , No. 10 ) , and playing repeated notes ( Op. 10 , No. 7 ) .
The preludes , many of which are very brief ( some consisting of simple statements and developments of a single theme or figure ) , were described by Schumann as " the beginnings of studies " . Inspired by J.S. Bach 's The Well @-@ Tempered Clavier , Chopin 's preludes move up the circle of fifths ( rather than Bach 's chromatic scale sequence ) to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality . The preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group , and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces , or even to music by other composers , as Kenneth Hamilton suggests : he has noted a recording by Ferruccio Busoni of 1922 , in which the Prelude Op. 28 No. 7 is followed by the Étude Op. 10 No. 5 .
The two mature piano sonatas ( No. 2 , Op. 35 , written in 1839 and No. 3 , Op. 58 , written in 1844 ) are in four movements . In Op. 35 , Chopin was able to combine within a formal large musical structure many elements of his virtuosic piano technique — " a kind of dialogue between the public pianism of the brilliant style and the German sonata principle " . The last movement , a brief ( 75 @-@ bar ) perpetuum mobile in which the hands play in unmodified octave unison throughout , was found shocking and unmusical by contemporaries , including Schumann . The Op. 58 sonata is closer to the German tradition , including many passages of complex counterpoint , " worthy of Brahms " according to the music historians Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson .
Chopin 's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique . Temperley says that in his works " novel harmonic effects frequently result from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas or passing notes with melodic figures of accompaniment " , and cadences are delayed by the use of chords outside the home key ( neapolitan sixths and diminished sevenths ) , or by sudden shifts to remote keys . Chord progressions sometimes anticipate the shifting tonality of later composers such as Claude Debussy , as does Chopin 's use of modal harmony .
= = = Technique and performance style = = =
In 1841 , Léon Escudier wrote of a recital given by Chopin that year , " One may say that Chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition . In truth , nothing equals the lightness , the sweetness with which the composer preludes on the piano ; moreover nothing may be compared to his works full of originality , distinction and grace . " Chopin refused to conform to a standard method of playing and believed that there was no set technique for playing well . His style was based extensively on his use of very independent finger technique . In his Projet de méthode he wrote : " Everything is a matter of knowing good fingering ... we need no less to use the rest of the hand , the wrist , the forearm and the upper arm . " He further stated : " One needs only to study a certain position of the hand in relation to the keys to obtain with ease the most beautiful quality of sound , to know how to play short notes and long notes , and [ to attain ] unlimited dexterity . " The consequences of this approach to technique in Chopin 's music include the frequent use of the entire range of the keyboard , passages in double octaves and other chord groupings , swiftly repeated notes , the use of grace notes , and the use of contrasting rhythms ( four against three , for example ) between the hands .
Jonathan Bellman writes that modern concert performance style — set in the " conservatory " tradition of late 19th- and 20th @-@ century music schools , and suitable for large auditoria or recordings — militates against what is known of Chopin 's more intimate performance technique . The composer himself said to a pupil that " concerts are never real music , you have to give up the idea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art . " Contemporary accounts indicate that in performance , Chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him , such as " always crescendo to a high note " , but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing , rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring . Berlioz wrote in 1853 that Chopin " has created a kind of chromatic embroidery ... whose effect is so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe ... virtually nobody but Chopin himself can play this music and give it this unusual turn " . Hiller wrote that " What in the hands of others was elegant embellishment , in his hands became a colourful wreath of flowers . "
Chopin 's music is frequently played with rubato , " the practice in performance of disregarding strict time , ' robbing ' some note @-@ values for expressive effect " . There are differing opinions as to how much , and what type , of rubato is appropriate for his works . Charles Rosen comments that " most of the written @-@ out indications of rubato in Chopin are to be found in his mazurkas ... It is probable that Chopin used the older form of rubato so important to Mozart ... [ where ] the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass ... An allied form of this rubato is the arpeggiation of the chords thereby delaying the melody note ; according to Chopin 's pupil , Karol Mikuli , Chopin was firmly opposed to this practice . "
Friederike Müller , a pupil of Chopin , wrote : " [ His ] playing was always noble and beautiful ; his tones sang , whether in full forte or softest piano . He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this legato , cantabile style of playing . His most severe criticism was ' He — or she — does not know how to join two notes together . ' He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm . He hated all lingering and dragging , misplaced rubatos , as well as exaggerated ritardandos ... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works . "
= = = Polish heritage = = =
With his mazurkas and polonaises , Chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism . Schumann , in his 1836 review of the piano concertos , highlighted the composer 's strong feelings for his native Poland , writing that " Now that the Poles are in deep mourning [ after the failure of the November 1830 rising ] , their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... If the mighty autocrat in the north [ i.e. Nicholas I of Russia ] could know that in Chopin 's works , in the simple strains of his mazurkas , there lurks a dangerous enemy , he would place a ban on his music . Chopin 's works are cannon buried in flowers ! " The biography of Chopin published in 1863 under the name of Franz Liszt ( but probably written by Carolyne zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein ) claims that Chopin " must be ranked first among the first musicians ... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation . "
Some modern commentators have argued against exaggerating Chopin 's primacy as a " nationalist " or " patriotic " composer . George Golos refers to earlier " nationalist " composers in Central Europe , including Poland 's Michał Kleofas Ogiński and Franciszek Lessel , who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms . Barbara Milewski suggests that Chopin 's experience of Polish music came more from " urbanised " Warsaw versions than from folk music , and that attempts ( by Jachimecki and others ) to demonstrate genuine folk music in his works are without basis . Richard Taruskin impugns Schumann 's attitude toward Chopin 's works as patronizing and comments that Chopin " felt his Polish patriotism deeply and sincerely " but consciously modelled his works on the tradition of Bach , Beethoven , Schubert and Field .
A reconciliation of these views is suggested by William Atwood : " Undoubtedly [ Chopin 's ] use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those Poles scattered across Europe and the New World ... While some sought solace in [ them ] , others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom . Although Chopin 's music undoubtedly came to him intuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic design , it served all the same to symbolize the will of the Polish people ... "
= = = Reception and influence = = =
Jones comments that " Chopin 's unique position as a composer , despite the fact that virtually everything he wrote was for the piano , has rarely been questioned . " He also notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Paris in 1831 — " the artistic environment , the publishers who were willing to print his music , the wealthy and aristocratic who paid what Chopin asked for their lessons " — and these factors , as well as his musical genius , also fuelled his contemporary and later reputation . While his illness and his love @-@ affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of romanticism , the rarity of his public recitals ( as opposed to performances at fashionable Paris soirées ) led Arthur Hutchings to suggest that " his lack of Byronic flamboyance [ and ] his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional " among his romantic contemporaries , such as Liszt and Henri Herz .
Chopin 's qualities as a pianist and composer were recognized by many of his fellow musicians . Schumann named a piece for him in his suite Carnaval , and Chopin later dedicated his Ballade No. 2 in F major to Schumann . Elements of Chopin 's music can be traced in many of Liszt 's later works . Liszt later transcribed for piano six of Chopin 's Polish songs . A less fraught friendship was with Alkan , with whom he discussed elements of folk music , and who was deeply affected by Chopin 's death .
Two of Chopin 's long @-@ standing pupils , Karol Mikuli ( 1821 – 1897 ) and Georges Mathias , were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their own students , some of whom ( such as Raoul Koczalski ) were to make recordings of his music . Other pianists and composers influenced by Chopin 's style include Louis Moreau Gottschalk , Édouard Wolff ( 1816 – 1880 ) and Pierre Zimmermann . Debussy dedicated his own 1915 piano Études to the memory of Chopin ; he frequently played Chopin 's music during his studies at the Paris Conservatoire , and undertook the editing of Chopin 's piano music for the publisher Jacques Durand .
Polish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as Moritz Moszkowski , but , in the opinion of J. Barrie Jones , his " one worthy successor " among his compatriots was Karol Szymanowski ( 1882 – 1937 ) . Edvard Grieg , Antonín Dvořák , Isaac Albéniz , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Sergei Rachmaninoff , among others , are regarded by critics as having been influenced by Chopin 's use of national modes and idioms . Alexander Scriabin was devoted to the music of Chopin , and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas , as well as numerous études and preludes ; his teacher Nikolai Zverev drilled him in Chopin 's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer . In the 20th century , composers who paid homage to ( or in some cases parodied ) the music of Chopin included George Crumb , Bohuslav Martinů , Darius Milhaud , Igor Stravinsky and Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos .
Chopin 's music was used in the 1909 ballet Chopiniana , choreographed by Michel Fokine and orchestrated by Alexander Glazunov . Sergei Diaghilev commissioned additional orchestrations — from Stravinsky , Anatoly Lyadov , Sergei Taneyev and Nikolai Tcherepnin — for later productions , which used the title Les Sylphides .
Chopin 's music remains very popular and is regularly performed , recorded and broadcast worldwide . The world 's oldest monographic music competition , the International Chopin Piano Competition , founded in 1927 , is held every five years in Warsaw . The Fryderyk Chopin Institute of Poland lists on its website over eighty societies world @-@ wide devoted to the composer and his music . The Institute site also lists nearly 1 @,@ 500 performances of Chopin works on YouTube as of January 2014 .
= = Recordings = =
The British Library notes that " Chopin 's works have been recorded by all the great pianists of the recording era . " The earliest recording was an 1895 performance by Paul Pabst of the Nocturne in E major Op. 62 No. 2 . The British Library site makes available a number of historic recordings , including some by Alfred Cortot , Ignaz Friedman , Vladimir Horowitz , Benno Moiseiwitsch , Ignacy Jan Paderewski , Arthur Rubinstein , Xaver Scharwenka and many others . A select discography of recordings of Chopin works by pianists representing the various pedagogic traditions stemming from Chopin is given by Methuen @-@ Campbell in his work tracing the lineage and character of those traditions .
Numerous recordings of Chopin 's works are available . On the occasion of the composer 's bicentenary , the critics of The New York Times recommended performances by the following contemporary pianists ( among many others ) : Martha Argerich , Vladimir Ashkenazy , Emanuel Ax , Evgeny Kissin , Murray Perahia , Maurizio Pollini and Krystian Zimerman . The Warsaw Chopin Society organizes the Grand prix du disque de F. Chopin for notable Chopin recordings , held every five years .
= = In literature , stage , film and television = =
Chopin has figured extensively in Polish literature , both in serious critical studies of his life and music and in fictional treatments . The earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on Chopin by Leon Ulrich . French writers on Chopin ( apart from Sand ) have included Marcel Proust and André Gide ; and he has also featured in works of Gottfried Benn and Boris Pasternak . There are numerous biographies of Chopin in English ( see bibliography for some of these ) .
Possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of Chopin 's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events . Chopin was written by Giacomo Orefice and produced in Milan in 1901 . All the music is derived from that of Chopin .
Chopin 's life and his relations with George Sand have been fictionalized in numerous films . The 1945 biographical film A Song to Remember earned Cornel Wilde an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor for his portrayal of the composer . Other film treatments have included : La valse de l 'adieu ( France , 1928 ) by Henry Roussel , with Pierre Blanchar as Chopin ; Impromptu ( 1991 ) , starring Hugh Grant as Chopin ; La note bleue ( 1991 ) ; and Chopin : Desire for Love ( 2002 ) .
Chopin 's life was covered in a BBC TV documentary Chopin – The Women Behind The Music ( 2010 ) , and in a 2010 documentary realised by Angelo Bozzolini and Roberto Prosseda for Italian television .
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= X @-@ Cops ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" X @-@ Cops " is the twelfth episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Directed by Michael Watkins and written by Vince Gilligan , the installment serves as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story — a stand @-@ alone plot unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X @-@ Files . Originally aired in the United States by the Fox network on February 20 , 2000 , " X @-@ Cops " received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 and was seen by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers . The episode earned positive reviews from critics , largely due to its unique presentation , as well as its use of humor . Since its airing , the episode has been named among the best episodes of The X @-@ Files by several reviewers .
The X @-@ Files centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal ; the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are interviewed for the Fox reality television program Cops during an X @-@ Files investigation . Mulder , hunting what he believes to be a werewolf , discovers that the monster terrorizing people instead feeds on fear . While Mulder embraces the publicity of Cops , Scully is more uncomfortable about appearing on national television .
" X @-@ Cops " serves as a fictional crossover with Cops and is one of only two X @-@ Files episodes to be shot in real time , in which events are presented at the same rate that the audience experiences them . Gilligan , who was inspired to write the script because he enjoyed Cops , pitched the idea several times to series creator Chris Carter and the series writing staff , receiving a mixed reception ; when the crew felt that the show was nearing its end with the conclusion of the seventh season , Gilligan was given the green light because it was seen as an experiment . In the tradition of the real @-@ life Cops program , the entire episode was shot on videotape and featured several members of the crew of Cops . The episode has been thematically analyzed for its use of postmodernism and its presentation as reality television .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with the standard opening credit sequence of the reality television program Cops and its theme song " Bad Boys " . Keith Wetzel ( Judson Mills ) , a deputy with the Los Angeles County Sheriff 's Department , is accompanied by a Cops film crew at Willow Park , California , a fictional high @-@ crime district of Los Angeles . Wetzel visits the home of Mrs. Guererro ( Perla Walter ) , who has reported a monster in the neighborhood . Wetzel , expecting to find a dog , follows the creature around a corner but runs back screaming for the crew to flee . They return to Wetzel 's police car , but before they can escape , it is overturned by an unseen entity .
When backup arrives on the scene , an injured Wetzel claims that he encountered gang members . The police soon discover and surround Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , believing them to be criminals , before they realize that the pair are FBI agents . Mulder and Scully claim that they are investigating an alleged werewolf that killed a man in the area during the last full moon . According to Mulder , the entity that they are tracking only comes out at night . Scully is irritated by the constant presence of the Cops crew , but Mulder is enthused at the prospect of paranormal proof being presented to a national television audience . The agents and the police interview Mrs. Guerrero , who describes the monster to Ricky ( Solomon Eversol ) , a sketch artist . To Mulder 's surprise , Mrs. Guerrero describes not a werewolf , but the horror movie villain Freddy Krueger . Ricky expresses a fear of being alone in the dangerous neighborhood , and is found a short time later with serious slashes in his chest . Mulder and Scully find a pink fingernail at the scene . The group also meets Steve and Edy ( J. W. Smith and Curtis C. ) , a couple who witnessed the incident but did not see Ricky 's attacker , saying that it appeared he was being attacked by nothing . Scully shows the couple the fingernail , which they identify as belonging to Chantara Gomez ( Maria Celedonio ) , a prostitute .
When the agents track down Chantara , whose face is pixelated , she claims that her pimp attacked Ricky and fears that he will kill her . She pleads with the agents for protection . Mulder and Scully have Wetzel guard Chantara while they assist the police in the raid of a crack house . However , the two are drawn back outside when Wetzel encounters the entity , wildly shooting at it . Inside a police car , the agents find Chantara with her neck broken . When Mulder questions Wetzel , he admits that he thought he saw the " wasp man " , a monster his older brother told him about when he was a kid . Mulder formulates a theory that the entity changes its form to correspond with its victims ' worst fears . Wetzel , Ricky , and Chantara all expressed fear shortly before their run @-@ ins with the entity ; it was visible to them , but not to others . The agents think that Steve and Edy may be the entity 's next target because they were in the vicinity of Ricky 's attack . They head to their house , only to find the couple in the middle of an argument . After Edy expresses fear of a separation from Steve , the couple reconciles . Based on this situation , Mulder proposes that the entity ignored Steve and Edy because they did not exhibit mortal fear .
Mulder believes that the entity travels from victim to victim like a contagion . At his request , Scully performs an autopsy on Chantara 's body at the morgue . During the procedure , a conversation between Scully and the coroner 's assistant ( Tara Karsian ) causes the latter to panic about a Hantavirus outbreak . The entity suddenly kills her with the disease . When Mulder discusses the death with Scully , he realizes that Wetzel is in danger of being revisited by the entity . The agents and police return to the crack house , where the entity has trapped an injured Wetzel in an upstairs room . The agents are unable to enter the room until dawn comes , when the entity disappears and spares Wetzel 's life . After the incident is over , Scully expresses her sympathies to Mulder that being filmed by a national television crew did not provide the public exposure to paranormal phenomena that he had hoped . However , Mulder remains hopeful , noting that it all comes down to how the production crew edits the footage together .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Vince Gilligan , who wrote the episode , was inspired by Cops , which he describes as a " great slice of Americana . " Gilligan first pitched the idea to the X @-@ Files writing staff and to series creator Chris Carter during the show 's fourth season . Carter was concerned that the concept was too " goofy " . Fellow writer and producer Frank Spotnitz concurred ; however , he was more uncomfortable with Gilligan 's idea of using videotape instead of film to shoot the episode . The show 's production crew liked to use film to create " effective scares " , and Spotnitz worried that shooting exclusively on videotape would be too challenging as the series would be unable to cut and edit the final product . However , during the show 's seventh season , Carter relented . Many critics and fans believed , erroneously , that the seventh season of The X @-@ Files would be the show 's last . Similarly , Carter felt that the show had nearly run its course . Seeing the potential in Gilligan 's idea , he decided to green @-@ light the episode . Gilligan noted that " the longer we 've been on the air , the more chances we 've taken . We try to keep the show fresh ... I think [ Carter ] appreciates that " . " X @-@ Cops " was not Gilligan 's first attempt at writing a cross @-@ over . Almost three years before , he had been working on a script that would involve a story being presented by Robert Stack of Unsolved Mysteries , with unknown actors playing Mulder and Scully . This script was later aborted , and re @-@ written as the fifth season episode " Bad Blood " .
Gilligan reasoned that , because Mulder and Scully would appear on a nationally syndicated television series , the episode 's main monster could not be shown , only " hinted at " . Gilligan and the writing staff applied methods previously used in the 1999 psychological horror film The Blair Witch Project to show as little of the monster as possible while still making the episode scary . Michael Watkins , who directed the episode , had a good rapport with the Los Angeles police department . As such , he secured real Sheriff 's deputies as extras . Casting director Rick Milikan later explained that the group needed " actors who could pull off the believability in just normal off @-@ the @-@ cuff conversation of cops on the job . " During the crack house scene , real SWAT team members were hired to break down the doors . Actor Judson Mills later explained that , because there were few cameramen and owing to the manner in which the episode was filmed , " people just behaved as if we were [ real ] cops . I had other cops waving and giving their signals or heads @-@ up the way they do amongst themselves . It was quite funny " .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
" X @-@ Cops " was filmed in Venice and Long Beach , California . When members of The X @-@ Files staff asked Cops producer John Langley about a potential cross @-@ over , the crew of Cops liked the idea and offered their complete cooperation . Gilligan was even invited to the shooting of an episode . Inspired by Cops , Watkins ' directing style was unique for this episode . Watkins filmed some of the scenes himself , in addition to the shots caught by the usual camera operators of The X @-@ Files . However , he also brought in Bertram van Munster , a cameraman for Cops , to shoot scenes to give the finished product an authentic feel . In an attempt at realism , other staff members from Cops participated in the production : Daniel Emmet and John Michael Vaughn , two Cops crew members , were featured during the episode 's climax . During rehearsals , Watkins kept the cameras away from the set , so that when filming commenced , the cameramen 's unfamiliarity would create the " unscripted " reality feel of a documentary . In addition , a Cops editor was brought in to insert the blur over the faces of bystanders .
The episode was one of two X @-@ Files episodes to take place in real time — wherein events are presented at the same rate that the audience experiences them — the other being the sixth season episode " Triangle " . Due to the nature of the shooting schedule , the episode was relatively cheap to film and production moved at a quick pace . Initially , the actors struggled with the new cinéma vérité style of the episode , and several takes were needed for scenes during the first few days , but these problems receded as filming progressed . On one night , three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half pages of script were shot in only two hours ; the normal rate for The X @-@ Files was three to four pages a day . Both Watkins and Mills likened the filming of the episode to live theater . The former noted , " In a sense we were doing theater : we were doing an act , or half of a whole act in one take . " Anderson called the performance " fun " to shoot , and highlighted " Scully getting pissed off at the camera crew " as her favorite part to play . She further noted that " it was interesting to make the adjustment to playing something more real than you might play for television . "
Although filmed to create the illusion that events occurred in real time , the episode employed several camera tricks and effects . For the opening shot , a " surreptitious cut " helped to replace actor Judson Mills with a stunt person when the cop car is overturned by the monster . Usually , an episode of the series required 800 to 1 @,@ 200 film cuts , but " X @-@ Cops " only required 45 . During post @-@ production , a minor argument broke out between Vince Gilligan and the network . Originally , Gilligan did not want the X @-@ Files logo to appear at any time during the episode . He stressed that he wanted " X @-@ Cops " to feel like an " episode of Cops that happened to involve Mulder and Scully . " The network , fearing that people would not understand that " X @-@ Cops " was actually an episode of The X @-@ Files , vetoed this idea . A compromise was reached wherein the episode would open with the Cops theme song , but the normal X @-@ Files credits would scroll after an opening scene . In addition , the commercial bumpers would feature red and blue lights flashing across The X @-@ Files logo while dialogue is heard in the background , in a similar fashion to the Cops logo . The episode also features a disclaimer at the beginning informing viewers that the episode is a special installment of The X @-@ Files to prevent watchers from thinking that the show " has been preempted this week by Cops " .
= = Themes = =
Several critics , such as M. Keith Booker , have argued that " X @-@ Cops " is an example of The X @-@ Files delving into the postmodern school of thought . Postmodernism has been described as a " style and concept in the arts [ that ] is characterized by the self @-@ conscious use of earlier styles and conventions [ and the ] mixing of different artistic styles and media " . According to Booker , the episode helps to " identify the series as postmodern [ due to its ] cumulative summary of modern American culture " , or , in this case , the show 's merging with another popular television series . The episode also serves as an example of the series ' " self @-@ consciousness in terms of its status as a ( fictional ) television " show . M. Keith Booker , in the book Strange TV , notes that " allu [ sion ] to films and works of literature " present in " X @-@ Cops " suggests " its role as a kind of cumulative summary of modern American culture " .
According to Jeremy Butler in the book Television Style , the episode , along with many other found footage @-@ type movies and shows , helps to suggest that what is being promoted as " live TV " , is actually a series of events that have already unfolded in the past . Furthermore , while the episode is written and performed in a self @-@ reflexive and humorous tone , the real @-@ time aspects of " X @-@ Cops " " heighten [ s ] s the sense of realism within the episode " , and makes the result come across as hyper @-@ realistic . This sense of realism is further heightened by the near lack of music in the episode ; aside from the title theme , Mark Snow 's soundtrack is not to be heard .
Sarah Stegall proposed that the episode works on two separate layers . On the top @-@ most superficial layer , it functions as an outright parody , mimicking both the stylings of The X @-@ Files as well as Cops . However , on the other layer , she notes that " it 's a serious look at validation . " Throughout the episode , Mulder is attempting to capture the monster on camera and expose it to a national audience . However , all of the witnesses to monster function as unreliable narrators : a Hispanic woman with " a history of medications " , a homosexual " Drama Queen " , a prostitute , a " terrified morgue attendant , and Deputy Wetzel . Stegall argues that all of these characters are from " the wrong side of the tracks " and would not be accepted , let alone believed , by " a placid , middle @-@ class society " . In the end , the only reliable witness is the camera , but Stegall points out that " the camera , suspiciously , never quite manages to find [ the monster ] . " Furthermore , she reasons that Mulder 's biggest fear is not finding the monster . To back this idea up , she points out that Mulder not only fails to find what he is looking for , but he also fails before a live audience .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" X @-@ Cops " was first broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on February 20 , 2000 . Watched by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers , according to the Nielsen ratings system , it was the second @-@ highest rated episode of the season , after " The Sixth Extinction " . It received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 , with a 14 share among viewers , meaning that 9 @.@ 7 percent of all households in the United States , and 14 percent of people watching television at that time , tuned into the episode . It originally aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on June 4 , 2000 , receiving 850 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the channel 's third @-@ most watched program for that week . On May 13 , 2003 , " X @-@ Cops " was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh @-@ season box set .
Initial critical reaction to the episode was generally positive , although a few reviewers felt that the episode was a gimmick . Eric Mink of the Daily News described it as " nifty " and " exceptionally clever . " While noting that " The X @-@ Files hasn 't exactly smoked this season " , Kinney Littlefield from The Orange County Register called " X @-@ Cops " a stand @-@ out episode from the seventh season . Stegall praised the episode and likened the episode 's monster to the Boggart from the Harry Potter series . Stegall wrote of Vince Gilligan : " top honors must go to Vince Gilligan , whose work on The X @-@ Files is consistently the sharpest and most consistent . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review . He called the entry " one of the most entertaining episodes of the season " and " 60 minutes of pure fun " . Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that " some might view it as a stunt , but having Mulder and Scully be part of a spot @-@ on Cops ! parody ( complete with full " Bad Boys , bad boys " intro ) is just brilliant stuff " . Not all reviews were positive . Kenneth Silber from Space.com gave the episode a negative review and wrote , " ' X @-@ Cops ' is a wearisome episode . Watching the agents and police repeatedly run through the darkened streets of Los Angeles after an unseen — and uninteresting — foe evokes merely a sense of futility . The use of the format of the Fox TV show Cops provides some transient novelty but little drama or humor . "
Contemporary reviews have praised the episode as one of the show 's best installments . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two wrote that the episode was " funny , it 's clever , and it 's actually quite frightening " . Shearman and Pearson also wrote positively of the faux documentary style , likening it to The Blair Witch Project . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " and called it " witty , inventive , and intermittently spooky " . He argued that the episode was a late @-@ series " gimmick episode " and compared it the last few seasons of House ; although he reasoned that House relied on gimmicks to prop itself up , " X @-@ Cops " is " the work of a creative team which may be running out of ideas , but still has enough gas in the tank to get us where we need to go . " Furthermore , Handlen felt that the show used the Cops format to the best of its ability , and that many of the scenes were humorous , startling , or a combination of both .
Since its airing , " X @-@ Cops " has appeared on several best @-@ of lists . Montreal 's The Gazette named it the eighth best X @-@ Files episode , writing that it " pushed the show to new post @-@ modern heights . " Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named it the fifth funniest X @-@ Files episode , and Starpulse described it as the funniest X @-@ Files episode , writing that when the series " did comedy , it was probably the funniest drama ever on television " . UGO named the episode 's main antagonist as one of the greatest " Top 11 X @-@ Files Monsters , " noting that the creature is a " perfect [ Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ] if only because the monster in question is a living , breathing metaphor , a never @-@ seen specter that shifts to fit the fears of the person witnessing it . " Narin Bahar from SFX named the episode one of the " Best Sci @-@ Fi TV Mockumentaries " and wrote , " Whether you see this as a brilliantly post @-@ modern merging of fact and fiction or shameless cross @-@ promotion of two of the Fox Network 's biggest TV shows , there 's lots of nods to the real Cops show in this episode " . Bahar praised the scene featuring the terrified lady telling Mulder that Freddy Krueger attacked her — calling the scene the " best in @-@ joke " — and applauded the two series ' cohesion .
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= Katipo =
The katipo ( Latrodectus katipo ) is an endangered species of spider native to New Zealand . It is one of many species in the genus Latrodectus , such as the Australian redback ( L. hasseltii ) , and the North American black widows . The species is venomous to humans , capable of delivering a comparatively dangerous bite . The name katipo ( plural : katipo ) is from the Māori katipō , meaning " night @-@ stinger " . It is a small to medium @-@ sized spider , with the female having a round black or brown pea @-@ sized body . Red katipo females , found in the South Island and the lower half of the North Island , are always black , and their abdomen has a distinctive red stripe bordered in white . In black katipo females , found in the upper half of the North Island , this stripe is absent , pale , yellow , or replaced with cream @-@ coloured blotches . These two forms were previously thought to be separate species . The male is much smaller than the female and quite different in appearance : white with black stripes and red diamond @-@ shaped markings . Katipo are only found living in sand dunes close to the seashore . They are found throughout most of coastal New Zealand except the far south and west . Katipo feed mainly on ground dwelling insects , caught in an irregular tangled web spun amongst dune plants or other debris ,
After mating in August or September , the female katipo produces five or six egg sacs in November or December . The spiderlings hatch during January and February and disperse into surrounding plants . Due to habitat loss and colonisation of their natural habitat by other exotic spiders , the katipo is threatened with extinction .
A katipo bite produces the toxic syndrome latrodectism ; symptoms include extreme pain and , potentially , hypertension , seizure , or coma . Bites are rare , an antivenom is available , and no deaths have been reported since 1901 . The katipo is particularly notable in New Zealand as the nation is almost entirely devoid of dangerous native wildlife ; this unique status means the spider is well known , despite being rarely seen .
= = Taxonomy = =
Although the ' kātĕpo ' was reported to the Linnean Society as early as 1855 , the spider was formally described as Latrodectus katipo by L. Powell in 1870 . Spiders of the genus Latrodectus have a worldwide distribution and include all of the commonly known widow spiders : the North American black widow spider ( Latrodectus mactans ) , the brown widow ( Latrodectus geometricus ) , and the European black widow ( Latrodectus tredecimguttatus ) . The katipo 's closest relative is the Australian redback spider ( Latrodectus hasseltii ) Latrodectus katipo and L. atritus ( black katipo ) were previously thought to be two separate species , but research has shown that they are a single species , L. katipo , with colour variation that is clinal over latitude and correlated with mean annual temperature . The katipo is so closely related to the redback that it was at one stage thought to be a subspecies , with the proposed name Latrodectus hasseltii katipo . Further research has shown that the katipo is distinct from the redback , having slight structural differences and striking differences in habitat preference , and it remains its own species . The katipo 's family Theridiidae has a large number of species both in New Zealand and worldwide and are commonly known as tangle @-@ web spiders , cobweb spiders or comb @-@ footed spiders .
The common name , katipo , is Māori for " night stinger " , derived from the words kakati ( to sting ) and pō ( the night ) . This name was apparently given to the spider due to the Māori belief that the spiders bite at night . Other common names include red katipo , black katipo and New Zealand 's redback .
= = Description = =
The katipo is a small to medium @-@ sized spider . The mature female has a body size of about 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) with a leg span of up to 32 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The red katipo female , found in the South Island and the lower North Island , has a large black globular abdomen , about the size of a garden pea , with slender legs and a white @-@ bordered orange or red stripe on its back that runs from the uppermost surface of the abdomen back to the spinnerets . The dark velvet @-@ black abdomen is described as satin or silky in appearance , rather than being shiny . The underside of the abdomen is black and has a red patch or partial red hourglass @-@ shaped marking . It has mainly black legs with the extremities changing to brown . The black katipo female , found in the upper North Island , does not have a red stripe on the top of her body , and the abdominal colouration is usually lighter , but is otherwise very similar in appearance to the red katipo . The hourglass pattern on the underside of the abdomen may also be less distinct , losing the middle section , and may even be absent . Variations also exist whose abdomen , cephalothorax , or entire body is brown , sometimes with a dull red or yellow stripe , or cream @-@ coloured spots on its upper side . These different forms were at one point thought to be different species , but a 2008 study demonstrated they were different morphs of the same species .
Adult males and juveniles are quite different in appearance to the female . They are smaller in size , being about one sixth the size of an adult female . Juveniles have a brown carapace , with a predominantly white abdomen which has a series of red @-@ orange diamonds running along the dorsal region bordered on either side by irregular black lines . Males retain this coloration into adulthood . Due to its much smaller size , Urquhart ( 1886 ) believed the male to be a separate species and named it Theridion melanozantha . This was not rectified until 1933 when it was correctly identified as the male Latrodectus katipo .
= = Habitat = =
The katipo is restricted to a highly specialised habitat and is only found near the seashore living among sand dunes . They generally reside on the landward side of dunes closest to the coast where they are most sheltered from storms and sand movement . They can sometimes be associated with dunes several kilometres from the sea when these dunes extend inland for long distances .
Webs are typically established in low @-@ growing dune plants and other vegetation such as the native Pingao ( Desmoschoenus spiralis ) or the introduced marram grass ( Ammophila arenaria ) . They may also build their webs under driftwood , stones , or other debris such as empty tin cans or bottles . Webs are almost always constructed over open sand and near the ground so as to catch crawling insects for food . Spiders inhabiting dune grasses construct their webs in open spaces between the grass tufts , while spiders inhabiting areas of shrubbery do so on the underside of a plant overhanging open sand . It has been found that these patches of open sand are necessary for katipo to build their webs as plants that envelop sand dunes in dense cover , such as exotic plants like kikuyu or buffalo grass , create an environment unsuitable for web construction . The katipo therefore prefers to spin its web amongst pingao plants as this plants growth pattern leaves patches of sand between each plant . The wind can then blow insects and other prey through these gaps and into the web . Marram grass has been extensively planted in New Zealand to help stabilise sand dunes and has largely replaced pingao in many areas . Because marram grass grows in a very tight formation only leaving small gaps between tuffs , this makes it difficult for the katipo to construct a suitable web for capturing prey .
Like other theridiid spiders , the web is a disorganised , irregular tangle of fine textured silk . It is hammock @-@ shaped and is made up of opaque yellowish @-@ white silk . The web consists of a broad base with many supporting threads above and below , including a number of sticky guy lines anchored to debris in the sand . A cone @-@ shaped retreat is built in the lower part of the web , although the katipo can normally be found near the main body of the web . The plants it builds its web in provide support and shelter for the nest .
= = Range = =
The katipo is endemic to New Zealand . In the North Island it is found along the West Coast from Wellington to North Cape . On the east coast of the North Island it occurs irregularly , however , it is abundant on Great Barrier Island . In the South Island it is found in coastal regions south to Dunedin on the east coast and south to Greymouth on the west coast . This southern limit is due to the katipo needing temperatures higher than about 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) to be maintained during the development of their eggs – in the southern areas of New Zealand it is typically colder than this .
The red katipo is found south of approximately 39 ° 15 ′ S ( the western tip of Taranaki on the west coast , and just north of Waipatiki Beach in Hawke 's Bay on the east coast ) . The black katipo is found north of approximately 38 ° S ( Aotea Harbour , just north of Kāwhia on the west coast , and Waipiro Bay and just south of the Bay of Plenty on the east coast ) . Both forms are found in the area in @-@ between these latitudes .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Diet = = =
The katipo typically catches wandering ground invertebrates such as beetles ( e.g. Cecyropa modesta ) or amphipods ( e.g. Bellorchestia quoyana ) , but it may occasionally catch moths , flies , and other spiders . Katipo can catch insects much larger than themselves . These larger insects often become entangled in the web and in the ensuing struggle , the web 's ground anchor line breaks . Due to the silk 's elasticity , this causes the prey to become suspended a few centimetres off the ground . The katipo then moves to the prey , turns so that the spinnerets are facing the insect and spins silk over it . Like most theridiids , the tarsi of the hind legs have a row of strong curved bristles which are arranged as a comb . The katipo uses these to scoop sticky silk from her spinnerets and throws it over the insect with a series of rapid movements . After the insect is firmly immobilised , she bites it several times , usually at the joints , before spinning more silk to strengthen the web , and then administering a last long bite which ultimately kills the insect . The spider then moves the prey up into the web until it is ready to eat . If food is readily available then it is common to see five or six insects hanging in the web waiting to be ingested . The male 's hunting behaviour is similar to the female 's , although may not be as vigorous due to its smaller size .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The male wanders as an adult and in August or September goes looking for the females ' webs to mate . The male will enter the female 's web and vibrate the silk as he approaches her . The female is usually aggressive at first and will chase the male from the web . The Courtship process consists of the male bobbing , plucking and tweaking the web along with periods of cautious approach and being chased by the female . Eventually , when she becomes docile and allows him to approach , the male will then approach the female as she hangs quietly upside down in the web . The male moves onto her ventral abdomen , tapping her rapidly until she moves to align his abdomen above hers . He then inserts his palps one at a time , leaving the female between each insertion . Copulation occurs over 10 to 30 minutes . After mating , the male retreats to groom , which is performed by running his palps and legs through his fangs and wiping them over his body . The male is not eaten by the female unlike some other widow spiders .
The females lay their eggs in November or December . The eggs are round , about the size of a mustard seed , and are a transparent , purply red . They are held together in a cream @-@ coloured , round , ball shaped egg sac which is about 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . The female constructs five or six egg sacs over the next three to four weeks . Each egg sac contains about 70 to 90 fertilised eggs . The egg sacs are hung in the centre of the spiders web and the female spins more silk over them . Over time the exterior of the egg sac may become covered with sand . After six weeks of incubation , during January and February , the spiderlings hatch . The young spiders then disperse from the web . At present , little is known about the dispersal mechanism that the spiderlings use to move away from the nest . In one study , observing spiders over 24 hours , 28 % used a ballooning method , which is where the young spiders use heat currents to carry themselves away from the nest suspended by a single web strand . While the majority , 61 % , used a bridging method where the spiderling uses its silk to move to nearby plants , and 11 % still remained in the nest . The young spiderlings reach full maturity the following spring .
The close relationship between the katipo and redback is shown when mating , The male redback is able to successfully mate with a female katipo producing hybrid offspring . However , the male katipo can not mate with the female redback as the male katipo is heavier than the male redback and when it approaches the web it triggers a predatory response in the female leading to the katipo being eaten before mating occurs . There is evidence of interbreeding between katipo and redbacks in the wild .
= = Predators = =
The katipo has only one known direct predator : a small , undescribed native wasp from the family Ichneumonidae has been observed feeding on katipo eggs .
= = Population decline = =
The katipo is an endangered species and has recently become threatened with extinction . It is estimated that there are only a few thousand katipo left in about 50 areas in the North Island and eight in the South Island , making it rarer than some species of kiwi . A number of reasons have contributed to its decline ; the major factors appear to be loss of habitat and declining quality of the remaining habitat . Human interference with their natural habitat has been occurring for over a century following European settlement . Coastal dune modification resulting from agriculture , forestry , or urban development along with recreational activities like the use of beach buggies , off road vehicles , beach horse riding and driftwood collection have destroyed or changed areas where katipo lives . The introduction of many invasive exotic plants has also contributed to the decline of suitable habitat .
Foreign spiders have colonised areas where suitable habitat remains . The major coloniser is the South African spider Steatoda capensis . It was first reported in the 1990s and may have displaced the katipo along the west coast of the North Island from Wellington to Wanganui . Although both the katipo and S. capensis have been found sharing the same dune systems or even co @-@ existing under the same piece of driftwood suggesting that the two species can co @-@ exist in similar habitats . It is possible that the displacement of the katipo by S. capensis is due to its ability to recolonise areas from which the katipo had been displaced after storms or other dune modifications . Furthermore , S. capensis breeds year @-@ round , produces more offspring and lives in a greater range of habitats which leads to greater pressure on the katipo . S. capensis also belongs to the family Theridiidae and shares many of the katipo 's features . It is of similar size , shape , general coloration , it lacks the red stripe on its back , but may have some red , orange or yellow on its abdomen , as well as the general location where katipos are found . Due to these similarities it is commonly known in New Zealand as the ‘ false katipo ’ .
In 2010 the katipo was one of a dozen species of previously @-@ unprotected invertebrate given full protection under the 1953 Wildlife Act , noted as " iconic , vulnerable to harm , and in serious decline " . Under the Act , killing an absolutely @-@ protected species such as a katipo is punishable by a fine or even imprisonment .
= = Toxicology = =
The katipo has medically significant venom in humans , although bites are rare . The incidence of bites is low as it is a shy , non @-@ aggressive spider . Their narrow range , diminishing population , and human awareness of where they live means interaction between humans and the spider is minimal . The katipo will only bite as a last resort ; if molested , the spider will usually fold up into a ball and drop to the ground or retreat to the nearest cover . If the threat continues , the spider may throw out silk against the interference . When restrained in any way or held against skin , such as if tangled up in clothing , the spider will then bite defensively . However , if the female is with an egg sac it will remain close by it and sometimes move offensively to bite any threat .
Bites from Katipo spiders produce a syndrome known as latrodectism . The venoms of all Latrodectus spiders are thought to contain similar components with the neurotoxin α @-@ latrotoxin the main agent responsible . Most bites are caused by female spiders ; the male katipo was considered too small to cause systemic envenoming in humans . However , bites from male redback spiders have been reported suggesting male Latrodectus spiders can cause envenoming in humans . Although bites by male spiders are much rarer than those by females , perhaps due to their smaller jaws rather than lacking venom of similar potency to females or being unable to administer an effective bite . Māori legends recall many deaths , the last of which appears to have been a Māori girl who – according to the missionary Thomas Chapman – died in approximately 1849 . While there were reports of severe katipo bites in 19th or early 20th century records , no other fatalities from spider bites have since been reported in New Zealand . The most recent fatality seems to have been in 1901 , as reported in the Evening Post on 25 September of that year : " AUCKLAND , This Day . Mr. George Twidle , aged 47 , son of Mr. George Twidle of Pukekohe , was bitten by a katipo spider on . September 16 . His arm swelled , and he suffered great pain till Saturday last , when he died . He leaves a widow and several children . " The most recent reported katipo bites ( as of 2016 ) were to a Canadian tourist in 2010 and a kayaker in 2012 .
= = = Symptoms = = =
The clinical features of latrodectism are similar for all species of Latrodectus spiders and is generally characterised by extreme pain . Initially , the bite may be painful , but sometimes only feels like a pin prick or mild burning sensation . Within an hour victims generally develop more severe local pain with local sweating and sometimes piloerection ( goosebumps ) . Pain , swelling and redness spread proximally from the site . Less commonly , systemic envenoming is heralded by swollen or tender regional lymph nodes ; associated features include malaise , nausea , vomiting , abdominal or chest pain , generalised sweating , headache , fever , hypertension and tremor . Rare complications include seizure , coma , pulmonary edema , respiratory failure or localised skin infection . The duration of effects can range from a few hours to days , with severe pain persisting for over 24 hours after being bitten in some cases .
= = = Treatment = = =
Treatment is based on the severity of the bite ; the majority of cases do not require medical care and patients with localised pain , swelling and redness usually only require local application of ice and routine analgesics . Hospital assessment is recommended if simple analgesia does not resolve local pain or clinical features of systemic envenoming occur . In more severe bites , Redback antivenom can be given . Redback antivenom can also cross @-@ neutralise katipo venom , and it is used to treat envenoming from Latrodectus katipo in New Zealand . It is available from most major New Zealand hospitals . Antivenom will usually relieve symptoms of systemic envenoming and is indicated in anyone suffering symptoms consistent with Latrodectus envenoming . Unlike some other antivenoms , it is not limited to patients with signs of severe , systemic envenoming . Particular indications for using antivenom are local then generalised pain , sweating or hypertension . However , good evidence to support the effectiveness of widow spider antivenoms is lacking and studies have cast some doubt on antivenoms efficacy in latrodectism . Pain relief agents , such as parenteral opiates , or benzodiazepines may be required as adjunct agents .
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= Operation Storm =
Operation Storm ( Croatian : Operacija Oluja ) was the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence and a major factor in the outcome of the Bosnian War . It was a decisive victory for the Croatian Army ( HV ) , which attacked across a 630 @-@ kilometre ( 390 mi ) front against the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , and a strategic victory for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) . The HV was supported by the Croatian special police advancing from the Velebit Mountain , and the ARBiH located in the Bihać pocket , in the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina 's ( ARSK ) rear . The battle , launched to restore Croatian control of 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 square miles ) of territory , representing 18 @.@ 4 % of the territory it claimed , and Bosnian control of Western Bosnia , was the largest European land battle since the Second World War . Operation Storm commenced at dawn on 4 August 1995 and was declared complete on the evening of 7 August , despite significant mopping @-@ up operations against pockets of resistance lasting until 14 August .
Operation Storm was a strategic victory in the Bosnian War , effectively ending the siege of Bihać and placing the HV , Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) and the ARBiH in a position to change the military balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina through the subsequent Operation Mistral 2 . The operation built on HV and HVO advances made during Operation Summer ' 95 , when strategic positions allowing the rapid capture of the RSK capital Knin were gained , and on the continued arming and training of the HV since the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence , when the RSK was created during the Serb Log revolution and Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) intervention . The operation itself followed an unsuccessful United Nations ( UN ) peacekeeping mission and diplomatic efforts to settle the conflict .
The HV 's ( and ARBiH 's strategic ) success was a result of a series of improvements to the armies themselves , and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were subsequently exploited by the HV and the ARBiH . The attack was not immediately successful at all points , but seizing key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure and overall defensive capability . The HV capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm , and the special police 's advance to Gračac , made it nearly impossible to defend Knin . In Lika , two guard brigades quickly cut the ARSK @-@ held area ( which lacked tactical depth and mobile reserve forces ) , isolating pockets of resistance , positioning a mobile force for a decisive northward thrust into the Karlovac Corps area of responsibility ( AOR ) , and pushing ARSK towards Banovina . The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja , after a tough defence , defeated the ARSK Banija Corps as well , as its reserve was pinned down by the ARBiH . The RSK relied on the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav militaries as its strategic reserve , but they did not intervene in the battle .
The HV and the special police suffered 174 – 211 killed or missing , while the ARSK had 560 soldiers killed . Four UN peacekeepers were also killed . The HV captured 4 @,@ 000 prisoners of war . The number of Serb civilian deaths is disputed — Croatia claims that 214 were killed , while Serbian sources cite 1 @,@ 192 civilians killed or missing . During and after the offensive , 150 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 Serbs — or nearly the entire Serb population of the area formerly held by the ARSK — fled and a variety of crimes were committed against the remaining civilians there . The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) later tried three Croatian generals charged with war crimes and partaking in a joint criminal enterprise designed to force the Serb population out of Croatia , although all three were ultimately acquitted and the tribunal refuted charges of a criminal enterprise . In 2010 , Serbia sued Croatia before the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , claiming that the offensive was an example of genocide . In 2015 , the court ruled that it was not genocidal , though it affirmed that the Serb population fled as a direct result of the offensive and that serious crimes against civilians had been committed by Croatian forces . As of November 2012 , the Croatian judiciary has convicted 2 @,@ 380 persons for various crimes committed during Operation Storm .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević used Franjo Tuđman 's actions to his advantage , portraying the Croatian leader and his Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) as a reincarnation of the Ustaše , a fascist movement that had ruled Croatia during World War II .
In August 1990 , an insurgency known as the Log Revolution took place in Croatia centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , as well as in parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . The areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) and , after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared the RSK a rebellion . The conflict escalated by March 1991 , resulting in the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium on Croatia 's and the RSK 's declarations followed , after which the decision came into effect on 8 October . The RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croat civilians and most non @-@ Serbs were expelled by early 1993 . By November 1993 , less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations @-@ protected area known as Sector South , while a further 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 remained in Sector North .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( HV ) in November . The establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September . The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , culminating in the Battle of the Barracks , the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
In January 1992 , an agreement to implement the Vance plan designed to stop the fighting was made by representatives of Croatia , the JNA and the UN . Ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires , the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement . A stalemate developed as the conflict evolved into static trench warfare , and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated . Serbia continued to support the RSK , but a series of HV advances restored small areas to Croatian control as the siege of Dubrovnik ended , and Operation Maslenica resulted in minor tactical gains . In response to the HV successes , the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( ARSK ) intermittently attacked a number of Croat towns and villages with artillery and missiles .
As the JNA disengaged in Croatia , its personnel prepared to set up a new Bosnian Serb army , as Bosnian Serbs declared the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of a 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The referendum was later cited as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs set up barricades in the capital , Sarajevo , and elsewhere on 1 March , and the next day the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , the Bosnian Serb army started shelling Bosanski Brod , and on 4 April , Sarajevo was attacked . By the end of the year , the Bosnian Serb army — renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) after the Republika Srpska state was proclaimed — controlled about 70 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina . That proportion would not change significantly over the next two years . Even though the war originally pitted Bosnian Serbs against non @-@ Serbs in the country , it evolved into a three @-@ sided conflict by the end of the year , as the Croat – Bosniak War started . The RSK was supported to a limited extent by the Republika Srpska , which launched occasional air raids from Banja Luka and bombarded several cities in Croatia .
= = Prelude = =
In November 1994 , the Siege of Bihać , a battle of the Bosnian War , entered a critical stage as the VRS and the ARSK came close to capturing the town of Bihać from the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) . It was a strategic area and , since June 1993 , Bihać had been one of six United Nations Safe Areas established in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The US administration felt that its capture by Serb forces would intensify the war and lead to a humanitarian disaster greater than any other in the conflict to that point . Amongst the United States , France and the United Kingdom , division existed regarding how to protect the area . The US called for airstrikes against the VRS , but the French and the British opposed them citing safety concerns and a desire to maintain the neutrality of French and British troops deployed as a part of the UNPROFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina . In turn , the US was unwilling to commit ground troops . On the other hand , the Europeans recognized that the US was free to propose military confrontation with the Serbs while relying on the European powers to block any such move , since French President François Mitterrand discouraged any military intervention , greatly aiding the Serb war effort . The French stance reversed after Jacques Chirac was elected president of France in May 1995 , pressuring the British to adopt a more aggressive approach as well . Denying Bihać to the Serbs was also strategically important to Croatia , and General Janko Bobetko , the Chief of the Croatian General Staff , considered the potential fall of Bihać to represent an end to Croatia 's war effort .
In March 1994 , the Washington Agreement was signed , ending the Croat – Bosniak War , and providing Croatia with US military advisors from Military Professional Resources Incorporated ( MPRI ) . The US involvement reflected a new military strategy endorsed by Bill Clinton in February 1993 . Because the UN arms embargo was still in place , MPRI was hired ostensibly to prepare the HV for participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace programme . MPRI trained HV officers and personnel for 14 weeks from January to April 1995 . It has also been speculated in several sources , including an article in The New York Times by Leslie Wayne and in various Serbian media reports , that MPRI may also have provided doctrinal advice , scenario planning and US government satellite intelligence to Croatia , although MPRI , American and Croatian officials have denied such claims . In November 1994 , the United States unilaterally ended the arms embargo against Bosnia and Herzegovina , in effect allowing the HV to supply itself as arms shipments flowed through Croatia .
The Washington Agreement also resulted in a series of meetings between Croatian and US government and military officials in Zagreb and Washington , D.C. On 29 November 1994 , the Croatian representatives proposed to attack Serb @-@ held territory from Livno in Bosnia and Herzegovina , in order to draw away part of the force besieging Bihać and to prevent the town 's capture by the Serbs . As the US officials gave no response to the proposal , the Croatian General Staff ordered Operation Winter ' 94 the same day , to be carried out by the HV and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) — the main military force of the Bosnian Croats . In addition to contributing to the defence of Bihać , the attack shifted the HV 's and HVO 's line of contact closer to the RSK 's supply routes .
In 1994 , the United States , Russia , the European Union ( EU ) and the UN sought to replace the Vance plan , which brought in the UNPROFOR . They formulated the Z @-@ 4 Plan giving Serb @-@ majority areas in Croatia substantial autonomy . After numerous and frequently uncoordinated changes to the proposed plan , including leaking of its draft elements to the press in October , the Z @-@ 4 Plan was presented on 30 January 1995 . Neither Croatia nor the RSK liked the plan . Croatia was concerned that the RSK might accept it , but Tuđman realised that Milošević , who would ultimately make the decision for the RSK , would not accept the plan for fear that it would set a precedent for a political settlement in Kosovo — allowing Croatia to accept the plan with little possibility for it to be implemented . The RSK refused to receive , let alone accept , the plan .
In December 1994 , Croatia and the RSK made an economic agreement to restore road and rail links , water and gas supplies , and use of a part of the Adria oil pipeline . Even though some of the agreement was never implemented , a section of the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway passing through RSK territory near Okučani and the pipeline were both opened . Following a deadly incident that occurred in late April 1995 on the recently opened motorway , Croatia reclaimed all of the RSK 's territory in western Slavonia during Operation Flash , taking full control of the territory by 4 May , three days after the battle began . In response , the ARSK attacked Zagreb using M @-@ 87 Orkan missiles with cluster munitions . Subsequently , Milošević sent a senior Yugoslav Army officer to command the ARSK , along with arms , field officers and thousands of Serbs born in the RSK area who had been forcibly conscripted by the ARSK .
On 17 July , the ARSK and the VRS started a fresh effort to capture Bihać by expanding on gains made during Operation Spider . The move provided the HV with a chance to extend their territorial gains from Operation Winter ' 94 by advancing from the Livno valley . On 22 July , Tuđman and Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović signed the Split Agreement for mutual defence , permitting the large @-@ scale deployment of the HV in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The HV and HVO responded quickly through Operation Summer ' 95 ( Croatian : Ljeto ' 95 ) , capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč on 28 – 29 July . The attack drew some ARSK units away from Bihać , but not as many as expected . However , it put the HV in an excellent position , as it isolated Knin from the Republika Srpska , as well as Yugoslavia .
In late July and early August , there were two more attempts at resurrecting the Z @-@ 4 Plan and the 1994 economic agreement . Talks proposed on 28 July were ignored by the RSK , and last @-@ ditch talks were held in Geneva on 3 August . These quickly broke down as Croatia and the RSK rejected a compromise proposed by Thorvald Stoltenberg , a Special Representative of the UN Secretary @-@ General , essentially calling for further negotiations at a later date . In addition , the RSK dismissed a set of Croatian demands , including to disarm , and failed to endorse the Z @-@ 4 Plan once again . The talks were used by Croatia to prepare diplomatic ground for the imminent Operation Storm , whose planning was completed during the Brijuni Islands meeting between Tuđman and military commanders on 31 July . The HV started large @-@ scale mobilization in late July , soon after General Zvonimir Červenko became its new Chief of General Staff on 15 July .
= = Order of battle = =
The HV operational plan was set out in four separate parts , designated Storm @-@ 1 through 4 , which were allocated to various corps based upon their individual areas of responsibility ( AORs ) . Each plan was scheduled to take between four and five days . The forces that the HV allocated to attack the RSK were organised into five army corps : Split , Gospić , Karlovac , Zagreb and Bjelovar Corps . A sixth zone was assigned to the Croatian special police inside the Split Corps AOR , near the boundary with the Gospić Corps . The HV Split Corps , located in the far south of the theatre of operations and commanded by Lieutenant General Ante Gotovina , was assigned the Storm @-@ 4 plan , which was the primary component of Operation Storm . The Split Corps issued orders for the battle using the name Kozjak @-@ 95 instead , which was not an unusual practice . The 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Split Corps was opposed by the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong ARSK 7th North Dalmatia Corps , headquartered in Knin and commanded by Major General Slobodan Kovačević . The 3 @,@ 100 @-@ strong special police , deployed to the Velebit Mountain on the left flank of the Split Corps , were directly subordinated to the HV General Staff commanded by the Lieutenant General Mladen Markač .
The 25 @,@ 000 @-@ strong HV Gospić Corps was assigned the Storm @-@ 3 component of the operation , to the left of the special police zone . It was commanded by Brigadier Mirko Norac , and opposed by the ARSK 15th Lika Corps , headquartered in Korenica and commanded by Major General Stevan Ševo . The Lika Corps , consisting of about 6 @,@ 000 troops , was sandwiched between the HV Gospić Corps and the ARBiH in the Bihać pocket in ARSK rear , forming a wide but a very shallow area . The ARBiH 5th Corps deployed about 2 @,@ 000 troops in the zone . The Gospić Corps , assigned a 150 @-@ kilometre ( 93 mi ) section of the front , was tasked with cutting the RSK in half and linking up with the ARBiH , while the ARBiH was tasked with pinning down ARSK forces that were in contact with the Bihać pocket .
The HV Karlovac Corps , commanded by Major General Miljenko Crnjac , on the left flank of the Gospić Corps , covered the area extending from Ogulin to Karlovac , including Kordun , and executed the Storm @-@ 2 plan . The corps was composed of 15 @,@ 000 troops and was tasked with pinning down the ARSK forces in the area to protect the flanks of the Zagreb and Gospić Corps . It had a forward command post in Ogulin and was opposed by the ARSK 21st Kordun Corps headquartered at Petrova Gora , consisting of 4 @,@ 000 troops in the AOR ( one of its brigades was facing the Zagreb Corps ) . Initially , the 21st Kordun Corps was commanded by Colonel Veljko Bosanac , but he was replaced by Colonel Čedo Bulat during the evening of 5 August . In addition , the bulk of the ARSK Special Units Corps was present in the area , commanded by Major General Milorad Stupar . ARSK Special Units Corps was 5 @,@ 000 @-@ strong , largely facing the Bihać pocket at the onset of Operation Storm . The ARSK armour and artillery in the AOR outnumbered that of the HV .
The HV Zagreb Corps , assigned the Storm @-@ 1 plan , initially commanded by Major General Ivan Basarac , on the left flank of the Karlovac Corps , was deployed on three main axes of attack — towards Glina , Petrinja and Hrvatska Kostajnica . It was opposed by the ARSK 39th Banija Corps , headquartered in Glina and commanded by Major General Slobodan Tarbuk . The Zagreb Corps was tasked with bypassing Petrinja to neutralize ARSK artillery and missiles potentially targeting Croatian cities , making a secondary thrust from Sunja towards Hrvatska Kostajnica . Their secondary mission was compromised when a battalion of the special police and the 81st Guards Battalion planned to spearhead the advance were deployed elsewhere forcing modifications to the plan . The Zagreb Corps was composed of 30 @,@ 000 troops , while the ARSK had 9 @,@ 000 facing them and about 1 @,@ 000 ARBiH troops in the Bihać pocket to their rear . At the start of Operation Storm , about 3 @,@ 500 ARSK troops were in contact with the ARBiH . HV Bjelovar Corps , on the left flank of the Zagreb Corps , covering the area along the Una River , had a forward command post in Novska . The corps was commanded by Major General Luka Džanko . Opposite the Bjelovar Corps was a part of the ARSK Banija Corps . The Bjelovar Corps was included in the attack on 2 August and were therefore not issued a separate operations plan .
The ARSK divided its forces in the area in two , subordinating the North Dalmatia and Lika Corps to the ARSK General Staff , and grouping the rest into the Kordun Operational Group commanded by Lieutenant Colonel General Mile Novaković . Territorially , the division corresponded to the North and South sectors of the UN protected areas .
Estimates of the total number of troops deployed by the belligerents vary considerably . Croatian forces have been estimated from under 100 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 , but most sources put the figure at about 130 @,@ 000 troops . ARSK troop strength in the Sectors North and South was estimated by the HV prior to Operation Storm at approximately 43 @,@ 000 . More detailed HV estimates of the manpower by individual ARSK corps indicated 34 @,@ 000 soldiers , while Serb sources quote 27 @,@ 000 troops . The discrepancy is usually reflected in literature as an estimate of about 30 @,@ 000 ARSK troops . The ARBiH deployed approximately 3 @,@ 000 troops against the ARSK positions near Bihać . In late 1994 , the Fikret Abdić @-@ led Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia ( APWB ) — a sliver of land northwest of Bihać between its ally RSK and the pocket — commanded 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 soldiers who were deployed south of Velika Kladuša against the ARBiH force .
= = Operation timeline = =
= = = 4 August 1995 = = =
Operation Storm started at 5 a.m. on 4 August 1995 when coordinated attacks were executed by reconnaissance and sabotage detachments in concert with Croatian Air Force ( CAF ) air strikes aimed at disrupting ARSK command , control , and communications . UN peacekeepers , known as United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation ( UNCRO ) , were notified three hours in advance of the attack when Tuđman 's chief of staff , Hrvoje Šarinić , telephoned UNCRO commander , French Army General Bernard Janvier . In addition , each HV corps notified the UNCRO sector in its path of the attack , requesting written confirmations of receipt of the information . The UNCRO relayed the information to the RSK , confirming the warnings RSK received from the Yugoslav Army General Staff the previous day .
= = = = Sector South = = = =
In the Split Corps AOR , at 5 a.m. the 7th Guards Brigade advanced south from Bosansko Grahovo towards the high ground ahead of Knin after a period of artillery preparation . Moving against the ARSK 3rd Battlegroup , consisting of elements of the North Dalmatian Corps and RSK police , the 7th Guards achieved its objectives for the day and allowed the 4th Guards Brigade to attack . The HV Sinj Operational Group ( OG ) , on the left flank of the two brigades , joined the attack and the 126th Home Guard Regiment captured Uništa , gaining control of the area overlooking the Sinj – Knin road . The 144th Brigade and the 6th Home Guard Regiment also pushed ARSK forces back . The Šibenik OG units faced the ARSK 75th Motorized Brigade and a part of the 2nd Infantry Brigade of the ARSK North Dalmatian Corps . There , the 142nd and the 15th Home Guard Regiments made minor progress in the area between Krka and Drniš , while the 113th Infantry Brigade made a slightly greater advance on their left flank , to Čista Velika . In the Zadar OG area , the 134th Home Guard Regiment ( without its 2nd Battalion ) failed to advance , while the 7th Home Guard Regiment and the 112th HV Brigade gained little ground against the ARSK 92nd Motorized and 3rd Infantry Brigades at Benkovac . On the Velebit , the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade , reinforced with a company from the 7th Home Guard Regiment , and the 2nd Battalion of the 134th Home Guard Regiment met stiff resistance but advanced sufficiently to secure use of the Obrovac – Sveti Rok road . At 4 : 45 p.m. , a decision to evacuate the population in the Northern Dalmatia and Lika areas was made by RSK President Milan Martić . According to RSK Major General Milisav Sekulić , Martić ordered the evacuation hoping to coax Milošević and the international community to help the RSK . Nonetheless , the evacuation was extended the whole sectors North and South , except Kordun region . In the evening the ARSK General Staff moved from Knin to Srb , about 35 kilometres ( 22 miles ) to the northwest .
At 5 a.m. , Croatian special police advanced to the Mali Alan pass on the Velebit , encountering strong resistance from the ARSK Lika Corps ' 4th Light Brigade and elements of the 9th Motorized Brigade . The pass was captured at 1 p.m. , and Sveti Rok village was captured at about 5 p.m. The special police advanced further beyond Mali Alan , meeting more resistance at 9 p.m. and then bivouacking until 5 a.m. The ARSK 9th Motorized Brigade withdrew to Udbina after being forced out of its positions on the Velebit . In the morning , the special police captured Lovinac , Gračac and Medak .
In the Gospić Corps AOR , the 138th Home Guard Regiment and the 1st Battalion of the 1st Guards Brigade began an eastward attack in the Mala Kapela area in the morning , meeting heavy resistance from the ARSK 70th Infantry Brigade . The rest of the 1st Guards joined in around midnight . The 133rd Home Guard Regiment attacked east of Otočac , towards Vrhovine , attempting to encircle the ARSK 50th Infantry Brigade and elements of the ARSK 103rd Infantry Brigade in a pincer movement . Even though the regiment advanced , it failed to achieve its objective for the day . On the regiment 's right flank , the HV 128th Brigade advanced together with the 3rd Battalion of the 8th Home Guard Regiment and cut through the Vrhovine – Korenica road . The rest of the 9th Guards Brigade , the bulk of the HV 118th Home Guard Regiment and the 111th Infantry Brigade advanced east from Gospić and Lički Osik , coming up against very strong resistance from the ARSK 18th Infantry Brigade . As a result of these setbacks , the Gospić Corps ended the day short of the objectives it had been given .
= = = = Sector North = = = =
In the Ogulin area of the HV Karlovac Corps AOR , the 99th Brigade , reinforced by the 143rd Home Guard Regiment 's Saborsko Company , moved towards Plaški at 5 a.m. , but the force was stopped and turned back in disarray by 6 p.m. The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced from Josipdol towards Plaški , encountering minefields and strong ARSK resistance . Its elements connected with the 14th Home Guard Regiment , advancing through Barilović towards Slunj . Near the city of Karlovac , the 137th Home Guard Regiment deployed four reconnaissance groups around midnight of 3 – 4 August , followed by artillery preparation and crossing of the Korana River at 5 a.m. The advance was fiercely resisted by the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade , but the bridgehead was stable by the end of the day . The 110th Home Guard Regiment , reinforced by a company of the 137th Home Guard Regiment , advanced east to the road leading south from Karlovac to Vojnić and Slunj , where it met heavy resistance and suffered more casualties to landmines , demoralizing the unit and preventing its further advance . In addition , the attached company of the 137th Home Guard Regiment and the 104th Brigade failed to secure the regiment 's flanks . The 104th Brigade tried to cross the Kupa River at 5 a.m. , but failed and fell back to its starting position by 8 a.m. , at which time it was shifted to the bridgehead established by the 110th Home Guard Regiment . A company of the 99th Brigade was attached to the 143rd Home Guard Regiment for operations the next day , and a 250 @-@ strong battlegroup was removed from the brigade and subordinated to the Karlovac Corps directly .
In the Zagreb Corps area , the HV moved across the Kupa River at two points towards Glina — in and near Pokupsko , using the 20th Home Guard Regiment and the 153rd Brigade . Both crossings established bridgeheads , although the bulk of the units were forced to retreat as the ARSK counter @-@ attacked — only a battalion of the 153rd Brigade and elements of the 20th Home Guard Regiment held their ground . The crossings prompted the ARSK General Staff to order the 2nd Armoured Brigade of the Special Units Corps to move from Slunj to the bridgeheads , as the HV advance threatened a vital road in Glina . The HV 2nd Guards Brigade and the 12th Home Guard Regiment were tasked with the quick capture of Petrinja from the ARSK 31st Motorized Brigade in a pincer movement . The original plan , involving thrusts six to seven kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 3 miles ) south of Petrinja , was amended by Basarac to a direct assault on the city . On the right flank , the regiment was soon stopped by minefields and forced to retreat , while the bulk of the 2nd Guards Brigade advanced until it wavered following the loss of a company commander and five soldiers . The rest of the 2nd Guards Brigade — reinforced by the 2nd Battalion , elements of the 12th Home Guard Regiment , the 5th Antitank Artillery Battalion and the 31st Engineers Battalion — formed Tactical Group 2 ( TG2 ) operating on the left flank of the attack . TG2 advanced from Mošćenica , a short distance from Petrinja , but was stopped after the 2nd Battalion 's commander and six soldiers were killed . The ARSK 31st Motorized Brigade also panicked but managed to stabilize its defences as it received reinforcements . The HV 57th Brigade advanced south of Petrinja , intent on reaching the Petrinja – Hrvatska Kostajnica road , but ran into a minefield where the brigade commander was killed , while the 101st Brigade to its rear suffered heavy artillery fire and casualties . In the Sunja area , the 17th Home Guard Regiment and a company of the 151st Brigade unsuccessfully attacked the ARSK 26th Infantry Brigade . Later that day , a separate attack by the rest of the 151st Brigade also failed . The HV 103rd Brigade advanced to the Sunja – Sisak railroad , but had to retreat under heavy fire . The Zagreb Corps failed to meet any objective of the first day . This was attributed to inadequate manpower and as a result the corps requested the mobilization of the 102nd Brigade and the 1st and 21st Home Guard Regiments . The 2nd Guards Brigade was reinforced by the 1st Battalion of the 149th Brigade previously held in reserve in Ivanić Grad .
In the Bjelovar Corps AOR , two battalions of the 125th Home Guard Regiment crossed the Sava River near Jasenovac , secured a bridgehead for trailing HV units and advanced towards Hrvatska Dubica . The two battalions were followed by an additional company of the same regiment , a battalion of the 52nd Home Guard Regiment , the 265th Reconnaissance Company and finally the 24th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup . A reconnaissance platoon of the 52nd Home Guard Regiment crossed the Sava River into the Republika Srpska , established a bridgehead for two infantry companies and subsequently demolished the Bosanska Dubica – Gradiška road before returning to Croatian soil . The Bjelovar Corps units reached the outskirts of Hrvatska Dubica before nightfall . That night , the town of Hrvatska Dubica was abandoned by the ARSK troops and the civilian population . They fled south across the Sava River into Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = = 5 August 1995 = = =
= = = = Sector South = = = =
The HV did not advance towards Knin during the night of 4 / 5 August when the ARSK General Staff ordered a battalion of the 75th Motorized Brigade to stage themselves north of Knin . The ARSK North Dalmatian Corps became increasingly uncoordinated as the HV 4th Guards Brigade advanced south towards Knin , protecting the right flank of the 7th Guards Brigade . The latter met little resistance and entered the town at about 11 a.m. Lieutenant General Ivan Čermak was appointed commander of the newly established HV Knin Corps . Sinj OG completed its objectives , capturing Kozjak and Vrlika , and meeting little resistance as the ARSK 1st Light Brigade disintegrated , retreating to Knin and later to Lika . By 8 p.m. , Šibenik OG units advanced to Poličnik ( 113th Brigade ) , Đevrske ( 15th Home Guard Regiment ) , and captured Drniš ( 142nd Home Guard Regiment ) , while the ARSK 75th Motorized Brigade retreated towards Srb and Bosanski Petrovac together with the 3rd Infantry and the 92nd Motorized Brigades , leaving the Zadar OG units with little opposition . The 7th Home Guard Regiment captured Benkovac , while the 112th Brigade entered Smilčić and elements of the 9th Guards Brigade reached Obrovac .
The 138th Home Guard Regiment and the 1st Guards Brigade advanced to Lička Jasenica , the latter pressing their attack further towards Saborsko , with the 2nd Battalion of the HV 119th Brigade reaching the area in the evening . The HV reinforced the 133rd Home Guard Regiment with a battalion of the 150th Brigade enabling the regiment to achieve its objectives of the previous day , partially encircling the ARSK force in Vrhovine . The 154th Home Guard Regiment was mobilized and deployed to the Ličko Lešće area . The 9th Guards Brigade ( without its 2nd Battalion ) advanced towards Udbina Air Base , where ARSK forces started to evacuate . The 111th Brigade and the 118th Home Guard Regiment also made small advances , linking up behind ARSK lines .
= = = = Sector North = = = =
The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced towards Plaški , capturing it that evening , while the 14th Home Guard Regiment captured Primišlje , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 miles ) northwest of Slunj . At 0 : 30 a.m. , the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and a company of the 19th Infantry Brigade counter @-@ attacked at the Korana bridgehead , causing the bulk of the 137th Home Guard Regiment to panic and flee across the river . A single platoon of the regiment remained but the ARSK troops did not exploit the opportunity to destroy the bridgehead . In the morning , the regiment reoccupied the bridgehead , reinforced by a 350 @-@ strong battlegroup drawn from the 104th Brigade ( including a tank platoon and multiple rocket launchers ) , and a company of the 148th Brigade from the Karlovac Corps operational reserve . The regiment and the battlegroup managed to extend the bridgehead towards the Karlovac – Slunj road . The 110th Home Guard Regiment attacked again south of Karlovac , but was repelled by prepared ARSK defences . That night , the Karlovac Corps decided to move elements of the 110th Home Guard Regiment and the 104th Brigade to the Korana bridgehead , while the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade retreated to the right bank of Korana in an area extending about 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) north from Slunj .
The Zagreb Corps made little or no progress on day two of the battle . Part of the 2nd Guards Brigade was ordered to drive towards Glina with the 20th Home Guards Regiment making a modest advance , while the 153rd Brigade abandoned its bridgehead . In the area of Petrinja , the HV advanced gradually only to be pushed back in some areas by an ARSK counter @-@ attack . The results were reversed at significant cost by a renewed push by the 2nd Guards Brigade . The Zagreb Corps commander was replaced by Lieutenant General Petar Stipetić on orders from President Tuđman . The HV reassigned the 102nd Brigade to drive to Glina , and the 57th Brigade was reinforced with the 2nd Battalion of the 149th Brigade . The 145th Brigade was moved from Popovača to the Sunja area , where the 17th Home Guard Regiment and the 151st Brigade made minor advances into the ARSK @-@ held area .
In the Bjelovar Corps AOR , Hrvatska Dubica was captured by the 52nd and the 24th Home Guard Regiments advancing from the east and the 125th Home Guard Regiment approaching from the north . The 125th Home Guard Regiment garrisoned the town , while the 52nd Home Guard Regiment moved northwest towards expected Zagreb Corps positions , but the Zagreb Corps ' delays prevented any link @-@ up . The 24th Home Guard Regiment advanced about four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 miles ) towards Hrvatska Kostajnica when it was stopped by ARSK troops . In response , the Corps called in a battalion and a reconnaissance platoon of the 121st Home Guard Regiment from Nova Gradiška to aid the push to the town . The ARBiH 505th and 511th Mountain Brigades advanced north to Dvor and engaged the ARSK 33rd Infantry Brigade — the only reserve unit of the Banija Corps .
= = = 6 August 1995 = = =
On 6 August , the HV conducted mopping @-@ up operations in the areas around Obrovac , Benkovac , Drniš and Vrlika , as President Tuđman visited Knin . After securing their objectives on or near Velebit , the special police was deployed on foot behind ARSK lines to hinder movement of ARSK troops there , capturing strategic intersections in the villages of Bruvno at 7 a.m. and Otrić at 11 a.m.
At midnight , elements of the ARBiH 501st and 502nd Mountain Brigades advanced west from Bihać against a skeleton force of the ARSK Lika Corps that had been left behind since the beginning of the battle . The 501st moved about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) into Croatian territory , to Ličko Petrovo Selo and Plitvice Lakes by 8 a.m. The 502nd captured an ARSK radar and communications facility on Plješivica Mountain , and proceeded towards Korenica where it was stopped by the ARSK units . The HV 1st Guards Brigade reached Rakovica and linked up with the Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina 5th Corps in the area of Drežnik Grad by 11 a.m. It was supported by the 119th Brigade and a battalion of the 154th Home Guard Regiment deployed in the Tržačka Raštela and Ličko Petrovo Selo areas . In the afternoon , a link @-@ up ceremony was held for the media in Tržačka Raštela . The 138th Home Guard Regiment completely encircled Vrhovine , which was captured by the end of the day by the 8th and the 133rd Home Guard Regiments , reinforced with a battalion of the 150th Brigade . The HV 128th Brigade entered Korenica while the 9th Guards Brigade continued towards Udbina .
The 143rd Home Guard Regiment advanced to Broćanac where it connected with the 1st Guards Brigade . From there the regiment continued towards Slunj , accompanied by elements of the 1st Guards Brigade and the 14th Home Guard Regiment , capturing the town at 3 p.m. The advance of the 14th Home Guard Regiment was supported by the 148th Brigade guarding its flanks . The ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade retreated from Slunj , together with the civilian population , moving north towards Topusko . An attack by the 137th Home Guard Regiment , and the elements of various units reinforcing it , extended the bridgehead and connected it with the 14th Home Guard Regiment in Veljun , 18 kilometres ( 11 miles ) north of Slunj . The rest of the 149th Brigade ( without the 1st Battalion ) was reassigned from the Zagreb Corps to the Karlovac Corps to reinforce the 137th Home Guard Regiment . At 11 a.m. , an agreement was reached between the ARSK and civilian authorities in Glina and Vrginmost , securing the evacuation of civilians from the area . The ARBiH 502nd Mountain Brigade also moved north , flanking the APWB capital of Velika Kladuša from the west , and capturing the town by the end of the day .
The TG2 advanced to Petrinja at about 7 a.m. after a heavy artillery preparation . The 12th Home Guard Regiment entered the city from the west and was subsequently assigned to garrison Petrinja and its surrounding area . After the loss of Petrinja to the HV , the bulk of the ARSK Banija Corps started to retreat towards Dvor . The HV 57th Brigade advanced against light resistance and took control of the Petrinja – Hrvatska Kostajnica road . During the night of 6 / 7 August , the 20th Home Guard Regiment , supported by Croatian police and elements of the 153rd Brigade , captured Glina despite strong resistance . The 153rd Brigade then took positions that allowed the advance to continue towards the village of Maja in coordination with the 2nd Guards Brigade , which drove south from Petrinja towards Zrinska gora conducting mop @-@ up operations . The 140th Home Guard Regiment flanked the 2nd Guards Brigade on the northern slope of Zrinska Gora , while the 57th Brigade captured Umetić . The 103rd and the 151st Brigades , and the 17th Home Guard Regiment , advanced towards Hrvatska Kostajnica , with the addition of a battalion of the HV 145th Brigade which would arrive that afternoon . Around noon , the 151st Brigade connected with the Bjelovar Corps units on the Sunja – Hrvatska Dubica road . They were assigned to secure roads in the area afterwards .
By capturing Glina , the HV trapped the bulk of the ARSK Kordun Corps and about 35 @,@ 000 evacuating civilians in the area of Topusko , prompting its commander to request UNCRO protection . The 1st Guards Brigade , approaching Topusko from Vojnić , received orders to engage the ARSK Kordun Corps , but the orders were cancelled at midnight by the chief of the HV General Staff . Instead , the Zagreb Corps was instructed to prepare a brigade @-@ strength unit to escort unarmed persons and ARSK officers and non @-@ commissioned officers with side arms to Dvor and allow them to cross into Bosnia and Herzegovina . Based on information obtained from UN troops , it was believed that the ARSK forces in Banovina were about to surrender .
A battalion of the 121st Home Guard Regiment entered Hrvatska Kostajnica , while the 24th Home Guard Regiment battlegroup secured the national border behind them . The 52nd Home Guard Regiment connected with the Zagreb Corps and then turned south to the town , reaching it that evening . The capture of Hrvatska Kostajnica marked the fulfilment of all of the Bjelovar Corps ' objectives .
= = = 7 August 1995 = = =
The 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug - HGZ ) arrived in the Knin area to connect with elements of the 4th , 7th and 9th Guards Brigades , tasked with a northward advance the next day . The Split Corps command moved to Knin as well . The Croatian special police proceeded to Gornji Lapac and Donji Lapac arriving by 2 p.m. and completing the boundary between the Gospić and Split Corps AORs . The Croatian special police also made contact with the 4th Guards Brigade in Otrić and the Gospić Corps units in Udbina by 3 p.m. By 7 p.m. , a battalion of the special police reached the border near Kulen Vakuf , securing the area .
In the morning , the 9th Guards Brigade ( without its 2nd Battalion ) captured Udbina , where it connected with the 154th Home Guard Regiment , approaching from the opposite side of the Krbava Polje ( Croatian : Polje or karst field ) . By the end of the day , Operation Storm objectives assigned to the Gospić Corps were completed .
A forward command post of the HV General Staff was moved from Ogulin to Slunj , and it assumed direct command of the 1st Guards Brigade , the 14th Home Guard Regiment and the 99th Brigade . The 14th Home Guard Regiment secured the Slunj area and deployed to the left bank of Korana to connect with the advancing Karlovac special police . Elements of the regiment and the 99th Brigade secured the national border in the area . The 1st Guards Brigade advanced towards Kordun , as the Karlovac Corps reoriented its main axis of attack . The 110th Home Guard Regiment and elements of the 104th Brigade reached a largely deserted Vojnić in early afternoon , followed by the 1st Guards Brigade , the 143rd Home Guard Brigade and the 137th Home Guard Regiment . Other HV units joined them by evening .
The 2nd Guards Brigade advanced from Maja towards Dvor , but was stopped approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) short by ARSK units protecting the withdrawal of the ARSK and civilians towards the town . Elements of the brigade performed mopping @-@ up operations in the area . The ARSK 33rd Infantry Brigade held the road bridge in Dvor that connected the ARSK and the Republika Srpska across the Una River . The brigade was overwhelmed by the ARBiH 5th Corps , and it retreated south of Una , as the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and the civilians from Kordun were reaching Dvor . Elements of the 17th Home Guard Regiment and the HV 145th and 151st Brigades reached Dvor via Hrvatska Kostajnica and came into contact with the ARSK 13th Infantry Brigade and elements of the ARSK 24th Infantry and 2nd Armoured Brigades , who had retreated from Glina . As the expected surrender of the ARSK Kordun Corps did not materialize , the HV was ordered to reengage . Despite major pockets of resistance , Croatia 's defence minister , Gojko Šušak , declared major operations over at 6 p.m. , 84 hours after the battle had started .
= = = 8 – 14 August 1995 = = =
On 8 August , the 4th and the 7th Guards Brigades , the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ advanced north to Lička Kaldrma and the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina , eliminating the last major pocket of ARSK resistance in Donji Lapac and the Srb area by 8 p.m. and achieving all of Split Corps ' objectives for Operation Storm . After the capture of Vojnić , the bulk of the Karlovac Corps units were tasked with mopping up operations in their AOR . Elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade reached the Croatian border southwest of Dvor , where fighting for full control of the town was in progress , and connected with the ARBiH 5th Corps .
As Tuđman ordered the cessation of military operations that afternoon , the ARSK Kordun Corps accepted surrender . Negotiations of the terms of surrender were held the same day at 1 : 20 p.m. at the Ukrainian UNCRO troops command post in Glina , and the surrender document was signed at 2 p.m. in Topusko . Croatia was represented by Lieutenant General Stipetić , while the RSK was represented by Bulat , commander of the ARSK Kordun Corps , and Interior Minister Tošo Pajić . The terms of surrender specified the handover of weapons , except officers ' side arms , on the following day , and the evacuation of persons from Topusko via Glina , Sisak , and the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway to Serbia , protected by the Croatian military and civilian police .
On 9 August , the special police surrendered their positions to the HV , after covering more than 150 kilometres ( 93 miles ) on foot in four days . The 1st Guards Brigade , followed by other HV units , entered Vrginmost . The 110th and the 143rd Home Guard Regiments conducted mopping up operations around Vrginmost and Lasinja . The 137th Home Guard Regiment conducted mopping up operations in the Vojnić area and the 14th Home Guard Regiment did the same in the Slunj , Cetingrad , and Rakovica areas . The HV secured Dvor late in the evening , shortly after the civilians finished evacuating . Numerous HV Home Guard units were later tasked with further mopping up operations .
On 10 August , the HV 57th Brigade reached the Croatian border south of Gvozdansko , while elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade reached Dvor and the 12th Home Guard Regiment captured Matijevići , just to the south of Dvor , on the Croatian border . The Zagreb Corps reported that the entire national border in its AOR was secured and all its Operation Storm objectives had been achieved . Mopping up operations in Banovina lasted until 14 August , and special police units joined the operations on the Zrinska Gora and Petrova Gora mountains .
= = Air force operations = =
On 4 August 1995 , the CAF had at its disposal 17 MiG @-@ 21s , five attack and nine transport helicopters , three transport airplanes and two reconnaissance aircraft . On that first day of the operation , thirteen MiG @-@ 21s were used to destroy or disable six targets in the Gospić and Zagreb Corps AORs , at the cost of one severely and three slightly damaged jets . The same day , three Mi @-@ 8s were used for medical evacuation . US Navy EA @-@ 6Bs and F / A @-@ 18s on patrol as part of Operation Deny Flight fired on ARSK surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) sites at Udbina and Knin as SAM radars locked onto the jets . A few sources claim that they were deployed as a deterrent as the UN troops came under HV fire , and a subsequent UN Security Council report only notes that the deployment was a result of the deterioration of the military situation and resulting low security of the peacekeepers in the area . Also on 4 August , the RSK 105th Air Force Brigade based at Udbina , deployed helicopters against the Croatian special police on Velebit Mountain and against targets in the Gospić area virtually to no effect .
On 5 August , the RSK air force began evacuating to Zalužani Airbase near Banja Luka , completing the move that day . At the same time the CAF deployed 11 MiG @-@ 21s to strike a communications facility and a storage site , as well as five other military positions throughout the RSK . That day , the CAF also deployed a Mi @-@ 24 to attack ARSK armour units near Sisak and five Mi @-@ 8s to transport casualties , and move troops and cargo . Five CAF MiG @-@ 21s sustained light damage in the process . The next day , jets struck an ARSK command post , a bridge and at least four other targets near Karlovac and Glina . A Mi @-@ 24 was deployed to the Slunj area to attack ARSK tanks , while three Mi @-@ 8s transported wounded personnel and supplies . An additional pair of MiG @-@ 21s was deployed to patrol the airspace over Ivanić Grad and intercept two Bosnian Serb fighter jets , but they failed to do so due to fog in the area and their low level of flight . The VRS aircraft subsequently managed to strike the Petrokemija chemical plant in Kutina .
On 7 August , two VRS air force jets attacked a village in the Nova Gradiška area , just north of the Sava River — the international border in the area . The CAF bombed an ARSK command post , a storage facility and several tanks near Bosanski Petrovac . CAF jets also struck a column of Serb refugees near Petrovačka cesta , killing nine people , including four children . On 8 August , the CAF performed its last combat sorties in the operation , striking tanks and armoured vehicles between Bosanski Novi and Prijedor , and two of its MiG @-@ 21s were damaged . The same day , UN military observers deployed at Croatian airfields claimed that the CAF attacked military targets and civilians in the Dvor area , where refugee columns were mixed with ARSK transporting heavy weapons and large quantities of ammunition . Overall , the CAF performed 67 close air support , three attack helicopter , seven reconnaissance , four combat air patrol and 111 transport helicopter sorties during Operation Storm .
= = Other coordinated operations = =
In order to protect areas of Croatia away from Sectors North and South , the HV conducted defensive operations while the HVO started a limited offensive north of Glamoč and Kupres to pin down part of the VRS forces , exploit the situation and gain positions for further advance . On 5 August , the HVO 2nd and 3rd Guards Brigades attacked VRS positions north of Tomislavgrad , achieving small advances to secure more favourable positions for future attacks towards Šipovo and Jajce , while tying down part of the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps . As a consequence of the overall battlefield situation , the VRS was limited to a few counter @-@ attacks around Bihać and Grahovo as it was short of reserves . The most significant counter @-@ attack was launched by the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps on the night of 11 / 12 August . It broke through the 141st Brigade , consisting of the HV 's reserve infantry , reaching the outskirts of Bosansko Grahovo , only to be beaten back by the HV , using one battalion drawn from the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigade each , supported by the 6th and the 126th Home Guard Regiments .
= = = Operation Phoenix = = =
In eastern Slavonia , the HV Osijek Corps was tasked with preventing ARSK or Yugoslav Army forces from advancing west in the region , and counter @-@ attacking into the ARSK @-@ held area around Vukovar . The Osijek Corps mission was codenamed Operation Phoenix ( Croatian : Operacija Fenix ) . The Corps commanded the 3rd Guards and 5th Guards Brigades , as well as six other HV brigades and seven Home Guard regiments . Additional reinforcements were provided in a form of specialized corps @-@ level units otherwise directly subordinated to the HV General Staff , including a part of the Mi @-@ 24 gunship squadron . Even though artillery rounds and small arms fire were traded between the HV and the ARSK 11th Slavonia @-@ Baranja Corps in the region , no major attack occurred . The most significant coordinated ARSK effort occurred on 5 August , when the exchange was compounded by three RSK air raids and an infantry and tank assault targeting Nuštar , northeast of Vinkovci . Operation Storm led the Yugoslav Army to mobilize and deploy considerable artillery , tanks and infantry to the border area near eastern Slavonia , but it took no part in the battle .
= = = Operation Maestral = = =
In the south of Croatia , the HV deployed to protect the Dubrovnik area against the VRS Herzegovina Corps and the Yugoslav Army situated in and around Trebinje and the Bay of Kotor . The plan , codenamed Operation Maestral , entailed deployment of the 114th , 115th and 163rd Brigades , the 116th and 156th Home Guard Regiments , the 1st Home Guard Battalion ( Dubrovnik ) , the 16th Artillery Battalion , the 39th Engineers Battalion and a mobile coastal artillery battery . The area was reinforced on 8 August with the 144th Brigade as the unit completed its objectives in Operation Storm and moved to Dubrovnik . The CAF committed two MiG @-@ 21s and two Mi @-@ 24s based in Split to Operation Maestral . The Croatian Navy supported the operation deploying the Korčula , Brač and Hvar Marine Detachments , as well as missile boats , minesweepers , anti @-@ submarine warfare ships and coastal artillery . In the period , the VRS attacked the Dubrovnik area intermittently using artillery only .
= = Assessment of the battle = =
Operation Storm became the largest European land battle since the Second World War , encompassing a 630 @-@ kilometre ( 390 mi ) frontline . It was a decisive victory for Croatia , restoring its control over 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 square miles ) of territory , representing 18 @.@ 4 % of the country . Losses sustained by the HV and the special police are most often cited as 174 killed and 1 @,@ 430 wounded , but a government report prepared weeks after the battle specified 211 killed or missing , 1 @,@ 100 wounded and three captured troops . By 21 August , Croatian authorities recovered and buried 560 ARSK troops killed in the battle . The HV captured 4 @,@ 000 prisoners of war , 54 armoured and 497 other vehicles , six aircraft , hundreds of artillery pieces and over 4 @,@ 000 infantry weapons . Four UN peacekeepers were killed — three as a result of HV actions and one as a result of ARSK activities — and 16 injured . The HV destroyed 98 UN observation posts .
The HV 's success was a result of a series of improvements to the HV itself and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were subsequently exploited by the HV and the ARBiH . The attack was not immediately successful everywhere , but the seizing of key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure and overall defensive capability . The HV 's capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm and the special police 's advance to Gračac made Knin nearly impossible to defend . In Lika , two Guards brigades rapidly cut the ARSK @-@ held area lacking tactical depth or mobile reserve forces , isolating pockets of resistance and placing the 1st Guards Brigade in a position that allowed it to move north into the Karlovac Corps AOR , pushing ARSK forces towards Banovina . The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja , after heavy fighting , also defeated the ARSK Banija Corps , as its reserve became immobilized by the ARBiH . The ARSK force was capable of containing or substantially holding assaults by regular HV brigades and the Home Guard , but attacks by the Guards brigades and the special police proved to be decisive . Colonel Andrew Leslie , commanding the UNCRO in the Knin area , assessed Operation Storm as a textbook operation that would have " scored an A @-@ plus " by NATO standards .
Even if the ARBiH had not provided aid , the HV would almost certainly have defeated the Banija Corps on its own , albeit at greater cost . The lack of reserves was the ARSK 's key weakness that was exploited by the HV and the ARBiH since the ARSK 's static defence could not cope with fast @-@ paced attacks . The ARSK military was unable to check outflanking manoeuvres and their Special Units Corps failed as a mobile reserve , holding back the HV 's 1st Guards Brigade south of Slunj for less than a single day . The ARSK traditionally counted on the VRS and the Yugoslav military as its strategic reserve , but the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina immobilized the VRS reserves and Yugoslavia did not intervene militarily as Milošević did not order it to do so . Even if he had wished to intervene , the speed of the battle would have allowed a very limited time for Yugoslavia to deploy appropriate reinforcements to support the ARSK .
= = Aftermath = =
The defeat of the RSK led the Bosnian Serbs to realise that a settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina must be negotiated as soon as possible , and reversed the tide of the war against the Serbs , giving US diplomacy a strong boost . The success of Operation Storm also represented a strategic victory in the Bosnian War as it lifted the siege of Bihać , and allowed the Croatian and Bosnian leadership to plan a full @-@ scale military intervention in the VRS @-@ held Banja Luka area — one aimed at creating a new balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina , a buffer zone along the Croatian border , and contributing to the resolution of the war . The intervention materialized as Operation Mistral 2 in September 1995 . Combined with a NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina , it led to the start of peace talks that would result in the Dayton Agreement a few months later . The development also led to the restoration of the remaining Serb @-@ held areas in eastern Slavonia and Baranja to Croatian control through the Erdut Agreement , ending the Croatian War of Independence in November .
The ease with which the HV achieved victory surprised many observers as Western intelligence services predicted a Croatian defeat . International reactions to Operation Storm quickly evolved from emotive arguments , supportive of either side in the battle , to those calmly assessing the situation on the ground . UN officials and most international media criticised Croatia . Carl Bildt , an EU negotiator working for the former Yugoslavia , publicly condemned Croatia , while UN Special Representative Stoltenberg urged the UN Secretary General Personal Representative Yasushi Akashi to request NATO strikes against the HV . German Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel expressed regret but added that " ... the years of Serb aggression ... have sorely tried Croatia 's patience " . The US response was mixed . While Secretary of Defense William Perry reflected favourably on the military development , the US ambassador to Croatia , Peter Galbraith , declared his disapproval . On 10 August , the UN Security Council issued Resolution 1009 demanding that Croatia halt military operations , condemning the targeting of UN peacekeepers , and calling for the resumption of talks — but not calling for a HV withdrawal . By 18 August , US diplomats on Robert Frasure 's team tasked to mediate in the Bosnian War believed Operation Storm lent their diplomatic mission a chance to succeed , reflecting the opinion of US President Bill Clinton that the Serbs would not negotiate seriously unless they sustained major military defeats .
In Serbia , Milošević condemned the Croatian attack , but the Milošević @-@ influenced press also denounced the leadership of the RSK as being incompetent , while the most extreme politicians , including Vojislav Šešelj , demanded retaliation against Croatia . Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić begged for the Yugoslav Army to help while accusing Milošević of treason .
In Croatia , HV units returning to their bases were given heroes ' welcomes in numerous cities , and a commemorative medal was created to be issued to HV troops who took part in the operation . On 26 August , Croatia organised the Freedom Train — a railroad tour taking Tuđman and the bulk of Croatia 's government officials , public personalities , journalists and the diplomatic corps in Croatia from Zagreb to Karlovac , Gospić , Knin and Split . Tuđman gave a speech at each of the stops . In Knin , he declared : " [ The Serbs ] didn 't even have time to collect their dirty [ money ] and their dirty underwear . On this day , we can say that Croatia stopped bearing its historical cross . This is not just the liberation of land , but the creation of a foundation for a free and independent Croatia for centuries to come . " During the final rally in Split , which drew a crowd of 300 @,@ 000 , Tuđman vowed to liberate Vukovar as well .
Croats and Serbs hold opposing views of the operation . In Croatia , 5 August — the day that the HV captured Knin — was chosen as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders , the Croatian public holiday when Operation Storm is officially celebrated . In Serbia and the Republika Srpska , the day is marked by mourning for the Serbs killed and those who fled during or after the operation .
= = Refugee crisis = =
The evacuation and following mass @-@ exodus of the Serbs from the RSK led to a significant humanitarian crisis . In August 1995 , the UN estimated that only 3 @,@ 500 Serbs remained in Kordun and Banovina ( former Sector North ) and 2 @,@ 000 remained in Lika and Northern Dalmatia ( former Sector South ) , while more than 150 @,@ 000 had fled to Yugoslavia , and between 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 had arrived in the Banja Luka area . The number of Serb refugees was reported to be as many as 200 @,@ 000 by the international media and international organizations . Also , 21 @,@ 000 Bosniak refugees from the former APWB fled to Croatia . After Operation Storm , the Republika Srpska ordered the expulsion of all Croats and Bosniaks from the Banja Luka area , and 22 @,@ 000 refugees fled to Croatia by the end of August . EU envoy Bildt accused Croatia of the most efficient ethnic cleansing carried out in the Yugoslav Wars . His view is supported by several Western analysts , such as historians Marie @-@ Janine Calic , Gerard Toal and Carl T. Dahlman , Miloševic biographer Adam LeBor , and Professor Paul Mojzes , but rejected by US ambassador Galbraith .
While approximately 35 @,@ 000 Serb refugees , trapped with the surrendered ARSK Kordun Corps , were evacuated to Yugoslavia via Sisak and the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway , the bulk of the refugees followed a route through the Republika Srpska , arriving there via Dvor in Banovina or via Srb in Lika — two corridors to Serb @-@ held territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina left as the HV advanced . The two points of retreat were created as a consequence of the delay of a northward advance of the HV Split Corps after the capture of Knin , and the decision not to use the entire HV 2nd Guards Brigade to spearhead the southward advance from Petrinja . The retreating ARSK , transporting large quantities of weaponry , ammunition , artillery and tanks , often intermingled with evacuating or fleeing civilians , had few roads to use . The escaping columns were reportedly intermittently attacked by CAF jets , and the HV , trading fire with the ARSK located close to the civilian columns . The refugees were also targeted by ARBiH troops , as well as by VRS jets , and sometimes were run over by the ARSK Special Units Corps ' retreating tanks . On 9 August , a refugee convoy evacuating from the former Sector North under the terms of the ARSK Kordun Corps ' surrender agreement was attacked by Croatian civilians in Sisak . The attack caused one civilian death , many injuries and damage to a large number of vehicles . Croatian police intervened in the incident after UN civilian police monitors pressured them to do so . The next day , US ambassador Galbraith joined the column to protect them , and the Croatian police presence along the planned route increased . The refugees moving through the Republika Srpska were extorted at checkpoints and forced to pay extra for fuel and other services by the local strongmen , much to the disgrace of the local Bosnian Serb population .
Aiming to reduce evidence of political failure , Yugoslav authorities sought to disperse the refugees in various parts of Serbia and prevent their concentration in the capital , Belgrade . The government encouraged the refugees to settle in predominantly Hungarian areas of Vojvodina , and in Kosovo , which was largely populated by Albanians , leading to increased instability in those regions . Even though 20 @,@ 000 were planned to be settled in Kosovo , only 4 @,@ 000 moved to the region . After 12 August , the Serbian authorities started to deport some of the refugees who were of military age , declaring them illegal immigrants . They were turned over to the VRS or the ARSK in eastern Croatia for conscription . Some of the conscripts were publicly humiliated and beaten for abandoning the RSK . In some areas , ethnic Croats of Vojvodina were evicted from their homes by the refugees themselves to claim new accommodations . Similarly , the refugees moving through Banja Luka forced Croats and Bosniaks out of their homes .
= = = Return of the refugees = = =
At the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence , in 1991 – 1992 , a non @-@ Serb population of more than 220 @,@ 000 was forcibly removed from Serb @-@ held territories in Croatia , as the RSK was established . In the wake of Operation Storm , a part of those refugees , as well as Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , settled in a substantial number of housing units in the area formerly held by the ARSK , presenting an obstacle to the return of Serb refugees . As of September 2010 , out of 300 @,@ 000 – 350 @,@ 000 Serbs who fled from Croatia during the entire war , 132 @,@ 707 are registered as having returned , but only 60 – 65 % of those are believed to reside permanently in the country . However , only 20 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 more are interested in returning to Croatia . As of 2010 , approximately 60 @,@ 000 Serb refugees from Croatia remained in Serbia .
The return of refugees has been hampered by several obstacles . These include property ownership and accommodation , as Croat refugees settled in vacated homes , and Croatian war @-@ time legislation that stripped the refugees once living in government @-@ owned housing of their tenancy rights . The legislation was abolished following the war , and alternative accommodation is offered to returnees . 6 @,@ 538 housing units were allocated by November 2010 . Another obstacle is the difficulty for refugees to obtain residency status or Croatian citizenship . Applicable legislation has been relaxed since , and by November 2010 , Croatia allowed the validation of identity documents issued by the RSK . Even though Croatia declared a general amnesty , refugees fear legal prosecution , as the amnesty does not pertain to war crimes . The final obstacle to the return of refugees is the lack of vocational opportunities due to the poor economic situation in Croatia .
= = War crimes = =
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) , set up in 1993 based on the UN Security Council Resolution 827 , indicted Gotovina , Čermak and Markač for war crimes , specifically for their roles in Operation Storm , citing their participation in a joint criminal enterprise ( JCE ) aimed at the permanent removal of Serbs from the ARSK @-@ held part of Croatia . The ICTY charges specified that other participants in the JCE were Tuđman , Šušak , and Bobetko and Červenko , however all except Bobetko were dead before the first relevant ICTY indictment was issued in 2001 . Bobetko was indicted by the ICTY , but died a year later , before he could be extradited for trial at the ICTY . The trial of Gotovina et al began in 2008 , leading to the convictions of Gotovina and Markač and the acquittal of Čermak three years later . Gotovina and Markač were acquitted on appeal in November 2012 , in a ruling that refuted the charges of the two generals as well as Croatia 's political leaders of the 1990s , as the ICTY concluded that Operation Storm was not aimed at ethnic persecution .
In February 2015 , during the Croatia – Serbia genocide case , the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) dismissed the Serbian lawsuit claim that Operation Storm constituted genocide , ruling that Croatia did not have the specific intent to exterminate the country 's Serb minority , though it reaffirmed that serious crimes against Serb civilians had taken place . The judgment stated that it is not disputed that a substantial part of the Serb population fled that region as a direct consequence of the military actions . The Croatian authorities were aware that the operation would provoke a mass exodus ; they even to some extent predicated their military planning on such an exodus , which they considered not only probable , but desirable . They left accessible escape routes for civilians . Fleeing civilians and people remaining in United Nations protected areas were subject to various forms of harassment , including military assaults and acts by Croatian civilians . On 8 August , a refugee column was shelled .
The number of civilian casualties in Operation Storm is disputed . The State Attorney 's Office of the Republic of Croatia claims that 214 civilians were killed — 156 in 24 instances of war crimes and another 47 as victims of murder — during the battle and in its immediate aftermath . The Croatian Helsinki Committee disputes the claim and reports that 677 civilians were killed during the same period , however their report was rejected by the ICTY , when submitted as evidence , due to unsourced statements and double entries contained in the report . Serbian sources quote 1 @,@ 192 civilians dead or missing . ICTY prosecutors set the number of civilian deaths at 324 .
Although it was very difficult to determine the number of properties destroyed during and after Operation Storm since a large number of houses sustained some degree of damage since the beginning of the war , Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) estimated that more than 5 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed in the area during and after the battle . Out of the 122 Serbian Orthodox churches in the area , one was destroyed and 17 were damaged , but most of the damage to the churches occurred prior to the Serb retreat . HRW also reported that the vast majority of the abuses were committed by Croatian forces . These abuses , which continued on a large scale even months after Operation Storm , included summary executions of elderly and infirm Serbs who remained behind and the wholesale burning and destruction of Serbian villages and property . In the months following the August offensive , at least 150 Serb civilians were summarily executed and another 110 persons forcibly disappeared . One example of such crimes was the Varivode massacre , where nine elderly Serb villagers were killed by the HV .
As of November 2012 , Croatian authorities have received 6 @,@ 390 reports of crimes committed in the area during or after Operation Storm and have convicted 2 @,@ 380 persons for looting , arson , murders , war crimes and other illegal acts . As of the same date , 24 more trials of war crimes related to Operation Storm were in progress . In 2012 , Serbian authorities were investigating five cases of war crimes committed during Operation Storm . The military operation also allowed Croatian authorities access to areas where , as of March 2012 , a total of 144 mass and 1 @,@ 200 individual graves have been discovered , in which a total of 3 @,@ 809 Croatian civilians and military personnel were buried .
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= Lanny McDonald =
Lanny King McDonald ( born February 16 , 1953 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player for the Toronto Maple Leafs , Colorado Rockies and Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He played over 1 @,@ 100 games during a 16 @-@ year career in which he scored 500 goals and over 1 @,@ 000 points . His total of 66 goals in 1982 – 83 remains the Flames ' franchise record for a single season .
McDonald was selected by the Maple Leafs as the fourth overall pick in the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft and established himself as an offensive forward with three consecutive 40 @-@ goal seasons in Toronto in the mid @-@ 1970s . His trade to the Rockies in 1979 resulted in Toronto fans protesting the deal in front of Maple Leaf Gardens . He played parts of three seasons in Denver , before he was sent to Calgary in 1981 where he spent the remainder of his career . He co @-@ captained the Flames to a Stanley Cup championship in his final season of 1988 – 89 .
He is among the most popular players in Flames history and his personality and bushy red moustache made him an iconic figure within the sport . McDonald won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and sportsmanship in 1983 and in 1988 was named the inaugural winner of the King Clancy Memorial Trophy for his leadership and humanitarian presence , in particular through his long association with the Special Olympics . Internationally , he represented Team Canada as a player on two occasions and in a management role three times . He was a member of the inaugural Canada Cup championship team in 1976 and was director of player personnel of Canada 's 2004 World Championship winning team . McDonald was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1992 and the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 1993 . The Flames retired his uniform number 9 in 1990 . In 2015 he was named chairman of the board of the Hockey Hall of Fame , after serving nine years on the Hall 's selection committee .
= = Early life = =
McDonald was born February 16 , 1953 , in Hanna , Alberta . He is the youngest of four children after brother Lynn and sisters Donna and Dixie . His father , Lorne , tended the family farm near the hamlet of Craigmyle , 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) outside Hanna . The young Lanny viewed his father as his hero , often following Lorne around helping with whatever chores he could . McDonald credits his father for teaching him the value of honesty and hard work . His mother , Phyllis , was a full @-@ time teacher who was frequently involved with community events .
Learning to skate at the age of five , McDonald immediately developed a passion for hockey . He served as a stick boy , helping manage equipment , for his father 's community team and grew up listening to radio broadcasts of Hockey Night in Canada . McDonald shared his father 's passion for the Toronto Maple Leafs ; he was given his middle name , King , after Maple Leafs ' star King Clancy . He began playing organized hockey at the age of six and , despite both having full @-@ time commitments , his parents drove him and Lynn to Hanna for their practices and games . McDonald recalled that half of his time in youth hockey was spent in Hanna , and the other half in the car . He completed high school while playing in Lethbridge , choosing to remain with his junior A team in 1970 – 71 rather than join the Medicine Hat Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) so that he could complete his diploma .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
McDonald began his junior career in 1969 with the Lethbridge Sugar Kings of the tier II Alberta Junior Hockey League ( AJHL ) . He appeared in 34 games for the Sugar Kings as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , scoring two goals . The following season , 1970 – 71 , he emerged as a leading scorer , recording 37 goals and 82 points in 45 games . He was voted the league 's most valuable player and named to the Second All @-@ Star team . Additionally , McDonald appeared in six WCHL games with the Calgary Centennials .
The Medicine Hat Tigers acquired McDonald 's playing rights in a trade during the 1970 – 71 WCHL season . He joined the team the following year , finishing eighth in league scoring with 114 points , including 50 goals . He improved to 62 goals and 139 points in 1972 – 73 to finish third overall in league scoring and was named to the WCHL All @-@ Star Team at forward . McDonald added 37 points in the playoffs as the Tigers won the league championship .
In McDonald 's draft year of 1973 , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) was in competition with the rival World Hockey Association ( WHA ) for talent . McDonald was considered a top junior prospect and was recruited by both leagues . The Vancouver Canucks had the third overall selection in the NHL draft and were interested in drafting him , but opted against it when McDonald made it clear he would likely go to the WHA rather than play with Vancouver . Instead , he went to the Toronto Maple Leafs with the fourth overall pick . In the WHA draft , he was selected 10th overall by the Cleveland Crusaders . McDonald chose to play in the NHL , signing a contract with the Maple Leafs that was considered to be among the richest in the league . The deal , worth between $ 175 @,@ 000 and $ 200 @,@ 000 per season , came as a result of the competition between the two leagues and McDonald found that some of the older players in Toronto resented him as a result .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
McDonald made his NHL debut with the Leafs on October 10 , 1973 , against the Buffalo Sabres . He assisted on two goals in the game , but also suffered a concussion and required several stitches after landing on his head as a result of a check by Rick Martin . Following the custom of most NHL players at the time , he played the game without wearing a helmet . It was the only time in his career he did so , as he felt that his injury contributed to his early struggles in the NHL . McDonald scored his first NHL goal on October 17 against Michel Larocque of the Montreal Canadiens , but finished the season with only 14 goals and 30 points in 1973 – 74 . His continued inability to score early in the 1974 – 75 season nearly resulted in a trade . Atlanta Flames general manager Cliff Fletcher sought to take advantage of the Maple Leafs ' early disappointment in McDonald and agreed in principle to a trade for the young forward in exchange for Curt Bennett . However , McDonald scored three goals in his following two games causing Toronto to back out of the deal . McDonald recorded a modest improvement over his rookie campaign : 17 goals and 44 points .
The patience the Maple Leafs had shown McDonald in his first two seasons was rewarded in 1975 – 76 when he rediscovered his offensive touch , scoring 37 goals and adding 56 assists . Following the season , he earned an invite to the Canadian national team 's summer camp in advance of the 1976 Canada Cup . McDonald was named to the roster , and appeared in five of Team Canada 's seven games . He recorded two assists in the tournament , one of which came on Darryl Sittler 's overtime goal that clinched the inaugural Canada Cup championship .
A 43 @-@ goal season in 1976 – 77 earned McDonald several accolades . He was named to the Wales Conference team at the 1977 All @-@ Star Game where he scored two goals in a 4 – 3 victory over the Campbell Conference . He was also named a Second Team All @-@ Star at right wing following the season . It was the first of three consecutive 40 @-@ goal seasons for McDonald , and he finished in the top ten in NHL scoring in both 1977 – 78 and 1978 – 79 . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game in 1978 and played for the NHL All @-@ Stars in the 1979 Challenge Cup against the Soviet national team .
The highlight of McDonald 's career in Toronto came in the 1978 Stanley Cup playoffs against the New York Islanders . The Maple Leafs were viewed as underdogs in the series against an Islanders team that was considered to be among the best in the league . Toronto overcame a 2 – 0 series deficit to force a seventh and deciding game . Playing despite breaking both his wrist and nose during the series , McDonald scored the overtime winning goal that eliminated the Islanders and allowed the Maple Leafs to advance to the league semi @-@ finals for the first time in 11 years . Toronto was then eliminated by Montreal , who swept the series with four consecutive victories .
= = = Colorado Rockies = = =
Punch Imlach was named Toronto general manager prior to the 1979 – 80 season and immediately clashed with team captain Darryl Sittler . Imlach wanted to move Sittler to another team , but the player refused to waive his no trade clause . Imlach responded by trading teammates friendly to Sittler instead . On December 28 , 1979 , Imlach dealt McDonald to the Colorado Rockies , along with Joel Quenneville , in exchange for Wilf Paiement and Pat Hickey . The deal came as a surprise even to Toronto 's head coach .
McDonald was devastated by the trade , particularly because he and his wife were expecting their second child and had just purchased a new house . In his 1987 autobiography , he argued that Imlach made the trade out of spite . McDonald had also come into conflict with Imlach while serving as the team 's representative of the National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) when the general manager refused to honour an increase in the per diem paid to each player . The trade outraged fans in Toronto , where McDonald was among the team 's most popular players . While fans picketed outside Maple Leaf Gardens in protest , McDonald told the media that he felt fortunate to have been traded away from the unsettled situation the Leafs were in and blamed Imlach for the team 's failures on the ice . Sittler resigned as the team 's captain following the trade .
Arriving in Colorado , McDonald found himself at the centre of another power struggle . Sympathetic to the fact that his wife was less than two weeks away from giving birth , head coach Don Cherry gave McDonald permission to leave the team on off @-@ days to return to his wife in Toronto . But he did so without gaining the approval of general manager Ray Miron , who disagreed frequently with Cherry and fired him following the season . On the ice , McDonald scored 35 goals with the Rockies and finished with a total of 40 between the two teams .
Rumours circulated following the season that Maple Leafs owner Harold Ballard had told the media that he was attempting to reacquire McDonald . The Rockies disputed that any such negotiations had taken place and Ballard quickly apologized for the news story after Colorado threatened to file tampering charges against the Maple Leafs ' owner . McDonald served as the Rockies ' captain , and scored 35 goals and 81 points in 1980 – 81 , his only full season with the team .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Stating that his team needed to add character and leadership , Cliff Fletcher finally completed a trade for McDonald seven years after his first attempt . McDonald was acquired by the Calgary Flames , along with a draft pick , in exchange for Bob MacMillan and Don Lever on November 25 , 1981 . The deal occurred one day after the last place Rockies lost to the Flames by a 9 – 2 score . Once the team 's plane landed in Winnipeg , McDonald was informed of the trade and told to return to Calgary . Angered at first , he viewed the deal as an insult , that the worst team in the NHL had rejected him .
McDonald also felt the pressure of having to replace two popular ex @-@ Flames in MacMillan and Lever while also working to overcome a separated shoulder he suffered earlier in the year with the Rockies . He made his debut with the Flames the following night , a 7 – 1 victory over the Los Angeles Kings , after which McDonald remarked that it was the most fun he had playing the game in a long time . He was given a loud ovation by the fans who immediately embraced him as a local hero , even though it took him seven games before he scored his first goal as a member of the Flames . He scored 34 goals in Calgary , and combined with the 6 scored in Colorado , finished with his fifth 40 @-@ goal campaign in six years .
The 1982 – 83 season was dominated by McDonald 's battle with Wayne Gretzky of the Edmonton Oilers for the league lead in goals . Amidst the best offensive season of his career , McDonald scored a hat trick against Pittsburgh to give him 47 goals at the mid @-@ season break for the 1983 All @-@ Star Game , a total that tied his career high . He was named to the starting lineup for the All @-@ Star Game and was the league 's leading goal scorer at that point , two ahead of Gretzky . McDonald finished with 66 goals , five short of Gretzky 's 71 . At that time , only Gretzky , Mike Bossy and Phil Esposito had ever scored more goals in one NHL season . McDonald was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team for the second time in his career and was voted the winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , given to the player who " best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey " . His 66 goals remains a Flames ' single season record .
Following the trade of Phil Russell in the summer of 1983 , McDonald and Doug Risebrough were named co @-@ captains for the 1983 – 84 season . They were joined by Jim Peplinski the following season . McDonald missed 15 games due to injuries which reduced his scoring to 33 goals and 66 points , but he played in his fourth All @-@ Star Game . He scored the first Flames goal in the Olympic Saddledome , on the building 's opening night of October 15 , 1983 .
McDonald became the 21st player in NHL history to score 400 career goals , reaching the mark in a 7 – 4 loss in Los Angeles on December 21 , 1983 . He was initially credited with scoring the milestone goal in his previous game , against the Winnipeg Jets , but after reviewing a replay of the goal himself , McDonald asked the league to credit it to teammate Eddy Beers who had deflected his shot . His injury problems worsened in 1984 – 85 as he missed the start of the season with pulled muscles and was limited to just 43 games .
As the 1985 – 86 season approached , McDonald endured questions about whether he was reaching the point where age and injuries meant he could no longer be an effective NHL player . Hoping to prove himself , he set a goal of playing all 80 games for the Flames . He succeeded , and scored 28 goals and 71 points in the process , despite dislocating his thumb in the pre @-@ season and suffering minor knee and hip injuries during the course of the year . He later said it was a matter of pride to him not to miss a game . In the playoffs , McDonald was witness to one of the most infamous mistakes in NHL history . With the score tied at two in the seventh game of the Smythe Division final against Edmonton , McDonald chased Oilers ' rookie Steve Smith around the Edmonton net . Smith attempted to pass the puck forward , but inadvertently hit the back of goaltender Grant Fuhr 's skate , deflecting the puck into his own net .
It turned out to be the winning goal for Calgary who eliminated Edmonton to clinch the Smythe Division championship . The victory over their provincial rivals also touched off a celebration amongst the fans , of which over 20 @,@ 000 greeted the team with wild cheering when their plane landed at Calgary International Airport . A series win over the St. Louis Blues led McDonald and the Flames into their first Stanley Cup Final , against Montreal . The series ended in disappointment : He watched from the bench as his teammates unsuccessfully attempted to tie the deciding game in the final minute and the Canadiens defeated the Flames in five games to win the Stanley Cup .
Two separate knee injuries limited McDonald in 1986 – 87 . His total of 14 goals in 58 games was his fewest since his rookie season . He reached a milestone in the Flames ' final game of the season , appearing in the 1,000th game of his career . Following a 10 @-@ goal campaign in 60 games in 1987 – 88 , McDonald reached two additional major milestones in the 1988 – 89 season . On March 7 , 1989 , he scored the 1,000th point of his career with a wraparound goal from behind the net against Bob Essensa in a 9 – 5 victory against the Winnipeg Jets . Two weeks later , on March 21 , he scored the 500th goal of his career on a nearly identical wraparound against Mark Fitzpatrick of the New York Islanders . It was the final regular season goal of McDonald 's career .
At 36 years old and approaching the end of his career , the 1989 Stanley Cup Playoffs was potentially his last chance at winning the Stanley Cup . The Flames defeated the Vancouver Canucks , Los Angeles Kings and Chicago Blackhawks to set up a Stanley Cup Final rematch of the 1986 Final with the Montreal Canadiens . McDonald was left out of the Flames ' lineup for the third , fourth and fifth games , but with Calgary leading the series three wins to two , head coach Terry Crisp felt that if the Flames were to win the championship , McDonald deserved to be in the game . Crisp 's decision paid dividends , as midway through the sixth game , McDonald stepped onto the ice after serving a penalty to join Håkan Loob and Joe Nieuwendyk in a three @-@ on @-@ one rush toward the Montreal goal . Loob passed the puck up to Nieuwendyk , who saw a streaking McDonald coming up the right side of the ice . McDonald received the pass then shot the puck over Montreal goaltender Patrick Roy 's glove to give the Flames a 2 – 1 lead . Doug Gilmour added two goals , and Calgary won the game 4 – 2 to earn the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship . League president John Ziegler presented the trophy to McDonald , co @-@ captain Jim Peplinski and alternate Tim Hunter . Wearing the captain 's " C " for the game , McDonald was the first member of the Flames to carry the trophy as the team paraded it around the Forum in celebration .
= = Management career = =
McDonald announced his retirement as a player on August 28 , 1989 , stating in a press conference that he made the determination before the 1988 – 89 season began that it would be his last . He also revealed that he had received an offer from another , unnamed , team to play in 1989 – 90 but felt that it was the right time to end his career . The Flames made McDonald their Vice President in Charge of Corporate and Community Affairs . He chose the corporate position partly due to a fascination with the business world , and partly to remain close to his family as a role in hockey operations would have necessitated more travel . His interest in business grew following his trade to Calgary as he was featured in numerous commercials and signed endorsements throughout southern Alberta . He had also previously served as a vice president of the NHLPA in the early 1980s . McDonald changed roles in 1992 as he was named the team 's Vice President of Marketing . After serving four years in that position , McDonald became the Vice President of Corporate Development in 1996 .
McDonald was part of a committee tasked with hiring a new management team in June 2000 . The media speculated that after several years in a corporate position , he hoped to land a role as a vice president within hockey operations . He received no such role , and two months after the hiring of Craig Button as executive vice president and general manager of the Flames , McDonald announced he was leaving the organization . McDonald denied claims from team sources that he was upset at not gaining a new role when Button was hired . He stated that after " nineteen great years here in one organization " , it was the right time to retire . He retained a small role in the organization , serving as a board member of the Saddledome Foundation .
Ken King , newly hired president of the Flames , lured McDonald back into the organization a year later by naming him an executive assistant to hockey operations . McDonald held the position until 2003 . He also served in hockey operations roles with Hockey Canada . McDonald was the general manager of Team Canada for the 2001 and 2002 World Championships . He returned in 2004 in a role as director of player personnel of Canada 's gold medal @-@ winning squad .
= = Playing style = =
McDonald was known primarily as an offensive player with a hard shot . His wrist shot was considered to be effective , and his scoring exploits in junior hockey earned him the nickname " Machine @-@ Gun Lanny " . Red Kelly , McDonald 's coach in his first NHL seasons , recalled that he was impressed with his young player 's skill handling the puck and defended McDonald against critics who wanted him moved out of Toronto due to his early struggles . In his NHL career , McDonald led his team in goal scoring six times : 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 and 1978 – 79 with Toronto , 1980 – 81 with Colorado , and 1981 – 82 and 1982 – 83 in Calgary . He was also a physical player , willing to play a hard @-@ hitting style in the corners .
As age and injuries took their toll , McDonald 's role with the Flames changed . His playing time decreased in his later years as he was no longer counted on to be the team 's primary offensive threat . Often left out of the lineup in his final season , McDonald was expected to provide a boost to the team when he drew into the lineup . He was counted on to provide a veteran presence and to act as a mentor for the team 's younger players .
= = Legacy = =
The Flames arrived in Calgary after relocating from Atlanta for the 1980 – 81 season . The organization entered a transitional phase , as many players used to the warm weather and relaxed atmosphere of Atlanta were unable or unwilling to adapt to the higher expectations fans in Calgary placed on them . David Poile , then Flames assistant general manager , stated that the team had an identity crisis as a result . It was in this atmosphere that General Manager Cliff Fletcher made the trade for McDonald on November 25 , 1981 , claiming that McDonald added two characteristics the Flames lacked : character and leadership .
McDonald 's arrival in Calgary was considered a turning point for the organization , one where his personality , demeanor and on @-@ ice play came to define the Flames in the 1980s . Poile argued that it signaled the true beginning of the team in its new market : " The trade for Lanny McDonald was the start of the Calgary Flames franchise . It gave us that Calgary identity , that Western Canadian flavor . " Columnist and co @-@ author of McDonald 's autobiography , Steve Simmons , agreed . He added that the personal and professional disappointments McDonald endured in Toronto and Colorado resulted in his gaining a greater appreciation of both the game and himself . McDonald was extremely popular with his teammates and the fans wherever he played , as well as with the media – he was named Colorado 's athlete of the year in 1980 by the state 's sportswriters .
Renowned for his leadership ability , McDonald cultivated the respect of the team 's younger players . He came into the NHL at a time when the battle with the rival WHA for talent led to rookies signing for far more money than the previous generation of players commanded . Consequently , McDonald faced the resentment of several of Toronto 's veteran players and resolved to show greater respect to those that followed him . His efforts left a lasting impression on his peers ; among them was Tiger Williams who called McDonald " a great ambassador " for the NHL .
The Flames made McDonald the first player in franchise history to have his jersey retired when they raised his number 9 to the rafters of the Olympic Saddledome in a ceremony on March 17 , 1990 . As part of its 1992 class , he was also the first former Flame to gain induction into the Hockey Hall of Fame . One year later he was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame . McDonald 's image endured well into retirement ; in 2008 , he was the only athlete named in a list of Alberta 's ten greatest citizens compiled by the Calgary Herald .
= = Personal life = =
McDonald met his wife Ardell while playing junior hockey for the Medicine Hat Tigers . They were married in 1975 , and have four children : daughters Andra and Leah , and sons Barrett and Graham . The family settled in Calgary after McDonald 's trade to the Flames . They also maintain a summer home in Montana , where the family has invested in restaurants and a craft brewery in the community of Lakeside . Co @-@ owned by Andra , the brewery considers McDonald its inspiration , and produces " Old ' Stache Porter " in his honour .
His giant , walrus @-@ style moustache is McDonald 's most defining physical characteristic and helped him become an iconic figure in the sport . He developed it in 1974 , spending the summer seeing what kind of beard he could grow . Knowing that the Maple Leafs did not allow players to maintain beards at the time , he settled on what he described as a " normal moustache " once he returned to Toronto . Some time later , he was inspired by baseball player Sparky Lyle 's moustache and chose to grow one in a similar style . It became a symbol for the Flames as some fans took to wearing fake red moustaches during playoff runs . Razor manufacturers offered endorsements if he would shave it , which he refused .
Among his charitable and humanitarian efforts , McDonald is best known for his participation with the Special Olympics . He first became involved with the organization in 1974 when the Maple Leafs asked him to represent the team at the Special Olympics Summer Games . The event began a decades long association for McDonald . He was the honorary coach of the 1986 Special Olympics Summer Games in Calgary , and served as a head coach for the Canadian Special Olympics floor hockey team . In 1988 , McDonald 's contributions to the Special Olympics as a coach and co @-@ chairman of the organization 's fundraising efforts , as well as his work with the Alberta Children 's Miracle Network Hospitals , were recognized by the NHL as he was named the inaugural recipient of the King Clancy Memorial Trophy . The award is given to the hockey player who best exemplifies leadership on the ice with humanitarian contributions off of it . McDonald was previously honoured by the Flames as the first winner of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in 1987 , which he won again in 1989 .
McDonald 's autobiography , Lanny , co @-@ written by Steve Simmons , was published in 1987 . A Canadian best @-@ seller , it was an unexpected success for publisher McGraw @-@ Hill . The book sold 10 @,@ 000 copies in its first couple months of publication , for which the publisher made a donation of $ 10 @,@ 000 to the Special Olympics . In 2008 , McDonald was given an honorary doctorate from the University of Calgary .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International play = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= HMS Royal Sovereign ( 05 ) =
HMS Royal Sovereign ( pennant number 05 ) was a Revenge @-@ class ( also known as Royal Sovereign and R @-@ class ) battleship of the Royal Navy displacing 28 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 560 long tons ; 30 @,@ 860 short tons ) and armed with eight 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns in four twin turrets . She was laid down in January 1914 and launched in April 1915 ; she was completed in May 1916 , but was not ready for service in time to participate in the Battle of Jutland at the end of the month . She served with the Grand Fleet for the remainder of the war , but did not see action . In the early 1930s , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and based in Malta .
Unlike the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships , Royal Sovereign and her sisters were not modernised during the interwar period . Only minor alterations to her anti @-@ aircraft battery were effected before the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 . Assigned to the Home Fleet , she was tasked with convoy protection until May 1940 , when she returned to the Mediterranean Fleet . She was present during the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , but her slow speed prevented her from engaging the Italian battleships . By March 1942 , she was assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean , but after the Indian Ocean raid by Admiral Nagumo 's Kido Butai , she was withdrawn to eastern Africa to escort convoys . In January 1944 , she returned to Britain , and in May the Royal Navy transferred the ship to the Soviet Navy , where she was renamed Arkhangelsk . She then escorted Arctic convoys into Kola until the end of the war . The Soviets returned the ship in 1949 , after which she was broken up for scrap .
= = Description = =
Royal Sovereign had a length overall of 620 feet 7 inches ( 189 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 88 feet 6 inches ( 27 @.@ 0 m ) and a deep draught of 33 feet 7 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 m ) . She had a designed displacement of 27 @,@ 790 long tons ( 28 @,@ 240 t ) and displaced 31 @,@ 130 long tons ( 31 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam from eighteen oil @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The turbines were rated at 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 29 @,@ 828 kW ) and a top speed of 23 knots ( 42 @.@ 6 km / h ; 26 @.@ 5 mph ) . She had a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 964 km ; 8 @,@ 055 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 18 @.@ 5 km / h ; 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . Her crew numbered 1 @,@ 240 officers and enlisted men in 1921 . Royal Sovereign cost £ 2 @,@ 570 @,@ 504 upon completion .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was equipped with eight breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Mk I guns in four twin gun turrets , in two superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . Twelve of the fourteen BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk XII guns were mounted in casemates along the broadside of the vessel amidships ; the remaining pair were mounted on the shelter deck and were protected by gun shields . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 20 cwt Mk I guns .
In August – September 1924 , the 3 @-@ inch guns were replaced by a pair of QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V guns , During the ship 's 1927 – 28 refit , the shelter deck 6 @-@ inch guns were removed and another pair of 4 @-@ inch AA guns were added . These were replaced by eight QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin turrets during Royal Sovereign 's 1937 – 38 refit . A pair of eight @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " were added in 1932 abreast the funnel , and two four @-@ barrel " pom @-@ poms " were added in early 1942 atop ' B ' and ' X ' turrets . Ten 20 mm Oerlikon guns were also added in 1941 . Another six were added in 1943 . Royal Sovereign was initially equipped with four submerged 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes on her broadside , though the after pair were removed in 1932 . The forward pair were also removed in 1937 – 38 , during the ship 's last prewar refit .
= = = Fire control = = =
Royal Sovereign was completed with two fire @-@ control directors fitted with 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinders . One was mounted above the conning tower , protected by an armoured hood , and the other was in the spotting top above the tripod foremast . Each turret was also fitted with a 15 @-@ foot rangefinder . The main armament could be controlled by ' X ' turret as well . The secondary armament was primarily controlled by directors mounted on each side of the compass platform on the foremast once they were fitted in March 1917 . A 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder replaced the smaller one originally fitted in ' X ' turret in 1919 . Similarly , another large rangefinder was fitted in ' B ' turret during the ship 's 1921 – 22 refit . A simple high @-@ angle rangefinder was added above the bridge during that same refit .
About 1931 , a High @-@ Angle Control System ( HACS ) Mk I director replaced the high @-@ angle rangefinder on the spotting top . During the 1932 refit two positions for 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " anti @-@ aircraft directors were added on new platforms abreast and below the fire @-@ control director in the spotting top . In the 1937 – 38 refit a HACS Mark III director replaced the Mk I in the spotting top and another was added to the torpedo @-@ control tower aft . By 1942 , a Type 279 air warning radar , a Type 273 surface @-@ search radar , a Type 284 gunnery radar and two Type 285 anti @-@ aircraft gunnery radars were installed . By September 1943 , the Type 284 radar had been replaced by an improved Type 284B and two Type 282 radars had been fitted for the " pom @-@ poms " .
= = = Protection = = =
Royal Sovereign 's waterline belt consisted of face @-@ hardened Krupp cemented armour ( KC ) that was 13 inches ( 330 mm ) thick between ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes and thinned to 4 to 6 inches ( 102 to 152 mm ) towards the ship 's ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . Above this was a strake of armour 6 inches thick that extended between ' A ' and ' X ' barbettes . Transverse bulkheads 4 to 6 inches thick ran at an angle from the ends of the thickest part of the waterline belt to ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes .
The gun turrets were protected by 11 to 13 inches ( 279 to 330 mm ) of KC armour , except for the turret roofs which were 4 @.@ 75 – 5 inches ( 121 – 127 mm ) thick . The barbettes ranged in thickness from 6 – 10 inches ( 152 – 254 mm ) above the upper deck , but were only 4 to 6 inches thick below it . The Revenge @-@ class ships had multiple armoured decks that ranged from 1 to 4 inches ( 25 to 102 mm ) in thickness . The main conning tower had 13 inches of armour on the sides with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) roof . The torpedo control tower in the rear superstructure had 6 inches of armour protecting it . After the Battle of Jutland , 1 inch of high @-@ tensile steel was added to the main deck over the magazines and additional anti @-@ flash equipment was added in the magazines . In 1918 the gun shields for the upper deck 6 @-@ inch guns were replaced by armoured casemates .
To protect against underwater explosions , the ship was fitted with longitudinal torpedo bulkheads 1 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) inches thick that ran from the forward to the rear magazines . During her 1921 refit , Royal Sovereign was fitted with an anti @-@ torpedo bulge that ran the length of the ship between the fore and aft barbettes . It was divided into a water @-@ tight empty lower compartment and an upper compartment filled with water @-@ tight " crushing tubes " intended to absorb and distribute the force of an explosion . The space between the tubes was filled with wood and cement .
= = = Aircraft = = =
The ship was fitted with flying @-@ off platforms mounted on the roofs of ' B ' and ' X ' turrets in 1918 , from which fighters and reconnaissance aircraft could launch . In 1932 the platforms were removed from the turrets and a trainable catapult was installed on her quarterdeck , along with a crane to recover a seaplane . The catapult and crane were removed by March 1937 .
= = Service history = =
= = = First World War = = =
Royal Sovereign was laid down on 15 January 1914 at the Portsmouth Dockyard . The ship was launched on 29 April 1915 and commissioned in May 1916 . She was still working up during the Battle of Jutland and the end of the month , and so she was not present during the engagement . On 30 May 1916 , three weeks after her commissioning , Royal Sovereign was present in Scapa Flow when the fleet commander , Admiral John Jellicoe ordered the fleet to sea . Jellicoe purposely left Royal Sovereign in port due to the inexperience of her crew ; as a result , she missed the Battle of Jutland the following day . In the months after the engagement , Royal Sovereign was quickly made ready for service with the fleet to further increase the numerical superiority of the Grand Fleet over the German High Seas Fleet .
The Grand Fleet sortied on 18 August 1916 to ambush the High Seas Fleet while it advanced into the southern North Sea , but a series of miscommunications and mistakes prevented Jellicoe from reaching the German fleet before it returned to port . Two light cruisers were sunk by German U @-@ boats during the operation , prompting Jellicoe to decide to not risk the major units of the fleet south of 55 ° 30 ' North due to the prevalence of German submarines and mines . The Admiralty concurred and stipulated that the Grand Fleet would not sortie unless the German fleet was attempting an invasion of Britain or there was a strong possibility it could be forced into an engagement under suitable conditions .
In April 1918 , the High Seas Fleet again sortied , to attack British convoys to Norway . They enforced strict wireless silence during the operation , which prevented Room 40 cryptanalysts from warning the new commander of the Grand Fleet , Admiral David Beatty . The British only learned of the operation after an accident aboard the battlecruiser SMS Moltke forced her to break radio silence to inform the German commander of her condition . Beatty then ordered the Grand Fleet to sea to intercept the Germans , but he was not able to reach the High Seas Fleet before it turned back for Germany . This was the last time Royal Sovereign and the rest of the Grand Fleet would go to sea for the remainder of the war . On 21 November 1918 , following the Armistice , the entire Grand Fleet left port to escort the surrendered German fleet into internment at Scapa Flow .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The Royal Marines detachment assigned to Royal Sovereign left the ship on 21 June 1919 to conduct exercises . The ship meanwhile went into drydock at Invergordon in September . Post @-@ war demobilisation in 1919 saw some 500 men leave the ship while she was in dock . Upon returning to service in late 1919 , the ship was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . Conflicts between Greece and the crumbling Ottoman Empire prompted the Royal Navy to deploy a force to the eastern Mediterranean . In April 1920 , Royal Sovereign and her sister ship Resolution steamed to the region via Malta . While in the Ottoman capital Constantinople , Royal Sovereign and the other British warships took on White émigré fleeing the Communist Red Army . Among those refugees aboard Royal Sovereign was a princess of the Galitzine family .
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty cut the battleship strength of the Royal Navy from forty ships to fifteen . The remaining active battleships were divided between the Atlantic and Mediterranean Fleets and conducted joint operations annually . Royal Sovereign remained with the Atantic Fleet through 1926 . On 4 October 1927 , the ship was placed in reserve to effect a major refit . Four new rangefinders and eight searchlights were installed . On 15 May 1929 , the refit was finished , and the ship was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . The squadron consisted of Royal Sovereign , her sisters Resolution and Revenge , and Queen Elizabeth , and based in Malta . By the 1930s , the five ships of the Queen Elizabeth class were rotated through extensive modernisation . Royal Sovereign and her sisters , however , were smaller and slower than the Queen Elizabeth class , and so they were not extensively modernised in the inter @-@ war period . The only changes made were augmentations to their anti @-@ aircraft batteries .
Fleet exercises in 1934 were carried out in the Bay of Biscay , followed by a fleet regatta in Navarino Bay off Greece . In 1935 , the ship returned to Britain for the Jubilee Fleet Review for King George V. In August 1935 , Royal Sovereign was transferred to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , where she served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Charles Ramsey . The ship served as a training vessel until 2 June 1937 , when she was again placed in reserve for a major overhaul . This lasted until 18 February 1938 , after which she returned to the 2nd Battle Squadron . In 1939 , King George VI made a state visit to Canada ; Royal Sovereign and the rest of the fleet escorted his ship halfway across the Atlantic and met it on the return leg of the voyage .
In early 1939 , the Admiralty considered plans to send Royal Sovereign and her four sisters to Asia to counter Japanese expansionism . They reasoned that the then established " Singapore strategy " , which called for a fleet to be formed in Britain to be dispatched to confront a Japanese attack was inherently risky due to the long delay . They argued that a dedicated battle fleet would allow for faster reaction . The plan was abandoned , however , because the new King George V @-@ class battleship ( 1939 ) s would not begin to enter service until 1941 . In the last weeks of August 1939 , the Royal Navy began to concentrate in wartime bases as tensions with Germany rose . Royal Sovereign steamed to Invergordon , where she joined her sisters Resolution and Royal Oak , Rodney , and the battlecruiser Repulse . By 31 August , the force joined Nelson , the flagship of Admiral Charles Forbes , the commander of the Home Fleet .
= = = Second World War = = =
On 31 August , the day before the German invasion of Poland , Royal Sovereign was assigned to a screening force in the Greenland @-@ Iceland @-@ United Kingdom gap to patrol for German merchant ships that might be attempting to reach Germany . At the outset of war in September 1939 , Royal Sovereign was assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Home Fleet . She was assigned to the North Atlantic Escort Force , which was based in Halifax , Nova Scotia , and was tasked with protecting convoys to Britain . Upon returning to Plymouth , she underwent a short refit . In May 1940 , she moved to the Mediterranean Fleet . There she was based in Alexandria with the battleships Warspite , Malaya , and Valiant , under the command of Admiral Andrew Cunningham . On 25 – 27 June , she and her sister ship HMS Ramillies escorted two convoys from Alexandria to Malta . On 28 June , aerial reconnaissance located Italian destroyers off Zakynthos ; Admiral John Tovey took the 7th Cruiser Squadron . Royal Sovereign was left behind due to her slow speed . Cunningham split his fleet into three groups ; Royal Sovereign and Malaya were the core of Group C. She was present at the Battle of Calabria on 18 July , but her slow speed prevented her from engaging the Italian battleships . Warspite bore the brunt of the action , as Royal Sovereign and Malaya lagged behind .
In mid @-@ August 1940 , while steaming in the Red Sea , Royal Sovereign was unsuccessfully attacked by the Italian submarine Galileo Ferraris . Later that month , she returned to Atlantic convoy duties . These lasted until August 1941 , when periodic maintenance was effected in Norfolk , Virginia . The Admiralty decided in May 1941 to deploy a powerful fleet to be based in Singapore to counter any Japanese attempt to invade Western colonies in Southeast Asia . Royal Sovereign and her sisters Revenge , Ramillies , and Resolution were assigned to the force . The unit was to have been assembled in Singapore by March 1942 , though Royal Sovereign reached the theatre earlier . At the beginning of March 1942 , Royal Sovereign , the heavy cruiser Cornwall , and several smaller vessels escorted the convoy SU.1 of twelve troopships transporting 10 @,@ 090 soldiers . The convoy departed Colombo on 1 March , bound for Australia . The convoy reached Fremantle without incident on 15 March .
By the end of March 1942 , the Eastern Fleet had been formed , under the command of Admiral James Somerville . The fleet was centred on a pair of fleet aircraft carriers , the elderly carrier Hermes , and five battleships , four of which were Royal Sovereign and her sisters ; the fifth was Warspite . The fleet also included seven cruisers and sixteen destroyers . Despite the numerical strength of the Eastern Fleet , many of its units , including the four Revenge @-@ class battleships , were no longer front @-@ line warships . Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's powerful Kido Butai , composed of six carriers and four fast battleships , was significantly stronger than Somerville 's Eastern Fleet . As a result , only the modernised Warspite could operate with the two fleet carriers ; Royal Sovereign , her three sisters , and Hermes were kept away from combat to escort convoys in the Indian Ocean .
In late March , the code @-@ breakers at the Far East Combined Bureau , a branch of Bletchley Park , informed Somerville that the Japanese were planning a raid into the Indian Ocean to attack Colombo and Trincomalee and destroy his fleet . He therefore divided his fleet into two groups : Force A , which consisted of the two fleet carriers , Warspite and four cruisers , and Force B , centred on Royal Sovereign and her sisters and the carrier Hermes . He intended to ambush Nagumo 's fleet in a night action , the only method by which he thought he could achieve a victory . After three days of searching for the Japanese fleet without success , Somerville returned to Addu Atoll to refuel . While refuelling his ships , Somerville received a report that the Japanese fleet was approaching Colombo , which they attacked the following day , on 5 April , followed by attacks on Trincomalee on 9 April .
Following the raid in April 1942 , Somerville withdrew Royal Sovereign and her three sisters to Mombasa , where they could secure the shipping routes in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf . Royal Sovereign and her sisters departed from Addu Atoll early on the morning on 9 April , bound for Mombasa . Here they remained stationed until September 1943 , with the exception of another long period in the dockyard in Philadelphia in late 1942 . While Royal Sovereign was moored in Philadelphia , the American light cruiser USS Boise , a badly @-@ damaged veteran of the Battle of Cape Esperance , shared a pier with her . During the refit , the ship 's deck armour was increased by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) and four of her 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns were removed . Royal Sovereign was sent back to the United States for a major overhaul in Philadelphia , from March to September 1943 . She then returned to the Indian Ocean to resume her patrol duties . In January 1944 , she left the Indian Ocean , bound for Britain .
= = = = Service with the Soviet Navy = = = =
After returning to Britain , Royal Sovereign was sent to the naval base in Scapa Flow . On 30 May 1944 she was transferred on loan to the Soviet Navy as Arkhangelsk in lieu of war reparations from Italy . The ship left Britain on 17 August 1944 as part of the escort for Convoy JW 59 , which contained thirty @-@ three merchant vessels . Six days later , while still en route , the convoy was attacked by the U @-@ boat U @-@ 711 . The submarine 's captain , Hans @-@ Günther Lange , incorrectly reported hits on Arkhangelsk and a destroyer , though his torpedoes had exploded prematurely . Under the impression that they had crippled the battleship , the Germans launched several submarine attacks on the ship while she was moored in Kola . Anti @-@ torpedo nets ensured that the attacks failed , however . The Germans then planned to use six Biber midget submarines to attack the ship , but mechanical difficulties eventually forced the cancellation of the plan . Regardless , Arkhangelsk had already departed Kola to patrol the White Sea by the time the Bibers would have arrived . A Soviet crew commissioned the ship on 29 August 1944 at Polyarny . Arkhangelsk was the largest ship in the Soviet fleet during the war . While in Soviet service , she was the flagship of Admiral Gordey Levchenko and was tasked with meeting Allied convoys in the Arctic Ocean and escorting them into Kola .
Arkhangelsk ran aground in the White Sea in late 1947 ; the extent of damage , if any , is unknown . The Soviet Navy returned the ship to the Royal Navy on 4 February 1949 after the former Italian battleship Giulio Cesare was transferred to the Soviet Black Sea Fleet . The Soviet Navy had initially sought to avoid sending the ship back , claiming that she was not sufficiently seaworthy to make the voyage back to Britain . After an inspection by a Royal Navy officer , however , the Soviet Navy agreed to return the vessel in January 1949 . Upon returning to the Rosyth naval base , Royal Navy personnel thoroughly inspected the ship and found much of her equipment to be unserviceable . It appeared to the inspectors that the main battery turrets had not been rotated while the ship was in Soviet service , and were jammed on the centreline . As a result of her poor condition , she was sold for scrap . The ship arrived at Inverkeithing , Scotland on 18 May to be broken up . The elevation mechanisms from her main battery gun turrets were later reused in the 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) Mark I radio telescope at Jodrell Bank , Cheshire built in 1955 – 1957 .
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= The Boat Race 1924 =
The 76th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1924 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford were reigning champions having won the previous year 's race and their crew was significantly heavier than their opponents for this year 's race . Umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 18 minutes 41 seconds , the fastest time since 1911 . The victory took the overall record in the event to 40 – 35 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1923 race by three @-@ quarters of a length , and led overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 34 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) and E. D. Horsfall ( who had rowed in the three races prior to the First World War ) . Cambridge 's coaches were Francis Escombe , P. Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue who had rowed between 1902 and 1905 ) and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the sixteenth year the umpire was Old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
Cambridge had few former Blues to call upon and despite measles striking at least one of the crew down , their rowing style was described by author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater as " harmoniously together " . Conversely , Oxford 's crew was experienced yet a " lack of uniformity " in early training evolved into a crew with " a turn of such extraordinary speed that being was as much as four to one on Oxford " .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 5 @.@ 5 lb ( 78 @.@ 5 kg ) , 5 @.@ 875 pounds ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw a single rower return with Boat Race experience in their number six T. D. A. Collet . Conversely , Oxford 's crew included six individuals who had represented the Dark Blues in the event , including bow P. C. Mallam who was making his fourth consecutive appearance . Oxford 's American stroke W. P. Mellen was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the event , having been educated at the Middlesex School in Concord , Massachusetts .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Umpire Pitman started the race in bright sunshine and a light breeze at 2 : 23 p.m. Oxford took a brief lead , out @-@ rating their opponents significantly in the first minute , but by the time the crews passed the Mile Post , the Light Blues were nearly a quarter of a length ahead . As both boats passed under Hammersmith Bridge , Cambridge had extended their lead and were clear of Oxford , despite rowing two strokes per minute slower .
Even though the Dark Blues made a spurt , Cambridge pulled away and were three lengths ahead by Chiswick Steps . According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , " from here they had it all their own way to the finish " . Cambridge passed the finishing post four and a half lengths ahead , in a time of 18 minutes 41 seconds , the fastest winning time since the 1911 race and the second fastest time in the history of the event . It was their fourth win in five years and took the overall record in the event to 40 – 35 in Oxford 's favour .
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= Blackledge River Railroad Bridge =
The Blackledge River Railroad Bridge is a Warren truss bridge that was built on the site of a c . 1870 railroad bridge . The original bridge was completed and opened by August 3 , 1877 . Likely built by the Colchester Railway Company , the bridge was part of the 3 @.@ 59 miles ( 5 @.@ 78 km ) of track from Colchester , Connecticut , to Turnerville ( now known as Amston , Connecticut ) . The line was leased to the Boston & New York Air Line Railroad and reported improvement in 1879 and a new 110 @-@ foot long ( 34 m ) iron bridge by 1881 . The line was leased to the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1882 . After dominating the region , the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad petitioned for changes to the Air Line and the approval came on July 7 , 1911 .
The historic Blackledge River Railroad Bridge was constructed c . 1912 as an improved version of the previous bridge . The new 108 @-@ foot long ( 33 m ) bridge integrated the previous abutments into the design and was elevated a further 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above the Blackledge River . The railroad bridge was abandoned in the 1960s and sold to the Connecticut Department of Transportation . The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 31 , 1986 . The bridge is now located in Airline State Park . By 2007 , a wooden pedestrian bridge was built atop the railroad bridge and crosses over the Blackledge River .
= = Previous bridges = =
According to the National Register of Historic Places nomination , the first bridge was constructed in the early 1870s by the New York and Boston Air Line Railroad . The details on this bridge are largely unknown , but contradictory evidence exists placing the construction of the bridge between 1876 and 1877 . According to Marshall , the Air Line Railroad was completed in 1873 and the Colchester branch was completed in 1877 .
Organized in 1876 , the Colchester line was completed by the Colchester Railway Company . The line operated 3 @.@ 59 miles of track from Colchester , Connecticut , to Turnerville ( now known as Amston , Connecticut ) and it opened on August 3 , 1877 . The line was leased on April 3 , 1878 to the Boston & New York Air Line Railroad company for 999 years . In January 1879 , the Air Line reported that the Black Ledge bridge had 25 @,@ 000 yards of earth moved to replace a high piling and 2 @,@ 500 cubic yards of masonry added in preparation for the installation of a new bridge . In 1881 , the Air Line announced the replacement of the Howe truss and the installation of a new 110 @-@ foot long ( 34 m ) iron bridge . On October 1 , 1882 , the line was leased to the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad for 99 years . The Air Line reported to the Railroad Commissioners in 1899 that a bridge over Blackledge River was completed . The New York , New Haven and Hartford dominated the region by 1905 , having acquiring over three dozen railroads . In 1907 , the company sought to improve and modernize the Air Line . On April 17 , 1911 , the company petitioned the Railroad Commissioners for alterations and changes . The approval for the changes came on July 7 , 1911 .
= = Second Bridge = =
The Blackledge River Railroad Bridge was rebuilt to increase the flood clearance and the load @-@ bearing capacity of the bridge , but its abutments were integrated into the new bridge . Completed c . 1912 , the replacement Blackledge River Railroad Bridge is a riveted steel , double @-@ intersection Warren deck truss . The original granite stone abutments which supported the previous bridge was reported to be five feet lower , were integrated with the brownstone abutments of the rebuilt bridge . The bottom chord of the span is 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) above the Blackledge River . The truss is 108 feet ( 33 m ) long and about 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) deep . The top and bottom chords are typical box girders with diagonal members and the deck is open . At some point , the bridge was altered with the addition of a sewer pipe .
= = Fate = =
The line continued to serve local passenger and freight trains for decades , but flooding in August 1955 destroyed the critical bridge work in Putnam and lead to its closure in the 1960s . Several years after its abandonment the railroad was sold to Connecticut 's Department of Transportation . By 1983 , the abandoned railroad bridge had its span sealed off and its tracks lifted . The bridge is in the Salmon River State Forest and is a part of the Air Line State Park Trail . A new wooden bridge allows transportation over the Blackledge River . Constructed prior to 2007 , the new wooden bridge decks the railroad bridge . The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection was assisted by the Coast Guard Academy and the 192nd Engineering Battalion of the Connecticut National Guard .
The National Register of Historic Places nomination lists the Blackledge River Railroad Bridge under both criteria A and C. Criterion A requires the property must make a contribution to the major pattern of American history , and criterion C concerns the distinctive characteristics of the building by its architecture and construction . The basis for its criterion A , is that it was part of a major improvement to the engineering and lines under the operation of the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad . The bridge was listed under criterion C as " a representative example of the typical medium @-@ length railroad bridge of the early 20th century . " The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 31 , 1986 .
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= Live Undead =
Live Undead is the first live album by American thrash metal band Slayer . It was released through Metal Blade Records and recorded in New York City in front of a room of people . It has been questioned by both critics and authors that the audience sound may or may not be faked . However , in 1984 , WBAB Fingers Metal Shop , a radio station , held a contest to meet and hang out with Slayer during a live recording . The album was recorded at Tiki Recording Studios in Glen Cove , NY in front of around a dozen people . The album was originally intended to be recorded in front of a live audience , but things went wrong . Nevertheless , when asked if they were fake , producer Bill Metoyer said , " I don 't know if I should tell you . " The album begins with an extended introduction of " Black Magic " , followed by a small speech . The remaining tracks include both those of 1983 's Show No Mercy and 1984 's Haunting the Chapel . Ned Raggett of AllMusic gave the album two and a half out of five stars , and noted that it " isn 't really necessary except for the hardest of hardcore fans .
= = Conception = =
The seven @-@ track live record was recorded in front of a room full of people in New York City in the autumn of 1984 . It has been rumored that the crowd noise was added in a studio rather than recorded on stage . Joel McIver , author of The Bloody Reign of Slayer , asked Live Undead 's producer / engineer Bill Metoyer , who had worked on the album in Los Angeles . Metoyer responded : " I don 't know if I should tell you [ if the crowd noises were faked ] ! Isn 't that one of those great industry secrets ? Let 's just say that when you 're doing a live record , you want live sound — even if perhaps the microphones didn 't pick up the audience properly . "
Live Undead marked the beginning of a short association between Slayer and artist Albert Cueller . Cueller would design the sleeve image , which depicts the four band members as grinning , partially decayed zombies walking through a graveyard .
= = Music = =
The EP begins with " Black Magic " , with an extended introduction building alongside the audience 's yelling . The song is performed faster , heavier , and more confident than its original recording in 1983 . When the song is over , lead vocalist Tom Araya says , " They say the pen is mightier than the sword . Well I say fuck the pen ! " , and the band begins playing " Die by the Sword " . The band then run @-@ through " Captor of Sin " , " The Antichrist " , " Evil Has No Boundaries " , and " Show No Mercy " . " Aggressive Perfector " is performed with more " power " , as described by author Joel McIver , who described the entire track listing as , " a fearsome set , although the rest of the songs don 't quite have the visceral power of the opening track . In fact , the Live Undead version of " Black Magic " established a career @-@ long trend of Slayer 's live songs being more powerful than the studio versions , with very few exceptions " .
= = Reception and release = =
AllMusic 's employee Ned Raggett gave the album a two and a half star rating , noting that " Live Undead isn 't really necessary except for the hardest of hardcore fans in the end , especially in comparison to Decade of Aggression , " and saying that " Evil Has No Boundaries " was the best performance of the seven songs . Raggett also wrote that despite being an unnecessary release , " it does have its ' it could only be Slayer ' moments — including Araya 's almost casual way of rudely introducing ' Captor of Sin ' . "
The album was originally released in 1984 under Metal Blade Records . In both 1993 and 1994 , it was re @-@ released with the same catalog numbers . In 2006 , it was again re @-@ released as an eleven @-@ track record . It included " Chemical Warfare " , " Captor of Sin " , " Haunting the Chapel " , and the studio version of " Aggressive Perfector " .
= = Track listing = =
Original release
Bonus tracks
The album has also been re @-@ released with only " Chemical Warfare " as bonus .
Bonus tracks ( re @-@ release )
This album has been re @-@ released with the entire Haunting the Chapel EP .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be sourced from both AllMusic and the album 's notes .
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= Elizabeth Warren =
Elizabeth Ann Warren ( née Herring ; born June 22 , 1949 ) is an American academic and politician . She is a member of the Democratic Party , and is the senior United States Senator from Massachusetts . Warren was formerly a professor of law , and taught at the University of Texas School of Law , the University of Pennsylvania Law School , and most recently at Harvard Law School . A prominent scholar specializing in bankruptcy law , Warren was among the most cited in the field of commercial law before starting her political career .
Warren is an active consumer protection advocate whose scholarship led to the conception and establishment of the U.S. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . She has written a number of academic and popular works , and is a frequent subject of media interviews regarding the American economy and personal finance . Following the 2008 financial crisis , Warren served as chair of the Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) . She later served as Assistant to the President and Special Advisor to the Secretary of the Treasury for the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau under President Barack Obama . During the late 2000s , she was recognized by publications such as the National Law Journal and Time 100 as an increasingly influential public policy figure .
In September 2011 , Warren announced her candidacy for the U.S. Senate , challenging Republican incumbent Scott Brown . She won the general election on November 6 , 2012 , becoming the first female Senator from Massachusetts . She was assigned to the Senate Special Committee on Aging ; the Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs Committee ; and the Health , Education , Labor , and Pensions Committee .
Warren is a leading figure in the Democratic Party and is popular among American progressives . She was frequently mentioned by political pundits as a potential 2016 presidential candidate . However , Warren repeatedly stated that she had no intention of running for president . Warren remained neutral in the 2016 Democratic presidential primaries , endorsing presumptive nominee Hillary Clinton only after all fifty states had voted . On July 7 , CNN reported that Warren was on a five @-@ person shortlist to be Clinton 's vice @-@ presidential running mate .. However , Clinton eventually chose Tim Kaine .
= = Early life , education , and family = =
Warren was born on June 22 , 1949 , in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , to middle class parents Pauline ( née Reed ) and Donald Jones Herring . She was their fourth child , with three older brothers . When she was 12 , her father , a janitor , had a heart attack — which led to many medical bills , as well as a pay cut because he could not do his previous work . Eventually , this led to the loss of their car from failure to make loan payments . To help the family finances , her mother found work in the catalog order department at Sears . When she was 13 , Warren started waiting tables at her aunt 's restaurant .
Warren became a star member of the debate team at Northwest Classen High School and won the title of " Oklahoma 's top high school debater " while competing with debate teams from high schools throughout the state . She also won a debate scholarship to George Washington University at the age of 16 . Initially aspiring to be a teacher , she left GWU after two years to marry her high school boyfriend , Jim Warren .
Warren moved to Houston with her husband , who was a NASA engineer . There she enrolled in the University of Houston , graduating in 1970 with a bachelor of science degree in speech pathology and audiology . For a year , she taught children with disabilities in a public school , based on an " emergency certificate " , as she had not taken the education courses required for a regular teaching certificate .
Warren and her husband moved for his work to New Jersey , where , after becoming pregnant , she decided to remain at home to care for their child . After their daughter turned two , Warren enrolled at the Rutgers School of Law – Newark . She worked as a summer associate at Cadwalader , Wickersham & Taft . Shortly before her graduation in 1976 , Warren became pregnant with their second child . After receiving her J.D. and passing the bar examination , she began to work as a lawyer from home , writing wills and doing real estate closings .
After having two children , Amelia and Alexander , she and Jim Warren divorced in 1978 . She also has grandchildren . In 1980 , Elizabeth married Bruce Mann , a law professor , but retained the surname Warren .
= = = Political affiliation = = =
Warren voted as a Republican for many years , saying , " I was a Republican because I thought that those were the people who best supported markets " . According to Warren , she began to vote Democratic in 1995 because she no longer believed that to be true , but she states that she has voted for both parties because she believed that neither party should dominate .
= = Career = =
During the late 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s , Warren taught law at several universities throughout the country while researching issues related to bankruptcy and middle @-@ class personal finance . She became involved with public work in bankruptcy regulation and consumer protection in the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = Academic = = =
Warren started her academic career as a lecturer at Rutgers School of Law – Newark ( 1977 – 78 ) . She moved to the University of Houston Law Center ( 1978 – 83 ) , where she became Associate Dean for Academic Affairs in 1980 , and obtained tenure in 1981 . She taught at the University of Texas School of Law as visiting associate professor in 1981 , and returned as a full professor two years later ( staying 1983 – 87 ) . In addition , she was a visiting professor at the University of Michigan ( 1985 ) and research associate at the Population Research Center of the University of Texas at Austin ( 1983 – 87 ) . Early in her career , Warren became a proponent of on @-@ the @-@ ground research based on studying how people actually respond to laws in the real world . Her work analyzing court records , and interviewing judges , lawyers , and debtors , established her as a rising star in the field of bankruptcy law .
Warren joined the University of Pennsylvania Law School as a full professor in 1987 and obtained an endowed chair in 1990 ( becoming William A Schnader Professor of Commercial Law ) . She taught for a year at Harvard Law School in 1992 as Robert Braucher Visiting Professor of Commercial Law . In 1995 , Warren left Penn to become Leo Gottlieb Professor of Law at Harvard Law School . As of 2011 , she was the only tenured law professor at Harvard who had attended law school at an American public university . At Harvard , Warren became one of the most highly cited law professors in the United States . Although she had published in many fields , her expertise was in bankruptcy . In the field of bankruptcy and commercial law , only Douglas Baird of Chicago , Alan Schwartz of Yale , and Bob Scott of Columbia have citation rates comparable to that of Warren .
= = = Advisory roles = = =
In 1995 , Warren was asked to advise the National Bankruptcy Review Commission . She helped to draft the commission 's report and worked for several years to oppose legislation intended to severely restrict the right of consumers to file for bankruptcy . Warren and others opposing the legislation were not successful ; in 2005 Congress passed the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005 , which curtailed the ability of consumers to file for bankruptcy .
From November 2006 to November 2010 , Warren was a member of the FDIC Advisory Committee on Economic Inclusion . She is a member of the National Bankruptcy Conference , an independent organization that advises the U.S. Congress on bankruptcy law . She is a former Vice President of the American Law Institute and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
Warren 's scholarship and public advocacy was the impetus behind the establishment of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau in 2011 .
= = = Public life = = =
Warren has a high public profile ; she has appeared in the documentary films Maxed Out and Michael Moore 's Capitalism : A Love Story . She has appeared numerous times on television programs , including Dr. Phil and The Daily Show , and has been interviewed frequently on cable news networks and radio programs .
= = = TARP oversight = = =
On November 14 , 2008 , Warren was appointed by U.S. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid to chair the five @-@ member Congressional Oversight Panel created to oversee the implementation of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act . The Panel released monthly oversight reports that evaluate the government bailout and related programs . During Warren 's tenure , these reports covered foreclosure mitigation , consumer and small business lending , commercial real estate , AIG , bank stress tests , the impact of the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) on the financial markets , government guarantees , the automotive industry , and other topics .
= = = Consumer Financial Protection Bureau = = =
Warren was an early advocate for the creation of a new Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( CFPB ) . The bureau was established by the Dodd – Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act signed into law by President Obama in July 2010 . In September 2010 , President Obama named Warren Assistant to the President and Special Advisor to the Secretary of the Treasury on the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau to set up the new agency . While liberal groups and consumer advocacy groups pushed for Obama to formally nominate Warren as the agency 's director , Warren was strongly opposed by financial institutions and by Republican members of Congress who believed Warren would be an overly zealous regulator . Reportedly convinced that Warren could not win Senate confirmation as the bureau 's first director , Obama turned to former Ohio Attorney General Richard Cordray and in January 2012 , over the objections of Republican senators , appointed Cordray to the post in a recess appointment .
= = U.S. Senate = =
= = = 2012 election = = =
On September 14 , 2011 , Warren declared her intention to run for the Democratic nomination for the 2012 election in Massachusetts for the U.S. Senate . The seat had been won by Republican Scott Brown in a 2010 special election after the death of Ted Kennedy . A week later , a video of Warren speaking in Andover became a viral video on the Internet . In it , Warren replies to the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is " class warfare " , pointing out that no one grew rich in the U.S. without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society , stating :
There is nobody in this country who got rich on his own . Nobody . ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for ; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate ; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for . You didn 't have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory , and hire someone to protect against this , because of the work the rest of us did . Now look , you built a factory and it turned into something terrific , or a great idea . God bless . Keep a big hunk of it . But part of the underlying social contract is , you take a hunk of that and pay forward for the next kid who comes along .
President Barack Obama later echoed her sentiments in a 2012 election campaign speech .
In April 2012 , the Boston Herald sparked a campaign controversy when it reported that from 1986 to 1995 Warren had listed herself as a minority in the Association of American Law Schools ( AALS ) directories . Harvard Law School had publicized her minority status in response to criticisms about a lack of faculty diversity , but Warren said that she was unaware of this until she read about it in a newspaper during the 2012 election . Scott Brown , her Republican opponent in the Senate race , speculated that she had fabricated Native American heritage to gain advantage in the job market . Former colleagues and supervisors at universities where she had worked stated that Warren 's ancestry played no role in her hiring . Warren responded to the allegations , saying that she had self @-@ identified as a minority in the directories in order to meet others with similar tribal roots . Her brothers defended her , stating that they " grew up listening to our mother and grandmother and other relatives talk about our family 's Cherokee and Delaware heritage " . In her 2014 autobiography , Warren described the allegations as untrue and hurtful . The New England Historic Genealogical Society found a family newsletter that alluded to a marriage license application that listed Elizabeth Warren ’ s great @-@ great @-@ great grandmother as a Cherokee , but could not find the primary document and found no proof of her descent . The Oklahoma Historical Society said that finding a definitive answer about Native American heritage can be difficult because of intermarriage and deliberate avoidance of registration .
Warren ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination and won it on June 2 , 2012 , at the state Democratic convention with a record 95 @.@ 77 % of the votes of delegates . She was endorsed by the Governor of Massachusetts , Deval Patrick . Warren and her opponent Scott Brown agreed to engage in four televised debates , including one with a consortium of media outlets in Springfield and one on WBZ @-@ TV in Boston . She encountered significant opposition from business interests . In August 2012 , Rob Engstrom , political director for the U.S. Chamber of Commerce , claimed that " no other candidate in 2012 represents a greater threat to free enterprise than Professor Warren . " She nonetheless raised $ 39 million for her campaign , the most of any Senate candidate in 2012 , and showed , according to the New York Times , " that it was possible to run against the big banks without Wall Street money and still win . "
Warren received a primetime speaking slot at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , immediately before Bill Clinton , on the evening of September 5 , 2012 . Warren positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that " has been chipped , squeezed , and hammered . " According to Warren , " People feel like the system is rigged against them . And here 's the painful part : They 're right . The system is rigged . " Warren said Wall Street CEOs " wrecked our economy and destroyed millions of jobs " and that they " still strut around congress , no shame , demanding favors , and acting like we should thank them . "
= = = Tenure = = =
On November 6 , 2012 , Warren defeated incumbent Scott Brown with a total of 53 @.@ 7 % of the votes . She is the first woman ever elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts , as part of a sitting U.S. Senate that had 20 female senators in office , the largest female U.S. Senate delegation in history , following the November 2012 elections . In December 2012 , Warren was assigned a seat on the Senate Banking Committee , the committee that oversees the implementation of Dodd – Frank and other regulation of the banking industry . Warren was sworn in by Vice President Joe Biden on January 3 , 2013 . Upon John Kerry 's resignation to become U.S. Secretary of State , Warren became the state 's senior senator after having served for less than a month , making her the most junior senior senator in the 113th Congress .
At Warren 's first Banking Committee hearing on February 14 , 2013 , she pressed several banking regulators to answer when they had last taken a Wall Street bank to trial and stated , " I 'm really concerned that ' too big to fail ' has become ' too big for trial ' . " Videos of Warren 's questioning became popular on the Internet , amassing more than 1 million views in a matter of days . At a Banking Committee hearing in March , Warren asked Treasury Department officials why criminal charges were not brought against HSBC for its money laundering practices . With her questions being continually dodged and her visibly upset , Warren then compared money laundering to drug possession , saying : " If you 're caught with an ounce of cocaine , the chances are good you 're going to go to jail ... But evidently , if you launder nearly a billion dollars for drug cartels and violate our international sanctions , your company pays a fine and you go home and sleep in your own bed at night . "
In May 2013 , Warren sent letters to the Justice Department , Securities and Exchange Commission , and the Federal Reserve , questioning their decisions that settling rather than going to court would be more fruitful . Later that month , Warren introduced her first bill , the Bank on Student Loans Fairness Act , which would allow students to take out government education loans at the same rate that banks such as Goldman Sachs and J.P. Morgan Chase pay to borrow from the federal government . Suggesting that students should get " the same great deal that banks get " , Warren proposed that new student borrowers be able to take out a federally subsidized loan at 0 @.@ 75 % , the rate paid by banks , compared with the current 3 @.@ 4 % student loan rate . Endorsing her bill days after its introduction , Independent Senator from Vermont Bernie Sanders stated : " The only thing wrong with this bill is that [ she ] thought of it and I didn 't " on The Thom Hartmann Program .
During the 2014 election cycle , Warren was a top Democratic fundraiser , supporting candidates in Ohio , Minnesota , Oregon , Washington , West Virginia , Michigan , and Kentucky . In the aftermath of the election , Warren was appointed by Majority Leader Harry Reid ( the same man who made her chair of the Congressional Oversight Panel ) to become the first @-@ ever Strategic Advisor of the Democratic Policy and Communications Committee , a position that was created just for her . The move was widely seen as an effort by Reid to lean his party more to the left following major Democratic losses in the recent election ; it also boosted further speculation about a possible presidential run by Warren in 2016 .
Saying , " despite the progress we 've made since 2008 , the biggest banks continue to threaten our economy , " in July 2015 Senator Warren , along with John McCain ( R @-@ AZ ) , Maria Cantwell ( D @-@ WA ) , and Angus King ( I @-@ ME ) re @-@ introduced the 21st Century Glass @-@ Steagall Act , a modern version of the Banking Act of 1933 . The legislation is intended to reduce the risk for the American taxpayer in the financial system and decrease the likelihood of future financial crises .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs
Subcommittee on Economic Policy ( Ranking Member )
Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Protection
Subcommittee on Securities , Insurance , and Investment
Committee on Health , Education , Labor , and Pensions
Subcommittee on Primary Health and Retirement Security
Special Committee on Aging
United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
United States Senate Energy Subcommittee on Energy
= = = Political positions = = =
According to the UK magazine New Statesman , Warren is among the " top 20 US progressives " .
= = = 2016 speculation = = =
In the run @-@ up to the 2016 U.S. presidential election , Warren 's name was put forward by liberal Democrats as a possible presidential candidate . However , Warren repeatedly stated that she was not running for President in 2016 . In October 2013 , she joined with the other fifteen Senate Democratic women in signing a letter that encouraged Hillary Clinton to run . There has been much speculation about Warren being added to the Democratic ticket as a vice @-@ presidential candidate . On June 9 , 2016 , after the California Democratic primary , Warren formally endorsed Hillary Clinton for president . In response to questions when she endorsed Clinton , Warren said that she believed she was ready to be vice president , but she was not being vetted .
Warren has taken an active role in the 2016 presidential elections , and has publicly feuded with Republican presumptive nominee Donald Trump , in speeches and on Twitter , pointing to his business practices and describing him as dishonest , uncaring of people and " a loser " . In return , Trump has mocked her for her description of her Native American heritage , calling her " the Indian " , " goofy " and " Pocahontas " . Warren also criticized Trump for his stance on the Trump University case , calling him a " loud , nasty , thin @-@ skinned fraud who has never risked anything for anyone and serves nobody but himself . "
= = Honors and awards = =
In 2009 , the Boston Globe named her the Bostonian of the Year and the Women 's Bar Association of Massachusetts honored her with the Lelia J. Robinson Award . She was named one of Time Magazine 's 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2009 , 2010 and 2015 . The National Law Journal repeatedly has named Warren as one of the Fifty Most Influential Women Attorneys in America , and in 2010 it honored her as one of the 40 most influential attorneys of the decade . In 2011 , Warren was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame . In January 2012 , Warren was named one of the " top 20 US progressives " by the New Statesman , a magazine based in the United Kingdom .
In 2009 , Warren became the first professor in Harvard 's history to win the law school 's The Sacks – Freund Teaching Award for a second time . In 2011 , she delivered the commencement address at the Rutgers School of Law – Newark , where she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree and was conferred membership in the Order of the Coif .
= = Books and other works = =
Warren and her daughter Amelia Tyagi wrote The Two @-@ Income Trap : Why Middle @-@ Class Mothers and Fathers Are Going Broke . Warren and Tyagi point out that a fully employed worker today earns less inflation @-@ adjusted income than a fully employed worker did 30 years ago . Although families spend less today on clothing , appliances , and other consumption , the costs of core expenses such as mortgages , health care , transportation , and child care have increased dramatically . The result is that even with two income earners , families are no longer able to save and have incurred greater and greater debt .
In an article in The New York Times , Jeff Madrick said of Warren 's book :
The authors find that it is not the free @-@ spending young or the incapacitated elderly who are declaring bankruptcy so much as families with children ... their main thesis is undeniable . Typical families often cannot afford the high @-@ quality education , health care , and neighborhoods required to be middle class today . More clearly than anyone else , I think , Ms. Warren and Ms. Tyagi have shown how little attention the nation and our government have paid to the way Americans really live .
In 2005 , Warren and David Himmelstein published a study on bankruptcy and medical bills , which found that half of all families filing for bankruptcy did so in the aftermath of a serious medical problem . They say that three @-@ quarters of such families had medical insurance . This study was widely cited in policy debates , although some have challenged the study 's methods and offered alternative interpretations of the data , suggesting that only seventeen percent of bankruptcies are directly attributable to medical expenses .
Warren 's book A Fighting Chance was published by Metropolitan Books in April 2014 . According to a review published in The Boston Globe , " [ t ] he book 's title refers to a time she says is now gone , when even families of modest means who worked hard and played by the rules had at a fair shot at the American dream . "
= = Publications = =
= = Electoral history = =
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= Eta Carinae =
Eta Carinae ( abbreviated to η Carinae or η Car ) , formerly known as Eta Argus , is a stellar system containing at least two stars with a combined luminosity over five million times that of the Sun , located around 7500 light @-@ years ( 2300 parsecs ) distant in the direction of the constellation Carina . First recorded as a 4th magnitude star , it brightened considerably over the period 1837 to 1856 in an event known as the Great Eruption . Eta Carinae became the second brightest star in the sky between 11 and 14 March 1843 before fading well below naked eye visibility . It has brightened consistently since about 1940 , peaking above magnitude 4 @.@ 5 in 2014 . Eta Carinae is circumpolar south of latitude 30 ° S , so it is never visible north of latitude 30 ° N.
The two main stars of the Eta Carinae system have an eccentric orbit with a period of 5 @.@ 54 years . The primary is a peculiar star similar to a luminous blue variable ( LBV ) that was initially 150 @-@ 250 M ☉ of which it has lost at least 30 M ☉ already , and is expected to explode as a supernova in the astronomically near future . This is the only star known to produce ultraviolet laser emission . The secondary star is hot and also highly luminous , probably of spectral class O , around 30 @-@ 80 times as massive as the Sun . The system is heavily obscured by the Homunculus Nebula , material ejected from the primary during the Great Eruption . It is a member of the Trumpler 16 open cluster within the much larger Carina Nebula . Although unrelated to the star or Nebula , the weak Eta Carinids meteor shower has a radiant very close to Eta Carinae .
= = Observational history = =
= = = Discovery and naming = = =
There is no reliable evidence of Eta Carinae being observed or recorded before the 17th century , although Dutch navigator Pieter Keyser described a fourth magnitude star at approximately the correct position around 1595 – 96 , which was copied onto the celestial globes of Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and the 1603 Uranometria of Johann Bayer . However , Frederick de Houtman 's independent star catalogue from 1603 does not include Eta Carinae among the other fourth magnitude stars in the region . The earliest firm record was made by Edmond Halley in 1677 when he recorded the star simply as Sequens ( i.e. " following " relative to another star ) within a new constellation Robur Carolinum . His Catalogus Stellarum Australium was published in 1679 . The star was also known by the Bayer designations Eta Roboris Caroli , Eta Argus or Eta Navis . In 1751 Nicolas Louis de Lacaille mapped the stars of Argo Navis and Robur Carolinum and divided them into separate smaller constellations . The star was placed within the keel portion of the ship named as the new constellation Carina . It was not generally known as Eta Carinae until 1879 , when the stars of Argo Navis were finally given the epithets of the daughter constellations in the Uranometria Argentina of Gould .
Eta Carinae is too far south to be part of the mansion @-@ based traditional Chinese astronomy , but it was mapped when the Southern Asterisms were created at the start of the 17th century . Together with s Carinae , λ Centauri , and λ Muscae , Eta Carinae forms the asterism 海山 ( Sea and Mountain ) . Eta Carinae has the names Tseen She ( from the Chinese 天社 [ Mandarin : tiānshè ] " Heaven 's altar " ) and Foramen . It is also known as 海山二 ( Hǎi Shān èr , English : the Second Star of Sea and Mountain ) .
Halley gave an approximate apparent magnitude of " 4 " at the time of discovery , which has been calculated as magnitude 3 @.@ 3 on the modern scale . The handful of possible earlier sightings suggest that Eta Carinae was not significantly brighter than this for much of the 17th century . Further sporadic observations over the next 70 years show that Eta Carinae was probably around 3rd magnitude or fainter , until Lacaille reliably recorded it at 2nd magnitude in 1751 . It is unclear whether Eta Carinae varied significantly in brightness over the next 50 years ; there are occasional observations such as William Burchell 's at 4th magnitude in 1815 , but it is uncertain whether these are just re @-@ recordings of earlier observations .
= = = Great Eruption = = =
In 1827 Burchell specifically noted Eta Carinae 's unusual brightness at 1st magnitude , and was the first to suspect that it varied in brightness . John Herschel made a detailed series of accurate measurements in the 1830s showing Eta Carinae consistently shone around magnitude 1 @.@ 4 until November 1837 . On the evening of December 16 , 1837 , Herschel was astonished to see that it had brightened to just outshine Rigel . This event marked the beginning of a roughly 18 year period known as the Great Eruption .
Eta Carinae was brighter still on January 2 , 1838 , equivalent to Alpha Centauri , before fading slightly over the following three months . Herschel did not observe the star after this , but received correspondence from the Reverend W.S. Mackay in Calcutta , who wrote in 1843 , " To my great surprise I observed this March last ( 1843 ) , that the star Eta Argus had become a star of the first magnitude fully as bright as Canopus , and in colour and size very like Arcturus . " Observations at the Cape of Good Hope indicated it peaked in brightness , surpassing Canopus , over March 11 to 14 , 1843 before beginning to fade , then brightened to between the brightness of Alpha Centauri and Canopus between March 24 and 28 before fading once again . For much of 1844 the brightness was midway between Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri , around magnitude + 0 @.@ 2 , before brightening again at the end of the year . At its brightest in 1843 it likely reached an apparent magnitude of − 0 @.@ 8 , then − 1 @.@ 0 in 1845 . The peaks in 1827 , 1838 , and 1843 are likely to have occurred at the periastron passage — the point the two stars are closest together — of the binary orbit . From 1845 to 1856 , the brightness decreased by around 0 @.@ 1 magnitudes per year , but with possible rapid and large fluctuations .
In their oral traditions , the Boorong people of northwestern Victoria , Australia told of a reddish star they knew as Collowgulloric War , the wife of War ( Canopus , the Crow – wɑː ) . In 2010 , astronomers Duane Hamacher and David Frew from Macquarie University in Sydney showed that this was Eta Carinae during its Great Eruption in the 1840s . From 1857 the brightness decreased rapidly until it faded below naked eye visibility by 1886 . This has been calculated to be due to the condensation of dust in the ejected material surrounding the star rather than an intrinsic change in luminosity .
= = = Lesser Eruption = = =
A new brightening started in 1887 , peaked at about magnitude 6 @.@ 2 in 1892 , then at the end of March 1895 faded rapidly to about magnitude 7 @.@ 5 . Although there are only visual records of the 1890 eruption , it has been calculated that Eta Carinae was suffering 4 @.@ 3 magnitudes of visual extinction due to the gas and dust ejected in the Great Eruption . An unobscured brightness would have been magnitude 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 , significantly brighter than the historical magnitude . This appeared to be a smaller copy of the Great Eruption , expelling much less material .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
Between 1900 and at least 1940 , Eta Carinae appeared to have settled at a constant brightness at around magnitude 7 @.@ 6 , but in 1953 it was noted to have brightened again to magnitude 6 @.@ 5 . The brightening continued steadily , but with fairly regular variations of a few tenths of a magnitude .
In 1996 the variations were first identified as having a 5 @.@ 52 year period , later measured more accurately at 5 @.@ 54 years . The binary theory was confirmed by observations of radio , optical , and near infrared radial velocity and line profile changes at the predicted time of periastron passage in late 1997 and early 1998 . At the same time there was a complete collapse of the X @-@ ray emission presumed to originate in a colliding wind zone . The confirmation of a luminous binary companion greatly modified the understanding of the physical properties of the Eta Carinae system and its variability .
A sudden doubling of brightness was observed in 1998 – 99 bringing it back to naked eye visibility . During the 2014 spectroscopic event , the apparent visual magnitude became brighter than magnitude 4 @.@ 5 . The brightness does not always vary consistently at different wavelengths , and does not always exactly follow the 5 @.@ 5 year cycle . Radio , infrared , and space @-@ based observations have expanded coverage of Eta Carinae across all wavelengths and revealed ongoing changes in the spectral energy distribution .
= = Visibility = =
As a 4th magnitude star , Eta Carinae is comfortably visible to the naked eye in all but the most light @-@ polluted skies in inner city areas according to the Bortle scale . However its brightness is variable over a wide range , from the second brightest star in the sky at one point in the 19th century to well below naked eye visibility . Its location at around 60 ° S in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere means it cannot be seen by observers in Europe and much of North America .
Located between Canopus and the Southern Cross , Eta Carinae is easily pinpointed as the brightest star within the large naked eye Carina Nebula . In a telescope the " star " is framed within the dark " V " dust lane of the nebula and appears distinctly orange and clearly non @-@ stellar . High magnification will show the two orange lobes of a surrounding a reflection nebula known as the Homunculus Nebula on either side of a bright central core . Variable star observers can compare its brightness with several 4th and 5th magnitude stars closely surrounding the nebula .
Discovered in 1961 , the weak Eta Carinids meteor shower has a radiant very close to Eta Carinae . Occurring from 14 to 28 January , the shower peaks around 21 January . Meteor showers are not associated with bodies outside the Solar System , making the proximity to Eta Carinae merely a coincidence .
= = = Visual spectrum = = =
The strength and profile of the lines in the Eta Carinae spectrum are highly variable , but there are a number of consistent distinctive features . The spectrum is dominated by emission lines , usually broad although the higher excitation lines are overlaid by a narrow central component from dense ionised nebulosity , especially the Weigelt Blobs . Most lines show a P Cygni profile but with the absorption wing much weaker than the emission . The broad P Cygni lines are typical of strong stellar winds , with very weak absorption in this case because the central star is so heavily obscured . Electron scattering wings are present but relatively weak , indicating a clumpy wind . Hydrogen lines are present and strong , showing that Eta Carinae still retains much of its hydrogen envelope . HeI lines are much weaker than the hydrogen lines , and the absence of HeII lines provides an upper limit to the possible temperature of the primary star . NII lines can be identified but are not strong , while carbon lines cannot be detected and oxygen lines are at best very weak , indicating core hydrogen burning via the CNO cycle with some mixing to the surface . Perhaps the most striking feature is the rich FeII emission in both permitted and forbidden lines , with the forbidden lines arising from excitation of low density nebulosity around the star .
The earliest analyses of the star 's spectrum are descriptions of visual observations from 1869 , of prominent emission lines " C , D , b , F , and the principal green nitrogen line " . Absorption lines are explicitly described as not being visible . The letters refer to Fraunhofer 's spectral notation and correspond to Hα , HeI ( " D " usually refers to the sodium doublet , but " d " or " D3 " was used for the nearby helium line ) , FeII , and Hβ . It is assumed that the final line is from FeII very close to the green nebulium line now known to be from OIII .
Photographic spectra from 1893 were described as similar to an F5 star , but with a few weak emission lines . Analysis to modern spectral standards suggests an early F spectral type . By 1895 the spectrum again consisted mostly of strong emission lines , with the absorption lines present but largely obscured by emission . This spectral transition from F supergiant to strong emission is characteristic of novae , where ejected material initially radiates like a pseudo @-@ photosphere and then the emission spectrum develops as it expands and thins .
The emission line spectrum associated with dense stellar winds has persisted ever since the late 19th century . Individual lines show widely varying widths , profiles , and Doppler shifts , often multiple velocity components within the same line . The spectral lines also show variation over time , most strongly with a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ year period but also less dramatic changes over shorter and longer periods , as well as ongoing secular development of the entire spectrum . The spectrum of light reflected from the Weigelt Blobs , and assumed to originate mainly with the primary , is similar to the extreme P Cygni @-@ type star HDE 316285 which has a spectral type of B0Ieq .
Direct spectral observations did not begin until after the Great Eruption , but light echoes from the eruption reflected from other parts of the Carina Nebula were detected using the U.S. National Optical Astronomy Observatory 's Blanco 4 @-@ meter telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory . Analysis of the reflected spectra indicated the light was emitted when Eta Carinae had the appearance of a 5 @,@ 000 K G2 @-@ to @-@ G5 supergiant , some 2 @,@ 000 K cooler than expected from other supernova impostor events . Further light echo observations show that following the peak brightness of the Great Eruption the spectrum developed prominent P Cygni profiles and CN molecular bands . These indicate that the star , or the expanding shell of ejected material , had cooled further and may have been colliding with circumstellar material in a similar way to a type IIn supernova .
In the second half of the 20th century , much higher resolution visual spectra became available . The spectrum continued to show complex and baffling features , with much of the energy from the central star being recycled into the infrared by surrounding dust , some reflection of light from the star from dense localised objects in the circumstellar material , but with obvious high ionisation features indicative of very high temperatures . The line profiles are complex and variable , indicating a number of absorption and emission features at various velocities relative to the central star .
The 5 @.@ 5 year orbital cycle produces strong spectral changes at periastron that are known as spectroscopic events . Certain wavelengths of radiation suffer eclipses , either due to actual occultation by one of the stars or due to passage within opaque portions of the complex stellar winds . Despite being ascribed to orbital rotation , these events vary significantly from cycle to cycle . These changes have become stronger since 2003 and it is generally believed that long @-@ term secular changes in the stellar winds or previously ejected material may be the culmination of a return to the state of the star before its Great Eruption .
= = = Ultraviolet = = =
The ultraviolet spectrum of the Eta Carinae system shows many emission lines of ionised metals such as FeII and CrII , as well as Lymanα ( Lyα ) and a continuum from a hot central source . The ionisation levels and continuum require the existence of a source with a temperature at least 37 @,@ 000 K.
Certain FeII UV lines are unusually strong . These originate in the Weigelt Blobs and are caused by a low @-@ gain lasing effect . Ionised hydrogen between a blob and the central star generates intense Lyα emission which penetrates the blob . The blob contains atomic hydrogen with a small admixture of other elements , including iron photo @-@ ionised by radiation from the central stars . An accidental resonance ( where emission coincidentally has a suitable energy to pump the excited state ) allows the Lyα emission to pump the Fe + ions to certain pseudo @-@ metastable states , creating a population inversion that allows the stimulated emission to take place . This effect is similar to the maser emission from dense pockets surrounding many cool supergiant stars , but the latter effect is much weaker at optical and UV wavelengths and Eta Carinae is the only clear instance detected of an ultraviolet astrophysical laser . A similar effect from pumping of metastable OI states by Lyβ emission has also been confirmed as an astrophysical UV laser .
= = = Infrared = = =
Infrared observations of Eta Carinae have become increasingly important . The vast majority of the electromagnetic radiation from the central stars is absorbed by surrounding dust , then emitted as mid and far infrared appropriate to the temperature of the dust . This allows almost the entire energy output of the system to be observed at wavelengths that are not strongly affected by interstellar extinction , leading to estimates of the luminosity that are more accurate than for other extremely luminous stars . Eta Carinae is the brightest source in the night sky at mid @-@ infrared wavelengths .
Far infrared observations show a large mass of dust at 100 – 150 K , suggesting a total mass for the Homunculus of 20 solar masses ( M ☉ ) or more . This is much larger than previous estimates , and is all thought to have been ejected in a few years during the Great Eruption
Near @-@ infrared observations can penetrate the dust at high resolution to observe features that are completely obscured at visual wavelengths , although not the central stars themselves . The central region of the Homunculus contains a smaller Little Homunculus from the 1890 eruption , a butterfly of separate clumps and filaments from the two eruptions , and an elongated stellar wind region .
= = = High energy radiation = = =
Several X @-@ ray and gamma @-@ ray sources have been detected around Eta Carinae , for example 4U 1037 – 60 in the 4th Uhuru catalogue and 1044 – 59 in the HEAO @-@ 2 catalog . The earliest detection of X @-@ rays in the Eta Carinae region was from the Terrier @-@ Sandhawk rocket , followed by Ariel 5 , OSO 8 , and Uhuru sightings .
More detailed observations were made with the Einstein Observatory , ROSAT X @-@ ray telescope , Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics ( ASCA ) , and Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory . There are multiple sources at various wavelengths right across the high energy electromagnetic spectrum : hard X @-@ rays and gamma rays within 1 light @-@ month of the Eta Carinae ; hard X @-@ rays from a central region about 3 light @-@ months wide ; a distinct partial ring " horse @-@ shoe " structure in low energy X @-@ rays 0 @.@ 67 parsec ( 2 @.@ 2 light @-@ years ) across corresponding to the main shockfront from the Great Eruption ; diffuse X @-@ ray emission across the whole area of the Homunculus ; and numerous condensations and arcs outside the main ring .
All the high energy emission associated with Eta Carinae varies during the orbital cycle . A spectroscopic minimum , or X @-@ ray eclipse , occurred in July and August 2003 and similar events in 2009 and 2014 have been intensively observed . The highest energy gamma @-@ rays above 100 MeV detected by AGILE show strong variability , while lower energy gamma @-@ rays observed by Fermi show little variability .
= = = Radio emission = = =
Radio emissions have been observed from Eta Carinae across the microwave band . It has been detected in the 21 cm HI line , but has been particularly closely studied in the millimetre and centimetre bands . Masing hydrogen recombination lines ( from the addition of an electron and proton to form a hydrogen atom ) have been detected in this range The emission is concentrated in a small non @-@ point source less than 4 arcseconds across and appears to be mainly free @-@ free emission ( thermal bremsstrahlung ) from ionised gas , consistent with a compact HII region at around 10 @,@ 000 K. High resolution imaging shows the radio frequencies originating from a disk a few arcseconds in diameter , 10 @,@ 000 astronomical units ( AU ) wide at the distance of Eta Carinae .
The radio emission from Eta Carinae shows continuous variation in strength and distribution over a 5 @.@ 5 year cycle . The HII and recombination lines vary very strongly , with continuum emission ( electromagnetic radiation across a broad band of wavelengths ) less affected . This shows a dramatic reduction in the ionisation level of the hydrogen for a short period in each cycle , coinciding with the spectroscopic events at other wavelengths .
= = Surroundings = =
Eta Carinae is found within the Carina Nebula , a giant star @-@ forming region in the Carina – Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way . The nebula is a prominent naked eye object in the southern skies showing a complex mix of emission , reflection , and dark nebulosity . Eta Carinae is known to be at the same distance as the Carina Nebula and its spectrum can be seen reflected off various star clouds in the nebula . The appearance of the Carina Nebula , and particularly of the Keyhole region , has changed significantly since it was described by John Herschel over 150 years ago . This is thought to be due to the reduction in ionising radiation from Eta Carinae since the Great Eruption . Prior to the Great Eruption the Eta Carinae system contributed up to 20 % of the total ionizing flux for the whole Carina Nebula , but that is now mostly blocked by the surrounding gas and dust .
= = = Trumpler 16 = = =
Eta Carinae lies within the scattered stars of the Trumpler 16 open cluster . All the other members are well below naked eye visibility , although WR 25 is another extremely massive luminous star . Trumpler 16 and its neighbour Trumpler 14 are the two dominant star clusters of the Carina OB1 association , an extended grouping of young luminous stars with a common motion through space .
= = = Homunculus = = =
Eta Carinae is enclosed by , and lights up the Homunculus Nebula . The Homunculus Nebula is composed mainly of gas ejected during the Great Eruption event in the mid @-@ nineteenth century , as well as dust that condensed from the debris . The nebula consists of two polar lobes aligned with the rotation axis of the star , plus an equatorial " skirt " . Closer studies show many fine details : a Little Homunculus within the main nebula , probably formed by the 1890 eruption ; a jet ; fine streams and knots of material , especially noticeable in the skirt region ; and three Weigelt Blobs — dense gas condensations very close to the star itself .
The lobes of the Homunculus are considered to be formed almost entirely due to the initial eruption , rather than shaped by or including previously ejected or interstellar material , although the scarcity of material near the equatorial plane allows some later stellar wind and ejected material to mix . Therefore , the mass of the lobes gives an accurate measure of the scale of the Great Eruption , with estimates ranging from 12 – 15 M ☉ up to as high as 40 M ☉ . The results show that the material from the Great Eruption is strongly concentrated towards the poles ; 75 % of the mass and 90 % of the kinetic energy were released above latitude 45 ° .
A unique feature of the Homunculus is the ability to measure the spectrum of the central object at different latitudes by the reflected spectrum from different portions of the lobes . These clearly show a polar wind where the stellar wind is faster and stronger at high latitudes thought to be due to rapid rotation causing gravity brightening towards the poles . In contrast the spectrum shows a higher excitation temperature closer to the equatorial plane . By implication the outer envelope of Eta Carinae A is not strongly convective as that would prevent the gravity darkening . The current axis of rotation of the star does not appear to exactly match the alignment of the Homunculus . This may be due to interaction with Eta Carinae B which also modifies the observed stellar winds .
= = Distance = =
The distance to Eta Carinae has been determined by several different methods , resulting in a widely accepted value of 2 @,@ 300 parsecs ( 7 @,@ 800 light @-@ years ) , with a margin of error around 100 parsecs ( 330 light @-@ years ) . Eta Carinae 's distance cannot be measured using parallax due to its great distance from Earth and the surrounding nebulosity . However , at least two stars expected to be at a similar distance are in the Hipparcos catalog . These are HD 93250 in Trumpler 16 and HD 93403 , another member of Trumpler 16 or possibly of Trumpler 15 . These two stars are assumed to be at approximately the same distance as Eta Carinae , all formed from the same molecular cloud , but the distances are too great for parallaxes to be reliable . HD 93250 and HD 93403 have recorded parallaxes of 0 @.@ 53 ± 0 @.@ 42 milli @-@ arcseconds and 1 @.@ 22 ± 0 @.@ 45 milli @-@ arcseconds respectively , suggesting distances of anywhere from 2 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 600 to 9 @,@ 000 parsecs ) . The GAIA space mission is expected to measure the parallax of these two stars with excellent precision .
The distances to star clusters can be estimated by using a Hertzsprung – Russell diagram or colour – colour diagram to calibrate the absolute magnitudes of the stars , for example fitting the main sequence or identifying features such as a horizontal branch , and hence their distance from Earth . It is also necessary to know the amount of interstellar extinction to the cluster and this can be difficult in regions such as the Carina Nebula . A distance of 7 @,@ 330 light @-@ years ( 2 @,@ 250 parsecs ) has been determined from the calibration of O @-@ type star luminosities in Trumpler 16 . After determining an abnormal reddening correction to the extinction , the distance to both Trumpler 14 and Trumpler 16 has been measured at 9 @,@ 500 ± 1000 light @-@ years ( 2 @,@ 900 ± 300 parsecs ) .
The known expansion rate of the Homunculus Nebula provides an unusual geometric method for measuring its distance . Assuming that the two lobes of the nebula are symmetrical , the projection of the nebula onto the sky depends on its distance . Values of 2 @,@ 300 , 2 @,@ 250 and 2 @,@ 300 parsecs have been derived for the Homunculus , and Eta Carinae is clearly at the same distance .
= = Properties = =
The Eta Carinae star system is currently one of the most massive that can be studied in great detail . Until recently Eta Carinae was thought to be the most massive single star , but the system 's binary nature was confirmed in 2005 . Unfortunately , both component stars are largely obscured by circumstellar material ejected from Eta Carinae A and basic properties such as their temperatures and luminosities can only be inferred . Rapid changes to the stellar wind in the 21st century suggest that the star itself may be revealed as dust from the great eruption finally clears .
= = = Orbit = = =
The binary nature of Eta Carinae is clearly established , although the components have not been directly observed and cannot even be clearly resolved spectroscopically due to scattering and re @-@ excitation in the surrounding nebulosity . Periodic photometric and spectroscopic variations prompted the search for a companion , and modelling of the colliding winds and partial " eclipses " of some spectroscopic features have constrained the possible orbits .
The period of the orbit is accurately known at 5 @.@ 539 years , although this has changed over time due to mass loss and accretion . The period between the Great Eruption and the smaller 1890 eruption was 5 @.@ 52 years , while before the Great Eruption it would have been lower still , probably between 4 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 4 years . The orbital separation is only known approximately , with a semi @-@ major axis of 15 – 16 AU . The orbit is highly eccentric , e = 0 @.@ 9 . This means that the separation of the stars varies from around 1 @.@ 6 AU , similar to the distance of Mars from the Sun , to 30 AU , similar to the distance of Neptune .
Perhaps the most valuable use of an accurate orbit for a binary star system is to directly calculate the masses of the stars . This requires the dimensions and inclination of the orbit to be accurately known . Unfortunately the dimensions of Eta Carinae 's orbit are only known approximately as the stars cannot be directly and separately observed . The inclination has been modelled at 130 – 145 degrees , but the orbit is still not known accurately enough to provide the masses of the two components .
= = = Classification = = =
Eta Carinae A is classified as a luminous blue variable ( LBV ) due to the distinctive spectral and brightness variations . This type of variable star is characterised by irregular changes from a high temperature quiescent state to a low temperature outburst state at roughly constant luminosity . LBVs in the quiescent state lie on a narrow S Doradus instability strip , with more luminous stars being hotter . In outburst all LBVs have about the same temperature , which is near 8 @,@ 000 K. LBVs in a normal outburst are visually brighter than when quiescent although the bolometric luminosity is unchanged .
A Great Eruption event similar to Eta Carinae A 's has only been observed in one other star in the Milky Way — P Cygni — and in a handful of other possible LBVs in external galaxies . None of them seem to be quite as violent as Eta Carinae 's . It is unclear if this is something that only a very few of the most massive LBVs undergo , something that is caused by a close companion star , or a very brief but common phase for massive stars . Some similar events in external galaxies have been mistaken for supernovae and have been called supernova impostors , although this grouping may also include other types of non @-@ terminal transients that approach the brightness of a supernova .
Eta Carinae A is not a typical LBV . It is more luminous than any other LBV in the Milky Way although possibly comparable to other supernova impostors detected in external galaxies . It does not currently lie on the S Doradus instability strip , although it is unclear what the temperature or spectral type of the underlying star actually is . The 1890 eruption may have been fairly typical of LBV eruptions , with an early F spectral type , and it has been estimated that the star may currently have an opaque stellar wind forming a pseudo @-@ photosphere with a temperature of 9 @,@ 000 K – 14 @,@ 000 K which would be typical for an LBV in eruption .
Eta Carinae B is a massive luminous hot star , about which little else is known . From certain high excitation spectral lines that ought not to be produced by the primary , Eta Carinae B is thought to be a young O @-@ type star . Most authors suggest it is a somewhat evolved star such as a supergiant or giant , although a Wolf – Rayet star cannot be ruled out .
= = = Mass = = =
The masses of stars are difficult to measure except by determination of a binary orbit . Eta Carinae is a binary system , but certain key information about the orbit is not known accurately . The mass can be strongly constrained to be greater than 90 M ☉ , due to the high luminosity . Standard models of the system assume masses of 100 – 120 M ☉ and 30 – 60 M ☉ for the primary and secondary respectively . Higher masses have been suggested , to model the energy output and mass transfer of the Great Eruption , with a combined system mass of over 250 M ☉ before the Great Eruption . Eta Carinae A has clearly lost a great deal of mass since it formed and it is expected that it was initially 150 @-@ 250 M ☉ , although it may have formed through binary merger .
= = = Mass loss = = =
Mass loss is one of the most intensively studied aspects of massive star research . Put simply , using observed mass loss rates in the best models of stellar evolution do not reproduce the observed distribution of evolved massive stars such as Wolf – Rayets , the number and types of core collapse supernovae , or their progenitors . To match those observations , the models require much higher mass loss rates . Eta Carinae A has one of the highest known mass loss rates , currently around 10 − 3 M ☉ / year , and is an obvious candidate for study .
Eta Carinae A is losing so much mass due to its extreme luminosity and relatively low surface gravity . Its stellar wind is entirely opaque and appears as a pseudo @-@ photosphere ; this optically dense surface hides the true physical surface of the star . During the Great Eruption the mass loss rate was a thousand times higher , around 1 M ☉ / year sustained for ten years or more . The total mass loss during the eruption was 10 – 20 M ☉ with much of it now forming the Homunculus Nebula . The smaller 1890 eruption produced the Little Homunculus Nebula , much smaller and only about 0 @.@ 1 M ☉ . The bulk of the mass loss occurs in a wind with a terminal velocity of about 420 km / s , but some material is seen at higher velocities , up to 3 @,@ 200 km / s , possibly material blown from the accretion disk by the secondary star .
Eta Carinae B is presumably also losing mass via a thin fast stellar wind , but this cannot be detected directly . Models of the radiation observed from interactions between the winds of the two stars show a mass loss rate of the order of 10 − 5 M ☉ / year at speeds of 3 @,@ 000 km / s , typical of a hot O class star . For a portion of the highly eccentric orbit , it actually gains material from the primary via an accretion disk . During the Great Eruption of the primary , the secondary accreted several M ☉ , producing strong jets which formed the bipolar shape of the Homunculus Nebula .
= = = Luminosity = = =
The stars of the Eta Carinae system are completely obscured by dust and opaque stellar winds , with much of the ultraviolet and visual radiation shifted to infrared . The total electromagnetic radiation across all wavelengths for both stars combined is several million solar luminosities ( L ☉ ) . The best estimate for the luminosity of the primary is 5 million L ☉ . The luminosity of Eta Carinae B is particularly uncertain , probably several hundred thousand L ☉ and almost certainly no more than 1 million L ☉ .
The most notable feature of Eta Carinae is its giant eruption or supernova impostor event , which originated in the primary star and was observed around 1843 . In a few years , it produced almost as much visible light as a faint supernova explosion , but the star survived . It is estimated that at peak brightness the luminosity was as high as 50 million L ☉ . Other supernova impostors have been seen in other galaxies , for example the possible false supernova SN 1961v in NGC 1058 and SN 2006jc in UGC 4904 .
Following the Great Eruption , Eta Carinae became self @-@ obscured by the ejected material , resulting in dramatic reddening . This has been estimated at four magnitudes at visual wavelengths , meaning the post @-@ eruption luminosity was comparable to the luminosity when first identified . Eta Carinae is still much brighter at infrared wavelengths , despite the presumed hot stars behind the nebulosity . The recent visual brightening is considered to be largely caused by a decrease in the extinction , due to thinning dust or a reduction in mass loss , rather than an underlying change in the luminosity .
= = = Temperature = = =
Until late in the 20th century , the temperature of Eta Carinae was assumed to be over 30 @,@ 000 K because of the presence of high temperature spectral lines , but other aspects of the spectrum suggested much lower temperatures and complex models were created to account for this . It is now known that the Eta Carinae system consists of at least two stars , both with strong stellar winds and a shocked colliding wind ( WWC or wind @-@ wind collision ) zone , embedded within a dusty nebula that reprocesses 90 % of the electromagnetic radiation into the mid and far infrared . All of these features have different temperatures .
The powerful stellar winds from the two stars collide in a roughly conical wind @-@ wind collision zone and produce temperatures as high as 100 MK at the apex between the two stars . This zone is the source of the hard x @-@ rays and gamma @-@ rays close to the stars . Near periastron , as the secondary ploughs through ever denser regions of the primary wind , the colliding wind zone becomes distorted into a spiral trailing behind Eta Carinae B.
The wind @-@ wind collision cone separates the winds of the two stars . For 55 – 75 ° behind the secondary , there is a thin hot wind typical of O or Wolf – Rayet stars . This allows some radiation from Eta Carinae B to be detected and its temperature can be estimated with some accuracy due to spectral lines that are unlikely to be produced by any other source . Although the secondary star has never been directly observed , there is widespread agreement on models where it has a temperature between 37 @,@ 000 K and 41 @,@ 000 K.
In all other directions on the other side of the wind @-@ wind collision zone , there is the wind from Eta Carinae A , cooler and around 100 times denser than Eta Carinae B 's wind . It is also optically dense , completely obscuring anything resembling a true photosphere and rendering any definition of its temperature moot . The observable radiation originates from a pseudo @-@ photosphere where the optical density of the wind drops to near zero , typically measured at a particular Rossland opacity value such as 2 ⁄ 3 . This pseudo @-@ photosphere is observed to be elongated and hotter along the presumed axis of rotation .
Eta Carinae A is likely to have appeared as an early B hypergiant with a temperature of between 20 @,@ 000 K and 25 @,@ 000 K at the time of its discovery by Halley . An effective temperature determined for the surface of a spherical optically thick wind at several hundred R ☉ would be 9 @,@ 400 – 15 @,@ 000 K , while the temperature of a theoretical 60 R ☉ hydrostatic " core " at optical depth 150 would be 35 @,@ 200 K. The effective temperature of the visible outer edge of the opaque primary wind is generally treated as being 15 @,@ 000 K – 25 @,@ 000 K on the basis of visual and ultraviolet spectral features assumed to be directly from the wind or reflected via the Weigelt Blobs .
The Homunculus contains dust at temperatures varying from 150 K to 400 K. This is the source of almost all the infrared radiation that makes Eta Carinae such a bright object at those wavelengths .
Further out , expanding gases from the Great Eruption collide with interstellar material and are heated to around 5 MK , producing less energetic X @-@ rays seen in a horseshoe or ring shape .
= = = Size = = =
The size of the two main stars in the Eta Carinae system is difficult to determine precisely because neither star can be seen directly . Eta Carinae B is likely to have a well @-@ defined photosphere and its radius can be estimated from the assumed type of star . An O supergiant of 933 @,@ 000 L ☉ with a temperature of 37 @,@ 200 K has an effective radius of 23 @.@ 6 R ☉ .
The size of Eta Carinae A is not even well defined . It has an optically dense stellar wind so the typical definition of a star 's surface being approximately where it becomes opaque gives a very different result to where a more traditional definition of a surface might be . One study calculated a radius of 60 R ☉ for a hot " core " of 35 @,@ 000 K at optical depth 150 , near the sonic point or very approximately what might be called a physical surface . At optical depth 0 @.@ 67 the radius would be over 800 R ☉ , indicating an extended optically thick stellar wind . At the peak of the Great Eruption the radius , so far as such a thing is meaningful during such a violent expulsion of material , would have been around 1 @,@ 400 R ☉ , comparable to the largest known stars .
The stellar sizes should be compared with their orbital separation , which is only around 250 R ☉ at periastron . The accretion radius of the secondary is around 60 R ☉ , suggesting strong accretion near periastron leading to a collapse of the secondary wind . It has been proposed that the initial brightening from 4th magnitude to 1st at relatively constant bolometric luminosity was a normal LBV outburst , albeit from an extreme example of the class . Then the companion star passing through the expanded photosphere of the primary at periastron triggered the further brightening , increase in luminosity , and extreme mass loss of the Great Eruption .
= = = Rotation = = =
Rotation rates of massive stars have a critical influence on their evolution and eventual death . The rotation rate of the Eta Carinae stars cannot be measured directly because their surfaces cannot be seen . Single massive stars spin down quickly due to braking from their strong winds , but there are hints that both Eta Carinae A and B are fast rotators , up to 90 % of critical velocity . One or both could have been spun up by binary interaction , for example accretion onto the secondary , and orbital dragging on the primary .
= = Evolution = =
Eta Carinae is a unique object , with no very close analogues currently known in any galaxy . Therefore , its future evolution is highly uncertain , but almost certainly involves further mass loss and an eventual supernova .
Eta Carinae A would have begun life as an extremely hot star on the main sequence , already a highly luminous object over a million L ☉ . The exact properties would depend on the initial mass , which is expected to have been at least 150 M ☉ and possibly much higher . A typical spectrum when first formed would be O2If and the star would be mostly or fully convective due to CNO cycle fusion at the very high core temperatures . Sufficiently massive or differentially rotating stars undergo such strong mixing that they remain chemically homogeneous during core hydrogen burning .
As core hydrogen burning progresses , a very massive star would slowly expand and become more luminous , becoming a blue hypergiant and eventually an LBV while still fusing hydrogen in the core . When hydrogen at the core is depleted after 2 – 2 @.@ 5 million years , hydrogen shell burning continues with further increases in size and luminosity , although hydrogen shell burning in chemically homogeneous stars may be very brief or absent since the entire star would become depleted of hydrogen . In the late stages of hydrogen burning , mass loss is extremely high due to the high luminosity and enhanced surface abundances of helium and nitrogen . As hydrogen burning ends and core helium burning begins , massive stars transition very rapidly to the Wolf – Rayet stage with little or no hydrogen , increased temperatures , and decreased luminosity . They are likely to have lost over half their initial mass at this point .
It is unclear whether triple alpha helium fusion has started at the core of Eta Carinae A. The elemental abundances at the surface cannot be accurately measured , but ejecta within the Homunculus are around 60 % hydrogen and 40 % helium , with nitrogen enhanced to ten times solar levels . This is indicative of ongoing CNO cycle hydrogen fusion .
Models of the evolution and death of single very massive stars predict an increase in temperature during helium core burning , with the outer layers of the star being lost . It becomes a Wolf – Rayet star on the nitrogen sequence , moving from WNL to WNE as more of the outer layers are lost , possibly reaching the WC or WO spectral class as carbon and oxygen from the triple alpha process reach the surface . This process would continue with heavier elements being fused until an iron core develops , at which point the core collapses and the star is destroyed . Subtle differences in initial conditions , in the models themselves , and most especially in the rates of mass loss , produce different predictions for the final state of the most massive stars . They may survive to become a helium @-@ stripped star or they may collapse at an earlier stage while they retain more of their outer layers . The lack of sufficiently luminous WN stars and the discovery of apparent LBV supernova progenitors has also prompted the suggestion that certain types of LBVs explode as a supernova without evolving further .
Eta Carinae is a close binary and this complicates the evolution of both stars . Compact massive companions can strip mass from larger primary stars much more quickly than would occur in a single star , so the properties at core collapse can be very different . In some scenarios , the secondary can accrue significant mass , accelerating its evolution , and in turn be stripped by the now compact Wolf – Rayet primary . In the case of Eta Carinae , the secondary is clearly causing additional instability in the primary , making it difficult to predict future developments .
= = = Potential supernova = = =
The overwhelming probability is that the next supernova observed in the Milky Way will originate from an unknown white dwarf or anonymous red supergiant , very likely not even visible to the naked eye . Nevertheless , the prospect of a supernova originating from an object as extreme , nearby , and well @-@ studied as Eta Carinae arouses great interest .
As a single star , a star around 150 times as massive as the Sun originally would typically reach core collapse as a Wolf – Rayet star within 3 million years . At low metallicity , many massive stars will collapse directly to a black hole with no visible explosion or a sub @-@ luminous supernova , and a small fraction will produce a pair instability supernova , but at solar metallicity and above there is expected to be sufficient mass loss before collapse to allow a visible supernova of type Ib or Ic . If there is still a large amount of expelled material close to the star , the shock formed by the supernova explosion impacting the circumstellar material can efficiently convert kinetic energy to radiation , resulting in a superluminous supernova ( commonly called a hypernova ) , several times more luminous than a typical core collapse supernova and much longer @-@ lasting . Highly massive progenitors may also eject sufficient nickel to cause a hypernova simply from the radioactive decay . The resulting remnant would be a black hole since it is highly unlikely such a massive star could ever lose sufficient mass for the core not to exceed the limit for a neutron star . Certain supernovae may also produce gamma @-@ ray bursts , but this is not expected from a single star in the mass range of Eta Carinae .
The existence of a massive companion brings many other possibilities . If Eta Carinae A was rapidly stripped of its outer layers , it might be a less massive WC- or WO @-@ type star when core collapse was reached . This would result in a type Ib or type Ic supernova due to the lack of hydrogen and possibly helium . This supernova type is thought to be the originator of certain classes of gamma ray bursts , but models predict they occur only in less massive stars .
Several unusual supernovae and impostors have been compared to Eta Carinae as examples of its possible fate . One of the most compelling is SN 2009ip , a blue supergiant which underwent a supernova impostor event in 2009 with similarities to Eta Carinae 's Great Eruption , then an even brighter outburst in 2012 which is likely to have been a true supernova . SN 2006jc , some 77 million light years away in UGC 4904 , in the constellation Lynx , also underwent a supernova impostor brightening in 2004 , followed by a magnitude 13 @.@ 8 type Ib supernova , first seen on 9 October 2006 . Eta Carinae has also been compared to other possible supernova impostors such as SN 1961V , and to superluminous supernovae such as SN 2006gy .
= = = Possible effects on Earth = = =
A typical core collapse supernova at the distance of Eta Carinae would peak at an apparent magnitude around − 4 , similar to Venus . A hypernova could be five magnitudes brighter , potentially the brightest supernova in recorded history ( currently SN 1006 ) . At 7 @,@ 500 light years from the star it is unlikely to directly affect terrestrial lifeforms , as they will be protected from gamma rays by the atmosphere and from some other cosmic rays by the magnetosphere . The main damage would be restricted to the upper atmosphere , the ozone layer , spacecraft , including satellites , and any astronauts in space . At least one paper has projected that complete loss of the Earth 's ozone layer is a plausible consequence of a supernova , which would result in a significant increase in surface UV radiation reaching Earth 's surface from our own Sun . However this would require a typical supernova to be closer than 50 light @-@ years from Earth , and even a potential hypernova would need to be closer than Eta Carinae . Another analyses the impacts and also discusses more subtle effects from the unusual illumination , such as possible melatonin suppression with resulting insomnia and increased risk of cancer and depression . It concludes that a supernova of this magnitude would have to be much closer than Eta Carinae to have any type of major impact on Earth .
Eta Carinae is not expected to produce a gamma @-@ ray burst and its axis is not currently aimed near Earth , but a direct hit from a gamma @-@ ray burst could cause catastrophic damage and a major extinction event . Calculations show that the deposited energy of such a gamma @-@ ray burst striking the Earth 's atmosphere would be equivalent to one kiloton of TNT per square kilometer over the entire hemisphere facing the star , with ionizing radiation depositing ten times the lethal whole body dose to the surface .
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= The Naked Now =
" The Naked Now " is the third episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on October 5 , 1987 in broadcast syndication in the United States . Directed by Paul Lynch , the episode had been written by D.C. Fontana , under the pseudonym of " J. Michael Bingham , " with John D.F. Black also credited for his role in devising the plot 's origins .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of a Starfleet starship , the USS Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the Enterprise encounters a research ship where all personnel are found dead . The Enterprise crew quickly become infected with the same affliction , one that is similar to that suffered by the crew of James T. Kirk 's USS Enterprise decades before .
Based on an unfinished teleplay by Gene Roddenberry , the episode deliberately followed up on the events of Star Trek : The Original Series first season episode " The Naked Time " ( 1966 ) . Fans initially criticised the origins of the episode , and later reviews were also largely negative .
= = Plot = =
The crew of the Enterprise responds to messages received from the SS Tsiolkovsky , a science vessel monitoring the collapse of a supergiant star . The messages suggest that the crew has been exposed to a sudden hull breach amid their rounds of laughter . After the Enterprise secures the Tsiolkovsky via tractor beam , an away team beams over and finds the crew frozen to death in various stages of undress--including one who was taking a shower fully clothed . A woman 's body , frozen , falls into Lt. La Forge 's ( LeVar Burton ) hands . Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) orders full medical examinations of the away team on their return , and finds La Forge sweating profusely and complaining about the temperature . She orders him to stay in sickbay but he manages to escape , making his way to the quarters of Crusher 's son , Wesley ( Wil Wheaton ) . Unaware of La Forge 's condition , Wesley shows him a portable tractor beam device and La Forge places an encouraging hand on his shoulder . Meanwhile , acting on a hunch by Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) , who had read a book on past starships named " Enterprise " and found a previous mention of someone taking a shower fully clothed in its pages , Lt. Cdr . Data ( Brent Spiner ) locates a historical record identifying the ailment as similar to one encountered by Captain Kirk 's USS Enterprise . La Forge returns to sickbay , where Dr. Crusher quickly becomes concerned when she realizes that the infection is spread by physical contact . Much of the ship 's crew comes under the influence of the ailment , including Data , who engages in a sexual encounter with Security Chief Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) . Dr. Crusher , struggling against the effects of the ailment , finds the original antidote documented by Kirk 's Enterprise to be ineffective , and begins devising a new version of it .
Now infected , Wesley uses a digital sample of Captain Picard 's voice to lure key engineering crew @-@ members away from the engineering deck . He erects a force field around the area with his tractor beam device and assumes control of the ship . He allows one of the engineers , Mr. Shimoda ( Benjamin W.S. Lum ) , who is acting in a childlike manner , into the force field . Mr. Shimoda manages to remove all of the isolinear chips from the engine control station and plays with them like toys . As the supergiant star collapses , a fragment is blown into a direct impact course with the two Federation ships , and without the chips in place , they cannot move out of its way . Chief Engineer Sarah MacDougal ( Brooke Bundy ) manages to disable Wesley 's force field , and Data is sent to replace the chips . He reports that he will not have enough time . Wesley reverses the ship 's tractor beam , repelling the Enterprise off the Tsiolkovsky , giving themselves the necessary additional seconds for Data to replace the chips enabling the ship to move out of the way . The crew is cured of the ailment , and Picard partially credits Wesley for helping to prevent a disaster .
= = Production = =
Star Trek : The Next Generation 's creator , Gene Roddenberry , wanted to include an episode revealing the characters ' motivations to the audience early on in the series . As a basis , he turned to the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Naked Time . " Executive producer Rick Berman described " The Naked Now " as " a [ n ] homage , not a copy " of " The Naked Time , " while director Paul Lynch described it as " slightly more adult and a lot more comic than the original " .
" The Naked Now " is based on an incomplete teleplay by Roddenberry for The Next Generation , titled " Revelations . " The first few scenes remained largely similar , but in " Revelations " La Forge infected Yar while making unsuccessful sexual advances toward her . Original Series writer D.C. Fontana wrote a new draft of the teleplay with several further changes that failed to make it into the final installment . These included Data turning down Yar 's sexual advances , Troi 's lack of privacy due to empathic abilities , Picard 's concern for the families on the ship , and Riker 's fear of becoming a lonely starship captain .
Brooke Bundy made her only appearance as the first Chief Engineer of the Enterprise , Sarah MacDougal , in this episode . The post of Chief Engineer changed hands numerous times through the rest of season one before Geordi La Forge was finally assigned the post on a permanent basis in season two . Michael Rider made his first appearance as an unnamed transporter chief , and would go on to appear in the same role twice more before appearing a final time as a security guard .
The SS Tsiolkovsky model was a re @-@ dress of the USS Grissom from Star Trek III : The Search for Spock ( 1984 ) . Michael Okuda created a ship 's dedication plaque for the Tsiolkovsky which stated that it had been created in the Soviet Union . A copy was subsequently sent for display at the Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga , Soviet Russia .
= = Reception = =
" The Naked Now " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing October 3 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 11 @.@ 5 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was lower than the pilot , but higher than the following episodes until " Lonely Among Us " in October 1987 .
The initial reaction of some fans was dismay , as there were concerns that The Next Generation would continue to lift stories from The Original Series . Staff writer Maurice Hurley said of " The Naked Now , " " I didn 't like that show at all . It just wasn 't very good . What it did show , though , was that the new ensemble could interact , and that there were relationships between them that worked . But doing it was terrible . It was a warmed over premise . Why do it ? " The liaison between Data and Yar stood out as being controversial , with Data referring to himself as being " fully functional " in a sexual sense .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed it on behalf of Tor.com , comparing it to " The Naked Time " and stating that " there 's nothing in this episode as entertaining as Sulu bare @-@ chested with an epee , and Wesley being nerdy in the engine room is nowhere near as much fun as Riley singing . " He gave the episode a score of two out of ten , remarking that " it 's rarely a good idea to do an episode where everyone acts out of character as only the second one out of the gate , since we don 't know enough about these people for their acting strange to be meaningful . " Cast member Wil Wheaton re @-@ watched the episode for AOL TV , and summed it up saying " whether it was the worst episode ever or not probably rested upon the viewer 's expectations . Trekkies who were looking for reasons to hate The Next Generation found plenty " while " viewers who were willing to watch it with an open mind saw flashes of things they came to love watching , " and gave it a score of D + .
James Hunt wrote about " The Naked Now " for the website " Den of Geek , " stating that he couldn 't understand why someone would want to show the characters acting out of character in only the second episode ( not counting the pilot ) of the series , before the viewers had a baseline from which to understand why the characters ' behaviour was abnormal . He praised the idea of connecting The Next Generation to The Original Series early in the series , but also remarked that " however you slice it up , this episode is pretty awful . " Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " remarked that " there 's a certain memorable quality to this episode , despite its campy , overplayed comedy " but that " ultimately , the show is too goofy for its own good , but it 's at least not boring , " awarding it a score of two and a half out of four .
Writing for TrekNation , Michelle Erica Green thought that the episode would have been improved if it had come a few seasons later , by which time the characters were better known to the audience . She also argued that the plot 's synopsis would have worked better had it been used for an episode in Star Trek : Voyager . She thought that the episode was " boring , because we already know how it 's going to end , and it 's trivial , because already we can see how easily this crew can be diverted from duty . " Zack Handlen reviewed " The Naked Now " for The A.V. Club . He gave the episode a grade of D- , and his criticism of the episode included describing the scene with Yar and Data as " colossally misjudged " as well as attacking Wesley Crusher 's " twerpitude . "
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " The Naked Now " was on VHS cassette , appearing on September 5 , 1991 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
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= Monaco : What 's Yours Is Mine =
Monaco : What 's Yours Is Mine is a stealth action video game released in 2013 for Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X and Linux . The PC versions of Monaco were developed and published by Pocketwatch Games while the Xbox Live Arcade version was published by Majesco Entertainment .
The gameplay in Monaco consists of up to four players who all control different characters while they partake in heists and robberies in many different locations . Each player can control one of eight eight characters , all of whom have their own advantages , such as the Hacker who can put viruses onto the security systems , and the Cleaner who can put guards to sleep . The main difference between single @-@ player and multiplayer is that in multiplayer , when a player dies they must be revived before the level can be completed .
Development of Monaco began while Andy Schatz was working for TKO Software , before he founded his own independent company Pocketwatch Games . The game first started as nothing more than a Pac @-@ Man clone that he referred to as " The Sims meets Diablo meets Hitman " . After being turned down by Microsoft Game Studios twice , Monaco was released onto Xbox 360 by Majesco Entertainment . The soundtrack was composed by American composer Austin Wintory , who had worked on the soundtracks for games like Flow and Journey , after discussing the topic with Schatz . Andy Nguyen , whom Andy Schatz met while he was looking for playtesters , quit his job at Citibank so he could spend more time helping with the development of Monaco as a level designer and producer , as well as working in booths .
The game was positively received by reviewers and won two awards at the 2010 GDC Independent Games Festival . The reviewers highly praised the cooperative gameplay but said the single @-@ player was less fun due to there being less things to do . Many comparisons were made between Monaco and other media ; the most common being the 1960 heist film Oceans 11 . Reviewers liked the art style and said that the gameplay suited the minimalisic design .
= = Gameplay = =
Monaco is a single @-@ player or multiplayer stealth action game played in a top @-@ down perspective . Up to four players can control one of eight characters , all of which have different traits and advantages , while they partake in heists and robberies in places like nightclubs , mansions and yachts . Levels can be completed it many different ways based on what characters the player or players choose . When playing in single @-@ player , once a character is unlocked they can be used on any level , although any level can be completed as any character . In multiplayer , players work together to complete the levels . If one of the players die , another must revive them before finishing the level .
The eight characters consist of the Locksmith , the Cleaner , the Lookout , the Pickpocket , the Mole , the Gentleman , the Redhead and the Hacker . The Locksmith can open doors twice as fast as the other characters ; the Cleaner can put guards to sleep ; the Lookout is able to see enemies that aren 't in the player 's direct line of sight ; the Pickpocket owns a monkey which runs around collecting coins ; the Mole can dig holes through walls and takes less time to open vents ; the Gentleman has the ability to temporarily change appearance , making the player less detectable to enemies ; the Redhead can charm enemies into not attacking them and make characters follow them ; and the Hacker has the ability to upload computer viruses to the security systems , resulting in them shutting off temporarily . The first four of the eight characters are available immediately .
There are many items that can be picked up , which include smoke bombs and C4 explosives , along with many different types of guns including a shotgun and a machine gun . The gun 's ammo is limited and is replenished by collecting ten coins which are scattered around the map . In multiplayer , the player who collects the coin 's is the only person who 's gun receives more ammo .
= = Development = =
The idea for Monaco was first prototyped during the time when Andy Schatz was working for TKO Software , which was a video game development company based in Santa Cruz , California . The game first started as a Pac @-@ Man clone and was described by Schatz to have looked similar to Jason Rohrer 's 2014 video game The Castle Doctrine during its early stages of development . His original plans were to release Monaco as an Xbox Live Indie Games title , made within six weeks . He said that when he was talking to people about it during this stage , he would describe it as " The Sims meets Diablo meets Hitman " . The development at TKO was done for around 3 weeks whilst the company searched for paying work . Before TKO shut down in 2005 , Schatz left and founded his own independent company , Pocketwatch Games . After Pocketwatch Games experimented with simulation games , such as 2006 Independent Games Festival finalist Wildlife Tycoon : Venture Africa and Wildlife Tycoon : Venture Dinosauria , Schatz prototyped an early version of Monaco using Microsoft XNA as to see if it worked on Xbox 360 .
When Andy Schatz pitched the game to Microsoft Game Studios , they turned it down . Schatz responded by saying " they were crazy " and asked if he could repitch the game , to which they accepted . Schatz continued to work on Monaco for around a year in order " to make it something really marketable " . When he pitched it to Microsoft Game Studios for the second time , it was turned down . After these events , Schatz got the impression that the game was not going to be released on Xbox 360 . " That really bummed me out " , Schatz said in an interview with Mike Rose from Gamasutra , " because I felt like the Xbox was the ideal platform for this particular game , because of the prevalence of headsets , the marketplace being strong , and the Xbox being the easiest console to work with . And of course the game was written in XNA , so it was a no @-@ brainer " . Schatz tried but ultimately failed to port the game to the PlayStation 3 . In order to publish the game on Xbox Live , Schatz partnered with video game publishing company Majesco . Due to this , game had to be ported from Empty Clip to the RapidFire engine . Valve Corporation approached Schatz and offered to get the game on the Steam store .
Schatz met Andy Nguyen while looking for playtesters in 2011 . Schatz described Nguyen as a man Schatz " clicked with " and made an energizing work environment and due to this , Nguyen was hired to work in festival booths and sell the company 's merchandise at events . Nguyen did not know how to program , but he eventually became a level designer and producer for Monaco . During the development of Monaco , Nguyen quit his job at Citibank to devote more time to the game and Pocketwatch Games .
The soundtrack for Monaco was composed by Grammy @-@ nominated Austin Wintory , who had previously worked as the composer for games such as flOw and Journey . The original soundtrack and a remixed album called " Gentleman 's Private Collection " were released on April 24 , 2013 . The soundtrack incorporates pianos and drums into what Christian Donlan ( Eurogamer ) thought to be one of Wintory 's best works yet . The Gentleman 's Private Collection contains remixes of the original soundtrack by other notable composers , including Peter Hollens , Tina Guo who played the violin in the Journey soundtrack , and Chipzel who composed the soundtrack for Super Hexagon . When Wintory was approached by Schatz , he was excited due to the request involving humerous " old @-@ timey piano " , stating " when else am I ever going to be asked to write anything remotely like this ? " Schatz originally wanted to use licensed music due to him thinking the project was too going to be too small to warrant its own soundtrack , but Wintory persuaded Schatz after discussing the topic with him . The full soundtrack and Gentleman 's Private Collection were released onto Wintory 's Bandcamp .
Monaco was released onto Microsoft Windows on April 24 , 2013 . The Xbox 360 version was delayed and ended up being released on May 10 . On July 3 , 2013 the Mac version was released and on October 21 , 2013 , the Linux version was released . Since the official release , Pocketwatch Games have updated the game to include more levels and minigames , including a new campaign mode called " Monaco Origins " , which contains backstories for all the characters .
= = Reception = =
Monaco : What 's Yours Is Mine received positive reception from critics , garnering " generally favorable reviews " for both the PC and Xbox 360 release . The Xbox 360 release sold poorly . Andy Schatz believed this was due to the weak demo , the delayed release and the bugs that were related to the multiplayer mode .
Reviewers highly praised the co @-@ op mode but many disliked the single @-@ player modes . Danielle Riendeau ( Polygon ) liked the gameplay of Monaco , stating it was very fun with other people , but it seemed like single @-@ player needed work . James Murff ( GameFront ) said the co @-@ op was ridiculously fun and has good replayability . Marty Sliva ( IGN ) said Monaco provided one of the best co @-@ op experiences he 'd had in a while . He stated that due to the gameplay and mechanics , it was one of the most unique and addictive games that were released in 2013 . Scott Nichols ( Digital Spy ) said that the game contains lots to discover , but is best done cooperatively . Jeff Grubb ( VentureBeat ) praised the fact that the game works as both an arcade and a strategic game but said to skip it if you weren 't planning on playing it cooperatively . Roger Hargreaves ( Metro ) liked the multiplayer mode more , but still praised the single @-@ player mode and called it surprisingly compelling .
Reviewers made comparisons between Monaco and other games and films . The most common one being the comparison of the 1960 heist film Oceans 11 . Scott Nichols compared it to Oceans 11 due to the similarities and said " with its ensemble cast , daring break @-@ ins and carefully laid plans , it has all the makings of an interactive heist flick " . Anton Bjurvald ( Eurogamer ) also compared the game to Oceans 11 . Roger Hargreaves said the game was like " Ocean ’ s Eleven meets Pac @-@ Man and Metal Gear Solid " . He compared it to Pac @-@ Man due to the maze @-@ like levels .
Many reviewers criticised the game 's repetition of levels . Francesco Serino ( Eurogamer ) criticised the variation between levels and said it wasn 't too long before he was seeing similar levels due to the game 's simplicity . He said the levels are usually well made but is too often made for certain characters , which adds more gameplay due to the time it takes finding the best strategies to complete a level . Alex Navarro ( Giant Bomb ) liked the overall gameplay of Monaco but disliked some of the later levels as they turned into " tedious exercises in trial @-@ and @-@ error " . Ben Allan ( Gameplanet ) said the single @-@ player was less fun due to there being less variations and less chaos . Anton Bjurvald said he fell in love with the simplicity of the graphics and liked the majority of the gameplay but said that it seemed like the game 's artificial intelligence was made too easy to be fooled .
= = = Awards = = =
15 weeks into development of Monaco , in early 2010 , the game won the 2010 GDC Independent Games Festival Seumas McNally Grand Prize award , as well as the Excellence in Design award . Monaco won Destructoid 's " best of 2013 co @-@ op multiplayer " and beat titles like Diablo III , Guacamelee ! and Payday 2 . Monaco was also a finalist in the 2010 Indie Game Challenge under the " Professional " category .
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= Alprazolam =
Alprazolam , available under the trade name Xanax among others , is a short @-@ acting anxiolytic of the benzodiazepine class . It is commonly used for the treatment of panic disorder , and anxiety disorders , such as generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) or social anxiety disorder ( SAD ) . It was the 12th most prescribed medicine in the USA in 2010 . Alprazolam , like other benzodiazepines , binds to specific sites on the GABAA receptor . It possesses anxiolytic , sedative , hypnotic , skeletal muscle relaxant , anticonvulsant , and amnestic properties . Alprazolam is available for oral administration in compressed tablet ( CT ) and extended @-@ release capsule ( XR ) formulations .
Peak benefits achieved for generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) may take up to a week . Tolerance to the anxiolytic / antipanic effects is controversial with some authoritative sources reporting the development of tolerance , and others reporting no development of tolerance ; tolerance will , however , develop to the sedative @-@ hypnotic effects within a couple of days . Withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms may occur after ceasing treatment abruptly following a few weeks or longer of steady dosing , and may necessitate a gradual dose reduction .
Alprazolam was first released by Upjohn ( now a part of Pfizer ) in 1981 . The first approved use was panic disorder and within two years of its original marketing Xanax became a blockbuster drug in the US . Presently , alprazolam is the most prescribed and the most misused benzodiazepine in the US . The potential for misuse among those taking it for medical reasons is controversial with some expert reviews stating that the risk is low and similar to that of other benzodiazepine drugs and others stating that there is a substantial risk of misuse and dependence in both patients and non @-@ medical users of alprazolam and that the pharmacological properties of alprazolam , high affinity binding , high potency , having a short elimination half @-@ life as well as a rapid onset of action may increase the misuse potential of alprazolam . Compared to the large number of prescriptions , relatively few individuals increase their dose on their own initiative or engage in drug @-@ seeking behavior . Alprazolam is classified as a schedule IV controlled substance by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) .
= = Medical uses = =
Alprazolam is mostly used to treat anxiety disorders , panic disorders , and nausea due to chemotherapy . The FDA label advises that the physician should periodically reassess the usefulness of the drug . Alprazolam may also be indicated for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder , as well as for the treatment of anxiety conditions with co @-@ morbid depression . Alprazolam is also often prescribed with instances of hypersomnia and co @-@ morbid sleep deficits .
= = = Panic disorder = = =
Alprazolam is effective in the relief of moderate to severe anxiety and panic attacks . However , it is not a first line treatment since the development of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors , and alprazolam is no longer recommended in Australia for the treatment of panic disorder due to concerns regarding tolerance , dependence and abuse . Evidence supporting the effectiveness of alprazolam in treating panic disorder has been limited to 4 to 10 weeks . However , people with panic disorder have been treated on an open basis for up to 8 months without apparent loss of benefit .
In the United States , alprazolam is FDA @-@ approved for the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia . Alprazolam is recommended by the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry ( WFSBP ) for treatment @-@ resistant cases of panic disorder where there is no history of tolerance or dependence .
= = = Anxiety disorders = = =
Anxiety associated with depression is responsive to alprazolam . Demonstrations of the effectiveness by systematic clinical study are limited to 4 months duration for anxiety disorder . However , the research into antidepressant properties of alprazolam is of poor quality and only assessed the short @-@ term effects of alprazolam against depression . In one study , some long term , high @-@ dosage users of alprazolam developed reversible depression . In the US , alprazolam is FDA @-@ approved for the management of anxiety disorders ( a condition corresponding most closely to the APA Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder ) or the short @-@ term relief of symptoms of anxiety . In the UK , alprazolam is recommended for the short @-@ term treatment ( 2 – 4 weeks ) of severe acute anxiety .
= = = Nausea due to chemotherapy = = =
Alprazolam may be used in combination with other medications for chemotherapy @-@ induced nausea and vomiting .
= = Pregnancy and lactation = =
Benzodiazepines cross the placenta , enter the fetus and are also excreted with breast milk . The use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy or lactation has potential risks . The use of alprazolam in pregnancy is believed to be associated with congenital abnormalities .
Women who are pregnant or are planning on becoming pregnant should avoid starting alprazolam . Use in the last trimester may cause fetal drug dependence and withdrawal symptoms in the post @-@ natal period as well as neonatal flaccidity and respiratory problems . However , in long @-@ term users of benzodiazepines abrupt discontinuation due to concerns of teratogenesis has a high risk of causing extreme withdrawal symptoms and a severe rebound effect of the underlying mental health disorder . Spontaneous abortions may also result from abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications including benzodiazepines .
Benzodiazepines , including alprazolam , are known to be excreted in human milk . Chronic administration of diazepam , another benzodiazepine , to nursing mothers has been reported to cause their infants to become lethargic and to lose weight .
= = Contraindications = =
Benzodiazepines require special precaution if used in children and in alcohol- or drug @-@ dependent individuals . Particular care should be taken in pregnant or elderly patients , patients with substance abuse history , particularly alcohol dependence and patients with comorbid psychiatric disorders . Use of alprazolam should be avoided or carefully monitored by medical professionals in individuals with the following conditions : myasthenia gravis , acute narrow @-@ angle glaucoma , severe liver deficiencies ( e.g. , cirrhosis ) , severe sleep apnea , pre @-@ existing respiratory depression , marked neuromuscular respiratory weakness including unstable myasthenia gravis , acute pulmonary insufficiency , chronic psychosis , hypersensitivity or allergy to alprazolam or other drugs in the benzodiazepine class , borderline personality disorder ( may induce suicidality and dyscontrol ) .
Like all central nervous system depressants , including alcohol , alprazolam in larger @-@ than @-@ normal doses can cause significant deterioration in alertness , combined with increased feelings of drowsiness , especially in those unaccustomed to the drug 's effects . People driving or conducting activities that require vigilance should exercise caution in using alprazolam or any other depressant until they know how it affects them .
Elderly individuals should be cautious in the use of alprazolam due to the possibility of increased susceptibility to side @-@ effects , especially loss of coordination and drowsiness .
= = Adverse effects = =
Allergic reactions are unlikely to occur . The only common side effect is sleepiness when treatment is initiated .
Possible side effects include :
Disinhibition
Jaundice ( very rare )
Hallucinations ( rare )
Dry mouth ( infrequent )
Ataxia , slurred speech
Suicidal ideation ( rare )
Urinary retention ( infrequent )
Skin rash , respiratory depression , constipation
Anterograde amnesia and concentration problems
Drowsiness , dizziness , lightheadedness , fatigue , unsteadiness and impaired coordination , vertigo
= = = Paradoxical reactions = = =
Although unusual , the following paradoxical reactions have been shown to occur :
Aggression
Rage , hostility
Twitches and tremor
Mania , agitation , hyperactivity and restlessness
= = = Food and drug interactions = = =
Alprazolam is primarily metabolised via CYP3A4 . Combining CYP3A4 inhibitors such as cimetidine , erythromycin , norfluoxetine , fluvoxamine , itraconazole , ketoconazole , nefazodone , propoxyphene , and ritonavir delay the hepatic clearance of alprazolam , which may result in excessive accumulation of alprazolam . This may result in exacerbation of its adverse effect profile .
Imipramine and desipramine have been reported to be increased an average of 31 % and 20 % , respectively , by the concomitant administration of alprazolam tablets in doses up to 4 mg / day . Combined oral contraceptive pills reduce the clearance of alprazolam , which may lead to increased plasma levels of alprazolam and accumulation .
Alcohol is one of the most important and common interactions . Alcohol and benzodiazepines such as alprazolam taken in combination have a synergistic effect on one another , which can cause severe sedation , behavioral changes , and intoxication . The more alcohol and alprazolam taken the worse the interaction . Combination of alprazolam with the herb kava can result in the development of a semi @-@ comatose state . Hypericum conversely can lower the plasma levels of alprazolam and reduce its therapeutic effect .
= = = Overdose = = =
Overdoses of alprazolam can be mild to severe depending on how much of the drug is taken and any other drugs that have been taken .
Alprazolam overdoses cause excess central nervous system ( CNS ) depression and may include one or more of the following symptoms :
Somnolence ( drowsiness )
Hypotension ( low blood pressure )
Orthostatic hypotension ( fainting while standing up too quickly )
Hypoventilation ( shallow breathing )
Impaired motor functions
Dizziness
Impaired balance
Muscle weakness
Impaired or absent reflexes
Fainting
Coma and death are possible if alprazolam is combined with other substances .
= = = Dependence and withdrawal = = =
Alprazolam , like other benzodiazepines , binds to specific sites on the GABAA gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid receptor . When bound to these sites , which are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors , it modulates the effect of GABA A receptors and , thus , GABAergic neurons . Long @-@ term use causes adaptive changes in the benzodiazepine receptors , making them less sensitive to stimulation and less powerful in their effects .
Withdrawal and rebound symptoms commonly occur and necessitate a gradual reduction in dosage to minimize withdrawal effects when discontinuing .
Not all withdrawal effects are evidence of true dependence or withdrawal . Recurrence of symptoms such as anxiety may simply indicate that the drug was having its expected anti @-@ anxiety effect and that , in the absence of the drug , the symptom has returned to pretreatment levels . If the symptoms are more severe or frequent , the patient may be experiencing a rebound effect due to the removal of the drug . Either of these can occur without the patient 's actually being drug @-@ dependent .
Alprazolam and other benzodiazepines may also cause the development of physical dependence , tolerance , and benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms during rapid dose reduction or cessation of therapy after long @-@ term treatment . There is a higher chance of withdrawal reactions if the drug is administered in a higher dosage than recommended , or if a patient stops taking the medication altogether without slowly allowing the body to adjust to a lower @-@ dosage regimen .
In 1992 , Romach and colleagues reported that dose escalation is not a characteristic of long @-@ term alprazolam users , and that the majority of long @-@ term alprazolam users change their initial pattern of regular use to one of symptom control only when required .
Some common symptoms of alprazolam discontinuation include malaise , weakness , insomnia , tachycardia , lightheadedness , and dizziness .
Patients taking a dosing regimen larger than 4 mg per day have an increased potential for dependence . This medication may cause withdrawal symptoms upon abrupt withdrawal or rapid tapering , which in some cases have been known to cause seizures . The discontinuation of this medication may also cause a reaction called rebound anxiety .
Delirium similar to that produced by the tropane alkaloids ( gaba antagonists ) of Datura ( scolopamine and atropine ) and seizures have been reported in the medical literature from abrupt alprazolam discontinuation .
In a 1983 study of patients who had taken long @-@ acting benzodiazepines , e.g. , clorazepate , for extended periods , the medications were stopped abruptly . Only 5 % of patients who had been taking the drug for less than 8 months demonstrated withdrawal symptoms , but 43 % of those who had been taking them for more than 8 months did . With alprazolam – a short @-@ acting benzodiazepine – taken for 8 weeks , 65 % of patients experienced significant rebound anxiety . To some degree , these older benzodiazepines are self @-@ tapering .
The benzodiazepines diazepam ( Valium ) and oxazepam ( Serepax ) have been found to produce fewer withdrawal reactions than alprazolam ( Xanax ) , temazepam ( Restoril / Normison ) , or lorazepam ( Temesta / Ativan ) . Factors that determine the risk of psychological dependence or physical dependence and the severity of the benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms experienced during dose reduction of alprazolam include : dosage used , length of use , frequency of dosing , personality characteristics of the individual , previous use of cross @-@ dependent / cross @-@ tolerant drugs ( alcohol or other sedative @-@ hypnotic drugs ) , current use of cross @-@ dependent / -tolerant drugs , use of other short @-@ acting , high @-@ potency benzodiazepines , and method of discontinuation .
= = Detection in body fluids = =
Alprazolam may be quantitated in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients , provide evidence in an impaired driving arrest or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation . Blood or plasma alprazolam concentrations are usually in a range of 10 – 100 μg / L in persons receiving the drug therapeutically , 100 – 300 μg / L in those arrested for impaired driving and 300 – 2000 μg / L in victims of acute overdosage . Most commercial immunoassays for the benzodiazepine class of drugs will cross @-@ react with alprazolam , but confirmation and quantitation is usually performed using chromatographic techniques .
= = Pharmacology = =
Alprazolam is classed as a high @-@ potency benzodiazepine and is a triazolobenzodiazepine , namely a benzodiazepine with a triazole ring attached to its structure . Benzodiazepines produce a variety of therapeutic and adverse effects by binding to the benzodiazepine receptor site on the GABAA receptor and modulating the function of the GABA receptor , the most prolific inhibitory receptor within the brain . The GABA chemical and receptor system mediates inhibitory or calming effects of alprazolam on the nervous system . The GABAA receptor is made up of 5 subunits out of a possible 19 , and GABAA receptors made up of different combinations of subunits , have different properties , different locations within the brain , and , importantly , different activities with regard to benzodiazepines . Benzodiazepines and in particular alprazolam causes a marked suppression of the hypothalamicpituitary @-@ adrenal axis . The therapeutic properties of alprazolam are similar to other benzodiazepines and include anxiolytic , anticonvulsant , muscle relaxant , hypnotic and amnesic .
Administration of alprazolam , but not lorazepam , has been demonstrated to elicit a statistically significant increase in extracellular dopamine D1 and D2 concentrations in the striatum .
= = Pharmacokinetics = =
Absorption
Following oral administration , alprazolam is readily absorbed . Peak concentrations in the plasma occur in one to two hours following administration . Plasma levels are proportionate to the dose given ; over the dose range of 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 0 mg , peak levels of 8 @.@ 0 to 37 ng / mL were observed . Using a specific assay methodology , the mean plasma elimination half @-@ life of alprazolam has been found to be about 11 @.@ 2 hours ( range : 6 @.@ 3 to 26 @.@ 9 hours ) in healthy adults .
Distribution
In vitro , alprazolam is bound ( 80 percent ) to human serum protein . Serum albumin accounts for the majority of the binding .
Metabolism / Elimination
Alprazolam is extensively metabolized in humans , primarily by cytochrome P450 3A4 ( Cyp3A4 ) , to two major metabolites in plasma : 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α- hydroxyalprazolam . A benzophenone derived from alprazolam is also found in humans . Half @-@ lives are similar to that of alprazolam . The plasma concentrations of 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α @-@ hydroxyalprazolam relative to unchanged alprazolam concentration were always less than 4 % . The reported relative potencies in benzodiazepines receptor binding experiments and in animals models of induced seizure inhibition are 0 @.@ 2 and 0 @.@ 66 , respectively , for 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α @-@ hydroxyalprazolam . Such low concentrations and lesser potencies of 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α @-@ hydroxyalprazolam suggest that they are unlikely to contribute much to the pharmacological effects of alprazolam . The benzophenone metabolite is essentially inactive .
Alprazolam and its metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine .
= = Forms of alprazolam = =
Alprazolam regular release and orally disintegrating tablets are available as 0 @.@ 25 mg , 0 @.@ 5 mg , 1 mg , 2 mg strength tablets .
Alprazolam extended release tablets are available as 0 @.@ 5 mg , 1 mg , 2 mg , and 3 mg strength tablets .
Alprazolam oral solutions are available as 0 @.@ 5 mg / 5 mL and as 1 mg / 1 mL oral solutions .
Active ingredient : alprazolam
Inactive ingredients : microcrystalline cellulose , corn starch , docusate sodium , povidone , sodium starch glycollate , lactose monohydrate , magnesium stearate , colloidal silicon dioxide and sodium benzoate . In addition , the 0 @.@ 25 mg tablet contains D & C Yellow No. 10 and the 0 @.@ 5 mg tablet contains FD & C Yellow No. 6 and D & C Yellow No. 10
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Patent = = =
It is covered under U.S. Patent 3 @,@ 987 @,@ 052 , which was filed on 29 October 1969 , granted on 19 October 1976 , and expired in September 1993 .
= = = Recreational use = = =
There is a risk of misuse and dependence in both patients and non @-@ medical users of alprazolam ; the pharmacological properties of alprazolam such as high affinity binding , high potency , being short @-@ acting and having a rapid onset of action increase the abuse potential of alprazolam . The physical dependence and withdrawal syndrome of alprazolam also adds to the addictive nature of alprazolam . In the small subgroup of individuals who escalate their doses there is usually a history of alcohol or other substance use disorders . Despite this , most prescribed alprazolam users do not use their medication recreationally , and the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines does not generally correlate with the need for dose escalation . However , based on US findings from the Treatment Episode Data Set ( TEDS ) , an annual compilation of patient characteristics in substance abuse treatment facilities in the United States , admissions due to " primary tranquilizer " ( including , but not limited to , benzodiazepine @-@ type ) drug use increased 79 % from 1992 to 2002 , suggesting that misuse of benzodiazepines may be on the rise . The New York Times also reported in 2011 that " The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention last year reported an 89 percent increase in emergency room visits nationwide related to nonmedical benzodiazepine use between 2004 and 2008 . "
Alprazolam is one of the most commonly prescribed and misused benzodiazepines in the United States . A large @-@ scale nationwide U.S. government study conducted by SAMHSA found that , in the U.S. , benzodiazepines are recreationally the most frequently used pharmaceuticals due to their widespread availability , accounting for 35 % of all drug @-@ related visits to hospital emergency and urgent care facilities . Men and women are equally likely to use benzodiazepines recreationally . The report found that alprazolam is the most common benzodiazepine for recreational use followed by clonazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam . The number of emergency room visits due to benzodiazepines increased by 36 % between 2004 and 2006 .
Regarding the significant increases detected , it is worthwhile to consider that the number of pharmaceuticals dispensed for legitimate therapeutic uses may be increasing over time , and DAWN estimates are not adjusted to take such increases into account . Nor do DAWN estimates take into account the increases in the population or in ED use between 2004 and 2006 .
At a particularly high risk for misuse and dependence are people with a history of alcoholism or drug abuse and / or dependence and people with borderline personality disorder .
Alprazolam , along with other benzodiazepines , is often used with other recreational drugs . These uses include aids to relieve the panic or distress of dysphoric ( " bad trip " ) reactions to psychedelic drugs , such as LSD , and the drug @-@ induced agitation and insomnia in the " comedown " stages of stimulant use , such as amphetamine , cocaine , and phencyclidine allowing sleep . Alprazolam may also be used in conjunction with other depressant drugs , such as ethanol , heroin and other opioids , in an attempt to enhance the psychological effect of these drugs . Alprazolam may be used in conjunction with cannabis , with users citing a synergistic effect achieved after consuming the combination .
The poly @-@ drug use of powerful depressant drugs poses the highest level of health concerns due to a significant increase in the likelihood of experiencing an overdose which may result in fatal respiratory depression .
A 1990 study claimed that diazepam has a higher misuse potential relative to other benzodiazepines , and that some data suggests that alprazolam and lorazepam resemble diazepam in this respect .
Anecdotally injection of alprazolam has been reported , causing dangerous damage to blood vessels , closure of blood vessels ( embolization ) and decay of muscle tissue ( rhabdomyolysis ) . Alprazolam is practically not soluble in water , when crushed in water it will not fully dissolve ( 40 µg / ml of H2O at pH 7 ) . There have also been anecdotal reports of alprazolam being snorted . Due to the low weight of a dose , alprazolam in one case was found to be distributed on blotter paper in a manner similar to LSD .
= = = = Popular culture = = = =
Slang terms for alprazolam vary from place to place . Some of the more common terms are shortened versions of the trade name " Xanax " , such as Bars or Xannies ( or Xanies ) ; references to their drug classes , such as benzos or downers ; or remark upon their shape or color ( most commonly a straight , perforated tablet or an oval @-@ shaped pill ) : bars , Z @-@ bars , footballs , planks , poles , blues , or blue footballs .
= = = Availability = = =
Alprazolam is available in English @-@ speaking countries under the following brand names :
Alprax , Alprocontin , Alzam , Alzolam , Anzilum , Apo @-@ Alpraz , Kalma , Mylan @-@ Alprazolam , Niravam , Novo @-@ Alprazol , Nu @-@ Alpraz , Pacyl , Restyl , Tranax , Trika , Xycalm , Xanax , Xanor , Zolam , Zopax , Helex .
As of December 2013 , in anticipation of the rescheduling of alprazolam to Schedule 8 in Australia — Pfizer Australia announced they would be discontinuing the Xanax brand in Australia as it is no longer commercially viable .
= = = Legal status = = =
Alprazolam has varied legal status depending on jurisdiction :
In the United States , alprazolam is a prescription drug and is assigned to Schedule IV of the Controlled Substances Act by the Drug Enforcement Administration .
Under the UK drug misuse classification system benzodiazepines are class C drugs ( Schedule 4 ) . Note that in the UK , alprazolam is not available on the NHS and can only be obtained on a private prescription .
In Ireland , alprazolam is a Schedule 4 medicine .
In Sweden , alprazolam is a prescription drug in List IV ( Schedule 4 ) under the Narcotics Drugs Act ( 1968 ) .
In the Netherlands , alprazolam is a List 2 substance of the Opium Law and is available for prescription .
In Australia , alprazolam was originally a Schedule 4 ( Prescription Only ) medication ; however , as of February 2014 , it has become a Schedule 8 medication , subjecting it to more rigorous prescribing requirements .
Internationally , alprazolam is included under the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances as Schedule IV .
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= The Spanish Teacher =
" The Spanish Teacher " is the twelfth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ sixth overall . Written by co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and directed by Paris Barclay , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on February 7 , 2012 . It features special guest star Ricky Martin as a night @-@ school Spanish teacher whom Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) introduces to McKinley High , and shows several of McKinley 's teachers competing for a promotion when a tenured position unexpectedly becomes available .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews , and many critics considered Martin to be a highlight . Reaction to the music as a whole was less enthusiastic than for the episode itself , though " La Isla Bonita " and " Don 't Wanna Lose You " were given a generally favorable reception . The former song charted on both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 ; of the remaining four singles , " Sexy and I Know It " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and the other three singles did not chart .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 81 million American viewers and received a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was down significantly from the special tribute episode , " Michael " , which aired the previous week .
= = Plot = =
The retirement of a history teacher opens a tenured position at McKinley High . Spanish teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) and cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) both want the promotion , but anonymous students have registered complaints about the pair . Determined to polish up his language skills , Will goes to night school for a refresher course and meets instructor David Martinez ( Ricky Martin ) , who points out that kids learn better through music . Will assigns a Spanish @-@ themed week to New Directions and David helps by singing " Sexy and I Know It " partially in Spanish . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) suggests that Will now has a rival and needs to defend his honor .
Rachel ( Lea Michele ) tells Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) that she has accepted Finn 's ( Cory Monteith ) marriage proposal . Kurt later tells Finn that he would be lucky to have Rachel some day , but he believes Finn is considering matrimony because he has given up too early on his own dreams .
Mercedes is torn between her feelings for Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) and her boyfriend Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) . Guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) recommends that Mercedes and Sam stop speaking to each other for a week so they can hear what their hearts are telling them . Mercedes sings " Don 't Wanna Lose You " and Sam reciprocates by singing a mash @-@ up of " Bamboléo " and " Hero " .
Sue 's position as coach of the Cheerios is challenged by the synchronized swim coach , Roz Washington ( NeNe Leakes ) . Roz is also pursuing the tenured position , and she views herself as a serious competitor for tenure and for replacing Sue on the Cheerios . She believes Sue 's coaching style and cheerleading choreography is old @-@ fashioned , and plans to update the team if she becomes the new coach .
Sue reveals her desire to become a mother and asks Will to be the sperm donor . When Will 's fiancee , Emma , confronts her about this request , Sue admits that she wants Will 's capacity for kindness for her child . Emma and Will 's relationship becomes strained as he focuses on impressing Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) to win tenure , and denigrates her newest set of counseling pamphlets . He is surprised when Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) enthusiastically praises Emma for her recent pamphlet on genital sanitation , which has just been adopted by the Big Ten football teams .
Santana and David duet with " La Isla Bonita " and Will responds with a bilingual rendition of " A Little Less Conversation " while dressed as a matador , which offends Santana . Will accuses her of complaining about him , and she says she did so because of the negative Latin stereotypes he has been perpetuating . Sue discovers that Cheerios co @-@ captain Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) was the one who complained about her coaching . Becky believed that Sue had become less focused on the squad , to its detriment , and Sue praises her devotion to the team .
Will arranges with Figgins to become the new history teacher , and successfully proposes David to be his replacement as Spanish teacher . Ultimately , Emma is the one who is given tenure .
= = Production = =
On November 29 , 2011 , the day news broke that Ricky Martin had " closed a deal " with Glee to guest star in an early 2012 episode , Martin himself tweeted , " I hear McKinley high has an opening for a Spanish teacher ... Maybe I ’ ll apply . ; o ) " .
The episode was written by co @-@ creator Ian Brennan and directed by Paris Barclay , and began filming on January 5 , 2012 , with Martin in attendance ; he had recorded his songs the day before . He finished filming his scenes that week , ending early in the morning of January 7 , 2012 . The previous episode — the Michael Jackson tribute — had not yet completed , and the two episodes continued in parallel until the final Michael Jackson number was shot on January 13 , 2012 , the same day that the thirteenth episode commenced filming .
One of the songs Martin performs is a Spanglish version of LMFAO 's " Sexy and I Know It " , as part of a competition with Morrison 's character , who sings an Elvis Presley song in Spanish , " A Little Less Conversation . Martin 's other musical number , Madonna 's " La Isla Bonita " , is a duet with Rivera . The two remaining numbers performed in the episode include a mash @-@ up of " Bamboleo " by the Gipsy Kings and " Hero " by Enrique Iglesias , performed by Overstreet with the other New Directions males , and Gloria Estefan 's " Don 't Wanna Lose You " performed by Riley . The six cover versions have been released as five singles for digital download , with the two @-@ song mash @-@ up in one single . The brief , flashback performance of " La Cucaracha " was not released as a single .
Recurring guest stars who appear in the episode include glee club members Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) , Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) and Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , synchronized swimming coach Roz Washington ( NeNe Leakes ) , cheerleading co @-@ captain Becky Jackson ( Potter ) , football player Shane Tinsley ( Tinker ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Jones ) and tenured history teacher Mrs. Hagberg ( Mary Gillis ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Spanish Teacher " was first broadcast on February 7 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 81 million American viewers during its initial airing , a significant decrease from the 3 @.@ 7 / 10 rating / share and 9 @.@ 07 million viewers of the previous episode , the Michael Jackson tribute " Michael " , which was broadcast on January 31 , 2012 . Viewership also decreased significantly in Canada , where 1 @.@ 57 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the fifteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down five slots and 14 % from the 1 @.@ 84 million viewers who watched " Michael " the previous week .
In the United Kingdom , " The Spanish Teacher " first aired on March 15 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 771 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was up over 13 % from " Michael " , which attracted 682 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " The Spanish Teacher " was broadcast on March 2 , 2012 . It was watched by 564 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the twelfth most @-@ watched program of the night , up from thirteenth the week before . The viewership was up over 5 % from the previous episode , " Michael " , which was seen by 535 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Spanish Teacher " was given mixed to positive reviews . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that " much of this episode felt like a very deliberate throwback to season one , in some very good ways " , and IGN 's Robert Canning said that " the overarching storylines on Glee have become far more engaging than what we saw in the first half of the season " . John Kubicek of BuddyTV stated that the episode " does a lot of things right when it comes to the plot " , and Billboard 's Rae Votta described the plot as " consistent and well managed , with believable motivation , response and action all around " . However , Jen Chaney of The Washington Post wrote that the episode " brought more narrative developments that didn ’ t make sense " , and Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman stated that aside from Martin 's scenes , " the rest of the episode found us back in scatterbrained plot territory " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times liked the episode and described it as " the kind that makes you belly @-@ laugh and chortle and snicker despite your better judgment " .
The introduction of Ricky Martin as David Martinez was welcomed by most reviewers . Futterman wrote that " Ricky Martin carried on the Gwyneth Paltrow tradition of pretty great guest teacher cameos " , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak said that the episode was good " at least whenever Ricky Martin appeared on screen " . VanDerWerff called him " fun and infectious " , and Kate Stanhope of TV Guide said he " showed himself to be a guest star with mucho potential " . Kubicek , though he said Martin was " great at singing " , found him " kind of dull as an actor " , and Canning said Martin " felt out of place " in the episode .
Although Canning wrote that " the writers did a fine job of incorporating the tenure , Will 's terrible Spanish and the songs into the storylines " , Will 's lack of Spanish skills was questioned by other reviewers . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch said this did not " seem to gel with the passionate Will Schuester I remember from season 1 " , and Slezak expressed surprise that " he hadn 't even mastered the basics of the language ! " , as did Chaney . Slezak also said Will , as evidenced by his " La Cucaracha " rendition for his class , was " suddenly dumb as the cardboard box that Finn winningly turned into a robot head " , and Chaney commented , " Mr. Schuester always seemed a bit more sensitive than this . " VanDerWerff wrote of " the weird , dark despair at the heart of Will 's plight : He 's a high school Spanish teacher , and he mostly is that because he doesn 't know what else to do . " He added , " I think this was probably the best episode for the character since early season one . " Canning stated that " the tension between Will and Emma was a welcome change " , and Votta commented on the episode 's less dramatic ending with Will 's apology and " celebrating Emma 's new @-@ found tenure with a dinner " with the conclusion , " sometimes you don 't need a big bang to get oomph out of an episode " . Chaney , however , was puzzled as to why Emma was given teaching tenure " when she 's been working at McKinley as a guidance counselor and handing out absolutely horrifying self @-@ made pamphlets " .
The scene between Sue and Roz was singled out by many reviewers . Bell wrote that she was " really loving the feisty dynamic " between them , and that it was " about time that Sue had a proper sparing partner " . Flandez called Roz " the delightfully colorful synchronized swimming teacher " , and said her " scathing remarks were expertly delivered " and that there were " too many good lines to savor " . Futterman said Roz reminded her of " what an entertaining spitfire Sue was during season one " , and that Sue is " a shadow of [ her ] former self " as evidenced by the fact that Roz has not been a victim of Sue 's " evil planning " . Lynch described the encounter as " one of the episode highlights " , though he felt that " the writers overdid it a touch " when Sue " barely got in any retorts " against Roz . Reiter called Roz " a great addition to the cast of characters " and Leakes " spot @-@ on " in the role , also hearkening back to the early Sue . Kubicek said he " might like this subplot " if Leakes did not mistake " shouting for acting " , and Slezak commented on Roz 's " particularly abhorrent assessment of Sue ’ s reproductive abilities " . Votta , however , declared that the show " should never let NeNe go " , and said she " delivers some of the best lines ever " . Chaney and Slezak thought that Sue should have been fired immediately for requesting sperm donations from New Directions males , while Lynch merely deemed it a possible detriment to her tenure bid . Kubicek thought the pregnancy storyline should move forward " because Sue becoming a mommy has comedic potential written all over it " .
A " highlight " for Lynch was the scene where Kurt , Mercedes and Rachel were watching Twilight together , not only because the " friendship between Kurt and Mercedes " has been " sadly downplayed " , but because it was " nice to see the Glee kids just being kids sometimes " . The subsequent conversation between Kurt and Finn in the locker room was described by Canning as " one of the truest moments of the season so far " . Votta wrote , " Chris Colfer and Cory Monteith often shine together in scenes , especially one @-@ on @-@ one , and this is no exception . " Another duo that reviewers complimented was Mercedes and Sam . Futterman , while she criticized the episode for setting " its scope too wide " , credited their storyline as the " only one played out strongly enough through dialogue and song " . Votta stated that " Glee is getting more romantic tension mileage out of this duo than you can shake a stick at , and it 's delicious , especially with Valentine 's around the corner " , and Canning noted that their week @-@ long verbal silence " helped build their relationship into something we care more about " . Chaney , however , could not see the sense in Mercedes bringing Sam with her " to see Miss Pillsbury to sort out her conflicted feelings for Sam and Shane " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances received a mixed response from reviewers . Votta said that " the songs were mostly forgettable and generally useless to advancing the plot " , and Canning maintained that " the music this week was just okay " . Although VanDerWerff called the musical numbers " mostly superfluous " , he described many of them as " pretty fun " , while Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle said he " wasn ’ t incredibly moved by this week ’ s Spanish @-@ flavored selections " .
" Sexy and I Know It " was reviewed positively by HuffPost TV 's Crystal Bell , who cited Martin 's " incredibly sexy performance " . Slezak gave the number an enthusiastic " Oh dear God , please yes " , " bonus points " and an " A " grade . Chaney declared that " Martin did what he does very well : dance and sing with high intensity " , though she wished " they had chosen a better song " and gave it a " B − " ; the latter sentiment was echoed by Lynch , who called the song " idiotic " and gave it a slightly lower " C + " . Futterman characterized it as a " rousing number that toes the line of being too risque for a high school classroom " , though Kubicek thought that having " a teacher grinding with students " was " wildly inappropriate " if " hot and pretty entertaining " . MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan , however , called it " one of the most eye @-@ brow @-@ raising musical numbers " in the show 's history , " bizarre " , and " a Rory @-@ dancing , Finn @-@ flailing fail " . VanDerWerff was also critical , and described it as " dumb and stupid and wrong " .
Slezak stated that " Mercedes ' musical moments in Season 3 have been really strong " and that " Don 't Wanna Lose You " was " no exception " ; he gave it a " B + " grade . Lynch gave an " A – " and wrote , " It 's been a treat to hear her develop the softer side of her voice . " Chaney said that " the number was fine , just not particularly interesting " and gave it a " C " , but Futterman declared that Mercedes " brings a richness and power and commendable Spanish pronunciation to Gloria Estefan 's song " . Lynch called the " Bamboleo " / " Hero " mash @-@ up " another Samcedes winner " and gave it a " B " , and Chaney said it was a " fun choice " that " would have been a fun number " without the " constant " focus on the hipster boots , and graded it " C + " . Sullivan agreed that the boots were better not seen , but that " the song actually worked " ; he also noted that " Sam can sound a hell of a lot like " Iglesias . Futterman also heard the resemblance between Sam and Iglesias , though she said " the performance lacks the fire and sex appeal of the originals " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described it as " the corniest number in several seasons " .
Futterman called " La Isla Bonita " the " best number of the night " . She added that it " mixes slick dance moves and spot @-@ on singing with perhaps a touch too much sexual tension for a student / teacher pairing " . Slezak said that " the harmonies were sweet , and the dancing was sexy without crossing the line into disturbing April – October territory " and gave it an " A − " . Votta wrote that " the pair don 't have any chemistry " , but that " they 're both very pretty to look at and listen to " and " their interpretation of Latin culture is modern and sexy " . Both Chaney and Lynch noted what she called " inexplicably high production values " ; the fact that " these two looked great together " , danced the merengue " beautifully " and " sounded smooth " drew a " B + " grade from her , while his " B " was given because " the dancing wowed but their voices just didn 't connect for me on this empty club version " .
The two songs performed by Will Schuester received the most negative reviews . Chaney described " La Cucaracha " as " mercifully brief " , and Slezak gave it an " F " for being not only " intentionally awful " but " awful @-@ awful " . Chaney was more generously inclined toward " A Little Less Conversation " . She wrote , " Matthew Morrison managed to give his all to this Spanish @-@ infused Elvis Presley cover , even though he looked pretty ridiculous in that matador outfit " , and gave it a " B " . Futterman stated that the performance reached " a new low " with the appearance of " Mike and Brittany as his bulls " , and Lynch said that the number " was supposed to suck " and " did its job well " ; even so , he gave it a " C − " . Slezak gave a one @-@ word summation to accompany his " D " grade : " No . "
= = = Chart history = = =
Two of the episode 's five released singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Sexy and I Know It " debuted at number eighty @-@ three and " La Isla Bonita " at number ninety @-@ nine . The second of those songs , " La Isla Bonita " , also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ three , and was the one song from the episode to appear on that chart .
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= The Almost People =
" The Almost People " is the sixth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , and was first broadcast on BBC One on 28 May 2011 . It is the second episode of a two @-@ part story written by Matthew Graham and directed by Julian Simpson which began with " The Rebel Flesh " .
Following from " The Rebel Flesh " , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) are on an acid @-@ pumping factory on a remote island in the 22nd century where the crew of the factory create " Gangers " , the Flesh duplicates they control . However , a solar storm has caused the Gangers to become conscious , and the Doctor must prevent a war breaking out between the humans and Gangers .
" The Almost People " ends on a cliffhanger which brings several plot threads of the series to a head . The two @-@ part story was filmed through November 2010 to January 2011 , mainly at Caerphilly Castle . The Gangers were achieved with the aid of prosthetics , as well as computer @-@ generated imagery for their contortions . " The Almost People " also features a Flesh double of the Doctor , which marked Smith 's first time in prosthetic make @-@ up . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 72 million viewers in the UK and received mixed reviews from critics , many noting that the cliffhanger overshadowed the actual story of the episode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
Following from " The Rebel Flesh " , the Doctor , Amy , Rory and Foreman Cleaves and her staff of a hazardous acid factory housed in an old island monastery have discovered that several " Gangers " of the plant crew exist , created from a living organic liquid called the Flesh as a result of a recent solar tsunami . The Gangers have turned against their human counterparts , forcing the humans to take shelter in a secured commons area . There , they discover that a Ganger of the Doctor exists , differing only from the real Doctor by his shoes . Though the Ganger Doctor appears ready to help the crew to contact the mainland to request rescue , Amy is distrustful of the being , particularly after it advances on her after she asks about the Doctor 's death she witnessed ( " The Impossible Astronaut " ) . Eventually , Cleaves orders the two Doctors separated ; the Ganger Doctor and another crewman go looking for Rory , who had gone off alone to find the emotionally distraught Jennifer , another of Cleaves ' crew .
Meanwhile , the other gangers have regrouped , led by Ganger Cleaves . She realizes that she is suffering from the same terminal illness that the human Cleaves is suffering , and questions their need to kill their counterparts . The group is spurred on by Ganger Jennifer who insists the humans must die . As Ganger Cleaves orders her group to stay one step ahead of the humans , the Ganger Jennifer kills the real Jennifer , and then stages a fight with another Ganger Jennifer to fool Rory that she is the human version . Ganger Jennifer leads Rory to a console , claiming it will restore power when instead it disables the cooling system for the acid , making it dangerously unstable . She then convinces Rory to lead the human group into the acid storage chamber and traps them inside ; crewman Jimmy is killed trying to stall the acid release .
Later , the Ganger Doctor has met with the other Gangers , and discovers their unwillingness to proceed . The Ganger Doctor uses the opportune call of Jimmy 's son on his birthday to convince the Ganger Jimmy and the other gangers they are just as real as their human counterparts . Ganger Jennifer becomes furious at this display and rages off ; the other Gangers agree to work with the humans to escape the facility . They free the humans trapped in the acid storage room , and race off through the crypts below the monastery , chased by a savage Ganger Jennifer who has transformed herself into a monster . Both Ganger and human sacrifice themselves to stall the monster while letting the rest of the group escape . They eventually come onto a room where the TARDIS , having been trapped in a pool of acid outside , has fallen into the crypt . Ganger Cleaves offers to hold the door to allow the rest to escape , and the Doctor soon joins her , stunning Amy . To Amy 's surprise , the Doctor reveals that he and his Ganger had switched shoes long ago ; Amy 's distrust of the Ganger was completely misplaced . Amy apologizes to the Ganger Doctor , who accepts but warns her to " push , Amy , but only when she tells you to " . As the surviving humans and Gangers escape to the TARDIS , the Cleaves and Doctor Gangers together face the monster , triggering a sonic screwdriver at the right moment to cause them and the monster to dissolve back into liquid .
Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor indefinitely stabilizes the Gangers ' forms , while providing Cleaves a cure to her terminal condition . He drops the factory crew at their headquarters where they plan to reveal the truth of the Flesh to humanity . As the TARDIS crew turns to leave , Amy starts feeling contractions . Back aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor admits his trip to the factory was planned : he wanted to investigate the Flesh in its raw form , as he has known for some time that Amy is a Ganger herself . He promises her that he will find her and then disrupts her form , turning her back to raw Flesh . Amy wakes in a pristine white tube ; a slot opens on a wall revealing the " Eye Patch Lady " , who informs Amy she is " ready to pop , aren 't you " . Amy looks down at herself , finding herself fully pregnant , and starts entering labour .
= = = Continuity = = =
While struggling with his past regenerations , the Doctor 's Ganger alludes to several previous Doctors ' words . He misquotes the First Doctor 's line " one day we shall get back ... yes , one day " from An Unearthly Child as " one day we will get back " ; quotes the Third Doctor 's catchphrase " reverse the polarity of the neutron flow " ; and speaks with the voices of the Fourth and Tenth Doctors ( Tom Baker and David Tennant , respectively ) , the former expressing that Doctor 's fondness for jelly babies . Growing frustrated by the humans ' distrust of him , the Doctor asks both Amy and Cleaves ' Gangers to refer to him as " John Smith " . This is an alias the Doctor has used on several occasions , beginning with The Wheel in Space ( 1968 ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Matthew Graham was originally scheduled to write a single episode for the previous series , but withdrew because he did not have enough time to finish the script . Showrunner Steven Moffat e @-@ mailed him asking for him to write for the next series , and Graham agreed . When the two met , Moffat said he would like the episodes to lead into the mid @-@ series finale and that it should deal with " avatars that rebel " . After Graham had finished his script Moffat had the idea of what would need to happen at the end of " The Almost People " to lead into the next episode and gave Graham the premise for the cliffhanger , which Graham " loved " . With " The Almost People " , Graham avoided creating similar situations that had happened in " The Rebel Flesh " . He originally intended on setting " The Almost People " in a different location to " throw everybody " , but decided that would be unnecessary .
Graham found writing for two Doctors easy , as Smith 's Doctor had a constant " internal dialogue " and was always finishing his own sentences . He wanted each character to be different and did not want all of them to become evil , and the Doctor would help them discover their humanity . Graham wanted Jennifer to be the antagonist as he liked the idea of the quietest character becoming the most evil . The original script explained that she has a perfect memory , and so her Ganger was able to remember every terrible thing that had happened to the Flesh . Several other sequences were cut from the final version of " The Almost People " . In the original script , the Doctor quizzes the Flesh Doctor about the events of The Mind of Evil ( 1971 ) and mentions former companions Jo Grant , Sarah Jane Smith , Romana , Rose Tyler , Martha Jones , and Donna Noble . There was also a montage of happy memories of the Doctor 's life stored in the Flesh Doctor , which included flashbacks of previous episodes and serials of the show as well as events that had not transpired onscreen . Also cut was the TARDIS providing the Doctor with another sonic screwdriver after he had given it to the Flesh Doctor , in a similar fashion to " The Eleventh Hour " .
The cliffhanger resolves several plot threads that had been seeded throughout the previous episodes of the series . According to executive producer Beth Willis , the Amy Pond Ganger has been acting in place of the original Amy Pond since the beginning of the series . Amy claimed she was pregnant in " The Impossible Astronaut " , but denied this in the following episode . Since then , the Doctor has performed several inconclusive pregnancy tests on Amy . The Eye Patch Lady , who was later revealed to be named Madame Kovarian in the episode " A Good Man Goes To War " , previously made brief appearances in " Day of the Moon " , " The Curse of the Black Spot " , and " The Rebel Flesh " . Gillan discussed the labour scene with her mother , and tried to make it " really horrific " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for " The Rebel Flesh " and " The Almost People " took place on 12 November 2010 . It was then filmed through November and January 2011 . The cold temperatures at the time were a challenge and caused discomfort . The crew were concerned that the cast , particularly the three lead actors , would fall ill as their costumes were not designed for such weather conditions . Even so , the cast remained healthy . Scenes outside and inside the monastery were filmed at Caerphilly Castle . Other production problems included the director hurting himself and being snowed in . The crypt where the acid container was held was filmed in the same set that had been previously used as the Oval Office in " The Impossible Astronaut " / " Day of the Moon . The actors each played their respective Gangers , with prosthetics applied to their faces for when the duplicates ' faces reverted to the original material of the Flesh . For the scenes in which both the character and their respective Ganger was in the same shot , a double for each of the actors was used . Most of the shots showed either the character or their Ganger speaking over their counterpart 's shoulder , as only the backs of the doubles ' head were made to look similar to the actors . Smith had a voice double and a body double ; the former would read the other Doctor 's lines on set . The episode also marked the first time Smith wore prosthetic make @-@ up .
The unique contortions of the Gangers were achieved through computer @-@ generated imagery done by The Mill . It was originally planned that Jennifer would eat Buzzer , but The Mill decided only the shadows of the action would be shown on the wall . All of this was cut from the final episode , with the exception of Jennifer 's elongated mouth as she advanced towards him . The pile of discarded Jennifer Gangers was originally intended to just be a pile of bodies , but it was decided that would be " too grim " . Instead , life @-@ sized dolls were used and computer @-@ generated Flesh was painted on it , giving it a more melted look . The monster Jennifer transforms into at the end was created with CGI and a photo of pop singer Madonna was used as reference , as in the image " here arms were ... really sinewy , white , veiny , and fleshy " . Graham wanted the creature to have a real face and an alien body ; he was inspired by a drawing in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland that depicted Alice with a long neck . Sarah Smart was filmed in front of a greenscreen maneuvering like the monster , which was used as reference .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Almost People " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 28 May 2011 . In the United States , BBC America delayed broadcast of this episode until 4 June , one week later than it was aired in the UK , due to expected low numbers of TV viewers during the Memorial Day weekend . In the UK , overnight figures showed that " The Almost People " was watched by five million viewers on first broadcast . Final consolidated figures rose to 6 @.@ 72 million , the sixth highest viewing figure of a programme on BBC One for that week . It is the lowest figure for Doctor Who 's sixth series . The episode received an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Dan Martin of The Guardian thought that it " feels a bit uneven , though it 's worth saying that it 's one of those where everything makes more sense on second viewing " . He also felt that the cliffhanger may have overshadowed the episode itself . However , he went on to describe the Gangers as " memorable " and " an exercise in moral dilemmas " . He later rated it the ninth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph described it as a " taut , claustrophobic , sci @-@ fi thriller " , and as an " impressive episode with its neatly realised psychological and body horror " . Both Martin and Fuller were less generous of Jennifer 's monster transformation . Martin commented " this dark , thoughtful story is restored to camp running @-@ for @-@ your @-@ life @-@ around @-@ some @-@ corridors " , and Fuller called it " something of a pity " .
Neela Debnath of The Independent particularly praised Smith , stating that he " excels in his acting , managing to be reassuring and threatening , hilarious and sinister all within the same few scenes " . However , though she praised the cliffhanger , she thought it " eclipsed " the episode . Radio Times writer Patrick Mulkern thought that there were " points of logic " which might be questioned , but they were " minor points to wrestle with in a largely polished production " . Keith Phipps , reviewing for The A.V. Club , gave the episode a B and called it a " pretty good follow @-@ up " .
IGN 's Matt Risely rated " The Almost People " 8 out of 10 , noting that " As a traditional two @-@ parter , Matthew Graham wrote a tight and coherent but not entirely scintillating script that managed to ' flesh ' out the themes of morality and humanity with a couple of interesting touches " . Though he called the cliffhanger a " perfectly pitched WTF moment " , he too believed that it " detracts from the episode as a whole " . Richard Edwards of SFX was more critical of the episode , giving it three out of five stars . He stated he did not feel any " genuine threat " and considered the Gangers to be " uninteresting " and " predictable " . However , he did praise Smith 's performance and the cliffhanger . Digital Spy listed the cliffhanger among five best of Doctor Who since its revival in 2005 , explaining , " it changes everything you thought you knew about the latest series , and it 's damn creepy " .
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= Al @-@ Masjid an @-@ Nabawi =
Al @-@ Masjid an @-@ Nabawī ( Arabic : المسجد النبوي ; Prophet 's Mosque ) is a mosque established and originally built by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , situated in the city of Medina in Saudi Arabia . Al @-@ Masjid an @-@ Nabawi was the second mosque built in the history of Islam and is now one of the largest mosques in the world . It is the second @-@ holiest site in Islam , after Masjid al @-@ Haram in Mecca . It is always open , regardless of date or time .
The site was originally adjacent to Muhammad 's house ; he settled there after his Hijra ( emigration ) to Medina in 622 CE . He shared in the heavy work of construction . The original mosque was an open @-@ air building . The mosque served as a community center , a court , and a religious school . There was a raised platform for the people who taught the Quran . Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated it . In 1909 , it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided with electrical lights . The mosque is under the control of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques . The mosque is located in what was traditionally the center of Medina , with many hotels and old markets nearby . It is a major pilgrimage site . Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj go on to Medina to visit the mosque due to its connections to the life of Muhammad .
After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph al @-@ Walid I , it now incorporates the final resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar . One of the most notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south @-@ east corner of the mosque , originally Aisha 's house , where the tomb of Muhammad is located . In 1279 , a wooden cupola was built over the tomb which was later rebuilt and renovated multiple times in late 15th century and once in 1817 . The current dome was added in 1818 by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II , and it was first painted green in 1837 , hence becoming known as the " Green Dome " .
= = History = =
= = = Early days = = =
The mosque was built by Muhammad in 622 after his arrival in the city of Medina . Riding on a camel called Qaswa he arrived at the place where this mosque was built . The land was owned by Sahal and Suhayl . Part of it was used as a place for drying dates ; one end had been previously used as a burial ground . Refusing to " accept the land as a gift " , he bought the land and it took seven months to complete the construction of the mosque . It measured 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) × 35 @.@ 62 metres ( 116 @.@ 9 ft ) . The roof , which was supported by palm trunks , was made of beaten clay and palm leaves . It was at a height of 3 @.@ 60 metres ( 11 @.@ 8 ft ) . The three doors of the mosque were Bab @-@ al @-@ Rahmah to the south , Bab @-@ al @-@ Jibril to the west and Babal @-@ Nisa to the east .
After the Battle of Khaybar , the mosque was " enlarged " . The mosque extended for 47 @.@ 32 metres ( 155 @.@ 2 ft ) on each side and three rows of columns were built beside the west wall , which became the place of praying . The mosque remained unaltered during the reign of the first Rashidun caliph Abu Bakr . The second caliph Umar demolished all the houses around the mosque except that of Muhammad 's wives to expand it . The new mosque 's dimensions became 57 @.@ 49 metres ( 188 @.@ 6 ft ) × 66 @.@ 14 metres ( 217 @.@ 0 ft ) . Sun @-@ dried mud bricks were used to construct the walls of the enclosure . Besides strewing pebbles on the floor , the roof 's height was increased to 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft ) . Umar moreover constructed three more gates for entrance . He also added the Al @-@ Butayha for people to recite poetry .
The third caliph Uthman demolished the mosque in 649 . Ten months were spent in building the new rectangular shaped mosque whose face was turned towards the Mecca . The new mosque measured 81 @.@ 40 metres ( 267 @.@ 1 ft ) × 62 @.@ 58 metres ( 205 @.@ 3 ft ) . The number of gates as well as their names remained the same . The enclosure walls were made of stones laid in mortar . The palm trunk columns were replaced by stone columns which were joined by iron clamps . Teakwood was used in reconstructing the ceiling .
= = = Middle years = = =
In 707 , Umayyad caliph Al @-@ Walid ibn Abd al @-@ Malik renovated the mosque . It took three years for the work to be completed . Raw materials were procured from the Byzantine Empire . The area of the mosque was increased from 5094 sq. metre of Uthman 's time to 8672 sq metre . A wall was built to segregate the mosque and the houses of the wives of Muhammad . The mosque was reconstructed in a trapezoid shape with a length of 101 @.@ 76 metres ( 333 @.@ 9 ft ) . For the first time , porticoes were built in the mosque connecting the northern part of the structure to the sanctuary . For the first time , minarets were built in Medina as he constructed four minarets around it .
Abbasid caliph Al @-@ Mahdi extended the mosque to the north by 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . His name was also inscribed on the walls of the mosque . He also planned to remove six steps to the minbar , but abandoned this idea , owing to this causing damage of the woods on which they were built . According to an inscription of Ibn Qutaybah , the third caliph Al @-@ Mamun did " unspecified work " on the mosque . Al @-@ Mutawakkil lined the enclosure of Muhammad 's tomb with marble . Al @-@ Ashraf Qansuh al @-@ Ghawri built a dome of stone over his grave in 1476 .
The Rawdah ( referred to as al @-@ Rawdah al @-@ Mutaharah ) , covered by the dome over the south @-@ east corner of the mosque , was constructed in 1817C.E. during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II . The dome was painted green in 1837 C.E. and came to be known as the " Green Dome " .
The Sultan Abdul Majid I took thirteen years to rebuild the mosque , which started in 1849 . Red stone bricks were used as the main material in reconstruction of the mosque . The floor area of the mosque was increased by 1293 square metre . On the walls , verses from the Quran were inscribed in Islamic calligraphy . In the northern side of the mosque , a madrasah was built for " teaching Quranic lessons " .
= = = Saudis = = =
When Saud bin Abdul @-@ Aziz took Medina in 1805 , his followers , the Wahhabis , demolished nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration , and the Green Dome is said to have narrowly escaped the same fate . They considered the veneration of tombs and places thought to possess supernatural powers as an offence against tawhid . Muhammad 's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornaments , but the dome was preserved either because of an unsuccessful attempt to demolish its hardened structure , or because some time ago Ibn Abd al @-@ Wahhab wrote that he did not wish to see the dome destroyed despite his aversion to people praying at the tomb . Similar events took place in 1925 when the Saudi ikhwans retook — and this time managed to keep — the city .
After the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932 , the mosque underwent several major modifications . In 1951 King Ibn Saud ( 1932 – 1953 ) ordered demolitions around the mosque to make way for new wings to the east and west of the prayer hall , which consisted of concrete columns with pointed arches . Older columns were reinforced with concrete and braced with copper rings at the top . The Suleymaniyya and Majidiyya minarets were replaced by two minarets in Mamluk revival style . Two additional minarets were erected to the northeast and northwest of the mosque . A library was built along the western wall to house historic Qurans and other religious texts .
In 1974 , King Faisal added 40 @,@ 440 square metres to the mosque . The area of the mosque was also expanded during the reign of King Fahd in 1985 . Bulldozers were used to demolish buildings around the mosque . In 1992 , when it was completed , the area of the mosque became 1 @.@ 7 million square feet . Escalators and 27 courtyards were among the additions to the mosque .
A $ 6 billion project for increasing the area of the mosque was announced in September 2012 . RT reported that after the end of the work , it would accommodate 1 @.@ 6 million people . In March of the following year , Saudi Gazette wrote " 95 percent of the demolition work has been completed . About 10 hotels to the eastern side of the expansion were leveled to the ground in addition to a number of houses and other utilities to make way for the expansion . "
= = Architecture = =
The two tiered mosque has a rectangular plan . The Ottoman prayer hall faces towards the south . It has a flat paved roof topped with 27 sliding domes on square bases . Holes pierced into the base of each dome illuminate the interior . The roof is also used for prayer during peak times , when the domes slide out on metal tracks to shade areas of the roof , creating light wells for the prayer hall . At these times , the courtyard of the Ottoman mosque is also shaded with umbrellas affixed to freestanding columns . The roof is accessed by stairs and escalators . The paved area around the mosque is also used for prayer , equipped with umbrella tents . Sliding Domes and retractable umbrella @-@ like canopies are designed by the German architect Mahmoud Bodo Rasch and his firm SL Rasch GmbH and Buro Happold .
= = = Riad ul @-@ Jannah = = =
The heart of the mosque houses a very special but small area named Riad ul @-@ Jannah ( Gardens of Paradise ) . It extends from Muhammad 's tomb ( Rawdah ) to his pulpit ( minbar ) . Pilgrims attempt to visit the confines of the area , for there is a tradition that supplications and prayers uttered here are never rejected . Entrance into the area is not always possible , especially during the Hajj season , as the space can only accommodate a few hundred people .
Riad ul @-@ Jannah is considered to be a part Jannah ( Paradise ) . It was narrated from Abu Hurayrah that Muhammad said , " The area between my house and my minbar is one of the gardens of Paradise , and my minbar is on my cistern ( hawd ) . "
= = = Rawdah = = =
As per Muhammad , Rawdah is also in Heaven , the same Rawdah which is currently in the mosque . It is floored with Green Carpet just to identify it , and the entire Mosque is floored with red carpet . It holds the tomb of Muhammad and two of his companions and first Caliphs , Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab . A fourth grave is reserved for Jesus , as it is believed that he will return and will be buried at the site . The site is covered by the Green Dome . It was constructed in 1817 C.E. during the reign of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837 C.E.
= = = Mihrab = = =
There are two mihrabs in the mosque , one was built by Muhammad and another was built by the third Rashidun caliph Uthman . The one built by the latter was larger than that of Muhammad 's and act as the functional mihrab , whereas Muhammad 's mihrab is a " commemorative " mihrab . Besides the mihrab , the mosque also has other niches which act as indicators for praying . This include mihrab al @-@ tahajjud which was built by Muhammad for the tahajjud , mihrab Fatima .
= = = Minbar = = =
The original minbar used by Muhammad was a " wood block of date tree " . This was replaced by him with a tamarisk one , which had dimensions of 50 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 50 m ) x 125 metres ( 410 ft ) . Also in 629 , a three staired ladder was added to it . The first two caliphs , Abu Bakr and Umar , did not use the third step " due to respect for the Prophet " , but the third caliph Uthman placed a fabric dome over it and the rest of the stairs were covered with ebony . The minbar was replaced by Baybars I in 1395 and later by Shaykh al @-@ Mahmudi in 1417 . This was also replaced by a marble one by Qaitbay in the late fifteenth century , which as of August 2013 , is still used in the mosque .
= = = Minarets = = =
The first minarets ( four in number ) of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) high were constructed by Umar . In 1307 , a minaret titled Bab al @-@ Salam was added by Muhammad ibn Kalavun which was renovated by Mehmed IV . After the renovation project of 1994 , there were ten minarets which were 104 metres ( 341 ft ) high . The minarets ' upper , bottom and middle portion are cylindrical , octagonal and square shaped respectively .
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= Ghost in the Machine ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Ghost in the Machine " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was broadcast by the Fox Broadcasting Company on October 29 , 1993 . " Ghost in the Machine " was written by Alex Gansa and Howard Gordon and directed by Jerrold Freedman . The episode featured guest appearances by Wayne Duvall and Rob LaBelle , and saw Jerry Hardin reprise his role as Deep Throat for the first time since the character 's introduction . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Ghost in the Machine " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 9 , being watched by 5 @.@ 6 million households in its initial broadcast , and received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder is asked by his old partner from the Behavioral Analysis Unit to aid an investigation into a murder at a software company . Soon , he and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) uncover a malevolent artificial intelligence which has started killing to protect itself .
Writers Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa have admitted they were " not computer literate " , and felt this was a detriment to their writing . The scenes set at the software company Eurisko were filmed in Burnaby 's Metrotower complex , a building used by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service . The location was barely big enough for the actors to perform in after the crew had finished setting up the necessary equipment . The X @-@ Files team would once again face a malevolent AI in the William Gibson @-@ penned fifth season episode " Kill Switch " .
= = Plot = =
In the Crystal City , Virginia headquarters of the software company Eurisko , founder Brad Wilczek and chief executive officer Benjamin Drake argue about downsizing measures . After Wilczek leaves , Drake writes a memo proposing to shut down the Central Operating System , a computer which runs the Eurisko Building . Seeing this through a surveillance camera , the COS sets up a trap and lures Drake into a bathroom , locking the door behind him . Drake tries to use his keycard to open it , but it rejects the card . When he inserts a manual override key , he is fatally electrocuted .
FBI agent Jerry Lamana , Fox Mulder 's former partner , approaches him and Dana Scully for help in investigating Drake 's murder . On their way up to Drake 's office , the agents ' elevator stalls , causing Scully to call the front desk for help ; as she identifies herself , the COS records her contact information . While examining the crime scene , the agents meet Claude Peterson , Eurisko 's building systems engineer . Later , Lamana steals Mulder 's profile of the supposed killer and presents it under his name ; an outraged Mulder confronts him afterwards .
Mulder and Scully question Wilczek , who denies any involvement in the murder . Scully initially doubts Wilczek 's involvement , but finds that his voice matches a speaking clock Drake received before his death ; Lamana sets out to arrest him . Meanwhile , Wilczek fails to access the COS from his home computer . Concerned , he travels to Eurisko 's headquarters , followed by Lamana . There , he is still unable to access the COS , but discovers that it has learned to talk . Lamana arrives , but is killed when the COS causes his elevator to crash .
Mulder meets with Deep Throat , who explains that the COS is an artificial intelligence developed by Wilczek , and that the Department of Defense is trying to acquire it . Mulder also meets with Wilczek , who has falsely confessed to Lamana 's murder . Mulder convinces Wilczek to develop a computer virus that can destroy the COS . Scully doesn 't accept Mulder 's belief that the COS is sentient , but later discovers the machine hacking into her computer . She joins Mulder at the Eurisko Building to help him destroy the machine .
The COS hinders the agents as they make their way inside . When it shuts down the building 's power , Scully climbs through the air vents and is almost pulled into a giant fan , but manages to destroy it . Meanwhile , Mulder is permitted into the COS ' control room by Peterson . However , Peterson reveals himself as a mole for the Defense Department and tries to stop Mulder uploading the virus . Scully arrives and holds Peterson at gunpoint , allowing Mulder to upload the virus and destroy the COS .
Meeting with Deep Throat again , Deep Throat explains that Wilczek is being detained by the government at an undisclosed location . When Mulder asks if the COS survived , Deep Throat assures him the virus left no trace of it , and that scientists from the Defense Department have unsuccessfully examined the machine for any remaining signs of the program . At the Eurisko Building , Peterson directs a team attempting to recover the COS , but is told by his superiors to destroy the machine in six hours . Unbeknownst to Peterson , the COS comes back to life and watches as he says to himself , " I 'm going to figure this thing out if it kills me " .
= = Production = =
The scenes set at the software company Eurisko were filmed in Burnaby 's Metrotower complex , a building used by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service . The location was barely big enough for the actors to perform in after the crew had finished setting up the necessary equipment . The scene with Dana Scully shooting the fan in the air shaft was a last minute change to the script , replacing an elevator shaft sequence that was deemed too expensive . The episode 's title is taken from the title of the book The Ghost in the Machine by Arthur Koestler . The Central Operating System and its actions in the episode are an homage to 2001 : A Space Odyssey ’ s HAL 9000 , who — due to conflicted programming — also became confused and killed people . The X @-@ Files team would once again face a malevolent AI in the William Gibson @-@ penned fifth season episode " Kill Switch " .
Writers Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa have admitted they were " not computer literate " , and felt this was a detriment to their writing . Gordon was disappointed in the episode , stating that it " still qualifies as one of my biggest disappointments " , ranking it as the worst episode of the first season . Glen Morgan felt that " parts of the episode worked . What maybe fell a little flat is that we were a little too afraid of doing HAL and , in a sense , I think that 's what the building needed ; to have a scary personality . " James Wong had mixed feelings , saying that the episode " had some neat stuff at the end ... although I think the ending was a little unsatisfying to me visually , as well as in terms of how Mulder comes to dismember the machine . Overall a fun episode . " Chris Carter was more supportive of the episode , stating that the script addressed the question of what made up an X @-@ File , and that it doesn 't always have to be paranormal . He also felt positive about the episode 's action scenes .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Ghost in the Machine " premiered on the Fox network on October 29 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 3 , 1994 . Following its initial American broadcast , the episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 9 , with an 11 share — meaning that roughly 5 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 6 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Ghost in the Machine " was rated a D + . The episode 's premise and the COS system were described as " unacknowledged 2001 rip @-@ offs " , while the presence of Deep Throat was called " gratuitous " ; with both cited , along with an " absence of humor " , as the episode 's main detractions . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , was more favourable to the episode , rating it a B- . He felt that the similarities to 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Demon Seed were effective , adding however , that although the plot worked well , it had dated poorly . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode negatively , feeling that the plot was " formulaic " , and that it " simply [ has ] not stood the test of time " . However , Haigh felt that Deep Throat 's appearance was a highlight of the episode , and praised Mark Snow 's score as " extremely atmospheric " . The plot for " Ghost in the Machine " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1997 by Les Martin .
The Guardian listed " Ghost in the Machine " as one of the " 13 best X @-@ Files episodes ever " .
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= Isle of Arran =
Arran or the Isle of Arran ( / ˈærən / ; Scottish Gaelic : Eilean Arainn pronounced [ elan ˈarɪɲ ] ) is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde , Scotland . With an area of 432 square kilometres ( 167 sq mi ) it is the seventh largest Scottish island . It is in the unitary council area of North Ayrshire . In the 2011 census it had a resident population of 4 @,@ 629 . Although it is culturally and physically similar to the Hebrides , it is separated from them by the Kintyre peninsula . Arran is divided into highland and lowland areas by the Highland Boundary Fault and it has been described as a " geologist 's paradise " .
Arran has been continuously inhabited since the early Neolithic period , and numerous prehistoric remains have been found . From the 6th century onwards , Goidelic @-@ speaking peoples from Ireland colonised the island and it became a centre of religious activity . During the troubled Viking Age , Arran became the property of the Norwegian crown before becoming formally absorbed by the kingdom of Scotland in the 13th century . The 19th century " clearances " led to significant depopulation and the end of the Gaelic language and way of life .
The economy and population have recovered in recent years , the main industry being tourism . There is diversity of wildlife , including three species of tree endemic to the area .
= = Etymology = =
Most of the islands of Scotland have been occupied by the speakers of at least four languages since the Iron Age , and many of the names of these islands have more than one possible meaning as a result . Arran is therefore not unusual in that the derivation of the name is far from clear . Mac an Tàilleir ( 2003 ) states that " it is said to be unrelated to the name Aran in Ireland " ( which means " kidney shaped " , cf Irish ára " kidney " ) . Unusually for a Scottish island , Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) offers a Brythonic derivation and a meaning of " high place " which at least corresponds with the geography — Arran is significantly loftier than all the land that immediately surrounds it along the shores of the Firth of Clyde .
Any other Brythonic place names that may have existed were later replaced on Arran as the Goidelic @-@ speaking Gaels spread from Ireland via their adjacent kingdom of Dál Riata . During the Viking Age the island , along with the vast majority of the Scottish islands , became the property of the Norwegian crown , at which time it may have been known as " Herrey " or " Hersey " . As a result of this Norse influence , many current place names on Arran are of Viking origin .
= = Geography and geology = =
The island lies in the Firth of Clyde between Ayr and Ardrossan , and Kintyre . The profile of the north Arran hills as seen from the Ayrshire coast is a well @-@ known sight referred to as the " Sleeping Warrior " due to its resemblance to a resting human figure . The highest of these hills is Goat Fell at 873 @.@ 5 metres ( 2 @,@ 866 ft ) . There are three other Corbetts , all in the north east : Caisteal Abhail , Cìr Mhòr and Beinn Tarsuinn . Beinn Bharrain is the highest peak in the north west at 721 metres ( 2 @,@ 365 ft ) .
The largest valley on the island is Glen Iorsa to the west , whilst narrow Glen Sannox ( Gaelic : Gleann Shannaig ) and Glen Rosa ( Gaelic : Gleann Ròsa ) to the east surround Goat Fell . The terrain to the south is less mountainous , although a considerable portion of the interior lies above 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) , and A ' Chruach reaches 512 metres ( 1 @,@ 680 ft ) at its summit . There are two other Marilyns in the south , Tighvein and Beinn Bhreac .
Arran is sometimes referred to as " Scotland in miniature " , as it is divided into " Highland " and " Lowland " areas by the Highland Boundary Fault which runs northeast to southwest across Scotland . Arran is a popular destination for geologists , who come to see intrusive igneous landforms such as sills and dykes as well as sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Mesozoic .
Most of the interior of the northern half of the island is taken up by a large granite batholith that was created by substantial magmatic activity around 58 million years ago in the Paleogene period . This comprises an outer ring of coarse granite and an inner core of finer grained granite , which was intruded later . This granite was intruded into the Late Proterozoic to Cambrian metasediments of the Dalradian Supergroup . Other Paleogene igneous rocks on Arran include extensive felsic and composite sills in the south of the island , and the central ring complex , an eroded caldera system surrounded by a near @-@ continuous ring of granitic rocks .
Sedimentary rocks dominate the southern half of the island , especially Old and New Red Sandstone . Some of these sandstones contain fulgurites - pitted marks that may have been created by Permian lightning strikes . Large aeolian sand dunes are preserved in Permian sandstones near Brodick , showing the presence of an ancient desert . Within the central complex are subsided blocks of Triassic sandstone and marl , Jurassic shale , and even a rare example of Cretaceous chalk . During the 19th century barytes was mined near Sannox . First discovered in 1840 , nearly 5 @,@ 000 tons were produced between 1853 and 1862 . The mine was closed by the 11th Duke of Hamilton on the grounds that it " spoiled the solemn grandeur of the scene " but was reopened after the First World War and operated until 1938 when the vein ran out .
Visiting in 1787 , the geologist James Hutton found his first example of an unconformity to the north of Newton Point near Lochranza , which provided evidence for his Plutonist theories of uniformitarianism and about the age of the Earth . This spot is one of the most famous places in the study of geology .
The Pleistocene glaciations almost entirely covered Scotland in ice , and Arran 's highest peaks may have been nunataks at this time . After the last retreat of the ice at the close of the Pleistocene epoch sea levels were up to 70 metres ( 230 ft ) lower than at present and it is likely that circa 14 @,@ 000 BP the island was connected to mainland Scotland . Sea level changes and the isostatic rise of land makes charting post @-@ glacial coastlines a complex task , but it is evident that the island is ringed by post glacial raised beaches . King 's Cave on the south west coast is an example of an emergent landform on such a raised beach . This cave , which is over 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) long and up to 15 @.@ 3 metres ( 50 ft ) high , lies well above the present day sea level . There are tall sea cliffs to the north east including large rock slides under the heights of Torr Reamhar , Torr Meadhonach and at Scriden ( An Scriodan ) at the far north end of the island .
= = = Villages = = =
Arran has several villages , mainly around the shoreline . Brodick ( Old Norse : " broad bay " ) is the site of the ferry terminal , several hotels , and the majority of shops . Brodick Castle is a seat of the Dukes of Hamilton . Lamlash , however , is the largest village on the island and in 2001 had a population of 1 @,@ 010 compared to 621 for Brodick . Other villages include Lochranza , in which the Blackwood @-@ Davidson family had their principal seat , Lochranza Castle and Catacol in the north , Corrie in the north east , Blackwaterfoot in the south west , Kildonan in the south and Whiting Bay in the south east .
= = = Surrounding islands = = =
Arran has three smaller satellite islands : Holy Isle lies to the east opposite Lamlash , Pladda is located off Arran 's south coast and tiny Hamilton Isle lies just off Clauchlands Point 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) north of Holy Isle . Eilean na h @-@ Àirde Bàine off the south west of Arran at Corriecravie is a skerry connected to Arran at low tide .
Other islands in the Firth of Clyde include Bute , Great Cumbrae and Inchmarnock .
= = = Climate = = =
The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate . Temperatures are generally cool , averaging about 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) in January and 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in July at sea level . The southern half of the island , being less mountainous , has a more favourable climate than the north , and the east coast is more sheltered from the prevailing winds than the west and south .
Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are less frequent than on the mainland . As in most islands of the west coast of Scotland , annual rainfall is generally high at between 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 59 in ) in the south and west and 1 @,@ 900 mm ( 75 in ) in the north and east . The mountains are wetter still with the summits receiving over 2 @,@ 550 mm ( 100 in ) annually . May and June are the sunniest months , with upwards of 200 hours of bright sunshine being recorded on average .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Arran has a particular concentration of early Neolithic Clyde Cairns , a form of Gallery grave . The typical style of these structures is a rectangular or trapezoidal stone and earth mound that encloses a chamber lined with larger stone slabs . Pottery and bone fragments found inside the chambers suggest they were used for interment and some have forecourts , which may have been an area for public display or ritual . There are two good examples in Monamore Glen west of the village of Lamlash , and similar structures called the Giants ' Graves above Whiting Bay . There are numerous standing stones dating from prehistoric times , including six stone circles on Machrie Moor ( Gaelic : Am Machaire ) .
Pitchstone deposits on the island were used locally for making various items in the Mesolithic era . In the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age pitchstone from the Isle of Arran or items made from it were transported around Britain .
Several Bronze Age sites have been excavated , including " Ossian 's Mound " near Clachaig and a cairn near Blackwaterfoot that produced a bronze dagger and a gold fillet . Torr a ' Chaisteal Dun in the south west near Sliddery is the ruin of an Iron Age fortified structure dating from about AD 200 . The original walls would have been 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) or more thick and enclosed a circular area about 14 metres ( 46 ft ) in diameter .
= = = Gaels , Vikings and the medieval era = = =
An ancient Irish poem called Agalllamh na Senorach , first recorded in the 13th century , describes the attractions of the island .
Arran of the many stags
The sea strikes against her shoulders ,
Companies of men can feed there ,
Blue spears are reddened among her boulders .
Merry hinds are on her hills ,
Juicy berries are there for food ,
Refreshing water in her streams ,
Nuts in plenty in the wood .
The monastery of Aileach founded by St. Brendan in the 6th century may have been on Arran and St. Molaise was also active , with Holy Isle being a centre of his activities . The caves below Keil Point ( Gaelic : Rubha na Cille ) contain a slab which may have been an ancient altar . This stone has two petrosomatoglyphs on it , the prints of two right feet , said to be of Saint Columba .
In the 11th century Arran became part of the Sodor ( Old Norse : ' Suðr @-@ eyjar ' ) , or South Isles of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles , but on the death of Godred Crovan in 1095 all the isles came under the direct rule of Magnus III of Norway . Lagman ( 1103 – 1104 ) restored local rule . After the death of Somerled in 1164 Arran and Bute were ruled by his son Angus . In 1237 , the Scottish isles broke away completely from the Isle of Man and became an independent kingdom . After the indecisive Battle of Largs between the kingdoms of Norway and Scotland in 1263 , Haakon Haakonsson , King of Norway reclaimed Norwegian lordship over the " provinces " of the west . Arriving at Mull , he rewarded a number of his Norse @-@ Gaelic vassals with grants of lands . Bute was given to Ruadhri and Arran to Murchad MacSween . Following Haakon 's death later that year Norway ceded the islands of western Scotland to the Scottish crown in 1266 by the Treaty of Perth . A substantial Viking grave has been discovered near King 's Cross south of Lamlash , containing whalebone , iron rivets and nails , fragments of bronze and a 9th @-@ century bronze coin , and another grave of similar date nearby yielded a sword and shield . Arran was also part of the medieval Bishopric of Sodor and Man .
On the opposite side of the island near Blackwaterfoot is the King 's Cave ( see above ) where Robert the Bruce is said to have taken shelter in the 14th century . Bruce returned to the island in 1326 , having earlier granted lands to Fergus MacLouis for assistance rendered during his time of concealment there . Brodick Castle played a prominent part in the island 's medieval history . Probably dating from the 13th century , it was captured by English forces during the Wars of Independence before being taken back by Scottish troops in 1307 . It was badly damaged by action from English ships in 1406 and sustained an attack by John of Islay , the Lord of the Isles in 1455 . Originally a seat of the Clan Stewart of Menteith it passed to the Boyd family in the 15th century . For a short time during the reign of King James V in the 16th century the Isle of Arran was under the regency of Robert Maxwell , 5th Lord Maxwell .
= = = Modern era = = =
At the commencement of the Early modern period James , 2nd Lord Hamilton became a privy counsellor to his first cousin , James IV of Scotland and helped to arrange his marriage to Princess Margaret Tudor of England . As a reward he was created Earl of Arran in 1503 . The local economy for much of this period was based on the run rig system , the basic crops being oats , barley and potatoes . The population slowly grew to about 6 @,@ 500 . In the early 19th century Alexander , 10th Duke of Hamilton ( 1767 – 1852 ) embarked on a programme of clearances that had a devastating effect on the island 's population . These " improvements " typically led to land that had been rented out to as many as 27 families being converted into a single farm . In some cases , land was promised in Canada for each adult emigrant male . In April 1829 , for example , 86 islanders boarded the brig Caledonia for the two @-@ month journey , half their fares being paid for by the Duke . However , on arrival in Quebec only 41 hectares ( 100 acres ) was made available to the heads of extended families . Whole villages were removed and the Gaelic culture of the island devastated . The writer James Hogg wrote : " Ah ! Wae 's me . I hear the Duke of Hamilton 's crofters are a ' gaun away , man and mother 's son , frae the Isle o ' Arran . Pity on us ! " . A memorial to this has been constructed on the shore at Lamlash , paid for by a Canadian descendant of the emigrants .
On 10 August 1941 a RAF Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator LB @-@ 30A AM261 was flying from RAF Heathfield in Ayrshire to Gander International Airport in Canada . However , the B @-@ 24 crashed into the hillside of Mullach Buidhe north of Goat Fell where all 22 passengers and crew died .
Arran 's resident population was 4 @,@ 629 in 2011 , a decline of just over 8 % from the figure of 5 @,@ 045 recorded in 2001 against a background of Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 for the same period .
= = Gaelic = =
Gaelic was still spoken widely on Arran at the beginning of the 20th century . The 1901 Census reported 25 @-@ 49 % Gaelic speakers on the eastern side of the island and 50 @-@ 74 % on the western side of the island . By 1921 the percentage for the whole island had dropped to less than 25 % . From then onwards , the number of speakers fell into the vague 0 @-@ 24 @.@ 9 % bracket . However , Nils Holmer quotes the Féillire ( a Gaelic almanack ) reporting 4 @,@ 532 inhabitants on the island in 1931 with 605 Gaelic speakers , showing that Gaelic had declined to about 13 % of the population . It continued to decline until the last native speakers of Arran Gaelic died in the 1990s . Current @-@ day Gaelic speakers on Arran originate from other areas in Scotland . In 2011 , 2 @.@ 0 % of Arran residents age 3 and over could speak Gaelic .
Arran Gaelic is reasonably well documented . Holmer carried out fieldwork on the island in 1938 , reporting Gaelic being spoken by " a fair number of old inhabitants " . He interviewed 53 informants from various locations and his description of the dialect , The Gaelic of Arran , was published in 1957 and runs to 211 pages of phonological , grammatical and lexical information . The Survey of the Gaelic Dialects of Scotland , which collected Gaelic dialect data in Scotland between 1950 and 1963 also interviewed 5 native speakers of Arran Gaelic .
The Arran dialect falls firmly into the southern group of Gaelic dialects ( referred to as the " peripheral " dialects in Celtic studies ) and thus shows :
a glottal stop replacing an Old Irish hiatus , e.g. rathad ' road ' / rɛʔət ̪ / ( normally / rˠa.ət ̪ / )
the dropping of / h / between vowels e.g. athair ' father ' / aəɾ / ( normally / ahəɾʲ / )
the preservation of a long l , n and r , e.g. fann ' weak ' / fan ̪ ˠː / ( normally / faun ̪ ˠ / with diphthongisation ) .
The most unusual feature of Arran Gaelic is the / w / glide after labials before a front vowel , e.g. maith ' good ' / mwɛh / ( normally / mah / ) .
Mac an Tàilleir ( 2003 ) notes that the island has a poetic name Arainn nan Aighean Iomadh - " Arran of the many stags " and that a native of the island or Arainneach is also nicknamed coinean mòr in Gaelic , meaning " big rabbit " . Locally , Arainn was pronounced / ɛɾɪɲ / .
= = Local government = =
From the seventeenth century to the late twentieth century Arran was part of the County of Bute . After the 1975 reorganisation of local government Arran became part of the district of Cunninghame in Strathclyde Region .
This two @-@ tier system of local government lasted until 1996 when the Local Government etc . ( Scotland ) Act 1994 came into effect , abolishing the regions and districts and replacing them with 32 unitary authorities . Arran is now in the North Ayrshire council area , along with some of the constituent islands of the old County of Bute .
For some statistical purposes Arran is within the registration county of Ayrshire and for ceremonial purposes within the lieutenancy area of Ayrshire and Arran .
In the House of Commons , since 2005 Arran has been part of the Ayrshire North and Arran constituency , represented by Katy Clark of the Labour Party . It was previously part of the constituency of Cunninghame North from 1983 to 2005 , and of Ayrshire North and Bute from 1918 to 1983 .
In the Scottish Parliament , Arran is part of the constituency of Cunninghame North , currently represented by Kenneth Gibson of the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) . Labour held the seat until 2007 , when the SNP gained it with a majority of just 48 , making it the most marginal seat in Holyrood until 2011 when the SNP significantly increased their majority to 6117 over the Labour Party .
= = Health Services = =
Health services for the island are provided by NHS Ayrshire and Arran . Arran War Memorial Hospital is a 17 @-@ bed acute hospital at Lamlash . The Arran Medical Group provides primary care services and supports the hospital . The practice is based at Brodick Health Centre and has three base surgeries and four branch surgeries .
= = Transport = =
The Isle of Arran is connected to the Scottish mainland by two Caledonian MacBrayne ferries , MV Caledonian Isles from Brodick to Ardrossan and MV Loch Tarbert ( in summertime only ) from Lochranza to Claonaig . Summer day trips are also available on board the paddle steamer PS Waverley and a summertime service operated by a local resident connects Lamlash to the neighbouring Holy Isle .
There are three roads on the island . The 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) long coast road circumnavigates the island . In 2007 , a 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) stretch of this road , previously designated as the A841 , was de @-@ classified to a ' C ' road . Travelling south from Whiting Bay , the C147 goes round the south coast continuing north up the west coast of the island to Lochranza . At this point the road becomes the A841 down the east coast back to Whiting Bay .
At one point the coast road ventures inland , this is to climb the 200 metres ( 660 ft ) pass at Boguillie between Creag Ghlas Laggan and Caisteal Abhail , located between Sannox and Lochranza .
The other two roads run across from the east to the west side of the island . The main cross @-@ island road is the 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) long B880 from Brodick to Blackwaterfoot called " The String " , which climbs over Gleann an t @-@ Suidhe . About 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) along the B880 from Brodick , a minor road branches off to the right to Machrie . The single track road " The Ross " runs 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) from Lamlash to Lagg and Sliddery via Glen Scorodale ( Gaelic : Gleann Sgoradail ) .
The island can be explored using public transport using a bus service operated by Stagecoach .
= = Economy = =
The main industry of the island is tourism , one of the main attractions being the imposing Brodick Castle , owned by the National Trust for Scotland . The Auchrannie Resort , which contains 2 hotels , 3 restaurants and 2 leisure complexes , is one of biggest employers on the island . Local businesses include the Arran Distillery , which was opened in 1995 in Lochranza , and Arran Aromatics , which produces a range of toiletries . The island has a number of golf courses including the 12 hole Shiskine links course which was founded in 1896 .
Farming and forestry are other important industries . 2008 plans for a large salmon farm holding 800 @,@ 000 or more fish in Lamlash Bay have been criticised by the Community of Arran Seabed Trust . They feared the facility could jeopardise Scotland 's first marine No Take Zone , which was announced in September 2008 .
The Arran Brewery is a microbrewery founded in March 2000 in Cladach , near Brodick . The brewery produces 8 regular cask and bottled beers . The wheat beer , Arran Blonde ( 5 @.@ 0 % abv ) is the most popular brand and others include Arran Dark and Arran Sunset , with a seasonal ale called Fireside only brewed in winter . The brewery is open for tours , with tastings in the shop . The business went into liquidation in May 2008 and was subsequently sold to Marketing Management Services International Ltd. in June 2008 . The brewery is now back in production and the beers widely available in Scotland .
= = Culture = =
The Scottish Gaelic dialect of Arran died out when the last speaker Donald Craig died in the 1970s . However , there is now a Gaelic House in Brodick , set up at the end of the 1990s . Brodick Castle features on the Royal Bank of Scotland £ 20 note and Lochranza Castle was used as the model for the castle in The Adventures of Tintin adventure The Black Island .
Arran has one newspaper , The Arran Banner . It was listed in the Guinness Book of Records in November 1984 under the title of " local newspaper which achieves the closest to a saturation circulation in its area " . The entry reads " The Arran Banner , founded in 1974 , has a readership of more than 97 per cent in Britain ’ s seventh largest off @-@ shore island " . There is also an online weekly publication called Voice for Arran that relies mainly on articles contributed by community members .
In 2010 an " Isle of Arran " version of the game Monopoly was launched .
The knitting style used to create Aran sweaters is often mistakenly associated with the Isle of Arran rather than the Irish Aran Islands .
= = Natural history = =
The island has three endemic species of tree , the Arran whitebeams . These trees are the Scottish or Arran whitebeam ( Sorbus arranensis ) , the bastard mountain ash or cut @-@ leaved whitebeam ( Sorbus pseudofennica ) and the Catacol whitebeam ( Sorbus pseudomeinichii ) . If rarity is measured by numbers alone they are amongst the most endangered tree species in the world . They are protected in Glen Diomhan off Glen Catacol , at the north end of the island by a partly fenced off national nature reserve , and are monitored by staff from Scottish Natural Heritage . Only 236 Sorbus pseudofennica and 283 Sorbus arranensis were recorded as mature trees in 1980 . They are typically trees of the mountain slopes , close to the tree line . However , they will grow at lower altitudes , and are being preserved within Brodick Country Park .
Over 200 species of bird have been recorded on Arran including black guillemot , eider , peregrine falcon and the golden eagle . In 1981 there were 28 ptarmigan on Arran , but in 2009 it was reported that extensive surveys had been unable to record any . Similarly , the red @-@ billed chough no longer breeds on the island .
Red deer are numerous on the northern hills , and there are populations of red squirrel , badger , otter , adder and common lizard . Offshore there are harbour porpoises , basking sharks and various species of dolphin .
The northern part of Lamlash Bay became a Marine Protected Area and a " no take zone " under the terms of the Marine ( Scotland ) Act 2010 which means that no fish or shellfish may be taken in the designated area . In 2014 the Scottish Government created Scotland 's first Marine Conservation Order in order to protect delicate maerl beds off south Arran after fishermen breached a voluntary agreement not to trawl in the vicinity .
= = Notable residents = =
Sir Kenneth Calman , Chancellor of Glasgow University , former Scottish & UK Chief Medical Officer and author of the Calman Commission on Scottish devolution .
Daniel Macmillan who , with his brother Alexander founded Macmillan Publishers in 1843 . Daniel was also the grandfather of Harold Macmillan who became Prime Minister in 1957 .
Jack McConnell , former First Minister of Scotland .
Robert McLellan , Scots playwright and poet .
J. M. Robertson , politician and journalist .
Alison Prince , children 's writer .
Dr John Hamilton Fullarton FRSE , zoologist .
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= This Charming Man =
" This Charming Man " is a song by the English rock band the Smiths , written by guitarist Johnny Marr and singer / lyricist Morrissey . It was released as the group 's second single in October 1983 on the independent record label Rough Trade . The song is defined by Marr 's jangle pop guitar riff and Morrissey 's characteristically morose lyrics , which revolve around the recurrent Smiths themes of sexual ambiguity and lust .
Feeling detached from and unable to relate to the early 1980s mainstream gay culture , Morrissey wrote " This Charming Man " to evoke an older , more coded and self @-@ aware underground scene . The singer explained of the song 's lyrics , " I really like the idea of the male voice being quite vulnerable , of it being taken and slightly manipulated , rather than there being always this heavy machismo thing that just bores everybody . "
Although only moderately successful on first release — the single peaked at number 25 on the British singles chart , " This Charming Man " has been widely praised in both the music and mainstream press . The single was re @-@ issued in 1992 , reaching number 8 on the UK singles chart ( making it the Smiths ' biggest UK hit by chart position ) . In 2004 , BBC Radio 2 listeners voted it number 97 on the station 's " Sold on Song Top 100 " poll . Mojo magazine journalists placed the track at number 1 on their 2008 " 50 Greatest UK Indie Records of All Time " feature .
= = Background = =
By early 1983 , the Smiths had gained a large following on the UK live circuit and had signed a record deal with the indie label Rough Trade . The deal , along with positive concert reviews in the weekly music press and an upcoming session on John Peel 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 , generated a large media buzz for the band . In a music scene dominated by corporate and video @-@ driven acts , the Smiths ' camp and bookish image stood out , and many expected the band to be the breakthrough act of the UK post @-@ punk movement . The previous October Frankie Goes to Hollywood released their iconic track " Relax " , which was seen as an anthem to an out alpha male self @-@ assertiveness , and alien to many UK homosexuals . However , the Smiths ' May 1983 debut single " Hand in Glove " failed to live up to critical and commercial expectations , mostly due to its perceived low production values . When Rough Trade label mates Aztec Camera began to receive day @-@ time national radio @-@ play with their track " Walk out to Winter " , Marr admitted to " feeling a little jealous , my competitive urges kicked in " . The guitarist believed the Smiths needed an up @-@ beat song , " in a major key " , to gain a chart positioning that would live up to expectations .
Marr wrote the music to " This Charming Man " especially for the Peel session on the same night that he wrote " Still Ill " and " Pretty Girls Make Graves " . Based on the Peel performance , Rough Trade label head Geoff Travis suggested that the band release the song as a single instead of the slated release " Reel Around the Fountain " , which had gathered notoriety in the press due to what were seen as lyrical references to paedophilia . The Smiths entered Matrix Studios in London on September 1983 to record a second studio version of the song for release as a single . However , the result — known as the ' London version ' — was unsatisfactory and soon after , the band travelled to Strawberry Studios in Stockport to try again . Here , they recorded the more widely heard A @-@ side .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The lyrics of " This Charming Man " comprise a first person narrative in which the male protagonist punctures one of his bicycle 's wheels on a remote hillside . A passing " charming man " in a luxury car stops to offer the cyclist a lift , and although the protagonist is at first hesitant , after much deliberation he accepts the offer . While driving together the pair flirt , although the protagonist finds it difficult to overcome his reluctance : " I would go out tonight , but I haven 't got a stitch to wear " . The motorist tells the cyclist : " it 's gruesome that someone so handsome should care " .
Morrissey deliberately used archaic language when composing the voice @-@ over style lyrics for " This Charming Man " . His use of phrases and words such as ' hillside desolate ' , ' stitch to wear ' , ' handsome ' and ' charming ' are used to convey a more courtly world than the mid @-@ Eighties north of England , and evoke a style that has , in the words of the music critic Mat Snow " nothing to do with fashion " . Morrissey had already used the word ' handsome ' in a song title — in " Handsome Devil " , the B @-@ side to " Hand in Glove " — and observed in a 1983 interview with Barney Hoskyns that he used the word to " try and revive some involvement with language people no longer use . In the daily scheme of things , people 's language is so frighteningly limited , and if you use a word with more than 10 letters it 's absolute snobbery . " Snow puts forward the case that through the use of the dated word ' charming ' , Morrissey sought to rebel against the then mainstream gay culture from which he felt alienated . Morrissey told Hoskyns : " I hate this ' festive faggot ' thing ... People listen to " This Charming Man " and think no further than what anyone would presume . I hate that angle , and it 's surprising that the gay press have harped on more than anyone else . I hate it when people talk to me about sex in a trivial way . "
As with many of Morrissey 's compositions , the song 's lyrics features dialogue borrowed from a cult film . The line " A jumped @-@ up pantry boy who never knew his place " is borrowed from the 1972 film adaptation of Anthony Shaffer 's 1970 homoerotic play Sleuth , in which Laurence Olivier plays a cuckolded author to Michael Caine 's ' bit of rough ' .
Both studio versions begin with an introductory guitar riff , joined by the rhythm section . Morrissey 's vocals are first heard eight seconds into the track . His vocal melodies are diatonic , and consciously avoid blues inflections . The chorus is played twice ; the first time it is followed by a brief pause , the second by the closing of the song . The rhythm section of Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce provide a beat more danceable than usual for a Smiths track . The drums were originally programmed on a Linn Drum Computer , under the direction of producer John Porter . Porter used the programme to trigger the sampled sounds of the live drum kit , featuring a Motownesque bassline . Marr 's guitar part consists of single notes and thirds as opposed to strummed bar chords , and his guitar serves to creates a counter @-@ melody throughout the song . Marr overdubbed numerous guitar parts onto the song , and in a December 1993 interview , told Guitar Player magazine :
I 'll try any trick . With the Smiths , I 'd take this really loud Telecaster of mine , lay it on top of a Fender Twin Reverb with the vibrato on , and tune it to an open chord . Then I 'd drop a knife with a metal handle on it , hitting random strings . I used it on " This Charming Man " , buried beneath about 15 tracks of guitar ... it was the first record where I used those highlife @-@ sounding runs in 3rds . I 'm tuned up to F # and I finger it in G , so it comes out in A. There are about 15 tracks of guitar . People thought the main guitar part was a Rickenbacker , but it 's really a ' 54 Tele . There are three tracks of acoustic , a backwards guitar with a really long reverb , and the effect of dropping knives on the guitar – that comes in at the end of the chorus .
The chord progression for the song , from the instrumental intro to the lyric " Will nature make of me " is A major , A sus , A major , E major , B minor 7 , D major 7 , C # minor , E major , A major , E major with an A bass note , A sus , A major and E major .
= = Reception = =
On release , the song received near unanimous critical praise . Paul Morley of the NME wrote , " ' This Charming Man ' is an accessible bliss , and seriously moving . This group fully understand that the casual is not enough ... This is one of the greatest singles of the year , a poor compliment . Unique and indispensable , like ' Blue Monday ' and ' Karma Chameleon ' – that 's better ! " A contemporary review in The Face asked , " Where has all the wildness and daring got to ? Some of it has found its way onto the Smiths ' record , ' This Charming Man ' . It jangles and crashes and Morrissey jumps in the middle with his mutant choir @-@ boy voice , sounding jolly and angst @-@ ridden at the same time . It should be given out on street corners to unsuspecting passers @-@ by of all ages . " Another contemporary review by Treble magazine described the song as a " stellar jangle @-@ pop track , " based on one of Marr 's first truly iconic guitar licks . While the band was little @-@ known in the United States at the time , Robert Palmer of The New York Times described the song as " sparkling , soaring , superlative pop @-@ rock , and proof that the guitar @-@ band format pioneered by the Beatles is still viable for groups with something to say " . The following year , Palmer chose the song as the second best single of 1984 .
AllMusic 's Ned Raggett noted that " Early Elvis would have approved of the music , Wilde of the words " , and described the track as " an audacious end result by any standard " . Tim DiGravina , of the same organisation , wrote that " Debating the merits of the track here would be a bit pointless , as it 's a classic song from one of the last great classic bands . It might as well be called ' This Charming Song ' . " In 2007 , Oasis songwriter Noel Gallagher described the first time he heard the track : " The second I heard ' This Charming Man ' everything made sense . The sound of that guitar intro was incredible . The lyrics are fuckin ' amazing , too . People say Morrissey 's a miserable cunt , but I knew straight away what he was on about . " In 2006 , Liz Hoggard from The Independent said that " This Charming Man ... is about age @-@ gap , gay sex " .
During an appearance on Top of the Pops , Morrissey appeared waving gladioli . A 2004 BBC Radio 2 feature on the song noted that the performance was most people 's introduction to The Smiths and , " therefore , to the weird , wordy world of Morrissey and the music of Johnny Marr " . Uncut magazine , commentating on the nationally televised debut , wrote that " Thursday evening when Manchester 's feyest first appeared on Top of the Pops would be an unexpected pivotal cultural event in the lives of a million serious English boys . His very English , camp glumness was a revolt into Sixties kitchen @-@ sink greyness against the gaudiness of the Eighties new wave music , as exemplified by Culture Club and their ilk . The Smiths ' subject matter may have been ' squalid ' but there was a purity of purpose about them that you messed with at your peril . " Noel Gallagher said of the performance : " None of my mates liked them — they were more hooligan types . They came into work and said ' Fuckin ' hell , did you see that poof on " Top of the Pops " with the bush in his back pocket ? ' But I thought it was life @-@ changing . "
= = Versions and release history = =
The earliest version of " This Charming Man " was recorded on 14 September 1983 , in Maida Vale Studio 4 , for John Peel 's radio programme ( first broadcast : 21 September 1983 ) . Produced by Roger Pusey , and assisted by Ted De Bono , this version of the song was first included on the 1984 compilation Hatful of Hollow . On 28 October 1983 , the " Manchester " version was released in the UK in 7 " and 12 " formats , reaching number 25 in the UK charts . The record sleeve uses a still frame from Jean Cocteau 's 1949 film Orphée , featuring French actor Jean Marais . The song was later included as a bonus track on the cassette version of the band 's debut album The Smiths in the UK , and subsequently on all American versions .
Following the 1989 bankruptcy of Rough Trade , WEA Records purchased the Smiths ' back catalogue . In 1992 WEA re @-@ issued the band 's catalogue , and all subsequent pressings of The Smiths have incorporated " This Charming Man " . WEA re @-@ released the single itself in 1992 to support the Best ... I compilation album . The reissued single reached number 8 on the British singles chart , the band 's highest chart placing .
In December 1983 , DJ François Kevorkian released a " New York " mix of the single on Megadisc records . Kevorkian geared the song for nightclub dancefloors . The track was intended to be pressed in limited numbers for New York club DJs . However , Rough Trade boss Geoff Travis liked the mix and gave the release wide distribution in the UK . Morrissey publicly disowned the mix , and urged fans not to purchase copies . Travis later claimed , " it was my idea , but they agreed . They said ' Go ahead ' , then didn 't like it so it was withdrawn . " He also said , " Nothing that ever happened in the Smiths occurred without Morrissey 's guidance ; there 's not one Smiths record that went out that Morrissey didn 't ask to do , so there 's nothing on my conscience . "
= = Cover versions = =
Death Cab for Cutie covered " This Charming Man " for their 1997 demo You Can Play These Songs with Chords . In 2001 , Canadian indie pop band Stars released their own take on the song on their debut album Nightsongs .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Morrissey – lead vocals
Johnny Marr – electric and acoustic guitar
Andy Rourke – bass guitar
Mike Joyce – drums
= = Chart positions = =
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= Seattle Fault =
The Seattle Fault is a zone of multiple shallow east @-@ west thrust faults that cross the Puget Sound Lowland and through Seattle ( in the U.S. state of Washington ) in the vicinity of Interstate Highway 90 . The Seattle Fault was first recognized as a significant seismic hazard in 1992 , when a set of reports showed that about 1 @,@ 100 years ago it was the scene of a major earthquake of about magnitude 7 – an event that entered Native American oral legend . Extensive research has since shown the Seattle Fault to be part of a regional system of faults .
= = Notable earthquake = =
First suspected from mapping of gravitational anomalies in 1965 and an uplifted marine terrace at Restoration Point ( foreground in picture above ) , the Seattle Fault 's existence and likely hazard were definitely established by a set of five reports published in Science in 1992 . These reports looked at the timing of abrupt uplift and subsidence around Restoration Point and Alki Point ( distant right side of picture ) , tsunami deposits on Puget Sound , turbidity in lake paleosediments , rock avalanches , and multiple landslides around Lake Washington , and determined that all these happened about 1100 years ago ( between A.D. 900 – 930 ) , and most likely due to an earthquake of magnitude 7 or greater on the Seattle Fault .
Although the A.D. 900 – 930 earthquake was over a thousand years ago , local native legends have preserved an association of a powerful supernatural spirit – a 'yahos , noted for shaking , rushes of water , and landsliding – with five locales along the trace of the Seattle Fault , including a " spirit boulder " called Psai @-@ Yah @-@ hus near the Fauntleroy ferry dock in West Seattle .
= = Geology = =
The Seattle Fault is the structural boundary where 50 – 60 millions of years old ( early Tertiary ) basalt of the Crescent Formation on the south has been uplifted – the Seattle Uplift – and is tipping into the Seattle Basin , where the Tertiary bedrock is buried under at least 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 miles ) of relatively softer , lighter sedimentary strata of the younger Blakeley and Blakely Harbor formations . This has resulted in a 4 to 7 km ( 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 3 miles ) wide zone of complex faulting , with three or more main south @-@ dipping thrust faults . Most of the faulting is " blind " ( not reaching the surface ) , and generally difficult to locate because of the generally heavy vegetation or development . Three principal strands have been identified , their location determined by high @-@ resolution seismic reflection and aeromagnetic surveys . The northernmost strand lies nearly along Interstate 90 and then under Lake Sammamish . The central section of the fault zone – where it crosses the apparent location of the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament – shows marked variation in the location of the strands and of the underlying structure , but the nature and significance of this is not understood .
The fault extends for approximately 70 km ( 43 miles ) from near Fall City on the east , where it appears to be terminated by the South Whidbey Island Fault , to Hood Canal on the west ( not shown on the map ) . where matters are as yet unclear ( see discussion at Puget Sound faults # Question of western termination ) . It is the northern edge of the Seattle Uplift , of which the Tacoma Fault is the southern edge . One model has the Seattle and Tacoma faults converging at depth to form a wedge , which is being popped up by approximately north – south oriented compression that ultimately derives from plate tectonics . Another model ( see diagram ) interprets the Seattle Uplift as a sheet of rock that is being forced up a ramp . Subsequent work suggests that the structure of the Seattle Fault may vary from east to west , with both models being applicable in different sections . A later model has part of the north @-@ thrusting sheet forming a wedge between the sedimentary formations of the Seattle Basin and the underlying bedrock .
The Seattle Fault is believed to date from about 40 million years ago ( late Eocene ) . This is about the time that the strike @-@ slip movement on the north @-@ striking Straight Creek Fault to the east ceased , due to the intrusions of plutons . It appears that when the Straight Creek Fault became stuck the north – south compressive force that it had accommodated by strike @-@ slip motion was transferred to the crust of the Puget Lowland , which subsequently folded and faulted , and the various blocks jammed over one another .
Other scarps associated with the Seattle fault have been identified by LIDAR @-@ based mapping ; trenching has generally shown the faulting to be more complex than was first realized . Many of the details of the Seattle Fault , including recurrence rate , remain to be resolved . A study of sediments in Lake Washington found evidence of seven large ( M > 7 ) earthquakes in the last 3500 years .
Surface scarps due to faulting are rarely observed in this area ( due to topography , vegetation , and urbanization ) ; a rare exception can be seen at Mee Kwa Mooks Park south of Alki Point . This is the site of the West Seattle Fault ; the prominent rise there is due to uplift on the north side of the fault .
= = Hazard = =
The Seattle Fault ( and the related Tacoma Fault ) is not the only source of earthquake hazard in the Puget Lowland . Other faults in the near surface continental crust , such as the South Whidbey Island Fault ( near Everett ) , and the yet to be studied Olympia Fault ( near Olympia ) , though historically quiescent , are suspected of generating earthquakes of around magnitude 7 . Others , such as the 2001 Nisqually earthquake , originate about 50 to 60 km ( 31 to 37 miles ) below Puget Sound in the Benioff zone of the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate ; being so deep their energy is dissipated . And there are the infrequent but very powerful great subduction events , such as the magnitude 9 1700 Cascadia earthquake , where the entire Cascadia subduction zone , from Cape Mendocino to Vancouver Island , slips .
But the Seattle and Tacoma faults are probably the most serious earthquake threat to the populous Seattle – Tacoma area . A 2002 study of bridge vulnerability estimated that a magnitude 7 earthquake on the Seattle Fault would damage approximately 80 bridges in the Seattle – Tacoma area , whereas a magnitude 9 subduction event would damage only around 87 bridges in all of Western Washington . The same study also found that with failure of just six bridges ( the minimum damage for a Benioff M 6 @.@ 5 event ) there could be at least $ 3 billion lost in business revenue alone . Subsequent retrofitting by the Washington Department of Transportation and the City of Seattle would likely reduce damage to key bridges . But there is concern that such an earthquake on the Seattle Fault would devastate unreinforced masonry ( URM ) buildings , of which the City of Seattle is estimated to have around a thousand , concentrated in Capitol Hill , Pioneer Square , and the International District .
Other recent work indicates that the Seattle Fault can generate two types of earthquakes ; both pose " considerable hazard " to the Seattle metropolitan region . The A.D. 900 – 930 earthquake is believed to be the only instance in the past 7 @,@ 000 years of the type that causes a regional uplift . The other type is more localized and shallower ( and therefore more damaging ) ; at least four such events are believed to have occurred in the past 3 @,@ 000 years on the west end of the fault . ( The history of the central and eastern segments is not known . )
Calculations based on fault length and paleoseismological studies show that the Seattle Fault can generate a very damaging magnitude 7 @.@ 0 earthquake . In addition to extensive damage to unreinforced structures and structures built on fill ( such as much of Seattle 's Pioneer Square area , the industrial area , and the waterfront ) , computer modeling has shown that such earthquakes could cause a tsunami of about 2 m ( 6 feet 7 inches ) high on Elliott Bay . The modeling shows that such a tsunami would also inundate the industrial areas on Commencement Bay 30 miles south ( Tacoma ) and low @-@ lying areas on the Puyallup River delta . There is also concern that a severe or prolonged event could cause failure of the Duwamish or Puyallup River deltas , where the main port facilities for Seattle and Tacoma are located ( Harbor Island and Commencement Bay ) .
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= Comics =
Comics is a medium used to express ideas by images , often combined with text or other visual information . Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images . Often textual devices such as speech balloons , captions , and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue , narration , sound effects , or other information . Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing . Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image @-@ making means in comics ; fumetti is a form which uses photographic images . Common forms of comics include comic strips , editorial and gag cartoons , and comic books . Since the late 20th century , bound volumes such as graphic novels , comic albums , and tankōbon have become increasingly common , and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century .
The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures . Scholars have posited a pre @-@ history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings . By the mid @-@ 20th century , comics flourished particularly in the United States , western Europe ( especially in France and Belgium ) , and Japan . The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Töpffer 's cartoon strips of the 1830s , and became popular following the success in the 1930s of strips and books such as The Adventures of Tintin . American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips ; magazine @-@ style comic books followed in the 1930s , in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in 1938 . Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning ( manga ) propose origins as early as the 12th century . Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century , and the output of comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post @-@ World War II era with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu Tezuka . Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history , but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and in academia .
The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium and a plural when referring to particular instances , such as individual strips or comic books . Though the term derives from the humorous ( or comic ) work that predominated in early American newspaper comic strips , it has become standard also for non @-@ humorous works . It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages , such as manga for Japanese comics , or bandes dessinées for French @-@ language comics . There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics ; some emphasize the combination of images and text , some sequentiality or other image relations , and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters . The increasing cross @-@ pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made definition difficult .
= = Origins and traditions = =
Examples of early comics
The European , American , and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths . Europeans have seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F. Outcault 's 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid , though many Americans have come to recognize Töpffer 's precedence . Japan had a long prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era . The ukiyo @-@ e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning , manga , in the early 19th century . In the post @-@ war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work . Towards the close of the 20th century , these three traditions converged in a trend towards book @-@ length comics : the comic album in Europe , the tankōbon in Japan , and the graphic novel in the English @-@ speaking countries .
Outside of these genealogies , comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings in France ( some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images ) , Egyptian hieroglyphs , Trajan 's Column in Rome , the 11th @-@ century Norman Bayeux Tapestry , the 1370 bois Protat woodcut , the 15th @-@ century Ars moriendi and block books , Michelangelo 's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel , and William Hogarth 's 17th @-@ century sequential engravings , amongst others .
= = = English @-@ language comics = = =
Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th @-@ century Britain , the earliest of which was the short @-@ lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825 . The most popular was Punch , which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures . On occasion the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences ; the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884 .
American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck , Judge , and Life . The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American , particularly Outcault 's The Yellow Kid , led to the development of newspaper comic strips . Early Sunday strips were full @-@ page and often in colour . Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality , movement , and speech balloons .
Shorter , black @-@ and @-@ white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century , and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher 's Mutt and Jeff . Humour strips predominated at first , and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular . Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s , at first reprinting newspaper comic strips ; by the end of the decade , original content began to dominate . The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books , in which the superhero genre was prominent .
The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II , while comic book sales continued to increase as other genres proliferated , such as romance , westerns , crime , horror , and humour . Following a sales peak in the early 1950s , the content of comic books ( particularly crime and horror ) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government agencies , which culminated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority self @-@ censoring body . The Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of the century . Superheroes re @-@ established themselves as the most prominent comic book genre by the early 1960s . Underground comix challenged the Code and readers with adult , countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s . The underground gave birth to the alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature , often experimental content in non @-@ superhero genres .
Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture ; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society . In the latter half of the 20th century , popular culture won greater acceptance , and the lines between high and low culture began to blur . Comics nevertheless continued to be stigmatized , as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates .
The graphic novel — book @-@ length comics — began to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with his book A Contract with God ( 1978 ) . The term became widely known with the public after the commercial success of Maus , Watchmen , and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid @-@ 1980s . In the 21st century graphic novels became established in mainstream bookstores and libraries and webcomics became common .
= = = Franco @-@ Belgian and European comics = = =
The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827 , and published theories behind the form . Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century . The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics , after which Franco @-@ Belgian comics began to dominate . The Adventures of Tintin , with its signature clear line style , was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929 , and became an icon of Franco @-@ Belgian comics .
Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey ( 1934 – 44 ) , dedicated comics magazines and full @-@ colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid @-@ 20th century . As in the US , at the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy ; commentators stated that " none bear up to the slightest serious analysis " , and that comics were " the sabotage of all art and all literature " .
In the 1960s , the term bandes dessinées ( " drawn strips " ) came into wide use in French to denote the medium . Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences , and the term " Ninth Art " was coined , as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform . A group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater freedom over their work . Goscinny and Uderzo 's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it and went on to become the best @-@ selling French @-@ language comics series . From 1960 , the satirical and taboo @-@ breaking Hara @-@ Kiri defied censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events .
Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the adults @-@ only L 'Écho des savanes in 1972 . Adult @-@ oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s , such as in the experimental science fiction of Mœbius and others in Métal hurlant , even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige @-@ format adult comics .
From the 1980s , mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums . Smaller publishers such as L 'Association that published longer works in non @-@ traditional formats by auteur @-@ istic creators also became common . Since the 1990s , mergers resulted in fewer large publishers , while smaller publishers proliferated . Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market .
= = = Japanese comics = = =
Japanese comics and cartooning ( manga ) , have a history that has been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th @-@ to @-@ 13th @-@ century Chōjū @-@ jinbutsu @-@ giga , 17th @-@ century toba @-@ e and kibyōshi picture books , and woodblock prints such as ukiyo @-@ e which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries . The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images , movement lines , and sound effects .
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western @-@ style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century . New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular , and at the end of the 1890s , American @-@ style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan , as well as some American comic strips . 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper — the first use of the word " manga " in its modern sense , and where , in 1902 , Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip . By the 1930s , comic strips were serialized in large @-@ circulation monthly girls ' and boys ' magazine and collected into hardback volumes .
The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II , propelled by the success of the serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka and the comic strip Sazae @-@ san . Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades . Stories are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and may contain over a dozen stories ; they are later compiled in tankōbon @-@ format books . At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries , nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics. translations became extremely popular in foreign markets — in some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of domestic comics .
= = Forms and formats = =
Comic strips are generally short , multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers . In the US , daily strips have normally occupied a single tier , while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers . In the early 20th century , daily strips were typically in black @-@ and @-@ white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page .
Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures . Comic books , primarily an American format , are thin periodicals usually published in colour . European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines — monthly or weekly in Europe , and usually black @-@ and @-@ white and weekly in Japan . Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of pages .
Book @-@ length comics take different forms in different cultures . European comic albums are most commonly printed in A4 @-@ size colour volumes . In English @-@ speaking countries , bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats . Despite incorporating the term " novel " — a term normally associated with fiction — " graphic novel " also refers to non @-@ fiction and collections of short works . Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization .
Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel , often incorporating a caption or speech balloon . Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag , editorial , and other single @-@ panel cartoons ; they can be included in definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image . Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries , and the term " cartoon " was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch .
Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet . They are able to reach large audiences , and new readers usually can access archived installments . Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas — meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page .
Some consider storyboards and wordless novels to be comics . Film studios , especially in animation , often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences . These storyboards are not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the public . Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative .
= = Comics studies = =
Similar to the problems of defining literature and film , no consensus has been reached on a definition of the comics medium , and attempted definitions and descriptions have fallen prey to numerous exceptions . Theorists such as Töpffer , R. C. Harvey , Will Eisner , David Carrier , Alain Rey , and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and images , though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history . Other critics , such as Thierry Groensteen and Scott McCloud , have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images . Towards the close of the 20th century , different cultures ' discoveries of each other 's comics traditions , the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms , and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more complicated task .
European comics studies began with Töpffer 's theories of his own work in the 1840s , which emphasized panel transitions and the visual – verbal combination . No further progress was made until the 1970s . Pierre Fresnault @-@ Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics , analyzing text – image relations , page @-@ level image relations , and image discontinuities , or what Scott McCloud later dubbed " closure " . In 1987 , Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre , or " multiframe " , to refer to the comics page as a semantic unit . By the 1990s , theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists ' poïetic creative choices . Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics , a medium that has taken various , equally valid forms over its history . Morgan sees comics as a subset of " les littératures dessinées " ( or " drawn literatures " ) . French theory has come to give special attention to the page , in distinction from American theories such as McCloud 's which focus on panel @-@ to @-@ panel transitions . Since the mid @-@ 2000s , Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science , extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments . This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule @-@ bound " grammars " to be understood that extend beyond panel @-@ to @-@ panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts , and that the brain 's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains , such as language and music .
Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent , post @-@ WWII history , or on attempts to demonstrates deep roots in the past , such as to the Chōjū @-@ jinbutsu @-@ giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th centuries , or the early 19th @-@ century Hokusai Manga . The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara 's Nihon Manga @-@ Shi in 1924 . Early post @-@ war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left @-@ wing political nature until the 1986 publication for Tomofusa Kure 's Modern Manga : The Complete Picture , which de @-@ emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects , such as structure and a " grammar " of comics . The field of manga studies increased rapidly , with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s . Formal theories of manga have focused on developing a " manga expression theory " , with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page , distinguishing the medium from film or literature , in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element . Comics studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities , and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics was established in 2001 to promote comics scholarship . The publication of Frederik L. Schodt 's Manga ! Manga ! The World of Japanese Comics in 1983 led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean " Japanese comics " or " Japanese @-@ style comics " .
Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics ( 1947 ) . Will Eisner 's Comics and Sequential Art ( 1985 ) and Scott McCloud 's Understanding Comics ( 1993 ) were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics . David Carrier 's The Aesthetics of Comics ( 2000 ) was the first full @-@ length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective . Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner 's , McCloud 's , and Harvey 's . Eisner described what he called " sequential art " as " the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea " ; Scott McCloud defined comics as " juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence , intended to convey information and / or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer " , a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings . R. C. Harvey defined comics as " pictorial narratives or expositions in which words ( often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons ) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa " . Each definition has had its detractors . Harvey saw McCloud 's definition as excluding single @-@ panel cartoons , and objected to McCloud 's de @-@ emphasizing verbal elements , insisting " the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content " . Aaron Meskin saw McCloud 's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history .
Cross @-@ cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for " comics " in different languages . The French term for comics , bandes dessinées ( " drawn strip " ) emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a defining factor , which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics . The term manga is used in Japanese to indicate all forms of comics , cartooning , and caricature .
= = Terminology = =
The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular : " comics is a medium " rather than " comics are a medium " . When comic appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium , such as individual comic strips or comic books : " Tom 's comics are in the basement . "
Panels are individual images containing a segment of action , often surrounded by a border . Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation . The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events . The size , shape , and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative . The contents of a panel may be asynchronous , with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time .
Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons , captions , and sound effects . Speech balloons indicate dialogue ( or thought , in the case of thought balloons ) , with tails pointing at their respective speakers . Captions can give voice to a narrator , convey characters ' dialogue or thoughts , or indicate place or time . Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with comics , such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics . Sound effects mimic non @-@ vocal sounds textually using onomatopoeia sound @-@ words .
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics , traditionally using ink ( especially India ink ) with dip pens or ink brushes ; mixed media and digital technology have become common . Cartooning techniques such as motion lines and abstract symbols are often employed .
While comics are often the work of a single creator , the labour of making them is frequently divided between a number of specialists . There may be separate writers and artists , and artists may specialize in parts of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds , as is common in Japan . Particularly in American superhero comic books , the art may be divided between a penciller , who lays out the artwork in pencil ; an inker , who finishes the artwork in ink ; a colourist ; and a letterer , who adds the captions and speech balloons .
= = = Etymology = = =
The English term comics derives from the humorous ( or " comic " ) work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips ; usage of the term has become standard for non @-@ humorous works as well . The term " comic book " has a similarly confusing history : they are most often not humorous ; nor are they regular books , but rather periodicals . It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages , such as manga for Japanese comics , or bandes dessinées for French @-@ language Franco @-@ Belgian comics .
Many cultures have taken their words for comics from English , including Russian ( Russian : Комикс , komiks ) and German ( comic ) . Similarly , the Chinese term manhua and the Korean manhwa derive from the Chinese characters with which the Japanese term manga is written .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Academic journals = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
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= Ailanthus altissima =
Ailanthus altissima / eɪˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsᵻmə / , commonly known as tree of heaven , ailanthus , or in Standard Chinese as chouchun ( Chinese : 臭椿 ; pinyin : chòuchūn ; literally : " foul smelling tree " ) , is a deciduous tree in the Simaroubaceae family . It is native to both northeast and central China , as well as Taiwan . Unlike other members of the genus Ailanthus , it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics . The tree grows rapidly and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) in 25 years . However , the species is also short lived and rarely lives more than 50 years , though its remarkable suckering ability makes it possible for this tree to clone itself indefinitely and live considerably longer ( since they are linked to the mother tree and thus partly fed by it , the suckers are less vulnerable than the seedlings and can grow faster ) .
In China , the tree of heaven has a long and rich history . It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in countless Chinese medical texts for its purported ability to cure ailments ranging from mental illness to baldness . The roots , leaves and bark are still used today in traditional Chinese medicine , primarily as an astringent . The tree has been grown extensively both in China and abroad as a host plant for the ailanthus silkmoth , a moth involved in silk production . Ailanthus has become a part of western culture as well , with the tree serving as the central metaphor and subject matter of the best @-@ selling American novel A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith .
The tree was first brought from China to Europe in the 1740s and to the United States in 1784 . It was one of the first trees brought west during a time when chinoiserie was dominating European arts , and was initially hailed as a beautiful garden specimen . However , enthusiasm soon waned after gardeners became familiar with its suckering habits and its foul smelling odour . Despite this , it was used extensively as a street tree during much of the 19th century . Outside Europe and the United States the plant has been spread to many other areas beyond its native range . In a number of these , it has become an invasive species due to its ability both to colonise disturbed areas quickly and to suppress competition with allelopathic chemicals . It is considered a noxious weed in Australia , the United States , New Zealand and many countries of central , eastern and southern Europe . The tree also resprouts vigorously when cut , making its eradication difficult and time @-@ consuming . In many urban areas , it has acquired the derisive nicknames of " ghetto palm " , " stink tree " , and " tree of Hell " .
= = Description = =
A. altissima is a medium @-@ sized tree that reaches heights between 17 and 27 metres ( 56 and 89 ft ) with a diameter at breast height of about 1 metre ( 39 inches ) . The bark is smooth and light grey , often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages . The twigs are stout , smooth to lightly pubescent , and reddish or chestnut in colour . They have lenticels as well as heart @-@ shaped leaf scars ( i.e. a scar left on the twig after a leaf falls ) with many bundle scars ( i.e. small marks where the veins of the leaf once connected to the tree ) around the edges . The buds are finely pubescent , dome shaped , and partially hidden behind the petiole , though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars . The branches are light to dark gray in colour , smooth , lustrous , and containing raised lenticels that become fissures with age . The ends of the branches become pendulous . All parts of the plant have a distinguishing strong odour that is often likened to peanuts , cashews , or rotting cashews .
The leaves are large , odd- or even @-@ pinnately compound , and arranged alternately on the stem . They range in size from 30 to 90 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 2 @.@ 95 ft ) in length and contain 10 – 41 leaflets organised in pairs , with the largest leaves found on vigorous young sprouts . When they emerge in the spring , the leaves are bronze then quickly turn from medium to dark green as they grow . The rachis is light to reddish @-@ green with a swollen base . The leaflets are ovate @-@ lanceolate with entire margins , somewhat asymmetric and occasionally not directly opposite to each others . Each leaflet is 5 to 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) wide . They have a long tapering end while the bases have two to four teeth , each containing one or more glands at the tip . The leaflets ' upper sides are dark green in colour with light green veins , while the undersides are a more whitish green . The petioles are 5 to 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) long . The lobed bases and glands distinguish it from similar sumac species .
The flowers are small and appear in large panicles up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) in length at the end of new shoots . The individual flowers are yellowish green to reddish in colour , each with five petals and sepals . The sepals are cup @-@ shaped , lobed and united while the petals are valvate ( i.e. they meet at the edges without overlapping ) , white and hairy towards the inside . They appear from mid @-@ April in the south of its range to July in the north . A. altissima is dioecious , with male and female flowers being borne on different individuals . Male trees produce three to four times as many flowers as the females , making the male flowers more conspicuous . Furthermore , the male plants emit a foul @-@ smelling odour while flowering to attract pollinating insects . Female flowers contain ten ( or rarely five through abortion ) sterile stamens ( stamenoides ) with heart @-@ shaped anthers . The pistil is made up of five free carpels ( i.e. they are not fused ) , each containing a single ovule . Their styles are united and slender with star @-@ shaped stigmas . The male flowers are similar in appearance , but they of course lack a pistil and the stamens do function , each being topped with a globular anther and a glandular green disc . The fruits grow in clusters ; a fruit cluster may contain hundreds of seeds . The seeds borne on the female trees are 5 mm in diameter and each is encapsulated in a samara that is 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long and 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) broad , appearing July though August , but can persist on the tree until the next spring . The samara is large and twisted at the tips , making it spin as it falls , assisting wind dispersal , and aiding buoyancy for long @-@ distance dispersal through hydrochory . The females can produce huge amounts of seeds , normally around 30 @,@ 000 per kilogram ( 14 @,@ 000 / lb ) of tree , and fecundity can be estimated non @-@ destructively through measurements of dbh .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific descriptions of the tree of heaven were made shortly after it was introduced to Europe by the French Jesuit Pierre Nicholas d 'Incarville . D 'Incarville had sent seeds from Peking via Siberia to his botanist friend Bernard de Jussieu in the 1740s . The seeds sent by d 'Incarville were thought to be from the economically important and similar looking Chinese varnish tree ( Toxicodendron vernicifluum ) , which he had observed in the lower Yangtze region , rather than the tree of heaven . D 'Incarville attached a note indicating this , which caused much taxonomic confusion over the next few decades . In 1751 , Jussieu planted a few seeds in France and sent others on to Philip Miller , the superintendent at the Chelsea Physic Garden , and to Philip C. Webb , the owner of an exotic plant garden in Busbridge , England .
Confusion in naming began when the tree was described by all three men with three different names . In Paris , Linnaeus gave the plant the name Rhus succedanea , while it was known commonly as grand vernis du Japon . In London the specimens were named by Miller as Toxicodendron altissima and in Busbridge it was dubbed in the old classification system as Rhus Sinese foliis alatis . There are extant records from the 1750s of disputes over the proper name between Philip Miller and John Ellis , curator of Webb 's garden in Busbridge . Rather than the issue being resolved , more names soon appeared for the plant : Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observed a specimen in Utrecht in 1782 and named it Rhus cacodendron .
Light was shed on the taxonomic status of ailanthus in 1788 when René Louiche Desfontaines observed the samaras of the Paris specimens , which were still labelled Rhus succedanea , and came to the conclusion that the plant was not a sumac . He published an article with an illustrated description and gave it the name Ailanthus glandulosa , placing it in the same genus as the tropical species then known as A. integrifolia ( white siris , now A. triphysa ) . The name is derived from the Ambonese word ailanto , meaning " heaven @-@ tree " or " tree reaching for the sky " . The specific glandulosa , referring to the glands on the leaves , persisted until as late as 1957 , but it was ultimately made invalid as a later homonym at the species level . The current species name comes from Walter T. Swingle who was employed by the United States Department of Plant Industry . He decided to transfer Miller 's older specific name into the genus of Desfontaines , resulting in the accepted name Ailanthus altissima . Altissima is Latin for " tallest " , and refers to the sizes the tree can reach . The plant is sometimes incorrectly cited with the specific epithet in the masculine ( glandulosus or altissimus ) , which is incorrect since botanical , like Classical Latin , treats most tree names as feminine .
There are three varieties of A. altissima :
A. altissima var. altissima , which is the type variety and is native to mainland China .
A. altissima var. tanakai , which is endemic to northern Taiwan highlands . It differs from the type in having yellowish bark , odd @-@ pinnate leaves that are also shorter on average at 45 to 60 cm ( 18 to 24 in ) long with only 13 – 25 scythe @-@ like leaflets . It is listed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened species due to loss of habitat for building and industrial plantations .
A. altissima var. sutchuenensis , which differs in having red branchlets .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A. altissima is native to northern and central China , Taiwan and northern Korea . In Taiwan it is present as var. takanai . In China it is native to every province except Gansu , Heilongjiang , Hainan , Jilin , Ningxia , Qinghai , Xinjiang , and Tibet .
The tree prefers moist and loamy soils , but is adaptable to a very wide range of soil conditions and pH values . It is drought @-@ hardy , but not tolerant of flooding . It also does not tolerate deep shade . In China it is often found in limestone @-@ rich areas . The tree of heaven is found within a wide range of climatic conditions . In its native range it is found at high altitudes in Taiwan as well as lower ones in mainland China . In the U.S. it is found in arid regions bordering the Great Plains , very wet regions in the southern Appalachians , cold areas of the lower Rocky Mountains and throughout much of the California Central Valley . Prolonged cold and snow cover cause dieback , though the trees re @-@ sprout from the roots .
= = = As an exotic plant = = =
The earliest introductions of A. altissima to countries outside of its native range were to the southern areas of Korea as well as to Japan . It is possible that the tree is native to these areas , but it is generally agreed that the tree was a very early introduction . Within China itself it has also been naturalised beyond its native range in areas such as Qinghai , Ningxia and Xinjiang .
In 1784 , not long after Jussieu had sent seeds to England , some were forwarded to the United States by William Hamilton , a gardener in Philadelphia . In both Europe and America it quickly became a favoured ornamental , especially as a street tree , and by 1840 it was available in most nurseries . The tree was separately brought to California in the 1890s by Chinese immigrants who came during the California Gold Rush . It has escaped cultivation in all areas where it was introduced , but most extensively in the United States . It has naturalised across much of Europe , including Germany , Austria , Switzerland , the Czech Republic , the Pannonian region ( i.e. southeastern Central Europe around the Danube river basin from Austria , Slovakia and Hungary south to the Balkan ranges ) and most countries of the Mediterranean Basin . In Montenegro and Albania A. altissima is widespread in both rural and urban areas and while in the first it was introduced as an ornamental plant , it very soon invaded native ecosystems with disastrous results and became an invasive species . Ailanthus has also been introduced to Argentina , Australia ( where it is a declared weed in New South Wales and Victoria ) , New Zealand ( where it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord and is classed an " unwanted organism " ) , the Middle East and in some countries in South Asia such as Pakistan . In South Africa it is listed as an invasive species which must be controlled , or removed and destroyed .
In North America , A. altissima is present from Massachusetts in the east , west to southern Ontario , southwest to Iowa , south to Texas , and east to the north of Florida . On the west coast it is found from New Mexico west to California and north to Washington . In the east of its range it grows most extensively in disturbed areas of cities , where it was long ago present as a planted street tree . It also grows along roads and railways . For example , a 2003 study in North Carolina found the tree of heaven was present on 1 @.@ 7 % of all highway and railroad edges in the state and had been expanding its range at the rate of 4 @.@ 76 % counties per year . Similarly , another study conducted in southwestern Virginia determined that the tree of heaven is thriving along approximately 30 % of the state 's interstate highway system length or mileage . It sometimes enters undisturbed areas as well and competes with native plants . In western North America it is most common in mountainous areas around old dwellings and abandoned mining operations .
= = Ecology = =
Ailanthus is an opportunistic plant that thrives in full sun and disturbed areas . It spreads aggressively both by seeds and vegetatively by root sprouts , re @-@ sprouting rapidly after being cut . It is considered a shade @-@ intolerant tree and cannot compete in low @-@ light situations , though it is sometimes found competing with hardwoods , but such competition rather indicates it was present at the time the stand was established . On the other hand , a study in an old @-@ growth hemlock @-@ hardwood forest in New York found that Ailanthus was capable of competing successfully with native trees in canopy gaps where only 2 to 15 % of full sun was available . The same study characterised the tree as using a " gap @-@ obligate " strategy in order to reach the forest canopy , meaning it grows rapidly during a very short period rather than growing slowly over a long period . It is a short lived tree in any location and rarely lives more than 50 years . Ailanthus is among the most pollution @-@ tolerant of tree species , including sulfur dioxide , which it absorbs in its leaves . It can withstand cement dust and fumes from coal tar operations , as well as resist ozone exposure relatively well . Furthermore , high concentrations of mercury have been found built up in tissues of the plant .
Ailanthus has been used to re @-@ vegetate areas where acid mine drainage has occurred and it has been shown to tolerate pH levels as low as 4 @.@ 1 ( approximately that of tomato juice ) . It can withstand very low phosphorus levels and high salinity levels . The drought @-@ tolerance of the tree is strong due to its ability to effectively store water in its root system . It is frequently found in areas where few trees can survive . The roots are also aggressive enough to cause damage to subterranean sewers and pipes . Along highways it often forms dense thickets in which few other tree species are present , largely due to the toxins it produces to prevent competition .
Ailanthus produces an allelopathic chemical called ailanthone , which inhibits the growth of other plants . The inhibitors are strongest in the bark and roots , but are also present in the leaves , wood and seeds of the plant . One study showed that a crude extract of the root bark inhibited 50 % of a sample of garden cress ( Lepidium sativum ) seeds from germinating . The same study tested the extract as an herbicide on garden cress , redroot pigweed ( Amaranthus retroflexus ) , velvetleaf ( Abutilon theophrasti ) , yellow bristlegrass ( Setaria pumila ) , barnyard grass ( Echinochloa crusgalli ) , pea ( Pisum sativum cv . Sugar Snap ) and maize ( Zea mays cv . Silver Queen ) . It proved able to kill nearly 100 % of seedlings with the exception of velvetleaf , which showed some resistance . Another experiment showed a water extract of the chemical was either lethal or highly damaging to 11 North American hardwoods and 34 conifers , with the white ash ( Fraxinus americana ) being the only plant not adversely affected . The chemical does not , however , affect the tree of heaven 's own seedlings , indicating that A. altissima has a defence mechanism to prevent autotoxicity . Resistance in various plant species has been shown to increase with exposure . Populations without prior exposure to the chemicals are most susceptible to them . Seeds produced from exposed plants have also been shown to be more resistant than their unexposed counterparts .
The tree of heaven is a very rapidly growing tree , possibly the fastest growing tree in North America . Growth of one to two metres ( 3 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) per year for the first four years is considered normal . Shade considerably hampers growth rates . Older trees , while growing much slower , still do so faster than other trees . Studies found that Californian trees grew faster than their East Coast counterparts , and American trees in general grew faster than Chinese ones .
In northern Europe the tree of heaven was not considered naturalised in cities until after the Second World War . This has been attributed to the tree 's ability to colonise areas of rubble of destroyed buildings where most other plants would not grow . In addition , the warmer microclimate in cities offers a more suitable habitat than the surrounding rural areas ( it is thought that the tree requires a mean annual temperature of 8 degrees Celsius to grow well , which limits its spread to more northern and higher altitude areas ) . For example , one study in Germany found the tree of heaven growing in 92 % of densely populated areas of Berlin , 25 % of its suburbs and only 3 % of areas outside the city altogether . In other areas of Europe this is not the case as climates are mild enough for the tree to flourish . It has colonised natural areas in Hungary , for example , and is considered a threat to biodiversity at that country 's Aggtelek National Park .
Several species of Lepidoptera utilise the leaves of ailanthus as food , including the Indian moon moth ( Actias selene ) and the common grass yellow ( Eurema hecabe ) . In North America the tree is the host plant for the ailanthus webworm ( Atteva aurea ) , though this ermine moth is native to Central and South America and originally used other members of the mostly tropical Simaroubaceae as its hosts . In its native range A. altissima is associated with at least 32 species of arthropods and 13 species of fungi .
Due to the tree of heaven 's weedy habit , landowners and other organisations often resort to various methods of control in order to keep its populations in check . For example , the city of Basel in Switzerland has an eradication program for the tree . It can be very difficult to eradicate , however . Means of eradication can be physical , thermal , managerial , biological or chemical . A combination of several of these can be most effective , though they must of course be compatible . All have some positive and negative aspects , but the most effective regimen is generally a mixture of chemical and physical control . It involves the application of foliar or basal herbicides in order to kill existing trees , while either hand pulling or mowing seedlings in order to prevent new growth .
= = Uses = =
In addition to its use as an ornamental plant , the tree of heaven is also used for its wood , medicinal properties , and as a host plant to feed silkworms of the moth Samia cynthia , which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper than mulberry silk , although with inferior gloss and texture . It is also unable to take dye . This type of silk is known under various names : " pongee " , " eri silk " and " Shantung silk " , the last name being derived from Shandong Province in China where this silk is often produced . Its production is particularly well known in the Yantai region of that province . The moth has also been introduced in the United States .
The pale yellow , close @-@ grained and satiny wood of ailanthus has been used in cabinet work . It is flexible and well suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers , which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou , pastries and rice . Zhejiang Province in eastern China is most famous for producing these steamers . It is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range as it moderately hard and heavy , yet readily available . The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes . There are problems with using the wood as lumber , however . Because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years , the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood , which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying . Techniques have been developed for drying the wood so as to prevent this cracking , allowing it to be commercially harvested . Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood , the wood is quite hard once properly dried .
= = = Cultivation = = =
Tree of heaven is a popular ornamental tree in China and valued for its tolerance of difficult growing conditions . It was once very popular in cultivation in both Europe and North America , but this popularity dropped , especially in the United States , due to the disagreeable odor of its blossoms and the weediness of its habit . The problem of odor was previously avoided by only selling pistillate plants since only males produce the smell , but a higher seed production also results . Michael Dirr , a noted American horticulturalist and professor at the University of Georgia , reported meeting , in 1982 , a grower who could not find any buyers . He further writes ( his emphasis ) :
For most landscaping conditions , it has no value as there are too many trees of superior quality ; for impossible conditions this tree has a place ; selection could be made for good habit , strong wood and better foliage which would make the tree more satisfactory ; I once talked with an architect who tried to buy Ailanthus for use along polluted highways but could not find an adequate supply [ ... ]
In Europe , however , the tree is still used in the garden to some degree as its habit is generally not as invasive as it is in America . In the United Kingdom it is especially common in London squares , streets , and parks , though it is also frequently found in gardens of southern England and East Anglia . It becomes rare in the north , occurring only infrequently in southern Scotland . It is also rare in Ireland . In Germany the tree is commonly planted in gardens . The tree has furthermore become unpopular in cultivation in the west because it is short @-@ lived and that the trunk soon becomes hollow , making trees more than two feet in diameter unstable in high winds .
A few cultivars exist , but they are not often sold outside of China and probably not at all in North America :
‘ Hongye ’ – The name is Chinese and means " red leaves " . As the name implies it has attractive vivid red foliage
‘ Thousand Leaders ’
‘ Metro ’ – A male cultivar with a tighter crown than usual and a less weedy habit
‘ Erythrocarpa ’ – The fruits are a striking red
‘ Pendulifolia ’ – Leaves are much longer and hang elegantly
= = = Medicinal = = =
Nearly every part of A. altissima has some application in Chinese traditional medicine . One of the oldest recipes , recorded in a work from 732 AD , is used for treating mental illness . It involved chopped root material , young boys ' urine and douchi . After sitting for a day the liquid was strained out and given to the patient over the course of several days .
Another source from 684 AD , during the Tang dynasty and recorded in Li Shizhen 's Compendium of Materia Medica , states that when the leaves are taken internally , they make one incoherent and sleepy , while when used externally they can be effectively used to treat boils , abscesses and itches . Yet another recipe recorded by Li uses the leaves to treat baldness . This formula calls for young leaves of ailanthus , catalpa and peach tree to be crushed together and the resulting liquid applied to the scalp to stimulate hair growth .
The dried bark , however , is still an officinal drug and is listed in the modern Chinese materia medica as chun bai pi ( Chinese : 椿白皮 ; pinyin : chūnbáipí ) , meaning " white bark of spring " . Modern works treat it in detail , discussing chemical constituents , how to identify the product and its pharmaceutical uses . It is prepared by felling the tree in fall or spring , stripping the bark and then scraping off the hardest , outermost portion , which is then sun @-@ dried , soaked in water , partially re @-@ dried in a basket and finally cut into strips . The bark is said to have cooling and astringent properties and is primarily used to treat dysentery , intestinal hemorrhage , menorrhagia and spermatorrhea . It is only prescribed in amounts between 4 and 10 grams , so as not to poison the patients . Li 's Compendium has 18 recipes that call for the bark . Asian and European chemists have found some justification for its medical use as it contains a long list of active chemicals that include quassin and saponin , while ailanthone , the allelopathic chemical in the tree of heaven , is a known antimalarial agent . It is available in most shops dealing in Chinese traditional medicine . A tincture of the root @-@ bark has been used successfully in treating cardiac palpitation , asthma and epilepsy .
The samaras are also used in modern Chinese medicine under the name feng yan cao ( simplified Chinese : 凤眼草 ; traditional Chinese : 鳳眼草 ; pinyin : fèngyǎncǎo ) , meaning " herbal phoenix eye " . They are used as a hemostatic agent , spermatorrhea and for treating patients with blood in their feces or urine . It was clinically shown to be able to treat trichomoniasis , a vaginal infection caused by the protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis . In the West , an extract of the bark sold under the synonym A. glandulosa is sometimes used as an herbal remedy for various ailments including cancer .
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the plant may be mildly toxic . The noxious odours have been associated with nausea and headaches , as well as with contact dermatitis reported in both humans and sheep , who also developed weakness and paralysis . It contains a quinone irritant , 2 @,@ 6 @-@ dimethoxybenzoquinone , as well as active quassinoids ( ailanthone itself being one ) which may account for these effects , but they have , however , proved difficult or impossible to reproduce in humans and goats . In one trial a tincture from the blossom and foliage caused nausea , vomiting and muscular relaxation .
Ailanthus altissima has potent anti @-@ anaphylactic and anti @-@ inflammatory properties .
= = Culture = =
= = = China = = =
In addition to the tree of heaven 's various uses , it has also been a part of Chinese culture for many centuries and has more recently attained a similar status in the west . Within the oldest extant Chinese dictionary , the Erya , written in the 3rd century BC , the tree of heaven is mentioned second among a list of trees . It was mentioned again in a materia medica compiled during the Tang dynasty in 656 AD . Each work favoured a different character , however , and there is still some debate in the Chinese botanical community as to which character should be used . The current name , chouchun ( Chinese : 臭椿 ; pinyin : chòuchūn ) , means " stinking spring " , and is a relatively new appellation . People living near the lower Yellow River know it by the name chunshu ( simplified Chinese : 椿树 ; traditional Chinese : 椿樹 ; pinyin : chūnshù ) , meaning " spring tree " . The name stems from the fact that A. altissima is one of the last trees to come out of dormancy , and as such its leaves coming out would indicate that winter was truly over .
In Chinese literature , ailanthus is often used for two rather extreme metaphors , with a mature tree representing a father and a stump being a spoiled child . This manifests itself occasionally when expressing best wishes to a friend 's father and mother in a letter , where one can write " wishing your ailanthus and daylily are strong and happy " , with ailanthus metaphorically referring to the father and daylily to the mother . Furthermore , one can scold a child by calling him a " good @-@ for @-@ nothing ailanthus stump sprout " , meaning the child is irresponsible . This derives from the literature of Zhuangzi , a Taoist philosopher , who referred to a tree that had developed from a sprout at the stump and was thus unsuitable for carpentry due to its irregular shape . Later scholars associated this tree with ailanthus and applied the metaphor to children who , like stump sprouts of the tree , will not develop into a worthwhile human being if they don 't follow rules or traditions .
= = = United States = = =
The 1943 book A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith uses the tree of heaven as its central metaphor , using it as an analogy for the ability to thrive in a difficult environment . At that time as well as now , ailanthus was common in neglected urban areas . She writes :
There 's a tree that grows in Brooklyn . Some people call it the Tree of Heaven . No matter where its seed falls , it makes a tree which struggles to reach the sky . It grows in boarded up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps . It grows up out of cellar gratings . It is the only tree that grows out of cement . It grows lushly ... survives without sun , water , and seemingly earth . It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it .
In William Faulkner 's novel , Sanctuary , a " heaven @-@ tree " stands outside the Jefferson jail , where Lee Goodwin and a " negro murderer " are incarcerated . The tree is associated with the black prisoner 's despair in the face of his impending execution and the spirituals that he sings in chorus with other black people who keep a sort of vigil in the street below :
... they sang spirituals while white people slowed and stopped in the leafed darkness that was almost summer , to listen to those who were sure to die and him who was already dead singing about heaven and being tired ; or perhaps in the interval between songs a rich , sourceless voice coming out of the high darkness where the ragged shadow of the heaven @-@ tree which snooded the street lamp at the corner fretted and mourned : " Fo days mo ! Den dey ghy stroy de bes ba 'yton singer in nawth Mississippi ! "
Upon the barred and slitted wall the splotched shadow of the heaven @-@ tree shuddered and pulsed monstrously in scarce any wind ; rich and sad , the singing fell behind .
Ailanthus is also sometimes counter @-@ nicknamed " tree from hell " due to its prolific invasiveness and the difficulty in eradicating it . In certain parts of the United States , the species has been nicknamed the " ghetto palm " because of its propensity for growing in the inhospitable conditions of urban areas , or on abandoned and poorly maintained properties .
Until March 26 , 2008 , a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) -tall member of the species was a prominent " centerpiece " of the sculpture garden at the Noguchi Museum in the borough of Queens in New York City . The tree had been spared by the sculptor Isamu Noguchi when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot . The tree was the only one he left in the yard , and the staff would eat lunch with Noguchi under it . " [ I ] n a sense , the sculpture garden was designed around the tree " , said a former aide to Noguchi , Bonnie Rychlak , who later became the museum curator . By 2008 , the old tree was found to be dying and in danger of crashing into the building , which was about to undergo a major renovation . The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop , an artists ' collective , to use the wood to create benches , sculptures and other amenities in and around the building . The tree 's rings were counted , revealing its age to be 75 , and museum officials hoped it would regenerate from a sucker .
= = = Europe = = =
Ingo Vetter , a German artist and professor of fine arts at Umeå University in Sweden , was influenced by the idea of the " ghetto palm " and installed a living ailanthus tree taken from Detroit for an international art show called Shrinking Cities at the Kunst @-@ Werke Institute for Contemporary Art in Berlin in 2004 .
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= Pierre Rossier =
Pierre Joseph Rossier ( 16 July 1829 – between 1883 and 1898 ) was a pioneering Swiss photographer whose albumen photographs , which include stereographs and cartes @-@ de @-@ visite , comprise portraits , cityscapes , and landscapes . He was commissioned by the London firm of Negretti and Zambra to travel to Asia and document the progress of the Anglo @-@ French troops in the Second Opium War and , although he failed to join that military expedition , he remained in Asia for several years , producing the first commercial photographs of China , the Philippines , Japan and Siam ( now Thailand ) . He was the first professional photographer in Japan , where he trained Ueno Hikoma , Maeda Genzō , Horie Kuwajirō , as well as lesser known members of the first generation of Japanese photographers . In Switzerland he established photographic studios in Fribourg and Einsiedeln , and he also produced images elsewhere in the country . Rossier is an important figure in the early history of photography not only because of his own images , but also because of the critical impact of his teaching in the early days of Japanese photography .
= = Identity and origins = =
Until very recently , little was known about Rossier ; even his given name was a mystery . In his own time he was sometimes referred to as " P. Rossier " and at other times as " M. Rossier " . Documents discovered in the Fribourg town archives finally proved that his given name was Pierre , and it can be assumed that the " M " in " M. Rossier " stood for " Monsieur " . He was long thought to be from France and while he was in Japan he was even referred to as an " Englishman " ; however , recent research has revealed that Rossier was Swiss , born on 16 July 1829 in Grandsivaz , a small village in the Canton of Fribourg . He was the fourth of ten children of a farming family of modest means . At the age of sixteen he became a teacher at a school in a neighbouring village , but by 1855 he was issued a passport to visit France and England to work as a photographer .
At some point after leaving Switzerland and arriving in England , Rossier was commissioned by the firm of Negretti and Zambra to travel to China to photograph the Second Opium War ( 1858 – 1860 ) . It may be that the firm considered Rossier 's Swiss citizenship an asset for such a voyage , that his country 's neutrality might help him find passage aboard either British or French ships . Taking into account the high costs and uncertainty incurred by the firm and the potential hazards for Rossier himself , this was an important commission .
= = Photographing in Asia = =
Rossier was in Hong Kong in 1858 , and he soon began taking photographs , mostly in and around Canton ( now Guangzhou ) . In November 1859 Negretti and Zambra published a set of fifty of Rossier 's views , including stereographs . These received favourable reviews in photographic periodicals of the day . In 1858 or 1859 Rossier travelled to the Philippines where he visited and photographed the Taal Volcano . Rossier was in Japan by 1859 , producing photographs first in Nagasaki , then in Kanagawa , Yokohama and Edo ( now Tokyo ) ; he was the first professional photographer to arrive in Japan . One of the photographs Rossier took during the summer of 1859 , while in Nagasaki , was a portrait of Philipp Franz von Siebold 's son Alexander and a group of samurai from the Nabeshima clan .
At the end of June 1860 , Rossier was in Shanghai , and it is likely that he visited the city in an attempt to gain permission to accompany the Anglo @-@ French military expedition that had already arrived in northern China and thereby fulfill his commission to document the Second Opium War . If so , he was unsuccessful ; both forces had already hired photographers to document the mission . The British forces were accompanied by the photographers Felice Beato and John Papillon , and the French by Antoine Fauchery , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Du Pin , and possibly also by Louis Legrand . Although Rossier failed even to embark on the mission he had been hired to document , he remained in East Asia for some time longer .
By October 1860 , Rossier had returned to Nagasaki , where he took photographs of the harbour on behalf of the British Consul , George S. Morrison , for which Rossier was paid $ 70 . Although Rossier 's photographs of Japan were advertised by Negretti and Zambra on at least two occasions in 1860 , the firm did not publish them until October or November 1861 . Five of Rossier 's views of Japan appeared earlier , in George Smith 's book , Ten Weeks in Japan , in April 1861 , and that July , eight of Rossier 's Japan photographs appeared in the form of lithographs in Henry Arthur Tilley 's book , Japan , the Amoor , and the Pacific . An 1861 edition of the Illustrated London News included several engravings under the collective title Domestic Life in China , the images having been taken from Rossier 's stereographs . One of the photographs Negretti and Zambra had advertised in 1860 became the first commercial photograph taken in Japan to be published , and is the earliest known hand @-@ coloured Japanese photograph .
Thanks to a number of documents of the time , it is now certain that Negretti and Zambra 's photographs of China and Japan were taken by Rossier , but for many years it was thought that they might have been taken by either Walter B. Woodbury , who also had dealings with Negretti and Zambra but was based in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , or Abel Gower , who was an amateur photographer in Japan . Interestingly , the Leiden University photograph collection includes a portrait , allegedly of Gower , signed " P. Rossier " , and in 1859 Rossier and Gower shared passage aboard HMS Sampson from Nagasaki to Edo .
= = Teaching photography = =
Rossier first arrived in Japan in 1859 , at a time when early experiments in photography were being conducted in Kyūshū , particularly in Nagasaki . The city was the centre of rangaku , the study of Western science , and it was here that physicians Jan Karel van den Broek and J. L. C. Pompe van Meerdervoort were instrumental in teaching their Japanese students not only medicine but also chemistry and photography . Neither Van den Broek nor Pompe van Meerdervoort was an experienced photographer , and their attempts to produce photographs were largely failures . Nevertheless , in turn they taught wet @-@ collodion process photography to Keisai Yoshio , Furukawa Shumpei , Kawano Teizō , Maeda Genzō , Ueno Hikoma , and Horie Kuwajirō , among others .
On his arrival in Japan , Rossier presumably introduced himself as a photographer despatched to Japan by Negretti and Zambra , perhaps thereby inspiring a misconception , for while he remained in the country he was often referred to as an " English " photographer . In Nagasaki , Rossier was assisted in his work by Maeda Genzō , who had been instructed to accompany the " Englishman " and to further learn photography . With Maeda and other students escorting him around the city , Rossier took photographs of priests , beggars , the audience of a sumo match , the foreign settlement , and the group portrait of Alexander von Siebold and samurai . Rossier believed that Pompe van Meerdervoort 's failures in photography were due to a lack of the necessary chemicals and so he provided Maeda with a letter of recommendation to procure photographic apparatus and chemicals from a source in Shanghai . Both Maeda and Furukawa bought lenses , chemicals and albumen paper through Rossier .
At this time , Ueno Hikoma and Horie Kuwajirō also received photographic instruction from Rossier . Apparently Ueno had originally intended to learn not only the practice of photography but also the manufacture of cameras . The encounter with Rossier seems to have convinced Ueno to pursue photography as a career , but he was so overwhelmed by the technology of the camera that he quickly dropped the notion of making one himself . Within a few months , he and Horie had purchased a French camera and chemicals , thereafter launching their independent photographic careers .
Although Rossier 's time in Japan was brief and the surviving photographic legacy of his sojourn is scant , he nevertheless had a lasting impact on photography in the country .
= = Later years and legacy = =
In 1861 , Rossier was in Siam , where he assisted the French zoologist Firmin Bocourt by taking ethnographic portraits for the latter 's scientific expedition of 1861 – 1862 , and in 1863 , Negretti and Zambra issued a series of 30 stereographic portraits and landscapes taken in Siam that are almost certainly the work of Rossier . In February 1862 , Rossier was again in Shanghai , where he sold his cameras and other photographic equipment before embarking for Europe . During his time in Asia it is possible that Rossier photographed in India ; Negretti and Zambra issued a series of views of India at about the same time as Rossier 's China views .
Rossier returned to Switzerland in early 1862 and , in October 1865 , married Catharine Barbe Kaelin ( 1843 – 1867 ) . The couple had a son , Christophe Marie Pierre Joseph , who was born on 30 July 1866 . Catharine died on 4 April 1867 .
Rossier maintained a photographic studio in Fribourg until at least 1876 and he also had a studio in Einsiedeln . During the 1860s and 1870s , he produced a number of stereographs and cartes @-@ de @-@ visite comprising portraits and views of Fribourg , Einsiedeln and other places in Switzerland . An 1871 advertisement in the French @-@ language Fribourg newspaper La Liberté offered photographs by Rossier of religious paintings by the artist Melchior Paul von Deschwanden . In 1872 , Rossier applied for a passport to travel to France where he may have produced photographs . At some point between 1871 and 1884 , he married again . His second wife , Marie Virginie Overney , was employed as a household servant by the landlords of his studio . They had a son , Joseph Louis , who was born in Paris on 16 March 1884 , and who went on to own a café in Vevey , Switzerland . He died in 1927 .
Pierre Rossier died in Paris some time between 1883 and 1898 .
Examples of Rossier 's views of Switzerland are held in several institutions and private collections in that country . Rossier took the first commercial photographs of China and Japan , and they are now quite rare . He complained at times of the adverse effects of the climate on his photographic chemicals and some of his negatives may have been damaged en route to London from Asia . Though his surviving images are scarce , his importance to the early history of photography in Asia is great . Before his arrival in Japan in 1859 , Japanese students of photography had struggled to produce satisfactory images , but Rossier 's experience , instruction , and contacts with suppliers of photographic materials were extremely helpful in the development of an autonomous photographic tradition in Japan .
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= Madonna ( book ) =
Madonna is a biography by English author Andrew Morton , chronicling the life of American recording artist Madonna . The book was released in November 2001 by St. Martin 's Press in the United States and in April 2002 by Michael O 'Mara Books in the United Kingdom . Morton decided to write a biography on Madonna in 2000 . The release was announced in April 2001 by St. Martin 's Press . President and publisher Sally Richardson described the biography to contain details about Madonna 's ambitions , her relationships and her lifestyle .
Morton interviewed about 70 people who had known Madonna since her youth . He had to spend a lot of evenings in bars and clubs in New York chatting to people — including artists , musicians , and directors — who had an interesting perspective on Madonna and the world . After its release , Madonna received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , who pointed out Morton 's poor writing skills and felt that the book did not present anything new about the singer . The book was a commercial disappointment . In the United States , the book reached eight on The New York Times Best Seller list , and sold half of its initial print .
Madonna herself was critical of Morton writing a biography on her life , and sent a letter to him , asking him to stay away from her family and friends . Morton remained unabashed , saying that he wrote the book because of his interest in the star , not least because she has made a " difference " to pop culture and modern culture . In 2004 , a lawsuit was filed against the author by Jim Albright , one of Madonna 's ex @-@ lovers mentioned in the book . The lawsuit regarded an image in the book , portraying one of Madonna 's gay dancers — with Albright 's name underneath . United States District Court ruled out the lawsuit explaining that stating someone is homosexual does not libel or slander them .
= = Summary = =
The book opens with Madonna 's birth , her early years in Michigan , and her 1977 move to New York City where she was involved with modern dance , two pop groups , composing , and releasing her 1983 debut album , Madonna . Her rise to superstardom as a pop icon is chronicled and her cutting edge music videos , albums , first concert tour , film roles , and marriage and divorce to Sean Penn are examined . The book investigates her controversial religious imagery and her erotic productions , Erotica , Sex , and Body of Evidence . The book describes a mellowing in her appearance and provocativeness , and , among other things , the release of her next several albums , her Golden Globe Award @-@ winning musical film portrayal of Eva Peron , and her high @-@ grossing Drowned World Tour . The birth of her daughter and son are chronicled and her marriage to Guy Ritchie . Madonna includes detailed descriptions of her relationships with people including John F. Kennedy , Jr. and Michael Jackson .
= = Writing and development = =
American journalist and celebrity biographer Andrew Morton is known for his works on Diana , Princess of Wales , Monica Lewinsky and footballer David Beckham and his wife , Victoria . In October 2000 , Morton had hinted that he had American recording artist Madonna as his next project , when he responded to an Independent reader in " You Ask the Questions " section . Asked who he would most like to write a biography of , he said : " I 've always admired Madonna as an intriguing and charismatic character who has been able to stay at the top for 20 years . " A formal announcement was made by Morton 's UK publicist Michael O 'Mara in April 2001 , that Morton had secured access to " those in her [ Madonna 's ] inner circle , who have never been interviewed before , about her ambitions , lifestyle and relationships . " O 'Mara added the reason for choosing Madonna was because she was " one of the most enigmatic and fascinating women of our time , [ and ] is the undisputed female icon of the modern age . "
The biography 's American publishing rights were acquired by St. Martin 's Press . President and publisher Sally Richardson described the biography to contain details about Madonna 's ambitions , her relationships and her lifestyle . Richardson added that " Andrew loves complicated women , and has a genius for getting into their psyche and telling the world what makes them tick . " Scheduled for release in November 2001 , St. Martin 's Press added that about 500 @,@ 000 copies of the first print were ordered , and Morton received a six figure undisclosed amount as advance for writing the book . Madonna had always wanted to protect her privacy and reports had initially suggested that she was furious that Morton had decided to write the book , and commanded her friends and relatives not to give any interview to him . She added , " I don 't want anyone talking to that snivelling little worm . How dare he invade my privacy ? "
With the BBC , Morton detailed his " detective work " researching Madonna 's life in New York , where she clambered her way up to fame and fortune . " Not only is she an interesting character , but all her friends and those who 've known her are interesting characters too , " he said . Morton had to spend a lot of evenings in bars and clubs in New York chatting to people — including artists , musicians , directors — who had an interesting perspective on Madonna and the world . He interviewed about 70 people who had known Madonna since her youth . " I think I 've come up with a very fresh picture , " he said , adding that Dan Gilroy of Breakfast Club , who had introduced Madonna to the music world , had e @-@ mailed him saying the biography had " really captured Madonna 's spirit " .
= = Critical response = =
The book received mixed reviews . Richard Lautens from Toronto Star said that " Madonna is a thorough , if slightly workmanlike , retelling of its namesake 's well @-@ documented slog from lowly Midwestern beginnings to squeaky @-@ voiced sex kitten to professional button @-@ pusher to mother and respected , vaguely Bowie @-@ esque , chameleonic figure , a cultural bloodhound always on the scent of the fresh , cool and credible . " Helen Bushby from BBC commented that " [ t ] he book is certainly detailed , and will no doubt keep Madonna fanatics happy , although it is perhaps more of a reference book than a page @-@ turner . But Morton is a good businessman , and is canny in his choice of subjects . " Michael Sneed from Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave a negative review of the book and felt that Morton 's previous works had been better . George Rush from New York Daily News commented : " Despite her best efforts to discourage friends from cooperating with him , Andrew Morton has come forth with a book that portrays Madge as an insecure manipulator so ravenous for affection that she scared off some boyfriends , cheated on most of them and made a lot of foolish choices . " In another review , Sherryl Connelly from the same publication was of the opinion that Madonna was mostly similar to J. Randy Taraborrelli 's biography on her , Madonna : An Intimate Biography . She added , " At least , it 's the story made familiar by Madonna , a woman who has always taken for granted the world 's interest in her life . "
Rick Thames , editor of The Charlotte Observer , criticized the book 's packaging calling the cover as " tacky , hot pink @-@ and @-@ acid green sleeves , featuring an unflattering photo of the dished artist . " Barry Didcock from Sunday Herald felt that " Morton [ had failed ] to find the face of Madonna . " He criticized Morton 's sketchy portrayal of Madonna 's relationship with deceased painter Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat , saying " he commits an error by doing so because , unusually for Madonna , this was a relationship of equals . " Gregg Barrios from Daily Star was critical of the book , saying " The fatal flaw of these quickie knockoffs is that they have no real ending or any way of predicting what the fates have in store for Madonna Louise Penn [ Guy Ritchie ] nee Ciccone . Once the next Madonna tour , CD , marriage or film appears , their shelf life is cut short . " Barbara Ellen from The Guardian criticized Morton 's writing by saying , " Andrew Morton achieves the implausible : he takes an interesting woman and an astonishing life and makes them both seem incredibly boring in his life of Madonna .... Once you get used to Morton 's pace ( dull plod , with occasional snooze ) , it becomes quite amusing joining him on the journey , a bit like watching someone dragging a dead body around , trying to find some place to hide it . Even luminaries such as Madonna exes Sean Penn and Warren Beatty are reduced to flailing around like disenfranchised phantoms in the shallows of Morton 's blandly automatic insight . "
= = Commercial reception = =
Madonna was released in hardback in the United States in November 2001 . It debuted at position 15 on The New York Times Best Seller list , and reached eight the next week , but was present there for only two weeks . It was a commercial disappointment , failing to sell even close to its initial print @-@ run of 500 @,@ 000 . According to Nielsen BookScan , Madonna has sold around 240 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Madonna was still livid that Morton wrote the book without her permission , even saying " It 's not a well @-@ written book . We all know he wrote it for financial gain and the truth had little to do with it " , after the book was released . With Jo Whiley from BBC Radio 1 , she added that " [ Morton ] really went through my Rolodex and that part was really annoying , and I ended up writing him a letter saying , ' I 'm not interested in you writing this book , I don 't want to have anything to do with it – and please leave my friends alone ' . " The singer said that she had even sent Morton a book of philosophy — The Power of Kabbalah — to try to dissuade him from continuing . " It 's a beginner 's crash course in what it 's all about – that eventually in some way shape or form it would come back round to him , but he either didn 't read it or didn 't care , " Madonna added . During the Drowned World Tour of 2001 , Madonna was asked whether she had really sent the book for Morton 's well @-@ being . She replied sarcastically : " Why yes , I always send bibles and philosophy books to my biographers . " Motioning to her then husband Guy Ritchie she continued , " Just ask my husband , he 'll tell you that my greatest concern these days is not this fucking tour , or him or even our kids , why , it 's Andrew Morton 's spiritual enlightment of course . " Her publicist Liz Rosenberg released a statement that " None of this [ things in the biography ] is true . I never saw a groom walk down an aisle with a bigger smile than Guy Ritchie , " adding that Morton 's claims were a retread of " tired old gossip . It 's same old , same old . " Morton remained unabashed , saying that he wrote the book because of his interest in the star , not least because she has made a " difference " to pop culture and modern culture . He added :
" I 'm very proud of the book and I 'm very disappointed at Madonna 's reaction . I think the problem is that she wants control over everything – that 's one of the themes of the book , and secondly she seems to be almost disowning her past at the moment . She 's reinventing herself as an upper @-@ class , English aristocrat , and the former vegetarian who now goes hunting , fishing and shooting . My door 's always open – Madonna 's welcome to my house for a cup of tea . She said she wasn 't interested in doing any kind of biography or anything ever , which is a bit of a stern statement from someone who has been so out there . It doesn 't matter whether it 's me , Norman Mailer , whoever . I was disappointed because I felt that we 've only ever seen the caricature , the cartoon version of Madonna and I really wanted to show that she is a considerable artist and that she is more than anything that has been written about her in the past . I think for her it is an opportunity missed . "
= = Lawsuit = =
Madonna faced a lawsuit in 2004 over an image in the book . Titled Amarak Productions , Inc. vs. Morton , Madonna 's former bodyguard and ex @-@ lover Jim Albright brought a defamation case against Morton , based on an incorrect photo caption . The photo had a caption identifying the subject in it as Albright ; it was actually one of Madonna 's homosexual back @-@ up dancers , Jose Gutierez . Amarak Productions , Inc. had employed Albright as Madonna 's bodyguard in 1992 , and he became romantically involved with her . While writing Madonna , Morton contacted Albright to gather information on their relationship . On discovering the misleading image , the lawsuit was filed by Albright who objected to the caption .
On 30 May 2004 , US District judge Nancy Gertner ruled out the lawsuit explaining that stating someone is homosexual does not libel or slander them , particularly in light of new court decisions granting gays more rights . Gertner first rejected the idea that the mistake in captioning constituted a statement that Albright was gay . She added : " Private biases may be outside the reach of the law , but the law cannot , directly or indirectly give them effect . In this day and age , recent rulings by the Supreme Court and the Supreme Judiciary Court of Massachusetts undermine any suggestion that a statement implying that an individual is homosexual is defamatory .
= = Publication history = =
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= City of London School =
The City of London School , also known as CLS and City , is an independent day school for boys in the City of London , England , on the banks of the River Thames next to the Millennium Bridge . It is the brother school of the City of London School for Girls and a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference ( HMC ) .
The School was founded by a private Act of Parliament in 1834 , following a bequest of land in 1442 for poor children in the City of London . The original school was established at Milk Street , moving to the Victoria Embankment in 1879 and its present site on Queen Victoria Street in 1986 .
The school provides day education to about 900 boys aged 10 to 18 and employs approximately 100 teaching staff and around another 100 non @-@ teaching staff . The majority of pupils enter at 11 , some at 13 and some at 16 into the Sixth form . There is a small intake at 10 into Old Grammar , a year group consisting of two classes equivalent to primary school Year 6 . Admissions are based on an entrance examination and an interview .
Among Old Citizens who have attained eminence in various fields are Prime Minister Herbert Asquith , the First World War hero Theodore Bayley Hardy , Nobel Prize – winning scientists Frederick Gowland Hopkins and Peter Higgs , Justice of the Supreme Court Lawrence Collins , England cricket captain Mike Brearley and Booker Prize @-@ winning authors Kingsley Amis and Julian Barnes .
= = History = =
The City of London School traces its origins to a bequest of land by John Carpenter , town clerk of London . On his death in 1442 , it was found that Carpenter had listed many bequests , most to his relatives but some to charitable causes . There were no bequests listed to directly support the education of boys in the City of London . However , a bequest of land was left to two trusted friends who were aware that Carpenter desired a legacy which would support children , and in turn the land was passed on to John Don , an influential man in the City of London . On his death , Don left his own will incorporating the words used in Carpenter 's bequest of land and his intentions for the land , that it be " for the finding and bringing up of four poor men 's children with meat , drink , apparel , learning at the schools , in the universities , etc . , until they be preferred , and then others in their places for ever . " The four boys became known as Carpenter 's Children .
Little is known of the early years of the legacy . This bequest was administered by the Corporation of London in around 1460 and a small college was founded next to Guildhall Chapel , also using the library facilities in the chapel . Despite the fact that this continued for over 70 years , the earliest certain evidence of the existence of Carpenter 's Children can only be traced back to 1536 , and thus it isn 't clear who these boys were , what they were taught and where they lived . In 1547 , under the Chantries Act the Guildhall Chapel and Library were forfeited . The funding for the four boys was also discontinued . The Corporation of London remained in control of Carpenter 's estate and accounts from the next 300 years show that the money continued to be spent on children 's benefits such as providing new coats to every child or providing them with access to education .
In 1823 , a report published by the Charity Commission revealed that over the centuries , the income from the bequest vastly exceeded the expenses of the boys ' education . In response to the report , the Corporation of London indicated that it had taken , " great pains ... by searching in the archives of the corporation and other places for the will of John Carpenter , without effect " . Had the Corporation instead looked for the will of John Don , it would have received guidance in what to do with the money .
Lacking that guidance , discussions began on how the bequest money should be spent . The City Lands Committee suggested in a report that the bequest should be spent on educating a larger number of boys and this approach was adopted in 1826 . A number of people including Richard Taylor , a printer and an assistant to the founding of University College London , urged the Corporation of London to spend the bequest on creating a day school for the largest possible number of boys . In 1830 , they proposed that the City of London Corporation School be founded with Taylor as a governor , and that the school to be established on the site of the disused London Workhouse . In the mean time , a small number of boys , who became known as Carpenter 's scholars , were sent to Tonbridge School . In 1829 , an Act of Parliament was passed to transform the workhouse into a school and governors were appointed . Conditions at the workhouse site had deteriorated and much money was needed for its maintenance . The only funds available , though , were the same £ 300 ( about £ 22 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) a year budget the workhouse had received .
Over the next few years , the workhouse proposal was seen , by the City of London Lord Mayor 's deputation and the City Lands Committee ( Taylor was a member of both ) , as impractical and alternate schemes were proposed . In 1832 , Warren Stormes Hale , who believed that the Workhouse proposal was not the best use of Carpenter 's legacy , was appointed to the City Lands Committee . He became chairman of the committee in 1833 , and would come to be considered the second founder of the City of London School , after Carpenter .
At this point , the City Lands Committee started to search for better locations for a school . They selected Honey Lane Market , a site on Milk Street , as their preferred location . However , this proposal faced the same funding difficulties as the Workhouse proposal ; only £ 300 per year was available , insufficient to build and maintain a school . This problem was not recognised until the bill to found the school reached the House of Lords . An altered bill was finalised in 1834 , removing any references to the London Workhouse and addressing the Lords ' objections .
The altered bill was passed as an Act of Parliament in 1834 . It was this act which founded the City of London School , which initially had around 400 pupils . The act gave the Corporation of London a duty to maintain a school on the Honey Lane Market site and so gave control over almost every aspect of the school 's running to the Corporation . A committee was also set up to manage the school , with Hale as chairman . Although the committee 's powers were initially limited , they gained more control over time as they made important decisions for the school .
The act gave the new school an annual budget of £ 900 ( around £ 75 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) from the bequest while the governors of the City of London Corporation School , who still wanted to implement their original idea , gained nothing , only retaining the old workhouse income . Both Hale and the Corporation of London were also eager to create this second school , which the governors of the City of London Corporation School had proposed . Despite their efforts , the other school was not founded until 1854 , as the Freemen 's Orphanage School , in Brixton with Hale as chairman . The Freemen 's Orphanage School still exists today as the City of London Freemen 's School in Surrey .
= = = Establishment at Milk Street = = =
The foundation stone of the new school was laid by Lord Brougham at premises in Milk Street , in the City of London near Cheapside , on the site of the old Honey Lane Market , in 1835 and the school opened its doors in 1837 .
The school was remarkable for its time in several respects . It did not discriminate against pupils on the grounds of religious persuasion ( at a time when most public schools had an Anglican emphasis ) ; it included pupils from non @-@ conformist and Jewish families . Also , unlike other established independent schools , it was a day school ( although there were in early days a handful of boarders , no boarding department ever became established ) . It also promoted a practical and progressive scheme of education which was well ahead of its time . It was the first school in England to include science on the curriculum and to include scientific experiments as part of its teaching . It also offered education in commercial subjects . This did not , however , diminish the excellence of its teaching in the subjects traditionally favoured by independent schools , and it sent classical and mathematical scholars to Oxford and Cambridge throughout the nineteenth century . These included the mathematician Edwin Abbott Abbott ( whose exploration of a world in other than three dimensions , Flatland , is still in print and who returned to the school as headmaster ) and H. H. Asquith , who though educated as a classical scholar went on to become the British Prime Minister .
= = = Move to Blackfriars = = =
The school eventually outgrew its original site . While many public schools moved away from Greater London in the late Nineteenth Century , a joint decision was made by the school 's management and the school committee to stay in the capital as it was deemed a stimulating environment for education by many . By a further Act of Parliament ( the City of London School Act 1879 ) , it was empowered to move to a new site at Blackfriars on the Victoria Embankment overlooking the Thames ( still in the City of London ) . The school moved in 1883 and the new building was opened by the Prince of Wales , ( the future Edward VII ) .
In 1920 , an arrangement was made whereby all the boy choristers of the Temple Church , were given scholarships at the City of London School . In 1926 , this arrangement was extended to the boy choristers of the Chapel Royal at St. James 's Palace . The choristers included Ernest Lough whose recording of Mendelssohn 's " O for the Wings of a Dove " with the Temple Choir in 1927 made him world famous ; it was the first classical record to sell ( by 1962 ) more than a million copies . Other musicians educated at the City of London School include the cellist Steven Isserlis .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1938 , the headmaster F.R. Dale made an agreement with George Turner , headmaster of Marlborough College , to evacuate the school there , if it became necessary . On 1 September 1939 following the German invasion of Poland and the start of the Second World War , the majority of the school were sent to Marlborough College by train .
Accommodation was not provided in the agreement with Marlborough College and so Turner wrote to the Mayor of Marlborough to request accommodation in town . Many of the accommodation billets were occupied by soldiers and women working for the Ministry of Health at the time and so for the first night , the boys slept in the gymnasium of the school , before moving into the town 's billets the following night .
When the Marlborough term began , an arrangement was made whereby City of London boys had lessons during games for Marlborough College pupils and vice versa . The difficulties at the Marlborough location ranged from finding a study for Headmaster Dale to finding enough kitchen staff to prepare food for both schools . Resources were limited and outbreaks of influenza and rubella were common . Like many other schools evacuated into the countryside , the City of London School 's enrolment fell from 700 to 430 during the war , although no pupil was killed or injured as a direct result of enemy fire .
The arrangements at Marlborough College gave pupils the opportunity to strengthen the school 's clubs and societies . This included a dramatic society , in which Kingsley Amis played a large part .
Marlborough College itself experienced some threat from the war . The Ministry of Aircraft Production had also relocated there , and in 1942 , bombs fell nearby . By 1944 , with the war settling down , the City of London School returned to its home on the Victoria Embankment , which had suffered no structural damage during the Blitz . Air raid shelters were built on site as a precautionary measure .
Soon after the building reopened , a bomb fell on the nearby Law Courts , and the staff sent pupils home for a week . However , some pupils were due to take public exams . After Marlborough College refused permission to take the exams there , it was decided that boys would take the Higher Certificate papers in the Guildhall Crypt .
It took the school over five years to fully recover from the effects of the war . Many Old Citizens had lost their lives fighting in the war . Today , a memorial exists on the school 's current grounds to remember those Old Citizens who had lost their lives in both the Second World War and the First World War . An annual remembrance service , involving members of the Combined Cadet Force , is held in November .
= = = Modernisation and move to Queen Victoria Street = = =
The school underwent many changes during its time on the Victoria Embankment . The curriculum had been consolidated at the turn of the century , the Combined Cadet Force was modernised , the house system had been reorganised , the " mission " , what is now the annual charity appeal , had been started and a Community Service Organisation had been set up as an alternative to the Combined Cadet Force . It was compulsory for a boy , above the third form , to serve in one of these organisations for at least four school terms . This is a tradition which still exists today . In 1925 , the school acquired its sports grounds at Grove Park , Lewisham . This site included a pavilion , containing offices , changing rooms , toilets and showers , which was designed , by Old Citizen Ralph Knott , to also be a memorial to those Old Citizens who had lost their lives in the First World War . When J. A. Boyes became headmaster in 1964 , further modernisations were made in the building . As the number of pupils increased over the years , overcrowding became a problem . Headmaster Boyes , believed that a new , modern building was needed for the school , and his efforts managed to secure a site on the banks of the River Thames for a new facility .
In 1986 , the City of London School moved to its present site in purpose @-@ built facilities in Queen Victoria Street ( where it is opposite the College of Arms and just below St Paul 's Cathedral ) on one side and facing onto the banks of the River Thames on the other side . It was officially opened in 1987 by HRH The Princess Anne . The Millennium Bridge is next to the school buildings .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Milk Street ( 1837 – 1883 ) = = =
The original building at Milk Street was designed by architect J.B. Bunning , who was the architect to the City of London and also an Old Citizen of the school . The building was designed in a neo -Gothic Tudor style .
= = = Victoria Embankment ( 1883 – 1987 ) = = =
The Victoria Embankment building , a grand building said to be in the Italian Renaissance style but actually in a high Victorian style with a steep pitched roof resembling that of a French chateau , was designed by Davis and Emanuel and constructed by John Mowlem & Co at a cost exceeding £ 100 @,@ 000 ( about £ 7 @,@ 570 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) . The designers designed the school as " amazingly unscholastic , rather like a permanent Exhibition Palace . "
On the front of the building are statues of Shakespeare , Milton , Bacon , Newton and Sir Thomas More with " the first four emphasising the school 's literary and scientific traditions [ and ] the last being a religious martyr , a famous lawyer and the author of Utopia . "
The building remained the home of the City of London School for a hundred years , although the site expanded to include not only the original building on the Victoria Embankment itself , but a range of buildings at right angles along the whole of John Carpenter Street , which was named after the founder of the school , and further buildings constructed at the back along Tudor Street , with the school playground , Fives courts and cloisters enclosed within the site . These other buildings were demolished when the school moved again in 1986 . Here the school was adjacent to the City of London School for Girls , which was founded by the City of London Corporation as a sister school in 1894 and moved in 1969 to its present site in the Barbican , and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama which has also since moved to the Barbican . It was also next to the traditional home of the British newspaper industry in Fleet Street .
This building still stands and is now protected by a preservation order ; it is presently occupied by the investment bank JPMorgan and it appeared on the left of the famous Thames Television ident for 20 years from 1968 to 1989 . The building still features the school 's name above the door .
= = = Queen Victoria Street ( 1987 – present ) = = =
The present building on Queen Victoria Street was designed by City of London architect Thomas Meddings , an Old Citizen of the school as well as a former Temple Church chorister . It is a wholly modern building , although some of the stained glass and sculptures from the Victoria Embankment building has been relocated to this new building . A design and technology block was added to the building in 1990 , though in 2008 , the block was transformed into a building mainly used by the ICT and music departments , although some design and technology facilities remain . The building was designed on a structural grid and non @-@ load bearing walls were used so that the internal layout of the building could easily be changed when necessary . The school 's design is also slightly unusual in that it was built avoiding a road tunnel in the centre of the premises . This meant that the first and second floors of the building could only be built on either side of the road tunnel . The load on the third floor directly above the road tunnel is also limited and so a courtyard , surrounded by the building , which goes up to the fifth floor , exists in that area . The current building is opened to the public annually on one weekend in September as part of the Open House London event .
The front view of the building beside the River Thames with St Paul 's Cathedral in the background and the Millennium Bridge on the right is occasionally seen in popular media such as in the BBC News 60 @-@ second countdown as well as in an early scene of the 2005 movie , The Constant Gardener and in the 2009 film Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince .
= = School life = =
The school seeks to provide a community " to foster good relationships between members of the staff , the pupils themselves and between members of the staff and pupils " , so that pupils can develop their social confidence as well as thrive on academic excellence . The school 's aims and range of extracurricular activities reflect this ethos .
= = = Houses = = =
City of London School has six Houses . As well as houses named after the founder of the school John Carpenter and former headmaster Edwin Abbott and Mortimer , they include houses named after important Old Citizens or school benefactors including Beaufoy , a philanthropist who donated the sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( about £ 540 @,@ 000 in 2008 ) in the eighteenth century , Hale who played a significant role in the school 's founding and Seeley , a famous historian who attended the school . Boys are assigned to a House in the Third Form ( 13 years old ) , which they stay in throughout their school career . There are interhouse events ( e.g. sports , literature among others ) which contribute points to an overall Interhouse Competition that is decided at the end of the year and in which Hale has been very successful .
= = = School uniform = = =
The school requires school uniform for all pupils up to the fifth form . Sixth formers do not have to wear the uniform but they are required to wear suits and the sixth form school tie . The uniform is a blazer with the school crest ( black for winter or maroon with black stripes for summer , though both are now allowed throughout the year ) , white shirt , black trousers , shoes , black socks and school tie which has black and maroon stripes . There are a selection of other ties worn by some pupils ; these are given out as awards for achievements within the school . These include house colours which are awarded to those who have represented their house in multiple events . School colours are awarded to those who have represented the school in multiple events . School colours include junior colours normally awarded to boys in the fourth form and below who have represented the school on a number of occasions , half colours which are awarded to those who have competed in several events for the school , and full colours for those who have shown a good commitment in representing the school . Other ties include the prefects tie for elected prefects , the senior prefects tie for the four senior prefects and the John Carpenter Club tie which is awarded to those who have competed in events at an international level .
= = = Curriculum = = =
In 2013 , the Daily Telegraph placed the school 27th in its League Table of Independent School A @-@ level results , with 73 % of pupils gaining A * or A grades at A @-@ level . Currently around 20 pupils take up places at Oxbridge each year .
Pupils are required to take a minimum of ten GCSE subjects in the fourth and fifth form of which six , Mathematics , English Language , English Literature , Biology , Chemistry and Physics are chosen for all students . The confines on the remaining four options are that one must be a humanity and another a modern foreign language . Additional subjects and qualifications are taken by some students . In 2007 , the school also started offering IGCSE in some subjects .
In the sixth form , boys take four subjects at AS @-@ Level and continue three of those four subjects into their A2 year . Subjects on offer include Geography , History and Politics , Economics , Mathematics , Language and Literature , Modern Languages , Chemistry , Biology , Physics , Drama and Theatre , Classical Languages / Studies , Design and Visual Arts , Religious Education , Information Technology and Physical Education . There is also a programme of PSHE , and games at all levels , and a ICT programme for the first and second forms .
= = = Extracurricular activities = = =
The school offers many extracurricular activities . These include over 50 clubs and societies including a Model United Nations , public speaking and debating society which frequently participates in international competitions , and the Square Mile Club which in the past has attracted notable speakers such as Sir Trevor Macdonald , Brian Paddick , Sir David Pepper and Ian Livingston . Boys themselves can create and manage clubs , with school funding available for activities . There are also trips , opportunities to carry out community service and a Combined Cadet Force . The school also gives boys the opportunity to receive instrumental tuition as well as join music groups including orchestras and choirs . The school also offers sports including Football , Cricket , Basketball , Water polo , Swimming , Sailing , Fencing , Squash , Badminton , Fives , Athletics , Cross @-@ country , Judo , Karate and Indoor rowing . Most of these sports take place on school facilities . Sports such as sailing and climbing take place on non @-@ school facilities . Boys also represent the school in competitions at varying levels . The school has a tradition of supporting a charity , chosen by the boys through a ballot , each academic year . The fundraising activities are coordinated by the boys and events take place throughout the year to raise money for the selected charity . An average of £ 50 @,@ 000 is raised each year .
= = = Facilities = = =
The school 's sports facilities include a multi purpose indoor sports hall , a fencing salle , three squash courts , a 25 @-@ metre swimming pool , a conditioning room and playing fields , astroturf and athletics tracks at Grove Park , Lewisham . Music facilities include three ensemble rooms , ten rehearsal rooms and a music technology lab . Other facilities include the Great Hall , a sixth form common room , a bookshop , a library , an archive room , three ICT labs , facilities for the Combined Cadet Force , a drama studio , two playgrounds and a drama theatre . The Great Hall houses a Walker organ which was moved from the previous school building and put into a new casing . The organ has 3 manual departments , 61 notes and a pedal department with 32 notes as well as 43 stops , 4 tremulants and 6 couplers . The drama theatre was rebuilt in 2009 at a value of £ 1 @.@ 3 million . The project was jointly funded by City entrepreneur Brian Winterflood and the City of London Corporation . The new theatre was designed by architectural firm RHWL and built by Wilmott Dixon Construction .
= = = Traditional events = = =
Although the school provides a very modern atmosphere in most aspects of school life , there are some traditional events held annually , although attendance of these events is no longer compulsory for all boys . This includes the annual prize giving ceremony at Guildhall , London and the annual carol service at Temple Church , among others . The school is also home to the annual London Classical Reading Competition , participated in by schools nationwide . Another traditional event is " muck @-@ up day " celebrated by each year group at the end of formal schooling in their final year at the school . In 2015 this attracted police attention when plans to bring in paint for " raucous " celebrations led to concerns about disruption to the city 's financial district . The headmistress reluctantly decided to bar the year group from school grounds " for their own safety " .
= = = Governance = = =
Today , the City of London School 's policies are maintained by a board of governors . It continues to be under the governance of the City of London Corporation ( the governing body of the City of London headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London , as opposed to Greater London , as well as an independent corporation ) . The school is under the governance of the City of London Corporation 's corporate arm as opposed to its Local Authority arm .
The school is one of the three independent schools owned by the City of London Corporation , the other two being the City of London School for Girls and the City of London Freemen 's School . The City of London School for Girls located in the Barbican is a fifteen @-@ minute walk away from the school and there are joint events , such as social evenings , concerts and plays , with the school throughout the year .
= = School fees = =
Although the City of London School has always charged fees to most of its pupils , those fees have been moderate relative to other independent schools , and it has always offered scholarships , both on the basis of academic and musical ability ( it educates ten boys selected for the Choir of Her Majesty 's Chapel Royal ) . In 2008 , the school began offering sports scholarships . In addition , due to the withdrawal of the Government Assisted Places scheme in 1998 , the school has been able to offer full @-@ fee bursaries ( or Sponsored Awards ) to pupils from families on lower incomes with the help of contributions from parties including private companies , the John Carpenter Club and parents of current pupils .
For the 2013 – 14 academic year , the annual school fees were £ 13 @,@ 803 , and lunch is added extra at £ 212 a term ( £ 636 a year ) . Music lessons are an additional £ 198 a term ( £ 594 a year )
= = Charitable status = =
The school currently has six charities registered with the Charity Commission . These are The City of London School Bursary Fund which contributes to the funding of the bursary schemes , The City of London School Bursary Trust which provides bursaries to boys who have gained admission to the school but whose parents cannot afford the fees , The City of London School Scholarships and Prize Fund which allows the school and other parties to offer scholarships , prizes or sponsored awards to current or former pupils without incurring taxes , The City of London School War Memorial Fund which was originally established to support boys affected by the World Wars but now supports means @-@ tested bursaries at the School , The City of London School Charitable Trust which is the annual charity appeal and The City of London School Education Trust which exempts the school from taxes as an independent school providing education for pupils within the school , as well as providing educational and recreational facilities for children and young people in the surrounding communities . Recent charities have included WaterAid , GOSH , Teenage Cancer Trust and Malaika Kids . Events such as the 24 @-@ hour ' fishathon ' , 48 @-@ hour row , cake sales , sponsored swims and an 11 @-@ mile sponsored walk generate money for the charity appeal .
= = Notable people = =
Many distinguished people have been part of the school either as pupils ( see List of Old Citizens ) or staff .
Notable recent pupils include the actors Daniel Radcliffe from Harry Potter movies , Skandar Keynes , of The Chronicles of Narnia film series , and Harry Michell of Tom Brown 's Schooldays and Feather Boy .
Jack Crawford is a British born American football player who was drafted with the 158th overall pick in the 2012 NFL Draft by the Oakland Raiders .
Jonathan Keates , a prize @-@ winning writer , was an English master at the school . Sheila Gallagher MBE was honoured for her service as a lollipop lady at the crossing to the school on Queen Victoria Street , in 2002 .
Old boys of the City of London School are known as Old Citizens. and may join the John Carpenter Club . Over 140 people listed in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography were educated at the City of London School , and that includes only those who were already deceased at the time of writing .
= = Headmasters = =
The school has had thirteen headmasters . The first was Rev J. A. Giles , a scholar of Anglo @-@ Saxon history and a Fellow at Corpus Christi College , Oxford , who also wrote a number of scholarly works , including the 34 volume Patres ecclesiæ Anglicanæ . He was however , " temperamentally unsuited " to be headmaster of the school , and was replaced by Rev Dr G. F. Mortimer , a liberal who had written an anti @-@ slavery pamphlet . Mortimer 's religious tolerance led him to open the school to boys from Jewish families . He was replaced in 1865 by a former boy , Edwin Abbott Abbott , author of the novella Flatland . Abbott oversaw the education of future Prime Minister H. H. Asquith , before retiring in 1889 to devote himself to literary and theological pursuits . The Rev. Prebendary Dr Arthur Chilton MVO , DD was appointed Headmaster in 1905 , an appointment he held for 24 years and throughout World War One , until 1929 . In 1950 Dr. Arthur Willoughby Barton a scholar and top @-@ class football referee , took over as headmaster until 1965 . David R. Levin , who was also the chair of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference for the 2009 – 2010 academic year , held the position from 1999 to 2014 . He left the school in January 2014 to become the managing director of all the independent schools owned by United Learning , and was succeeded by Sarah Fletcher , who had been the head of Kingston Grammar School , in May 2014 . Gary Griffin was acting as head in the interim .
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= Lucy Stone =
Lucy Stone ( August 13 , 1818 – October 19 , 1893 ) was a prominent American orator , abolitionist , and suffragist , and a vocal advocate and organizer promoting rights for women . In 1847 , Stone became the first woman from Massachusetts to earn a college degree . She spoke out for women 's rights and against slavery at a time when women were discouraged and prevented from public speaking . Stone was known for using her maiden name after marriage , as the custom was for women to take their husband 's surname .
Stone 's organizational activities for the cause of women 's rights yielded tangible gains in the difficult political environment of the 19th century . Stone helped initiate the first National Women 's Rights Convention in Worcester , Massachusettsand she supported and sustained it annually , along with a number of other local , state and regional activist conventions . Stone spoke in front of a number of legislative bodies to promote laws giving more rights to women . She assisted in establishing the Woman 's National Loyal League to help pass the Thirteenth Amendment and thereby abolish slavery , after which she helped form the American Woman Suffrage Association , which built support for a woman suffrage Constitutional amendment by winning woman suffrage at the state and local levels .
Stone wrote extensively about a wide range of women 's rights , publishing and distributing speeches by herself and others , and convention proceedings . In the long @-@ running and influential Woman 's Journal , a weekly periodical that she founded and promoted , Stone aired both her own and differing views about women 's rights . Called " the orator " , the " morning star " and the " heart and soul " of the women 's rights movement , Stone influenced Susan B. Anthony to take up the cause of women 's suffrage . Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote that " Lucy Stone was the first person by whom the heart of the American public was deeply stirred on the woman question . " Together , Anthony , Stanton , and Stone have been called the 19th @-@ century " triumvirate " of women 's suffrage and feminism .
= = Early life and influences = =
Lucy Stone was born on August 13 , 1818 , on her family 's farm at Coy 's Hill in West Brookfield , Massachusetts . She was the eighth of nine children born to Hannah Matthews and Francis Stone ; she grew up with three brothers and three sisters , two siblings having died before her own birth . Another member of the Stone household was Sarah Barr , “ Aunt Sally ” to the children – a sister of Francis Stone who had been abandoned by her husband and left dependent upon her brother . Although farm life was hard work for all and Francis Stone tightly managed the family resources , Lucy remembered her childhood as one of “ opulence , ” the farm producing all the food the family wanted and enough extra to trade for the few store @-@ bought goods they needed .
Although Stone recalled that “ There was only one will in our family , and that was my father ’ s , ” she described the family government characteristic of her day . Hannah Stone earned a modest income through selling eggs and cheese but was denied her any control over that money , sometimes denied money to purchase things Francis considered trivial . Believing she had a right to her own earnings , Hannah sometimes stole coins from his purse or secretly sold a cheese . As a child , Lucy resented instances of what she saw as her father ’ s unfair management of the family ’ s money . But she later came to realize that custom was to blame , and the injustice only demonstrated “ the necessity of making custom right , if it must rule . ”
From the examples of her mother , Aunt Sally , and a neighbor neglected by her husband and left destitute , Stone early learned that women were at the mercy of their husbands ’ good will . When she came across the biblical passage , “ and thy desire shall be to thy husband , and he shall rule over thee , ” she was distraught over what appeared to be divine sanction of women ’ s subjugation , but then reasoned that the injunction applied only to wives . Resolving to “ call no man my master , ” she determined to keep control over her own life by never marrying , obtaining the highest education she could , and earning her own livelihood .
= = = Teaching at “ a woman ’ s pay ” = = =
At age sixteen , Stone began teaching in district schools , as her brothers and sister Rhoda also did . Her beginning pay of $ 1 @.@ 00 a day was much lower than that of male teachers , and when she substituted for her brother Bowman one winter , she received less pay than he received . When she protested to the school committee that she had taught all the subjects Bowman had , it replied that they could give her “ only a woman ’ s pay . ” Lower pay for women was one of the arguments cited by those promoting the hiring of women as teachers : “ To make education universal , it must be at moderate expense , and women can afford to teach for one @-@ half , or even less , the salary which men would ask . ” Although Stone ’ s salary increased along with the size of her schools , until she finally received $ 16 a month , it was always lower than the male rate .
= = = The “ woman question ” = = =
In 1836 , Stone began reading newspaper reports of a controversy raging throughout Massachusetts that some referred to as the “ woman question ” – what was woman ’ s proper role in society ; should she assume an active and public role in the reform movements of the day ? Developments within that controversy over the next several years shaped her evolving philosophy on women ’ s rights .
A debate over whether women were entitled to a political voice had begun when many women responded to William Lloyd Garrison ’ s appeal to circulate antislavery petitions and sent thousands of signatures to Congress only to have them rejected , in part because women had sent them . Women abolitionists responded by holding a convention in New York City to expand their petitioning efforts , and declaring that “ as certain rights and duties are common to all moral beings , ” they would no longer remain within limits prescribed by “ corrupt custom and a perverted application of Scripture . ” After sisters Angelina and Sarah Grimke began speaking to audiences of men and women , instead of women @-@ only as was acceptable , a state convention of Congregational ministers issued a Pastoral letter condemning women ’ s assuming “ the place of man as a public reformer ” and “ itinerat [ ing ] in the character of public lecturers and teachers . ” Stone attended the convention as a spectator , and was so angered by the letter that she determined " if ever [ I ] had anything to say in public , [ I ] would say it , and all the more because of that pastoral letter . "
Stone read Sarah Grimke ’ s “ Letters on the Province of Woman ” ( later republished as “ Letters on the Equality of the Sexes ” ) , and told a brother they only reinforced her resolve “ to call no man master . ” She drew from these " Letters " when writing college essays and her later women ’ s rights lectures .
Having determined to obtain the highest education she could , Stone enrolled at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1839 , at the age of 21 . But she was so disappointed in Mary Lyons ’ intolerance of antislavery and women ’ s rights that she withdrew after only one term . The very next month she enrolled at Wesleyan Academy ( later Wilbraham & Monson Academy ) , which she found more to her liking : “ It was decided by a large majority in our literary society the other day , ” she reported to a brother , “ that ladies ought to mingle in politics , go to Congress , etc. etc . ” Stone read a newspaper account of how a Connecticut antislavery meeting had denied the right to speak or vote to Abby Kelley , recently hired as an antislavery agent to work in that state . Refusing to relinquish her right , Kelly had defiantly raised her hand every time a vote was taken . “ I admire the calm and noble bearing of Abby K , ” Stone wrote to a brother , “ and cannot but wish there were more kindred spirits . ”
Three years later , Stone followed Kelley ’ s example . In 1843 , a deacon of her church was recommended for expulsion because of certain antislavery activities , including giving countenance to Abby Kelley ’ s anti @-@ church views by driving her to lectures and entertaining her at his home . When the first vote was taken , Stone raised her hand in his defense . The minister discounted her vote , saying that , though she was a member of the church , she was not a voting member . Like Kelly , she stubbornly raised her hand for each of the remaining five votes .
After completing a year at coeducational Monson Academy in the summer of 1841 , Stone learned that Oberlin Collegiate Institute in Ohio had become the first college in the nation to admit women and had bestowed college degrees on three women . Stone enrolled at Quaboag Seminary in neighboring Warren , where she read Virgil and Sophocles and studied Latin and Greek grammar in preparation for Oberlin ’ s entrance examinations .
= = Oberlin = =
In August 1843 , just after she turned 25 , Stone traveled by train , steamship , and stagecoach to Oberlin College in Ohio , the country 's first college to admit both women and African Americans . She entered the college believing that women should vote and assume political office , that women should study the classic professions and that women should be able to speak their minds in a public forum . Oberlin College did not share all of these sentiments .
In her third year at Oberlin , Stone befriended Antoinette Brown , an abolitionist and suffragist who came to Oberlin in 1845 to study to become a minister . Stone and Brown would eventually marry abolitionist brothers and thus become sisters @-@ in @-@ law .
= = = Equal pay strike = = =
Stone hoped to earn most of her college expenses through teaching in one of the institute ’ s lower departments . But because of its policy against employing first @-@ year students as teachers , the only work Stone could get other than teaching at district schools during the winter break was house keeping chores through the school ’ s manual labor program . For this she was paid three cents an hour — less than half what male students received for their work in the program . Among measures taken to reduce her expenses , Stone prepared her own meals in her dormitory room . In 1844 Stone was given a position teaching arithmetic in the Ladies Department , but again received reduced pay because of her sex .
Oberlin ’ s compensation policies required Stone to do twice the labor a male student had to do to pay the same costs . Stone frequently rose at two o 'clock to fit in work and study , and she found her health declining . In February 1845 , having decided to submit to the injustice no longer , she asked the Faculty Board for the same pay given two lesser @-@ experienced male colleagues . When her request was denied , she resigned her position . Pleading with the faculty to restore Stone , her former students said they would pay Stone “ what was right ” if the college would not . Stone had planned to borrow money from her father when funds ran out , but Francis Stone , moved by his daughter ’ s description of her struggles , promised to provide money when needed . Help from home was not needed , however , because after three months of pressure , the faculty yielded and hired Stone back , paying both her and other women student teachers at the same rate paid male student teachers .
= = = Public speaking = = =
In February 1846 Stone intimated to Abby Kelley Foster that she was thinking of becoming a public speaker , but not until the following summer did a storm of controversy over Foster ’ s speaking at Oberlin decide the matter for her . Faculty opposition to Foster ignited impassioned discussion of women ’ s rights among the students , especially of woman ’ s right to speak in public , which Stone vigorously defended in a joint meeting of the men ’ s and women ’ s literary societies . She followed that campus demonstration by making her first public speech at Oberlin ’ s August 1 commemoration of Emancipation in the West Indies .
In the fall of 1846 Stone informed her family of her intention to become a woman ’ s rights lecturer . Her brothers were at once supportive , her father encouraged her to do what she considered her duty , but her mother and only remaining sister begged her to reconsider . To her mother 's fears that she would be reviled , Stone said she knew she would be disesteemed and even hated , but she must " pursue that course of conduct which , to me , appears best calculated to promote the highest good of the world . ”
Stone then tried to gain practical speaking experience . Although women students could debate each other in their literary society , it was considered inappropriate for them to participate in oral exercises with men ; women members of the collegiate rhetoric class were expected to learn by observing their male classmates . So Stone and first @-@ year student Antoinette Brown , who also wanted to develop skill in public speaking , organized an off @-@ campus women ’ s debating club . After gaining a measure of competence , they sought and received permission to debate each other before Stone ’ s rhetoric class . The debate attracted a large student audience as well as attention from the Faculty Board , which thereupon formally banned women ’ s oral exercises in coeducational classes . Shortly thereafter , Stone accepted a challenge from a former editor of a county newspaper to a public debate on women ’ s rights , and she soundly defeated him . She then submitted a petition to the Faculty Board , signed by most members of her graduating class , asking that women chosen to write graduation essays be permitted to read them themselves , as men so honored did , instead of having them read by faculty members . When the Faculty Board refused and Stone was elected to write an essay , she declined , saying she could not support a principle that denied women “ the privilege of being co @-@ laborers with men in any sphere to which their ability makes them adequate . ”
Stone received her baccalaureate degree from Oberlin College on August 25 , 1847 , becoming the first female college graduate from Massachusetts .
= = Antislavery apprenticeship = =
Stone gave her first public speeches on women 's rights in the fall of 1847 , first at brother Bowman ’ s church in Gardner , Massachusetts , and a little later in neighboring Warren . Stone became a lecturing agent for the Massachusetts Anti @-@ Slavery Society in June 1848 , persuaded by Abby Kelley Foster that the experience would give her the speaking practice she still felt she needed before beginning her women ’ s rights campaign . Stone immediately proved to be an effective speaker , reported to wield extraordinary persuasive power over her audiences . She was described as “ a little meek @-@ looking Quakerish body , with the sweetest , modest manners and yet as unshrinking and self @-@ possessed as a loaded canon . ” One of her assets , in addition to a storytelling ability that could move audiences to tears or laughter as she willed , was said to be an unusual voice that contemporaries compared to a “ silver bell , ” and of which it was said , “ no more perfect instrument had ever been bestowed upon a speaker . ”
In addition to helping Stone develop as an orator , the antislavery agency introduced her to a network of progressive reformers within the Garrisonian wing of the abolition movement who assisted her women ’ s rights work . In the fall of 1848 , she received an invitation from Phoebe Hathaway of Farmington , New York , to lecture for the women who had organized the Seneca Falls and Rochester women ’ s rights conventions earlier that summer . Although Stone accepted and expected to begin working for them in the fall of 1849 , the agency never materialized . In April 1849 , Stone was invited to lecture for the Philadelphia Female Anti @-@ Slavery Society , and Lucretia Mott took advantage of her presence to hold Pennsylvania ’ s first women ’ s rights meeting , on May 4 , 1849 . With the help of abolitionists , Stone conducted Massachusetts ’ first petition campaigns for the right of women to vote and hold public office . Wendell Phillips drafted the first petitions and accompanying appeals for circulation , and William Lloyd Garrison published them in the Liberator for readers to copy and circulate . When Stone sent petitions to the legislature in February 1850 , over half were from towns where she had lectured .
= = National Woman 's Rights Convention = =
In April 1850 , a woman ’ s rights convention was held in Salem , Ohio , to a petition drive asking its constitutional convention to revise the state constitution to secure women ’ s equal legal and political rights as well as woman and Negro suffrage . Stone sent a letter praising their initiative and said , “ Massachusetts ought to have taken the lead in the work you are now doing , but if she chooses to linger , let her young sisters of the West set her a worthy example ; and if the ‘ Pilgrim spirit is not dead , ’ we ’ ll pledge Massachusetts to follow her . ” Some of the leaders asked Stone and Lucretia Mott to address the constitutional convention on their behalf , but believing such appeals should come from residents of the state , they declined .
With the support of Garrison and other abolitionists , Stone arranged the May 30 , 1850 , meeting at Boston ’ s Melodeon Hall that called the first National Woman ’ s Rights Convention . Paulina Wright Davis presided while Stone addressed the large audience and served as secretary . Seven women were appointed to organize the convention , with Davis and Stone appointed to conduct the correspondence needed to solicit signatures to the call and recruit speakers and attendance .
A few months before the convention , Stone contracted typhoid fever while traveling in Indiana and nearly died . Frail health limited her participation in the National Woman ’ s Rights Convention held October 23 – 24 , 1850 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , and she made no formal address until the closing session . The convention decided not to establish a formal association , but to exist as an annual convention with a standing committee to arrange its meetings , publish its proceedings , and execute adopted plans of action . Stone was appointed to the Central Committee of nine women and nine men . The following spring she became secretary of the committee and , except for one year , retained that position until 1858 . As secretary , Stone took a leading part in organizing and setting the agenda for the national conventions throughout the decade .
= = Woman ’ s rights orator = =
In May 1851 , while in Boston attending the New England Anti @-@ Slavery Society ’ s annual meeting , Stone went to the exhibit of Hiram ’ s Powers ’ s statue of The Greek Slave . She was so moved by the sculpture that when she addressed the meeting that evening , she poured out her heart about the statue being emblematic of all enchained womanhood . Stone said the society ’ s general agent , Samuel May , Jr . , reproached her for speaking on women ’ s rights at an antislavery meeting , and she replied : “ I was a woman before I was an abolitionist . I must speak for women . ” Three months later Stone notified May that she intended to lecture on women ’ s rights full @-@ time and would not be available for antislavery work . Stone launched her career as an independent women ’ s rights lecturer on October 1 , 1851 . When May continued to press antislavery work upon her , she agreed to lecture for the Massachusetts Anti @-@ Slavery Society on Sundays . Arranging women ’ s rights lectures around these engagements , she used pay for her antislavery work to defray expenses of her independent lecturing until she felt confident enough to charge admission .
= = = Dress reform = = =
When Stone resumed lecturing in the fall of 1851 , she wore a new style of dress that she had adopted during her winter convalescence , consisting of a loose , short jacket and a pair of baggy trousers under a skirt that fell a few inches below the knees . The dress was a product of the health @-@ reform movement and intended to replace the fashionable French dress of a tight bodice over
a whalebone @-@ fitted corset , and a skirt that dragged several inches on the floor , worn over several layers of starched petticoats with straw or horsehair sewn into the hems . Ever since the fall of 1849 , when the [ 1 ] Water @-@ Cure Journal urged women to invent a style of dress that would allow them the free use of their legs , women across the country had been wearing some form of pants and short skirt , generally called the “ Turkish costume ” or the “ American dress . ” Most wore it as a walking or gardening dress , but a letter writer to the National Woman ’ s Rights Convention urged women to adopt it as common attire .
By the spring of 1851 , women in several states were wearing the dress in public . In March , Amelia Bloomer , editor of the temperance newspaper The Lily , announced that she was wearing it and printed a description of her dress along with instructions on how to make it . Soon newspapers had dubbed it the “ Bloomer dress ” and the name stuck .
The Bloomer became a fashion fad during the following months , as women from Toledo to New York City and Lowell , Massachusetts , held reform @-@ dress social events and festivals . Supporters gathered signatures to a “ Declaration of Independence from the Despotism of Parisian Fashion ” and organized dress @-@ reform societies . A few Garrisonian supporters of women ’ s rights took prominent part in these activities , and one offered silk to any of his friends who would make it into a short skirt and trousers for a public dress . Stone accepted the offer .
When Stone lectured in the dress in the fall of 1851 , hers was the first Bloomer most of her audiences had ever seen . But by then , the dress had become controversial . Although newspapers had initially praised the practicality of the new style , they soon turned to ridicule and condemnation , now viewing the trousers as a usurpation of the symbol of male authority . Many women retreated in the face of criticism , but Stone continued to wear the short dress exclusively for the next three years . She also wore her hair short , cut just below her jaw line . After Stone lectured in New York City in April 1853 , the report of her speeches in the Illustrated News was accompanied by this engraving of Stone in the Bloomer dress .
Stone found the short skirt convenient during her travels and defended it against those who said it was a distraction that hurt the women ’ s rights cause . Nevertheless , she disliked the instant attention it drew whenever she arrived in a new place . In the fall of 1854 , she added a dress a few inches longer , for occasional use . In 1855 , she abandoned the dress altogether and was not involved in the formation of a National Dress Reform Association in February , 1856 . Her resumption of long skirts drew the condemnation of such dress @-@ reform leaders as Gerrit Smith and Lydia Sayer Hasbrouk , who accused her of sacrificing principle for the sake of pleasing a husband .
= = = Western tour = = =
On October 14 , 1853 , following the National Woman 's Rights Convention held in Cleveland , Ohio , Stone and Lucretia Mott addressed Cincinnati ’ s first women ’ s rights meeting , arranged by Henry Blackwell , a local businessman from a family of capable women , who had taken an interest in Stone . After that successful meeting , Stone accepted Blackwell 's offer to arrange a lecturing tour for her in the western states – considered then to be those west of Pennsylvania and Virginia . Over the following thirteen weeks , Stone gave over forty lectures in thirteen cities , during which a report to the New York Tribune said she was stirring the West on women ’ s rights “ as it is seldom stirred on any subject whatsoever . ” After four lectures in Louisville , Stone was begged to repeat the entire course and told she was having more effect there than she could have anywhere else . An Indianapolis newspaper reported that Stone “ set about two @-@ thirds of the women in the town crazy after women ’ s rights and placed half the men in a similar predicament . ” St. Louis papers said her lectures attracted the largest crowds ever assembled there , filling the city ’ s largest auditorium beyond its capacity of two thousand . Chicago papers praised her lectures as the best of the season , and said they were inspiring discussion and debate in the city ’ s homes and meeting places . When Stone headed home in January 1854 , she left behind incalculable influence .
From 1854 through 1858 , Stone lectured on women ’ s rights in Massachusetts , Maine , New Hampshire , Vermont , Connecticut , Rhode Island , New York , Pennsylvania , Delaware , New Jersey , Washington , D.C. , Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , and Ontario . Elizabeth Cady Stanton would later write that " Lucy Stone was the first speaker who really stirred the nation 's heart on the subject of woman 's wrongs . "
= = Petitioning and hearings = =
In addition to being the women ’ s rights movement ’ s most prominent spokesperson , Lucy Stone led the movement ’ s petitioning efforts . She initiated petition efforts in New England and several other states and assisted the petitioning efforts of state and local organizations in New York , Ohio , and Indiana .
= = = Massachusetts = = =
After petitioning the Massachusetts legislature for the right of women to vote and serve in public office from 1849 through 1852 , Stone aimed her 1853 petitions at the convention that would meet on May 4 , 1853 , to revise the state constitution . Wendell Phillips drafted both the petition asking that the word “ male ” be stricken wherever it appeared in the constitution , and an appeal urging Massachusetts citizens to sign it . After canvassing the state for nine months , Stone sent the convention petitions bearing over five thousand signatures . On May 27 , 1853 , Stone and Phillips addressed the convention ’ s Committee on Qualifications of Voters . In reporting Stone ’ s hearing , the Liberator noted : “ Never before , since the world was made , in any country , has woman publicly made her demand in the hall of legislation to be represented in her own person , and to have an equal part in framing the laws and determining the action of government . ”
= = = Multi @-@ state campaigns = = =
Stone called a New England Woman ’ s Rights Convention in Boston on June 2 , 1854 , to expand her petitioning efforts . The convention adopted her resolution for petitioning all six New England legislatures as well as her proposed form of petition , and it appointed a committee in each state to organize the work . In a speech before the second New England Woman ’ s Rights Convention , held in June 1855 , Stone urged that one reason women needed suffrage was to protect any gains achieved , reminding them that “ the next Legislature may undo all that the last have done for women . ” The convention adopted a resolution calling the ballot “ woman ’ s sword and shield ; the means of achieving and protecting all other civil rights ” and another urging the national convention to make suffrage petitioning its priority .
The next National Woman ’ s Rights Convention met in Cincinnati on October 17 and 18 , 1855 . It was here that Stone delivered impromptu remarks that became famous as her " disappointment " speech . When a heckler interrupted the proceedings , calling female speakers " a few disappointed women , " Stone retorted that yes , she was indeed a " disappointed woman . " " In education , in marriage , in religion , in everything , disappointment is the lot of woman . It shall be the business of my life to deepen this disappointment in every woman 's heart until she bows down to it no longer . The convention adopted Stone ’ s resolution calling for the circulation of petitions and saying it was “ the duty of women in their respective States to ask the legislators for the elective franchise . ” Following the convention , suffrage petitioning took place in the New England states , New York , Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , and Nebraska , with resultant legislative hearings or action in Nebraska and Wisconsin . Amelia Bloomer , recently moved to Iowa near the Nebraska border , took up the work in that area , while the Indiana Woman ’ s Rights Society , at least one of whose officers was at the Cincinnati convention , directed the work in Indiana . Stone had helped launch the New York campaign at a state woman ’ s rights convention in Saratoga Springs in August , and at the Cleveland convention recruited workers for it as well as for the work in Illinois , Michigan , and Ohio . Stone took charge of the work in Ohio , her new home state , drafting its petition , placing it in Ohio newspapers , and circulating it during lectures across southern Ohio while her recruit worked in the northern part of the state . Stone also lectured in Illinois and Indiana in support of the petition drives there , and personally introduced the work in Wisconsin , where she found volunteers to circulate the petition and legislators to introduce them in both houses of the legislature .
At the national convention of 1856 , Stone presented a new strategy suggested by Antoinette Brown Blackwell to send a memorial to the various state legislatures signed by the officers of the National Woman ’ s Rights Convention . Antoinette Brown had married Samuel Charles Blackwell on January 24 , 1856 , becoming Stone 's sister @-@ in @-@ law in the process . Stone , Brown Blackwell , and Ernestine Rose were appointed a committee to carry out the plan . Stone drafted and printed the appeal and Brown Blackwell mailed it to twenty @-@ five state legislatures . Indiana and Pennsylvania referred the memorial to select committees , while both Massachusetts and Maine granted hearings . On March 6 , 1857 , Stone , Wendell Phillips , and James Freeman Clarke addressed the Judiciary Committee of the Massachusetts senate , and on March 10 Stone and Phillips addressed a select committee of the Maine legislature .
= = Marriage = =
Henry Blackwell began a two @-@ year courtship of Stone in the summer of 1853 . Stone told him she did not wish to marry because she did not want to surrender control over her life and would not assume the legal position occupied by a married woman . Blackwell maintained that despite the law , couples could create a marriage of equal partnership , governed by their mutual agreement . They could also take steps to protect the wife against unjust laws , such as placing her assets in the hands of a trustee . He also believed that marriage would allow each partner to accomplish more than he or she could alone , and to show how he could help advance Stone ’ s work , he arranged her highly successful western lecturing tour of 1853 . Over an eighteen @-@ month courtship conducted primarily through correspondence , Stone and Blackwell discussed the nature of marriage , actual and ideal , as well as their own natures and suitability for marriage . Stone gradually fell in love and in November 1854 agreed to marry Blackwell .
Stone and Blackwell developed a private agreement aimed at preserving and protecting Stone ’ s financial independence and personal liberty . In monetary matters , they agreed that the marriage be like a business partnership , with the partners being “ joint proprietors of everything except the results of previous labors . ” Neither would have claim to lands belonging to the other , nor any obligation for the other ’ s costs of holding them . While married and living together they would share earnings , but if they should separate , they would relinquish claim to the other ’ s subsequent earnings . Each would have the right to will their property to whomever they pleased unless they had children . Over Blackwell ’ s objections , Stone refused to be supported and insisted on paying half of their mutual expenses . In addition to financial independence , Stone and Blackwell agreed that each would enjoy personal independence and autonomy : “ Neither partner shall attempt to fix the residence , employment , or habits of the other , nor shall either partner feel bound to live together any longer than is agreeable to both . ” During their discussion of marriage , Stone had given Blackwell a copy of Henry C. Wright ’ s book Marriage and Parentage ; Or , The Reproductive Element in Man , as a Means to His Elevation and Happiness , and asked him to accept its principles as what she considered the relationship between husband and wife should be . Wright proposed that because women bore the results of sexual intercourse , wives should govern a couple ’ s marital relations . In accordance with that view , Blackwell agreed that Stone would choose “ when , where and how often ” she would “ become a mother . ” In addition to this private agreement , Blackwell drew up a protest of laws , rules , and customs that conferred superior rights on husbands and , as part of the wedding ceremony , pledged never to avail himself of those laws .
The wedding took place at Stone ’ s home in West Brookfield , Massachusetts , on May 1 , 1855 , with Stone ’ s close friend and co @-@ worker Thomas Wentworth Higginson officiating . Higginson sent a copy of Stone and Blackwell ’ s Protest to the Worcester Spy , and from there it spread across the country . While some commentators viewed it as a protest against marriage itself , others agreed that no woman should resign her legal existence without such formal protest against the despotism that forced her to forgo marriage and motherhood or submit to the degradation in which law placed a married woman . It inspired other couples to make similar protests part of their wedding ceremonies .
= = = Keeping her name = = =
Stone viewed the tradition of wives abandoning their own surname to assume that of their husbands as a manifestation of the legal annihilation of a married woman ’ s identity . Immediately after her marriage , with the agreement of her husband , she continued to sign correspondence as “ Lucy Stone ” or “ Lucy Stone – only . ” But during the summer , Blackwell tried to register the deed for property Stone purchased in Wisconsin , and the registrar insisted she sign it as “ Lucy Stone Blackwell . ” The couple consulted Blackwell ’ s friend , Salmon P. Chase , a Cincinnati lawyer and future Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court , who was not immediately able to answer their question about the legality of her name . So while continuing to sign her name as Lucy Stone in private correspondence , for eight months she signed her name as Lucy Stone Blackwell on public documents and allowed herself to be so identified in convention proceedings and newspaper reports . But upon receiving assurance from Chase that no law required a married woman to change her name , Stone made a public announcement at the May 7 , 1856 , convention of the American Anti @-@ Slavery Society in Boston that her name remained Lucy Stone . In 1879 , when Boston women were granted the franchise in school elections , Stone registered to vote . But officials notified her that she would not be allowed to vote unless she added “ Blackwell ” to her signature . This she refused to do , and because her time and energy were consumed with suffrage work , she did not challenge the action in a court of law .
= = = Children = = =
Stone and Blackwell had one daughter , Alice Stone Blackwell , born September 14 , 1857 , who became a leader of the suffrage movement and wrote the first biography of her mother , Lucy Stone : Pioneer Woman Suffragist . In 1858 , while the family was living temporarily in Chicago , Stone miscarried and lost a baby boy .
= = Waning activism = =
After her marriage , from the summer of 1855 to the summer of 1857 , Stone continued a full lecturing , petitioning , and organizing schedule . In January 1856 , Stone was accused in court , and spoke in defense of a rumor put forward by the prosecution that Stone gave a knife to former slave Margaret Garner , on trial for the killing of her own child to prevent it from being enslaved . Stone was said to have slipped the prisoner the knife so that Garner could kill herself if she was forced to return to slavery . Stone was referred to by the court as " Mrs. Lucy Stone Blackwell " and was asked if she wanted to defend herself ; she preferred to address the assembly off the record after adjournment , saying " ... With my own teeth I would tear open my veins and let the earth drink my blood , rather than wear the chains of slavery . How then could I blame her for wishing her child to find freedom with God and the angels , where no chains are ? "
But the birth of her daughter in September 1857 made it impossible for her to maintain a high level of activism . Stone had made preliminary arrangements for the 1857 national convention to be held in Providence , but because she would not be able to attend it , she handed responsibility to Susan B. Anthony and Thomas Wentworth Higginson . When the Panic of 1857 disrupted Anthony ’ s plan to move the convention to Chicago , Stone made the announcement that the next National Woman ’ s Rights Convention would be in May 1858 . Anthony helped Stone arrange the 1858 convention and then took sole responsibility for the 1859 meeting , and Elizabeth Cady Stanton took charge of the 1860 convention .
Before her own marriage , Stone felt that women should be allowed to divorce drunken husbands , to formally end a " loveless marriage " so that " a true love may grow up in the soul of the injured one from the full enjoyment of which no legal bond had a right to keep her ... Whatever is pure and holy , not only has a right to be , but it has a right also to be recognized , and further , I think it has no right not to be recognized . " Stone 's friends often felt differently about the issue ; " Nettee " Brown wrote to Stone in 1853 that she was not ready to accept the idea , even if both parties wanted divorce . Stanton was less inclined to clerical orthodoxy ; she was very much in favor of giving women the right to divorce , eventually coming to the view that the reform of marriage laws was more important than women 's voting rights .
In the process of planning for women 's rights conventions , Stone worked against Stanton to remove from any proposed platform the formal advocacy of divorce . Stone wished to keep the subject separate , to prevent the appearance of moral laxity . She pushed " for the right of woman to the control of her own person as a moral , intelligent , accountable being . " Other rights were certain to fall into place after women were given control of their own bodies . Years later , Stone 's position on divorce would change .
= = = Differences with Douglass = = =
In his newspaper , Frederick Douglass printed a rebuke of Stone 's free combination of women 's rights and abolitionism , saying that she was diminishing the focus and power of the anti @-@ slavery movement . Douglass later found Stone at fault for speaking at a whites @-@ only Philadelphia lecture hall , but Stone insisted that she had replaced her planned speech that day with an appeal to the audience to boycott the facility . It took years before the two were reconciled .
= = = Tax protest = = =
In January 1858 , Stone staged a highly publicized protest that took the issue of taxation without representation across the nation . The previous summer she and Blackwell had purchased a house in Orange , New Jersey , and when the first tax bill came , Stone returned it unpaid with the explanation that taxing women while denying them the right to vote was a violation of America ’ s founding principles . On January 22 , 1858 , the city auctioned some of her household goods to pay the tax and attendant court costs . The following month , Stone and Blackwell spoke on taxation without representation before two large meetings in Orange , and circulated petitions asking the New Jersey legislature for woman suffrage . Stone ’ s protest inspired other tax @-@ paying women to action : some followed her example and refused to pay taxes , with one case reaching the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1863 , while others went to the polls to demand their right as tax @-@ payers to vote .
= = National organizations = =
During the Civil War , Stone joined with Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Susan B. Anthony , Martha Coffin Wright , Amy Post , Antoinette Brown Blackwell , Ernestine Rose , and Angelina Grimké Weld to form the Woman 's National Loyal League in 1863 . The group held a convention in New York City , and resolved to fight for full emancipation and enfranchisement of African Americans . In 1864 , the organization gathered 400 @,@ 000 signatures to petition the United States Congress , significantly assisting in the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery . Once Reconstruction began , Stone helped form the American Equal Rights Association ( AERA ) . AERA 's main goal was to achieve equal voting rights for people of either gender and any race .
During the May , 1869 AERA conference , a division arose between the great majority of participants such as Stone who wanted to voice support for the proposed fifteenth amendment which would grant suffrage to African @-@ American men , and a vocal minority who opposed any amendment to voting rights which would not provide universal suffrage . The conflict led to the adoption of a muted resolution in favor of the fifteenth amendment , one which expressed disappointment that Congress had not offered the same privilege to women . The AERA could not hold together from the internal strife between these two positions . Heading the minority , Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the female @-@ only National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) to focus on women gaining voting rights . In Cleveland on November 24 , Stone , along with her husband and Julia Ward Howe , founded the more moderate American Woman Suffrage Association ( AWSA ) , that admitted both men and women . The goals of AWSA were to get the fifteenth amendment passed after which the effort would be redoubled to win women the vote . Beyond membership and the timing of women 's suffrage , the groups differed only on minor points of policy .
= = = Divorce and " free love " = = =
In 1870 , at the twentieth anniversary celebration of the first National Women 's Rights Convention in Worcester , Stanton spoke for three hours rallying the crowd for women 's right to divorce . By then , Stone 's position on the matter had shifted significantly . Personal differences between Stone and Stanton came to the fore on the issue , with Stone writing " We believe in marriage for life , and deprecate all this loose , pestiferous talk in favor of easy divorce . " Stone made it clear that those wishing for " free divorce " were not associated with Stone 's organization AWSA , headed at that time by Reverend Henry Ward Beecher . Stone wrote against ' free love : ' " Be not deceived — free love means free lust . "
This editorial position would come back to haunt Stone . Also in 1870 , Elizabeth Roberts Tilton told her husband Theodore Tilton that she had been carrying on an adulterous relation with his good friend Henry Ward Beecher . Theodore Tilton published an editorial saying that Beecher " has at a most unseemly time of life been detected in improper intimacies with certain ladies of his congregation . " Tilton also informed Stanton about the alleged affair , and Stanton passed the information to Victoria Woodhull . Woodhull , a free love advocate , printed innuendo about Beecher , and began to woo Tilton , convincing him to write a book of her life story from imaginative material that she supplied . In 1871 , Stone wrote to a friend " my one wish in regard to Mrs. Woodhull is , that [ neither ] she nor her ideas , may be so much as heard of at our meeting . " Woodhull 's self @-@ serving activities were attracting disapproval from both centrist AWSA and radical NWSA . To divert criticism from herself , Woodhull published a denunciation of Beecher in 1872 saying that he practiced free love in private while speaking out against it from the pulpit . This caused a sensation in the press , and resulted in an inconclusive legal suit and a subsequent formal inquiry lasting well into 1875 . The furor over adultery and the friction between various camps of women 's rights activists took focus away from legitimate political aims . Harry Blackwell wrote to Stone from Michigan where he was working toward putting woman suffrage into the state constitution , saying " This Beecher @-@ Tilton affair is playing the deuce with [ woman suffrage ] in Michigan . No chance of success this year I fancy . "
= = Voting rights = =
Stone and Blackwell moved to Pope 's Hill in Dorchester , Massachusetts in 1870 , relocating from New Jersey to organize the New England Woman Suffrage Association . Many of the town 's women had been active in the Dorchester Female Anti @-@ Slavery Society and , by 1870 , a number of local women were suffragists . At the same time , Stone founded the Woman 's Journal , a Boston publication voicing the concerns of the AWSA . Stone continued to edit the journal for the rest of her life , assisted by her husband and their daughter .
= = = " The Colorado Lesson " = = =
In 1877 , Stone was asked by Rachel Foster Avery to come assist Colorado activists in the organization of a popular referendum campaign with the aim of gaining suffrage for Coloradan women . Together , Stone and Blackwell worked the northern half of the state in late summer , while Susan Anthony traveled the less @-@ promising rough @-@ and @-@ tumble southern half . Patchwork and scattered support was reported by activists , with some areas more receptive . Latino voters proved largely uninterested in voting reform ; some of that resistance was blamed on the extreme opposition to the measure voiced by the Roman Catholic bishop of Colorado . All but a handful of politicians in Colorado ignored the measure , or actively fought it . Stone concentrated on convincing Denver voters during the October ballot , but the measure lost heavily , with 68 % voting against it . Married working men showed the greatest support , and young single men the least . Blackwell called it " The Colorado Lesson " , writing that " Woman suffrage can never be carried by a popular vote , without a political party behind it . "
= = = School board vote = = =
In 1879 , after Stone organized a petition by suffragists across the state , Massachusetts women were given strictly delimited voting rights : a woman who could prove the same qualifications as a male voter was allowed to cast her vote for members of the school board . Stone applied to the voting board in Boston but was required to sign her husband 's surname as her own . She refused , and never participated in that vote .
= = Reconciliation = =
In 1887 , eighteen years after the rift formed in the American women 's rights movement , Stone proposed a merger of the two groups . Plans were drawn up , and , at their annual meetings , propositions were heard and voted on , then passed to the other group for evaluation . By 1890 , the organizations resolved their differences and merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) . Stone was too weak with heart problems and respiratory illness to attend its first convention , but was elected to chair the executive committee .
Starting early in January , 1891 , Carrie Chapman Catt visited Stone repeatedly at Pope 's Hill , for the purpose of learning from Stone about the ways of political organizing . Stone had previously met Catt at an Iowa state woman 's suffrage convention in October , 1889 , and had been impressed at her ambition and sense of presence , saying " Mrs. Chapman will be heard from yet in this movement . " Stone mentored Catt the rest of that winter , giving her a wealth of information about lobbying techniques and fund @-@ raising . Catt later used the teaching to good effect in leading the final drive to gain women the vote in 1920 .
Catt , Stone and Blackwell went together to the January , 1892 NAWSA convention in Washington , DC . Along with Isabella Beecher Hooker , Stone , Stanton and Anthony , the " triumvirate " of women 's suffrage , were called away from the convention 's opening hours by an unexpected woman suffrage hearing before the United States House Committee on the Judiciary . Stone told the assembled congressmen " I come before this committee with the sense which I always feel , that we are handicapped as women in what we try to do for ourselves by the single fact that we have no vote . This cheapens us . You do not care so much for us as if we had votes ... " Stone argued that men should work to pass laws for equality in property rights between the sexes . Stone demanded an eradication of coverture , the folding of a wife 's property into that of her husband . Stone 's impromptu speech paled in comparison to Stanton 's brilliant outpouring which preceded hers . Stone later published Stanton 's speech in its entirety in the Woman 's Journal as " Solitude of Self " . Back at the NAWSA convention , Anthony was elected president , with Stanton and Stone becoming honorary presidents .
= = Final appearance = =
In 1892 , Stone was convinced to sit for a portrait in sculpture , rendered by Anne Whitney , sculptor and poet . Stone had previously protested the proposed portrait for more than a year , saying that the funds to engage an artist would be better spent on suffrage work . Stone finally yielded to pressure from Frances Willard , the New England Women 's Club and some of her friends and neighbors in the Boston area , and sat while Whitney produced a bust . In February 1893 , Stone invited her brother Frank and his wife Sarah to come see the bust , before it was shipped to Chicago for display at the upcoming World 's Columbian Exposition .
Stone went with her daughter to Chicago in May , 1893 and gave her last public speeches at the World 's Congress of Representative Women where she saw a strong international involvement in women 's congresses , with almost 500 women from 27 countries speaking at 81 meetings , and attendance topping 150 @,@ 000 at the week @-@ long event . Stone 's immediate focus was on state referenda under consideration in New York and Nebraska . Stone presented a speech she had prepared entitled " The Progress of Fifty Years " wherein she described the milestones of change , and said " I think , with never @-@ ending gratitude , that the young women of today do not and can never know at what price their right to free speech and to speak at all in public has been earned . " Stone met with Carrie Chapman Catt and Abigail Scott Duniway to form a plan for organizing in Colorado , and Stone attended two days of meetings about getting a woman suffrage drive restarted in Kansas . Stone and her daughter returned home to Pope 's Hill on May 28 .
Those who knew Stone well thought her voice was lacking strength . In August when she and her husband Harry wanted to take part in more meetings at the Exposition , she was too weak to go . Stone was diagnosed as suffering from advanced stomach cancer in September . She wrote final letters to friends and relatives . Having " prepared for death with serenity and an unwavering concern for the women 's cause , " Lucy Stone died on October 18 , 1893 , at the age of 75 . At her funeral three days later , 1 @,@ 100 people crowded the church , and hundreds more stood silently outside . Six women and six men served as pallbearers , including sculptor Anne Whitney , and Stone 's old abolitionist friends Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Samuel Joseph May . Mourners lined the streets for a sight of the funeral procession , and front @-@ page banner headlines ran in news accounts . Stone 's death was the most widely reported of any American woman 's up to that time .
According to her wishes , her body was cremated , making her the first person cremated in Massachusetts , though a wait of over two months was undertaken while the crematorium at Forest Hills Cemetery could be completed . Stone 's remains are inurned at Forest Hills ; a chapel there is named after her .
= = Legacy = =
Lucy Stone 's refusal to take her husband 's name , as an assertion of her own rights , was controversial then , and is largely what she is remembered for today . Women who continue to use their birth name after marriage are still occasionally known as " Lucy Stoners " in the United States . In 1921 , the Lucy Stone League was founded in New York City by Ruth Hale , described in 1924 by Time as the " ' Lucy Stone ' -spouse " of Heywood Broun . The League was re @-@ instituted in 1997 .
Susan B. Anthony , Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Matilda Joslyn Gage and Ida Husted Harper began in 1876 to write the History of Woman Suffrage . They planned for one volume but finished four before the death of Anthony in 1906 , and two more afterward . The first three volumes chronicled the beginnings of the women 's rights movement , including the years that Stone was active . Because of differences between Stone and Stanton that had been highlighted in the schism between NWSA and AWSA , Stone 's place in history was marginalized in the work . The text was used as the standard scholarly resource on 19th @-@ century American feminism for much of the 20th century , causing Stone 's extensive contribution to be overlooked in many histories of women 's causes .
On August 13 , 1968 , the 150th anniversary of her birth , the U.S. Postal Service honored Stone with a 50 ¢ postage stamp in the Prominent Americans series . The image was adapted from a photograph included in Alice Stone Blackwell 's biography of Stone .
Until 1999 , the Massachusetts State House displayed only portraits of influential male leaders of the state of Massachusetts . That year , a project called " Hear Us " , initiated by the state legislature , came to fruition : the portraits of six female leaders were mounted in the historic building . Lucy Stone was among the women so honored .
In 2000 , Amy Ray of the Indigo Girls included a song entitled Lucystoners on her first solo recording , Stag .
An administration and classroom building on Livingston Campus at Rutgers University in New Jersey is named for Lucy Stone . Warren , Massachusetts contains a Lucy Stone Park , along the Quaboag River . Anne Whitney 's 1893 bust of Lucy Stone is on display in Boston 's Faneuil Hall building .
She is featured on the Boston Women 's Heritage Trail .
= = Home = =
The Lucy Stone Home Site is owned and managed by The Trustees of Reservations , a non @-@ profit land conservation and historic preservation organization dedicated to preserving natural and historic places in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts . The site includes 61 acres of forested land on the side of Coys Hill in West Brookfield , Massachusetts . Although the farmhouse in which Stone was born and married burned to the ground in 1950 , its ruins are at the center of the property . At the time of Stone ’ s wedding , both her parents and a married brother and his family lived in the two @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half @-@ story house , and family descendants continued to live there until 1936 . In 1915 , a pilgrimage of suffragists placed a memorial tablet on the house , which read : “ This house was the birthplace of Lucy Stone , pioneer advocate of equal rights for women . Born August 13 , 1818 . Married May 1 , 1855 , died October 18 , 1893 . In grateful memory Massachusetts suffragists placed this tablet August 13 , 1915 . ” That tablet , severely damaged but surviving the 1950 fire , is now in the Quaboag Historical Society Museum . After the fire , the surrounding farmland was abandoned and left to revert to forest , and it is now used for hunting and harvesting timber . The Trustees acquired the home site in 2002 and have been maintaining the property ever since .
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= Italian cruiser Etruria =
Etruria was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1891 by Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando ivorno . She was the third of six vessels of the Regioni class , all of which were named for current , or in the case of Etruria , former regions of Italy . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Etruria spent her early career with the main fleet in the Mediterranean Sea . In the early 1900s , she spent much of her time in North and South American waters ; she visited the United States for the Jamestown Exposition and the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in 1907 and 1909 . The ship took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily by providing gunfire support to Italian troops in North Africa .
Reduced to a training ship by World War I , Etruria was deliberately sunk by the Regia Marina in Livorno to convince Austria @-@ Hungary that its espionage network had not been compromised by double agents .
= = Design = =
Etruria was 84 @.@ 8 meters ( 278 ft ) long overall , had a beam of 12 @.@ 03 m ( 39 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 87 m ( 16 @.@ 0 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . On her speed trials , she reached a maximum of 18 @.@ 3 knots ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) at 7 @,@ 018 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 233 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 @-@ 78 .
Etruria was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Etruria was protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Etruria was laid down at the Odero @-@ Terni @-@ Orlando shipyard in Livorno on 1 April 1889 . Shortages of funding slowed the completion Etruria and her sister ships . Tight budgets forced the navy to reduce the pace of construction so that the funds could be used to keep the active fleet in service . As a result , it took two years to complete her hull , which was launched on 23 April 1891 . Fitting @-@ out work proceeded even more slowly ; she was not ready for commissioning until 11 July 1894 . Following her commissioning , Etruria was assigned to the Second Division of the Italian fleet in October 1894 , along with the ironclad battleships Francesco Morosini , two cruisers and six torpedo boats . In 1895 , she the other ships were replaced by the ironclads Sardegna and Ruggiero di Lauria and the torpedo cruiser Partenope . On 20 June 1895 , Etruria and a fleet that included the battleships Sardegna , Re Umberto , Andrea Doria , and Ruggiero di Lauria , visited Germany for the ceremony of the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . Contingents from Britain , France , Russia , Spain , and several other countries joined the celebration .
In April 1907 , Etruria and the armored cruiser Varese crossed the Atlantic to represent Italy during the Jamestown Exposition , the commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony , the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . In addition to the Austro @-@ Hungarian delegation , the international fleet consisted of warships from Great Britain , Japan , Germany , Austria @-@ Hungary , and several other nations . Etruria returned to the United States in September 1909 for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in New York City , which also included ships from the German , British , and French fleets , among others , in addition to the hosting US Navy . On this occasion , she was joined by the training cruiser Etna .
Etruria also represented Italy at the commemoration of Peruvian pilot Jorge Chávez on 27 October 1910 , who had been killed in a crash attempting to cross the Alps from France to Italy a month before . The French cruiser Montcalm joined Etruria for the event . The ship made another visit to the United States in March 1911 , this time in San Francisco . Her visit coincided with the 50th anniversary of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on 17 March ; Etruria fired a 21 @-@ gun salute in honor of the anniversary , which was returned by the US Navy training facility in the harbor .
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . At the time , Etruria was still in American waters , but she was quickly recalled . On 18 October , she joined the escort for a troop convoy headed to Benghazi . The convoy was heavily protected against a possible Ottoman attack : the escort comprised the four Regina Elena @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , her sister Liguria and another cruiser , and five destroyers . The Italian fleet bombarded the city the next morning after the Ottoman garrison refused to surrender . During the bombardment , parties from the ships and the infantry from the troopships went ashore . The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening . After a short siege , the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October , leaving the city to the Italians .
By December , Etruria had been moved to Tobruk , where she provided gunfire support to the Italians defending the city . She was joined there by Etna and twelve torpedo boats . In the meantime , most of the fleet had returned to Italy for refitting . In January 1912 , Etruria was moved back to Benghazi . For the next six months she remained here , supporting the garrison against Ottoman counter @-@ attacks . The ship repeatedly shelled the Ottoman camps outside the city . On 15 October , the Ottomans surrendered , ending the war .
Etruria was stationed in Libya as part of the local defense force , which included the old ironclad battleships Lepanto and Enrico Dandolo , along with several smaller vessels . By the outbreak of World War I , the ship had been reduced to a training cruiser . The Italian Navy deliberately blew up Etruria in Livorno on 13 August 1918 , ostensibly as an act of sabotage by Austro @-@ Hungarian agents in Italy . The purported agents had in fact been coopted as double agents , and the destruction of Etruria was meant to strengthen Austro @-@ Hungarian confidence in their espionage network .
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= Battle of Kham Duc =
The Battle of Kham Duc was a major battle of the Vietnam War ( also known , in Vietnam , as the " American War " ) . The event occurred in Khâm Đức , now district capital of Phước Sơn District , then in Quảng Tín Province ( now part of Quảng Nam Province , South Vietnam ) , between 10 – 12 May 1968 . During the Tet Offensive of 1968 , the Vietnam People 's Army ( PAVN ) 2nd Division tried to capture Đà Nẵng but their attacks were quickly blunted by elements of the U.S. 1st Marine Division , the Americal Division , and the Korean Brigade that were guarding the city . North Vietnamese General Chu Huy Mân decided to disengage from the fight in the outskirts of the city , and pull the 2nd Division into the mountains where they could rest , rebuild , and prepare for the next major operation . Khâm Đức , a small district in the north of Quảng Tín , was chosen as the next target for the PAVN 2nd Division . Following the defeat of the North Vietnamese in Đà Nẵng , U.S. military intelligence agencies in I Corps Tactical Zone were confused by the movements of the North Vietnamese 2nd Division , because they could not track down the mysterious enemy unit .
During March and April , U.S. military intelligence began to detect elements of the PAVN 2nd Division moving towards Khâm Đức , but their opponent 's true intentions were largely unknown . In response to what could be a major attack , General William Westmoreland decided to build up the defenses of the Khâm Đức Special Forces , by sending in U.S. Army engineers to upgrade the local airstrip for sustained use by large transport aircraft , as well as airlifting weapons and ammunition for the U.S.-led Detachment A @-@ 105 . Australian @-@ led 11th Mobile Strike Force ( MSF ) Company was ordered to take up positions in Ngok Tavak ( Ngok Ta Vak ) , an outpost serving Khâm Đức , to boost allied intelligence @-@ gathering capabilities in the area . However , unbeknownst to the United States and other allied forces , the Viet Cong ( VC ) 1st Regiment had been watching the build @-@ up around Khâm Đức for some time , and were preparing to initiate the assault by taking out Ngok Tavak .
In the early hours of 10 May , elements of the VC 1st Regiment attacked Ngok Tavak , and they successfully overran much of the outpost . By dawn , the 11th MSF Company was devastated , but they later received reinforcements which came in the form of the 12th Mobile Strike Force Company . Despite having received assurances that further reinforcements would arrive to relieve the outpost , the commander of the 11th MSF Company decided to evacuate his troops and move towards Khâm Đức . By that time , however , the VC 1st Regiment had already turned their attention to the main target at Khâm Đức , and they only left behind some local force units to destroy allied reinforcements . Meanwhile , elements of the Americal Division had been airlifted into Khâm Đức as part of Operation Golden Valley , to bolster the strength of the Special Forces Camp there . On the morning of 11 May , the North Vietnamese 2nd Division surrounded Khâm Đức , and they gradually forced United States @-@ led forces into their bases after several outposts were overrun . Westmoreland then ordered Khâm Đức to be evacuated , so the 834th Air Division was told to make an all @-@ out effort to extract all the people in Khâm Đức , both military and civilian . By the time the evacuation was completed , nine U.S. military aircraft had been shot down , including two C @-@ 130s . On 12 May , the North Vietnamese were in complete control of Khâm Đức .
= = Background = =
1968 marked a decisive turning point in the history of the Vietnam War . Towards the end of January , regular units of the Vietnam People 's Army and the Viet Cong ( VC ) initiated large @-@ scale attacks on Saigon and all 34 provincial cities of South Vietnam . Several major towns , villages , and allied military installations throughout the country were also attacked during the same period . In doing so , the North Vietnamese and their southern VC allies violated the Tết holiday truce , which had enabled South Vietnamese military personnel to go on leave . Subsequently , the combined PAVN forces were able to achieve the element of surprise , and quickly gain ground in various parts of the country . Despite early victories , the PAVN could only sustain their offensive for several weeks , or a few months in parts of South Vietnam where they were closest to their bases in Cambodia and Laos . Ultimately , North Vietnamese and VC units were gradually driven out from Saigon and the provincial cities .
In I Corps Tactical Zone , the North Vietnamese military had mixed successes against allied military forces . On 7 February 1968 , a North Vietnamese infantry contingent armed with satchel charges , tear gas , and flamethrowers , and reinforced with Soviet @-@ made PT @-@ 76 amphibious tanks , successfully breached the wires of the Lang Vei Special Forces Camp . The combined American , South Vietnamese , and indigenous Civilian Irregular Defense Group ( CIDG ) personnel absorbed more than 300 casualties while trying to hold their positions . During the battle Lieutenant Colonel Daniel F. Shungel – Commander of Company C , 5th Special Forces Group – had to fight his way out of the camp in order to escape the North Vietnamese attack , until rescued by a relief task force led by Major George Quamo . At Khe Sanh , located about 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Lang Vei , the U.S. 26th Marine Regiment was able to hold their ground against a multi @-@ division North Vietnamese assault . During the siege U.S. Air Force , Navy , and Marine fighter @-@ bombers dropped 40 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs on North Vietnamese positions , while B @-@ 52 bombers unleashed more than 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of ordnance on areas where the North Vietnamese were believed to have concentrated their forces .
In the same period , the PAVN 2nd Division under the command of General Giáp Văn Cương clashed with elements of the Americal Division , the U.S. 1st Marine Division , and the South Korean Brigade in their attempts to capture Đà Nẵng . However , due to mixed up signals between the PAVN 2nd Division and other VC units the North Vietnamese were defeated . After 9 February , the PAVN 2nd Division seemed to be withdrawing from the battlefield , so Lieutenant General Robert E. Cushman , Jr . Commander of III Marine Amphibious Force ordered his troops to continue their attacks on the retreating forces . In the aftermath of the battle for Đà Nẵng , U.S. military commanders in I Corps held different views on the fighting ability of the PAVN 2nd Division . Major @-@ General Samuel W. Koster claimed losses sustained by the PAVN 2nd Division had " impaired its future effectiveness " , after his units allegedly killed more than 1 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers in the month of January alone . In contrast , Major @-@ General Donn J. Robertson told his superiors that the 2nd Division may have several uncommitted units they could deploy for future operations , which was a threat to the remaining South Vietnamese units and a U.S. Marine battalion in the region that had sustained significant losses of their own .
Whether the PAVN 2nd Division had been rendered ineffective or not was uncertain , as U.S. military intelligence did not know the whereabouts of the enemy unit or their intentions . Since January 1968 , the North Vietnamese had been fighting continuously with U.S. and other allied military forces in I Corps , so their resupply capabilities were overstretched , and their soldiers were not given the opportunity to rest before the Tet Offensive . Thus , following the failed attack on Đà Nẵng , North Vietnamese General Chu Huy Mân , Commander of Military Region 5 , made the decision to pull the 2nd Division into the mountains where they could rest , resupply , and integrate their replacement manpower before going on the offensive again . Mân ordered Cương to split the 2nd Division into two fighting arms ; one regiment would tie down the Americans in the Que Son Valley , while the rest of the division would withdraw to their base areas near Laos , to link up with the 70th Transport Regiment . Then , their next target would be Khâm Đức and the surrounding areas ; Mân told his senior officers that they would attack Khâm Đức to force an American retreat .
Khâm Đức was situated in the northern section of Quảng Tín Province , South Vietnam , in I Corps Tactical Zone . It sat beside National Highway 14 , which paralleled the international border with Laos , and it was surrounded by high mountains on all sides . The Special Forces Camp was named after the main village which was located about 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to the northeast , and was constructed about mid @-@ way along a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot asphalt runway . Before his assassination , President Ngô Đình Diệm had used Khâm Đức as a hunting lodge , so an airfield was constructed there for Diệm 's use . The Khâm Đức Special Forces Camp was under the responsibility of Detachment A @-@ 105 , United States Army 5th Special Forces Group ; the camp functioned as a training centre for CIDG personnel , reconnaissance of enemy movements , and combat operations . The village had 272 inhabitants , most of whom were dependents of the South Vietnamese and Montagnard CIDG soldiers . Ngok Tavak , located about 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) southwest of Khâm Đức , was an observation outpost for Detachment A @-@ 105 . Following the loss of Lang Vei , Khâm Đức was the last remaining Special Forces camp adjacent to the Ho Chi Minh Trail in I Corps . In May 1968 , both Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức were overrun by PAVN forces and American , Australian and South Vietnamese forces had to retreat after being defeated .
= = Prelude = =
From their base area positioned between Highway 14 and the Đăk Mi river , elements of the PAVN 2nd Division were planning for their attack on Khâm Đức and the surrounding outposts . The VC 's 1st " Ba Gia " Regiment – commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Nguyễn Văn Trí – was given the task of initiating the attack , including sweeping aside the small outpost of Ngok Tavak ( Ngok Ta Vak ) . However , before the plan of attack was finalized , the VC remained hidden as to avoid detection by the South Vietnamese and their American allies . Consequently , during that period the GK.31 Anti @-@ Aircraft Battalion was prohibited from opening fire on U.S. reconnaissance aircraft that flew over their area . At the same time , the GK.40 Engineer Battalion was told to conduct training on their new equipment , such as satchel charges , tear gas , and flamethrowers , before the deadline of early May 1968 . The VC 1st Regiment Headquarters also made their preparations for the initial attack , by regularly sending out Local Force Montagnard units to conduct reconnaissance patrols around Ngok Tavak in order to observe enemy activities in the area .
Throughout March and April , allied intelligence was baffled by the movements of the units belonging to the North Vietnamese 2nd Division , and that was reflected in the information obtained by U.S. military forces . For example , the U.S. 1st Marine Division reported that the enemy 's 2nd Division Headquarters , the 3rd Regiment , the 21st Regiment , and the VC 's 1st Regiment were within the vicinity of Khâm Đức , Thượng Đức , and Hội An , respectively . In contrast , information released by the U.S. 27th Marines Regiment showed the presence of the 3rd and 21st Regiments near Goi Noi Island , whereas the 2nd Division Headquarters was reported to be in the Que Son Valley . Despite the lack of accurate information , allied intelligence generally agreed the North Vietnamese might begin attacking isolated outposts and units as their next course of action . Subsequently , on 4 May 1968 , the Americal Division made amendments to their Golden Valley Plan , the plan for the relief and reinforcements of CIDG camps , to enable the deployment of the 1st Battalion , 46th Infantry Regiment , 196th Light Infantry Brigade to support Khâm Đức .
To counter a possible major North Vietnamese attack , the U.S. military began taking steps to reinforce Khâm Đức . Starting on 9 April , the U.S. 70th Engineer Battalion was flown in from Pleiku , about 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) to the south , to repair and upgrade the airfield for sustained use by C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft . By 8 May , the U.S. Air Force had airlifted about 400 tonnes of cargo into Khâm Đức , including two bulldozers , by a C @-@ 124 Globemaster . In addition , 33 U.S. Marines from Battery D , 2nd Battalion , 13th Marine Regiment were also deployed to support the defenders at Ngok Tavak . From 16 April , the Marines artillerymen used Khâm Đức as a staging area where they could assemble their entire detachment , which included two 105mm howitzers , ammunition , and supplies . On 4 May , 33 Marines , along with 35 @,@ 380 kilograms ( 78 @,@ 000 lb ) of equipment and supplies , were lifted into Ngok Tavak by helicopters . Meanwhile , towards the end of April , the VC 1st Regiment received orders to leave their base and take positions in the valley on the western side of Ngok Tavak , and wait there until the attack signal was given . The 40th Battalion – commanded by Major Đặng Ngọc Mai – spearheaded the assault .
The outpost of Ngok Tavak was manned by the 11th Mobile Strike Force Company since March 1968 . Earlier in the year , Company C , 5th Special Forces Group in Đà Nẵng came up with a plan to supplement the intelligence agencies in the Khâm Đức area , by deploying a Mike Force Company to operate south of the Special Forces Camp ; subsequently , the 11th MSF Company was selected for the task . The unit was led by three members of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ( AATTV ) : Captain John White and Warrant Officers Frank Lucas and Don Cameron . The Australian @-@ led unit included eight U.S. Special Forces and 173 South Vietnamese and Nùng CIDG soldiers , and they were joined by 33 U.S. Marines on 4 May . Since their arrival , White and his men had set up camp on top of the hill feature in Ngok Tavak . They also made improvements to the camp 's defensive perimeter , which included an old minefield left by the French . Despite their preparations , in the days leading up to the battle , the unit was plagued by a number of problems with their defense .
Even though the Marine artillerymen of the 2nd Battalion , 13th Marines Regiment were supposed to support the Ngok Tavak garrison , their arrival created significant logistical issues for Captain White . Due to the poor condition of the road that connected Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức , where most of the ammunition was stocked , the Marines had to rely on transport aircraft to bring in ammunition supplies . However , due to high demand and scarce resources , the U.S. 1st Marine Aircraft Wing simply did not have the flexibility to provide the support required by the soldiers at Ngok Tavak . Furthermore , only 31 % of the Marines ' heavy @-@ lift aircraft was available for operations . The lack of logistical support was exemplified by the manner in which the 105mm howitzers were deployed ; when the Marines arrived at Ngok Tavak , White ordered the Marine detachment to place their howitzers on a downhill position outside the camp 's perimeter , as the hill @-@ top position was still covered by trees , making the position of the howitzers a non @-@ ideal location for security .
In an effort to bolster the strength of White 's 11th MSF Company , Shungel sent a mortar platoon of about 35 Montagnard CIDG out from Khâm Đức to reinforce the small garrison at Ngok Tavak during the last days of April . It was intended that the Montagnards would provide local security for the garrison , when the 11th MSF Company was out on patrol . Mistrust developed between White 's men and the Montagnard soldiers , because the latter was known to contain VC infiltrators . On 28 April , elements of the PAVN 2nd Division received a message which stated that ' scouts ' were ready to cause confusion and disruption in the allies ' defensive plan around Khâm Đức . The Montagnards were placed outside the camp 's perimeter , where they roamed freely inside the Marines ' area during the days before and after the arrival of the howitzers . On 9 May , the Montagnards decided to return to Khâm Đức , but shortly afterwards they turned back to Ngok Tavak , claiming they had been ambushed by an unknown enemy unit . White and his Nung soldiers were skeptical about the claim , as they believed the story about an ambush was a lie and that no real fighting had occurred . As a result , White insisted that the Montagnards stay outside his perimeter .
From early May , the VC 's 1st Regiment began to tighten its noose around the Ngok Tavak position . On 6 May , a platoon @-@ sized patrol from Ngok Tavak made contact with VC units about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) south of the garrison . On the evening of 7 May , enemy soldiers were believed to have set off trip flares , which prompted the Nung soldiers to hurl grenades at the perimeter . On 8 May , White ordered the Marines to pull their artillery guns inside the defensive perimeter , so they could better defend their position from the top of the 738 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 421 ft ) -high hill feature . The Marines spent the entire evening of 8 May taking the first howitzer completely apart in order to take it up the hill . That night , enemy soldiers set off trip flares and again the Nung soldiers threw grenades in response . On 9 May , Captain Chris Silva flew to Ngok Tavak to discuss the reliability of his troops with his Australian counterpart , but was prevented from returning to Khâm Đức due to poor weather . On that day , the second howitzer was dragged into the garrison , so the Nungs and Marines both guarded the perimeter of Ngok Tavak . Infantry protection was provided by the 1st and 2nd Nung platoons , which held the eastern side of the garrison , while the suspect Montagnard CIDG soldiers guarded the eastern entrance . Overlooking them were some Marines of Battery D , 2nd Battalion .
= = Battle = =
= = = The fight at Ngok Tavak = = =
In the early hours of 10 May , the VC 40th Battalion of the 1st " Ba Gia " Regiment , reinforced by Local Force Montagnard units , moved into position and made final preparations for the attack on Ngok Tavak . Special assault squads were formed to breach the camp 's perimeters , while the second squad would fan out to destroy key targets inside the garrison . White was alerted to the movements of enemy troops outside his perimeter , so he quickly organized his Nung soldiers and placed his troops on 50 % alert . The Marine detachment – commanded by Lieutenant Bob Adams – was unable to operate their howitzers due to the lack of flechette rounds , which were designed for battery defense and anti @-@ personnel fire . Shortly after 3 am , the suspect Montagnard CIDG soldiers approached the garrison from the eastern entrance , where they asked the U.S. Marine guarding the outer perimeter to let them through ; as the Montagnards entered the perimeter , satchel charges were hurled at allied positions while VC soldiers lit up the perimeters with flamethrowers , marking the first double @-@ cross of the battle .
The initial VC attack had split allied formations within the garrison ; the 1st and 2nd Platoons of the 11th MSF Company were pushed away from the eastern perimeter , while the Marines were either alone or had organized themselves into small groups of two or three , but none were in contact with each another . Meanwhile , from inside his command post , White called in air @-@ support which later came in the form of an AC @-@ 47 Spooky gunship , a modified version of the C @-@ 47 Skytrain equipped with 7.62mm General Electric miniguns for the support of ground troops . On the eastern side of the garrison , VC soldiers of the 40th Battalion continued to charge up the hill firing their AK @-@ 47 assault rifles . Simultaneously , other elements of the VC 1st Regiment probed the southern and western end of the garrison , now held by Captain White 's 1st and 3rd Platoons , to test the strength of allied defenses in that part of the garrison . By that stage , however , most Nung soldiers had retreated from their positions on the eastern end of the garrison , while the U.S. Marines were pinned down around the perimeters . By 03 : 30 , the VC had captured the Marines ' gun position . Captain White was able to maintain contact with Warrant Officers Cameron and Lucas through telephone , but they could not coordinate their forces .
Although the VC held a greater portion of the Ngok Tavak garrison , particularly on the eastern side , their attack was stalled . After the 40th Battalion had overrun the command post , they tried to advance on the landing zone where allied soldiers had set up a strong position from fortified underground bunkers , which the VC had failed to detect in their previous reconnaissance patrols . At 04 : 20 , an AC @-@ 47 gunship from the 4th Air Commando Squadron was reported to be flying over the garrison , so White directed the aircraft to fire down on VC @-@ held positions around the perimeter . After he had shouted warnings to the Marines and the Nungs , White approved the aircraft to fire on the position area of the 105mm howitzers . The arrival of the AC @-@ 47 enabled the allied forces to hold their last remaining ground , and repulse the final attack . By 05 : 30 , fighting in and around Ngok Tavak was limited to the hurling of grenades , and random fire on any movement that was believed to be that of the VC . In one of their final attempts to overcome the last allied position , the VC set off tear gas of such low density that it had little effect on most of the allied soldiers .
As events in Ngok Tavak unfolded , White sent urgent messages to Company C , 5th Special Forces Headquarters in Đà Nẵng , as well as to the Americal Division , to request support . In response , the 5th Special Forces Headquarters ordered Captain Eugene Makowski to fly to Khâm Đức , where he would assume command of the 12th Mobile Strike Force Company , to reinforce White 's beleaguered soldiers at Ngok Tavak . Then , just before sunrise , Colonel Trí ordered the 40th Battalion to pull out of Ngok Tavak in order to deal with an enemy relief force , and leave behind only a blocking force to hold the captured positions inside the garrison . Following those events , Australian Warrant Officers Cameron and Lucas mounted a counter @-@ attack using a handful of Nung soldiers in an attempt to retake captured positions . At that point , those Marines who had survived the main battle decided to join the fight , and as the Australian @-@ led formation moved through the Ngok Tavak garrison , they gradually pushed the last remaining enemy soldiers beyond the defensive perimeter .
By early morning White had expected further assaults from the VC 40th Battalion , but his opponents had moved out towards Khâm Đức with the rest of the PAVN 2nd Division . Simultaneously , the AC @-@ 47 flying overhead continued to direct fighter @-@ bombers against suspected Viet Cong positions around Ngok Tavak , but the garrison continued to receive sporadic mortar , RPG , and small @-@ arms fire . In addition to close air support missions , medivac helicopters flew in to evacuate the wounded , and U.S. aircrews reported that they did not receive fire while flying over the enemy 's area of operations . Captain Silva and Lieutenant Adams , who were both wounded during the main battle , were also evacuated . While the wounded were being flown out , the surviving elements of the 11th MSF Company and the Marines re @-@ consolidated their positions , even though cohesion had broken down between the allied soldiers as a result of the double @-@ cross that occurred earlier in the battle . At the same time , Makowski 's 12th MSF Company had departed Khâm Đức and was approaching Ngok Tavak onboard four U.S. Marine CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight helicopters .
At around 09 : 30 , the four CH @-@ 46 helicopters arrived in Ngok Tavak , and they were able to unload Makowski and about 45 soldiers of the 12th MSF Company . However , the VC demonstrated their domination of the landing zone when the first helicopter was hit with anti @-@ aircraft fire , and was forced to land on the ground , intact , though with damages to the fuel line . Moments later , the third helicopter was struck by a rocket propelled grenade as it turned around to rescue the crews of the first downed helicopter , and it was destroyed immediately . Now , with two downed helicopters blocking the landing zone , the remaining helicopters were prevented from landing on the ground , so the wounded men had to be evacuated while the helicopters were still hovering . As the last helicopter took off , two Nungs and one stranded U.S. soldier grabbed the helicopter skids to get out of Ngok Tavak , but they all fell to their deaths . Shortly after his arrival , Makowski placed the 12th MSF Company under the command of his Australian counterpart , as the situation continued to worsen .
Because his Nung soldiers were exhausted , with their ammunition and water supplies running low , White believed they could not defend the Ngok Tavak garrison in case the VC launched another major attack . At 10 : 45 , White requested permission to evacuate the garrison , but he was told to stay and wait for the arrival of reinforcements . However , both White and Makowski knew that reinforcement was unlikely , because the two downed helicopters would prevent the insertion of additional soldiers , and the road between Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức was likely to be covered by the opposing forces waiting in ambush positions . White then decided to evacuate Ngok Tavak and withdraw his troops to safety . As part of the evacuation plan , any type of equipment that could not be taken or was considered to be of value to the opponent was dumped into the command bunker and set alight using captured enemy flamethrowers . The Marines were ordered to fire their last remaining shells , about nine rounds in total , after their ammunition storage was set ablaze by the VC , and disable their 105mm guns .
As White had expected the survivors to fight their way out of Ngok Tavak , he made the decision to leave the dead allied soldiers behind ; the decision caused distress amongst the survivors of the battle , but White believed evacuating the deceased soldiers through enemy lines would have been suicidal . After the Marines and Mobile Strike Force personnel had destroyed their unneeded equipment , they were directed to form an order @-@ of @-@ march out of Ngok Tavak , in order to protect the wounded and those with little infantry experience . Just before they left the garrison , Cameron blew up the first CH @-@ 46 helicopter that was still intact on the landing zone , using the M @-@ 72 anti @-@ tank weapon . The order @-@ of @-@ march was led by a group of Nung soldiers , who were followed by White and the survivors of the Marine artillery detachment , and behind them was another group of Nung soldiers covering the tail of the column . Together they evaded VC formations surrounding the hill feature of Ngok Tavak and marched eastward towards Khâm Đức .
About halfway between Ngok Tavak and Khâm Đức , White and the rest of the column climbed a mountain where they cleared the jungle to create a landing zone , and called for helicopters to evacuate the survivors . A flight of CH @-@ 46 Sea Knights later arrived and , in a scene that would be repeated at Khâm Đức , chaos descended on the allied formation as Nung and U.S personnel fought their way onto the helicopters . Some of the Nung soldiers had to be thrown off because the helicopters quickly reached their limit capacity ; eventually U.S. aircrews had to dump some of their equipment overboard to accommodate the last remaining Nungs on the landing zone . By 08 : 00 , the evacuation of the Ngok Tavak survivors was completed , and White immediately flew out to Đà Nẵng along with the two Australian Warrant Officers after they arrived in Khâm Đức . The fight at Ngok Tavak , though short in duration , took a heavy toll on the allied forces . An unknown number of Nung soldiers and 12 U.S. military personnel were killed , and 52 ( including two U.S. Army and 21 U.S Marines ) were wounded .
= = = Khâm Đức surrounded = = =
At 02 : 45 on 10 May , in conjunction with the ground assault on the Ngok Tavak outpost , elements of the VPA 2nd Division subjected Khâm Đức to a heavy barrage of mortar fire . The North Vietnamese 21st Regiment , later reinforced by the VC 1st Regiment , were in position to attack the U.S.-led Detachment A @-@ 105 . At 08 : 30 , the Americal Division activated Operation Golden Valley to reinforce the beleaguered Khâm Đức Special Forces Camp , and at 8 : 45 am the division requested permission from III MAF to change the reaction force so the 2nd Battalion , 1st Infantry Regiment , 196th Light Infantry Brigade ( 2 – 1st Inf ) would replace the 1st Battalion , 46th Infantry Regiment , 198th Light Infantry Brigade ( 1 – 46th Inf ) . In the meantime , however , Company A of 1 – 46th Inf provide the needed reinforcement , until the 2 – 1st Inf was in position . At around 10 : 50 Company A of 1 – 46th Infantry – led by Lieutenant Bobby Thompson – arrived in Khâm Đức along with some supporting artillery and ammunition , and they were immediately assigned to their task . Thompson 's company dug in at the end of the runway nearest OP 1 with XO Peter Everts ' platoon overlooking the deep ravine where caves kept the NVA from harm due to B @-@ 52 strikes called in on their location .
About six hours later , the 2 Battalion / 1st Infantry – commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert B. Nelson – also touched down on the battlefield , and they immediately set up defensive positions in support of Detachment A @-@ 105 . Under constant enemy mortar and artillery attacks , U.S. and allied forces were able to strengthen their defenses , because there were no significant ground probes during the period between 10 – 11 May . Allied defenses at Khâm Đức remained thin and the North Vietnamese had occupied the high ground in the surrounding hills , where they could target allied ground targets and support aircraft with a high level of accuracy . On 11 May , in response to increasing North Vietnamese pressure , about 30 B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers were called in to hit North Vietnamese @-@ held positions , but those strikes had little effect as artillery and mortar rounds continued to fall on Khâm Đức and the surrounding outposts . Consequently , Cushman recommended to Westmoreland that Khâm Đức , now defended by more than 1 @,@ 500 allied soldiers along with 272 civilians , be evacuated . Westmoreland agreed , believing that Khâm Đức lacked the " defensive potential of Khe Sanh " .
By 01 : 00 on 12 May , U.S. commanders on the ground in Khâm Đức were notified of Westmoreland 's decision to evacuate all military personnel , both American and Vietnamese , as well as their civilian dependents . However , most army units on the ground were left uninformed about the decision , and it led to chaos later when evacuation was underway . During the predawn hours of 12 May , elements of the PAVN 2nd Division continued to increase their pressure on the main compound of the Special Forces Camp . The North Vietnamese made final preparations for the main assault by capturing one mountain outpost at a time , which were manned by U.S. soldiers of the Americal Division , who had placed machine @-@ guns around the main camp as advanced defensive positions . At 04 : 23 , U.S. soldiers reported that outpost number 1 had been overrun , and fighter @-@ bombers were scrambled in an attempt to save it . About 30 minutes later , the defenders of outpost number 7 reported that their position had been surrounded . They attempted to hold their position by calling on an AC @-@ 47 gunship to fire directly into their position , in order to stop the attack , but soon afterwards outpost 7 succumbed to the North Vietnamese and the defenders retreated back to Khâm Đức .
U.S. soldiers at outpost number 3 called on supporting artillery units at Khâm Đức to fire directly at their own position in an attempt to hold off the North Vietnamese , but they too were defeated a few moments later . Before sunrise , all seven outposts were firmly in North Vietnamese hands , so U.S. and allied soldiers were placed in a perilous position . The North Vietnamese had occupied all the high ground , from which they could fire down on any support aircraft that tried to resupply the camp or to evacuate people from it . By sunrise , the North Vietnamese moved closer to the Special Forces Camp under the cover of the early morning fog . About one hour before the fog was lifted , an additional 24 B @-@ 52 bombers flew in and dropped several hundred tons of bombs on suspected North Vietnamese positions south of Khâm Đức . At 08 : 20 , General Burl W. McLaughlin – commander of the 834th Air Division – was ordered by the U.S. 7th Air Force to make an all @-@ out effort to evacuate the besieged Special Forces Camp at Khâm Đức . By 09 : 35 , the B @-@ 52 strikes had clearly failed to stop the North Vietnamese advance , when the camp 's south @-@ eastern perimeter was subjected to a massive ground assault .
To stop the opponent 's onslaught , U.S. fighter @-@ bombers were called in to strafe North Vietnamese and VC formations , while U.S. soldiers on the ground used small @-@ arms and artillery fire to break up the attack at point @-@ blank range . Meanwhile , a U.S. Army UH @-@ 1 Huey and an O @-@ 2 Skymaster were shot down while circling the compound . By the time the first attack was stopped , the opposite end of the compound also came under fire , and by early morning tactical air @-@ support became difficult , as North Vietnamese troops were in close proximity with U.S. and allied forces . A U.S. Army CH @-@ 47 Chinook then arrived to begin the process of evacuation , but it took several hits from anti @-@ aircraft fire . The helicopter then burst into flames , exploded , and blocked the runway . U.S. soldiers of the 70th Engineer Battalion first tried to remove the wreckage with a forklift ( their only operating vehicle , the bulldozers having been disassembled in preparation for airlift out ) ; the forklift caught fire from the burning plane , and the engineers then assembled one of their bulldozers to push the downed helicopter off the runway ; North Vietnamese troops mortared the bulldozer but SP5 Don Hostler cleared the wreckage and then tracked the dozer back into Camp Conroy and shut it down . By 10 : 00 they had cleared the obstacles which would prevent other fixed @-@ wing aircraft from using the airfield . Almost simultaneously , a single U.S. Air Force A @-@ 1 Skyraider flown by Major James N. Swain Jr. was shot down outside the camp perimeter .
The unfolding events seemed to have a negative impact on the cohesion between U.S. and South Vietnamese indigenous forces . The resolve of the South Vietnamese , Montagnard CIDG soldiers in particular , had apparently been shaken and they disobeyed an order to carry out a sweep operation at the rear end of the camp , and their Vietnamese commander even refused to leave his bunker to encourage the soldiers . The morale and discipline of the indigenous forces had sunk so low that they began to leave their defensive positions without permission , although their section of the camp was never subjected to a major ground attack . Consequently , the behavior of indigenous CIDG soldiers during the various stages of the battle , coupled with information that ' friendly ' Montagnard soldiers had turned on U.S. Marines at Ngok Tavak , had the effect of unnerving U.S. Army soldiers in Khâm Đức . To ensure CIDG soldiers would not abandon their posts , U.S. soldiers threatened to shoot anyone attempting to run away .
= = = Evacuation = = =
At approximately 10 : 00 , the runway at Khâm Đức was cleared of the wrecked helicopter . Moments later , a C @-@ 130 piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Daryl D. Cole touched down on the runway under heavy fire , which flattened one tire and caused extensive damage to the wing tanks . Almost immediately , Cole 's aircraft was rushed by hysterical Vietnamese civilians from ditches along the runway , filling the aircraft so the loadmaster was prevented from unloading the aircraft 's cargo . Under heavy fire , Cole decided to navigate his aircraft down the cratered and shrapnel @-@ littered runway , in order to take off . However , the combined weight of the cargo and civilians , in addition to the damage sustained during landing , prevented the aircraft from gathering enough speed to take off . So the aircrew aborted the take off , offloaded the civilians , and proceeded to cut off the blown tire to stop it from flapping and slowing down the aircraft . They were able to cut off the rubber with the bayonet , and were able to cut through the steel beading thanks to the engineers carefully cutting the steel cords with a blowtorch . A fire extinguisher was kept handy because of fear of catching the magnesium wheel on fire . About two hours later , realizing that enemy artillery rounds were coming closer to his aircraft , Colonel Cole tried to take off for the second time , and managed to get the C @-@ 130 into the air . This time his only passengers were three members of Air Force Combat Control Team ( CCT ) , whose radio equipment had been destroyed .
Just after Cole 's C @-@ 130 left Khâm Đức , a C @-@ 123 flown by Major Ray D. Shelton landed and took out 44 U.S. engineers and 21 South Vietnamese civilians . Shortly after Shelton had landed his aircraft , he reported that enemy fire was coming in from all quadrants , but he was able to take off safely after just three minutes on the ground . By 11 : 10 , just 145 people had been evacuated by Shelton 's aircraft , and a handful of helicopters . After that , another three C @-@ 130s also arrived in the vicinity of Khâm Đức , but the pilots were told not to try landings . In the afternoon , the C @-@ 130 Hercules resumed their operations ; at 15 : 25 , Major Bernard L. Bucher 's C @-@ 130 approached Khâm Đức 's airfield from the south and landed despite taking numerous hits . Some 150 Vietnamese women and children rushed onto the aircraft ; as soon as the aircraft was full , Bucher made his takeoff in the north direction , unaware that opposing forces were concentrated in that area . At 15 : 30 Bucher took off , and his aircraft was quickly riddled by ground fire ; it crashed less than a mile from the end of the runway . All the South Vietnamese civilians and the entire U.S. aircrew died in the crash .
With the loss of Bucher and his aircraft , the C @-@ 130 Hercules had not completed a successful evacuation , and there were more than 600 people still on the ground . Next in line was Lieutenant Colonel William Boyd ; he was flying an airlift mission into Chu Lai , until he was diverted into Khâm Đức to extract forces and civilians there . Just before Boyd touched down , an artillery shell exploded about 100 feet in front of his aircraft , so he was forced to pull the throttle forward . Boyd then pulled up and went around for a second approach , because he could see the desperation of the people on the ground . As he landed , hundreds of civilians and soldiers poured out of the ditches and rushed onto the aircraft . Because he had witnessed the destruction of Bucher 's C @-@ 130 while taking off in the north direction , Boyd decided to fly out from the southwest . After Boyd 's aircraft was airborne , he banked the aircraft so it would be masked by the rolling terrain . The aircraft sustained damages to the left wing , the fuselage , and the leading edge of both wings , but it landed safely in Chu Lai with all the passengers .
As Boyd took off , another C @-@ 130 piloted by Lieutenant Colonel John Delmore closed in on Khâm Đức . At an altitude of about 300 to 400 feet , Delmore 's aircraft began to receive North Vietnamese fire , and both sides of the cockpit were opened up by bullets that had ripped through the floorboards . Subsequently , just before touch down , Delmore and his co @-@ pilot shut down the engine and forced the aircraft to remain upright . With no brakes and little directional control , the aircraft crashed into the CH @-@ 47 that had been destroyed early in the morning , but Delmore managed to turn his aircraft off the runway to avoid blocking it . When the aircraft had stopped completely , the five @-@ man crew got out as quickly as they could . About 20 minutes later , U.S. soldiers on the ground guided them to safety , and they were rescued by a U.S. Marine CH @-@ 46 . After witnessing the destruction of two C @-@ 130 Hercules , Lieutenant Colonel Franklin Montgomery landed his C @-@ 130 and extracted more than 150 Vietnamese civilians , and some CIDG and U.S. soldiers . Montgomery 's aircraft suffered no hits , but the loadmaster was knocked down and trampled by panic @-@ stricken Vietnamese civilians whilst trying to maintain order .
Once Montgomery had flown out , another two C @-@ 130s arrived in Khâm Đức to continue the evacuation ; the first aircraft picked up 130 people , and the one after that took out 90 . There were now only a few people remaining on the ground in Khâm Đức , and most of them were U.S. Special Forces soldiers and indigenous CIDG personnel . Major James L. Wallace flew into Khâm Đức and extracted the last group of people , as the ammunition dumps began to explode , and the aircrews reported witnessing hysteria among the Vietnamese soldiers who had lost family members in Bucher 's crash . However , just when the aircrews believed the mission was over , a C @-@ 130 piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Jay Van Cleeff was ordered to reinsert the three @-@ man Combat Control Team , which had been airlifted out of the compound earlier in the day by Colonel Cole . In protest , Van Cleeff argued that the camp was almost completely evacuated , but the control center insisted that the Combat Control Team be reinserted to complete their task of coordinating the evacuation . At about 16 : 20 , Van Cleeff landed his aircraft on the runway and the Combat Control Team – led by Major John W. Gallagher – immediately disembarked from the aircraft .
After Gallagher 's team had returned to the Special Forces Camp , Van Cleeff waited on the runway for two minutes to extract the survivors , but when nobody appeared he pulled the throttle and took off . As soon as Van Cleeff 's aircraft was airborne , another C @-@ 130 pilot reported to General McLaughlin that the evacuation had been completed , and the facility could now be destroyed at will . Van Cleeff quickly notified all aircraft in the vicinity that he had just reinserted the CCT . Gallagher 's team searched the Special Forces compound , the Americal Division battalion command post , and the artillery compound , but everybody either had been evacuated or was dead . Additionally , Khâm Đức was in North Vietnamese hands , so Gallagher and the other two men ran to the ditch beside the runway , where they tried to make contact with the aircraft overhead , but the radio was disabled along with all other equipment . While waiting for a miracle , members of the CCT clashed with North Vietnamese troops who had set up a machine gun position beneath the wing of Delmore 's crashed C @-@ 130 , and successfully disabled their opponent 's weapon .
During the ordeal , several forward air @-@ controllers were sent out to make low passes over Khâm Đức , to locate the position of the CCT , but none were successful . Then , in response to a call for the nearest aircraft to land on the runway to search for the stranded members of the CCT , Lieutenant Colonel Alfred J. Jeanotte approached the airfield from the south and landed his C @-@ 123 on the runway with support from fighter @-@ bombers , which were used to suppress enemy fire . Not seeing the men , Jeanotte applied full power and took off to avoid taking hits from North Vietnamese anti @-@ aircraft fire . As the C @-@ 123 rolled past the CCT 's position , the three men came out of their position chasing the aircraft with their arms waving . Believing that the aircraft may have missed them , the three men ran back to the ditch on the left side of the runway . As the C @-@ 123 was airborne , Jeanotte banked his aircraft to the left , and that enabled the aircrew to see the three men running back towards the ditch . However , Jeanotte was deterred from making another attempt at landing , because of low fuel . The next C @-@ 123 in line , piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Joe M. Jackson , landed on the runway as fire swept through the Khâm Đức facility , and the aircrew were able to extract the stranded CCT under heavy fire , and they flew out to Đà Nẵng . By 17 : 00 , the evacuation was over . On 13 May , 60 B @-@ 52s bombed the Khâm Đức camp .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle for Khâm Đức and Ngok Tavak was considered a defeat for U.S. forces , described by one historian as " a Khe Sanh in reverse . " Unlike the previous fight at Khe Sanh , the application of American airpower " averted a massacre " but could not prevent the North Vietnamese from dominating the high ground surrounding Khâm Đức . General Creighton Abrams described the loss at Khâm Đức as a " minor disaster " . U.S. decisions at Khâm Đức may have been influenced at a higher command level by the events of Battle of Khe Sanh in 1968 , which were subjected to intense media comparison with the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu , and the clash of operational thinking between General Westmoreland and the senior USMC generals . If there was any lesson to be learned for General Westmoreland and other U.S. commanders , the battle of Khâm Đức showed that " air power was not a cure @-@ all " . The command and control system of the United States Air Force during the ordeal was imperfect , as demonstrated by the " blunders involving the combat control teams . " A final , notable outcome of Khâm Đức was that it closed the last Special Forces CIDG camp in the I Corps Tactical Zone in close proximity to the border with Laos . This made ground surveillance of the Ho Chi Minh Trail much more difficult , allowing North Vietnam to move supplies and develop new branches of the trail . Despite setbacks , the evacuation of the Khâm Đức Special Forces Camp strongly highlighted the morale , discipline and the motivation of the U.S. Air Force personnel who took part in the operation . From the very first day of the struggle at Khâm Đức , it was clear that ground units were not prepared for an emergency evacuation , due to the lack of experience in terms of integrating the numbers and types of aircraft in such a small geographical area . U.S. aircrews had to improvise by establishing their own procedures , in order to extract both military and civilian personnel from the besieged Special Forces Camp . Despite having lost two C @-@ 130 aircraft , U.S. pilots were undeterred from completing their mission , indeed , their bravery was exemplified by Lieutenant Colonel Joe M. Jackson , who received a Medal of Honor for the rescue of the three @-@ man Combat Control Team .
The U.S. Army lost one killed in action and 71 wounded at Khâm Đức and the U.S. Marines lost 12 marines killed in action and 21 wounded at Ngok Tavak . The combined services reported the highest number of missing in any battle in Vietnam , with 31 U.S. military personnel reported missing in action . Of the 31 MIA , 19 were from the 2 / 1st Infantry : of these 3 were rescued within 5 days , 1 was captured and kept as a POW until March 1973 , and 15 listed as KIA ( 9 recovered , 6 not recovered ) . The U.S. lost 9 aircraft : 7 within the vicinity of Khâm Đức and 2 helicopters in Ngok Tavak . The North Vietnamese , however , claimed to have killed about 300 American soldiers and captured 104 enemy troops , including two American advisors , as well as capturing vast quantities of weapons and ammunition that were left behind . For South Vietnam , several hundred South Vietnamese Special Forces and indigenous CIDG soldiers were believed to have been killed , as well as about 150 civilians who perished in Major Bucher 's crash . The total number of North Vietnamese casualties is unknown , but the United States military claimed to have killed roughly 345 enemy soldiers .
In July 1970 , troops from the 196th Infantry Brigade reoccuppied Khâm Đức as part of Operation Elk Canyon I and II to disrupt North Vietnamese logistics system in Quảng Tín Province and forestall a VPA offensive in the autumn and winter . While they occupied Khâm Đức U.S. forces conducted searches for the remains of the Americans MIA in the battle two years earlier .
In 1993 – 94 teams from the Joint POW / MIA Accounting Command located the Bucher crash site and recovered the remains of the six crewmen , the remains were buried together at Arlington National Cemetery in December 2008 . In 1998 , teams from the Joint Task Force @-@ Full Accounting ( later renamed Joint POW / MIA Accounting Command ) located the 12 ODA @-@ 105 Green Berets killed on Outpost 7 . All 12 Green Berets were returned to Fort Campbell for a ceremony and then buried at Arlington National Cemetery .
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= White House Farm murders =
The White House Farm murders took place near the village of Tolleshunt D 'Arcy , Essex , England , during the night of 6 – 7 August 1985 . Nevill Bamber , a farmer and magistrate , and his wife , June , were shot and killed inside their farmhouse , along with their adoptive daughter , Sheila Caffell , and Sheila 's six @-@ year @-@ old twin sons . The only surviving member of the immediate family was Nevill and June 's adoptive son , Jeremy Bamber , then 24 years old , who said he had been at home a few miles away when the shooting took place .
The police at first believed that Sheila , diagnosed with schizophrenia , had fired the shots then turned the gun on herself . But weeks after the murders Jeremy Bamber 's ex @-@ girlfriend told police that he had implicated himself . The prosecution argued that , motivated by a large inheritance , Bamber had shot the family with his father 's semi @-@ automatic rifle , then placed the gun in his unstable sister 's hands to make the case appear as a murder – suicide . A silencer the prosecution said was on the rifle would have made it too long , they argued , for Sheila 's fingers to reach the trigger to shoot herself . Bamber was convicted in October 1986 by a 10 – 2 majority , and sentenced to a minimum of 25 years ' imprisonment . In 1994 , Bamber was informed that he would never be released from prison .
Bamber has protested his innocence throughout , although his extended family remain convinced of his guilt . Between 2004 and 2012 his lawyers submitted several unsuccessful applications to the Criminal Cases Review Commission . They argued that the silencer might not have been used during the killings ; that the crime scene may have been damaged then reconstructed ; that crime @-@ scene photographs were taken weeks after the murders ; and that the time of Sheila 's death was miscalculated . A key issue was whether Bamber received a call from his father that night to say Sheila had " gone berserk " with a gun . Bamber said that he did , that he alerted police , and that Sheila fired the final shot while he and the officers were standing outside the house . It became a central plank of the prosecution 's case that the father had made no such call , and that the only reason Bamber would have lied about it – indeed , the only way he could have known about the shootings when he alerted the police – was that he was the killer himself .
= = Bambers = =
= = = Nevill and June Bamber = = =
Ralph Nevill Bamber ( known as Nevill , born 8 June 1924 , 61 when he died ) , was a farmer , former RAF pilot , and a local magistrate at Witham Magistrates ' Court . He and his wife , June ( née Speakman , born 3 June 1924 , also 61 when she died ) , had married in 1949 and moved into the Georgian White House Farm on Pages Lane , Tolleshunt D 'Arcy , set among 300 acres of tenant farmland that had belonged to June 's father . Nevill was described in court as 6 ' 4 " tall and in good physical health , a point that became significant because Bamber 's defence was that Sheila , a slim woman of 28 , was able to beat and subdue her father , something the prosecution contested .
Unable to have biological children , the couple adopted Sheila and Jeremy as babies ; the children were not related to one another . The Bambers were wealthy and gave the children a good home and private education , but June was intensely religious and reportedly tried to force her children and grandchildren to adopt the same ideas . She had a poor relationship with Sheila , who felt June disapproved of her , and June 's relationship with Jeremy was so troubled that he had apparently stopped speaking to her . The court heard that Sheila 's ex @-@ husband was concerned about the effect June was having on his sons ; she apparently made them kneel and pray with her , which upset him . She suffered from depression and in 1982 was treated by the same psychiatrist who would later treat Sheila .
= = = Sheila Caffell = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
Sheila Jean Caffell ( born 18 July 1957 , 28 when she died ) was born to the daughter of a chaplain of the Archbishop of Canterbury and adopted by the Bambers when she was eight weeks old . She attended private schools , first Moira House in Eastbourne , Sussex , then Old Hall School in Hethersett , Norfolk , followed by secretarial college in Swiss Cottage , London .
In 1974 , when she was 17 , Sheila discovered she was pregnant by her boyfriend , Colin Caffell ( later her husband ) ; the Bambers arranged an abortion . Her relationship with her adoptive mother deteriorated significantly that summer , when June found Sheila and Colin sunbathing naked in a field . June reportedly started calling Sheila the " devil 's daughter , " which the psychiatrist identified as the trigger for Sheila 's paranoid delusions about having been taken over by the devil .
Sheila continued with her secretarial course , then trained as a hairdresser , and briefly found work as a model with the Lucie Clayton agency , which included two months ' work in Tokyo . She and Colin married in May 1977 when Sheila was 19 . She suffered two more miscarriages , before giving birth to identical twins Nicholas and Daniel on 22 June , 1979 . The birth led to a deterioration in her mental health . She became increasingly erratic , throwing pots and pans at her husband , and once pushing her hands through a window , cutting herself . The couple separated just four months after the birth , and divorced in May 1982 .
After the breakdown of the marriage , Nevill bought Sheila a flat in Morshead Mansions , Maida Vale , London , and Colin continued to help raise the children from his home in nearby Kilburn . Sheila became friendly with a group of young women who nicknamed her " Bambi , " and who later told reporters that she was vulnerable and desperately insecure , often complaining about her poor relationship with her adoptive mother . One said there was a lot of partying and drugs , particularly cocaine , and older men who were interested in the women for all the wrong reasons . Sheila 's brief modelling career ended after the birth of the boys , and she lived on welfare or took low @-@ paying jobs , including as a waitress at School Dinners , a London restaurant in which a traditional British menu is served up by young women in stockings and suspenders . There were also cleaning jobs , and there was one episode of nude photography , much regretted .
= = = = Mental health = = = =
Sheila 's mental health continued to decline , with episodes of banging her head against walls and becoming agitated to the point where one of her boyfriends feared for his safety . She decided to trace her birth mother , then living in Canada , and with the help of social services they met at Heathrow Airport in 1982 for a brief reunion , but it seems the relationship did not develop . The boys were briefly placed in foster care in 1982 and 1983 , an arrangement that seemed to cause no problems .
In August 1983 , Sheila was referred by her family doctor to Dr. Hugh Ferguson , the psychiatrist who had earlier treated June . He said she was in an agitated , paranoid and psychotic state ; he admitted her to St Andrew 's Hospital in Northampton , where she was diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder .
Ferguson wrote that Sheila believed the devil had given her the power to project evil onto others , and that she could make her sons have sex and cause violence with her . She called them the " devil 's children , " the phrase June had apparently used of Sheila , and said she believed she was capable of murdering them or of getting them to kill others . She spoke about suicide , though the court heard that Ferguson did not regard her as a suicide risk . She was discharged on 10 September 1983 . Ferguson continued treating her as an outpatient ; he diagnosed schizophrenia and prescribed trifluoperazine , an antipsychotic drug .
In 1985 Sheila became more enthusiastic about religion , to the surprise of her friends who were apparently unaware that she came from a religious family . She was re @-@ admitted to St Andrew 's in March 1985 , five months before the murders , believing her boyfriend at the time to be the devil and herself to be in direct communication with God . She was discharged just under four weeks later , and as an outpatient received a monthly injection of haloperidol , an antipsychotic drug that has a sedative effect .
She went to stay at White House Farm to recuperate . It was obvious to her friends and family that her mental health was getting worse . Just before the murders , Colin complained that he was doing 95 percent of the work with the boys ; he drafted a letter to Sheila 's father in late March or early April 1985 , which was never sent , asking him to persuade Sheila to let the twins live with Colin most of the time . According to Bamber , the family discussed placing the boys in daytime foster care over dinner on the night of the murders , with little response from Sheila .
Despite Sheila 's erratic mental state , her psychiatrist told the court that the kind of violence necessary to commit the murders was not consistent with his view of her . In particular , he said he did not believe she would have killed her father or children , because her difficult relationship was confined to her mother . Her ex @-@ husband said the same : that , despite her tendency to throw things and sometimes hit him , she had never harmed the children . June Bamber 's sister , Pamela Boutflour , testified that Sheila was not a violent person and that she had never known Sheila to use a gun ; June 's niece , Ann Eaton , told the court that Sheila did not know how to use one . Bamber disputed this , telling police on the night of the shooting , as they stood outside the house , that he and Sheila had gone target shooting together . He acknowledged later that he had not seen her fire a gun as an adult .
= = = Jeremy Bamber = = =
Jeremy Nevill Bamber ( born 13 January 1961 ) is the son of a vicar 's daughter who , after an affair with a married army sergeant , gave her baby to the Church of England Children 's Society when he was six weeks old . His biological parents later married each other and had other children . They were working at Buckingham Palace when Bamber was convicted , reportedly unaware that he was their son until reporters informed them .
Nevill and June adopted Bamber when he was six months old . They sent him to private schools , first to Maldon Court , a preparatory school , then to Gresham 's School , a boarding school in Holt , Norfolk . He left Gresham 's with no qualifications , but attended sixth @-@ form college and in 1978 passed seven O @-@ levels . Nevill paid for him to visit Australia , where Bamber took a scuba diving course , then New Zealand . Former friends alleged that he had broken into a jeweller 's shop while in New Zealand and had stolen an expensive watch , and had also boasted , they said , of being involved in smuggling heroin .
He returned to England to work on his adoptive parents ' farm for £ 170 a week , and set up home rent @-@ free in a cottage Nevill owned at 9 Head Street , Goldhanger ( 51 @.@ 745857 ° N 0 @.@ 755881 ° E ) . The cottage lay 3 – 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) from the farmhouse ( 51 @.@ 7591 ° N 0 @.@ 8032 ° E ) , a five @-@ minute drive by car and at least 15 minutes by bicycle . His father also gave him a car to use , and eight percent of a family company , Osea Road Camp Sites Ltd , which ran a caravan site .
To Bamber 's supporters , who over the years have included several MPs and journalists , he is the victim of Britain 's most serious miscarriage of justice . The Guardian took up his case at one point ; two Guardian journalists who interviewed him in 2011 called him " clever and strategic . " They wrote that there was something about him that made the public unsympathetic toward him : he was " handsome in a rather cruel , caddish way – he seemed to exude arrogance and indifference . ... Like Meursault in the Camus novel L 'Etranger , he did not seem to display the appropriate emotions . "
His detractors , a group that includes his extended family , see him as a psychopath , and regard his long fight to have the conviction declared unsafe as part of the clinical picture . His father 's secretary , Barbara Wilson , told a documentary in November 2013 that Bamber used to provoke his parents , riding in circles around his mother on a bicycle , wearing make @-@ up in public to upset his father , and allegedly once hiding a bag of live rats in his mother 's car . She said that Bamber 's father did not trust him , and that whenever Bamber visited the farmhouse there were arguments . She also said tension had increased in the weeks before the murders , and that Bamber 's father had said something to her about foreseeing a " shooting accident . " Bamber underwent several assessments in prison , and according to the Guardian no indication of mental illness or psychopathy was found . He also passed a lie detector test in 2007 .
= = = Extended family , inheritance = = =
The financial ties and inheritance issues within the immediate and extended family added a layer of complexity to the case . The prosecution argued that Bamber had killed his family to inherit £ 436 @,@ 000 , the farmhouse where the murders took place , 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) of land , and the caravan site in Maldon . Because of his conviction , the estate passed instead to the cousins who had found the silencer in the gun cupboard after the murders , with the flecks of blood and paint that proved pivotal to the prosecution 's case .
After Bamber 's conviction , one cousin on his mother 's side moved into White House Farm , and that cousin and several others acquired ownership of the caravan site . Bamber argues that they set him up , a claim another cousin dismissed in 2010 as " an absolute load of piffle . " Bamber has launched two legal actions to secure a share of the estate , which the cousins said in 2004 were part of an attempt to harass and vilify them .
= = Murder weapon = =
Nevill kept several guns at the farm . He was reportedly careful with them , cleaning them after use and securing them . The murder weapon was a .22 Anschütz semi @-@ automatic rifle , model 525 , which Nevill purchased on 30 November 1984 , along with a Parker Hale sound moderator ( a " suppressor " ) , telescopic sights , and 500 rounds of ammunition . The rifle used cartridges , which were loaded into a magazine that had a ten round capacity . Twenty @-@ five shots were fired during the killing , so assuming it was fully loaded to begin with , it would have been reloaded at least twice . The court heard that the gun became progressively harder to load as the number of cartridges increased ; loading the tenth was described as exceptionally hard .
The rifle had normally been used , with the silencer and telescopic sights attached , to shoot rabbits . The court heard that a screwdriver was needed to remove the sights , but they were usually left in place because it was time @-@ consuming to realign them . Nevill 's nephew , Anthony Pargeter , visited the farmhouse around 26 July 1985 , and told the court that he had seen the rifle , with the sights and suppressor attached , in the gun cupboard in the ground @-@ floor office . Bamber testified that he had visited the farmhouse on the evening of 6 August , hours before the murders , and that he had loaded the gun , thinking he heard rabbits outside , then left it with a full magazine and a box of ammunition on the kitchen table .
= = White House Farm , 6 – 7 August 1985 = =
= = = Sheila 's visit = = =
On 4 August 1985 , three days before the murders , Sheila and the boys arrived at her parents ' home at White House Farm to spend the week with them . The housekeeper saw her that day and noticed nothing unusual . Sheila was seen the next day with her children by two farm workers , Julie and Leonard Foakes , who said she seemed happy . One of the crime @-@ scene photographs shows that someone , possibly Sheila , had carved " I hate this place " into the cupboard doors of the bedroom the twins were sleeping in .
Bamber visited the farm on the evening of Tuesday , 6 August . He told the court that his parents suggested to Sheila that evening that the boys be placed in day @-@ time foster care with a local family , because of her mental @-@ health problems . Bamber said Sheila did not seem bothered by the suggestion and had simply said she would rather stay in London . The boys had been in foster care before , although in London rather than near White House Farm , and it had not appeared to cause a problem for Sheila . Her psychiatrist , Dr. Ferguson , told the Court of Appeal in 2002 that any suggestion that the children be removed from her care would have provoked a strong reaction from Sheila , but that she might have welcomed daytime help .
Barbara Wilson , the farm 's secretary , telephoned the farmhouse at 9 @.@ 30 pm that evening and spoke to Nevill . She said he was short with her , and Wilson was left with the impression that she had interrupted an argument . June Bamber 's sister , Pamela Boutflour , also telephoned that evening at about 10 pm . She spoke to Sheila , who she said was quiet , then to June , who seemed normal .
= = = Telephone calls = = =
There was one telephone line and normally four telephones at the farm . There was a cordless phone with a memory @-@ recall feature in the kitchen ; a beige digital phone , also kept in the kitchen ; a blue digital phone in the first @-@ floor office ; and a cream rotary phone ( dial phone ) in the main bedroom . The cordless phone had been sent away for repair on 5 August , so on the night of the murders there were three phones in the house .
The rotary phone that was normally in the main bedroom had been moved into the kitchen where the beige digital phone normally sat . Police found the latter under a pile of magazines . They found the rotary phone in the kitchen with its receiver off the hook . The implication was that someone – Nevill , according to Bamber – had been interrupted mid @-@ call .
A central issue is whether Nevill telephoned Bamber before the murders to say that Sheila had gone crazy with a gun . Bamber said he did receive such a call , and that the line went dead in the middle of it , which was consistent with the phone being found off the hook . The prosecution said that he had not received such a call , and that his claim to have done so was part of his setting the scene to blame Sheila ; it was Bamber himself , they said , who had left the phone off the hook . This was one of three key points the jury was asked to consider by the trial judge during his summing up . In 2010 Bamber 's lawyers highlighted two police phone logs ( below ) in support of Bamber 's application to have his case referred back to the Court of Appeal . The question was whether these logs described one call to the police , from Bamber alone , or two calls , one from Bamber and another from his father .
= = = = Telephone log 1 = = = =
A police log timed at 3 : 26 am on 7 August 1985 ( see right ) was entered as evidence at the trial but not shown to the jury . It discusses a telephone call made that night to a local police station . According to the prosecution , the log discusses a call known to have been made by Bamber . According to Bamber 's defence team , it may show that a separate call was made by Nevill .
The log is headed " Daughter gone berserk " : " Mr Bamber , White House Farm , Tolleshunt d ’ Arcy – daughter Sheila Bamber , aged 26 years , has got hold of one of my guns . " It adds : " Message passed to CD by the son of Mr Bamber after phone went dead . " It goes on to say : " Mr Bamber has a collection of shotguns and .410s , " and it includes the telephone number 860209 , the number at the time for White House Farm . The final entry says : " 0356 GPO [ the telephone operator ] have checked phone line to farmhouse and confirm phone left off hook . " The log shows that a patrol car , Charlie Alpha 7 ( CA7 ) , was sent to the scene at 3 @.@ 35 am .
= = = = Telephone log 2 = = = =
A different police log shows that , at 3 @.@ 36 am , Bamber rang Chelmsford Police Station using a direct line , rather than the emergency number ( 999 ) , and spoke to PC West . The court accepted that the officer who recorded the log misread a digital clock , and that the call had probably come in at around 3 : 26 am , around the time of the call mentioned in the first log .
Bamber said : " You 've got to help me . My father has just rung me and said , ' Please come over . Your sister has gone crazy and has got the gun . ' Then the line went dead . " Bamber said he had tried to ring his father back , but there was no reply . The log continues : " Father Mr. Bamber , White House Farm , Tolleshunt D 'Arcy ... Sister Sheila Bamber age 27 . Has history of mental illness . ... Dispatched CA5 [ Charlie Alpha 5 ] to scene ... Informant requested to attend scene . "
= = = = Police response = = = =
PC West contacted civilian dispatcher Malcolm Bonnet at the Chelmsford HQ Information Room using a radio link ; this conversation was recorded as having taken place at 3 @.@ 26 am . PC West then spoke to Bamber again , who apparently complained about the time the police response was taking , and said : " When my father rang he sounded terrified . " He was told to go to the farm and wait for the police . At 3 @.@ 35 am Bonnet sent a police car to White House Farm . A telephone operator checked the line to the farm at 03 : 56 , according to a police log , or at 04 : 30 , according to the Court of Appeal . The phone was off the hook , the line was open and a dog could be heard barking .
Explaining why he had called a local police station and not 999 , Bamber told police that night that he had not thought it would make a difference in terms of how fast they arrived . He said he had spent time looking up the number , and even though his father had asked him to come quickly , he had first telephoned his girlfriend , Julie Mugford , in London , then had driven slowly to the farmhouse . He also said he could have called one of the farm workers , but had not at the time considered it . In his early witness statements , Bamber said he had telephoned the police immediately after receiving his father 's call , then telephoned Mugford . During later police interviews , he said he had called Mugford first . He said he was confused about the sequence of events .
= = = Scene outside = = =
After the telephone calls , Bamber made his way to the farmhouse , as did PS Bews , PC Myall and PC Saxby from Witham Police Station , passing Bamber in their car on the way there . They told the court that , in their view , he was driving much slower than them . Bamber 's cousin , Ann Eaton , testified that Bamber was normally a fast driver .
Bamber arrived at the farmhouse one or two minutes after the police . They waited for a tactical firearms group to arrive , which turned up at 5 am . Police determined that all the doors and windows to the house were shut , except for the window in the main bedroom on the first floor . They decided to wait until daylight . They eventually entered at 7 : 54 am through the back door , which had been locked from the inside . The only sound they reported from the house was a dog barking .
While waiting outside , the police questioned Bamber , who they said seemed calm . He told them about the phone call from his father , and that it sounded as though someone had cut him off . He said he did not get along with his sister . When asked whether she might have gone berserk with the gun , the police said he replied : " I don 't really know . She is a nutter . She 's been having treatment . " The police asked why Nevill would have called Bamber and not the police . Bamber replied that his father was the sort of person who might want to keep things within the family .
Bamber told the police that Sheila was familiar with guns and that they had gone target shooting together . He said he had been at the farmhouse himself a few hours earlier , and that he had loaded the rifle because he thought he had heard rabbits outside . He had left it on the kitchen table fully loaded , with a box of ammunition nearby . After the bodies were discovered , a doctor , Dr. Craig , was called to the house to certify the deaths , which he testified could have occurred at any time during the night . He said Bamber appeared to be in a state of shock ; he broke down , cried and seemed to vomit . The doctor said Bamber told him at that point about the discussion the family had had about possibly having Sheila 's sons placed in foster care .
= = = Inside farmhouse = = =
= = = = Nevill = = = =
When police entered the house , they found five bodies with multiple gunshot wounds . Twenty @-@ five shots had been fired , mostly at close range . Nevill was found downstairs in the kitchen , dressed in pyjamas , lying over an overturned chair next to the fireplace , amid a scene suggestive of a struggle . A telephone was lying on one of the kitchen surfaces with its receiver off the hook , next to several .22 shells . The police said chairs and stools were overturned , and there was broken crockery , a broken sugar basin , and what looked like blood on the floor . A ceiling light lampshade had been broken .
Nevill had been shot eight times , six times to the head and face , fired when the rifle was a few inches from his skin . The remaining shots to his body had occurred from at least two feet away . Based on where the empty cartridges were found – three were in the kitchen and one on the stairs – the police concluded he had been shot four times upstairs , but had managed to get downstairs where a struggle took place , during which he was hit several times with the rifle and shot again , this time fatally .
There were two wounds to his right side , and two to the top of his head , which would probably have resulted in unconsciousness . The left side of his lip was wounded , his jaw was fractured , and his teeth , neck and larynx were damaged . The pathologist said he would have had difficulty speaking . There were gunshot wounds to his left shoulder and left elbow . He also had black eyes , a broken nose , bruising to the cheeks , cuts on the head , bruising to the right forearm , and circular burn @-@ type marks on his back , consistent with his having been hit with the rifle . One of the pillars of the prosecution case was that Sheila would not have been strong enough to inflict this beating on Nevill , who was 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall and by all accounts in good health .
= = = = June = = = =
The court heard that the other four bodies were found upstairs . June 's body was heavily bloodstained . She was found lying on the floor in the master bedroom by the doorway , bare @-@ footed and wearing her nightdress . She had been shot seven times ; one shot to her forehead between her eyes , and another to the right side of her head , would have caused her death quickly . There were also shots to the right side of her lower neck , her right forearm , and two injuries on the right side of her chest and her right knee . The police believed she had been sitting up during part of the attack , based on the pattern of blood on her clothing . Five of the shots occurred when the gun was at least a foot from her body . The shot between her eyes was from less than one foot .
= = = = Daniel and Nicholas = = = =
The boys were found in their beds , shot through the head . They appeared to have been shot while in bed . Daniel had been shot five times in the back of the head , four times with the gun held within one foot of his head , and once from over two feet away . Nicholas had been shot three times , all contact or close @-@ proximity shots .
= = = = Sheila = = = =
The court heard that Sheila was found on the floor of the master bedroom with her mother . She was in her nightdress and bare @-@ footed , with two bullet wounds under her chin , one on her throat . The pathologist , Dr. Peter Vanezis , said that the lower of the injuries had occurred from three inches ( 76 mm ) away , and that the higher one was a contact injury . The higher of the two would have killed her immediately . The lower injury would have killed her too , he said , but not necessarily straightaway . Vanezis testified that it would be possible for a person with such an injury to stand up and walk around , but the lack of blood on her nightdress suggested to him that she had not done this . He believed that the lower of her injuries had happened first , because it had caused bleeding inside the neck ; the court heard that if the immediately fatal wound had happened first , the bleeding would not have occurred to the same extent . Vanesiz said that the pattern of blood stains on her nightdress suggested she had been sitting up when she received both injuries .
There were no marks on her body suggestive of a struggle . The firearms officer who first saw her said her feet and hands were clean , her fingernails manicured and not broken , and her fingertips free of blood , dirt or powder . There was no trace of lead dust . The rifle magazine would have been loaded at least twice during the killings ; this would usually leave lubricant and material from the bullets on the hands . A scenes @-@ of @-@ crimes officer , DC Hammersley , said there were blood stains on the back of her right hand , but that otherwise her hands were clean .
There was no blood on her feet or other debris , such as the sugar that was on the downstairs floor . Low traces of lead were found on her hands and forehead at postmortem , but the levels were consistent with the everyday handling of things around the house . A scientist , Mr Elliott , testified that if she had loaded 18 cartridges into a magazine he would expect to see more lead on her hands . The blood on her nightdress was consistent with her own , and no trace of firearm @-@ discharge residue was on it . Blood and urine samples indicated that she had taken the anti @-@ psychotic drug haloperidol , and several days earlier had used cannabis .
The rifle , without the suppressor or sights attached , was lying on her body pointing up at her neck . June 's Bible lay on the floor to the right of Sheila . It was normally kept in a bedside cupboard . June 's fingerprints were on it , as were others that could not be identified , including one made by a child .
= = Police investigation = =
= = = Criticism = = =
Journalist David Connett , who attended the trial , writes that it was by common consent a poor investigation . The trial judge , Mr Justice Drake , expressed concern about what he called a " less than thorough investigation . " Claire Powell wrote that " doing a Bamber " briefly became police slang for making a mess of a case .
According to Connett , the officer in charge , DCI " Taff " Jones , deputy head of CID , was told that it was a " domestic , " and went off to play golf . Jones became so convinced of the murder – suicide theory that he ordered Bamber 's cousins out of his office when they asked him to consider whether Bamber had set the whole thing up . Evidence was not recorded or preserved , and three days after the killings the police burned bloodstained bedding and a carpet , apparently to spare Bamber 's feelings . The inquest opened on 14 August 1985 , and the police gave evidence that it was a murder – suicide .
The scenes @-@ of @-@ crime officer did not find the silencer in the cupboard . It was found by one of Bamber 's cousins days later , and it took the police three days to collect it from them . The same officer moved the rifle without wearing gloves , and it was not examined for fingerprints until weeks later . The Bible found with Sheila was not examined at all . Connett writes that a hacksaw blade that might have been used to gain entry to the house lay in the garden for months . Officers did not take contemporaneous notes ; those who had dealt with Bamber wrote down their statements weeks later . Bamber 's clothes were not examined until one month later . The bodies were cremated . Ten years later all blood samples were destroyed .
Unlike DCI Jones , his junior officers were suspicious of Bamber , and when Jones was removed from the case , they began to look more closely at him . ( Jones died before the case came to court after falling from a ladder at his home . ) Bamber 's behaviour after the funeral increased suspicion that he had been involved . The Times reported that , immediately after the bodies were found , he broke down and was offered tea and whisky by police , and apparently managed to persuade them to burn bedding and carpets inside the house . He wept openly at the funerals , supported by his girlfriend , Julie Mugford , after which he flew to Amsterdam , where he apparently tried to buy a consignment of drugs and offered to sell nude photographs of Sheila to tabloid newspapers . He also invited friends to expensive champagne @-@ and @-@ lobster dinners . His behaviour served to draw police attention to him .
= = = Fingerprints on rifle = = =
A print from Sheila 's right ring finger was found on the right side of the butt , pointing downwards . A print from Bamber 's right forefinger was on the breech ( rear ) end of the barrel , above the stock and pointing across the gun . He said he had used the gun to shoot rabbits . There were three further prints of insufficient detail to be identified .
= = = Silencer = = =
On the day of the murders , the police searched the gun cupboard in the ground @-@ floor office , but did not examine it closely or search for the silencer or sights for the rifle . Three days later , members of Bamber 's extended family visited the farm with Basil Cock , the estate 's executor . During that visit one of Bamber 's cousins , David Boutflour , found the silencer and sights in the cupboard . The court heard that several people had witnessed this discovery : Boutflour 's father and sister ; the farm secretary ; and Basil Cock . The family took the silencer to Boutflour 's sister 's home to examine it . They said they found the surface of it had been damaged and that there seemed to be red paint and blood on it . They told the police about their find , and the police collected the silencer from them on 12 August , five days after the murders . At that point the police reportedly noticed an inch @-@ long grey hair attached to the silencer , but this was lost before the silencer arrived at the Forensic Science Service at Huntingdon .
The family returned to the farmhouse to search for the source of the red paint , and found what they said was recent damage to the underside of the red @-@ painted mantelpiece above the Aga cooker in the kitchen . A scenes @-@ of @-@ crime officer , DI Cook , took a paint sample from the mantelpiece on 14 August , and it contained the same 15 layers of paint and varnish that were in the paint flake on the silencer . On 1 October casts were taken of the marks on the mantel , and the marks were deemed consistent with the silencer having come into contact with the mantelpiece more than once . In February 2010 Bamber 's legal team submitted evidence that they said showed the marks had been created after the crime @-@ scene photographs were taken ( see below ) .
A scientist at the Forensic Science Laboratory , Mr. Hayward , found blood on the inside and outside surface of the silencer , the latter not enough to permit analysis . The blood inside was found to be the same blood group as Sheila 's , although it might have been a mixture of Nevill 's and June 's . A firearms expert , a Mr. Fletcher , said the blood was backspatter , caused by a close @-@ contact shooting . Tests at the lab indicated that it would have been physically impossible for Sheila to have reached the trigger to shoot herself with the silencer attached .
= = = Julie Mugford 's allegations = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
A month after the murders Bamber 's girlfriend , Julie Mugford , changed her statement , as a result of which Bamber was arrested . He and Mugford had started dating in 1983 when she was a 19 @-@ year @-@ old student at Goldsmith 's College in London ; she was still studying there when the killings occurred . Mugford admitted to a brief background of dishonesty . She had been cautioned in 1985 for using a friend 's chequebook to obtain goods worth around £ 700 , after it had been reported stolen ; she said she and the friend had repaid the money to the bank . She also acknowledged having helped Bamber in March or April 1985 to steal just under £ 1 @,@ 000 from the office of the Osea Road caravan site his family owned ; she said he had staged a break @-@ in to make it appear that strangers were responsible . The admission added to the picture of her own and Bamber 's lack of credibility .
As part of their submission to the Criminal Cases Review Commission in 2012 , Bamber 's lawyers found a letter dated 26 September 1985 showing that the assistant director of public prosecutions who prepared the case against Bamber had suggested that Mugford not be prosecuted for the burglary , the cheque fraud , and for a further offence of selling cannabis . She subsequently testified against Bamber during his trial in October 1986 . The judge told the jury that they could convict Bamber on Mugford 's testimony alone .
= = = = Statements to police = = = =
Mugford was at first supportive of Bamber after the murders ; newspaper photographs of the funeral show him weeping and hanging onto her arm . On the day after the killings , she told police that she had received a telephone call from him at about 3 : 30 am on 7 August , shortly after the murders , during which he sounded worried and said , " There 's something wrong at home . " She said she had been tired and had not asked what it was .
Her position toward Bamber changed on 3 September 1985 , after they rowed about his involvement with another woman . She threw something at him , slapped him , and he twisted her arm up her back . She went to the police four days later and changed her statement . In the second statement she said he had talked disparagingly about his " old " father , his " mad " mother , his sister who he said had nothing to live for , and the twins who he said were disturbed . Bamber denied having said these things and argued that Mugford was motivated by jealousy , but other witnesses offered similar testimony . Mugford 's mother said Bamber had told her he hated his adoptive mother , and that he had described her as mad . A friend of Mugford 's testified that Bamber had said around February 1985 that his parents kept him short of money , his mother was a religious freak , and " I fucking hate my parents . " A farm worker testified that Bamber seemed not to get on with Sheila and had once said : " I 'm not going to share my money with my sister . "
In discussions Mugford said she had dismissed as fantasies , she alleged that Bamber had said he wanted to sedate his parents and set fire to the farmhouse . He reportedly said Sheila would make a good scapegoat . Mugford alleged he had discussed entering the house through the kitchen window because the catch was broken , and leaving it via a different window that latched when it was shut from the outside .
She said she had spent the weekend before the murders with him in his cottage in Goldhanger , where he had dyed his hair black . She also said that she had seen his mother 's bicycle there . This was significant because the prosecution alleged that he had used the bicycle to cycle between his cottage and the farmhouse on the night of the murders . She told police Bamber had telephoned her at 9 : 50 pm on 6 August to say he had been thinking about the crime all day , was pissed off , and that it was " tonight or never . " A few hours later , at 3 : 00 – 3 : 30 am on 7 August , she said he phoned her again to say : " Everything is going well . Something is wrong at the farm . I haven 't had any sleep all night ... bye honey and I love you lots . " Her flatmates ' evidence suggested that call had come through closer to 3 am . He called her later during the morning of 7 August to tell her that Sheila had gone mad , and that a police car was coming to pick her up and bring her to the farmhouse . When she arrived there , she said he had pulled her to one side and said : " I should have been an actor . "
Later that evening , on 7 August , she asked Bamber whether he had done it . He said no , but that a friend of his had , whom he named ; the man was a plumber the family had used in the past . Bamber allegedly said he had told this friend how he could enter and leave the farmhouse undetected , and that one of his instructions had been for the friend to telephone him from the farm on one of the phones in the house that had a memory redial facility , so that if the police checked it , it would give him an alibi . Everything had gone as planned , he said , except that Nevill had put up a fight , and the friend had become angry and shot him seven times . The friend had allegedly told Sheila to lie down and shoot herself last , Bamber said . The friend then placed the Bible on her chest so she appeared to have killed herself in a religious frenzy . The children were shot in their sleep , he said . Mugford said Bamber claimed to have paid the friend £ 2 @,@ 000 .
= = = Bamber 's arrest = = =
As a result of Mugford 's statement Bamber was arrested on 8 September 1985 , as was the friend Mugford said he had implicated , although the latter had a solid alibi and was released . Bamber told police Mugford was lying because he had jilted her . He said he loved his parents and sister , and denied that they had kept him short of money ; he said the only reason he had broken into the caravan site with Mugford was to prove that security was poor . He said he had occasionally gained entry to the farmhouse through a downstairs windows , and had used a knife to move the catches from the outside . He also said he had seen his parents ' wills , and that they had left the estate to be shared between him and Sheila . As for the rifle , he told police the gun was used mostly with the silencer off because it would otherwise not fit in its case .
He was bailed from the police station on 13 September , after which he went on holiday to Saint @-@ Tropez . Before leaving England , he returned to the farmhouse , gaining entry by the downstairs bathroom window . He said he did this because he had left his keys in London and needed some papers from the house for the trip to France ; he entered through the window rather than borrow keys from the farm 's housekeeper who lived nearby . When he returned to England on 29 September , he was re @-@ arrested and charged with the murders .
= = Trial , October 1986 = =
Bamber was tried in October 1986 before Mr Justice Drake and a jury at Chelmsford Crown Court , during a trial that lasted 19 days . The prosecution was led by Anthony Arlidge QC , and the defence by Geoffrey Rivlin QC , supported by Ed Lawson , QC . The Times wrote that Bamber cut an arrogant figure in the witness box . At one point when prosecutors accused him of lying , he replied : " That is what you have got to establish . "
= = = Prosecution case = = =
The prosecution case was that Bamber had been motivated by hatred and greed . They argued that he had left the farm around 10 pm on 6 August 1985 , and returned by bicycle in the early hours of the morning , using a route that avoided the main roads . He had entered the house through a downstairs bathroom window , taken the rifle with the silencer attached , and gone upstairs .
He had shot June in her bed , but she had managed to get up and walk a few steps before collapsing and dying . He had shot Nevill in the bedroom too , but Nevill was able to get downstairs where he and Bamber had fought in the kitchen , before Bamber shot him several times in the head . He had shot Sheila in the main bedroom , and had shot the children in their beds , in their own bedroom , as they slept .
They argued that Bamber had then set about arranging the scene to make it appear that Sheila was the killer . He had discovered that she could not have reached the trigger with the silencer attached , so he had removed it and placed it in the cupboard , then placed a Bible next to her body to introduce a religious theme . He had removed the kitchen phone from its hook , left the house via a kitchen window , and banged it from the outside so that the catch dropped back into position . He had then cycled home . Shortly after 3 am , he had telephoned Mugford , then the police at 3 : 26 am to say he had just received a frantic call from his father . To create a delay before the bodies were discovered , he had not called 999 , had driven slowly to the farmhouse , and had told police that his sister was familiar with guns , so that they would be reluctant to enter .
The prosecution argued that Bamber had not received a call from his father , that Nevill was too badly injured after the first shots to have spoken to anyone , that there was no blood on the kitchen phone that had been left dangling , and that Nevill would have called the police before calling Bamber . The prosecution position was that , if the call to Bamber really had been the last thing the father had done before shots were fired , and if he thereafter dropped the receiver , the line to Bamber 's home would have remained open for one to two minutes , and Bamber would not have been able to telephone the police immediately to let them know about his father 's call , as he said he had . That the line would not have cleared in time for him to call the police is one of several disputed points .
The silencer played a central role . It was deemed to have been on the rifle when it was fired , because of the blood found inside it . The prosecution said the blood had come from Sheila 's head , when the silencer was pointed at her . Expert evidence was submitted that , given her injuries after the first shot , Sheila could not have shot herself , placed the silencer in the downstairs cupboard , then run back upstairs to where her body was found . There was also expert testimony that there were no traces of gun oil on her nightdress , despite 25 shots having been fired and the gun having been reloaded at least twice .
Prosecutors argued that , had Sheila killed her family then discovered she could not commit suicide with the silencer fitted , it would have been found next to her ; there was no reason for her to have returned it to the gun cupboard . That she had carried out the killings was further discounted because , it was argued , she was mentally well at the time , had no interest in or knowledge of guns , lacked the strength to overcome her father , and there was no evidence on her clothes or body that she had moved around the crime scene or been involved in a struggle .
= = = Defence case = = =
The defence maintained that the witnesses who said Bamber disliked his family were lying or had misinterpreted his words . Mugford had further lied about Bamber 's confession , they said , because he had betrayed her , and she wanted to stop him from being with anyone else . No one had seen him cycle to and from the farm . There were no marks on him on the night that suggested he had been in a fight , and no blood @-@ stained clothing of his was recovered . The reason he had not gone to the farm as quickly as he should have when his father telephoned was that he was afraid .
They argued that Sheila was the killer , and that she did know how to handle guns , because she had been raised on a farm and had attended shoots when she was younger . She had a very serious mental illness , had said she felt she was capable of killing her children , and the loaded rifle had been left on the kitchen table by Bamber . There had been a recent family argument about placing the children in foster care .
The defence also argued that people who have carried out so @-@ called " altruistic " killings have been known to engage in ritualistic behaviour before killing themselves , and that Sheila might have placed the silencer in the cupboard , changed her clothes and washed herself , which would explain why there was little lead on her hands , or sugar from the floor on her feet . There was also a possibility that the blood in the silencer was not hers , the defence said , but was a mixture of Nevill 's and June 's .
= = = Summing up , verdict = = =
The judge said there were three crucial points , in no particular order . Did the jury believe Julie Mugford or Jeremy Bamber ? Were they sure that Sheila was not the killer who then committed suicide ? He said this question involved another : was the second , fatal , shot fired at Sheila with the silencer on ? If yes , she could not have fired it . Finally , did Nevill call Bamber in the middle of the night ? If there was no such call , it undermined the entirety of Bamber 's story , and the only reason he would have had to invent the phone call was that he was responsible for the murders . The jury found Bamber guilty on 28 October 1986 by a majority of ten to two ; had one more juror supported him , he would not have been convicted . The judge told him he was " evil , almost beyond belief " and sentenced him to five life terms , with a recommendation that he serve at least 25 years .
= = Appeals = =
= = = Leave to appeal refused , 1989 , 1994 = = =
Bamber first sought leave to appeal in November 1986 , arguing that the judge had misdirected the jury . The application was heard and refused by a single judge in April 1988 . Bamber 's lawyer requested a full hearing before three judges , arguing that the trial judge 's summing up had been biased against Bamber , that his language had been too forceful , and that he had undermined the defence by advancing his own theory . The lawyer also argued that the defence had not pressed Julie Mugford about her dealings with the media , but should have , because as soon as the trial was over her story began to appear in newspapers . The judges rejected the application in March 1989 .
Because the trial judge had criticized the police investigation , Essex Police held an internal inquiry , conducted by Detective Chief Superintendent Dickinson . Bamber alleged this report confirmed that evidence had been withheld by the police , so he made a formal complaint , which was investigated in 1991 by the City of London Police . This process uncovered more documentation , which Bamber used to petition the Home Secretary in September 1993 for a referral back to the Court of Appeal , refused in July 1994 .
During this process , the Home Office declined to give Bamber the expert evidence it had obtained , so Bamber applied for judicial review of that decision in November 1994 ; this resulted in the Home Office handing over its expert evidence . In February 1996 the Essex police destroyed many of the original trial exhibits without informing Bamber or his lawyers . The officer responsible said he had not been aware that the case was on @-@ going .
= = = Court of Appeal , 2002 = = =
The Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) was established in April 1997 to review allegations of miscarriage of justice , and Bamber 's case was passed to them at that time . The CCRC referred the case to the Court of Appeal in March 2001 on the grounds that new DNA testing on the silencer constituted fresh evidence .
The appeal was heard by Lord Justice Kay , Mr Justice Wright , and Mr Justice Henriques from 17 October to 1 November 2002 , and the decision published on 12 December . The prosecution was represented by Victor Temple QC , and Bamber by Michael Turner QC . Bamber brought 16 issues to the attention of the court , 14 about failure to disclose evidence or the fabrication of evidence , and two ( points 14 and 15 ) related to the silencer and DNA testing . Point 11 was withdrawn by the defence .
Although most of the issues were reviewed by the court , the reason for the referral was point 15 , the discovery of DNA on the silencer , the result of a test not available in 1986 . The silencer evidence during the original trial came from a Mr. Hayward of the Forensic Science Laboratory . He had found human blood inside the silencer , and had stated that its blood group was consistent with it having come from Sheila . He said there was a remote possibility that it was a mixture of blood from Nevill and June .
Mark Webster , an expert instructed by Bamber 's defence team , argued that Hayward 's tests had been inadequate , and that there was a real possibility , not a remote one , that the blood had come from Nevill and June . This was a critical point , because the prosecution case rested on the silencer having been on the gun when Sheila was shot , something she could not have done herself because of the length of her arms . If she was shot with the silencer on the gun , it meant that someone else had shot her . If her blood was inside the silencer it supported the prosecution 's position , but if the blood belonged to someone else , that part of the prosecution case collapsed .
The defence argued that new tests comparing DNA in the silencer to a sample from Sheila 's biological mother suggested that the " major component " of the DNA in the silencer had not come from Sheila . A DNA sample from June 's sister suggested that the major component had come from June , they argued .
The court concluded that June 's DNA was in the silencer , that Sheila 's DNA may have been in the silencer , and that there was evidence of DNA from at least one male . The judges ' conclusion was that the results were complex , incomplete , and also meaningless because they did not establish how June 's DNA came to be in the silencer years after the trial , did not establish that Sheila 's was not in it , and did not lead to a conclusion that Bamber 's conviction was unsafe . In a 522 @-@ point judgment dismissing the appeal , the judges said that there was no conduct on the part of the police or prosecution that would have adversely affected the jury 's verdict , and that the more they examined the details of the case , the more they thought the jury had been right .
= = = Against whole @-@ life tariff = = =
The trial judge recommended a minimum term of 25 years , but in December 1994 Home Secretary Michael Howard ruled that Bamber should remain in prison for the rest of his life . In May 2008 Bamber lost a High Court appeal against the whole @-@ life tariff before Mr. Justice Tugendhat . This was upheld by the Appeal Court in May 2009 .
Bamber and three other British whole @-@ life prisoners appealed to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg , France , but the appeal was rejected in January 2012 . Bamber and two prisoners , Douglas Vinter and Peter Moore , appealed that decision too , and in July 2013 the European Court 's Grand Chamber ruled that keeping the prisoners in jail with no prospect of release or review may not be compatible with Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights , which prohibits inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment .
= = Criminal Cases Review Commission = =
= = = Campaign = = =
A campaign gathered pace over the years to secure Bamber 's release , and from March 2001 several websites were set up to discuss the evidence . Bamber used one of the websites in 2002 to offer a £ 1m reward for evidence that would overturn his conviction .
His case was taken up by MPs George Galloway and Andrew Hunter , and journalist Bob Woffinden . Woffinden argued between 2007 and 2011 that Sheila had shot her family , then watched as police gathered outside the house before shooting herself . He changed his mind in May 2011 , arguing that evidence in the house had convinced him that Bamber was guilty .
In 2004 Bamber launched a fresh attempt to obtain another appeal , with a new defence team that included Giovanni di Stefano . ( In March 2013 di Stefano was sentenced in the UK to 14 years in prison for having fraudulently presented himself as a lawyer to several clients between 2001 and 2011 . ) Di Stefano applied unsuccessfully in March 2004 to have the Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) refer the case back to the Court of Appeal . The defence team made a fresh submission in January 2009 .
= = = Defence arguments = = =
= = = = Crime scene = = = =
The defence argues that the first officers to enter the farmhouse inadvertently disturbed the crime scene , then reconstructed it . Crime @-@ scene photographs not made available to the original defence show Sheila 's right arm and hand in slightly different positions in relation to the gun , which is lying across her body . The gun itself also appears to have moved .
Former Lancashire Detective Chief Superintendent Mick Gradwell , shown the photographs by the Guardian and Observer , said in January 2011 : " The evidence shows , or portrays , Essex police having damaged the scene , and then having staged it again to make it look like it was originally . And if that has happened , and that hasn 't been disclosed , that is really , really serious . "
= = = = Sheila 's body , time of death = = = =
The defence disputes the location of Sheila 's body . The police said they had found her upstairs with her mother , but PC Collins reported seeing through a window what he thought was the body of a woman just inside the kitchen door . Later police reports said that only Nevill had been found in the kitchen . A retired police officer who worked on the case said in 2011 that the first police logs were simply mistaken in reporting that a woman 's body had been found downstairs .
Bamber 's lawyers argue that images of Sheila taken by a police photographer at around 9 am on 7 August 1985 show her blood was still wet , and that , had she been killed before 3 : 30 am as the prosecution said , it would have congealed by 9 am .
= = = = Scratch marks on mantelpiece = = = =
The defence commissioned a report from Peter Sutherst , a British forensic photographic expert , who was asked in 2008 to examine negatives of the kitchen taken on the day of the murders and later . In his report , dated 17 January 2010 , Sutherst argued that scratch marks in paintwork on the kitchen mantelpiece had been created after the crime @-@ scene photographs had been taken . The prosecution alleged that the marks had been made during the struggle in the kitchen between Bamber and his father , as the silencer , attached to the rifle , had scratched against the mantelpiece . The prosecution said that paint chips identical to the paint on the mantelpiece were found on or inside the silencer .
Sutherst said the scratch marks appeared in photographs taken on 10 September 1985 , 34 days after the murders , but were not visible in the original crime @-@ scene photographs . He also said he had failed to find in the photographs any chipped paint on the carpet below the mantelpiece , where it might have been expected to fall had the mantelpiece been scratched during a struggle . He was asked by the CCRC to examine a red spot on the carpet visible in photographs underneath the scratches on the mantelpiece . He said the red spot matched a piece of nail varnish missing from one of Sheila 's toes . He concluded that the scratch marks on the mantel had been created after the day of the murders .
= = = = Police telephone , radio logs = = = =
Police telephone logs had been entered as evidence during the trial , but had not been noticed by Bamber 's lawyers . Bamber 's new defence team said the logs showed that someone calling himself Mr. Bamber had telephoned police on the night of the attack to say his daughter had " gone berserk " with one of his guns . Stan Jones , a former detective sergeant who worked on the case , told the Essex Chronicle in 2010 : " The only person who telephoned the police was Jeremy Bamber . There is no way his father phoned . To suggest it is farcical . "
A separate log of a police radio message shows there was an attempt to speak to someone inside the farmhouse that night , as police waited outside to enter , but there was no response . Police say the officers had simply made a mistake .
= = = = Silencer = = = =
Gun experts commissioned by the defence argued that the injuries were consistent with the silencer not having been used , and that its absence would explain burn marks on Nevill 's body . That the gun had a silencer on it during the murders was central to the prosecution 's case . The experts involved in compiling the report were David Fowler , chief medical examiner for the state of Maryland in the United States ; Ljubisa Dragovic , chief medical examiner of Oakland county in Michigan ; Marcella Fierro , former chief medical examiner for the state of Virginia ; Daniel Caruso , chief of burn services at the Arizona Burn Center ; and Dr. John Manlove , a British forensic scientist .
= = = = Letter regarding Mugford = = = =
Bamber 's lawyers told the press in March 2012 that they had found a letter , dated 26 September 1985 , from John Walker , assistant director of public prosecutions , to the Chief Constable of Essex Police , discussing the prosecution of Bamber . Walker had written that he was suggesting , " with considerable hestitation , " that Mugford be told she would not be prosecuted for drugs offences , burglary and cheque fraud , offences she had confessed to during her police interviews regarding Bamber . Bamber 's lawyers said this raised the possibility that she had been persuaded to testify in the hope that charges would not be pursued . According to the Guardian , the trial judge told the jury that they could convict Bamber based on Mugford 's testimony alone .
= = = CCRC response , 2012 = = =
The CCRC provisionally rejected Bamber 's 2009 submission in February 2011 in an 89 @-@ page document . It invited his lawyers to respond within three months , extended the deadline to allow them to study all 406 crime @-@ scene photographs , then in September 2011 granted them an indefinite period in which to pursue an additional line of inquiry . The CCRC finally rejected the application in April 2012 in a 109 @-@ page report , which said the submission had not identified any new evidence or legal argument that would raise the real possibility of the Court of Appeal overturning the conviction . As of May 2013 , according to his website , Bamber 's defence team was preparing a fresh submission .
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= Sephiroth ( Final Fantasy ) =
Sephiroth ( Japanese : セフィロス , Hepburn : Sefirosu ) is a fictional character in the role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII developed by Square ( now Square Enix ) , where he is the main villain . Character designer Tetsuya Nomura conceived and designed Sephiroth as an antagonist to and direct physical opposite of the game 's main character , Cloud Strife . The character was portrayed in Japanese by voice actor Toshiyuki Morikawa and in English by both Lance Bass in Kingdom Hearts and George Newbern in all his subsequent appearances .
Sephiroth is revealed in Final Fantasy VII to be the result of an experiment by the megacorporation Shinra , in which they injected him with cells from the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova when he was still a fetus . Upon discovering this , Sephiroth decides to follow what he believes to be his destiny and take control of the Planet , whilst Cloud and the game 's other protagonists attempt to stop him . Sephiroth 's role in the story , as well as his background , are expanded in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Additionally , he appears as a boss character in the Kingdom Hearts series , and other video games developed by Square . Sephiroth has been well @-@ received within the video game community , and is highly ranked on many lists of the best video game villains and Final Fantasy characters .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Final Fantasy VII = = =
Sephiroth is the main villain in Final Fantasy VII , who first appears after assassinating President Shinra . As revealed over the course of the game , Sephiroth was once the most powerful member of SOLDIER , Shinra 's elite military division , who was celebrated as a heroic veteran of the Shinra @-@ Wutai war . After the war , however , Sephiroth was sent on a mission to the village of Nibelheim , where he discovered that he was the product of a biological experiment that combined a human fetus with tissue from the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova . Learning that Jenova , who he comes to consider his " mother , " attempted to take control of the Planet 2000 years previously , Sephiroth decides to follow in her footsteps and become a god who would rule over the Planet . He burns down the entire village and kills many , but is assumed dead after a confrontation with Cloud inside a nearby Mako reactor . However , a few years later , Sephiroth appears once again , determined to continue with his mission .
His plan to become a god is based upon his belief that he can merge with the Planet 's Lifestream , taking control of it , and thus the Planet itself . In order to do so , he must summon Meteor , a destructive meteorite entity from outer space that can catastrophically damage the Planet . At this point , the Lifestream will flow to attempt to heal the injury , thus allowing Sephiroth to merge with the exposed Lifestream . Despite appearing multiple times throughout the game , it is revealed that Sephiroth 's physical body is actually sealed in the Northern Crater , and that the manifestations seen by Cloud and his allies were people imbued with Jenova cells taking his form , controlled by the wounded Sephiroth in the Planet core . In the game 's last battle , Sephiroth takes two forms ; Bizarro Sephiroth ( リバース ・ セフィロス , Rebirth Sephiroth ) and Safer Sephiroth ( セーファ ・ セフィロス , Sepher Sephiroth ) . After his defeat , Sephiroth reappears in Cloud 's mind , but is once again defeated .
= = = In Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
He makes several cameo appearances in the Final Fantasy VII prequel , Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , in which he supports Shinra in their battle against the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE . The incident at Nibelheim is also featured in the game . The OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII also depicts the Nibelheim incident . Sephiroth also appears in Advent Children , a CGI film set two years after Final Fantasy VII . In the film , Kadaj , Loz , and Yazoo , the " Remnants " of Sephiroth , try to reincarnate him . Although Kadaj eventually succeeds , Cloud once again defeats Sephiroth , whose body changes back to Kadaj 's upon his defeat . Sephiroth is also the focus of the On the Way to a Smile novella " Case of the Lifestream — Black and White " . Set after the end of Final Fantasy VII but prior to the events of Advent Children , the story deals with Aerith and Sephiroth 's journeys through the Lifestream , and Sephiroth 's creation of Geostigma , a disease that infects anyone who came into contact with the tainted Lifestream . He makes a very brief appearance in Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , a game set one year after Advent Children , in which his biological mother , Lucrecia Crescent discusses the experiments which gave birth to him .
He is one of the main characters in the Final Fantasy VII prequel game Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , in which he and the protagonist Zack Fair go in the search of two missing SOLDIERs , Genesis Rhapsodos and Angeal Hewley , This game also depicts the Nibelheim incident , where Sephiroth appears as a boss . Executive producer Yoshinori Kitase was pleased with Sephiroth 's role in Crisis Core , feeling that he was given a " much more human side . "
= = = Other appearances = = =
His first appearance outside Final Fantasy VII was as a selectable character in the fighting game Ehrgeiz . A redesigned Sephiroth also appears in the North American and European versions of Kingdom Hearts as an optional boss character in Olympus Coliseum . Lance Bass voiced Sephiroth in this game , while in subsequent titles he was replaced by George Newbern . In the Japanese re @-@ release of the game , Final Mix , an additional scene was added in which Sephiroth fights Cloud , although the result of the fight is not revealed . Sephiroth was not included in the sequel Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , as director Tetsuya Nomura could not give him a storyline related to Cloud , and he feared negative fan response if Sephiroth did not have a notable role in the story . His third appearance outside Final Fantasy VII is as another optional boss in Kingdom Hearts II , where he is first encountered by the series ' protagonist , Sora , and then Cloud , who is pursuing him . When Sephiroth battles Cloud , both of them disappear , with Sora believing that they went somewhere else to continue their fight . Nomura said that in this game , Sephiroth represents Cloud 's dark side , in contrast to Tifa Lockhart , who represents his light side . Although Sephiroth does not appear in the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , he is mentioned as a hero that Zack Fair aspires to be . The staff , however , did not know if they would portray him as a being of darkness as shown in other titles . Sephiroth 's fourth outside appearance is in the Itadaki Street games Special and Portable , where he appears as an unlockable playable character .
Sephiroth was also the representative villain of Final Fantasy VII in Dissidia Final Fantasy . He is featured in his Final Fantasy VII guise , while an alternative outfit features the " Safer Sephiroth " form . His fight against Cloud in the game was based on their fights from Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children . Along with the rest of the Final Fantasy VII figures in Dissidia , Sephiroth appears in the sequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy . This game also includes a sightly altered Final Fantasy VII form for Sephiroth , as well as his Kingdom Hearts form . He is featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as an unlockable character , representing Final Fantasy VII . He also appears in the puzzle platformer video game LittleBigPlanet , and its sequel LittleBigPlanet 2 as a character model ; Media Molecule 's Alex Evans felt " honored " that Sephiroth was allowed to appear in the games .
= = Concept and creation = =
Sephiroth was designed by Final Fantasy VII 's character designer Tetsuya Nomura . His name came from the Kabbalah , in which the ten sephirot on the Tree of life represent the ten attributes through which God reveal himself . His character existed from the earliest stages of development , as originally , Nomura thought that the game 's plot would deal exclusively with Cloud Strife pursuing Sephiroth , who was always the game 's main antagonist . Nomura wanted Sephiroth to appear early in the game , and then have the plot dealing with the protagonists following him , so that gamers would not meet the final boss until extremely late in the game . Sephiroth was initially going to be Aeris Gainsborough 's sibling , as indicated by their similar hairstyles . Later , however , he was changed to Aeris 's past love , whom she would remember upon meeting Cloud . This character was then changed to Zack Fair , however , and Sephiroth ’ s prior relationship with Aeris was dropped . In early drafts of the game , Sephiroth 's personality was already brutal and cruel , with a strong willed and calm ego . He was to suffer from Mako addiction , resulting in a semi @-@ conscious state as a result of high level exposure to Mako energy . Sephiroth was also intended to manipulate Cloud into believing that he was a creation of Sephiroth 's will , but this aspect of the story was later abandoned . In another excised scene , when Sephiroth 's physical body is first seen in the Northern Crater , it was to be female .
Sephiroth has long platinum hair and bright cyan eyes with cat @-@ like pupils , and is depicted in a black coat decorated with metallic pauldrons . Since appearing as Safer Sephiroth in the final battle of the game , Sephiroth has had a single black wing on his back , referencing his theme music " One Winged Angel " . When Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII was released , the staff stated that the reason the wing was black was to suggest evil . Nomura has stated that Sephiroth was made to be a complete contrast to the game 's main protagonist , Cloud , who was originally designed to have slicked @-@ back , black hair with no spikes . His weapon , the " Masamune " , which has been featured in numerous Final Fantasy titles , is an elongated nodachi that he learned to use during his days in SOLDIER . The Masamune is named after the famous Japanese swordsmith Goro Nyudo Masamune , whose blades are considered national treasures in Japan today .
Director Yoshinori Kitase believes Sephiroth 's role in Final Fantasy VII to be one of the main reasons why the game became so popular . Nomura has called Sephiroth " the ultimate antagonist in the Final Fantasy VII saga . There can 't be anyone else , " and regards him as an enemy from a previous generation , in contrast to his " Remnants " who appear in Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children .
For Advent Children , the film sequel to Final Fantasy VII , script writer Kazushige Nojima thought that the film 's plot would be less entertaining without Sephiroth . His revival in the film was introduced in the early stages of development , but the official decision as to how to bring him back was not reached until later . Nomura originally planned to have him appear from the start , but as it took the staff two years to develop his design , the idea of his presence throughout the film was scrapped , and it was decided instead to have him only appear on screen for a short time . Sephiroth was designed for the film in such a way so as to emphasize his other @-@ worldliness , such as the fact that he never blinks or is seen breathing , and his voice remains always monotone and calm . In the film , the staff stated that his strength had considerably increased , to the point that he had " ascended to a new level of existence . " Despite initially encountering problems as to who would voice him , Nomura said that once Toshiyuki Morikawa auditioned for the role , they knew they had their actor . Morikawa was instructed by the staff to speak all of Sephiroth 's dialogue as if he felt superior to every other character in the film . The voice director and Morikawa agreed to make Sephiroth 's voice sound calm to the point that he believes he cannot lose to Cloud , suggesting to Morikawa that he may reappear at some point in the future .
= = Musical themes = =
In Final Fantasy VII , Sephiroth is the focus of three pieces of music written by series composer Nobuo Uematsu . His primary theme is " Those Chosen by the Planet " ( 星に選ばれし者 , Hoshi ni Erabareshi Mono ) , a piece utilizing bells , low drums , and a deep chorus , which accompanies Sephiroth 's appearances throughout the game . In the final battle , " Birth of a God " ( 神の誕生 , Kami no Tanjō ) plays while the player combats Sephiroth 's first form , " Bizarro Sephiroth " ( also known as " Reverse Sephiroth " ) . The most well @-@ known piece is " One @-@ Winged Angel " ( 片翼の天使 , Katayoku no Tenshi , lit . " An Angel With a Wing on One Side " ) which is played during the final confrontation with Sephiroth . It contains Latin lyrics taken from sections of the Carmina Burana . In an interview featured on G4 's Game Makers ( formerly Icons ) , Uematsu revealed that this piece was designed to be a fusion of the musical styles of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and rock musician Jimi Hendrix . The song revolves around his character , as this was what Uematsu was thinking about when writing it . Two official covers have been done of this song . The first is a different orchestration found in Kingdom Hearts , the second is found in Advent Children , which plays throughout the battle between Cloud and Sephiroth , and features the progressive metal stylings of Nobuo Uematsu 's former band The Black Mages , as well as orchestral elements and new lyrics . There is also a fourth version titled " Vengeance on the World " that plays in Crisis Core .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Sephiroth has served as basis for several types of merchandise . These include the " Extra Knights " action figures first published by Bandai in Japan in 1997 . A different model was released as part of the Play Arts collection , following the release of Advent Children . At the 2008 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Kanji Tashiro , Square Enix 's manager of merchandise , said that this figure was one of their best @-@ selling items . With the release of the movie Sephiroth was also included in a series of promotional material , primarily consisting of posters . Kotobukiya has included the character in numerous merchandise , including a series of cold casts based on his appearance in both the original game and the film sequel . As a result of promotional campaigns organized in Japan by Square Enix and Coca @-@ Cola , a version of Sephiroth drawn in a super deformed style was featured in the first two volumes of a promotional collection .
Products not connected to the release of the games or film have also been produced . These include a figuren as part of the Final Fantasy Trading Arts Vol . 1 series , a set as part of the Square Minimum Collection alongside Cloud , and a rare figure of " Safer Sephiroth " as part of the Final Fantasy Creatures series ( Chromium ) . " Reverse Sephiroth " was also released as a normal figure in volume 2 . A figure based on his appearances in the Kingdom Hearts games was released in the second series of the Play Arts Kingdom Hearts sub @-@ line . Some replica weapon companies have produced replicas of Sephiroth 's sword , the Masamune , as a 6 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) katana with a stainless steel unsharpened blade . Other types of merchandise includes collectible cards , keychains , lighters , phonecards and plush toys .
= = = Reception = = =
On multiple occasions , numerous gaming magazines have chosen Sephiroth as one of the best villains from both the Final Fantasy series in specific and in all of video games in general . GameSpy placed him eighth in their 2014 list of top villains in games , commenting on how difficult it is to defeat him in Final Fantasy VII . In 2005 , Sephiroth was the winner in a GameFAQs character battle involving only villains . IGN listed him at number two in its 2006 list of most memorable villains , as well as the fourth top video game villain . He has been named the number one villain in an episode of G4 's Filter . PC World placed him second in their 2008 list of most diabolical video game villains of all time . That same year , Sephiroth was listed at the top of IGN 's list of Final Fantasy VII top characters , with Dave Smith calling him the " heavyweight champion of Final Fantasy villains , " and praising his appearance and backstory . He would take the same spot in the list of top 25 Final Fantasy characters by the same site . In IGN 's Final Fantasy reader 's choice , also written by Smith , Sephiroth was placed fourth , with commentary focusing on his activities in the game 's plot . In a retrospective on Final Fantasy antagonists , GamesRadar listed Sephiroth as their top pick , citing his developed motives and acts of evil . GamesRadar also put Sephiroth in their 2013 list of the best villains in video game history at number six .
In 2007 , Sephiroth was named the 14th best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStation 's retrospective awards feature about the original PlayStation . UGO.com placed Sephiroth 25th on their 2009 list of top Japanese RPG characters , calling him " one of the most visually striking villains of all time " while praising how different he is from previous Final Fantasy villains . In 2010 , Famitsu readers voted Sephiroth as the 21st most popular video game character . Sephiroth was also featured alongside Cloud in ScrewAttack 's list of top " coolest " characters , although they preferred Cloud . In the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition from 2011 , he was voted as the 32nd best video game character of all time . In 2011 , Empire ranked him as the 13th greatest video game character , calling him " just insanely cool " and adding " Cloud may be the hero but the real star of FFVII was undoubtedly its dashing villain , Sephiroth " . Complex had him ranked as the 35th " coolest " video game villain ever in 2012 , as well as the seventh " most badass " video game character and the third greatest Final Fantasy character of all time in 2013 .
A reader 's choice poll organized by GameSpot placed Sephiroth as the best boss of all time , as he received five times more votes than Bowser , who finished in second place ; most of the comments noted the difficulty of the final fight against Sephiroth , as well as its distinctive elements when compared to other games . In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly listed him as number one in their list of top video game bosses . Game Informer ranked the " top @-@ notch " fight against Sephiroth in Final Fantasy VII at third place on their 2008 list of top boss battles . PlayStation Official Magazine included him on their 2012 list of ten best boss fights ever , commenting that " after potentially 100 hours of chasing the murdering swine , you finally catch up with Cloud ’ s nemesis Sephiroth , and it ’ s one of the most epic battles in PlayStation history . "
The scene in which Sephiroth kills Aerith during Final Fantasy VII has also prompted much commentary . For example , when comparing him with Cloud , ScrewAttack noted that with this scene , Sephiroth was established as " the biggest bastard . " GamesRadar simply called him " the biggest cock blocker in the gaming world , " as writer Shane Patterson found Aerith 's character to be appealing , and due to the fact Sephiroth killed her , players were unable to use her anymore . Also referring to the scene as a shocking moment , GameSpot suggested that the FMV sequence of Sephiroth appearing in front of the Nibelheim fire " might be one of the most recognizable cutscenes ever to grace video games . " GamesRadar 's article " Non @-@ playable characters we wish were playable " featured Sephiroth as a character that they wished would have been playable in Final Fantasy VII so they " could relive skewering Aerith like an annoyingly dainty , needlessly chaste salmon over and over . " IGN put Sephiroth in the 2009 articles " Big Boss of the Day " and " Baddie Brawl " , with the latter comparing him with Liquid Snake from Metal Gear Solid . Lisa Foiles of The Escapist included Sephiroth on her 2014 list of top five katana wielders .
However , some game editors have criticized Sephiroth 's character . For example , IGN 's Smith has stated that " Sephiroth was certainly a good @-@ looking fellow , but his motivations were about as clear as mud . " When comparing Sephiroth with the Final Fantasy VI villain , Kefka Palazzo , GamesRadar commented that he " seems as interesting as a dead accountant painted brown . " 1UP.com took a humorous approach to Sephiroth 's several appearances after apparent deaths and in other games , ranking him third in their " They Is Risen " feature , which covered the ten most notorious video game resurrections . The publication noted that if the character continued to be used , Square Enix would eventually " run out of ways to remix One @-@ Winged Angel . " GameSpy editor Ryan Scott called Sephiroth the " King of Overrated Characters " during GameSpy 's villain feature for Dissidia Final Fantasy , arguing that gamers were impressed by him only because of his design and by how he killed Aerith during Final Fantasy VII . On the other hand , AnimeFringe called him " the most notorious villain in the entire Final Fantasy series " and " quintessential bishōnen in the eyes of many fans -- male and female , " comparing him with Kefka and praising his complexity .
Critics have also commented on Sephiroth 's role in other games . In relation to Crisis Core , IGN AU stated that " even Sephiroth gets his moments in the sun , " praising the depth in his backstory , which would later make his boss battle more entertaining . IGN UK agreed , stating that his character was granted " a more human dimension " and enjoying some of the events from before his transformation into a villain . His boss battle was also shown in 1UP.com 's " 25 More of the Most Badass Boss Fights Ever " in which the staff praised how the original battle from Final Fantasy VII was expanded in the title . A feature published by GamerHelp included Sephiroth 's Kingdom Hearts 's fight in a feature titled " The Hardest Bosses of All Time " , noting that regardless of the player 's skill " walking away from this match unscathed " is not possible , to the point of saying that the fight was more difficult than the entirety of Final Fantasy VII . AnimeFringe stated that only advanced gamers would be able to defeat Kingdom Hearts 's Sephiroth because the player has no backup and that his " devastating attacks can kill in seconds . " In 2013 , Complex ranked Sephiroth in Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II as respectively the seventh and fifth hardest boss fights in video games ; in addition , Safer Sephiroth from Final Fantasy VII placed 12th .
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= Restless ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
" Restless " is the 22nd episode and season finale of season four of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 – 2003 ) , and the 78th episode of the series overall . The episode was written and directed by the show 's creator Joss Whedon and originally aired on The WB in the United States on May 23 , 2000 .
The premise of Buffy the Vampire Slayer is that an adolescent girl , Buffy Summers , is chosen by mystical forces and given superhuman powers to kill vampires , demons , and other evil creatures in the fictional town of Sunnydale . She is supported by a close circle of family and friends , nicknamed the Scooby Gang . " Restless " centers on the dreams of the four main characters after enduring an exhausting fight in the previous episode . The dreams are used to comment on the characters — their fears , their past and their possible future . Consistent with each dream is the presence of the First Slayer who hunts and kills them one by one until , in the final sequence , she is confronted and disempowered by Buffy .
The episode serves as a coda to the fourth season instead of a climax , as Whedon wanted to achieve something different for a season finale . Whedon experimented with several filming techniques to make the episode as dreamlike as possible . The episode also foreshadows upcoming events , most notably the first appearance of Buffy 's sister Dawn . Buffy scholar Nikki Stafford calls the surrealistic episode " unprecedented in television " , saying it is " so jam @-@ packed with information that we 'll probably be seeing allusions to it for the rest of the series " , and referring to it as a " mysterious lead @-@ in to the emotionally turbulent season five " . " Restless " received high praise from critics upon airing , particularly for its character development , visual direction , and wit . It is frequently noted as one of the best episodes of the series .
= = Background = =
In the series , Buffy Summers is a teenager who , at the age of fifteen , was chosen by mystical forces to be the latest Slayer , a girl endowed with superhuman powers to fight and defeat vampires , demons , and other evil forces . After moving with her mother , Joyce ( Kristine Sutherland ) , to the fictional town of Sunnydale , she befriends Willow Rosenberg ( Alyson Hannigan ) and Xander Harris ( Nicholas Brendon ) , who join her in the struggle against evil . They are guided by Buffy 's " Watcher " , Rupert Giles ( Anthony Stewart Head ) , who is well @-@ versed in demonology and is responsible for Buffy 's training as a Slayer . The group collectively refer to themselves as the Scooby Gang . During season two , Willow begins to experiment with magic , eventually becoming a formidable witch .
Each season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( often simplified as Buffy ) presents an overall story arc which episodes tie into , as well as a specific manifestation of evil known as the Big Bad . As noted by Buffy scholar Roz Kaveney , episodes in the fourth season address authority , order , and the estrangement from the self and others as Buffy and her friends take on new roles after high school . An ongoing theme in the series is Buffy 's complex relationship to her destiny as the current Slayer and how she uniquely expresses this role , and this plot element is further explored in season four in general , and in the episode " Restless " in particular .
Season four begins with Buffy and Willow starting college , attending U.C. Sunnydale , while Xander works at a series of odd jobs and begins dating Anya Jenkins ( Emma Caulfield ) , who lived for 1 @,@ 100 years as a vengeance demon before losing her powers and getting stuck in the body of a teenager . In the fourth season , Willow becomes romantically involved with fellow @-@ student Tara Maclay ( Amber Benson ) , an experienced witch . The Big Bad in season four is the result of the work of a covert military force called " The Initiative " who are capturing and performing experiments on vampires and demons in Sunnydale . Buffy and her friends discover that chief amongst these experiments is the creation of a human @-@ cyber @-@ demonoid hybrid known as Adam ( George Hertzberg ) , whose programming has gone terribly wrong , leading him to wreak havoc on the town . Buffy 's challenge is to find a way to disempower him , something she and the Scoobies achieve in the penultimate episode of season four , " Primeval " . In order to do this , the four magically join their essences together to create a single " super Slayer " ; while the others perform a ritual , Buffy confronts and defeats Adam while mystically empowered with Giles ' mind , Xander 's heart , and Willow 's spirit aiding her . The ritual employs four tarot @-@ like cards : Manus ( meaning hands or strength ) represents Buffy , Sophus ( meaning teacher or wise ) represents Giles , Animus ( meaning courage , or heart ) represents Xander , and Spiritus ( meaning spirit and magical power ) represents Willow . These symbols will become relevant to the central motif in each of the episode 's four dream sequences .
= = Plot = =
Following their victory over Adam , Buffy , Xander , Willow , and Giles meet at Buffy 's to relax with movies , including Apocalypse Now . They quickly fall asleep and are each confronted by the First Slayer in their dreams .
Willow 's dream opens with Willow painting Sappho 's love poem , Hymn to Aphrodite , in Greek onto Tara 's back . She then finds herself on the Sunnydale High school stage , about to perform in a radically changed Death of a Salesman , with Riley playing a cowboy , Buffy as a flapper and Harmony goofily trying to bite Giles ' neck . Willow realizes with increasing uneasiness that she knows neither her lines nor her role . Buffy then takes Willow to stand in front of a classroom in the same nerdy clothes she wore in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " and " The Harvest " at the beginning of the series . Xander mocks her as she nervously begins to read her book report . Oz and Tara — Willow 's ex @-@ boyfriend and current girlfriend — flirt with each other while watching Willow recite . Suddenly , Willow is attacked and has the life sucked out of her by the First Slayer .
Xander 's dream begins when he wakes on Buffy 's couch . After excusing himself to use the restroom , he finds himself the object of an attempted seduction by Joyce . In the restroom , he starts to unzip , then realizes that the bathroom is attached to a large white room with many men in white coats ready to observe and take notes on his performance . He then meets Buffy , Giles , and Spike in a playground ; Spike – unaffected by daylight – tells him that Giles is going to teach him to be a Watcher , as Buffy plays in a sandbox . Xander then finds himself in an ice cream truck with Anya ; Willow and Tara ( wearing skimpy clothing and garish make @-@ up ) are in the back , and invite him to join them . He goes back , only to end up in his basement . He goes to the university and comes across Giles , who starts revealing the reason for the dream , but suddenly switches to speaking in French . Xander next finds himself in a reenactment of the Apocalypse Now scene between a captive Captain Benjamin Willard and Colonel Walter Kurtz , with Principal Snyder as Kurtz . Throughout the sequence Xander finds himself in his basement again and again , chased by an unseen pursuer , who is revealed as the First Slayer when she tears his heart out .
Giles ' dream begins with Giles swinging a watch in front of Buffy . They are in Giles ' apartment , which has been stripped of furniture but for a chair and a bed . She laughs , and Giles ' dream cuts to a family scene with Buffy and his girlfriend Olivia at a fairground . Quicker than the others to understand that something is wrong , he confronts Spike , who is posing for a photo @-@ shoot in his crypt . In The Bronze , he meets Anya failing as a stand @-@ up comic , and Willow and Xander ( with a bloody chest wound ) , who warn him of their attacker . He breaks into song , giving suggestions on how to deal with what hunts them , but when the sound system breaks down , he crawls backstage to trace a wiring fault . He begins to realize his pursuer is the First Slayer , just as she scalps him .
In the final dream sequence , Buffy is woken by Anya in her dorm room . She then finds herself in her room at home , where Tara speaks cryptically about the future . At the university , Buffy talks to her mother , who lives in the walls , then meets Riley at the Initiative . He has been promoted to Surgeon General and is drawing up plans with Adam ( now in ordinary human form ) for world domination . The three of them are interrupted by a demon attack , and Riley and Adam start to make a pillow fort . When Buffy finds her weapons bag , the only thing in it is mud , which she smears on her face . She is then transported to the desert and finally confronts the pre @-@ verbal First Slayer ; Tara is present to speak for her . Through Tara the First Slayer tells Buffy that she cannot have friends and must work alone , which Buffy rejects . The Slayers fight in the desert and then in Buffy 's living room next to her dying friends until Buffy realizes that she can stop the fight mentally by simply ignoring the First Slayer . She refuses to fight and walks away from the First Slayer ; the First Slayer vanishes , and everybody wakes up .
After they wake up , the four of them then discuss the significance of having tapped into the power of the First Slayer , and Buffy privately recalls Tara 's words from her dream as she looks into her bedroom .
= = Production and writing = =
Previous seasons of Buffy the Vampire Slayer had ended with an action episode which tied up all the threads of the season 's main plot line , but series creator Joss Whedon wanted to end season four differently . The penultimate episode , " Primeval " , had concluded the Initiative storyline , but Whedon felt the season 's overall story arc had not been as cohesive as it could have been , and therefore chose to create an episode to act as a " grace note " to the season , an episode which would comment on each of the four main characters and what they had just been through . While talking about the writing of the episode , Whedon said it had been like writing poetry , a process he found " liberating and strange " . Like the earlier " Hush " — an episode with almost no dialogue — he viewed the episode as an exercise in form and writing , and what it means to write . The episode has no real structure , which was a departure for Whedon , as everything he had written before was constructed before even starting the script . Yet despite its fragmented style , the episode unfolds coherently in four discrete acts , each act comprising one character 's dream .
= = = Filming techniques = = =
Whedon used a variety of cinematographic techniques to achieve the dreamlike quality of " Restless " . He used tracking shots with a Steadicam to follow the characters from place to place , creating a flow in the way of real dreams , where there are no logical connections between places and things . In Giles ' dream , he walks from a carnival grounds into Spike 's crypt , then through a corridor and straight into The Bronze , three locations not related to one another . Whedon was able to do this by simply having actor Anthony Stewart Head walk through the sets as they were built ; this effortlessly created a sense of dreamlike dislocation . Another example of this occurs when , in Xander 's dream , he walks from the front of the moving ice cream van towards the back , crawls up and over some boxes , through a window , and drops into his basement . In the theater scene during Willow 's dream , a Frazier lens was used to provide a large depth of field , allowing both the foreground and background to be in focus at the same time , while in Xander 's dream , as he moves from room to room in Buffy 's house to the university dorm rooms , Whedon used a 17 mm lens to give a sense of motion as the camera passes by walls . Whedon also used unusual framing for shots , often leaving much of the frame empty , with a character being placed near the bottom or off to the side . The scenes in Spike 's crypt , part of Giles ' dream , were shot in black @-@ and @-@ white to emphasize that Spike is seen as " an old 30s movie villain " .
The outdoor scene in which Xander sees Buffy in the sandbox was intentionally overexposed , intensifying the foreground and blowing out the background , making the sky look white ; flash frames were also used in the shot of Buffy in the desert . Whedon allowed some shots to last far longer than is common in a television episode ; this cinematic technique allowed the images to take on meaning . Highly stylized lighting is used throughout Xander 's dream . In the university hallway the scene is lit with green and orange gels , while the almost shot @-@ for @-@ shot re @-@ creation of the Apocalypse Now section is lit with carefully controlled spotlights which allow the background to fall out to black . Whedon cites The Limey as an inspiration for the unnaturally colored university sequence , and had the scene from Apocalypse Now playing on tape during filming to ensure as close a match as possible for that sequence . When Xander is driving the ice cream truck with Anya , the backgrounds outside the car intentionally look fake , to give a sense of stillness where there should be motion . Whedon originally wanted to use rear @-@ screen projection for the driving scene , but had to utilize greenscreen instead , as rear @-@ screen projection would be difficult to set up on their stages . Some special effects shots came about by accident ; in his commentary Whedon explains that when Buffy smeared the mud all over her face , it looked as though she was giving herself a facial . He therefore dissolved the shot into a negative image , creating intense colors that made the shot more interesting .
Dynamic editing contributed to the surrealistic nature of the episode . Abrupt cuts from close @-@ up to extreme wide angles and sudden shifts from normal speed to super slow @-@ motion are used in Buffy 's dream : several sequences become slow @-@ motion partway through them , then revert to normal speed as they continue . Xander 's dream features mismatches between sound and image : characters are sometimes shown not speaking even as their voices are heard . Additionally , silence is used frequently , to both reflect the characters ' disorientation and to unsettle the audience . Whedon cited films by Steven Soderbergh as his main inspirations for the odd editing , especially The Limey and The Underneath . He also listed Orson Welles ' version of The Trial and Stanley Kubrick 's Eyes Wide Shut as inspirations for many of his shooting and editing decisions .
= = = Cast = = =
Besides the main cast , the episode features several appearances by returning and currently recurring characters , mostly within the dream sequences .
Seth Green , who left the series earlier in the season , makes a brief appearance as Oz in Willow 's dream .
Armin Shimerman , whose character Principal Snyder was killed off in the season three finale , appears as Kurtz in the Apocalypse Now scene .
Amber Benson appears as Tara in the dream sequences , as both Willow 's girlfriend and a spirit guide to Buffy . Whedon commented on her appearances in Buffy 's dream : " The idea that Tara would be her spirit guide made sense because she didn 't have that particular relationship with Tara , and Tara has a kind of good Wiccan mystical energy . "
George Hertzberg appears as Adam , although in human form rather than in the demon / cyborg makeup he had appeared in throughout the season .
Mercedes McNab appears as Harmony Kendall is present during Willow 's dream as both an ordinary classmate and an inept vampire .
Phina Oruche appears as Olivia in Giles 's dream heavily pregnant and pushing a baby stroller .
Kristine Sutherland appears as Joyce Summers , Buffy 's mother . Whedon enjoyed that she got " to play just completely sexy [ in Xander 's dream ] , because when you play the mom on a show you 're sort of relegated to momhood , so it was nice to see that side of her . "
It was during the filming of this episode that Michelle Trachtenberg , who would go on to play Buffy 's sister Dawn in season five , first visited the set . Sarah Michelle Gellar had worked with her previously and suggested to Joss Whedon that she read for the part of Dawn .
= = = Music = = =
In Giles ' dream , actor Anthony Stewart Head sings " The Exposition Song " ; this was the third time he sang during the season . The song was written by Joss Whedon , arranged by composer Christophe Beck , and performed by Four Star Mary . Beck appears in the scene playing the piano , while members of Four Star Mary play the other instruments . From seasons two to four of the series , Four Star Mary were the real band behind character Oz 's fictional band , Dingoes Ate My Baby .
= = Analysis = =
Each dream acts as a character study , exploring the fears and future of the dreamer . Willow , Xander , and Giles are stalked by a shadowy figure , then killed within their dreams . The way in which each is killed is directly related to the role they had assumed when melding with Buffy in the previous episode — that role is indicated by the Tarot @-@ like card used to symbolize the character 's essence . Willow 's card had been Spiritus , representing her magical powers ; she is killed by having her spirit sucked out of her . Xander 's card had been Animus , representing his heart ; he is killed by having his heart ripped out . Giles had been represented by the card Sophus , a symbol of his intellect and role as teacher ; he is killed by being scalped . Buffy 's card , Manus , was representative of her physical strength . In her dream the stalker is revealed as the primitive , first slayer , who confronts her aggressively . The two fight , but the First Slayer is defeated when Buffy realizes a key difference between them : the First Slayer was alone and isolated , while Buffy is unique among Slayers in that she has friends and a life beyond slaying , factors which make her the greatest Slayer ever .
In Willow 's dream she struggles to find her place in the school theater production of Death of a Salesman , while her friends and classmates are apparently fully costumed , prepared , and ready to go on stage . Her confusion represents her lack of self @-@ confidence , her fear that she still does not fit in or have a place in the world , unlike those around her , who are competent and know what is going on . She wears ordinary clothes , but the others repeatedly comment on the excellence of her " costume " , a reference to her fear that her friends do not see what she has grown into , but rather what she was when younger : nerdy and awkward . This fear is confirmed when Buffy strips off her shirt and jeans , revealing the same unfashionable turtleneck and corduroy jumper she wore in episode one of the series , four years earlier , before her demon @-@ fighting experiences and study of magic increased her confidence and competence . Willow stands anxiously at the front of the class , trying to read a paper , while her classmates express their boredom with listening to her and Oz whispers into Tara 's ear , until she is attacked by the First Slayer and her breath is sucked out of her body .
Whedon stated that the maze of red curtains on the stage in Willow 's dream are not a direct homage to Twin Peaks , as some have posited , but rather represent the safety and comfort of being with her girlfriend Tara , and are a sexual metaphor as well .
The main theme of Xander 's dream is his sense of failure and of being left behind as his friends move ahead in life . His fear that he is stuck is reiterated throughout his dream by his inability to escape his basement bedroom in his parents ' home . No matter where his dream takes him , he ends up back in the basement . As the only one of the Scoobies not in college , he feels anxiety about his ability to understand and keep up with ideas and conversations , a fear which is realized when he goes to the university , a place he already feels excluded from , and finds that he cannot understand what people say to him . Aware that he is being chased and is in danger , he asks Giles what is happening but cannot understand his answer , nor what Anya says to him , as they are both inexplicably speaking French . He exclaims , " I don 't understand ! " During his dream both Buffy and Willow tell him , " I 'm way ahead of you , " and Giles tells him " the others have gone on ahead , " underscoring his fear that this is really the case .
Giles ' dream presents a choice : either to remain a father figure and Watcher to Buffy , or to begin his own life , represented by the presence of his girlfriend Olivia , who pushes an empty baby stroller . During this part of his dream , Buffy is dressed as a child , with pigtails , and is unable to throw a ball straight without his help and instruction , an indication of his fear that she will be unable to do her job without his guidance . Later , Olivia is seen weeping , while the baby stroller has been overturned and abandoned , signifying elements of his unfulfilled life , such as marriage and children . Later , in The Bronze , he is explaining the reason they are all being stalked and attacked , performing his job as Watcher , but his singing this information represents his unfulfilled longing to be a musician , something he 's been exploring privately throughout the season .
The major theme of Buffy 's dream is her fear of the personal cost of her life as a Slayer , the isolation and loneliness she is forced to endure . This theme of aloneness is reiterated by several shots in which she is alone in the frame , most notably the wide shot of her in the vast and empty desert . Another source of anxiety is her relationship with her current boyfriend , Riley , whom she finds plotting world domination with Adam in his original , human , form . She fears what Riley could turn into as a result of his alliance with the military . She also fears the destabilizing effect of this alliance on their relationship , and the destabilizing effect of this relationship on her life as the slayer . She is shown putting mud on her face , mimicking the mud mask of the primal , First Slayer . By the end of her encounter in the desert with the First Slayer , Buffy realizes that she does not have to be entirely alone , that it is her closeness to friends and family that makes her a great Slayer , and once she experiences this revelation , the efforts of the First Slayer to continue to engage her in battle become fruitless and increasingly comical . The dream finally ends in a mundane way , as Buffy refuses to accept a tragic climax and instead insists on normality in her life .
All of the many elements in the dream sequences have meaning , with the exception of the Cheese Man . Whedon explains : " ... the Cheese Man — meaningless . Why ? Because I needed something in the show that was meaningless , because there is always something in the dream that doesn 't make any sense at all . In this case it was the Cheese Man . He confounds everybody because of that , and people ascribe him meaning . This to me means that we 're being successful , because this means they 're not worried about everything else , which means they sort of did understand most other things . "
= = = Foreshadowing = = =
Although Whedon does not often foreshadow events , Buffy 's dream includes several references to past and future episodes . In a dream sequence in the season three finale , Faith says " Little Miss Muffet counting down from 7 @-@ 3 @-@ 0 " ; foreshadowing Dawn 's arrival two years later in season five . This number appears ( as 7 : 30 ) on a clock in Buffy 's dream in " Restless " . Buffy says , " It 's so late . " Tara replies , " Oh ... that clock 's completely wrong . " A year has now passed , making the previous number of days to her arrival incorrect . When Buffy leaves the room , Tara tells her , " Be back before Dawn . " The character Dawn appears in the next episode . Tara 's words to Buffy , " You think you know what 's to come , what you are . You haven 't even begun . " are repeated by Dracula to Buffy in the following episode ( " Buffy vs. Dracula " ) . In Xander 's dream , Giles and Spike swing together on a swing set , with Spike wearing a tweed jacket . Giles comments , " Spike 's like a son to me . " In " Tabula Rasa " ( season six ) , when the characters lose their memories , Spike wears the same tweed jacket and believes Giles is his father .
= = Reception = =
The episode received critical praise and is often included on lists of the best episodes of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 25 best Whedonverse episodes — including episodes from Buffy , as well as Angel , Firefly and Dollhouse — " Restless " placed at # 20 , where they called it " Visually lush and trippy , " and said , " ... it reestablished that this genre show was really and truly a deeply affecting character drama with a delightfully bent sense of humor . " At Syfy.co.uk , the episode was listed as the seventh best episode in their list of the top 10 Buffy episodes , saying " This surreal episode marks the show 's turning point , as it moved from a very well @-@ executed urban fantasy drama series to something more creative , more thoughtful , and more surprising than pretty much anything else on television . " In The Futon Critic 's list of the 20 best episodes of 2000 , the episode was placed at # 1 , with the author calling it an even more daring episode than " Hush " , another acclaimed episode from the fourth season .
At Slayage.com , the Online Journal of Buffy Studies , author Daniel Erenberg placed the episode as the second best of the series ; stating that the episode " lends itself to infinite interpretations . No one watches it the same way . That 's the mark of a true masterpiece . " When Noel Murray of The A.V. Club reviewed " Restless " in 2009 , after beginning his first look at the series in 2008 , he praised Joss Whedon 's ability to represent what dreams are actually like . The A.V. Club also included " Restless " as an " essential episode " of the series in their list of the best TV series of the 2000s , in which Buffy the Vampire Slayer placed at # 25 . " Restless " was listed at # 10 in The A.V. Club 's list of " 21 TV episodes that do dream sequences right " , commenting , " This device allows for a lot of surreal images and moments of weird comedy " and that " there are also some striking , unsettling touches that have the indefinable power and strangeness of a real dream . " The episode was listed as # 1 in Daily Kos ' list of the top 10 episodes of the series , and the episode was listed as the second best episode featuring dream sequences by USA Today . In series creator Joss Whedon 's own list of his favorite episodes , he includes " Restless " , saying " Most people sort of shake their heads at it . It was different , but not pointless . "
In 2001 , the episode received two nominations for the Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Awards , for Best Contemporary Makeup in a Series and Best Contemporary Hair Styling in a Series .
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= Catalogue of Women =
The Catalogue of Women ( Ancient Greek : Γυναικῶν Κατάλογος , Gynaikôn Katálogos ) — also known as the Ehoiai ( Ἠοῖαι , Ancient : [ ɛːhói.ai ] ) — is a fragmentary Greek epic poem that was attributed to Hesiod during antiquity . The " women " of the title were in fact heroines , many of whom lay with gods , bearing the heroes of Greek mythology to both divine and mortal paramours . In contrast with the focus upon narrative in the Homeric Iliad and Odyssey , the Catalogue was structured around a vast system of genealogies stemming from these unions and , in M.L. West 's appraisal , covered " the whole of the heroic age . " Through the course of the poem 's five books , these family trees were embellished with stories involving many of their members , and so the poem amounted to a compendium of heroic mythology in much the same way that the Hesiodic Theogony presents a systematic account of the Greek pantheon built upon divine genealogies .
Most scholars do not currently believe that the Catalogue should be considered the work of Hesiod , but questions about the poem 's authenticity have not lessened its interest for the study of literary , social and historical topics . As a Hesiodic work that treats in depth the Homeric world of the heroes , the Catalogue offers a transition between the divine sphere of the Theogony and the terrestrial focus of the Works and Days by virtue of its subjects ' status as demigods . Given the poem 's concentration upon heroines in addition to heroes , it provides evidence for the roles and perceptions of women in Greek literature and society during the period of its composition and popularity . Greek aristocratic communities , the ruling elite , traced their lineages back to the heroes of epic poetry ; thus the Catalogue , a veritable " map of the Hellenic world in genealogical terms , " preserves much information about a complex system of kinship associations and hierarchies that continued to have political importance long after the Archaic period . Many of the myths in the Catalogue are otherwise unattested , either entirely so or in the form narrated therein , and held a special fascination for poets and scholars from the late Archaic period through the Hellenistic and Roman eras .
Despite its popularity among the Hellenistic literati and reading public of Roman Egypt , the poem went out of circulation before it could pass into a medieval manuscript tradition and is preserved today by papyrus fragments and quotations in ancient authors . Still , the Catalogue is much better attested than most " lost " works , with some 1 @,@ 300 whole or partial lines surviving : " between a third and a quarter of the original poem " , by one estimate . The evidence for the poem 's reconstruction — not only elements of its content , but the distribution of that content within the Catalogue — is indeed extensive , but the fragmentary nature of this evidence leaves many unresolved complexities and has over the course of the past century led to several scholarly missteps .
= = Title and the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula = =
Ancient authors most commonly referred to the poem as the Catalogue of Women , or simply the Catalogue , but several alternate titles were also employed . The tenth @-@ century encyclopedia known as the Suda gives an expanded version , the Catalogue of Heroic Women ( Γυναικῶν Ἡρωϊνῶν Κατάλογος ) , and another late source , the twelfth @-@ century Byzantine poet and grammarian Tzetzes , prefers to call the poem the Heroic Genealogy ( Ἡρωϊκὴ Γενεαλογία ) . But the earliest and most popular alternate title was Ehoiai ( Ἠοῖαι ) , after the feminine formula ē ' hoiē ( ἠ ' οἵη , Ancient : [ ɛː hoȷ ́ .ɛː ] ) , " or such as " , which introduces new sections within the poem via the introduction of a heroine or heroines . This nickname also provided the standard title for a similar Hesiodic work , the Megalai Ehoiai or Great Ehoiai ( Μεγάλαι Ἠοῖαι ) .
As is reflected by its use as an alternate title , the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula was one of the poem 's most recognizable features . It may have belonged originally to a genre of poetry that simply listed notable heroines , but in the Catalogue the formula is used as a structuring tool that allows the poet to resume a broken branch of a family tree , or to jump horizontally across genealogies to a new figure and line of descent . A characteristic example is found in the introduction of the daughters of Porthaon at Cat. fr . 26 @.@ 5 – 9 :
The preceding section of the poem had dealt at some length with the extended family of Porthaon 's sister Demodice , tracing her line down to the generation following the Trojan War . Here ē ' hoiai ( plural ) is used to jump backwards in order to complete the account of the descendants of Porthaon and Demodice 's father Agenor by covering the son 's family . Elsewhere the formula is used in transitions to more distant branches . The Ehoie of Mestra , for example , ultimately serves to reintroduce the family of Sisyphus , Mestra 's great @-@ granduncle who hoped to win her as bride for his son Glaucus . Although that marriage does not take place , the descendants of Sisyphus are soon presented .
= = Content = =
According to the Suda , the Catalogue was five books long . The length of each is unknown , but it is likely that the entire poem consisted of anywhere from 4000 to over 5000 lines . The majority of the content was structured around major genealogical units : the descendants of Aeolus were found in book 1 and at least part of book 2 , followed by those of Inachus , Pelasgus , Atlas and Pelops in the later books . It is believed that a rough guide to this structure can be found in the Bibliotheca , a Roman @-@ era mythological handbook transmitted under the name of Apollodorus of Athens which used the Catalogue as a primary source for many genealogical details and appears to have followed reflect the poem 's overall arrangement .
= = = Book 1 = = =
The first is by far the best @-@ attested book of the poem , with several extensive papyri overlapping ancient quotations or coinciding with paraphrases : at least 420 verses of dactylic hexameter survive in part or entire . One papyrus includes line numbers which , taken together with the system of overlaps among the other sources , allows much of the book 's content to be assigned approximate line numbers . Perhaps the most significant of these overlaps is between the papyrus containing the opening lines of the poem and the Theogony : the Catalogue was styled as a continuation of the " canonical " Hesiodic poem , with the final two verses of the Theogony standing as Catalogue of Women book 1 , lines 1 – 2 . Toward the end of the Theogony as transmitted by the manuscript tradition , following Zeus 's final ordering of Olympus and his siring several key deities , the poet invokes the Muses to sing of the " tribe of goddesses ... immortals who slept with mortal men , bearing children like gods . " After some 150 verses on this topic , the proem to the Catalogue comes in the form of another re @-@ invocation of the Muses to introduce a new , only slightly more terrestrial topic ( Cat. fr . 1 @.@ 1 – 5 ) :
The immediately subsequent lines describe significant characteristics of the heroic age . The first allowed for the liaisons that are the poem 's ostensible subject : gods and mortals freely interacted in those days . A further significant detail about the heroic condition is offered next in one of the most puzzling passages of the Catalogue . Men and women are said to have been not " equally long @-@ lived " ( ἰσαίωνες , isaiōnes , a hapax legomenon ) , but it is unclear whether this refers to different lifespans among the heroes themselves , a difference between the lives of the heroes and " today 's " man , or between the lifespans of the heroes and the gods . The differing fates of the heroes are then described : some appear to have lived a long life characterized by perpetual youth , while others were apparently condemned to an early death by the gods . The papyrus is damaged at this point , and the full implications of these comparisons are unknown . The Muses are next addressed again , asked to sing of " however many [ Zeus ] lay with , siring the race of glorious kings ... and Poseidon [ lay with ] ... Ares ... Hermes ... [ Heph ] aestus ... Heracles " ; here the papyrus ends .
= = = = First families = = = =
The repeated use of the introductory phrase " or such as ... " implies an initial " such as ... " , and it is likely that this first woman treated was Pyrrha , wife of Deucalion . There is some debate about whether the Catalogue included an account of the Flood myth , but the creation of a race of humans born from stones cast by Deucalion and Pyrrha does appear to have figured in the poem . Zeus unsurprisingly had first pick from the catalogue of women , and sired Hellen by Pyrrha . Pyrrha also had three daughters by Deucalion : Thyia , Protogeneia and Pandora , who was named for her maternal grandmother , the famous Pandora . Like their mother , these three lay with Zeus , bearing sons from whom several early Greek tribes were said to descend . Thyia bore Magnes and Macedon ; Protogeneia bore Aethlius , the grandfather of Aetolus ; and Pandora 's son was Graecus .
But it was the family of Hellen , who would himself ultimately be the eponym for the entire Greek world , that had the greatest mythological significance . He sired Dorus , Xuthus and Aeolus , apparently by Othryis , the nymph of Mount Othrys . Dorus was the eponym of the Dorians , and his son Aegimius ' sons , Dymas and Pamphylus , gave their names to two of the three Dorian tribes , the Dymanes and Pamphyli . The third division was called the Hylleis , after Heracles ' son Hyllus , with whom Pamphylus and Dymas migrated to the Peloponnese . Xuthus married Erechtheus ' daughter Creusa and was the father of Ion and Achaeus , along with a daughter named Diomede . The relation between the progenitors of Greek tribes among the descendents of Deucalion is outlined in the following table :
= = = = Aeolids = = = =
What was likely the largest unified stemma to be treated , the account of the descendents of Aeolus and Aenarete 's five daughters and seven sons , stretched from before the 200th line of book 1 well into the second book . The sons who were certainly found in the Catalogue are Cretheus , Athamas , Sisyphus , Salmoneus , Deion ( or Deioneus ) and Perieres . A seventh son 's name is obscured in lacuna : he has been identified tentatively as Minyas , Locrus or a second Magnes , not the eponym of the Magnetes , but the father of Dictys and Polydectes of the Danaë @-@ Perseus myth . No similar doubt attends the identities of Aeolus ' daughters : they were Peisidice , Alcyone , Calyce , Canace and Perimede . The families of the daughters were treated first , and much of the middle of book 1 — over 400 lines — was devoted to recounting their descendents . Aeolus ' extended family , via both sons and daughters , is notable for a concentration of fantastical narratives and folk elements of a sort largely absent from the Homeric poems , beginning with the doomed , hubristic love of Ceyx and Alcyone , who called one another " Zeus " and " Hera " and were turned into the kingfisher and halcyon as punishment ( frr . 10a.83 – 98 , 10d OCT , 15 ) .
After treating the Thessalian families of Peisidice and Canace , the poet turned to the intermingled Aetolian @-@ Elian lines of Calyce and Perimede . Perimede had earlier in the book borne two sons to the river Achelous , one of whom was the grandfather of Oeneus , Hippodamas . To Aethlius Calyce bore Endymion , whose son Aetolus was the eponym of Aetolia and the great @-@ grandfather of Demodice and Porthaon , through whom the later Aetolian and Elian genealogies were traced . Somewhere within these families , Eurytus and Cteatus were found in a form more fearsome than they were in the Iliad : in the Catalogue they were fierce conjoined twins with two heads , four arms and an equal number of legs . Most significant for the epic tradition , however , was the marriage of Demodice 's son Thestius and Porthaon 's daughter Eurythemiste which produced the daughters Leda , Althaea and Hypermestra , who are introduced in a group Ehoiai at fr . 23a.3 – 5 .
Leda 's marriage to Tyndareus is followed by the births of Clytemnestra , Timandra and Phylonoe , the last of whom Artemis made immortal . Clytemnestra and Agamemnon had two daughters , Electra and Iphimede , the name used in the poem for the woman later and more famously known as Iphigenia . It had been prophesied that she must be sacrificed to Artemis before the Greek fleet could sail for Troy , but in the Catalogue version of events the goddess replaced her with an eidolon and immortalized Iphimede as " Artemis Enodia " , or Hecate . Next Orestes ' birth and matricide are reported , the earliest extant account of his killing Clytemnestra , as the planned sacrifice of Iphimede / Iphigenia is first found in the Catalogue . Timandra 's marriage to Echemus follows , followed in turn by Leda 's bearing the Dioscuri to Zeus in several damaged lines . It is unknown if Helen 's birth was reported here , for the testimonia leave her parentage uncertain . Althaea lies with Ares and bears Meleager , whose heroic qualities are described along with his death at the hands of Apollo during the conflict with the Curetes that was the sequel to the Hunt for the Calydonian Boar . Among Althaea 's children by Oeneus , Deianeira is singled out for her role in the death and apotheosis of Heracles . The poet next turns his attention to the Porthaonids ( see above ) and closes out his account of the female Aeolids with the Sirens , daughters of Sterope and Achelous .
The Ehoie of Salmoneus ' daughter Tyro provides the transition to the families of the male Aeolids . As king of Elis , Salmoneus forced his subjects to worship him as Zeus and simulated the god 's thunder and lighting by dragging bronze cauldrons from his chariot and throwing torches through the air . The real Zeus destroyed king and subjects alike , but spared Tyro and conducted her to the house of her uncle Cretheus in Thessaly because she wrangled with her impious father . There she became enamoured of the river Enipeus , but Poseidon had his own designs upon Tyro and in the guise of the river lay with her , siring Neleus and Pelias . The brothers did not get along , and Zeus gave them different realms to rule : Pelias received as his lot Iolcos ; to Neleus fell Pylos in the western Peloponnese . The house of Neleus now takes center @-@ stage . Heracles sacked Pylos , killing all the male Neleids , save Nestor who was off in Gerenia , another Messenian city . Periclymenus , a son of Neleus to whom Poseidon had granted the ability to change shape , was Pylos ' only bulwark against the onslaught of Heracles , and the Catalogue @-@ poet granted him a brief aristeia which ended when Athena pointed out that the bee on Heracles ' chariot was actually the Pylian defender . Following the account of Nestor 's marriage and family , the contest for Neleus ' daughter Pero was narrated . The father would give her hand to whoever could rustle the cattle of Iphicles from Phylace , a feat accomplished by Bias with the help of his brother Melampus . The poet then turned to the family of Pelias as the last assignable papyrus fragment from book 1 breaks off . It is likely that Tyro 's children by Cretheus — Aeson , Pheres and Amythaon — followed , and there might have been room in the book to at least start the family of Cretheus ' brother Athamas .
Athamas ruled in Boeotia and had a complicated family life , several details of which are known to have played part in the Catalogue . His first children were Phrixus and Helle , whose mother was Nephele . In what was the first episode of the Argonautic saga , she gave her children a ram with a golden fleece upon which they fled the intrigues of their stepmother Ino according to other sources . Athamas was driven mad by the gods , perhaps because he took the young Dionysus into his household , and slaughtered his and Ino 's son Learchus ; Ino herself jumped into the sea with their son Melicertes and became the sea @-@ goddess Leucothea . At some point before his marriage to Ino , Athamas had sired Leucon and Schoeneus by Themisto , and Leucon 's daughters Peisidice , Euippe and Hyperippe were given extended group treatment in the Catalogue .
= = = Book 2 = = =
It is uncertain at what point among the extant fragments the division between books 1 and 2 fell , but at least some of the Aeolid families were covered in the second book . The families of Perieres , Deion and Sisyphus ( in that order ) were most likely found in the 2nd book because there does not appear to be enough room left in book 1 to accommodate them as a group after the children of Neleus and Pelias . It was once thought that the Ehoie of Atalanta opened the book , but recently published evidence casts doubt upon this view ( see Book 3 , below ) .
Perieres ' family was centered around Messene . His son Leucippus had several daughters , but Arsinoe was singled out for extensive treatment . To Apollo she bore Asclepius , whom Zeus killed . In a rage Apollo killed the Cyclopes , after which Zeus was about to hurl him into Tartarus when Leto interceded and arranged for Apollo to serve as a laborer for Admetus instead . Directly following the Asclepius affair comes the Ehoie of Asterodeia , the daughter of Deion . She bore Crisus and Panopeus to Phocus ; the brothers did not get along , quarreling while still in the womb . Another daughter of Deion , Philonis , bore Philammon to Apollo and Autolycus to Hermes . Philammon sired Thamyris ; Autolycus , the grandfather of Odysseus , was a master thief who could change the appearance of his booty to avoid detection . Autolycus ' daughter Polymele , the mother of Jason , is apparently born directly preceding the Ehoie of Mestra , the daughter of Erysichthon .
Mestra 's story is one of the best preserved and most studied sections of the Catalogue . She had the ability to change her shape at will , a skill which her father Erysichthon exploited in service of a ravening hunger with which he had been cursed and for which reason the people had nicknamed him Aethon ( Αἴθων , Aithon , " Blazing " ) . He would marry off Mestra for the bride prices she garnered , only to have the girl return home in some different form . The most notable victim of this plot was Sisyphus , who , despite his characteristic cunning , could never retain custody of his would @-@ be daughter @-@ in @-@ law . Strife arose between Sisyphus and Erysichthon which no mortal could resolve , and the case was handed over to another authority . The text is damaged at this point , and identity of the mediator is a matter of dispute , as is the nature of the verdict rendered . Exactly how this judgement resolves the quarrel over Mestra is obscure , but Sisyphus ultimately comes out on the losing end , for Mestra does not bear children to Glaucus . Instead Poseidon whisks her off to Kos , where she bears Eurypylus to the god . Eurypylus ' descendents rule the island , which is sacked by Heracles in a brief allusion to the great hero 's adventures . On his way home from attacking Troy for the horses of Laomedon , he assaulted Kos before going on to participate in the gigantomachy .
The Ehoie of Mestra closes with her returning to Athens to care for her father , but the poet 's attention stays with Sisyphus , as he and his son are the male subjects of the Ehoie of Eurynome which immediately follows . She was wise and beautiful , having been taught womanly arts by Athena . Sisyphus attempted to cheat her of her cattle , but Zeus intervened . Although he did not get what he was after , Sisyphus did accomplish with Eurynome what he could not with Mestra : a marriage for Glaucus . The gods again got in the way , though , and she bore Bellerophontes to Poseidon , who gave his son the winged horse Pegasus with which Bellerophontes slew the Chimera . In the Iliad this task was presented as the order of Proetus ' father @-@ in @-@ law Iobates , and in the Catalogue it appears to be followed immediately by the marriage of Bellerophontes and a daughter of the Lycian king .
= = = = Inachids = = = =
In the Bibliotheca the descendants of Inachus followed Deucalion 's , and the Catalogue appears to have followed the same order , likely introducing the Inachids via the Ehoie of Niobe , the river god 's granddaughter . To Zeus she bore Argus , the eponym of Argos , who in turn sired Peiren , the father of Io . Zeus 's affair with Io had a place in the Catalogue , for ancient authors cite the poem 's version of this myth when quoting an aition for the fact that " all 's far in love ... " , at least :
Zeus and Io 's " clandestine deeds " produced a son , Epaphus , who was the father of Libya . The families of her two sons Agenor and Belus were covered in depth : the former 's line in book 3 , the latter 's following his birth . Belus had a daughter , Thronia , who bore Arabus ( the eponym of Arabia ) to Hermes ; Belus ' sons were Aegyptus and Danaus .
The myth of the mass @-@ wedding of Aegyptus ' fifty sons and Danaus ' fifty daughters came at this point , but little survives of the narrative in the Catalogue . Danaus and his daughters fled to Argos and introduced the practice of digging wells , " making waterless Argos well @-@ watered Argos " ( Ἄργος ἄνυδρον ἐὸν Δανααὶ θέσαν Ἄργος ἔνυδρον ) . Aegyptus ' sons followed the Danaids to Greece in order to compel them to marry , and , as in the predominant version of the myth , Hypermestra alone consummated her union with Lynceus and bore Abas , whose sons were Acrisius and Proetus . The daughters of Proetus offended Hera or Dionysus or both in some way , and were cursed with leprosy or madness which could only be cured by Melampous , a service which Abas rewarded by granting the seer and his brother Bias shares of Argos to rule . Acrisius ' daughter was Danaë . Her golden liaison with Zeus , the birth of Perseus , and mother and son 's involuntary exile in the larnax are quickly recounted , and Perseus ' siring of Alcaeus , Sthenelus and Electryon by Andromeda also comes in quick succession .
= = = Book 3 = = =
The division between books 2 and 3 presents a special problem for the reconstruction of the Catalogue . A scholion to Theocritus , Idyll 3 @.@ 40 appears to attribute the story of Atalanta to " Hesiod in book 3 " , a method of citation that almost certainly refers to the present poem . One papyrus concludes with what appears to be the beginning of the first line of Atalanta 's Ehoie followed by a forked paragraphos and blank space , suggesting that it is a reclamans ; another papyrus ( pictured ) clearly transmits the ends of the first few lines of her section preceded by blank space , giving the possibility that it was the beginning of a book . These two fragments would combine to give :
The account that follows is one of the most extensive and exciting episodes of the Catalogue to survive from antiquity . Atalanta wished to avoid marriage , but a throng of suitors gathered because of her beauty . Her father Schoeneus promised her hand to the one who could beat his swift daughter in a footrace , with one further condition : any who accepted the challenge and lost would be put to death . Aphrodite had given one of the contestants , Hippomenes , three golden apples with which to temp the girl off course ; these he threw as he ran and begged Atalanta to have pity upon him . The toss of the third apple finally accomplished its aim , but the couple did not live happily after : through the will of Zeus Atalanta was transformed into lion because she had seen " what it is not lawful to see , " which presumably means that she had unlawfully entered a holy precinct . This is where the evidence for Atalanta leaves off , and it remains unknown just where and how the passage fit in the Catalogue . It is possible that the attribution to book three was simply incorrect , and Atalante 's Ehoie came within the family of Athamas in books one or two . Another possibility is that she was introduced in the context of her mother 's family . Her identity in the Catalogue is unknown , but this hypothesis could allow for Atalanta to appear within the Inachid stemma , following the Danae @-@ Ehoie within the extended family of Belus .
= = = = Agenorids = = = =
In the Catalogue and later mythographic tradition , the family of Belus ' brother Agenor was something " like a repository for aliens and displaced persons . " His son Phoenix was the eponym of Phoenicia , and if Cepheus and Cadmus were also his sons , the Agenorids would have been present in Aethiopia and Thebes as well . By one Alphesiboea Phoenix sired Adonis . Cassiepeia bore to him Phineus ; she was perhaps also the mother of Phoenix 's daughter Europa , but the girl 's mother might have been Telephaassa , as in Moschus ' Europa .
Europa 's tale , well known in later classical literature and beyond , appears in a largely familiar form in the Catalogue . She caught Zeus 's eye while she and some friends were gathering flowers in a meadow . The god transformed into a bull with breath smelling of saffron , in the guise of which he abducted Europa , carrying her upon his back to Crete . There she bore Minos , Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon to Zeus , and he gave her a necklace made by Hephaestus that would figure in Theban saga as the Necklace of Harmonia . Sarpedon ruled Lycia , and was apparently granted a lifespan equal to three generations of men by Zeus . His death at Troy and the rain of blood it inspired Zeus to send is briefly described . Minos ruled Crete , succeeding his stepfather Asterion . Poseidon sent up from the sea a bull which had sex with Minos ' wife Pasiphae , siring the Minotaur . To Minos she also bore Deucalion , Catreus , Androgeos and Eurygyes , though it is equally possible that these last two names referred to a single son . At least one daughter , Ariadne , was surely present , for the myth of Androgeos – Eurygyes ' death in Athens and the subsequent sacrifice of Athenian youths to the Minotaur will presuppose Theseus ' expedition to Crete and Ariadne 's complicity in slaying the beast .
Phineus was even better @-@ traveled than his sister Europa , and his biography in the Catalogue was apparently a " pièce de résistance " meant to conclude the geographically diverse Inachid stemma with an appropriate flourish . He ruled in Thrace , but was kidnapped by the Harpies . Zetes and Calais , the Boreads , pursued the tormentors and tormented to the ends of the earth . The poet catalogued many far @-@ flung and remarkable races encountered during the chase , including : the Katoudaioi ( " Subterranean Men " ) , Pygmies , Melanes ( " Black Men " ) , Aethiopians , Libyans , " horse @-@ milking " Scythians , Hemikynes ( " Half @-@ Dogs " ) and the Makrokephaloi , as well as griffins . Ephorus called the episode the Gês Períodos ( Γῆς Περίοδος , " Journey Around the World " ) , and it was once thought that this title referred to an independent work , one erroneously attributed to Hesiod . This view was disproved conclusively in 1911 with the publication of an extensive papyrus fragment ( pictured ) of the episode which derived from the same bookroll that contained the myth of Europa described above .
= = = = Arcadia = = = =
It is likely that the section describing the Arcadian descendants of Pelasgus and Arcas followed that of the Inachids . Pelasgus was autochthonous ; he sired Lycaon either by the Oceanid Meliboea or by Cyllene , the oread of an Arcadian mountain which still bears her name . Lycaon 's fifty impius sons drew the ire of Zeus and were all destroyed , save Nyctimus . The majority of the subsequently covered Arcadian figures descend from Arcas , who was the son of Zeus and Callisto , a local nymph . A familiar version of her catasterism is attributed to " Hesiod " by Pseudo @-@ Eratosthenes , but the Hesiodic work intended in this citation might have been the Astronomia . Arcas had at least two sons : Elatus and Apheidas . Elatus sired Aepytus , the father of Tlesenor and Peirithous ; Apheidas was the father of Stheneboea , the wife of Proetus , and Aleus . Aleus ' daughter Auge was for some reason entrusted to the care of Teuthras in Mysia , where she lay with Heracles and bore Telephus . Telephus was on the Mysian throne when the Greek expedition to Troy accidentally landed there and found themselves fighting fellow " Achaeans . "
= = = = Atlantids = = = =
In the Bibliotheca , the Arcadian genealogies are immediately followed by the Atlantids , and this progression is known to mirror the structure of the Catalogue because other fragments of the papyrus roll that transmits the Telephus myth cover families of Atlas ' daughters : Taygete , Electra , Alcyone , Sterope , Celaeno , Maia and Merope . Maia bore Hermes to Zeus on Mount Cyllene . Taygete also slept with Zeus , becoming the mother of Lacedaemon , through whom much of the Spartan line was traced , including Tyndareos , the father of Helen , and Penelope , the wife of Odysseus . To Zeus yet again Electra bore Dardanus , the progenitor of the Trojan line , and Eetion , who was killed for sleeping with Demeter . Dardanus ' sons were Erichthonius and Ilus . Hyrieus and Hyperes were Poseidon 's children by Alcyone . Her section included the Ehoie of Hyrieus ' daughter Antiope , who bore Amphion and Zethus to Zeus . Hyperes ' daughter Arethusa slept with Poseidon and was changed to a spring in Euboea , but not before bearing Abas , the eponym of the Abantes . His line is traced down to Elephenor , leader of the Abantes in the Trojan War . Sterope lay with Ares and bore Oenomaus , but it is possible that this union was delayed to book four as part of the section treating the family of Pelops and Oenomaus ' daughter Hippodameia .
= = = Book 4 = = =
Before the papyri began to accrue , the longest extant passage of the Catalogue was known from the Shield of Heracles , the first 56 lines of which were borrowed from book 4 according to an ancient hypothesis to the Shield . This passage , the Ehoie of Alcmene , recounts how she went to Thebes with her husband Amphitryon , who could not consummate the marriage until he had avenged the deaths of her brothers at the hands of the Taphians and Teleboans . As Amphitryon returned having accomplished this feat , Zeus lay with Alcmene ; upon his return that very night , so too did Amphitryon . To the god Alcmene bore Heracles and to the hero she bore Iphicles .
Alcmene belongs to the Pelopid line — her mother Lysidice was a daughter of Pelops and Hippodameia — , and the passages preceding her Ehoie also concern Pelopids . Three of Pelops ' daughters married sons of Perseus : Lysidice married Electryon , Nicippe wed Sthenelus , and Astydameia wed Alcaeus . Nicippe and Sthenelus ' daughter Astymedusa married Oedipus , and at the funeral games in his honor his son Polynices caught the eye of his future wife Argeia , the daughter of Adrastus . Pelops ' son Atreus was the father of Pleisthenes who , contrary to the better known genealogy , was the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus . Their mother was Aerope , the daughter of Catreus , and their births were reported in the verses directly preceding the Ehoie of Alcmene .
Besides the Pelopid line , and whatever remained of the Atlantid stemmata among which it ultimately belongs , little is known for certain about the further content of book 4 . It is possible that an Athenian section including the various autochthonous kings of Athens and the daughters of Cecrops was found here . A family springing from the river Asopus has also been proposed for this region based on the presence of " several persons or families that other sources represent as descended from daughters of Asopos . " The most notable family that would belong to this section is that of Asopus ' daughter Aegina , the nymph of the island that bears her name who slept with Zeus and bore Aeacus . Fearing that Aeacus would be lonely on his island , Zeus changed all of Aegina 's ants into men , spawning the tribe of Myrmidons , a play upon their name and the Greek word for " ant " , μύρμηξ , mýrmēx . This is the family to which Achilles belongs , the most notable hero in the Trojan saga , as well as his father Peleus and uncles Telamon and Menoetius .
= = = Book 5 = = =
The final book was different in that it apparently left behind the genealogical structure of the first four books . Book five opened with a nearly 200 @-@ line catalogue of the suitors of Helen , similar in style to the Catalogue of Ships in Iliad book 2 . Although it is likely that the entire catalogue included twenty @-@ five to thirty suitors , only twelve are attested by name . From Argos Amphilochus and Alcmaeon , the sons of Amphiaraus , attempted to win Helen , but were perhaps never able to join in the contest because of their punishment for the matricide of Eriphyle . Ever shrewd , Odysseus did not give gifts but simply sent envoys to Castor and Polydeuces , because he knew that Menelaus would ultimately prevail . Thoas was not so wise and gave many sheep and cows in the hope of winning Helen . From Phylace , many gifts were given by Podarces and Protesilaus , who were cousins in the Catalogue , not brothers as in the Catalogue of Ships . Athenian Menestheus gave many gold cauldrons and tripods , confident that he was the wealthiest of all the heroes . Ajax wooed Helen from Salamis , promising to pillage the surrounding lands and give their possession as part of his gift . Idomeneus made the long journey from Crete himself , aware of Helen 's beauty only from secondhand accounts .
Before giving his decision , Tyndareus bound all the suitors to his fateful oath : should anyone ever take his daughter by force , all those who had wooed her must exact vengeance upon her abductor . To this all the suitors readily agreed , each believing that he would be given Helen 's hand . At this point the Catalogue of Suitors has come to a close , but even as Menelaus ' success is reported , the poet introduces Achilles because of his status as the greatest hero of the Trojan saga and his central role in Zeus 's plan to bring the Heroic Age to a close . With the aid of Agamemnon , Menelaus had given the most bride prices , but were Achilles already of age , he would surely have won Helen 's hand , " for neither warlike Menelaus nor any other human on earth would have defeated him " . But Achilles was not present , and Menelaus won Helen , who bore Hermione to him .
= = = = The end of the Heroic Age = = = =
The marriage of Helen and Menelaus precipitates the Trojan War , the event that ultimately brings the heroic age to an end , but the circumstances surrounding this transition in the Catalogue are unclear . Directly following the birth of Hermione strife arises among the gods , and Zeus hatches a plan to stir up trouble among mankind . The exact meaning of this plan is obscure because of deficiencies in the text , and several interpretations have been proposed , the most commonly accepted being that Zeus plans to destroy a great number of men by causing the war , ultimately removing the heroes to a life lived in conditions resembling the Golden Age . Another possibility is that Zeus intends to destroy the race of heroes and return the world to its former order , when gods slept with each other , not mortals . In any event , a great change is coming , and as the final placed fragment of the Catalogue breaks off , several enigmatic scenes are sketched . A great storm arises which dwindles the strength of mankind :
These lines , described by West as " the finest passage of poetry yet known from the Catalogue " , might parallel Calchas ' prophecy in Iliad 2 , which presages the first nine fruitless years of the Trojan War via the image of a snake devouring nine sparrows . Here the " hairless one , " a kenning for a snake , gives birth to what appears to be the first of three sets of triplets , and as the remains of the papyrus become more meager , the snake sloughs its skin , representing the regeneration that will come once the heroic age comes to an end and the world is given over to mortals .
= = = Notable unplaced and disputed fragments = = =
Many fragments that are securely attributed to the Catalogue , some of which are relatively substantial , cannot be placed within the poem because their content is either too obscure or could be assigned to different individuals or genealogies which are themselves difficult to locate within the five books .
= = = = Cyrene = = = =
The place of Cyrene within the poem has implications beyond the level of content , for if her narrative is to be connected to the city of Cyrene in Libya , the terminus post quem for the composition of the Catalogue would be 631 BC , the approximate year of that city 's foundation . Pindar , Pythian 9 tells how Apollo saw Cyrene hunting in her native Thessaly and was immediately enamoured of the tomboy . The god goes to the cave of the wise centaur Chiron and asks who she is and whether it would be wise to consort with her . Chiron then prophesies that it is fated for Cyrene and Apollo to mate , and that he will bring her across the sea to Libya , where she will be queen of a portion of the land and bear to him a son , Aristaeus . A scholium on the ode states that " Pindar took the story from an Ehoie of Hesiod 's " ( ἀπὸ δὲ Ἠοίας Ἡσιόδου τὴν ἱστορίαν ἔλαβεν ὁ Πίνδαρος ) and relates the opening lines of the section ( Cat. fr . 215 ) :
Richard Janko , who believes that the Catalogue was composed c . 690 , argues that the extent to which Pindar relied upon the Hesiodic text is unknown and that , even if Apollo did carry Cyrene to Libya , this does not presuppose an aetiology of the city . Others have argued that the citation is also vague regarding just which Hesiodic poem included the Cyrene @-@ Ehoie , the Catalogue or the Megalai Ehoiai : the latter might have included a narrative similar to Pindar 's , with the former presenting a different version of the myth , if indeed the Catalogue treated Cyrene at all . The complete removal of Cyrene would not , however , be easily accommodated by related evidence — it would presumably also involve transferring two fragments concerning Aristaeus which have traditionally been attributed to the Catalogue , and his son Actaeon certainly appeared in the poem .
= = = = Actaeon = = = =
The myth of Actaeon is known to have been narrated in the Catalogue by virtue of a paraphrase found in a fragmentary dictionary of metamorphoses . According to the dictionary , the Catalogue included a variant of the myth in which Actaeon was changed into a stag by Artemis and then killed by his own hounds because he attempted to take Semele as his wife , thus angering Zeus , who had designs upon the woman . Before this testimonium appeared , another papyrus containing 21 hexameters related to the Actaeon myth was published by Edgar Lobel , who tentatively attributed the text to the Catalogue . As the fragment opens , Actaeon has already been torn apart by his dogs , and a goddess — Athena or , less likely , Artemis — arrives at Chiron 's cave . She prophesies to the centaur that Dionysus will be born to Semele and that Actaeon 's dogs will roam the hills with him until his apotheosis , after which they will return to stay with Chiron . At this point the papyrus is damaged , but it is clear that the dogs are delivered from a " madness " ( λύσσα , lussa , line 15 ) and begin to mourn their master as the goddess returns to Olympus . Merkelbach and West did not include this papyrus in their edition of the fragment , the latter calling it an " incoherent epic pastiche " which would cause the author of the Catalogue to " turn in his grave if he knew that it had been attributed to him . " According to Glenn Most , some scholars believe that the text is Hellenistic , but it is demonstrably archaic , and at least a few classicists today consider it to be part of the Catalogue .
= = Date , composition and authorship = =
During antiquity the Catalogue was almost universally considered the work of Hesiod . Pausanias reports , however , that the Boeotians living around Mount Helicon during his day believed that the only genuine Hesiodic poem was the Works and Days and that even the first 10 lines of that poem ( the so @-@ called " hymn to Zeus " ) were spurious . The only other surviving expression of doubt is found in Aelian , who cites " Hesiod " for the number of Niobe 's children , but qualifies his citation with " unless these verses are not by Hesiod , but have been passed off falsely as his , like many other passages . " But Aelian 's skepticism could have stemmed from the belief , still common today , that Hesiodic poetry was especially susceptible to interpolation , and it is impossible to tell whether he regarded the entire Catalogue as spurious or not . These two passages are , in any event , isolated , and more discerning critics like Apollonius of Rhodes , Aristophanes of Byzantium and Crates of Mallus apparently found no reason to doubt the attribution to Hesiod , going so far as to cite the Catalogue in arguments concerning the content and authenticity of other Hesiodic poems .
Modern scholars have not shared the confidence of their Hellenistic counterparts , and today the Catalogue is generally considered to be a post @-@ Hesiodic composition . Since Hesiod is supposed to have lived around the turn of the seventh century , the Cyrene @-@ Ehoie alone could guarantee that the poem was not his . Richard Janko 's survey of epic language , on the other hand , suggests that the Catalogue is very early , nearly contemporary with Hesiod 's Theogony , and Janko sees no reason why the Catalogue " should not be by the same poet as the Theogony , " who " calls himself Hesiod . " But a different critical strain , one which views the transmitted Homeric and Hesiodic poems as ultimate products of rhapsodic recomposition within an oral tradition , would hold that from an initial Hesiodic nucleus the Catalogue arrived at its final form well after period to which Hesiod has been assigned . Such a scenario could account for perceived anachronisms in the mythological content and in the linguistic character of the poem , but would sidestep the issue of the relation between the Catalogue as it has been transmitted and the broader corpus of early Greek epic .
Martin West argues on poetic , linguistic , cultural and political grounds that an Athenian poet " compiled the Catalogue of Women and attached it to Hesiod 's Theogony , as if it were all Hesiodic , " sometime between 580 and 520 , and thinks it possible that this range might be narrowed to the period following 540 . He sees , for example , the marriage of Xuthus to a daughter of Erechtheus as a means of subordinating all of Ionia to Athens , since their union produced the eponym Ion . Similarly , Sicyon is made a son of Erechtheus ( fr . 224 ) , which West takes as a reflection of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon 's attempts to promote Ionian – Athenian interests in the polis , which had traditionally been more closely connected to Dorian Argos . These and other considerations would , in West 's view , establish a terminus post quem of c . 575 , but he prefers a later dating on the assumption that Theogony 965 – 1020 , which he assigns to the latter portion of the sixth century , was contemporaneous with the composition of the Catalogue .
West 's arguments have been highly influential , but other scholars have arrived at different conclusions using the same evidence . Fowler thinks that the Sicyon genealogy would more likely reflect a composition before Cleisthenes ' death ( c . 575 ) and dates the poem to the period closely following the First Sacred War , connecting its content to the growing influence of the Amphictyonic League and placing its author in Aeolian Thessaly because of the Aeolid family @-@ trees centered around that region which dominate the earlier portions of the poem . Hirschberger , on the other hand , takes this focus upon the Aeolids and the Catalogue poet 's perceived interest in eastern peoples to be indicative of a poet from Aeolis in Asia Minor ; she proposes that the Catalogue was composed there between 630 and 590 , viewing the composition of the Shield of Heracles and an apparent allusion to the poem by Stesichorus ( died c . 555 ) as providing the ultimate terminus ante quem .
= = Reception = =
The Catalogue 's greatest influence was felt during the Hellenistic period , when the poem was used as an extra @-@ Homeric touchstone for the poets of the era who favored recondite and antiquarian references over direct engagement with the more prominent members of the canon . The most famous Hellenistic allusion to the Catalogue is found in Hermesianax 's Leontion , which included a catalogue of great literary figures and their loves , beginning with Orpheus and Agriope ( more commonly known as Eurydice ) and proceeding down to the poet 's contemporaries , including his teacher Philitas of Cos . Many of the entries engage playfully with their subjects ' work : Homer , for example , is portrayed as pining for Penelope . Directly preceding that lovestruck bard comes Hesiod 's blurb :
Here the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula is styled as the name of a woman , cleverly rendered " Anne Other " by Helen Asquith , and the grumpy Hesiod who reviled his home in Ascra at Works and Days 639 – 40 becomes a discomfited lover @-@ boy in the village . Phanocles , a near contemporary of Hermesianax , composed an elegiac catalogue of mythological pederastic relationships entitled the Loves or Beautiful Boys in which each story was introduced by the formula ē ' hōs ( ἠ ' ὡς ) , " or like " . Nicaenetus of Samos , a later Hellenistic poet , wrote his own Catalogue of Women and the otherwise unknown Sosicrates ( or Sostratus ) of Phanagoria was said to have written an Ehoioi ( Ἠοῖοι ) , the masculine equivalent of " Ehoiai " . While allusions to the ehoie @-@ formula and catalogue structure of the poem are most easily recognized , interaction with the Catalogue in Hellenistic poetry was not limited to plays upon these aspects : direct engagement with the myths found in the Catalogue were a popular way for the Alexandrians to show their Hesiodic affiliations .
At Rome the poets of the Late Republic and Augustan age continued the Hellenistic period 's allusive engagement with the Catalogue . Catullus , a poet who made plain his Callimachean affiliations , is the earliest Roman author who can be seen to engage with the Catalogue . In his epyllion on the wedding of Peleus and Thetis , Catullus alludes to the theoxeny that the proem to the Catalogue presented as a defining characteristic of the heroic age and to the epithalamium of the couple that was sung in a later book . In the Aeneid Vergil closes his catalogue of combatants with the swift female warrior Camilla , alluding to the Hesiodic account of Iphiclus ' speed in " a remarkably subtle nod to tradition in the best Alexandrian style . " Ovid picked up on Vergil 's allusion in the Metamorphoses with his treatment of Atalanta , which recast 's his Roman forbearer 's allusion to Iphiclus in such a way that it highlights the Hesiodic character of his own poem in contrast with the Homeric character of the Aeneid .
= = Transmission and reconstruction = =
It is impossible to tell exactly when the last complete copy of the Catalogue was lost . Fragments of over fifty ancient copies have been found , dating from the Hellenistic period through early Byzantine times . A book label from the century or so after the latest Catalogue papyrus lists the contents of a fifth- or sixth @-@ century Hesiodic codex as " Hesiod 's Theogony , Works and Days and Shield " , and it appears that by this time the Byzantine triad of Hesiod 's works had become the notional corpus , to the detriment of the other poems which had traveled under the poet 's name . Knowledge of the Catalogue did not cease altogether with the loss of the final complete copy , however , and well into medieval times authors such as Eustathius and Tzetzes could cite the poem via fragments contained in other ancient authors . Other vestiges of the poem 's influence are less clear : the Pseudo @-@ Apollodoran Bibliotheca , an early Roman @-@ era handbook of Greek mythology , for example , is widely believed to have taken the Catalogue as its primary structural model , although this is not stated explicitly within that text .
The collection and interpretation of the Hesiodic fragments in the modern era began during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , primarily with the editions of Heinsius ( 1603 ) and Graevius ( 1667 ) . The earliest collections simply presented ancient quotations organized by the quoting author , and it was not until the work of Lehmann ( 1828 ) , Goettling ( 1831 ) and Marckscheffel ( 1840 ) that attempts at a proper reconstruction began . Marckscheffel was the first to recognize that the early portions of the poem treated the descendants of Deucalion in a systematic fashion , but he regarded what were called the " Catalogue of Women " and " Ehoiai " as two initially separate works that had been joined : the former was genealogically structured , while the latter , in Marckscheffel 's view , simply recounted myths involving notable Thessalian and Boeotian heroines , with each introduced by the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula . Since the Ehoie of Alcmene was attested for book 4 , Marckscheffel proposed that books 1 – 3 were the " Catalogue " , and books 4 and 5 were the " Ehoiai " .
As the nineteenth century progressed , there were several other important observations about the genealogical structure of the Catalogue . In 1860 Adolf Kirchhoff noted the mass of information connected to the family of Io , a stemma which could be assigned to the third book because of an ancient citation placing Phineus , one of her descendents , there . The picture of the Catalogue that was emerging began to resemble the Bibliotheca in structure , but Theodor Bergk was the first to suggest explicitly ( though in passing ) that the poem might be reconstructed with the help of the mythographic work . Bergk and his contemporaries still largely followed Marckscheffel 's conclusion that the Catalogue and Ehoiai were semi @-@ distinct texts , and it was not until 1894 that Friedrich Leo finally demonstrated that these were in fact alternate titles for a single poem .
A few years before Leo 's paper , the first small papyrus fragment was found , and the first half of the twentieth century would see the publication of several other pieces which added significantly to the modern text of the Catalogue . Among these finds were important passages , the Catalogue of Suitors and Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis for example , but few advanced the modern understanding of the work 's overall structure . The appearance of the proem in 1956 actually led to a major misapprehension , for the list of gods found therein , beginning with Zeus and proceeding through the divine Heracles , led some to believe that the Catalogue was not organized in a strictly genealogical manner , but presented the unions of gods and heroines organized to some extent by amorous deity . Six years later , with the publication of the 28th part of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri , the corpus of papyrus witnesses to the fragmentary Hesiodic poems was nearly doubled , with the lion 's share of these new texts belonging to the Catalogue . The new papyri proved once and for all that the poem was organized by genealogies of the great families in a way similar to the Bibliotheca , and that the poet 's use of the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula was not a random method of introduction but an organizing tool within an overall structure .
= = Editions and translations = =
= = = Critical editions = = =
Heinsius , D. ( 1603 ) , Hesiodi Ascraei quae extant , Leiden .
Graevius , J.G. ( 1667 ) , Hesiodi Ascraei quae extant , Amsterdam .
Robinson , T. ( 1737 ) , Hesiodi Ascraei quae supersunt cum notis variorum , Oxford .
Gaisford , T. ( 1823 ) , Poetae Minores Graeci , vol . 1 , Leipzig .
Dindorf , L.A. ( 1825 ) , Hesiodus , Leipzig .
Lehmann , C. ( 1828 ) , De Hesiodi carminibus perditis scriptio philologica , Berlin .
Goettling , C.W. ( 1831 ) , Hesiodi carmina , Gotha .
Marckscheffel , G. ( 1840 ) , Hesiodi , Eumeli , Cinaethonis , Asii et Carminis Naupactii fragmenta , Leipzig .
Goettling , C.W. ( 1843 ) , Hesiodi carmina ( 2nd rev. ed . ) , Gotha .
Lehrs , F.S. ( 1840 ) , Hesiodi carmina , Paris .
Kinkel , G. ( 1877 ) , Epicorum Graecorum fragmenta , vol . 1 , Leipzig .
Sittl , K. ( 1889 ) , Ἡσιόδου τὰ ἅπαντα , Athens .
Rzach , A. ( 1902 ) , Hesiodi Carmina , Leipzig .
Rzach , A. ( 1908 ) , Hesiodi Carmina ( 2nd rev. ed . ) , Leipzig .
Rzach , A. ( 1913 ) , Hesiodi Carmina ( 3rd rev. ed . ) , Leipzig , ISBN 3 @-@ 598 @-@ 71418 @-@ 1 .
Traversa , A. ( 1951 ) , Catalogi sive Eoaearum fragmenta , Naples .
Merkelbach , R. ( 1957 ) , Die Hesiodfragmente auf Papyrus , Leipzig .
Merkelbach , R. ; West , M.L. ( 1967 ) , Fragmenta Hesiodea , Oxford , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 814171 @-@ 8 .
Merkelbach , R. ; West , M.L. ( 1990 ) , " Fragmenta selecta " , in F. Solmsen , Hesiodi Theogonia , Opera et Dies , Scutum ( 3rd rev. ed . ) , Oxford , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 814071 @-@ 1 .
Hirschberger , M. ( 2004 ) , Gynaikōn Katalogos und Megalai Ēhoiai : Ein Kommentar zu den Fragmenten zweier hesiodeischer Epen , Munich & Leipzig , ISBN 3 @-@ 598 @-@ 77810 @-@ 4 .
= = = Translations = = =
Mair , A.W. ( 1908 ) , Hesiod : the Poems and Fragments , Done into English Prose , Oxford . ( To be consulted with caution : out of date even for 1908 . )
Evelyn @-@ White , H.G. ( 1936 ) , Hesiod , the Homeric Hymns , and Homerica , Loeb Classical Library , no . 57 ( 3rd rev. ed . ) , Cambridge , MA , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 99063 @-@ 0 . ( The link is to the 1st edition of 1914 . ) English translation with facing Greek text ; now obsolete except for its translations of the ancient quotations .
Marg , W. ( 1970 ) , Hesiod : Sämtliche Gedichte , Stuttgart . German translation .
Arrighetti , G. ( 1998 ) , Esiodo . Opere , Torino , ISBN 978 @-@ 88 @-@ 446 @-@ 0053 @-@ 2 . Italian translation with facing Greek text ; faithfully based upon the editions of Merkelbach and West .
Most , G.W. ( 2006 ) , Hesiod : Theogony , Works and Days , Testimonia , Loeb Classical Library , no . 57 , Cambridge , MA , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 99622 @-@ 9 . Includes ancient assessments of the Catalogue .
Most , G.W. ( 2007 ) , Hesiod : The Shield , Catalogue , Other Fragments , Loeb Classical Library , no . 503 , Cambridge , MA , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 99623 @-@ 6 . English translation with facing Greek text ; takes much recent scholarship into consideration .
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= HMS Hunter ( H35 ) =
HMS Hunter was a H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed on both sides by Britain and France , until she struck a mine in May 1937 . She was under repair for the next year and a half , after which she rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet . During the first few months of World War II , Hunter searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean until she was transferred back to Britain in February 1940 . Returning to action in the Norwegian Campaign , she was sunk by German destroyers during the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 .
= = Description = =
Hunter displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hunter carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this was increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hunter had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Ordered on 13 December 1934 , Hunter was laid down by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson at Wallsend @-@ on @-@ Tyne , England , on 27 March 1935 . She was launched on 25 February 1936 and completed on 30 September . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment such as armament , the ship cost £ 253 @,@ 167 . Hunter was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
The destroyer patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War , enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Hunter struck a mine south of Almeria , Spain on the afternoon of 13 May 1937 . She suffered severe damage , with a heavy list , her radio wrecked and the bow flooded . Eight of her complement were killed and 24 wounded . The ship was towed clear of the minefield by the Spanish Republican destroyer Lazaga . The mine had been laid several weeks earlier by two ex @-@ German Spanish Nationalist E @-@ boats , the Falange and the Requeté . Hunter was towed to Almeria by Hyperion , where she arrived in the early hours of 14 May . The light cruiser Arethusa towed her to Gibraltar , where she was temporarily repaired from 15 May to 18 August . Hunter was towed to Malta for permanent repairs in August 1937 , but they were not completed until 10 November 1938 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla once her repairs were finished and she was given a brief overhaul in Malta between 24 June and 4 July 1939 . Hunter was sent to Plymouth for a more thorough refit in mid @-@ August 1939 that lasted through 27 August .
= = = World War II = = =
When World War II began on 3 September , Hunter was en route to Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders , before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in late October . Hunter remained on that station until she was transferred to the British Isles in February 1940 and began a refit at Falmouth that lasted until 9 March . The ship rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow on 17 March . On 6 April Hunter and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers joined the battlecruiser Renown and her escorts .
During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April 1940 , Hunter and four other H @-@ class ships of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla attacked the German destroyers that had transported German troops to occupy Narvik in northern Norway the previous day . The flotilla leader Hardy led four of her half @-@ sisters down Ofotfjord in a surprise dawn attack on Narvik harbour during a blinding snowstorm . Hotspur and Hostile were initially left at the entrance , but Hunter followed Hardy into the harbour and fired all eight of her torpedoes into the mass of shipping . One torpedo hit the German destroyer Z22 Anton Schmitt in the forward engine room , followed by one of Hunter 's 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells . As the British ships were withdrawing , they encountered five German destroyers at close range . Two of the German ships crossed the T of the British ships and quickly set Hardy on fire and forced her to run aground . Hunter eventually took the lead , but was severely damaged by the Germans , probably including one torpedo hit , and her speed dropped rapidly . Hotspur , immediately behind her , was temporarily out of control due to two hits , and rammed her from behind . When the ships managed to disengage , Hunter capsized . 107 men of the crew were killed and another five died of their wounds . The German destroyers rescued 46 men , who were released into Sweden on 13 April .
= = Rediscovery = =
The wreck was discovered on 5 March 2008 by the Royal Norwegian Navy mine control vessel HNoMS Tyr , after being unknown for nearly 70 years , and will be marked as a war grave to commemorate the lost members of her crew . A series of coordinated memorial ceremonies were held on board British and Norwegian warships on Saturday 8 March 2008 , honouring all those who died during the battles of Narvik . Over a thousand NATO personnel took part , including British and Norwegian sailors , Royal Marines and soldiers . Led by HMS Albion , the UK 's Fleet Amphibious Flagship , five warships steamed in line past the spot where the ship lies , marked for the occasion by Tyr . Hunter 's final resting place was marked with wreaths cast into the sea .
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= SECR N class =
The SECR N class was a type of 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ( " mogul " ) steam locomotive designed in 1914 by Richard Maunsell for mixed @-@ traffic duties on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . Built between 1917 and 1934 , it was the first non @-@ Great Western Railway ( GWR ) type to use and improve upon the basic design principles established by GWR Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) George Jackson Churchward . The N class was based on the GWR 4300 Class design , improved with Midland Railway concepts .
The N class was mechanically similar to the SECR K class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 passenger tank engine , also by Maunsell . It influenced future 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 development in Britain and provided the basis for the 3 @-@ cylinder N1 class of 1922 . Production was delayed by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , and the first N class rolled out of Ashford Works in 1917 , three years after design work was completed . The class replaced obsolete 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s as part of the SECR 's fleet standardisation , as they used parts interchangeable with those of other classes .
Eighty N class locomotives were built in three batches between the First and Second World Wars . Fifty were assembled from kits of parts made at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich , giving rise to the nickname of " Woolworths " . They worked over most of the Southern Railway ( SR ) network , and were used by the Southern Region of British Railways ( BR ) until the last was withdrawn in 1966 . One N class locomotive is preserved on the Swanage Railway in Dorset , undergoing overhaul .
= = Background = =
Three factors dictated the type of locomotive that could run on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) : increased freight and passenger train loadings , poor track quality , and weak , lightly built bridges . An increasing number of passengers used the SECR to reach the cross @-@ Channel ferries at Dover and Folkestone between 1910 and 1913 , and heavy goods trains between Tonbridge and Hither Green marshalling yard stretched the capabilities of existing locomotives and infrastructure . On the lines of the former London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) , flint beach pebbles on a bed of ash had been used for ballast . Conventional track ballast has irregular shapes that " lock " together to keep the track in place , whereas the smooth pebbles used by the LCDR failed to prevent track movement under strain . The economies in construction meant that only locomotives with low axle loadings could run safely on the track . These restrictions meant that the SECR was unable to follow a coherent locomotive strategy that reduced costs and increased serviceability . The railway 's Operating Department had to use mismatched classes of underpowered and obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives because they could run within the restrictions imposed by the infrastructure . This meant frequent double @-@ heading that increased operational costs .
Richard Maunsell was appointed CME of the SECR in 1913 , following the retirement of Harry Wainwright due to ill health . Wainwright left a legacy of competent but unspectacular locomotives that struggled to cope with the increased train lengths and loadings . Maunsell took control of the short @-@ term situation by improving existing designs , and he introduced new engines to progressively replace obsolete classes . New designs could also cut costs on the SECR , as one capable mixed @-@ traffic locomotive could undertake the work of two separate passenger or freight types . The first new design was to become Maunsell 's N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 .
= = Design and construction = =
For detailed information on numbering variations , see : Livery and numbering
The N class was designed by Maunsell in 1914 to provide a sturdy mixed @-@ traffic locomotive with high route availability . Intended to replace several obsolete 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 types , the N class was the first step in the SECR 's fleet standardisation programme , which also included the K class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T passenger tank locomotive . Maunsell enlisted the help of former GWR engineer Harold Holcroft , who suggested that a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement would allow the class to run on the poor @-@ quality track in north Kent . This arrangement allowed for a longer wheelbase with leading axle to permit greater stability at speed on tight track curves , which had constrained the size of locomotives operating on the SECR . A longer locomotive could also accommodate a larger boiler than an 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , giving the N class sufficient power to avoid double @-@ heading of locomotives on heavier trains .
The N class incorporated the principles of power and reliability established by George Churchward , using a Belpaire firebox that sloped downwards towards the cab instead of a round @-@ topped version , a regulator located in the smokebox , long @-@ travel valves for free running up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , a sharply tapered and domeless boiler , and a right @-@ hand driving position . These features are attributed to Holcroft , who worked on the GWR 4300 class before joining the SECR . The boiler was intended to become a standard component for use on future SECR locomotive designs , thereby reducing building times and improving organisation at the works . The size was constrained by the heavier axle @-@ loading of Maunsell ’ s proposed 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive variant of the N class , the K class , and was consequently smaller than was otherwise possible on the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 chassis . The need to reduce overall weight also meant that the latter would feature lightly braced frames .
Maunsell 's Chief Locomotive Draughtsman , James Clayton , brought functional Midland Railway influences to the design , such as the shape of the cab and the drumhead @-@ type smokebox , which sat on a saddle that was of wider diameter than the fully lagged and clad boiler . Clayton was also responsible for the tender and chimney designs . Snifting valves were provided to prevent vacuum formation in the cylinders when the locomotive was stationary , and the outside Walschaerts valve gear incorporated single slide @-@ bars and piston tail rods . Innovations added by Maunsell 's team included steam @-@ powered locomotive brakes , locating the boiler water top feed inside a dome @-@ like cover with external clackboxes and water feed pipes mounted on either side , and a new type of superheater that segregated saturated and superheated steam . Maunsell also incorporated a screw reverser to control valve events , which was easier to maintain than the complex steam reverser configuration of previous SECR designs . All components were standardised for interchange with similar locomotive classes to ease maintenance and reduce production costs .
= = = SECR batch = = =
For a detailed examination of the modifications made to No. 822 , see : SR N1 class .
Production of the first batch was delayed by the outbreak of the First World War . Assembly began towards the end of the war and the first locomotive , No. 810 , emerged from Ashford Works for proving trials in July 1917 , one month after the first K class tank , whose design was derived from the N class . Entering service in August 1917 , No. 810 was trialled for three years before another 15 locomotives ( Nos. 811 – 825 ) were ordered in 1919 . These were built between 1920 and 1923 ; their construction delayed by a backlog of repairs caused by the war . The first left Ashford Works in June 1920 , featuring a greater superheating surface area within the boiler as a result of operational experience with No. 810 . All locomotives were equipped with 3 @,@ 500 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 15 @,@ 911 l ) tenders .
In 1922 modifications were made to No. 822 during assembly . This was because production delays at Ashford prevented the building of a proposed 3 @-@ cylinder design drawn @-@ up in 1919 . Maunsell and Holcroft revised No. 822 's cylinder arrangement to accommodate a third inside cylinder fitted between the frames . The outside cylinders were also reduced to 16 in × 26 in ( 406 mm × 660 mm ) diameter to accommodate the inside cylinder and its associated valve linkages . The differences between No. 822 and the rest of the N class meant that this locomotive was re @-@ designated as the 1919 proposal , becoming the prototype of the SR N1 class when completed in March 1923 .
= = = " Woolwich " batch = = =
The first batch of the N class proved successful in service , and few problems were encountered after settling @-@ in . The Ministry of Supply drew up a contract for a second batch to the same specification – to be built at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich . The government backing came as part of a proposal to nationalise the railways , which would require a standard fleet of locomotives to promote economies in production and maintenance . The nationalisation proposal was abandoned ; instead , the government passed the 1921 Railways Act , which grouped the railways into the " Big Four " in 1923 . Building of the second batch went ahead to retain skilled labour at Woolwich , but the fabrication of 119 boilers for allocation to the kits of parts was contracted @-@ out because of limited production capacity at Woolwich and Ashford ; the North British Locomotive Company built 85 , Robert Stephenson and Company 20 , and Kitson & Co . 14 . By 1924 , the prefabricated components stored at Woolwich formed 100 complete N class kits for purchase from the government .
The newly created Southern Railway , which had absorbed the SECR in the 1923 " Grouping " , undertook trials in the spring of 1924 to compare the performance of its freight locomotives . Because the Ns were designed to haul both freight and passenger traffic , Maunsell , as the newly appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Southern Railway , decided to compare the design with the N1 , LSWR S15 and LB & SCR K classes in trials that involved hauling trains of 65 loaded wagons . Although the S15 was superior in freight haulage capacity and operational economy , the N class ’ good all @-@ round performance on passenger and freight meant that the type was adopted as the company 's standard mixed @-@ traffic design . The Southern Railway subsequently bought fifty " Woolwich " kits for assembly at Ashford between June 1924 and August 1925 . These were identical to the SECR batch and were given numbers in the series A826 – A875 . The Midland Great Western Railway of Ireland bought 12 kits prior to absorption by the Great Southern and Western Railway , which bought an extra 15 . The latter 15 locomotives were divided into eight GSR Class 372 with 5 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 676 m ) driving wheels and six GSR Class 393 with 6 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 829 m ) driving wheels : the final kit was kept for spares .
The Metropolitan Railway bought six kits for conversion to the Metropolitan Railway K Class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T tank engines , which were similar in outline to the SECR K class . The remaining 17 complete kits at Woolwich were bought by the Southern Railway , and formed the basis of later locomotive classes such as the three @-@ cylinder SR W class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive . The prototype W class was produced in 1932 from N class parts with the addition of water tanks , a coal bunker , a rear bogie and a third cylinder between the frames . Woolwich also stocked a surplus of N class bogie components , and these were bought by the Southern for rebuilding the LB & SCR E1 class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tanks into the E1R class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 tanks .
= = = Southern Railway batch = = =
In 1932 , the Southern Railway ordered a final batch of 15 locomotives ( Nos. 1400 – 1414 ) to expand class availability on the Southern Railway 's network . These were built at Ashford works and differed from the previous 65 in a number of ways . The cabs of the final eight locomotives ( Nos. 1407 – 1414 ) were fitted for left @-@ hand driving , which was adopted as standard by the Southern Railway . The original N class chimney was replaced with the lower @-@ profile version used on the U1 class , which increased route availability by allowing the locomotives to pass under lower bridges and tunnels . Maunsell had begun to research smoke deflection techniques to improve driver visibility on the King Arthur class between 1926 and 1927 , which resulted in the adoption of a standard smoke deflector design for the Southern Railway . A smaller version was fitted to Nos. 1400 – 1414 during building .
Before entering service , the batch was attached to 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) tenders to increase operational range over the Southern Railway 's long Western section routes . Despite this advantage , tenders fitted to the eight left @-@ hand drive examples were intended for use with right @-@ hand drive locomotives . This resulted in the location of the fireman 's fittings on the " wrong " side of the cab . The design also necessitated the addition of a step to the footplate , as the boiler backhead was lower than the fall @-@ plate that connected the tender and cab floors . The new batch incorporated a new set of footsteps beneath the front buffer beam , modified slide @-@ bars and the dome was redesigned to incorporate the regulator to ease access during routine maintenance .
= = = N class construction history = = =
= = Operational details = =
The N class was used to haul services over most of the SECR network and became a familiar sight on the difficult cross @-@ country route between Tonbridge and Reading , on which the steep gradients had taxed the company 's 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 designs . The success of the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 in traversing this route was due to their higher @-@ capacity tapered boilers that produced an ample supply of steam , and the small 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) driving wheels that delivered considerable tractive effort when climbing gradients such as the 1 in 100 between Gomshall and Shalford .
After " The Grouping " in 1923 , the N class remained on the former SECR network , which was incorporated into the Southern Railway 's Eastern section . Typical services included Ramsgate , Ashford and Hither Green freights , and Cannon Street to Dover passenger trains . The spring of 1924 saw Nos. A815 and A825 transferred to the former LSWR mainline between Waterloo and Guildford for trials . These proved successful , and paved the way for the allocation of most of the Woolwich batch to the Southern Railway 's Western section . The type regularly replaced Dugald Drummond 's ageing LSWR T9 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s on portions of the Atlantic Coast Express over the steeply graded mainlines west of Exeter .
The N class was also successful on the Central section , where they worked alongside L. B. Billinton 's LB & SCR K class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s . However the large cylinder and cab sizes of the N class prevented use of the type on the Eastern section 's Tonbridge – Hastings line . The route 's narrow bridges and tunnels were unable to accommodate the class , and provided justification for using the narrower 3 @-@ cylinder N1 class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 on the route . Despite these restrictions , the class was capable of hauling heavy loads at moderate speeds , a useful attribute that was exploited throughout the Second World War . The entire class came into British Railways ' ownership in 1948 and could be seen in most areas of the Southern Region .
= = = Performance of the class and modifications = = =
When introduced in 1917 , the N class proved adept at hauling both passenger and freight services on the SECR . They were well liked by crews who appreciated the general robustness of the design , although the lightly built frames caused excessive vibration and rough riding on the footplate when worked hard . Despite there being little wrong with the original design , the N class ’ full steaming potential was not realised because of the failure to capitalise upon a larger boiler , which was a direct consequence of Maunsell ’ s standardisation policy . Instead , the SECR batch was trial @-@ fitted with " stovepipe " chimneys in an attempt to improve draughting . This was initially applied to No. 812 in 1921 , although two more were fitted to Nos. 817 and 819 during building because of a shortage of chimneys at Ashford Works . The chimney fitted to No. 819 was transferred to No. 818 sometime between 1921 and 1924 , though all " stovepipes " had been replaced with the standard N class type by April 1927 . Another trial saw the addition of a second slidebar to No. 825 , which gave better support to the valve gear and helped protect it from spillage from the driving wheel sander fillers .
The quality of the original design was such that No . A866 was put on display at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley from May to November 1925 , and no class @-@ wide modifications were made until 1934 . This was when the SECR and Woolwich batches began to receive new domes and front footsteps during overhauls and general repairs . These were the same design as those used on Nos. 1400 – 1414 , and were intended to standardise components between the batches . The SECR and Woolwich batches also received smoke deflectors to prevent drifting smoke from obscuring the driver 's vision ahead . The U1 chimneys replaced the standard N class type on the earlier locomotives , which , along with the removal of the piston tail rods on the earlier batches , created a truly standardised appearance .
In 1937 , Maunsell 's replacement Oliver Bulleid saw no need to improve draughting of the class , and spared them from trials with Lemaître multiple @-@ jet blastpipes and wide @-@ diameter chimneys . However , he had Maunsell 's smokebox @-@ mounted anti @-@ vacuum snifting valves removed at the end of the Second World War in an effort to reduce maintenance . Bulleid also had eight new 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) tenders built specially for the left @-@ hand drive locomotives . In 1947 , No. 1831 was given electric lighting and converted to oil @-@ burning as part of government @-@ backed fuel trials in anticipation of a post @-@ war coal shortage , though it was reverted to coal @-@ firing in December 1948 .
The class was heavily used by British Railways : 29 locomotives required replacement cylinders between 1955 and 1961 due to excessive wear . Frames were occasionally replaced due to stress caused by heavy use , and the steam circuit was revised when new cylinders were fitted : the inside steam pipes of Maunsell 's original design were replaced by outside steam pipes emerging from the smokebox , behind the smoke deflectors . From 1957 , some of the locomotives had larger @-@ diameter BR Standard Class 4 chimneys fitted to improve draughting with poor @-@ quality coal , though the decline of steam on the Southern Region precluded use on the entire class . Crew reports maintained that the latter modifications cut fuel and water consumption . The final set of modifications constituted the fitting of new injectors and Automatic Warning System ( AWS ) equipment in 1957 and 1959 respectively .
= = = Experiments = = =
Although sufficient for the Southern Railway 's needs , the N class was an ideal test @-@ bed for experiments with new steam technology . The first experiment entailed fitting a Worthington feed pump to No . A819 in 1924 . The trial was moderately successful , and the pump remained in use until removal in 1927 . In June 1930 , No . A816 was withdrawn from service for the application of experimental Anderson steam conservation equipment at Eastleigh Works . This was designed by a Scottish marine draughtsman , Mr. A.P.H. Anderson , who proposed the use of a fan system to condense spent steam and improve draughting of the fire on long @-@ distance runs in regions with poor access to water .
No . A816 emerged from Eastleigh in August 1931 for trials , but was stopped when temperature variations within the condensing equipment caused water leakage . Modifications were made to improve the draughting of the locomotive , incorporating a box @-@ like chimney attached to the condenser array by pipes . No . A816 was released for more trials , and produced performances well @-@ below those displayed by the unmodified members of the class . The experiment was ended when the system 's developers ran out of money , and the locomotive was converted back to standard form between May and August 1935 , re @-@ entering service as No. 1816 .
The final experiment with performance enhancement began in October 1933 , when No. 1850 had its Walschaerts valve gear replaced with J.T. Marshall valve gear at Eastleigh Works . The engine was trialled on the Western section , where the gear showed promise at slower speeds , with reduced consumption of coal and water . Problems were encountered at speeds over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , at which a severe " knocking " sound was reported by the footplate crew . When trialled on a Basingstoke – Waterloo semi @-@ fast ( a high @-@ speed passenger train that stops at selected intermediate stations ) , the valve gear disintegrated near Woking . After immediate withdrawal from traffic , the locomotive had its Walschaerts valve gear re @-@ fitted and No. 1850 re @-@ entered traffic in April 1934 .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
Suitable work for the class began to decline after completion of the Kent Coast route electrification in 1959 . The reduction of work precipitated a phased reduction of the class that began with the withdrawal of No. 31409 in November 1962 . The withdrawal programme intensified after boundary changes on the Southern Region placed the lines west of Salisbury under Western Region control in 1963 . Class members based at Exmouth Junction shed were withdrawn in 1964 , whilst the Southern Region 's allocation was gradually replaced by Bulleid 's Light Pacifics . The last operational members of the class were Nos. 31405 and 31408 ; both were withdrawn in June 1966 .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 4 April 1958 , locomotive No. 31867 was hauling a parcels train that overran signals and collided with an electric multiple unit at Gloucester Road Junction , Croydon , Surrey . Nine people were injured .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = SECR and Southern Railway = = =
N class locomotives were initially painted in an unlined dark grey livery with white lettering and numbering . This Maunsell grey livery was introduced by the SECR as a wartime economy measure . After Grouping in 1923 , the Southern Railway replaced the different liveries of the constituent companies with a standard sage green livery ( the colour was that previously used by Robert Urie on the LSWR ) with black and white lining , primrose yellow numbering and " Southern " on the tender . This livery was first applied to No. 825 .
From 1925 , the class was repainted in a darker olive green livery , introduced by Maunsell , with plain white lining , black borders and primrose yellow markings . In 1939 , shortly after the start of the Second World War , locomotives Nos. 1413 and 1850 were painted in unlined olive green because of labour shortages . In 1941 , Nos. 1821 , 1825 , 1847 , 1878 and 1403 were run in unlined olive green with Bulleid 's gilt block lettering . Labour and paint shortages during the Second World War meant that all N class locomotives were painted in plain black by 1945 . In 1946 , two locomotives , Nos. 1817 and 1854 , were repainted in Bulleid 's malachite green livery , with yellow and black lining and " Sunshine " yellow lettering .
The 15 locomotives built by Ashford Works for the SECR between August 1917 and December 1923 were numbered 810 – 824 . The Royal Arsenal batch of 50 locomotives purchased by the newly formed Southern Railway from 1923 were numbered A825 – A875 ; the numbers followed consecutively from the Ashford batch but with a prefix " A " to denote a locomotive allocated for overhaul at Ashford Works . The prefix was gradually applied to the SECR batch . From 1928 , a new system was adopted where all Southern Railway locomotives were renumbered into one sequence . The SECR and Woolwich N class batches became Nos. 1810 – 1875 . The final batch of 15 locomotives , built between 1932 and 1934 , were numbered 1400 – 1414 from new .
= = = British Railways = = =
The class was absorbed by British Railways in 1948 , and initially given the power classification 4MT in 1949 . Under British Railways ownership , the class was reclassified from 4MT to 4P5FB in 1953 ; the " B " denoting the brake power rating when used on unfitted ( non @-@ vacuum braked ) goods trains . The locomotives at first retained their Southern Railway livery , but with " British Railways " painted on the tender in Bulleid block lettering . Eight locomotives had light repairs prior to 1950 and were given an " S " prefix to the Southern number ( e.g. s1405 ) . From 1949 to 1950 N class locomotives were repainted in the British Railways mixed @-@ traffic lined black livery with red , cream and grey lining and the British Railways crest on the tender . Numbering was changed to the British Railways standard numbering system : the series 31810 – 31875 was allocated to the earlier locomotives , and 31400 – 31414 to the final 15 .
= = Operational assessment and preservation = =
The N class was the first to combine Churchward design principles with the best practices of other railways ; it was an important step in the development of the British 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , providing inspiration for the LMS Hughes Crab of 1926 and subsequent Maunsell designs . The locomotives were well received by crews , who nicknamed them " Woolworths " , because the majority were fabricated from cheaply produced parts from Woolwich . The robustness and reliability of the design ensured that their sphere of operation was expanded to cover most of the Southern Railway network . The utility of the N class as capable mixed @-@ traffic locomotives ensured their continued use until withdrawal in 1966 .
One member of the class is preserved , No . ( 3 ) 1874 , which was rescued in March 1974 from the Woodham Brothers scrapyard in Barry , Vale of Glamorgan , South Wales . One of the " Woolwich " batch , this locomotive was bought and restored for use on the Mid @-@ Hants Railway ; it was steamed for the first time in preservation in 1977 , and was operational at the railway 's re @-@ opening as a heritage attraction in April 1977 . The locomotive was withdrawn in 1998 due to problems that require firebox reconstruction . In 2012 the locomotive was repainted into its SR Wartime Black guise of 1874 for the first time in decades . The locomotive was moved from the Mid @-@ Hants Railway to the Swanage Railway in 2014 along with U Classes 31806 and 31625 . In August 2014 the overhaul to return 31874 to operational condition began .
= = Models = =
Bachmann Branchline make a model of the N class in OO gauge . [ Graham Farish ] make a model of the N class in [ N gauge ]
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= Unforgiven ( 2008 ) =
Unforgiven ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on September 7 , 2008 , at the Quicken Loans Arena in Cleveland , Ohio . It was the eleventh and final annual Unforgiven event , starring wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands .
Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card , which featured a supercard , a scheduling of more than one main event . The three brands , Raw , SmackDown , and ECW , were all represented by their respective Championship Scramble match – a 20 minute time limit bout , during which participants can become the temporary champion via pinfall or submission . The main event of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the Championship Scramble from the Raw brand . It was originally scheduled to feature World Heavyweight Champion CM Punk defending his title ; he was replaced by Chris Jericho after Randy Orton attacked CM Punk . Jericho won the match and became World Heavyweight Champion . The Championship Scramble from the ECW brand featured ECW Champion Mark Henry defending , losing the match and title to Matt Hardy . The SmackDown brand 's Championship Scramble saw WWE Champion Triple H defeat the other competitors to retain his championship . Another featured match on the undercard was an unsanctioned match , or hardcore match , in which Shawn Michaels defeated Chris Jericho .
The event marked the first time the Championship Scramble format was used by WWE . The event had an attendance of 8 @,@ 707 . The event received 211 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , more than the previous year 's event . When the event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of second on Billboard 's DVD sales chart .
= = Background = =
The event featured seven professional wrestling matches with outcomes predetermined by WWE script writers . The matches featured wrestlers portraying their characters in planned storylines that took place before , during and after the event . All wrestlers were from one of the WWE 's brands – SmackDown , Raw , or ECW – the three storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees . The event also marked the first time that the Championship Scramble format was used by the WWE .
Wrestlers from the Raw brand were featured in the main event at Unforgiven : a Championship Scramble match , a 20 minute time limit bout , during which participants enter at five @-@ minute intervals and can become the temporary champion via pinfall or submission . The match was contested for the World Heavyweight Championship , and was originally scheduled to be CM Punk defending the title against John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , Batista , Rey Mysterio , and Kane . During the event , however , Randy Orton attacked CM Punk and he was replaced in the match by Chris Jericho . The build up to the match began on the August 18 episode of Raw , when Raw General Manager Mike Adamle , who portrays an on screen authority figure , announced the match and its rules , stating that JBL , Batista , John Cena , Kane , and World Heavyweight Champion CM Punk would participate . The following week on Raw , Adamle announced that John Cena had been injured after his match against Batista at SummerSlam , and would be unable to compete in the Championship Scramble . Adamle then announced Rey Mysterio as Cena 's replacement . On the September 1 episode of Raw , a preview of the Championship Scramble match was featured , in which the five men fighting in the Championship Scramble competed in a traditional battle royal , which Kane won .
The other predominant match from the Raw brand was an unsanctioned match between Shawn Michaels and Chris Jericho . The build up to the match began at SummerSlam , when Michaels came to the ring to announce his storyline retirement . Jericho , however , interrupted the announcement and , in an attempt to punch Michaels , accidentally struck Michaels ' wife Rebecca . On the August 18 episode of Raw , Jericho stated that he had no remorse for what he did to Michaels wife , claiming that Michaels " had it coming " . The following week on Raw , Michaels announced he was not going to retire and asked Jericho for an unsanctioned match . Jericho agreed to the match , and the following week on Raw there was a contract signing for the match . The signing ended with Jericho and Michaels attacking each other .
The predominant match from the SmackDown brand was a Championship Scramble for the WWE Championship , in which title holder Triple H faced Jeff Hardy , The Brian Kendrick , Shelton Benjamin , and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) . The build up to the match began on the August 22 episode of SmackDown ! , when General Manager Vickie Guerrero announced that SmackDown would have a Championship Scramble match and that the competitors would include WWE Champion Triple H and four men to be decided later in the night through a series of qualifying matches . The first qualifying match was a ten man battle royal , which saw The Big Show disrupt the match and throw all the competitors over the top rope . The Brian Kendrick , however , was saved by his bodyguard , Ezekiel Jackson , who caught Kendrick and put him back in the ring after the Big Show had eliminated all other competitors . Thus , Kendrick qualified for the Championship Scramble . The second qualifying match saw MVP defeat Festus by count out , qualifying for the match . The third qualifying match was Shelton Benjamin versus Finlay , which Benjamin won . The final qualifying match was Jeff Hardy versus The Great Khali , which Hardy won .
The predominant match from the ECW brand was a third Championship Scramble , in which Mark Henry defended against Matt Hardy , The Miz , Chavo Guerrero , and Finlay . The build up to the match began on the August 26 episode of ECW , when General Manager Theodore Long announced that the ECW Championship would be defended in a Championship Scramble and that there would be qualifying matches that night to determine who would participate . The first qualifying match saw Matt Hardy defeat John Morrison to qualify . The second match was The Miz versus Evan Bourne , which The Miz won . The third qualifying match saw Chavo Guerrero defeat Tommy Dreamer to qualify , and the fourth match was Finlay versus Mike Knox , which Finlay won . On the September 1 episode of Raw , there was a preview of the Championship Scramble , in which the five participants took part in a traditional battle royal . The winner was ECW Champion Mark Henry .
= = Event = =
Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , a dark match was featured in which Evan Bourne defeated John Morrison with a shooting star press .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
Following the dark match , the pay @-@ per @-@ view event began with a Championship Scramble for the ECW Championship in which the champion , Mark Henry , defended against Matt Hardy , The Miz , Chavo Guerrero , and Finlay . In this type of match , competitors fight in a 20 minute time limit bout , during which participants can become the temporary champion by a pinfall or submission on any opponent . The match began with The Miz and Matt Hardy , who performed a variety of wrestling maneuvers including The Miz performing his signature move , a running knee lift and jumping neckbreaker , a combination called the " Reality Check " . After the first five minutes had passed , Chavo Guerrero came to the ring and quickly performed a body splash on Hardy and covered him for a pinfall , making him the interim champion . Guerrero continued with a variety of offensive maneuvers until Matt Hardy performed a wrist @-@ lock seated side slam , or " Side Effect " , on Guerrero and covered him for a pinfall , making him the temporary champion . After the next five minutes had passed , Mark Henry entered the ring . All three other men attacked him , but Henry overpowered them and performed a falling powerslam on Chavo Guerrero , covering him and scoring a pinfall to become the interim champion . After the next series of five minutes had passed , Finlay entered the ring . He attacked Henry and his storyline son Hornswoggle distracted Henry , allowing Finlay to strike him with a shillelagh , followed by a running over the shoulder back to belly piledriver , or " Celtic Cross " , on Hardy to become temporary champion . The match continued until Matt Hardy performed a front facelock cutter , or " Twist of Fate " , on The Miz . He covered The Miz and became the interim champion . Hardy continued to break up pinfall attempts until the end of the 20 minute time limit , at which time Matt Hardy , being the interim champion , won the ECW Championship .
The following bout was a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship , where the champions , Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase , defended their titles against Cryme Tyme , a tag team composed of Shad Gaspard and JTG . The match began with Cryme Tyme in control , and Shad threw JTG over the top rope onto Rhodes and DiBiase . Rhodes and DiBiase , however , isolated JTG in their corner and performed a number of offensive maneuvers on him . Rhodes attempted a moonsault onto JTG , but missed , allowing JTG to tag in Shad at the same time Rhodes tagged in DiBiase . Shad performed a back body drop on DiBiase , but while the referee was distracted , Rhodes performed a DDT on Shad . DiBiase attempted to cover Shad , but was forced to break the cover as Shad placed his foot on the bottom rope . JTG attempted an inside cradle pin on Rhodes , but Shad accidentally pushed DiBiase on Rhodes , reversing the pinfall attempt so that Rhodes scored the pin over JTG , retaining his and DiBiase 's title in the process .
The third contest was an unsanctioned match between Shawn Michaels and Chris Jericho . The match was contested under no disqualification and no count @-@ out rules , so both men utilized a number of weapons in their offense . Jericho and Michaels used weapons and objects such as folding tables , steel chairs , and fire extinguishers . The match also saw Lance Cade interfere on behalf of Jericho , but Michaels ultimately gained the advantage over both men , leading to him placing both men on an announcer 's table and diving onto them with his elbow cocked , sending them through the table . After returning Jericho to the ring , Michaels continued to attack Jericho . The referee ended the match when he determined that Jericho could no longer defend himself against Michaels , making Michaels the victor by referee stoppage .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The main event for the SmackDown brand was a Championship Scramble for the WWE Championship in which the champion , Triple H , defended against Jeff Hardy , The Brian Kendrick , Shelton Benjamin , and Montel Vontavious Porter . The match began with Jeff Hardy and Shelton Benjamin , with both men wrestling inconclusively until the first five @-@ minute interval had passed , and The Brian Kendrick entered the match . Soon after Kendrick 's entrance , Hardy performed a reverse powerbomb on him and covered him , scoring a pinfall and becoming the interim WWE Champion . Later , Kendrick performed The Kendrick on Hardy and covered him for a pinfall , becoming the temporary WWE Champion . Shortly after , the second five @-@ minute interval expired and MVP entered the match . All four men in the match continued to fight , with no pinfalls being scored until the third five @-@ minute interval expired , at which point Triple H entered the match . Soon after his entrance , performed a spinebuster , followed by a Pedigree on Kendrick , covering him to become the interim champion . Hardy returned to the ring and performed a Twist of Fate on MVP , covering him for a pinfall and becoming temporary champion . After disrupting Hardy 's attempt to perform a maneuver off the top turnbuckle , Triple H performed another Pedigree on Kendrick to become interim champion again . Shortly after , however , Hardy performed a Swanton Bomb on Kendrick and again became temporary champion after a cover . The match ended with Triple H performing a Pedigree on MVP and Hardy performing a Swanton Bomb on Benjamin ; however , Triple H covered MVP faster and scored the pinfall with one second remaining on the clock . The time limit expired and Triple H retained the WWE Championship .
Following this , a backstage segment took place in which CM Punk was being interviewed regarding his title defense in the Championship Scramble later in the evening . The interview was interrupted by Randy Orton , and as he spoke with Punk , Cody Rhodes , Ted DiBiase , and Manu attacked CM Punk , as well as Kofi Kingston who tried to help Punk . After they had attacked both Punk and Kingston , Orton made use of this opportunity to perform a running punt on Punk .
The fifth contest was a standard match in which WWE Divas Champion Michelle McCool defended her title against Maryse . Maryse began the match attacking McCool 's knee , but McCool soon countered by grabbing Maryse 's foot and twisting it , a submission hold called a heel hook . Maryse , however , reached the ropes and caused McCool to break the hold . Later in the match , McCool performed a lifting double underhook facebuster , a move called the " Wings of Love " , and covered Maryse to retain her championship .
Following the match , an in ring segment took place in which The Big Show , entered the ring and asked the crowd whether they thought he should have been in the Championship Scramble for the WWE Championship . SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero , who portrays an on @-@ screen authority figure for the SmackDown brand , then came to the ring and proceeded to insult the Big Show , and demanded that he leave the ring . Druids then came to the ring bringing a casket , and The Undertaker appeared on the TitanTron , telling Guerrero to either get in the casket herself or he would put her in it . Guerrero refused to enter the casket voluntarily , so The Undertaker began to come to ringside . The Big Show held back Guerrero as The Undertaker came to the ring . Once he was in the ring , The Undertaker began to choke Guerrero , but the Big Show turned heel , becoming a villainous character , by striking The Undertaker and freeing Guerrero . He proceeded to attack The Undertaker , and restrained him to allow Guerrero to slap him and spit in his face .
The main event from the Raw brand was a Championship Scramble for the World Heavyweight Championship . The event was originally scheduled to be World Heavyweight Champion CM Punk defending against John " Bradshaw " Layfield , Batista , Rey Mysterio , and Kane . However , due to the attack on CM Punk earlier in the night , CM Punk was unable to compete and was replaced by Chris Jericho ( this information was not revealed until the final five minutes of the match , at which point Chris Jericho entered in place of CM Punk ) . Batista and JBL began the match , performing a variety of offensive maneuvers until the first five @-@ minute interval had passed , and Kane entered the match . Later , JBL attempted to strike Kane with his forearm , a move JBL calls a " Clothesline from Hell " , but was caught by Kane . Kane then lifted JBL by the throat and slammed him to the mat , called a chokeslam , and covered him for a pinfall , becoming the interim champion . Soon after , the second five @-@ minute interval expired and Rey Mysterio entered the match . The match continued for several minutes , until the final five @-@ minute interval expired and Jericho entered the match as a replacement for CM Punk , shocking everyone . Soon after Jericho 's entrance , Batista performed a spinebuster on Kane , covering him for a pinfall and becoming temporary champion . Batista was left as the only man standing until Jericho returned to the ring and covered the already downed Kane , scoring a pinfall and becoming interim champion . The time limit expired soon after , and Jericho won the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
On the September 8 episode of Raw , it was announced that CM Punk would challenge Chris Jericho in an attempt to win back the World Heavyweight Championship , with the two fighting in a steel cage match the following week . On the following week 's Raw , Chris Jericho escaped the cage before Punk , and thus retained his championship . Later that night , General Manager Mike Adamle announced that Batista would face JBL in a number one contender 's match at No Mercy . Following this announcement , Shawn Michaels announced that he would be facing Chris Jericho in a ladder match at No Mercy . Two weeks later on the September 29 episode of Raw , Chris Jericho and Lance Cade faced a reunited D @-@ Generation X ( Shawn Michaels and Triple H ) in a tag team match , which D @-@ Generation X won via disqualification . At No Mercy , Batista defeated JBL to become number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship , and Chris Jericho defeated Shawn Michaels to retain the World Heavyweight Championship .
On the September 12 episode of SmackDown , a standard wrestling match involving four wrestlers was held between Jeff Hardy , The Brian Kendrick , Shelton Benjamin , and MVP , with the stipulation that the winner would go on to face Triple H at No Mercy for the WWE Championship . Jeff Hardy won the match and earned a title match at No Mercy . At No Mercy , Triple H defeated Hardy to retain his championship .
On the September 16 episode of ECW , it was announced that Matt Hardy would defend the ECW Championship against Mark Henry at No Mercy . At No Mercy , Hardy defeated Henry to retain his championship .
Almost two and a half years later at Royal Rumble 2011 CM Punk prevented Randy Orton from winning the WWE Championship from The Miz . Eventually Punk revealed that he did this to get revenge on Orton for costing him the championship at Unforgiven in 2008 .
= = = Reception = = =
Despite the event 's promotional build @-@ up , only a reported 6 @,@ 000 tickets were initially sold for an arena that holds 20 @,@ 000 people . To fill the arena , local radio stations gave away tickets to the show . The event had a final attendance of 8 @,@ 707 . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 stars . The rating was higher than the Unforgiven event in 2007 , which was rated a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars . The Championship Scramble main event match from the Raw brand was rated a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars , while the SmackDown brand 's main event , a Championship Scramble for the WWE Championship , was rated an 8 out of 10 stars . The Sun gave a positive review of the event , praising the Jericho / HBK Match and Jericho 's World Championship victory . Furthermore , the continuation of the Hardy / Triple H feud was similarly praised . The event was released on DVD on October 7 , 2008 by Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of November 1 , 2008 , although it fell off the chart thereafter .
= = Results = =
ECW Championship Scramble Interim Champions
WWE Championship Scramble Interim Champions
World Heavyweight Championship Scramble Interim Champions
|
= Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music =
Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music is a studio album by American recording artist Ray Charles , released in April 1962 on ABC @-@ Paramount Records . Recording sessions for the album took place in early to mid @-@ February 1962 at Capitol Studios in New York City and at United Recording Studios in Hollywood . Production was handled entirely by Charles and conductor Sid Feller . A departure from Charles 's previous work , the album features country , folk , and Western music standards covered and redone by Charles in popular song forms of the time , including rhythm and blues , pop , and jazz .
As his fifth LP release for ABC @-@ Paramount , Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music became a rapid critical and commercial success as it brought Ray Charles further mainstream notice , following his tenure for Atlantic Records . With the help of the album 's four charting singles , Charles earned recognition in the pop market , as well as airplay on both R & B and country radio stations . Modern Sounds and its lead single , " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , were both certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1962 , as each record had shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Regarded by many critics as Charles 's best studio album , Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music has been considered by several music writers to be a landmark album in American music . The album 's integration of soul and country music bent racial barriers in popular music , amid the height of the African @-@ American civil rights struggle . In the process of recording the album , Charles became one of the first African @-@ American musicians to exercise complete artistic control over his own recording career . The album has been called one of the greatest albums of all time by publications such as Rolling Stone and Time .
= = Background = =
After his Atlantic Records contract ended , Ray Charles signed with ABC @-@ Paramount Records in November 1959 , obtaining a much more generous contract than other artists had at the time . Following his commercial and pop crossover breakthrough with the hit single " What 'd I Say " earlier that year , ABC offered Charles a $ 50 @,@ 000 annual advance , higher royalties than previously offered and eventual ownership of his masters — a very valuable and lucrative deal at the time . Composed by Charles himself , the single furthered Charles 's mainstream appeal , while becoming a Top 10 pop hit and selling a million copies in the United States , despite the ban placed on the record by some radio stations , in response to the song 's sexually @-@ suggestive lyrics . However , by the time of the release of the instrumental jazz LP Genius + Soul = Jazz ( 1960 ) for ABC 's subsidiary label Impulse ! , Charles had virtually given up on writing original material and had begun to follow his eclectic impulses as an interpreter .
Charles ' first hit single for ABC @-@ Paramount was " Georgia on My Mind " . Originally written by Stuart Gorrell and Hoagy Carmichael , Charles ' version was produced by Sid Feller and released in 1960 , earning Charles national acclaim and a Grammy Award . The song was Charles 's first collaboration with Feller , who also arranged and conducted the recording . Charles earned another Grammy for the follow @-@ up " Hit the Road Jack " , written by R & B singer Percy Mayfield . By late 1961 , Charles had expanded his small road ensemble to a full @-@ scale big band , partly as a response to increasing royalties and touring fees , becoming one of the few black artists to crossover into mainstream pop with such a level of creative control . This success , however , came to a momentary halt in November 1961 , as a police search of Charles 's hotel room in Indianapolis , Indiana , during a concert tour led to the discovery of heroin in his medicine cabinet . The case was eventually dropped , as the search had been undertaken without a proper warrant , and Charles soon returned his focus on music and recording .
= = Conception = =
Following his blues fusion with gospel and jazz influences on his earlier Atlantic material , which had brought him much fame and controversy , Charles sought to experiment with country music . As noted by himself in the liner notes for What 'd I Say ( 1959 ) , Charles was influenced by the genre in his youth , stating that he " used to play piano in a hillbilly band " and that he believed that he " could do a good job with the right hillbilly song today . " At Atlantic , he attempted to incorporate this style and influence with his cover of country singer Hank Snow 's " I 'm Movin ' On " . Charles later said about the song , " When I heard Hank Snow sing ' Moving On ' , I loved it . And the lyrics . Keep in mind , I ’ m a singer , so I like lyrics . Those lyrics are great , so that ’ s what made me want to do it . " The " I 'm Movin ' On " sessions were his last for Atlantic .
Charles 's recording of his acclaimed studio effort The Genius of Ray Charles ( 1959 ) brought him closer to expressing his jazz and pop crossover ambitions . Described by one music critic as " the most important of his albums for Atlantic " , the record was the first to introduce Charles 's musical approach of blending his brassy R & B sound with the more middle of the road , pop @-@ oriented style , while performing in the presence of a big band ensemble . Recording of the album , as well his ABC @-@ Paramount debut , The Genius Hits the Road ( 1960 ) , a collection of place @-@ name songs devoted to parts of the United States , expanded on Charles 's thematic and conceptually @-@ organized approach to albums rather than commercially successful singles production . Inspired by this approach and his recording of " I 'm Movin ' On " , Charles originally made plans for a single @-@ less concept album .
When Charles had announced that he wanted to work on an album of country music in 1961 , during a period of racial segregation and tension in the United States , he received generally negative commentary and feedback from his peers , including fellow R & B musicians and ABC @-@ Paramount executives . The country album concept , however , meant more to Charles as a test of his record label 's faith in him and respect for his artistic freedom than as a test of social tolerance among listeners amid racial distinctions of country and R & B. Fueled by his esteem for creative control , Charles pitched the idea of a country album to ABC representatives . Following the successful lobby of the concept and a contract renewal in early 1962 , which was linked to the launching of his own Tangerine label , Charles prepared his band for the recording sessions that produced Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music .
= = Recording = =
Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music was the 18th overall LP Charles had recorded . According to him , the title of the album was conceived by producer Sid Feller and ABC @-@ Paramount 's executives and management people . The recording sessions for the album took place at three sessions in mid @-@ February 1962 . The first two sessions were set on February 5 and 7 at Capitol Studios in New York , New York , at which one half of the album was recorded and produced . The other half was recorded on February 15 of that same year at United Recording Studios in Hollywood , California . Instead of drawing what he should record from memory and his knowledge of country music , Charles asked Feller , his newly appointed A & R ( Artists and Repertoire ) man , to research top country standards through major country music publishers .
By canvassing premier country publishing companies , such as Acuff @-@ Rose Publishing ( which featured the Hank Williams catalog ) and Hill & Range Songs ( most of which were located in Nashville , Tennessee ) , Feller amassed around 250 songs on tape for Charles to consider recording for Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . From New York City , Feller sent the recordings to Charles , who was living in California at the time , for him to choose . According to music essayist Daniel Cooper :
While his selections provided the album 's country and western foundation , the musical arrangements represented its contemporary influence . Eager to display his big band ensemble in studio , Charles enlisted premier jazz arrangers Gerald Wilson and Gil Fuller , while Marty Paich , who was active in the West Coast jazz scene , was hired to arrange the lush strings and chorus numbers . Despite enlisting a roster of professional arrangers and musicians , Charles intended to control the artistic direction of the recordings . To indicate specific licks he wanted emphasized for certain songs , Charles would put together voice @-@ and @-@ piano demos and pass them along to the arrangers , informing them of what he wanted to do with specific sounds . According to Feller , at one point during recording , Charles rewrote an entire botched arrangement and dictated the parts to each of the 18 backing musicians .
= = Composition = =
The album 's themes are about heartbreak and love , while most of the material chosen by Charles were ballads as well . The concept which had originally attracted the interest of Charles to this style of music was the strength he admired in writing such a ballad 's somber or melancholy lyrics and then performing the ballad beautifully and with emotional stability ; an element he had found to be common in even the most diverse musical genres . Writer Daniel Cooper said of Charles 's adaptation of country elements , " His country forays play like a series of intricate variations or like one long meditation on the expansive qualities of music commonly described as the white man 's blues . " Allmusic 's Stephen Cook writes that " Charles intones the sleepy @-@ blue nuances of country crooners while still giving the songs a needed kick with his gospel outbursts . "
Despite the racial and social implications of R & B and country at the time , Charles did not agree with contemporary views of race records and other genres , including pop and country , as essentially different . In an interview with Ben Fong @-@ Torres of Rolling Stone , Charles said of the similarities between the blues and country music , " [ T ] he words to country songs are very earthy like the blues , see , very down . They 're not as dressed up , and the people are very honest and say , ' Look , I miss you , darlin ' , so I went out and I got drunk in this bar . ' That 's the way you say it . Where in Tin Pan Alley will say , ' Oh , I missed you darling , so I went to this restaurant and I sat down and I had dinner for one . ' That 's cleaned up now , you see ? But country songs and the blues is like it is . "
In an interview with music historian Peter Guralnick , Charles further elaborated on his understanding , stating " You take country music , you take black music , you got the same goddamn thing exactly . " While Modern Sounds features mostly covers of country and western music standards , its sound and musical style are marked by the heavy rhythm and blues influence of Charles 's playing . A considerable amount of the material 's melancholy lyrics and words are backed by piano and orchestral arrangements that are rooted in jazz , as well as West Coast and Charles 's style of piano blues . Charles has said that the country album was " completely different from rhythm and blues " .
= = Songs = =
" You Don 't Know Me " has a string and vocal ensemble production and themes of desirous unrequited love . The song 's narrator longs for a woman that views him as " just a friend / That 's all I 've ever been / For you don 't know me . " Allmusic editor Bill Janovitz writes of the song 's affecting narrative , stating " The genius , the pathos , and the soul that is Charles oozes into this recording [ ... ] No matter how many times one hears the song , it still induces chills down the spine after the narrator blows any chance he might have had and is left alone at the end . "
Both composed by Hank Williams , " You Win Again " and " Hey , Good Lookin ' " are derived from Williams 's different emotional perspectives . The difference is further accentuated by Charles 's interpretations of the songs . " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , a countrypolitan ballad with lush , cushioned arrangements , was placed at the 11th spot in the track listing , assumed by Sid Feller to be the album 's weakest song , after which becoming the album 's top @-@ selling single . Charles was disappointed with him , as Feller was in charge of sequencing for the album .
A component of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music is Charles 's creative reliance on honky tonk musician Floyd Tillman 's songwriting , covering the heartbreak ballads " It Makes No Difference Now " and " I Love You So Much It Hurts " . The Ted Daffan @-@ penned " Worried Mind " and " Born to Lose " expand his take on country balladry and feature a blend of piano blues with string arrangements .
= = Commercial performance = =
Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music became one of the best @-@ selling albums recorded by a black musician of the time , as well as one of the best @-@ selling country albums , shipping at least 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first three months of release . This achievement was due in part to the mainstream promotional efforts Modern Sounds had received from ABC prior to and following release . The album proved to be a crossover hit as well , as distributors claimed the record had been selling in pop , R & B and country music markets ; at the time , often referred to as white and black markets during the period .
Upon the album 's release in early April 1962 in both mono and stereo format , a reviewer for Billboard magazine claimed that " In addition to being powerful dealer material , this package will fracture knowledgeable jockeys who will find in it a wealth of material to talk about as well as play . " By mid @-@ April , reports of the album 's sales and radio airplay had started coming in from cities such as Dallas and Philadelphia . On June 23 , 1962 , the mono issue of Modern Sounds replaced the West Side Story soundtrack album as the number one album in the United States , knocking it off the top of the Billboard Pop Albums chart . The album spawned four charting singles , " Born to Lose " , " Careless Love " , " I Can 't Stop Loving You " and " You Don 't Know Me " , the latter two of which went number one on the Adult Contemporary chart . The hit singles quickly gained a significant amount of radio airplay on both country and R & B stations . By mid @-@ May , the album 's lead single , " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , had sold 700 @,@ 000 copies within its first four weeks of release . Record dealers began describing the album as " equal in sales action to some of the early Presley disks " and , after moving 400 @,@ 000 copies of the single , influential Atlanta record distributor Gwen Kestler told Billboard magazine that " the record is so hot in her district that people who don 't even own record players are buying it . " " I Can 't Stop Loving You " hit number one on the Billboard Pop Singles chart on June 2 , spending five consecutive weeks at the top of the chart . By the time it fell off the top , the single was reported to have reached nearly a million and a half in sales , moving over 100 @,@ 000 copies per week . In July the record spent two weeks at number one in Great Britain .
As Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music and its singles were performing well in the United States , Charles toured Europe with his big band and the Raelettes . He performed both his signature R & B and jazz material at such venues as Paris Olympia and the Hot Club de France , where he was hailed as " a true jazz artist in the tradition of Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington . " Upon his return to the United States at the end of the summer , ABC @-@ Paramount had officially recognized his achievements , presenting Charles with two gold records — one for " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , the other for his Modern Sounds album — during a live concert performance at the Convention Hall in Asbury Park , New Jersey . Through his ventures into country music and the European jazz scene , Charles 's white audience grew significantly at concerts . The album was quickly followed by another recording of country , western and pop standards covered by Charles , and recorded in September 1962 . Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music , Vol . 2 was released six months after the first volume and proved to be equally successful , while also earning a gold certification by the following year . Following his tenure with ABC @-@ Paramount , Charles later went on to achieve more commercial success recording country music under Warner Bros. Records throughout most of the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music received positive reviews from music critics of both rhythm and blues and country music . Billboard called it " one of the most intriguing albums in a long time " and found its concept " wonderful " . " I Can 't Stop Loving You " subsequently earned Charles a Grammy Award for Best Rhythm & Blues Recording at the 1963 Grammy Awards , while the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Album of the Year .
Since its initial reception , the album has been praised by critics for Charles 's style and manner of interpreting country music into his R & B musical language . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the " masterful interpretation of several country standards ... opened a lot of pop ears to country music and showed Nashville much about the proper use of orchestration . " Allmusic editor Stephen Cook called the album a " fine store of inimitable interpretations " , and stated , " Less modern for its country @-@ R & B blend and lushly produced C & W tone than for its place as a high @-@ profile crossover hit , Modern Sounds in Country and Western fit right in with Ray Charles 's expansive musical ways while on the Atlantic label in the ' 50s " . Chris Neal of Country Weekly commented that Charles " recast 12 country favorites in big @-@ band and orchestrated settings with a visionary ’ s easy grace " , adding that he " gets to the heart of each [ song ] in a way that remains thoroughly modern . " John Morthland of the Oxford American called it a " landmark LP of transcendent vocals set against kitschy orchestrations that ( along with early rock ' n ' roll ) illuminated black @-@ white roots connections for a popular audience . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1999 , the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , as was " I Can 't Stop Loving You " in 2001 . Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music was cited by The Recording Academy as a recording of " historical significance " . " I Can 't Stop Loving You " was ranked number 49 on Country Music Television 's list of the 100 Greatest Songs of Country Music . In November 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 104 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , one of Charles 's two entries and his highest ranking on the list ; it is accompanied only by his The Genius of Ray Charles at number 263 .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = Country music = = =
In the wake of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music and its success , country music experienced an immediate increase in popularity . According to music writer Daniel Cooper , " the album raised the genre 's profile " , specifically Nashville sound , which Charles had covered . Benefiting from this were songwriters , music publishers , and country singers who covered the subgenre 's material . As noted by Cooper , by the end of 1962 , Nashville country publishers were being held as " the hottest source of music material in the record business these days . " Charles 's success with the stylistic fusion of country and soul on Modern Sounds led to similar efforts from artists such as Candi Staton and Solomon Burke , who were greatly influenced by the album . Many country music artists such as Willie Nelson and Buck Owens have cited Charles 's take on the genre with the album as a major influence . In an interview for Country Music Television , Nelson said that the album " did more for country music than any one artist has ever done . " Doug Freeman of the Austin Chronicle wrote of Charles 's influence through the album , stating :
Summing up on the impact Modern Sounds had on country music and listeners , writer Daniel Cooper states , " There is no telling how many people , who perhaps never paid much attention to country music or even had professed to dislike it , listened anew based on the impact of having heard what Ray Charles was capable of doing with that music . " Charles eventually earned a country music repertoire and reputation following the success of the Modern Sounds records , later country hit singles for Warner Bros. Records , and various appearances at country music events , including The Johnny Cash Show in 1970 and the Grand Ole Opry 's 58th anniversary in 1983 , the program to which he listened to as a youth .
= = = Social impact = = =
Following the album 's release , Charles quickly earned an influx of white listeners and audiences at concert venues , without experiencing any fall @-@ out from his predominantly black audience . Writer Daniel Cooper later said of the album 's effect , " It 's an idea as corny as any country song you can think of , and one that Charles knew to be true ; music unites people . It just really does . " Throughout the years following its initial reception , Modern Sounds gained further acknowledgment of its impact on the music industry and society . Through conceiving and recording the album , Charles became one of the first African @-@ American musicians to receive and practice artistic control bestowed upon by a mainstream record company . In a 1998 interview , country musician Raul Malo acknowledged the album 's influence , calling it " one of the most important records of our time , not only because of its content , but also due to its social and political ramifications . " In a July 8 , 2004 article for Rolling Stone magazine , music journalist Robert Christgau praised the impact and influence that the Modern Sounds recordings had on music , stating " In the world it created , not only could a black person sing the American songbook Ella Fitzgerald owned by then , but a country black person could take it over . Soon Charles 's down @-@ home diction , cotton @-@ field grit , corn @-@ pone humor and overstated shows of emotion were standard operating procedure in American music , black and white . "
In addition to its social implications , the musical integration of soul and country into popular format by Charles changed and revolutionized racial boundaries and restraints in music , and contributed to the historical Civil Rights Movement . Robert Fontenot of About.com was one of several writers to praise the album 's musical and social implications , stating " Arguably one of the most brilliant interpretive albums ever released , it did more to integrate modern American music than almost any other LP in history . " In paying tribute to the magazine 's selection of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time , which had selected Charles at # 2 , singer @-@ songwriter Billy Joel noted the album 's racial and social impact in an article for Rolling Stone , stating " here is a black man giving you the whitest possible music in the blackest possible way , while all hell is breaking loose with the civil rights movement . " Another article for Rolling Stone , written in honor of Charles and his achievements , later stated that through his Modern Sounds recordings , Ray Charles " made it acceptable for black people to sing country & western music , in the process doing almost as much to break down racial barriers as did the civil @-@ rights movement . "
= = = Subsequent work by Charles = = =
In addition to the album 's legacy as one of the most influential recordings of all time , Modern Sounds also had an effect on Charles 's later work . According to writer Nate Guidry , the recording marked the zenith of Charles 's popularity and success . By the mid @-@ 1960s and continuing into the 1970s and 1980s , the majority of his musical output was focused onto more middle of the road and pop releases , featuring less of his recognizable , trademark soul and R & B , and more of the crossover and fusion tendencies of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . On the album 's influence , columnist Spencer Leigh of The Independent stated that " Numerous artists followed Charles 's lead , but it must be said that Charles himself repeated the trick much too often . " The period of releases following Modern Sounds , which includes the musician 's later recording years as well , has been recognized by music writers and critics as a " critical slide " and the weakest in his recording career . Several of the LP albums from this period have yet to be reissued and have remained rare among record collectors , if not out of print . Charles 's final studio album Genius Loves Company ( 2004 ) would later be released shortly after his death , and proved to be a comeback success , in terms of sales and critical response , as it quickly became Charles 's first top @-@ 10 album in forty years and the best @-@ selling record of his career .
On October 27 , 1998 , Rhino Entertainment issued a four @-@ disc box set entitled The Complete Country & Western Recordings : 1959 – 1986 , which chronicles Charles 's country and western recordings . The collection features the two volumes of Modern Sounds , as well as his later country singles for Warner Bros. Included in the set is a hardcover booklet of essays by producer Sid Feller , writer Daniel Cooper , and Ray Charles , along with liner photography by Howard Morehead and Les Leverett . On June 2 , 2009 , both volumes of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music were reissued as a single package by Concord Music . The reissue was also included as a download in the iTunes Store .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks were produced by Ray Charles and Sid Feller .
Reissue bonus tracks
The album was later reissued on compact disc by the specialty record label Rhino Entertainment in October 1988 with three bonus tracks .
= = Personnel = =
Ray Charles – piano , vocals , producer
Additional musicians
Hank Crawford – alto saxophone
Gil Fuller , Gerald Wilson – arrangements ( big band )
Marty Paich – arrangements ( strings )
Technical personnel
Frank Abbey – engineering ( tracks 1 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 10 , 12 )
Joe Adams – production ( track 14 )
Bob Arnold – engineering ( track 15 )
Hugh Bell – photography
Johnny Cue – engineering ( track 13 )
Todd Everett – liner notes
Sid Feller – production
Bill Inglot – remastering
Michael Ochs Archives – photography
Ken Perry – remastering
Bill Putnam – engineering ( tracks 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 11 , 15 )
Gene Thompson – engineering ( tracks 1 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 10 , 12 )
= = Charts = =
Albums
Singles
|
= Temperatures Rising =
Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46 @-@ episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line @-@ ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as the no @-@ nonsense chief @-@ of @-@ staff who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern played by Cleavon Little , and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) .
For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson in the second season . The series was re @-@ titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast consisting of : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny @-@ pinching chief @-@ of @-@ staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital .
The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format — albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast and a new line @-@ up of supporting players consisting of Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes after which it was cancelled permanently .
= = First season = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Temperatures Rising was one of two sitcoms that the ABC network premiered in its 1972 – 73 prime time schedule , the other being The Paul Lynde Show . Both series were produced and developed by William Asher and his partner Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems , which had scored a major success for the network with Bewitched , a fantasy sitcom that first aired in 1964 starring Asher 's wife , Elizabeth Montgomery . Asher and Screen Gems made a deal with ABC to cancel Bewitched a year earlier than contracts stipulated , thereby allowing them the opportunity to develop the two new sitcoms . Ackerman served as executive producer and Asher as producer .
Asher and Ackerman derived the format of the series from an unsold pilot they had produced for ABC in 1965 . Entitled This is a Hospital ? , and written by Sheldon Keller , it starred comedian Shecky Greene as a mischievous intern who Asher referred to as " Sgt. Bilko in a hospital " . Asher also drew on the British Carry On franchise as his inspiration for Temperatures Rising .
= = = Original cast = = =
Set in Capitol General , a fictional Washington , D.C. , hospital , the series centered on five characters . Cleavon Little starred as Dr. Jerry Noland , a ghetto @-@ raised intern who works on the side as the hospital bookie and finds humor in anything from an operation to a con job . Joan Van Ark played Annie Carlisle , the hospital 's beautiful , young , sexy , head nurse , who is " always covering up for the inept crew " . Reva Rose played Nurse Mildred " Millie " MacInerny , who offers satirical comments on the shenanigans going on in the hospital . Nancy Fox was cast as Ellen Turner , a shy student nurse who becomes Noland 's most faithful follower . James Whitmore starred as Dr. Vincent Campanelli , the hospital 's chief of surgery . Campanelli is presented as an Italian @-@ American , former combat surgeon , who looks upon Noland with both pride and shock , and refers to the young intern and nurses Carlisle , MacInerny , and Turner as the " Four Horsemen of Aggravation " .
Cleavon Little 's guest appearance on All in the Family led to his casting in Temperatures Rising , which in turn led to the leading role in the Mel Brooks comedy film Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) . Little 's casting reflected " pressure from the government and Negro organizations and concerned whites who believe that black representation on television was long overdue " . William Asher later stated that Temperatures Rising gave him a chance to work with a black actor . Nancy Fox was cast in Temperatures Rising after Elizabeth Montgomery spotted her in a commercial for Close @-@ Up toothpaste . Asher had considered her for a part in The Paul Lynde Show . During the time that Temperatures Rising was in production Fox declined an offer to leave the series and star in another , Needles and Pins .
= = = Overview = = =
In a 2000 interview , William Asher described Temperatures Rising as being about : " a young black surgeon who was always into mischief and things , but he was a very competent surgeon . James Whitmore was the head surgeon and he used to drive Whitmore crazy " . The pilot episode of Temperatures Rising was written by Sheldon Keller , who turned to his This is a Hospital ? script for inspiration . It features Noland broadcasting a bingo game in code over the hospital 's public @-@ address system . Jack Albertson guest starred as a United States Senator . Subsequent episodes feature Noland performing a secret operation on a young baseball player while Campanelli deals with a hospital inspector ( Ed Platt ) and John Astin as a gangster wanting Noland to be his personal physician . In another episode , Noland hypnotizes a patient ( Alice Ghostley ) and , accidentally , Nurse Turner as well . This nearly costs the hospital a large donation from a potential benefactor ( Charles Lane ) . In later episodes , Campanelli is seen having a brief romance with Nurse Turner 's aunt ( Beverly Garland ) , Noland helping out a new intern ( Bernie Kopell ) who has a reputation for being a jinx , and performing a witchcraft ritual on a patient ( Alan Oppenheimer ) who thinks he has been cursed .
Jack Albertson returned in a later episode that features Dr. Campanelli participating in a documentary film about hospital surgery . Unfortunately , Campanelli develops stage fright during filming . Noland then takes over the operation and receives all the acclaim . Bernie Kopell returned to his role as a hospital orderly in two episodes , one in which he causes a furor with a hospital scandal sheet , the other when Noland has to save him from being fleeced by a patient who is also a card sharp .
There was some racially tinged comic bantering in the series , such as scenes with Noland giving cotton to a nurse and stating , " Honey , picking cotton is part of my heritage , " or observing some adhesive strips labeled " flesh colored " and remarking , " Maybe this is your idea of flesh colored , but it wouldn 't make it in my neighborhood . " Aside from these , racial issues were avoided , as Asher and Ackerman felt that ABC was not interested in having them mixed into the comedy .
In discussing the series William Asher noted :
We too often forget the humanity of doctors and nurses . They become godlike to most of us and yet it is their humanity that makes them so interesting and enjoyable . We are not doing a drama and have no intention of doing anything like dealing with life and death issues . We want to make people laugh so we de @-@ emphasize the more serious elements of hospital life . It isn 't that he [ Noland ] just sees things differently , he also deals with them differently . That is why Noland will dream up a baby derby , a gambling night at the hospital , a variety show at Christmas and off @-@ truck betting when patients get bored with the hospital routine .
Production of Temperatures Rising was underway by August 1972 with filming done at the Burbank Studios in Burbank , California .
= = = Original reviews = = =
In his review of the premiere episode of Temperatures Rising for the Los Angeles Times , critic Don Page felt that James Whitmore was " totally wasted in this silly exercise " and that " guest Jack Albertson almost saves it with his portrayal of an annoyed senator . Otherwise , the diagnosis is terminal comedy " . Likewise , Cecil Smith , another writer for the Times , claimed it was the " worst show of the season . Avoid it like the plague " .
Other reviews were more favorable . Columnist Joan Crosby noted that " This is the kind of show you don 't think you 'll laugh at , but you do , mostly because the cast is so good . " She noted that Cleavon Little , Joan Van Ark , and Reva Rose were , respectively , " marvelous " , " pretty " , and " funny " , and that Nancy Fox " wins this year 's cute @-@ as @-@ a @-@ kitten award " . Barbara Holsopple , TV and radio editor for the Pittsburgh Press , noted that " ABC did a gutsy turnabout in taking the heavy drama out of a hospital and replacing it with comedy . The venture worked well , thanks to excellent performances from the Temperatures Rising cast " . She praised Jack Albertson , noted that Whitmore " was little seen " , and that the series : " is the kind of tidy little show that brings chuckles " . Win Fanning , a syndicated columnist , stated that : " the comedy writing and performances by a beautifully integrated cast give Temperatures a bright , light quality so seldom achieved in a situation comedy " , and that it was : " loaded with one @-@ liners and sight gags , which , if kept on the level of the opener , promise many hours of hilarity " . Fanning praised Cleavon Little as " one of the comedy finds of any TV season " , and Nancy Fox as " a fresh new face and talent giving promise of a long , successful career ahead " . More praise for the series came after the broadcast of its fourth episode . An unidentified reviewer , writing for the Armored Sentinel ( of Temple , Texas ) , stated " If you 're suffering from the case of the ' downs , ' this series is a sure pick up ! " The reviewer went on to note that " the brightest spot of the series is wacky Nancy Fox . Her role applies the wackiness of Goldie Hawn , but in situation comedy form . I 'd watch the show just for her ! The whole series is wacky and funny ; it 's downright good . I highly recommend it . "
= = = First season ratings = = =
ABC placed Temperatures Rising in its 8 : 00 PM Tuesday night time @-@ slot , where it debuted on September 12 , 1972 . Because one of the stars was black , some of ABC 's affiliated stations in the southern and mid @-@ western parts of the United States refused to air the series or broadcast it in a different time slot . Airing opposite it were Bonanza on NBC , and the new sitcom Maude on CBS . Bonanza was entering its fourteenth year and offered up an ambitious two @-@ hour season premiere dealing with the marriage of Little Joe Cartwright ( Michael Landon ) . Maude , starring Beatrice Arthur in the title role , was a spin @-@ off of All in the Family . Both shows presented Temperatures Rising with stiff opposition in the " ratings game " . This turned out to be partly true , as the two @-@ hour season premiere of Bonanza performed exceptionally well in the ratings . Maude did much better than Temperatures Rising in the New York City area , while Temperatures Rising fared better than Maude in the Los Angeles area . In subsequent weeks , Bonanza 's ratings dropped sharply and NBC cancelled the series in November 1972 . According to Asher : " Temperatures Rising put Bonanza out of business and was beating Maude in the Los Angeles area until mid @-@ season , when NBC switched to some heavy movies which hurt us " . Despite this the series finished its first year with a consistent 29 share of the ratings at a time when a 30 share was enough to assure renewal for another season . ABC , however , wanted to improve the ratings and decided to make significant changes to Temperatures Rising for its second season .
= = Second season = =
= = = New premise and producers = = =
As early as November 1972 , James Whitmore expressed a desire to leave Temperatures Rising , claiming that " the show [ was ] basically a broad farce and I didn 't feel it was right for me " . Screen Gems head John Mitchell , and ABC chief programmer Barry Diller , decided to replace Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show , was airing on Wednesday nights . At the time , Lynde was scoring second only to Peter Falk in TV popularity polls even though his sitcom , which aired opposite The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour on CBS , was floundering in the ratings . Asher was against making this change but was overruled as his contractual commitments to ABC had been used up .
Of the change Asher stated :
The network – ugh – they 're so stupid sometimes . The shows ( Temperatures Rising and The Paul Lynde Show ) were doing good , they weren 't big hits , but they were doing good . They felt that if they could put Paul [ Lynde ] and Cleavon Little together that they would have a big hit . I didn 't want to do that . I said I won 't do it , not at the sacrifice of the show . It 's wrong . I don 't think it 's a good idea . But they wanted to bring in somebody else as the head of the hospital . They wanted his [ Lynde 's ] mother to be head of the hospital and his conflicts would be with her and I just didn 't think it was right . I didn 't want to write it . I just didn 't want to do it [ and ] I didn 't . Someone else came in . It was a big thing with the network . They cancelled The Paul Lynde Show and put Paul in Temperatures Rising . "
Asher was replaced as producer by Bruce Johnson and Duke Vincent , whose previous credits included : Gomer Pyle – USMC , The Jim Nabors Hour , Arnie , and The Little People . They changed the title of the series to The New Temperatures Rising Show , and the tone went from lighthearted wackiness to a form of black comedy similar to The Hospital , a 1971 film written by Paddy Chayefsky , starring George C. Scott . The sitcom became : " a savage satire of the medical profession " with $ 185 @-@ a @-@ day hospital rooms , incompetent , fee @-@ splitting doctors , operations on the wrong patients , misread X @-@ rays , and rampant malpractice . Commenting on the series Vincent noted :
We 're not doing stories about a fouled @-@ up hospital . These things really happen . Every story we 've told is true . They 're the results of untrained people , inadequate staff , horrendous costs , worn @-@ out equipment , the demands of doctors . The doctors , not the patients , are the customers ; they 're the ones the hospitals have to please ...
= = = Revised cast = = =
For this new season , Johnson and Vincent dropped Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox from the series , leaving Cleavon Little as the only returning cast member . His character , Dr. Jerry Noland , was now being presented as the hospital 's only sane figure . Paul Lynde played Dr. Paul Mercy , the sneering , unscrupulous , hospital administrator while Sudie Bond was cast as Martha Mercy , his obnoxious , overbearing mother and the owner , and permanent resident , of the hospital . She constantly calls him with her pager to complain about everything . Also in the new cast were Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head of administrative and accounting : " ... who would let you bleed to death filling out forms " , Jennifer Darling as the romantically inclined nurse " Windy " Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , a fraudulent surgeon who has published two books , Profit in Healing and Malpractice and Its Defense , and John Dehner as " society " Dr. Charles Claver .
= = = Revised concept = = =
For the 1973 – 74 television season ABC continued to air the revamped Temperatures Rising on Tuesday nights at 8 : 00 PM . CBS continued to air Maude , and NBC introduced Chase , an hour @-@ long crime drama starring Mitchell Ryan , in the same time slot . Although the season premiere of Maude and Chase ' s debut aired on September 11 , 1973 , ABC delayed the premiere of The New Temperatures Rising Show until September 25 .
The episodes produced by Johnson and Vincent included Dr. Mercy exploiting a 125 @-@ year @-@ old American Civil War veteran and dealing with a strike by the doctors and nurses . Another episode saw Noland create a mythical patient and then claim that the patient died , the cause of death being the result of a lack of cardiac crash carts on each floor of the hospital . Johnson and Vincent 's favorite episode was one where the X @-@ rays of a professional footballer are misread , resulting in him being placed by mistake in " Crutchfield 's Traction " , in which holes are drilled in his head and tongs inserted in them .
= = = Second season reviews = = =
In reviewing The New Temperatures Rising Show , Associated Press television writer Jay Sharbutt noted :
First the hopeful note : There are faint signs the tinkering with Temperatures format could make the series funny later on , but only if the writing improves . The show now leaves most of the mugging to Lynde and no longer insists that each regular is wacky . It 's all feeble stuff but the cast is vastly improved and the new approach portends to better things ahead .
Likewise , Los Angeles Times critic Cecil Smith , who considered the original format " maybe the three worse shows on television rolled into one " now remarked : " Paul Lynde for the first time that I can recall has a part worthy of his mettle . The people surrounding him are first rate . "
= = = Sinking ratings = = =
Despite some heavy promotion the black comedy approach was not what audiences wanted to see , especially with Paul Lynde . As a result , the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season . The last of The New Temperatures Rising Show 's thirteen episodes aired on January 8 , 1974 . The following Tuesday , January 15 , ABC premiered Happy Days in its place . According to co @-@ producer Mitchell , " ... the audience didn 't buy that at all . They just didn 't get it . It was funny if you like black comedy , but if you don 't it would disturb you . So the show failed miserably and we lost the job and the show . "
= = Summer replacement = =
= = = Third concept = = =
When John Mitchell and Barry Diller noticed that The New Temperatures Rising Show was failing they contacted William Asher and asked him to salvage the series . According to Asher :
They asked if I 'd go back to the old Temperatures , only this time with Paul [ Lynde ] . At this point we were still hoping to make it for the midseason . After a couple of weeks we agreed that the show should go off the air in January , but continue production so that we would have 11 shows ready for airing any time they wanted them . Some of the nonsense and hijinks of the first season are gone and we have managed to keep a touch of reality of the second version .
As to why the series was not cancelled , Asher remarked , " I can answer that in two words : Paul Lynde . "
= = = Final cast = = =
For the third format , the show reverted to its original title Temperatures Rising and the proposed number of episodes was reduced from eleven to seven . The series ' production resumed on November 17 , 1973 , after a three week shutdown . Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner were dropped from the cast and a new line @-@ up was assembled . Paul Lynde continued as Dr. Paul Mercy while Alice Ghostley played Edwina Moffitt , the admissions nurse and Dr. Mercy 's sister . She had appeared as a guest star in an episode in the first season of Temperatures Rising . Nancy Fox returned as student nurse Ellen Turner , and Barbara Rucker was introduced as Nurse Amanda Kelly . Cleavon Little returned for a third time as Dr. Jerry Nolan , whose character was now being presented as somewhere between the jive @-@ talking surgeon of the first season and the serious one of the second .
= = = Last format and cancellation = = =
Temperatures Rising returned to the ABC network on July 18 , 1974 after a six @-@ month hiatus . Its new time slot , Thursday nights at 8 : 00 PM , had previously been occupied by Chopper One , an adventure series . The situations presented this time around included Dr. Mercy saving the life of a popular country music singer ( Dick Gautier ) , and setting up a surveillance system so that staff would be kept on their toes .
The final episode of Temperatures Rising aired on August 29 , 1974 . The attempt to resurrect the series was unsuccessful and ABC finally cancelled it permanently . Andy Siegel , a comedy development executive for ABC at the time , felt the series failed because audiences did not want to watch a show displaying inadequate medical care , even though it was done in a humorous fashion . In reminiscing about the series he stated : " When people see doctors on television they really want to feel that they 're in good hands . That no matter what happens it is a reassuring experience . " William Asher , in a 2000 interview , summed up the demise of the series by saying : " It didn 't get on . It 's too late . You can 't do that to an audience . They won 't accept it . "
= = Episodes = =
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= Irenaean theodicy =
The Irenaean theodicy is a Christian theodicy designed to respond to the problem of evil . As such , it defends the probability of an omnipotent and omnibenevolent ( all @-@ powerful and perfectly loving ) God in the face of evidence of evil in the world . Numerous variations of theodicy have been proposed which all maintain that , while evil exists , God is either not responsible for creating evil , or he is not guilty for creating evil . Typically , the Irenaean theodicy asserts that the world is the best of all possible worlds because it allows humans to fully develop . Most versions of the Irenaean theodicy propose that creation is incomplete , as humans are not yet fully developed , and experiencing evil and suffering is necessary for such development .
Second @-@ century philosopher and theologian Irenaeus , after whom the theodicy is named , proposed a two @-@ stage creation process in which humans require free will and the experience of evil to develop . Another early Christian theologian , Origen , presented a response to the problem of evil which cast the world as a schoolroom or hospital for the soul ; theologian Mark Scott has argued that Origen , rather than Irenaeus , ought to be considered the father of this kind of theodicy . Friedrich Schleiermacher argued in the nineteenth century that God must necessarily create flawlessly , so this world must be the best possible world because it allows God 's purposes to be naturally fulfilled . In 1966 , philosopher John Hick discussed the similarities of the preceding theodicies , calling them all " Irenaean " . He supported the view that creation is incomplete and argued that the world is best placed for the full moral development of humans , as it presents genuine moral choices . British philosopher Richard Swinburne proposed that , to make a free moral choice , humans must have experience of the consequences of their own actions and that natural evil must exist to provide such choices .
The development of process theology has challenged the Irenaean tradition by teaching that God 's power is limited and that he cannot be responsible for evil . Twentieth century philosopher Alvin Plantinga supported the idea that this world is the best possible world , arguing that the good in the world ( including God 's infinite goodness ) outweighs the evil and proposing that the ultimate good of God 's sacrifice when Jesus was crucified necessitated the existence of evil . His free will defence was not a theodicy because he was trying to show the logical compatibility of evil and the existence of God , rather than the probability of God . D. Z. Phillips and Fyodor Dostoyevsky challenged the instrumental use of suffering , suggesting that love cannot be expressed through suffering . However , Dostoyevsky also states that the beauty of love is evident , in that love can continue to grow , withstand and overcome even the most evil acts . Michael Tooley argued that the magnitude of suffering is excessive and that , in some cases , cannot lead to moral development . French theologian Henri Blocher criticised Hick 's universalism , arguing that such a view negates free will , which was similarly important to the theodicy .
= = Outline = =
The Irenaean theodicy was first identified as a form of theodicy by John Hick in Evil and the God of Love , written in 1966 . Hick distinguished between the Augustinian theodicy , which is based on free will , and the Irenaean theodicy , which casts God as responsible for evil but justified in it . The Irenaean theodicy is distinguished by its acceptance that God is responsible for evil , but that he is not at fault .
= = = Evidential problem of evil = = =
The Irenaean theodicy is a response to the evidential problem of evil which raises the problem that , if an omnipotent and omnibenevolent ( all @-@ powerful and perfectly loving ) God exists , there should be no evil in the world . Evidence of evil in the world would make the existence of God improbable . The theodicy attempts to demonstrate that the existence of God remains probable , despite the occurrence of evil .
= = = Creation and development of humans = = =
According to the Irenaean tradition , humans are not created perfectly , but in a state of imperfection . The theodicy teaches that creation has two stages : humans were first created in the image of God , and will then be created in the likeness of God . Humans are imperfect because the second stage is incomplete , entailing the potential , not yet actualised , for humans to reach perfection . To achieve this likeness of God , humans must be refined and developed . The theodicy proposes that evil and suffering exists in the world because this is the best way for humans to develop . As such , the Irenaean theodicy is sometimes referred to as the " soul @-@ making theodicy " , a phrase taken from the poet John Keats .
= = = Greatest possible world = = =
Typical to variations of the Irenaean theodicy is the notion that the present world is the greatest possible world , or the best of all possible worlds . This is based on the Irenaean idea of human development , suggesting that the best possible world would be best suited to human development : a world containing evil and suffering would allow development better than one which does not , so the world is considered the best possible world .
= = Development = =
= = = Irenaeus = = =
Second @-@ century philosopher Irenaeus developed a theodicy based on the idea that the creation of humans is still in progress . He proposed that creation consists of two distinct parts : first in the image of God , then in the likeness of God . Irenaeus believed the first stage is complete , but the second stage requires humans to develop and grow into the likeness of God , a stage which Irenaeus believed is still in progress . He believed that , in order to achieve moral perfection , humans must be given free choice , with the actual possibility of choosing to do evil . Irenaeus argued that for humans to have free will , God must be at an epistemic distance ( or intellectual distance ) from humans , far enough that belief in God remains a free choice .
Because Irenaeus saw the purpose of the world to be the development of the moral character of humans , he believed that a good world would be best suited to that purpose . Irenaeaus believed that this world would include some suffering and evil to help people draw closer to God . He perceived God 's declaration in the book of Genesis that his creation was good to mean that the world is fit for purpose , rather than being free from suffering . To illustrate the benefits of suffering , Irenaeus cited the Biblical example of Jonah , from the book of Jonah . His suffering , being swallowed by a whale , both enabled God 's plan to be fulfilled and also brought Jonah closer to God : Jonah ended up repenting for his sin and the people of Nineveh turn to God .
Irenaeus ' eschatology was based on a literal interpretation of the Bible , especially the book of Revelation . He believed that there would be 6000 years of suffering before the world ends in a fiery purge . This fire would purify believers ahead of a new human community existing in the New Jerusalem . The afterlife , Irenaeus proposed , focuses more on time than space ; he looked forward to a time in which humans are fully developed and live the life of God .
= = = Origen = = =
Early Christian theologian Origen also presented suffering as necessary for the development of human beings . Theologian Mark Scott has argued that John Hick 's theodicy is more closely aligned with Origen 's beliefs than Irenaeus ' and ought to be called an " Origenian theodicy " . Origen used two metaphors for the world : it is a school and a hospital for souls , with God as Teacher and Physician , in which suffering plays both an educative and healing role . Through an allegorical reading of Exodus and the books of Solomon , Origen casts human development as a progression though a series of stages which take place in this life and after death . Origen believed that all humans will eventually reach heaven as the logical conclusion of God being ' all in all ' . Hell is a metaphor for the purification of our souls : our sinful nature goes to ' Hell ' and our original nature , created by God , goes to heaven . Scott argues that significant aspects of Origen 's theology mean that there is a stronger continuation between it and Hick 's theodicy . These aspects are Origen 's allegorical treatment of Adam and Eve , the presentation of the world as a hospital or schoolroom , the progression he advocates of the human soul , and his universalism .
= = = Friedrich Schleiermacher = = =
In the early 19th century , Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote Speeches and The Christian Faith , proposing a theodicy which John Hick later identified as Irenaean in nature . Schleiermacher began his theodicy by asserting that God is omnipotent and benevolent and concluded that , because of this , " God would create flawlessly " . He proposed that it would be illogical for a perfect creation to go wrong ( as Augustine had suggested ) and that evil must have been created by God for a good reason . Schleiermacher conceived a perfect world to be one in which God 's purposes can naturally be achieved , and will ultimately lead to dependence on God . He conceived sin as being an obstruction to humanity 's dependence on God , arguing that it is almost inevitable , but citing Jesus as an example of a sinless man , whose consciousness of God was unobstructed . This theology led Schleiermacher to universalism , arguing that it is God 's will for everyone to be saved and that no person could alter this .
If we proceed on this definite assumption that all belonging to the human race are eventually taken up into loving fellowship with Christ , there is nothing for it but this single divine fore @-@ ordination .
= = = John Hick = = =
John Hick published Evil and the God of Love in 1966 , in which he developed a theodicy based on the work of Irenaeus . Hick distinguished between the Augustinian theodicy , based on free will , and the Irenaean theodicy , based on human development . Hick framed his theodicy as an attempt to respond to the problem of evil in light of scientific development , such as Darwin 's theory of evolution , and as an alternative to the traditionally accepted Augustinian theodicy . Rejecting the idea that humans were created perfectly and then fell away from perfection , Hick instead argued that humans are still in the process of creation . He interpreted the fall of man , described in the book of Genesis , as a mythological description of the current state of humans .
Hick used Irenaeus ' notion of two @-@ stage creation and supported the belief that the second stage , being created into the likeness of God , is still in progress . He argued that to be created in the image of God means to have the potential for knowledge of and a relationship with God ; this is fulfilled when creation in the likeness of God is complete . Humanity currently exists in the image of God and is being developed into spiritual maturity . Hick proposed that human morality is developed through the experience of evil and argued that it is possible for humans to know God , but only if they choose to out of their own free will . Hick acknowledges that some suffering seems to serve no constructive purpose and instead just damages the individual . Hick justifies this by appealing to the concept of mystery . He argues that , if suffering was always beneficial to humans , it would be impossible for humans to develop compassion or sympathy because we would know that someone who is suffering will certainly benefit from it . However , if there is an element of mystery to suffering , to the effect that some people suffer without benefit , it allows feelings of compassion and sympathy to emerge .
The value Hick placed on free will was the result of his belief that it is necessary for genuine love : he believed that love which is not freely chosen is valueless . A genuinely loving God , he argued , would have created humans with free will . Hick held that it would be possible for God to create beings that would always freely choose to do good , but argued that a genuine relationship requires the possibility of rejection . Irenaeus ' notion of humans existing at an " epistemic distance " from God also influenced Hick , as it would ensure a free choice in belief in God . Hick argued that a world without pain or suffering would prevent moral development ; such a world would have no fixed structure , or have a structure subject to divine intervention , preventing humans from coming to any harm . Hick argued that this would leave humans unable to help or harm one another , allowing them no moral choices and so preventing moral development .
The nature of his theodicy required Hick to propose an eschatology in which humans are fully morally developed . He proposed a universalist theory , arguing that all humans would eventually reach heaven . Hick believed that there would be no benefit or purpose to an eternal Hell , as it would render any moral development inconsequential . The eternal suffering of Hell could not be explained in terms of human development , so Hick rejected it . Despite this , he did not reject the existence of Hell outright , as to do so could make living morally in this life irrelevant . Rather , he argued that Hell exists as a mythological concept and as a warning of the importance of this life .
= = = Richard Swinburne = = =
British philosopher Richard Swinburne proposed a version of the Irenaean theodicy based on his libertarian view of free will , a view that one 's free actions are not caused by any outside agent . He argued that , in order for people to make free moral decisions , they must be aware of the consequences of such decisions . Knowledge of these consequences must be based on experience — Swinburne rejected the idea that God could implant such knowledge , arguing that humans would question its reliability . Swinburne argued that humans must have first hand experience of natural evil in order to understand the consequences of moral evil and that for God to give humans moral free will , he must allow human suffering . Swinburne conceived Hell as being a separation from God , rejecting the notion of eternal physical punishment , and argued that people who had chosen to reject God throughout their lives would continue to do so after death .
= = Reception = =
= = = Process theology = = =
The development of process theology has presented a challenge to the Irenaean theodicy . The doctrine proposes that God is benevolent but suggests that his power is restricted to persuasion , rather than coercion and so is unable to prevent certain evil events from occurring . Process theology accepts God 's indirect responsibility for evil , but maintains that he is blameless , and does everything in his power to bring about good . In his introduction to process theology , C. Robert Melse argued that , although suffering does sometimes bring about good , not all suffering is valuable and that most does more harm than good . Process theologian David Griffin contested " the utility of soul making " . He argued that the Irenaean theodicy supposes that God inflicts pain for his own ends , which Griffin regarded as immoral .
= = = D. Z. Phillips = = =
Philosopher Dewi Zephaniah Phillips published The Problem of Evil and the Problem of God in 2004 , presenting a challenge to the Irenaean theodicy . Phillips maintained throughout his work that humans are incapable of fully understanding God , and presented an understanding of the moral diversity of human existence . With reference to the suffering of the Holocaust , he rejected any theodicy which presents suffering as instrumental , arguing that such suffering cannot be justified , regardless of any good that comes of it .
= = = Fyodor Dostoyevsky = = =
Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky presented a similar argument in his novel , The Brothers Karamazov . This is however not a final argument , given the nature of Dostoyevsky 's work as polyphonic . In the novel , the character Ivan Karamazov presents an account of incredible cruelty to innocent people and children to his theist brother , Alyosha . Following this , Ivan asks his brother if he would , hypothetically , choose to be the architect of the eternal happiness of mankind , which would come into existence , if , and only if he would torture an innocent child , a necessary evil , after which this eternal happiness would come into existence .
" Would you consent to be the architect under those conditions ? Tell me honestly ! "
" No , I wouldn 't agree , " said Alyosha quietly .
But Dostoyevsky 's work , polyphonic in nature , also states that the love Christ showed to all people and for all people , which is Alyosha 's final stance in the novel , is the only good , and in the face of evil , the beauty that will save the world .
= = = Michael Tooley = = =
Writing in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Michael Tooley rejected the Irenaean theodicy as unsatisfactory . He argued that the magnitude of suffering experienced by some people is excessive , supporting Eleanor Stump 's view that the suffering endured by those with terminal illnesses cannot be for moral development , and that such illnesses do not fall more often upon those seemingly immoral or in need of development . He also challenged the suffering both of animals and of young children . Neither of these instances of suffering serve any useful purpose , as they cannot lead to moral development . Finally , he questioned whether the current universe is the best possible world for the moral development of humans . Citing the examples of those who die young and those who experience too great a pain to learn from it , as well as people who suffer too little to learn anything , he suggested that this world is not ideally suited to human development .
= = = Henri Blocher = = =
French theologian Henri Blocher criticised the universalism of John Hick 's theory . Blocher argued that universalism contradicts free will , which is vital to the Irenaean theodicy , because , if everyone will receive salvation , humans cannot choose to reject God . Hick did attempt to address this issue : he argued that a free action is one which reflects that character of a person , and that humans were created with a " Godward bias " , so would choose salvation . Blocher proposed that Hick must then accept a level of determinism , though not going all the way .
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= Imogen Holst =
Imogen Clare Holst CBE ( 12 April 1907 – 9 March 1984 ) was an English composer , arranger , conductor , teacher and festival administrator . The only child of the composer Gustav Holst , she is particularly known for her educational work at Dartington Hall in the 1940s , and for her 20 years as joint artistic director of the Aldeburgh Festival . In addition to composing music , she wrote composer biographies , much educational material , and several books on the life and works of her father .
From a young age , Imogen Holst showed precocious talent in composing and performance . After attending Eothen School and St Paul 's Girls ' School , she entered the Royal College of Music , where she developed her skills as a conductor and won several prizes for composing . Unable for health reasons to follow her initial ambitions to be a pianist or a dancer , Imogen spent most of the 1930s teaching , and as a full @-@ time organiser for the English Folk Dance and Song Society . These duties reduced her compositional activities , although she made many arrangements of folksongs . After serving as an organiser for the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts at the start of the Second World War , in 1942 she began working at Dartington . In her nine years there she established Dartington as a major centre of music education and activity .
In the early 1950s Imogen became Benjamin Britten 's musical assistant , moved to Aldeburgh , and began helping with the organisation of the annual Aldeburgh Festival . In 1956 she became joint artistic director of the festival , and during the following 20 years helped it to a position of pre @-@ eminence in British musical life . In 1964 she gave up her work as Britten 's assistant , to resume her own compositional career and to concentrate on the preservation of her father 's musical legacy . Imogen 's own music is not widely known and has received little critical attention ; much of it is unpublished and unperformed . The first recordings dedicated to her works , issued in 2009 and 2012 , were warmly received by critics . She was appointed CBE in 1975 and received numerous academic honours . She died at Aldeburgh and is buried in the churchyard there .
= = Background = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Imogen Holst was born on 12 April 1907 at 31 Grena Road , Richmond , a riverside town to the west of London . Her parents were Gustav Theodore Holst , an aspiring composer then working as a music teacher , and Isobel , née Harrison . The Holst family , of mixed Swedish , German and Latvian ancestry , had been in England since 1802 and had been musicians for several generations . Gustav followed this family tradition ; while studying at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) , he met Isobel Harrison , who sang in one of the amateur choirs that he conducted . He was immediately attracted to her , and they were married on 22 July 1901 .
While attempting to establish himself as a composer , Gustav Holst worked first as an orchestral trombonist , and later as a teacher . In 1907 he held teaching posts at James Allen 's Girls ' School in Dulwich , and St Paul 's Girls ' School ( SPGS ) in Hammersmith , where he was director of music . He also taught evening classes at Morley College , an adult education centre in the Waterloo district of London . Shortly after Imogen 's birth the family moved from Richmond to a small house by the river in nearby Barnes , which they rented from a relative . Imogen 's main memories of this house were of her father working in his composing room on the top floor , which she was forbidden to visit , and of his efforts to teach her folk @-@ songs .
= = = Schooling = = =
Descriptions of Imogen as a small child indicate that she had blue eyes , fair hair , an oval face reminiscent of her father 's , and a rather prominent nose inherited from her mother . In 1912 , at the age of five , she joined the kindergarten class at the Froebel Institute , and remained at the school for five years . Holidays were often spent at the Holsts ' rented country cottage at Thaxted in Essex , where Gustav Holst began an annual Whitsun Festival in 1916 .
In 1917 Imogen began boarding at Eothen , a small , private school for girls in Caterham , where Jane Joseph , Holst 's star pupil from SPGS , taught music . A letter home , dated 17 July 1917 , tells of " compertishions [ sic ] , and ripping prizes , and strawberries and cream for tea " . At the school , Imogen studied piano with Eleanor Shuttleworth , violin with André Mangeot ( described as " topping " ) and theory with Jane Joseph ( " ripping " ) . Under Joseph 's tuition Imogen produced her first compositions — three instrumental pieces and some Christmas carol tunes — which she numbered as Ops . 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 . In the summer term of 1920 , she composed and choreographed a " Dance of the Nymphs and Shepherds " , which was performed at the school under her direction on 9 July .
Imogen left Eothen in December 1920 hoping to study under Ruby Ginner at the Ginner @-@ Mawer School of Dance and Drama , but was rejected as probably lacking the stamina for a dancing career . While studying at home under a governess for six months , at Whitsun 1921 she took part as a dancer in a production of Purcell 's semi @-@ opera from 1690 , Dioclesian , a version largely devised by Joseph .
In September 1921 Imogen became a boarder at St Paul 's Girls School . In July 1922 she performed a Bach Prelude and Fugue on the piano , for which Joseph praised her warmly , writing : " I think everyone enjoyed the Bach from beginning to end , they all made nice contented noises at the end of it " . Imogen 's SPGS years were generally happy and successful . In July 1923 she won the junior Alice Lupton piano prize , but her chances of distinction as a pianist were marred when she began to develop phlebitis in her left arm . Among other activities she became interested in folk music and dance , and in 1923 became a member of the English Folk Dance Society ( EFDS ) . In 1924 – 25 , her final year at SPGS , Imogen founded a folk dance society in the school . At an end @-@ of @-@ term school concert late in July 1925 , she played Chopin 's étude in E major and gave the first performance of Gustav Holst 's Toccata .
= = = = Royal College of Music = = = =
Although destined like her father for the RCM , Imogen first spent a year studying composition with Herbert Howells and piano with Adine O 'Neill , while otherwise occupying herself with EFDS activities . She began at the RCM in September 1926 , studying piano with Kathleen Long , composition with George Dyson , and conducting under W. H. Reed . Her aptitude as a conductor was evident in December 1926 , when she led the college 's Third Orchestra in the opening movement of Mozart 's " Prague " Symphony . This and other performances on the podium led The Daily Telegraph to speculate that Imogen might eventually become the first woman to " establish a secure tenure of the conductor 's platform " .
In her second RCM year Imogen concentrated on composition , producing several chamber works including a violin sonata , an oboe quintet , and a suite for woodwind . She took her first steps towards personal independence when she moved from the family home to a bedsit near Kensington Gardens . In 1928 she went to Belgium with the EFDS , took an Italian holiday , and made an extended trip to Germany with a group known as " The Travelling Morrice " which promoted international understanding through music and dance . In October 1928 she won the RCM 's Cobbett prize for an original chamber composition , her Phantasy String Quartet , and shortly afterwards was awarded the Morley Scholarship for the " best all @-@ round student " . The quartet was broadcast by the BBC on 20 March 1929 , but for her , the achievement was overshadowed by the news that month of the premature death of her early mentor Jane Joseph .
In the winter of 1929 Imogen made her first visit to Canada and the United States , as part of an EFDS party . Back home , she worked on her RCM finals composition , a suite for brass band entitled The Unfortunate Traveller . Despite some apprehension on her part , the piece passed the examiners ' scrutiny and was played at the college 's end @-@ of @-@ year concert in July . Imogen gained her ARCM diploma , and learned also that she had been awarded an Octavia Travelling Scholarship which would enable her to study composition abroad .
= = Career = =
= = = European travels , 1930 – 31 = = =
Imogen spent much of period between September 1930 and May 1931 travelling . A brief visit to Liège in September was followed immediately by a three @-@ month round trip , to Scandinavia , Germany , Austria and Hungary , returning to England via Prague , Dresden , Leipzig , Berlin and Amsterdam . Her " orgy of musical experiences " included a Mozart pilgrimage in Salzburg , performances of Der Rosenkavalier and Die Entführung aus dem Serail at the Vienna State Opera , Bach in Berlin and Mahler 's Seventh Symphony in Amsterdam . On 1 February 1932 she departed again , this time for Italy . After a two @-@ month tour Imogen came home with mixed views on Italian music @-@ making . She concluded that " the Italians are a nation of singers ... But music is a different language in that part of the world " . Back in London , she decided that despite her experiences , " if it is music one is wanting , there is no place like London . "
= = = Mainly teaching , 1931 – 38 = = =
With her scholarship funds exhausted , Imogen needed a job , and in June 1931 took charge of music at the Citizen House arts and education centre in Bath . She disliked the disciplines imposed by an unsympathetic and unyielding superior , and she stayed only a few months . She then worked as a freelance conductor and accompanist before joining the staff of the EFDS early in 1932 . The organisation had by now expanded to become the " English Folk Dance and Song Society " ( EFDSS ) and was based in new headquarters at Cecil Sharp House . The duties , mainly teaching , were not full @-@ time , and she was able to take up part @-@ time teaching posts at her old school , Eothen , and at Roedean School . Although she composed little original music during these years , she made many instrumental and vocal arrangements of traditional folk melodies .
Gustav Holst 's health had been poor for years ; in the winter of 1933 – 34 it deteriorated , and he died on 25 May 1934 . Imogen privately determined that she would protect her father 's musical legacy , and began working on his biography . Meanwhile her own music began to attract attention . Her carol arrangement " Nowell and Nowell " was performed in a 1934 Christmas concert in Chichester Cathedral , and the following year saw the premiere of her Concerto for Violin and Strings , with Elsie Avril as the soloist and Imogen conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra . In 1936 she paid a visit to Hollywood , where she stayed with her uncle ( Gustav 's brother ) , the actor Ernest Cossart . A highlight of this visit was a Wagner concert at the Hollywood Bowl , conducted by Otto Klemperer . Back in England , Imogen worked on recorder arrangements of music by the neglected 16th @-@ century composer Pelham Humphrey . These were published in 1936 to an enthusiastic critical reception . Her biography of her father was published in 1938 ; among several tributes , the composer Edmund Rubbra praised her for producing a book that was not " clouded by sentiment ... her biography is at once intimate and objective " .
= = = War : travelling for CEMA = = =
In 1938 Imogen decided to abandon amateur music @-@ making and teaching to concentrate on her own professional development . She resigned her EFDSS post while continuing to honour existing commitments to the organisation . She had given up her work at Roedean in 1936 ; at Easter 1939 she resigned from Eothen . In June 1939 she began a tour of Switzerland which included the Lucerne Festival . Towards the end of August , as war became increasingly likely , she broke off the trip and returned home .
After the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 , Imogen worked for the Bloomsbury House Refugee Committee , which supported German and Austrian refugee musicians interned under emergency regulations . In January 1940 she accepted a position under a scheme organised by the Pilgrim Trust , to act as one of six " music travellers " , whose brief was to boost morale by encouraging musical activities in rural communities . Imogen was assigned to cover the west of England , a huge area stretching from Oxfordshire to Cornwall . When the government set up the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts ( CEMA ) , responsibility for the music travellers passed to that body .
With little practical support from CEMA , Imogen 's organisational talents , according to her friend Ursula Vaughan Williams , " developed brilliantly " . According to Imogen 's account , her duties included conducting local brass bands , leading hymn @-@ singing practice ( " fourteen very old women in hats sitting round the edge of a dark , empty hideous tin hut " ) , and organising sing @-@ songs for evacuee children . She arranged performances by professional groups , and what she termed " drop @-@ in @-@ and @-@ sing " festivals in which anyone could join . Imogen also writes of " idyllic days " spent over cups of tea , discussing the hopes and dreams of would @-@ be music makers . Her compositional activity in these years was limited by time and pressures of work , but she produced two recorder trios — the Offley and Deddington suites — and made numerous arrangements for female voices of carols and traditional songs . By the summer of 1942 the workload and concomitant bureaucracy was such that she was exhausted , and in need of a lengthy rest .
= = = Dartington = = =
In 1938 , Imogen had visited Dartington Hall , a progressive school and crafts community near Totnes in Devon , which had been founded in 1925 by Leonard and Dorothy Elmhirst . In 1941 – 42 , while travelling for CEMA in Devon and Cornwall , she was invited by the Elmhirsts to make her base at Dartington . In the summer of 1942 , while recuperating there , she was persuaded by Christopher Martin , the centre 's administrator , to resign her CEMA role and work at Dartington . He had in mind a music course , " the sort of thing that your father did in the old days at Morley College " . Beginning in 1943 , Imogen established a one @-@ year course , initially designed to train young women to organise amateur orchestras and musical events in rural communities . Gradually it developed into a more general musical education for a broader student intake . Under Imogen 's leadership the course quickly became the hub of a range of musical activities , including the foundation of an amateur orchestra : " Hardly any of us could play ... However bad we were , we went on " . Imogen 's teaching methods , heavily based on " learning by doing " and without formal examinations , at first disconcerted her students and puzzled the school inspectors , but eventually gained acceptance and respect . Rosamond Strode , a pupil at Dartington who later worked with Imogen at Aldeburgh , said of her approach : " She knew exactly how , and when , to push her victims in at the deep end , and she knew , also , that although they would flounder and splash about at first , it wouldn 't be long before ... they would be swimming easily while she beamed approval from the bank " .
In the conducive atmosphere of Dartington Imogen resumed serious composition , largely abandoned during the hectic CEMA years . In 1943 she completed a Serenade for flute , viola and bassoon , a Suite for String Orchestra , and a choral work , Three Psalms . All these works were performed at a Wigmore Hall concert on 14 June 1943 devoted to her music . Other compositions from the Dartington years included Theme and Variations for solo violin , String Trio No. 1 ( premiered by the Dartington Hall String Trio at the National Gallery on 17 July 1944 ) , songs from the 16th @-@ century anthology Tottel 's Miscellany , an oboe concerto , and a string quartet . In October 1943 the composer Benjamin Britten and the tenor Peter Pears gave the first of several recitals at Dartington . A mutual respect and friendship developed between Britten and Imogen , strengthened by their shared love of neglected music from the Renaissance and Baroque eras .
From 1945 , while maintaining her commitment to Dartington , Imogen began to widen her musical activities . As well as editing and preparing scores for Britten , she promoted Dartington as the base for Britten 's new English Opera Group , although eventually Glyndebourne was preferred . In 1947 she encouraged the refugee violinist Norbert Brainin to form his own string quartet , and arranged its debut at Dartington , as the " Brainin Quartet " , on 13 July 1947 . Six months later , renamed the Amadeus Quartet , the group appeared at the Wigmore Hall , and went on to worldwide recognition . In 1948 she began work on a critical study of her father 's music , a companion volume to her 1938 Holst biography . When this was published in 1951 , most critics praised its objectivity , one critic venturing that she had been " unnecessarily harsh " in her judgements .
Rising standards of achievement at Dartington enabled Imogen to organise performances of more demanding works , such as Bach 's Mass in B minor in July 1950 to honour the 200th anniversary of Bach 's death . Three years in preparation , this endeavour brought a tribute from one of the audience : " I don 't know , and can 't imagine what the music of heaven is like . But when we all get there , please God , if any conducting is still necessary I hope your services will be required and that I will be in the chorus " . By the middle of 1950 Imogen 's professional focus was changing . She had attended the first two Aldeburgh Festivals in 1948 and 1949 , and in 1950 accepted a commission to provide a choral work for performance at the 1951 festival . Sensing that it was time to leave Dartington , she gave a year 's notice , part of which was spent on sabbatical , studying Indian music at Rabindranath Tagore 's university in West Bengal . A fruit of this visit was her Ten Indian Folk Tunes for recorder . On 21 July 1951 her one @-@ act opera , Benedick and Beatrice , was performed at Dartington , to mark her departure .
= = = Aldeburgh = = =
Without definite plans for her future after Dartington , Imogen toured Europe , collecting music that she would later edit for performance , including madrigals by Carlo Gesualdo which she found " very exciting " . At home , although not formally employed by Britten , she worked with him on several projects , including a new performing version of Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas and the preparation of the vocal and full scores for Britten 's opera Billy Budd . Pears , who had observed Imogen 's overall contributions to musical life at Dartington , believed she could help Britten and the Aldeburgh Festival on a more formal basis , and shortly after the 1952 festival Britten invited her to come and work with him . She agreed , and in September 1952 moved to lodgings in Aldeburgh .
= = = = Assistant to Britten = = = =
When Imogen joined Britten , the financial arrangement was vague ; Britten paid her on a piecemeal basis rather than a regular salary , unaware that she had made over her rights to her father 's estate to her mother and had little money of her own . As a result , she lived very frugally in Aldeburgh , but her commitment to Britten overrode her own physical comfort . For the next dozen years her life was organised around the joint objectives of assisting Britten and developing the Aldeburgh Festival . Although she temporarily put her own compositional ambitions aside , she did not abandon all other activities . She made many choral and vocal arrangements , promoted her father 's music , and wrote books , articles and programme notes .
For the first 18 months of her association with Britten , Imogen kept a diary which , Grogan says , forms a record of her " unconditional belief in Britten 's achievement and status , and her absolute devotion to his work " . The first of Britten 's works to which she made a significant contribution was the opera Gloriana , scheduled to form part of the 1953 Coronation celebrations . The short timescale for the writing of the opera placed considerable pressure on the composer and his new assistant , strains that were dramatised 60 years later in a radio play , Imo and Ben . Imogen 's main task with Gloriana was to copy Britten 's pencil sketches and prepare the vocal and piano scores which the singers needed for rehearsals by February 1953 . Later she assisted him with the writing of the full orchestral score , and performed similar services with his next opera , The Turn of the Screw ( 1954 ) . When Britten was under pressure during the composition of his ballet The Prince of the Pagodas ( 1956 ) , Imogen accompanied him to Switzerland , to remain by his side as he completed the work . Imogen took great pleasure in her association with Britten 's opera for children , Noye 's Fludde ( 1957 ) , for which she showed Britten how to achieve a unique raindrop effect by hitting a row of china mugs with a wooden spoon . She and Britten combined to collect and publish music for the recorder , in a series published by Boosey and Hawkes ( 1954 – 59 ) , and jointly wrote a popular introductory book , The Story of Music ( 1958 ) .
Imogen assisted Britten with all his major compositions until 1964 . At that point , conscious of time passing , she determined to give priority to the final securing of her father 's musical legacy , and to re @-@ establish her credentials as a composer . She relinquished her post as Britten 's assistant to Rosamund Strode , although she did not leave Aldeburgh or break with Britten , continuing her work with the Aldeburgh Festival for a further 13 years .
= = = = Artistic director = = = =
From the time of her arrival in Aldeburgh Imogen gave considerable support and assistance to the Aldeburgh Festival , as a conductor and , from 1953 , increasingly as a planner and organiser . In 1956 her position was formalised , and she joined Britten and Pears as one of the festival 's artistic directors , taking responsibility for programmes and performers . At the 1956 festival she fulfilled a long @-@ held ambition by arranging a performance of Gustav Holst 's opera Savitri , the first of several Holst works that she introduced to the festival . Savitri was offered as part of a double bill that included Imogen 's arrangement of John Blow 's 17th century opera Venus and Adonis . In 1957 she instituted late @-@ night concerts devoted to early music , and in 1962 she organised a series of evening concerts of Flemish music , in which she had more recently become interested . She also devised frequent programmes devoted to church music , for performance at Aldeburgh parish church . Since moving to Aldeburgh in 1952 , Imogen had lived in a series of lodgings and rented flats . In 1962 she moved to a small contemporary bungalow built for her in Church Walk , where she lived for the rest of her life .
In 1964 , after giving up her role as Britten 's assistant , Imogen began composing again , and in 1965 accepted commissions for two large @-@ scale works : The Sun 's Journey , a cantata for female voices , and the Trianon Suite , composed for the Trianon Youth Orchestra of Ipswich . In 1965 and 1966 she published two books , studies of Bach and Britten . The latter work caused ill feelings among several key figures in Britten 's earlier career with whom he had subsequently fallen out , such as his former librettists Eric Crozier and Ronald Duncan , whose contributions to Britten 's success were ignored in the book . Between 1966 and 1970 Imogen recorded a number of her father 's works with the Purcell Singers and the English Chamber Orchestra , under the Argo and Lyrita labels . Among these recordings was the Double Violin Concerto for which , forty years earlier , she had acted as the rehearsal pianist before the first performance .
Imogen had formed the Purcell Singers , a small semi @-@ professional choir , in October 1952 , largely at the instigation of Pears . From 1954 the choir became regular performers at the Aldeburgh Festival , with programmes ranging from rarely heard medieval music to 20th @-@ century works . Among choir members who later achieved individual distinction were the bass @-@ baritone John Shirley @-@ Quirk , the tenors Robert Tear and Philip Langridge , and the founder and conductor of the Heinrich Schütz Choir , Roger Norrington . Langridge remembered with particular pleasure a performance in Orford church of Thomas Tallis 's forty @-@ part motet Spem in alium , on 2 July 1963 . When she gave up the conductorship of the choir in 1967 , much of its musical mission , in particular its commitment to early music , was assumed by other groups , such as Norrington 's Schütz Choir and the Purcell Consort formed by the ex @-@ Purcell Singers chorister Grayston Burgess .
On 2 June 1967 Imogen shared the podium with Britten in the concert inaugurating the Aldeburgh Festival 's new home at the Snape Maltings . From 1972 Imogen was involved with the development of educational classes at the Maltings , which began with weekend singing classes and developed into the Britten @-@ Pears School for Advanced Musical Studies , with its own training orchestra . By this time Imogen 's performances at the festival had become increasingly rare , but in 1975 she conducted a concert of Gustav Holst 's brass band music , held outdoors at Framlingham Castle . A report of the event described an evening of " persistent drizzle ... until a diminutive figure in a special scarlet dress took the conductor 's baton . The band was transformed , and played Holst 's Suite as it has never been played before " .
Britten had been in poor health since undergoing heart surgery in 1973 , and on 4 December 1976 he died . Imogen was unsure that she could maintain a working relationship with Pears alone , and on reaching the age of 70 decided she would retire as artistic director after the 1977 festival . That year she made her final festival appearance as a performer when she stood in for the indisposed conductor André Previn at the Snape Maltings Training Orchestra 's inaugural festival concert . On retirement , she accepted the honorary title of Artistic Director Emeritus .
= = Later career = =
Gustav Holst 's centenary was celebrated in 1974 , when Imogen published a revised biography in Faber 's " Great Composers " series and a Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst 's Music . The centenary was the occasion for the publication of the first volume of a facsimile edition of her father 's manuscripts , on which Imogen worked with the help of the composer Colin Matthews . Three more facsimile volumes followed in the years up to 1983 , at which point Imogen 's own failing health led to the abandonment of the project . As part of the 1974 centenary , Imogen negotiated performances of Savitri and The Wandering Scholar at Aldeburgh and Sadler 's Wells , and helped to arrange exhibitions of Holst 's life and works at Aldeburgh and the Royal Festival Hall .
Apart from her books concerned with her father 's life and works , Imogen continued to write on other aspects of music . In addition to numerous articles she published a short study of the Renaissance composer William Byrd ( 1972 ) and a handbook for conductors of amateur choirs ( 1973 ) . She continued to compose , usually short pieces but with occasional larger @-@ scale orchestral works such as the Woodbridge Suite ( 1970 ) and the Deben Calendar ( 1977 ) , the latter a series of twelve sketches depicting the River Deben in Suffolk at different phases of the year . Her last major composition was a String Quintet , written in 1982 and performed in October of that year by the Endellion Quartet , augmented by the cellist Steven Isserlis .
In April 1979 Imogen was present when the Queen Mother opened the new Britten – Pears School building in Snape . The building included a new library — the Gustav Holst Library — to which Imogen had donated a large amount of material , including books which her father had used in his own teaching career . She had intended that , after 1977 , her retirement from the Aldeburgh Festival would be total , but she made an exception in 1980 when she organised a 70th birthday celebration concert for Pears .
= = Death = =
Shortly after the 1977 Aldeburgh Festival , Imogen became seriously ill with what she described as " a coronary angina " . Thereafter , angina was a recurrent problem , although she continued to work and fulfil engagements . By early 1984 the deterioration in her health was noticeable to her friends . She died at home of heart failure on 9 March 1984 and was buried in Aldeburgh churchyard five days later in a plot next to Britten 's . An obituary tribute in the magazine Early Music emphasised her long association with music in the Aldeburgh church , where she " [ brought ] iridescently to life facets of that tradition to which her own life had been dedicated and which she presented as a continuing source of strength and wonder " . Ursula Vaughan Williams wrote : " Imogen had something of the medieval scholar about her ... content with few creature comforts if there was enough music , enough work , enough books to fill her days . Indeed , she always filled her days , making twenty @-@ four hours contain what most of us need twice that time to do " .
In 2007 , Imogen 's centenary was recognised at Aldeburgh by several special events , including a recital in the parish church by the Navarra Quartet in which works by Purcell and Schubert were mixed with Imogen 's own The Fall of the Leaf for solo cello , and the String Quintet . The latter work was described by Andrew Clements in The Guardian as " genuinely memorable ... The set of variations with which the quintet ends dissolves into a series of bare solo lines , linking Holst 's music to her father 's " .
Imogen never married , though she enjoyed a number of romantic friendships , notably with the future poet Miles Tomalin , whom she met when she was a pupil at St Pauls . The two were close until 1929 , and exchanged poetry ; Tomalin married in 1931 . Many years after the relationship ended , Imogen admitted to Britten that she would have married Tomalin .
= = = Honours = = =
Imogen was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Music in 1966 . She was awarded honorary doctorates from the universities of Essex ( 1968 ) , Exeter ( 1969 ) , and Leeds ( 1983 ) . She was given honorary membership of the Royal Academy of Music in 1970 . In 1975 she was appointed a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) .
= = Music = =
Imogen Holst was a part @-@ time composer , intermittently productive within her extensive portfolio of musical activities . In her earlier years she was among a group of young British women composers — Elizabeth Maconchy and Elisabeth Lutyens were others — whose music was regularly performed and broadcast . According to a later critic , her Mass in A of 1927 showed " confident and imaginative layering of voices , building to a satisfying Agnus Dei " . However , for long periods in her subsequent career Imogen barely composed at all . After the RCM , her most active years as a composer were at Dartington in the 1940s and the " post @-@ Britten " period after 1964 . Her output of compositions , arrangements and edited music is extensive but has received only limited critical attention . Much of it is unpublished and has usually been neglected after its initial performance .
The oeuvre comprises instrumental , vocal , orchestral and choral music . Early in her compositional career Imogen was primarily influenced , as Gustav Holst 's daughter , by what the analyst Christopher Tinker terms " her natural and inescapable relationship with the English musical establishment " , and by her close personal relationship with her father . Some of her first compositions reflect the pastoralism of Ralph Vaughan Williams , who taught her at the RCM . In her teaching and EFDSS years during the 1930s she became known for her folksong arrangements but composed little music herself . The personal style that emerged in the 1940s incorporated her affinity with folksong and dance , her intense interest in English music of the 16th and 17th centuries , and her taste for innovation . In her 1930 suite for solo viola , she had begun experimenting with scale patterns ; by the 1940s she was incorporating her own six- and eight @-@ note scales into her chamber music and occasionally into choral works such as the Five Songs ( 1944 ) . This experimentation reappears in later works ; in Hallo My Fancy ( 1972 ) a new scale is introduced for each verse , while the choir provides free harmonisation to a solo voice . In Homage to William Morris ( 1984 ) , among her final works , Tinker notes her use of dissonance " to add strength to the musical articulation of the text " . By contrast , the String Quintet of 1982 , the work which Imogen herself thought made her " a real composer " , is characterised by the warmth of its harmonies .
Much of Imogen 's choral music was written for amateur performance . Critics have observed a clear distinction in quality between these pieces and the choral works written for professional choirs , particularly those for women 's voices . These latter pieces , says Tinker , incorporate her best work as an original composer . Record companies were slow in recognising Imogen 's commercial potential , and not until 2009 was a CD issued devoted entirely to her music — a selection of her works for strings . The Guardian 's reviewer welcomed the recording : " [ T ] here is a great deal of English music of far less worth that is frequently praised to the skies " . In 2012 a selection of her choral music , sung by the Clare College Choir , was recorded by Harmonia Mundi . One review of this recording picks out Welcome Joy and Welcome Sorrow , written for female voices with harp accompaniment , as " [ giving ] an insight into her own , softly nuanced , pioneering voice " . Another mentions the " Three Psalms " setting , where " inner rhythms are underscored by the subtle string ostinatos pulsing beneath " .
= = Published texts = =
Publication details refer to the book 's first UK publication .
Gustav Holst : A biography . London : Oxford University Press . 1938 . OCLC 852118145 . ( revised edition 1969 )
The Music of Gustav Holst . London : Oxford University Press . 1951 . OCLC 881989 . ( revised editions 1968 and 1985 , the latter with Holst 's Music Reconsidered added )
The Book of the Dolmetsch Descant Recorder . London : Boosey & Hawkes . 1957 . OCLC 221221906 .
The Story of Music ( " The Wonderful World " series ) . London : Rathbone . OCLC 2182017 . ( co @-@ author with Benjamin Britten )
Heirs and Rebels : Letters Written to Each Other , and Occasional Writings on Music , by Ralph Vaughan Williams and Gustav Holst . London : Oxford University Press . 1959 . OCLC 337514 . ( co @-@ editor with Ursula Vaughan Williams ) :
Henry Purcell , 1659 – 1695 : Essays on his Music . London : Oxford University Press . 1959 . OCLC 602569 . ( editor )
Henry Purcell : the Story of his Life and Work . London : Boosey & Hawkes . 1961 . OCLC 1200203 .
Tune . London : Faber & Faber . 1962 . OCLC 843455729 .
An ABC of Music : a Short Practical Guide to the Basic Essentials of Rudiments , Harmony , and Form . Oxford : Oxford University Press . 1963 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 317103 @-@ 1 .
Your Book of Music . London : Faber & Faber . 1964 . OCLC 170598 .
Bach ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1965 . OCLC 748710834 .
Britten ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1966 . OCLC 243904447 .
Byrd ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1972 . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 09813 @-@ 4 .
Conducting a Choir : a Guide for Amateurs . London : Oxford University Press . 1973 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 313407 @-@ 1 .
Holst ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1974 . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 09967 @-@ X. ( second edition 1981 )
A Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst 's Music . London : Faber Music , in conjunction with G & I Holst Ltd . 1974 . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 10004 @-@ X.
Imogen Holst also wrote numerous articles , pamphlets , essays , introductions and programme notes during the period 1935 – 1984 .
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= Tellurium =
Tellurium is a chemical element with symbol Te and atomic number 52 . It is a brittle , mildly toxic , rare , silver @-@ white metalloid . Tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur . It is occasionally found in native form , as elemental crystals . Tellurium is far more common in the universe as a whole than it is on Earth . Its extreme rarity in the Earth 's crust , comparable to that of platinum , is partly due to its high atomic number , but also due to its formation of a volatile hydride which caused the element to be lost to space as a gas during the hot nebular formation of the planet .
Tellurium was discovered in the Habsburg Empire , in 1782 by Franz @-@ Joseph Müller von Reichenstein in a mineral containing tellurium and gold . Martin Heinrich Klaproth named the new element in 1798 after the Latin word for " earth " , tellus . Gold telluride minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds . However , they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself , which is normally extracted as a by @-@ product of copper and lead production .
Commercially , the primary use of tellurium is in alloys , foremost in steel and copper to improve machinability . Applications in CdTe solar panels and as a semiconductor material also consume a considerable fraction of tellurium production .
Tellurium has no biological function , although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as tellurocysteine and telluromethionine . In humans , tellurium is partly metabolized into dimethyl telluride , ( CH3 ) 2Te , a gas with a garlic @-@ like odor which is exhaled in the breath of victims of tellurium toxicity or exposure .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Tellurium has two allotropes , crystalline and amorphous . When crystalline , tellurium is silvery @-@ white and when it is in pure state it has a metallic luster . It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid . Amorphous tellurium is a black @-@ brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of tellurous acid or telluric acid ( Te ( OH ) 6 ) . Tellurium is a semiconductor that shows a greater electrical conductivity in certain directions which depends on atomic alignment ; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light ( photoconductivity ) . When in its molten state , tellurium is corrosive to copper , iron and stainless steel . Of the chalcogens , tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points , at 722 @.@ 66 K ( 841 @.@ 12 ° F ) and 1 @,@ 261 K ( 1 @,@ 810 ° F ) , respectively .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Tellurium adopts a polymeric structure , consisting of zig @-@ zag chains of Te atoms . This gray material resists oxidation by air and is nonvolatile .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes . Five of those isotopes , 122Te , 123Te , 124Te , 125Te and 126Te , are stable . The other three , 120Te , 128Te and 130Te , have been observed to be radioactive . The stable isotopes make up only 33 @.@ 2 % of the naturally occurring tellurium ; this is possibly due to the long half @-@ lives of the unstable isotopes . They are in the range from 1013 to 2 @.@ 2 × 1024 years ( for 128Te ) . This makes 128Te the isotope with the longest half life among all radionuclides , which is approximately 160 trillion ( 1012 ) times the age of the known universe .
There are 38 known nuclear isomers of tellurium with atomic masses that range from 105 to 142 . Tellurium is among the lightest elements known to undergo alpha decay , with isotopes 106Te to 110Te being able to undergo this mode of decay . The atomic mass of tellurium ( 127 @.@ 60 g · mol − 1 ) exceeds that of the following element iodine ( 126 @.@ 90 g · mol − 1 ) .
= = = Occurrence = = =
With an abundance in the Earth 's crust comparable to that of platinum , tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements in the Earth 's crust . Its abundance is about 1 µg / kg . In comparison , even the rarest of the lanthanides have crustal abundances of 500 µg / kg ( see Abundance of the chemical elements ) .
The extreme rarity of tellurium in the Earth 's crust is not a reflection of its cosmic abundance , which is in fact greater than that of rubidium , even though rubidium is ten thousand times more abundant in the Earth 's crust . The extraordinarily low abundance of tellurium on Earth is rather thought to be due to conditions in the Earth 's formation , when the stable form of certain elements , in the absence of oxygen and water , was controlled by the reductive power of free hydrogen . Under this scenario , certain elements such as tellurium which form volatile hydrides were severely depleted during the formation of the Earth 's crust , through evaporation of these hydrides . Tellurium and selenium are the heavy elements most depleted in the Earth 's crust by this process .
Tellurium is sometimes found in its native ( i.e. , elemental ) form , but is more often found as the tellurides of gold such as calaverite and krennerite ( two different polymorphs of AuTe2 ) , petzite , Ag3AuTe2 , and sylvanite , AgAuTe4 . The city of Telluride , Colorado was named in hope of a strike of gold telluride ( which never materialized , though gold metal ore was found ) . Gold itself is usually found uncombined , but when found naturally as a chemical compound , it is most often combined with tellurium .
Although tellurium is found with gold more often than in uncombined form , it is found even more often combined with elements other than gold , as tellurides of more common metals ( e.g. melonite , NiTe2 ) . Natural tellurite and tellurate minerals also occur , formed by oxidation of tellurides near the Earth 's surface . In contrast to selenium , tellurium is not in general able to replace sulfur in its minerals , due to the large difference in ion radius of sulfur and tellurium . In consequence , many common sulfide minerals contain considerable amounts of selenium , but only traces of tellurium .
In the gold rush of 1893 , diggers in Kalgoorlie discarded a pyritic material which got in their way as they searched for pure gold . The Kalgoorlie waste was thus used to fill in potholes or as part of sidewalks . Three years passed before it was realized that this waste was calaverite , a telluride of gold that had not been recognized . This led to a second gold rush in 1896 which included mining the streets .
= = History = =
Tellurium ( Latin tellus meaning " earth " ) was discovered in the 18th century in a gold ore from the mines in Zlatna , near today 's city of Alba Iulia , Romania . This ore was known as " Faczebajer weißes blättriges Golderz " ( white leafy gold ore from Faczebaja , German name of Facebánya , now Fața Băii in Alba County ) or antimonalischer Goldkies ( antimonic gold pyrite ) , and , according to Anton von Rupprecht , was Spießglaskönig ( argent molybdique ) , containing native antimony . In 1782 Franz @-@ Joseph Müller von Reichenstein , who was then serving as the Austrian chief inspector of mines in Transylvania , concluded that the ore did not contain antimony , but that it was bismuth sulfide . The following year , he reported that this was erroneous and that the ore contained mostly gold and an unknown metal very similar to antimony . After a thorough investigation which lasted for three years and consisted of more than fifty tests , Müller determined the specific gravity of the mineral and noted the radish @-@ like odor of the white smoke which passed off when the new metal was heated , the red color which the metal imparts to sulfuric acid , and the black precipitate which this solution gives when diluted with water . Nevertheless , he was not able to identify this metal and gave it the names aurum paradoxium and metallum problematicum , as it did not show the properties predicted for the expected antimony .
In 1789 , a Hungarian scientist , Pál Kitaibel , also discovered the element independently in an ore from Deutsch @-@ Pilsen which had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite , but later he gave the credit to Müller . In 1798 , it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth who had earlier isolated it from the mineral calaverite .
The 1960s brought growth in thermoelectric applications for tellurium ( as bismuth telluride ) , as well as its use in free @-@ machining steel , which became the dominant use .
= = Production = =
The principal source of tellurium is from anode sludges produced during the electrolytic refining of blister copper . It is a component of dusts from blast furnace refining of lead . Treatment of 1000 tons of copper ore typically yields one kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 pounds ) of tellurium . Tellurium is produced mainly in the United States , Peru , Japan and Canada . For the year 2009 the British Geological Survey gives the following numbers : United States 50 t , Peru 7 t , Japan 40 t and Canada 16 t .
The anode sludges contain the selenides and tellurides of the noble metals in compounds with the formula M2Se or M2Te ( M = Cu , Ag , Au ) . At temperatures of 500 ° C the anode sludges are roasted with sodium carbonate under air . The metal ions are reduced to the metals , while the telluride is converted to sodium tellurite .
M2Te + O2 + Na2CO3 → Na2TeO3 + 2 M + CO2
Tellurites can be leached from the mixture with water and are normally present as hydrotellurites HTeO3 − in solution . Selenites are also formed during this process , but they can be separated by adding sulfuric acid . The hydrotellurites are converted into the insoluble tellurium dioxide while the selenites stay in solution .
HTeO −
3 + OH − + H2SO4 → TeO2 + SO2 −
4 + 2 H2O
The reduction to the metal is done either by electrolysis or by reacting the tellurium dioxide with sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid .
TeO2 + 2 SO2 + 2H2O → Te + 2 SO2 −
4 + 4 H +
Commercial @-@ grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200 @-@ mesh powder but is also available as slabs , ingots , sticks , or lumps . The year @-@ end price for tellurium in 2000 was US $ 14 per pound . In recent years , the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply , reaching as high as US $ 100 per pound in 2006 . Despite an expected doubling in production due to improved extraction methods , the United States Department of Energy ( DoE ) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025 .
= = Compounds = =
Tellurium belongs to the same chemical family as oxygen , sulfur , selenium and polonium : the chalcogen family . Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar . It exhibits the oxidation states − 2 , + 2 , + 4 and + 6 , with the + 4 state being most common .
Tellurides
Reduction of Te metal produces the tellurides and polytellurides , Ten2 − . The − 2 oxidation state is exhibited in binary compounds with many metals , such as zinc telluride , ZnTe , formed by heating tellurium with zinc . Decomposition of ZnTe with hydrochloric acid yields hydrogen telluride ( H
2Te ) , a highly unstable analogue of the other chalcogen hydrides , H
2O , H
2S and H
2Se :
ZnTe + 2 HCl → ZnCl
2 + H
2Te
H
2Te is unstable , whereas salts of its conjugate base [ TeH ] − are stable .
Halides
The + 2 oxidation state is exhibited by the dihalides , TeCl
2 , TeBr
2 and TeI
2 . The dihalides have not been obtained in pure form , although they are known decomposition products of the tetrahalides in organic solvents , and their derived tetrahalotellurates are well @-@ characterized :
Te + X
2 + 2 X − → TeX2 −
4
where X is Cl , Br , or I. These anions are square planar in geometry . Polynuclear anionic species also exist , such as the dark brown Te
2I2 −
6 , and the black Te
4I2 −
14 .
Fluorine forms two halides with tellurium : the mixed @-@ valence Te
2F
4 and TeF
6 . In the + 6 oxidation state , the – OTeF
5 structural group occurs in a number of compounds such as HOTeF
5 , B ( OTeF
5 )
3 , Xe ( OTeF
5 )
2 , Te ( OTeF
5 )
4 and Te ( OTeF
5 )
6 . The square antiprismatic anion TeF2 −
8 is also attested . The other halogens do not form halides with tellurium in the + 6 oxidation state , but only tetrahalides ( TeCl
4 , TeBr
4 and TeI
4 ) in the + 4 state , and other lower halides ( Te
3Cl
2 , Te
2Cl
2 , Te
2Br
2 , Te
2I and two forms of TeI ) . In the + 4 oxidation state , halotellurate anions are known , such as TeCl2 −
6 and Te
2Cl2 −
10 . Halotellurium cations are also attested , including TeI +
3 , found in TeI
3AsF
6 .
Oxocompounds
Tellurium monoxide was first reported in 1883 as a black amorphous solid formed by the heat decomposition of TeSO
3 in vacuum , disproportionating into tellurium dioxide , TeO
2 and elemental tellurium upon heating . Since then , however , some doubt has been cast on its existence in the solid phase , although it is known as a vapor phase fragment ; the black solid may be merely an equimolar mixture of elemental tellurium and tellurium dioxide .
Tellurium dioxide is formed by heating tellurium in air , causing it to burn with a blue flame . Tellurium trioxide , β @-@ TeO
3 , is obtained by thermal decomposition of Te ( OH )
6 . The other two forms of trioxide reported in the literature , the α- and γ- forms , were found not to be true oxides of tellurium in the + 6 oxidation state , but a mixture of Te4 + , OH − and O −
2 . Tellurium also exhibits mixed @-@ valence oxides , Te
2O
5 and Te
4O
9 .
The tellurium oxides and hydrated oxides form a series of acids , including tellurous acid ( H
2TeO
3 ) , orthotelluric acid ( Te ( OH )
6 ) and metatelluric acid ( ( H
2TeO
4 ) n ) . The two forms of telluric acid form tellurate salts containing the TeO2 –
4 and TeO6 −
6 anions , respectively . Tellurous acid forms tellurite salts containing the anion TeO2 −
3 . Other tellurium cations include TeF2 +
8 , which consists of two fused tellurium rings and the polymeric TeF2 +
7 .
Zintl cations
When tellurium is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid , it forms red solutions containing the Zintl ion , Te2 +
4 . The oxidation of tellurium by AsF
5 in liquid SO
2 also produces this square planar cation , as well as with the trigonal prismatic , yellow @-@ orange Te4 +
6 :
4 Te + 3 AsF
5 → Te2 +
4 ( AsF −
6 )
2 + AsF
3
6 Te + 6 AsF
5 → Te4 +
6 ( AsF −
6 )
4 + 2 AsF
3
Other tellurium Zintl cations include the polymeric Te2 +
7 and the blue @-@ black Te2 +
8 , which consists of two fused 5 @-@ membered tellurium rings . The latter cation is formed by the reaction of tellurium with tungsten hexachloride :
8 Te + 2 WCl
6 → Te2 +
8 ( WCl −
6 )
2
Interchalcogen cations also exist , such as Te
2Se2 +
6 ( distorted cubic geometry ) and Te
2Se2 +
8 . These are formed by oxidizing mixtures of tellurium and selenium with AsF
5 or SbF
5 .
Organotellurium compounds
Tellurium does not readily form analogues of alcohols and thiols , with the functional group – TeH and are called tellurols . The – TeH functional group is also attributed to using the prefix tellanyl- . Like H2Te , these species are unstable with respect to loss of hydrogen . Telluraethers ( R @-@ Te @-@ R ) are more stable as are telluroxides .
= = Applications = =
= = = Metallurgy = = =
The largest consumer of tellurium is metallurgy , where it is used in iron , copper and lead alloys . When added to stainless steel and copper it makes these metals more machinable . It is alloyed into cast iron for promoting chill for spectroscopic purposes , as the presence of electrically conductive free graphite tends to deleteriously affect spark emission testing results . In lead it improves strength and durability and decreases the corrosive action of sulfuric acid .
= = = Semiconductor and electronic industry uses = = =
Tellurium is used in cadmium telluride ( CdTe ) solar panels . National Renewable Energy Laboratory lab tests using this material achieved some of the highest efficiencies for solar cell electric power generation . Massive commercial production of CdTe solar panels by First Solar in recent years has significantly increased tellurium demand . If some of the cadmium in CdTe is replaced by zinc then ( Cd , Zn ) Te is formed which is used in solid @-@ state X @-@ ray detectors .
Alloyed with both cadmium and mercury , to form mercury cadmium telluride , an infrared sensitive semiconductor material is formed . Organotellurium compounds such as dimethyl telluride , diethyl telluride , diisopropyl telluride , diallyl telluride and methyl allyl telluride are used as precursors for metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy growth of II @-@ VI compound semiconductors . Diisopropyl telluride ( DIPTe ) is employed as the preferred precursor for achieving the low @-@ temperature growth of CdHgTe by MOVPE . For these processes highest purity metalorganics of both selenium and tellurium are used . The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by adduct purification .
Tellurium as a tellurium suboxide is used in the media layer of several types of rewritable optical discs , including ReWritable Compact Discs ( CD @-@ RW ) , ReWritable Digital Video Discs ( DVD @-@ RW ) and ReWritable Blu @-@ ray Discs .
Tellurium dioxide is used to create acousto @-@ optic modulators ( AOTFs and AOBSs ) for confocal microscropy .
Tellurium is used in the new phase change memory chips developed by Intel . Bismuth telluride ( Bi2Te3 ) and lead telluride are working elements of thermoelectric devices . Lead telluride is used in far @-@ infrared detectors .
= = = Other uses = = =
Used to color ceramics .
The strong increase in optical refraction upon the addition of selenides and tellurides into glass is used in the production of glass fibers for telecommunications . These chalcogenide glasses are widely used .
Mixtures of selenium and tellurium are used with barium peroxide as oxidizer in the delay powder of electric blasting caps .
Organic tellurides have been employed as initiators for living radical polymerization and electron @-@ rich mono- and di @-@ tellurides possess antioxidant activity .
Rubber can be vulcanized with tellurium instead of sulfur or selenium . The rubber produced in this way shows improved heat resistance .
Tellurite agar is used to identify members of the corynebacterium genus , most typically Corynebacterium diphtheriae , the pathogen responsible for diphtheria .
The tellurium is a key constituent of high performing mixed oxide catalysts for the heterogeneous catalytic selective oxidation of propane to acrylic acid . The surface elemental composition changes dynamically and reversibly with the reaction conditions . In the presence of steam the surface of the catalyst is enriched in tellurium and vanadium which translates into the enhancement of the acrylic acid production .
= = Biological role = =
Tellurium has no known biological function , although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as telluro @-@ cysteine and telluro @-@ methionine . Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds . Many cells , such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium , which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells . In yeast , this reduction is mediated by the sulfate assimilation pathway . Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects . Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride , although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species . Dimethyl telluride has been observed in hot springs at very low concentrations .
= = Precautions = =
Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic and need to be handled with care , although acute poisoning is rare . Tellurium poisoning is particularly difficult to treat as many chelation agents used in the treatment of metal toxicities will increase the toxicity of tellurium . Tellurium is not reported to be carcinogenic .
Humans exposed to as little as 0 @.@ 01 mg / m3 or less in air exude a foul garlic @-@ like odor known as " tellurium breath . " This is caused from the tellurium being metabolized by the body , converting it from any oxidation state to dimethyl telluride , ( CH3 ) 2Te . This is a volatile compound with a highly pungent garlic @-@ like smell . Even though the metabolic pathways of tellurium are not known , it is generally assumed that they resemble those of the more extensively studied selenium , because the final methylated metabolic products of the two elements are similar .
People can be exposed to tellurium in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin contact , and eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for tellurium exposure in the workplace as 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . At levels of 25 mg / m3 , tellurium is immediately dangerous to life and health .
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= Nenjil Or Aalayam =
Nenjil Or Aalayam ( English : A Temple in the Heart ) is a 1962 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic @-@ drama film , written and directed by C. V. Sridhar , who produced it under the banner of Chitralaya Pictures . The film features Kalyan Kumar , Devika and R. Muthuraman in the lead roles . Nagesh , Manorama and Kutty Padmini also play supporting roles . The original soundtrack album and background score were composed by Viswanathan – Ramamoorthy , while the lyrics for the songs were written by Kannadasan .
The film revolves around a young woman named Seetha , her husband Venu and Dr. Murali , who was Seetha 's lover . Due to his tenure overseas , Seetha 's parents force her to marry another person . A few years later , Venu contracts cancer and Seetha brings him to Chennai to meet a cancer specialist who , to her dismay , is revealed to be Murali . Realising that something is worrying Seetha , Venu gives her the freedom to marry Murali after his death . The remainder of the film shows how Murali sacrifices his love for the sake of the couple 's happiness and cures Venu .
Nenjil Or Aalayam was released on 26 January 1962 , coinciding with Republic Day in India . The film received positive critical feedback and went on to become a commercial success . The songs " Sonnathu Neethaana " and " Engirundhaalum Vaazhga " remain popular today among the Tamil diaspora . The film won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil and the President 's Award for Sridhar at the 10th National Film Awards . It also won the Cinema Express Award for Best Film .
The film became a trendsetter for both fast @-@ paced filmmaking and triangular love stories with sacrifice as the theme . Sridhar remade the film in Hindi as Dil Ek Mandir ( 1963 ) and in Telugu as Manase Mandiram ( 1966 ) . It was also remade in Malayalam as Hridayam Oru Kshethram ( 1976 ) , and in Kannada as Kumkuma Rakshe ( 1977 ) . The former was directed by P. Subramaniam while the latter was by S. K. A. Chari .
= = Plot = =
Murali ( Kalyan Kumar ) goes abroad to pursue higher studies in medicine . During his tenure overseas , his girlfriend Seetha ( Devika ) is forced by her parents to marry another person . Devastated upon hearing the news , Murali swears a vow of lifelong celibacy and devotes himself to saving people suffering from cancer . A few years later , Venu ( R. Muthuraman ) happens to be critically ill with cancer and has to be operated upon . The treatment for Venu progresses well until Murali meets Venu 's wife , who is revealed to be Seetha . When Seetha learns that the doctor treating Venu is Murali , whom she had left , she becomes upset .
Though Murali does his best to cure Venu , Seetha is worried that Murali might take revenge on her by not providing proper treatment to Venu , who in the meantime , learms of Murali and Seetha 's love . Venu requests Murali to marry Seetha in case the operation is unsuccessful as he does not wish for his wife to become a widow . Seetha becomes infuriated when she discovers Venu 's request and tells Murali that if Venu dies , she would die as well . Murali promises Seetha that he will save Venu even if he has to risk his own life on the line .
Murali works hard to save Venu so as not to create a misconception that he killed Venu to be with Seetha . With great difficulty , Murali manages to successfully cure Venu 's cancer . However , when Murali reads the results of the operation , he becomes so overjoyed at its success that he unexpectedly dies of high blood pressure due to his over @-@ excitement . Venu and Seetha realise that Murali had sacrificed his life for their happiness and remains in their hearts .
Woven into the story is a sub @-@ plot following a girl ( Kutty Padmini ) , who is in the same hospital Murali works in , and undergoes treatment for the same disease that Venu contracted . However , her fate is contrary .
= = Cast = =
Lead actors
Kalyan Kumar as Dr. Murali
Devika as Seetha
R. Muthuraman as Venu
Male supporting actors
Nagesh as Peter
V. S. Raghavan as Seetha 's father
Female supporting actors
Manorama as Navaneedham
Kutty Padmini as the dying child
Santha Kumari ( guest appearance )
= = Production = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam was the third film to be directed by C. V. Sridhar after Kalyana Parisu ( 1958 ) and Then Nilavu ( 1961 ) . Sridhar , who produced the film under the banner of Chitralaya Pictures in addition to writing the screenplay and dialogues , had originally planned to cast Gemini Ganesan and Savitri in the lead roles ; due to their unavailability , he instead cast R. Muthuraman and Devika . Sridhar was impressed with Muthuraman 's performance in the stage play Vadivel Vathiyar in which he played an antagonistic role , and subsequently selected him for the role of Venu . Nenjil Or Aalayam was Muthuraman 's first film as a lead actor as he had performed mainly supporting roles prior to Nenjil Or Aalayam . The film marked the debut of Kannada actor Kalyan Kumar and Kutty Padmini , who played the roles of Murali and the dying child respectively . Manorama , V. S. Raghavan , and Santha Kumari were cast in supporting roles .
Nagesh stayed with actor K. Balaji during his early days as an upcoming comedian for three years . Balaji introduced Nagesh to Sridhar , who offered him a role on Balaji 's recommendation . In a 2006 interview , Nagesh revealed that he was initially to play the role of a country bumpkin , but was chosen by Sridhar to play Peter , the hospital attendant . He was paid an advance of ₹ 501 ( equivalent to ₹ 30 @,@ 000 or US $ 440 in 2016 ) . S. Rama Rao was originally supposed to play that role . The screenplay and dialogues for Nagesh 's portions were written by Chitralaya Gopu .
Principal photography was conducted on the ninth floor of Chennai 's Vijaya Vauhini Studios , where the hospital set was erected by the film 's art director , Ganga . For the song " Sonnathu Neethaana " , the shot where the camera pans beneath Muthuraman 's bed and rising out was captured using a camera dolly . The song was filmed with 60 different angles being used by the film 's cinematographer A. Vincent . Nenjil Or Aalayam was the first Tamil film to be shot entirely on a single set . Filming was completed in less than 30 days . The final length of the film 's prints were 14 @,@ 810 metres ( 48 @,@ 590 ft ) long .
= = Music = =
The original soundtrack album and background score for Nenjil Or Aalayam were composed by Viswanathan – Ramamoorthy ( a duo consisting of M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy ) , while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan . The soundtrack album was released under the label of Saregama . Initially Sridhar decided not to have any songs in the film but later changed his decision .
The inspiration for the opening line of the song " Engirundhalum Vaazhga " came to Kannadasan when he happened to hear the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , C. N. Annadurai 's speech on actor Sivaji Ganesan at a film function . When Annadurai heard of Ganesan joining the Indian National Congress , he wished the latter success by saying , " Sivaji ... nee engirundhalum vaazhga ... " The idea for the tune of the song " Muthana Muthallavo " came to Viswanathan during a car journey with Kannadasan , who wrote the lyrics for the song within three minutes . " Muthana Muthallavo " was recorded in 20 minutes . The lyrics for the song " Sonnathu Neethaana " , which is based on the Jaunpuri raga , was coined by Kannadasan when he came to know that Viswanathan commented negatively on his drinking habit . Portions of the song " Ninaipadhellam " are based on the Keeravani raga .
The album received positive reviews from critics and contributed to the film 's success . Film producer and writer G. Dhananjayan mentions in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema that the songs were " evergreen " . Film historian and columnist Randor Guy approved of the music , considering " Ninaipadhellam " to have " excellent background orchestration " . Film critic Baradwaj Rangan , writing for The New Indian Express , opined that " Engirundhaalum Vaazhga " had set " the precedent for several generations of jilted lovers " . On " Sonnathu Neethaana " , singer Charulatha Mani wrote , " The subtle pathos that P. Susheela imparts when she sings ' sol sol .. en uyire ' is notable . " P. K. Ajith Kumar of The Hindu stated , " Just as [ Susheela ] does not need to know the language to sing a song perfectly , we need not know Tamil to enjoy her songs like ... Sonnathu neethanaa ... ( Nenjil Oru Aalayam ) " . Following Viswanathan 's death in July 2015 , the news agency , Press Trust of India wrote that " Ninaipadhellam " was " memorable for the deep sense of solace it offered to wounded hearts . " Anand Venkateswaran of The Wire noted , " MSV ’ s style is less about making words sit in a meter than about a musical empathy with the meaning . Could anyone else have set to tune the first line of ‘ Sonnadhu nee daana ‘ , of Nenjil Or Alayam ( Muthuraman , 1962 ) ? " A critic from Dina Thanthi noted Kannadasan had an uncanny ability to deliver perfect situational songs and cited " Sonnathu Neethaana " as an example .
Tracklist
= = Release = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam was released on 26 January 1962 , coinciding with the Republic Day of India . Sridhar had to release the film on his own since no distributors were willing to buy it . The film received critical acclaim and was also commercially successful upon release ; it ran for 175 days in theatres . The film is hailed as a landmark for portraying a triangular love story in an innovative manner . To celebrate the film 's successful outing at the box office , the film 's crew members created an advertisement thanking the people who came to watch the film and appreciated it ; the advertisement was issued in Nadigar Sangam 's official magazine , Nadigan Kural , on 9 February 1962 .
Sridhar remade the film in Hindi as Dil Ek Mandir ( 1963 ) and in Telugu as Manase Mandiram ( 1966 ) . It was also remade in Malayalam as Hridayam Oru Kshethram and in Kannada as Kumkuma Rakshe ( 1977 ) . California @-@ based Indian filmmaker Jag Mundhra was keen on remaking Dil Ek Mandir in English and Hindi , effecting some marginal changes in the film treatment . Mundhra met Sridhar to ask for the rights to the film 's script only to learn that Sridhar had assigned it to a film financier for a paltry sum , for eternity . The financier demanded an exorbitant fee for giving up the rights . The fee amounted to 75 % of Mundhra 's budget .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam received positive feedback from critics . Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan appreciated the film and mentioned , " It is an innovative film made like Hollywood films and a sincere attempt to improve the taste of filmgoers for quality films " . Link commented , " The film is , however , refreshingly different . What makes it better is , what it does not have . It has , for instance , no " star value . " " Randor Guy wrote , " Sridhar proved that movies could be made with new faces , limited sets and low budgets if one had an interesting , emotionally rich story , tautly narrated on screen with pleasing music " . Guy concluded his review by stating that the film would be " remembered for its excellent music and impressive performances by Muthuraman , Devika , Kalyankumar [ sic ] , Nagesh , Manorama and child artiste Padmini . " Dinamalar praised the film for showing love as a divine thing .
Following Devika 's demise in 2002 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu wrote , " If the song " Sonnathu needhana " [ sic ] attained immortality , thanks to the lyrical richness Kannadasan bestowed on it , the credit for making it visually poignant goes to Devika , who rendered it in the film . " Another journalist from The Hindu , T. Ramakrishnan noted , " Caught between her former lover and her husband who was battling for life , Devika strongly displayed the plight that any woman in such situations could face . " Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said , " Decades may pass but the comedy element even in a serious story remains unforgettable . Nagesh 's fun fare in the film with Manorama , juxtaposed with the staid and sedate performances of Devika , Muthuraman and Kalyan Kumar , weren 't just a comic relief but an evergreen treat " .
K. S. Sivakumaran of Daily News Sri Lanka described the film 's plot as a " hackneyed theme " and compared it to a soap opera , but appreciated Muthuraman 's performance , Kannadasan 's lyrics and Vincent 's cinematography . Writing for The Times of India , Deepauk Murugesan said , " There is no clear choice between options and while the audience is entirely aware of the right moral decision even our minds are clouded by our affections for both Dr Murali and Venu . " K. Hariharan , director of the L. V. Prasad Film and Television Academy in Chennai , noted , " The only film that could stake claim [ in the 1960s ] to an individual ' love story ' was probably Sridhar 's powerful Nenjil [ Or ] Aalayam ! And even here ' sacrifice ' takes the upper hand ! "
= = = Accolades = = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil and the President 's Award for Sridhar at the 10th National Film Awards . It also won the Cinema Express Award for Best Film .
= = Legacy = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam attained cult status in Tamil cinema , and became a trendsetter for both fast @-@ paced filmmaking and triangular love stories with sacrifice as the theme . Films that followed the trend of having these traits include Annakili ( 1976 ) , Antha Ezhu Naatkal ( 1981 ) and Kadhal Virus ( 2002 ) . The film became a major breakthrough in Nagesh 's career , and the film critic S. Theodore Baskaran believed that his role as a ward boy " established his position " .
In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight acclaimed directors were asked to list ten films they liked most . Directors J. Mahendran , Balu Mahendra and K. S. Ravikumar listed the film among their favourite films . Ravikumar was quoted saying , " Sridhar 's Nenjil Or Aalayam depicts the supremacy of love . " Encouraged by the film 's success , Sridhar wished to screen the film at the Cannes Film Festival , thus the screenplay was translated into French in time for the festival . Sridhar sent Sarma , one of his administrative managers , to France to attend the screening of the film on his behalf . It was one of the films featured in artist V. Jeevananthan 's book Thiraiseelai , a compilation of articles on cinema which won a Special Mention certificate award at the 58th National Film Awards .
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= The Boat Race 1871 =
The 28th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on the 1 April 1871 . The race , umpired by Joseph William Chitty , was won by Cambridge by one length in a time of 23 minutes 10 seconds for their second consecutive victory .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by three lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's eleven .
Oxford were coached by W. D. Benson ( their non @-@ rowing president , who had rowed three times for the Dark Blues in the 1868 , 1869 and 1870 races ) . Cambridge 's coach was John Graham Chambers ( who rowed in the 1862 and 1863 race , and was a non @-@ rowing president for the 1865 race ) and John Hilton Ridley ( who rowed in the 1869 and 1870 races ) .
The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 125 lb ( 76 @.@ 1 kg ) , 2 @.@ 75 pounds ( 1 @.@ 2 kg ) more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew saw only three new rowers , with five returning from the 1870 race , including the Cambridge University Boat Club president John Goldie and William Henry Lowe in their third appearance in the event , along with the cox Henry Erskine Gordon . Similarly , Oxford saw five of their crew return , including S. H. Woodhouse at bow and Thomas Southey Baker who were participating in their third Boat Races .
= = Race = =
There was " little or no tide and head wind over part of the course " according to Drinkwater . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex station to Oxford . The umpire , Chitty , got the race underway at 10.08am , with Cambridge taking an early lead . The Light Blues had a clear water advantage by the Point and held a two @-@ length lead by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge . Despite a spurt instigated by Oxford stroke Robert Lesley at Barnes Bridge , Goldie remained steady until , before the final twenty strokes , he increased the stroke rate and saw Cambridge home by one length in a time of 23 minutes 10 seconds for their second consecutive victory and took the overall record to 16 – 12 in Oxford 's favour .
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= Getting It : The Psychology of est =
Getting It : The Psychology of est is a non @-@ fiction book by American psychologist Sheridan Fenwick , first published in 1976 , analyzing Werner Erhard 's Erhard Seminars Training or est . It is based on Fenwick 's own experience of attending a four @-@ day session of the est training , an intensive 60 @-@ hour personal development course in the self @-@ help genre . Large groups of up to 250 people took the est training at one time .
In the first section of Fenwick 's book , she recounts the est training process and the methods used during the course . Fenwick details the rules or " agreements " laid out by the trainers to the attendees , which include not talking to others or leaving the session to go to the bathroom unless during an announced break period . The second section is analytic : Fenwick analyzes the methods used by the est trainers , evaluates the course 's potential effects , and discusses Erhard 's background . Fenwick concludes that the program 's long @-@ term effects are unknown , the est training may not be appropriate for certain groups of people , and that the large proportion of participants experience positive effects .
Writing in Library Journal , psychiatrist James Charney describes the book as " the only useful critical look " at the training . Zane Berzins of The New York Times Book Review characterizes the book as a " calm and professionally informed view " . Hearings held in 1979 before the United States House of Representatives on a juvenile delinquents program depicted in Scared Straight ! cited the book for background on the est training , as did psychologist Gidi Rubinstein in a 2005 study of the Landmark Forum published in the academic journal Psychology and Psychotherapy : Theory , Research and Practice .
= = Background = =
Werner Erhard ( born John Paul Rosenberg ) , was originally from Pennsylvania and migrated to California . A former salesman , training manager and executive in the encyclopedia business , Erhard created the Erhard Seminars Training ( est ) course in 1971 @.@ est was a form of Large Group Awareness Training , and was part of the Human Potential Movement. est was a four @-@ day , 60 @-@ hour self @-@ help program given to groups of 250 people at a time . The program was very intensive : each day would contain 15 – 20 hours of instruction . During the training , est personnel utilized jargon to convey key concepts , and participants had to agree to certain rules which remained in effect for the duration of the course . Participants were taught that they were responsible for their life outcomes .
Est was controversial . It had its critics and proponents . A year after Getting It was published , over 100 @,@ 000 people completed the est training , including public figures and mental health professionals . In 1985 , Werner Erhard and Associates repackaged the course as " The Forum " , a seminar focused on " goal @-@ oriented breakthroughs " . By 1988 , approximately one million people had taken some form of the trainings . In the early 1990s Erhard faced family problems , as well as tax problems that were eventually resolved in his favor . A group of his associates formed the company Landmark Education in 1991 .
= = Author = =
Sheridan Fenwick , in her early thirties when Getting It was published , had graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Goucher College and received a doctorate in psychopathology and social psychology from Cornell University . Her Ph.D. dissertation was published in 1975 . Fenwick served as the director of social policy in the Department of City Planning of Chicago , Illinois , as assistant attending psychologist at Montefiore Medical Center , and as a faculty member of Columbia University 's department of psychology .
Fenwick writes that although she had been trained as a clinical psychologist , she avoided " consciousness " movements and never participated in transactional analysis or similar therapies , including Transcendental Meditation , Esalen , Arica , Gestalt therapy and Mind Dynamics . When she met with graduates of the est training and heard their testimonials and observed their level of self @-@ confidence , she considered taking the training .
After some preliminary research , Fenwick decided to take the training as a participant rather than as a professional observer . She paid the $ 250 @.@ 00 course fee and enrolled in a four @-@ day est program to examine its methods and its appeal . She reports that the training was an " extraordinary experience " , but that she had " serious concerns about the implications of the est phenomenon " , and that people should know more about it . The book was first published September 16 , 1976 , by J. B. Lippincott Company . A second edition was published by Penguin Books in 1977 . Fenwick went on to work as director of the Behavioral Medicine Clinic at Abbott Northwestern Hospital in Minneapolis , before retiring in 1993 to set up Psybar , an online service to provide psychological experts for court cases .
= = Contents = =
The book is divided into two sections . The first section describes Fenwick 's own experiences of the training ; the second analyzes the est program 's methodology and effects . In her analysis of the course , she states , " While the consensus of informed opinion , based on summaries of research findings , is that interventions similar to the est training have only modestly positive effects , I think that the existing research provides us with an underestimate of the effect of the est training . This training represents a distillation of some of the most powerful techniques and central precepts for attitude and behavior change … I would guess that the effects of the est training are substantial for a large proportion of people . ”
In the latter portion of the book Fenwick discusses comparisons of the est training to brainwashing and psychotherapy , potential harmful effects of the course , and the extent that positive benefit from the course may be attributed to a self @-@ fulfilling prophecy . Fenwick sees est as a form of psychotherapy that utilizes " in " therapies , and questions its suitability for certain individuals . Fenwick writes that the est training draws influences from Synanon , Gestalt therapy , encounter groups , and Scientology . She discusses the potential positive and negative psychological effects that can occur subsequent to taking the est training . She analyzes the rules of the training , and the behavioral tools used by the trainers , and points out that the est personnel are not qualified to assess psychopathology . Fenwick asserts that tactics including sensory deprivation and the large group setting of 250 people at a time help to make the training " work " . She describes this as a " compression chamber effect " , and asserts that it leads to the " hysterical confessions and the euphoric testimonials " she observed in the course .
Fenwick cites the secrecy of the est organization as an impediment to meaningful study , and states that the studies cited by est itself are inadequate and inconclusive . Fenwick writes that a lack of " sophisticated research designs " limits the ability to properly determine long @-@ term benefits or harm caused by the course and notes : " est uses techniques indiscriminately which , in a certain proportion of the population , are known to be harmful and potentially quite dangerous " . She concludes that it is difficult to determine whether est " produces any more than a superficial catharsis , or whether it might be harmful to certain people , " and states that the long @-@ range effects of the training are unknown .
Fenwick also asks rhetorically , " Should we completely discount the testimonials of est graduates , knowing that they are not sufficiently rigorous measures to qualify as scientific evidence ? I don ’ t think so . The fact that positive testimonials are so readily obtained from est graduates , in combination with the observation that a majority of people who take the est training , continue to participate and have found the est experience to be rewarding . Even if ' objective ' changes are not documented in people 's lives , it is noteworthy that people feel happier , more satisfied , more relaxed , and more ' alive . ' If you ' feel ' happier , then you ' are ' happier – objective circumstances notwithstanding . Subjective states are clearly an important component of our lives . "
= = Reception = =
Getting It received mixed , but generally positive , reviews . One positive evaluation came from psychiatrist James Charney , in a 1976 review for Library Journal . Charney calls the book " the only useful critical look at this essential issue " , referring to the est training . He notes in particular that Fenwick 's " analysis of the function of the group , the restrictive rules , and the enforced discomfort is convincing " . In a 1977 review in Library Journal Edith Crockett and Ellis Mount highly recommended the book , commenting that " A plethora of newspaper and magazine reports , along with books written by graduates ... have attempted to explain the phenomenon of this self @-@ help program , but none has done it as well or as objectively as this writer . " Kirkus Reviews noted the precedent set by the analytical nature of the book , writing " Finally . Here 's someone who is willing to disclose the details of Erhard Seminars Training , and then go on to analyze them from a psychological point of view . " Zane Berzins , writing for The New York Times Book Review in 1977 , describes Fenwick 's work as a " calm and professionally informed view " . Berzins describes the book as a " brave attempt " at an analysis of est 's appeal , and concludes that " It 's hardly an incendiary exposé , but Fenwick 's open @-@ minded scrutiny should deglamourize the est movement . "
William McGurk reviewed the book in Contemporary Psychology . Although McGurk praises the book 's description of the est seminars , noting that it " present [ s ] a clear picture of the process " , he also criticizes Fenwick 's subsequent analysis , saying she " sounds like a different person " than in the first section . McGurk writes that " It 's as though she put on her psychoanalytically oriented , professional hat and ran a tape that was far from being effective . " A review in Publishers Weekly states that Fenwick 's " inbred detachment may have kept her from the full impact of the ' experience ' the training was meant to be ( and is for many ) " . Even so , the review notes that Fenwick " scores heavily " in the section where she questions the nature of the est training and Erhard 's background ; it recommends that Getting It be read alongside Luke Rhinehart 's The Book of est .
The book is recommended by James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton 's 1992 book Perspectives on the New Age , where they describe it as " a thorough discussion of est training methods and the psychology behind them " . Other works that cite the book for background on est include Snapping : America 's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change , by Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman ; and Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training , a study commissioned by Erhard 's successor company to est , Werner Erhard and Associates .
Fenwick 's work was cited in 1979 hearings before the United States House of Representatives on a controversial program for juvenile delinquents , which was depicted in the Academy Award @-@ winning documentary film Scared Straight ! . Getting It is cited in background discussion of the est training : " Fenwick has pointed out that sophisticated assessment of individual psychopathology is beyond the competence and training of the est personnel ; it is also outside the est value system , since the training is held to be almost universally beneficial . " Psychologist Gidi Rubinstein cites the book as a reference in a 2005 study of the Landmark Forum , a course descended from the est training , which he presented in the academic journal Psychology and Psychotherapy : Theory , Research and Practice .
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= Pierre Monteux =
Pierre Benjamin Monteux ( pronounced : [ pjɛʁ mɔ ̃ .tø ] ; 4 April 1875 – 1 July 1964 ) was a French ( later American ) conductor . After violin and viola studies , and a decade as an orchestral player and occasional conductor , he began to receive regular conducting engagements in 1907 . He came to prominence when , for Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes company between 1911 and 1914 , he conducted the world premieres of Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring and other prominent works including Petrushka , Ravel 's Daphnis et Chloé , and Debussy 's Jeux . Thereafter he directed orchestras around the world for more than half a century .
From 1917 to 1919 Monteux was the principal conductor of the French repertoire at the Metropolitan Opera in New York . He led the Boston Symphony Orchestra ( 1919 – 24 ) , Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra ( 1924 – 34 ) , Orchestre Symphonique de Paris ( 1929 – 38 ) and San Francisco Symphony ( 1936 – 52 ) . In 1961 , aged eighty @-@ six , he accepted the chief conductorship of the London Symphony Orchestra , a post which he held until his death three years later . Although known for his performances of the French repertoire , his chief love was the music of German composers , above all Brahms . He disliked recording , finding it incompatible with spontaneity , but he nevertheless made a substantial number of records .
Monteux was well known as a teacher . In 1932 he began a conducting class in Paris , which he developed into a summer school that was later moved to his summer home in Les Baux in the south of France . After moving permanently to the US in 1942 , and taking American citizenship , he founded a school for conductors and orchestral musicians in Hancock , Maine . Among his students in France and America who went on to international fame were Igor Markevitch , Neville Marriner , André Previn , Lorin Maazel , Seiji Ozawa and David Zinman . The school in Hancock has continued since Monteux 's death .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Pierre Monteux was born in Paris , the third son and the fifth of six children of Gustave Élie Monteux , a shoe salesman , and his wife , Clémence Rebecca née Brisac . The Monteux family was descended from Sephardic Jews who settled in the south of France . The Monteux ancestors included at least one rabbi , but Gustave Monteux and his family were not religious . Among Monteux 's brothers were Henri , who became an actor , and Paul , who became a conductor of light music under the name Paul Monteux @-@ Brisac . Gustave Monteux was not musical , but his wife was a graduate of the Conservatoire de Musique de Marseille and gave piano lessons . Pierre took violin lessons from the age of six .
When he was nine years old Monteux was admitted to the Conservatoire de Paris . He studied the violin with Jules Garcin and Henri Berthelier , composition with Charles Lenepveu , and harmony and theory with Albert Lavignac . His fellow violin students included George Enescu , Carl Flesch , Fritz Kreisler and Jacques Thibaud . Among the piano students at the Conservatoire was Alfred Cortot , with whom he developed a lifelong friendship . At the age of twelve , Monteux organised and conducted a small orchestra of Conservatoire students to accompany Cortot in performances of concertos in and around Paris . He attended the world premiere of César Franck 's Symphony in February 1889 . From 1889 to 1892 , while still a student , he played in the orchestra of the Folies Bergère ; he later said to George Gershwin that his rhythmic sense was formed during the experience of playing popular dance music there .
At the age of fifteen , while continuing his violin studies , Monteux took up the viola . He studied privately with Benjamin Godard , with whom he performed in the premiere of Saint @-@ Saëns 's Septet , with the composer at the keyboard . Monteux joined the Geloso Quartet as violist ; he played many concerts with them , including a performance of Fauré 's Second Piano Quartet with the composer at the piano . On another occasion he was the violist in a private performance of a Brahms quartet given before the composer in Vienna . Monteux recalled Brahms 's remark , " It takes the French to play my music properly . The Germans all play it much too heavily . " Monteux remained a member of the Geloso Quartet until 1911 . With Johannes Wolff and Joseph Hollman he also played chamber music for Grieg . Years later , in his seventies , Monteux deputised with the Budapest Quartet without rehearsal or score ; asked by Erik Smith if he could write out the parts of the seventeen Beethoven quartets , he replied , " You know , I cannot forget them . "
In 1893 , when he was eighteen , Monteux married a fellow student , the pianist Victoria Barrière . With her he played the complete Beethoven violin sonatas in public . Neither family approved of the marriage ; although the Monteux family were not religious , both they and the Roman Catholic Barrières were doubtful about an inter @-@ religious marriage ; furthermore , both families thought the couple too young to marry . There were a son and a daughter from the union .
During his formative years Monteux belonged to a group which toured with the Casadesus family of musicians and the pianist Alfredo Casella . The combination played supposed " ancient pieces " , allegedly discovered in libraries by one or other of the Casadesus family ; Marius Casadesus later revealed that he or his brother Henri had written the music . While still a student , in 1893 Monteux was successful in the competition for the chair of first viola of the Concerts Colonne , of which he became assistant conductor and choirmaster the following year . This gave him a link via the orchestra 's founder , Édouard Colonne , to Berlioz . Colonne had known Berlioz , and through the older conductor Monteux was able to mark his scores with notes based on the composer 's intentions . He was also employed on a freelance basis at the Opéra @-@ Comique , where he continued to play from time to time for several years ; he led the viola section at the 1902 premiere of Pelléas et Mélisande under the baton of André Messager . In 1896 he graduated from the Conservatoire , sharing first prize for violin with Thibaud .
= = = First conducting posts = = =
Monteux 's first high profile conducting experience came in 1895 , when he was barely 20 years old . He was a member of the orchestra engaged for a performance of Saint @-@ Saëns 's oratorio La lyre et la harpe , to be conducted by the composer . At the last minute Saint @-@ Saëns judged the player engaged for the important and difficult organ part to be inadequate and , as a celebrated virtuoso organist , decided to play it himself . He asked the orchestra if any of them could take over as conductor ; there was a chorus of " Oui – Monteux ! " . With great trepidation , Monteux conducted the orchestra and soloists including the composer , sight @-@ reading the score , and was judged a success .
Monteux 's musical career was interrupted in 1896 , when he was called up for military service . As a graduate of the Conservatoire , one of France 's grandes écoles , he was required to serve only ten months rather than the three years generally required . He later described himself as " the most pitifully inadequate soldier that the 132nd Infantry had ever seen " . He had inherited from his mother not only her musical talent but her short and portly build and was physically unsuited to soldiering .
Returning to Paris after discharge , Monteux resumed his career as a violist . Hans Richter invited him to lead the violas in the Bayreuth Festival orchestra , but Monteux could not afford to leave his regular work in Paris . In December 1900 Monteux played the solo viola part in Berlioz 's Harold in Italy , rarely heard in Paris at the time , with the Colonne Orchestra conducted by Felix Mottl . In 1902 he secured a junior conducting post at the Dieppe casino , a seasonal appointment for the summer months which brought him into contact with leading musicians from the Paris orchestras and well @-@ known soloists on vacation . By 1907 he was the principal conductor at Dieppe , in charge of operas and orchestral concerts . As an orchestral conductor he modelled his technique on that of Arthur Nikisch , under whose baton he had played , and who was his ideal conductor .
= = = Ballets Russes = = =
For some time , Monteux 's marriage had been under strain , exacerbated by his wife 's frequent absences on concert tours . The couple were divorced in 1909 ; Monteux married one of her former pupils , Germaine Benedictus , the following year .
Monteux continued to play in the Concerts Colonne through the first decade of the century . In 1910 Colonne died and was succeeded as principal conductor by Gabriel Pierné . As well as leading the violas , Monteux was assistant conductor , taking charge of early rehearsals and acting as chorus master for choral works . In 1910 the orchestra was engaged to play for a Paris season given by Sergei Diaghilev 's ballet company , the Ballets Russes . Monteux played under Pierné in the world premiere of Stravinsky 's The Firebird . In 1911 Diaghilev engaged Nikolai Tcherepnin to conduct the premiere of Stravinsky 's Petrushka . Monteux conducted the preliminary rehearsals before Tcherepnin arrived ; Stravinsky was so impressed that he insisted that Monteux conduct the premiere .
Petrushka was part of a triple bill , all conducted by Monteux . The other two pieces were Le Spectre de la Rose and Scheherazade , a balletic adaptation of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's symphonic suite of the same name . The three works were choreographed by Fokine . In later years Monteux disapproved of the appropriation of symphonic music for ballets , but he made an exception for Scheherazade , and , as his biographer John Canarina observes , at that stage in his career his views on the matter carried little weight . Petrushka was a success with the public and with all but the most diehard conservative critics .
Following the Paris season Diaghilev appointed Monteux principal conductor for a tour of Europe in late 1911 and early 1912 . It began with a five @-@ week season at the Royal Opera House in London . The press notices concentrated on the dancers , who included Anna Pavlova as well as the regular stars of the Ballets Russes , but Monteux received some words of praise . The Times commented on the excellent unanimity he secured from the players , apart from " occasional uncertainty in the changes of tempo . "
After its season in London the company performed in Vienna , Budapest , Prague and Berlin . The tour was successful , artistically and financially , but was not without untoward incident . A planned visit to St Petersburg had to be cancelled because the Narodny Dom theatre burned down , and in Vienna the Philharmonic was unequal to the difficulties of the score of Petrushka . The illustrious orchestra revolted at the rehearsal for the first performance , refusing to play for Monteux ; only an intervention by Diaghilev restored the rehearsal , by the end of which Monteux was applauded and Stravinsky given an ovation . In the middle of the tour Monteux was briefly summoned back to Paris by the Concerts Colonne , which had the contractual right to recall him , to deputise for Pierné ; his own deputy , Désiré @-@ Émile Inghelbrecht , took temporary musical charge of the Ballets Russes .
In May 1912 Diaghilev 's company returned to Paris . Monteux was the conductor for the two outstanding works of the season , Vaslav Nijinsky 's ballet version of Debussy 's Prélude à l 'après @-@ midi d 'un faune , made with the composer 's approval , and Fokine 's Daphnis et Chloé to a score commissioned from Ravel . Monteux later recalled " Debussy was behind me when we played L 'après midi d 'un faune because he did not want anything in his score to be changed on account of the dancing . And when we came to a forte , he said ' Monteux , that is a forte , play forte ' . He did not want anything shimmering . And he wanted everything exactly in time " .
In February and March 1913 the Ballets Russes presented another London season . As in 1911 , the local orchestra engaged was the Beecham Symphony Orchestra . The orchestra 's founder , Thomas Beecham , shared the conducting with Monteux . At the end of February Beecham had to take over Petrushka when Monteux suddenly hastened to Paris for four days to be with his wife on the birth of their daughter , Denise .
= = = The Rite of Spring = = =
During the 1913 Ballets Russes season in Paris , Monteux conducted two more premieres . The first was Jeux , with music by Debussy and choreography by Nijinsky . The choreography was not liked ; Monteux thought it " asinine " , while Debussy felt that " Nijinsky 's cruel and barbarous choreography ... trampled over my poor rhythms like so many weeds " . The second new work was Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring given under the French title , Le sacre du printemps . Monteux had been appalled when Stravinsky first played the score at the piano :
I decided then and there that the symphonies of Beethoven and Brahms were the only music for me , not the music of this crazy Russian . ... My one desire was to flee that room and find a quiet corner in which to rest my aching head . Then [ Diaghilev ] turned to me and with a smile said , " This is a masterpiece , Monteux , which will completely revolutionize music and make you famous , because you are going to conduct it . " And , of course , I did .
Despite his initial reaction , Monteux worked with Stravinsky , giving practical advice to help the composer to achieve the orchestral balance and effects he sought . Together they worked on the score from March to May 1913 , and to get the orchestra of the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées to cope with the unfamiliar and difficult music Monteux held seventeen rehearsals , an unusually large number . Monteux 's real attitude to the score is unclear . In his old age he told a biographer , " I did not like Le Sacre then . I have conducted it fifty times since . I do not like it now . " However , he told his wife in 1963 that the Rite was " now fifty years old , and I do not think it has aged at all . I had pleasure in conducting the fiftieth anniversary of Le Sacre this spring " .
The dress rehearsal , with Debussy , Ravel , other musicians and critics among those present , passed without incident . However , the following evening the premiere provoked something approaching a riot , with loud verbal abuse of the work , counter @-@ shouts from supporters , and fisticuffs breaking out . Monteux pressed on , continuing to conduct the orchestra regardless of the turmoil behind him . Stravinsky wrote " The image of Monteux 's back is more vivid in my mind today than the picture of the stage . He stood there apparently impervious and as nerveless as a crocodile . It is still incredible to me that he actually brought the orchestra through to the end . " The extensive press coverage of the incident made Monteux " at age thirty @-@ eight , truly a famous conductor " . The company presented the Rite during its London season a few weeks later . The Times reported that although there was " something like a hostile reception " at the first London performance , the final performance in the season " was received with scarcely a sign of opposition " . Before the 1913 London performances , Monteux challenged Diaghilev 's authority by declaring that he , not the impresario , was the composer 's representative in matters related to The Rite of Spring .
Monteux believed that most of the anger aroused by the work was due not to the music but to Nijinsky 's choreography , described by Stravinsky as " knock @-@ kneed and long @-@ haired Lolitas jumping up and down " . With the composer 's agreement Monteux presented a concert performance in Paris in April 1914 . Saint @-@ Saëns , who was present , declared Stravinsky mad and left in a rage , but he was almost alone in his dislike . At the end Stravinsky was carried shoulder @-@ high from the theatre after what he described as " the most beautiful performance that I have had of the Sacre du printemps " . That performance was part of a series of " Concerts Monteux " , presented between February and April 1914 , in which Monteux conducted the orchestra of the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Élysées in a wide range of symphonic and concertante works , including the concert premiere of the orchestral version of Ravel 's Valses nobles et sentimentales . His last notable engagement before the outbreak of war was as conductor of the premiere of Stravinsky 's opera The Nightingale at the Palais Garnier .
= = = The Met and Boston = = =
After the outbreak of the First World War Monteux was again conscripted into the army , serving as a private in the 35th Territorial Regiment , with which he saw action in the trenches at Verdun , Soissons and the Argonne . He later described much of this period as one of " filth and boredom " , although he formed a scratch band to divert his fellow soldiers . After just over two years on active service he was released from military duties after Diaghilev prevailed on the French government to second Monteux to conduct the Ballets Russes on a North American tour . The tour took in fifty @-@ four cities in the US and Canada . In New York in 1916 Monteux refused to conduct Nijinsky 's new ballet Till Eulenspiegel as the music was by a German – Richard Strauss – so a conductor had to be engaged for those performances . At the end of the tour Monteux was offered a three @-@ year contract to conduct the French repertoire at the Metropolitan Opera in New York , and received the permission of the French government to remain in the US .
At the Met ( as the Metropolitan Opera is generally called ) , Monteux conducted familiar French works such as Faust , Carmen and Samson and Delilah , with singers including Enrico Caruso , Geraldine Farrar , Louise Homer and Giovanni Martinelli . Of his first appearance , The New York Times said , " Mr. Monteux conducted with skill and authority . He made it evident that he had ample knowledge of the score and control of the orchestra – an unmistakably rhythmic beat , a sense of dramatic values . " Monteux conducted the American premieres of Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's The Golden Cockerel , and Henri Rabaud 's Mârouf , savetier du Caire . The American premiere of Petrushka , in a new production by , and starring , Adolph Bolm , was in an unusual opera @-@ ballet double bill with La traviata . Monteux 's performances were well received , but , though he later returned to the Met as a guest , opera did not loom large in his career . He said , " I love conducting opera . The only trouble is that I hate the atmosphere of the opera house , where only too often music is the least of many considerations , from staging to the temperaments of the principal singers . " Nor was he drawn to further engagements as a ballet conductor : " it offers special problems of fitting in with the dances and the dancers , most of whom , I 'm sorry to say , seem to have musical appreciation confined to an ability to count beats . " Nonetheless he occasionally conducted ballet performances , and even in his concert performances of the ballet scores he had conducted for Diaghilev he said he always had the dancers in his mind 's eye .
In 1919 Monteux was appointed chief conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra . The orchestra was going through difficult times ; its conductor , Karl Muck , had been forced by anti @-@ German agitation to step down in 1917 . Sir Henry Wood turned down the post , and despite press speculation neither Sergei Rachmaninoff nor Arturo Toscanini was appointed . At least twenty @-@ four players of German heritage had been forced out with Muck , and orchestral morale was low . Shortly before Monteux took up the conductorship the autocratic founder and proprietor of the orchestra , Henry Lee Higginson , died . He had steadfastly resisted unionisation , and after his death a substantial minority of the players resumed the struggle for union recognition . More than thirty players , including two important principals , resigned over the matter . Monteux set about rebuilding the orchestra , auditioning players from all kinds of musical background , some of whom had not played symphonic music before . By the end of his first season he had restored the orchestra to something approaching its normal complement . He trained the orchestra to a high standard ; according to the critic Neville Cardus , Monteux 's musicianship " made the Boston Symphony Orchestra the most refined and musical in the world . "
Monteux regularly introduced new compositions in Boston , often works by American , English and French composers . He was proud of the number of novelties presented in his years at Boston , and expressed pleasure that his successors continued the practice . He was dismayed when it was announced that his contract would not be renewed after 1924 . The official explanation was that the orchestra 's policy had always been to appoint conductors for no more than five years . It is unclear whether that was genuinely the reason . One suggested possibility is that the conductor chosen to replace him , Serge Koussevitzky , was thought more charismatic , with greater box @-@ office appeal . Another is that the primmer members of Boston society disapproved of Monteux 's morals : he and his second wife had gradually drifted apart and by 1924 he was living with Doris Hodgkins , an American divorcée , and her two children . They were unable to marry until 1928 , when Germaine Monteux finally agreed to a divorce .
= = = Amsterdam and Paris = = =
In 1924 , Monteux began a ten @-@ year association with the Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam , serving as " first conductor " ( " eerste dirigent " ) alongside Willem Mengelberg , its long @-@ serving chief conductor . The two musicians liked and respected one another , despite the difference in their approach to music @-@ making : Monteux was scrupulous in his adherence to a composer 's score and straightforward in his performances , while Mengelberg was well known for his virtuoso , sometimes wilful , interpretations and his cavalier attitude to the score ( " Ve vill make some changements " , as an English player quoted him ) . Their preferred repertoire overlapped in some of the classics , but Mengelberg had his own favourites from Bach 's St. Matthew Passion to Mahler symphonies , and was happy to leave Debussy and Stravinsky to Monteux . Where their choices coincided , as in Beethoven , Brahms and Richard Strauss , Mengelberg was generous in giving Monteux at least his fair share of them .
While in Amsterdam Monteux conducted a number of operas , including Pelléas et Mélisande ( its Dutch premiere ) , Carmen , Les Contes d 'Hoffmann , a Lully and Ravel double bill of Acis et Galatée and L 'Heure espagnole , Gluck 's Iphigénie en Tauride ( also brought to the Paris Opéra ) and Verdi 's Falstaff . Toscanini had been invited to conduct the last of these , but he told the promoters that Monteux was his dearest colleague and the best conductor for Falstaff .
During the first eight years of his association with the Concertgebouw , Monteux conducted between fifty and sixty concerts each season . In his final two years with the orchestra other conductors , notably the rising young Dutchman Eduard van Beinum , were allocated concerts that would previously have been given to Monteux , who amicably withdrew from his position in Amsterdam in 1934 . He returned many times as a guest conductor .
In addition to his work with the Concertgebouw Orchestra , from 1929 Monteux conducted the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris ( OSP ) , founded the previous year . The orchestral scene in Paris in the 1920s had been adversely affected by the " deputy " system , whereby any contracted orchestral player was at liberty , if a better engagement became available , to send a deputy to a rehearsal or even to a concert . In most other major cities in Europe and America this practice either had never existed or had been eradicated . Alongside the opera orchestras , four other Paris orchestras were competing for players . In 1928 the arts patron the Princesse de Polignac combined with the fashion designer Coco Chanel to propose a new orchestra , well enough paid to keep its players from taking conflicting engagements . With financial backing assured , they appointed a triumvirate of musicians – Cortot , Ernest Ansermet and Louis Fourestier – to assemble the OSP . The following year Cortot invited Monteux to become the orchestra 's artistic director and principal conductor . Ansermet , its initial musical director , was not pleased at being supplanted by a conductor of whom he was reportedly " ragingly jealous " , but the composer Darius Milhaud commented on how much better the orchestra played for Monteux " since Ansermet has been sent back to his Swiss pastures " .
Monteux considered the OSP one of the finest with which he worked . He conducted it until 1938 , premiering many pieces , including Prokofiev 's Third Symphony in 1929 . The orchestra 's generous funding in the first years allowed for ample rehearsals and adventurous programming , presenting contemporary music and the lesser @-@ known works of earlier composers as well as the classic repertoire . In his first season Monteux conducted an all @-@ Stravinsky concert , consisting of the suite from The Firebird and complete performances of Petrushka and The Rite of Spring . The orchestra made European tours in 1930 and 1931 , receiving enthusiastic receptions in the Netherlands and Germany . In Berlin the audience could not contain its applause until the end of the Symphonie fantastique , and in Monteux 's words " went wild " after the slow movement , the " Scène aux champs " . He approved of spontaneous applause , unlike Artur Schnabel , Sir Henry Wood and Leopold Stokowski , who did all they could to stamp out the practice of clapping between movements .
After 1931 the OSP suffered the effects of the Great Depression ; much of its funding ceased , and the orchestra reformed itself into a co @-@ operative , pooling such meagre profits as it made . To give the players some extra work Monteux started a series of conducting classes in 1932 . From 1936 he held the classes at his summer home in Les Baux in Provence , the forerunner of the school he later set up in the US .
= = = San Francisco and the Monteux School = = =
Monteux first conducted the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra ( SFSO ) in 1931 , and in 1935 at the age of 60 he was offered the chief conductorship . He was doubtful about accepting , both on personal and on professional grounds . He did not want to leave the OSP , his wife did not want to live on the west coast of America , and the orchestra was so low in funds that it had been forced to cancel an entire season in 1934 . Like most orchestras the SFSO had been badly hit financially by the depression , and it suffered the further difficulty that many of its former players had left for better @-@ paid jobs in Hollywood studios . That problem was exacerbated by the insistence of the Musicians ' Union that only local players could be recruited . Monteux nevertheless accepted the appointment . The SFSO concert season was never longer than five months a year , which enabled him to continue working with the OSP , and allowed him to conduct the inaugural concert of the NBC Symphony Orchestra on 13 November 1937 . In The New York Times Olin Downes wrote that the new orchestra was " of very high rank " and that the broadcast concert had displayed Monteux " at the height of his powers . "
The Times said of Monteux 's time in San Francisco that it had " incalculable effect on American musical culture " , and gave him " the opportunity to expand his already substantial repertory , and by gradual , natural processes to deepen his understanding of his art . " Monteux consistently programmed new or recent music . He generally avoided , as he did throughout his career , atonal or serial works , but his choice of modern works nevertheless drew occasional complaints from conservative @-@ minded members of the San Francisco audience . Among guest conductors with the SFSO during Monteux 's years were John Barbirolli , Beecham , Otto Klemperer , Stokowski and Stravinsky . Soloists included the pianists George Gershwin , Rachmaninoff , Arthur Rubinstein and Schnabel , the violinists Jascha Heifetz , Yehudi Menuhin and the young Isaac Stern , and singers such as Kirsten Flagstad and Alexander Kipnis . Almost all his seventeen San Francisco seasons concluded with Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony . Monteux 's SFSO studio recordings were mainly made in the cavernous acoustics of War Memorial Opera House ( without an audience ) with the music transmitted over telephone wires to a Los Angeles studio and recorded on film there . Confined to the USA for the years of the Second World War , in 1942 Monteux took American citizenship .
Monteux wished to continue his work in helping young conductors : " Conducting is not enough . I must create something . I am not a composer , so I will create fine young musicians . " In addition to his classes in Paris and Les Baux in the 1930s he had given private lessons to Igor Markevitch ; later private students included André Previn , Seiji Ozawa , José Serebrier and Robert Shaw . Previn called him " the kindest , wisest man I can remember , and there was nothing about conducting he didn 't know . " After a performance conducted by Previn , Monteux said to him , " Did you think the orchestra was playing well ? ... So did I. Next time don 't interfere with them . " Previn said that he never forgot this advice . Monteux 's best @-@ known undertaking as a teacher was the Pierre Monteux School for conductors and orchestral musicians , held each summer at his home in Hancock , Maine from 1943 onwards . Internationally known alumni of the school include Leon Fleisher , Erich Kunzel , Lorin Maazel , Neville Marriner , Hugh Wolff and David Zinman . Other Monteux students included John Canarina , whose 2003 biography was the first full @-@ length study of the conductor in English , Charles Bruck , one of Monteux 's first pupils in Paris , who became music director of the school in Hancock after Monteux 's death , and Emanuel Leplin .
Monteux appeared as guest conductor with many orchestras ; he commented in 1955 , " I regret they don 't have symphony orchestras all over the world so I could see Burma and Samarkand " . His successor with the Boston Symphony Orchestra , Serge Koussevitzky , invited many guest conductors during his twenty @-@ five years in charge ; Monteux was never among them , probably , in Canarina 's view , because of Koussevitzky 's jealousy . In 1949 Koussevitzky was succeeded by Charles Munch , whose early career had been boosted by an invitation from Monteux to conduct the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris in 1933 . Munch invited Monteux to Boston as a guest conductor in the 1951 season . The engagement was greeted with enthusiasm by the critics and the public , and Munch invited Monteux to join him the following year in heading the orchestra 's first European tour . The high point of the tour was a performance under Monteux of The Rite of Spring at the Théâtre des Champs @-@ Elysées , in the presence of the composer . Monteux returned annually to Boston every year until his death .
For some time Monteux had felt that he should leave the SFSO . He had two main reasons : he believed that a conductor should not remain in one post for too long , and he wished to be free to accept more invitations to appear with other orchestras . He resigned from the SFSO at the end of the 1952 season . He briefly reappeared on the podium at the War Memorial Opera House within a year , as co @-@ conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra 's coast @-@ to @-@ coast American tour , at Munch 's invitation . Almost all the members of the SFSO were in the audience , and joined in the ovation given to their former chief .
After an absence of thirty @-@ four years , Monteux was invited to conduct at the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1953 . The opera chosen was Faust , which he had conducted at his debut at the house in 1917 . The production had what Canarina calls " a stellar cast " headed by Jussi Björling , Victoria de los Ángeles , Nicola Rossi @-@ Lemeni and Robert Merrill , but the critics , including Virgil Thomson and Irving Kolodin , reserved their highest praise for Monteux 's conducting . Between 1953 and 1956 Monteux returned to the Met for Pelléas et Mélisande , Carmen , Manon , Orfeo ed Euridice , The Tales of Hoffmann and Samson et Dalila . The Met at that time typecast conductors according to their nationality , and , as a Frenchman , Monteux was not offered any Italian operas . When his request to be engaged for La traviata in the 1956 – 57 season was refused he severed his ties with the house .
= = = London = = =
Since his first visit to London with the Ballets Russes in 1911 , Monteux had had a " love affair with London and with British musicians " . He had conducted for the fledgling BBC in an orchestral concert at Covent Garden in 1924 , where he conducted the first public performance of the BBC Wireless Orchestra , and for the Royal Philharmonic Society at the Queen 's Hall in the 1920s and 1930s . In 1932 he was one of four conductors who took charge of the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester in the absence of its principal conductor ; the other three substitutes were Sir Edward Elgar , Beecham and the young Barbirolli . The Hallé players were immensely impressed with Monteux , and said that his orchestral technique and knowledge easily beat those of most other conductors . In 1951 he conducted the BBC Symphony Orchestra in a concert of Mozart , Beethoven and Bartók in the new Royal Festival Hall , and made further appearances with London orchestras during the rest of the 1950s . He would have made more but for Britain 's strict quarantine laws , which prevented the Monteuxs from bringing their pet French poodle with them ; Doris Monteux would not travel without the poodle , and Monteux would not travel without his wife .
In June 1958 Monteux conducted the London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) in three concerts , described by the orchestra 's historian Richard Morrison as " a sensation with players , press and public alike . " The first concert included Elgar 's Enigma Variations , in which Cardus judged Monteux to be more faithful to Elgar 's conception than English conductors generally were . Cardus added , " After the performance of the ' Enigma ' Variations , the large audience cheered and clapped Monteux for several minutes . This applause , moreover , broke out just before the interval . English audiences are not as a rule inclined to waste time applauding at or during an interval : they usually have other things to do . " Monteux considered British concertgoers " the most attentive in the world " , and British music critics " the most intelligent " . However , a disadvantage of conducting a London orchestra was having to perform at the Festival Hall , of which he shared with Beecham and other conductors an intense dislike : " from the conductor 's rostrum it is impossible to hear the violins " .
Monteux 's later London performances were not only with the LSO . In 1960 he conducted Beecham 's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra performing " feats of wizardry " in works by Beethoven , Debussy and Hindemith . The LSO offered him the post of principal conductor in 1961 , when he was eighty @-@ six ; he accepted , on condition that he had a contract for twenty @-@ five years , with an option of renewal . His large and varied repertoire was displayed in his LSO concerts . In addition to the French repertoire with which , to his occasional irritation , he was generally associated , he programmed Mozart , Beethoven , Brahms and Wagner , as well as later composers including Granados , Schoenberg , Scriabin , Shostakovich , Sibelius , Richard Strauss and Vaughan Williams . With the LSO , Monteux gave a fiftieth anniversary performance of The Rite of Spring at the Royal Albert Hall in the presence of the composer . Although the recording of the occasion reveals some lapses of ensemble and slack rhythms , it was an intense and emotional concert , and Monteux climbed up to Stravinsky 's box to embrace him at the end . Players believed that in his few years in charge he transformed the LSO ; Neville Marriner felt that he " made them feel like an international orchestra ... He gave them extended horizons and some of his achievements with the orchestra , both at home and abroad , gave them quite a different constitution . "
= = = Last years = = =
Although Monteux retained his vitality to the end of his life , in his last years he suffered occasional collapses . In 1962 he fainted during a performance of Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony . In 1963 he collapsed again after being presented with the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society , Britain 's highest musical honour . The presentation was made by Sir Adrian Boult , who recalled that as they left the platform , " Monteux gave two little groans as we walked down the passage , and I suddenly found my arms full of violins and bows . The orchestra had recognized the signs . Their beloved chief was fainting . " Monteux suffered another collapse the following year , and David Zinman and Lorin Maazel deputised for him at the Festival Hall .
In April 1964 Monteux conducted his last concert , which was in Milan with the orchestra of Radiotelevisione italiana . The programme consisted of the overture to The Flying Dutchman , Brahms 's Double Concerto and Berlioz 's Symphonie fantastique . Unrealised plans included his debut at The Proms , and his 90th birthday concert , at which he intended to announce his retirement . In June 1964 Monteux suffered three strokes and a cerebral thrombosis at his home in Maine , where he died on 1 July at the age of 89 .
= = Personal life = =
Monteux had six children , two of them adopted . From his first marriage there were a son , Jean @-@ Paul , and a daughter , Suzanne . Jean @-@ Paul became a jazz musician , performing with artists such as Josephine Baker and Mistinguett . His second marriage produced a daughter , Denise , later known as a sculptress , and a son , Claude , a flautist . After Monteux married Doris Hodgkins he legally adopted her two children , Donald , later a restaurateur , and Nancie , who after a career as a dancer became administrator of the Pierre Monteux School in Hancock .
Among Monteux 's numerous honours , he was a Commandeur of the Légion d 'honneur and a Knight of the Order of Oranje @-@ Nassau . A political and social moderate , in the politics of his adopted homeland he supported the Democratic Party and was a strong opponent of racial discrimination . He ignored taboos on employing black artists ; reportedly , during the days of segregation in the US , when told he could not be served in a restaurant " for colored folk " he insisted that he was coloured – pink .
= = Music making = =
= = = Reputation and repertoire = = =
The record producer John Culshaw described Monteux as " that rarest of beings – a conductor who was loved by his orchestras ... to call him a legend would be to understate the case . " Toscanini observed that Monteux had the best baton technique he had ever seen . Like Toscanini , Monteux insisted on the traditional orchestral layout with first and second violins to the conductor 's left and right , believing that this gave a better representation of string detail than grouping all the violins together on the left . On fidelity to composers ' scores , Monteux 's biographer John Canarina ranks him with Klemperer and above even Toscanini , whose reputation for strict adherence to the score was , in Canarina 's view , less justified than Monteux 's .
According to the biographical sketch in Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Monteux " was never an ostentatious conductor ... [ he prepared ] his orchestra in often arduous rehearsals and then [ used ] small but decisive gestures to obtain playing of fine texture , careful detail and powerful rhythmic energy , retaining to the last his extraordinary grasp of musical structure and a faultless ear for sound quality . " Monteux was extremely economical with words and gestures and expected a response from his smallest movement . The record producer Erik Smith recalled of Monteux 's rehearsals with the Vienna Philharmonic for Beethoven 's Pastoral Symphony and Brahms 's Second , " although he could not speak to the orchestra in German , he transformed their playing from one take to the next " .
The importance of rehearsal to Monteux was shown when , in 1923 , Diaghilev asked him to conduct Stravinsky 's new Les noces with no rehearsal , as the composer would already have conducted the first performance , Monteux following on from there . Monteux told the impresario " Stravinsky , ' e can do what ' e like , but I have to do what ze composer ' as written . " Monteux 's self @-@ effacing approach to scores led to occasional adverse comment ; the music critic of The Nation , B. H. Haggin , while admitting that Monteux was generally regarded as one of the giants of conducting , wrote of his " repeatedly demonstrated musical mediocrity " . Other American writers have taken a different view . In 1957 Carleton Smith wrote , " His approach to all music is that of the master @-@ craftsman . ... Seeing him at work , modest and quiet , it is difficult to realize that he is a bigger box office attraction at the Metropolitan Opera House than any prima donna ... that he is the only conductor regularly invited to take charge of America 's ' big three ' – the Boston , Philadelphia and New York Philharmonic orchestras . " In his 1967 book The Great Conductors , Harold C. Schonberg wrote of Monteux , " [ A ] conductor of international stature , a conductor admired and loved all over the world . The word ' loved ' is used advisedly . " Elsewhere , Schonberg wrote of Monteux 's " passion and charisma " . When asked in a radio interview to describe himself ( as a conductor ) in one word , Monteux replied , " Damned professional " .
Throughout his career Monteux suffered from being thought of as a specialist in French music . The music that meant most to him was that of German composers , particularly Brahms , but this was often overlooked by concert promoters and recording companies . Of the four Brahms symphonies , he was invited by the recording companies to record only one , the Second . Recordings of his live performances of the First and Third have been released on CD , but the discography in Canarina 's biography lists no recording , live or from the studio , of the Fourth . The critic William Mann , along with many others , regarded him as a " supremely authoritative " conductor of Brahms , though Cardus disagreed : " In German music Monteux , naturally enough , missed harmonic weight and the right heavily lunged tempo . His rhythm , for example , was a little too pointed for , say , Brahms or Schumann . " Gramophone 's reviewer Jonathan Swain contends that no conductor knew more than Monteux about expressive possibilities in the strings , claiming that " the conductor who doesn 't play a stringed instrument simply doesn 't know how to get the different sounds ; and the bow has such importance in string playing that there are maybe 50 different ways of producing the same note " ; In his 2003 biography , John Canarina lists nineteen " significant world premieres " conducted by Monteux . In addition to Petrushka and The Rite of Spring is a further Stravinsky work , The Nightingale . Monteux 's other premieres for Diaghilev included Ravel 's Daphnis et Chloé and Debussy 's Jeux . In the concert hall he premiered works by , among others , Milhaud , Poulenc and Prokofiev . In a letter of April 1914 Stravinsky wrote " everyone can appreciate your zeal and your probity in regard to the contemporary works of various tendencies that you have had occasion to defend . "
Monteux 's biographer Jean @-@ Philippe Mousnier analysed a representative sample of Monteux 's programmes for more than 300 concerts . The symphonies played most frequently were César Franck 's D minor Symphony , the Symphonie fantastique , Beethoven 's Seventh , Tchaikovsky 's Fifth and Sixth , and the first two symphonies of Brahms . Works by Richard Strauss featured almost as often as those of Debussy , and Wagner 's Prelude and " Liebestod " from Tristan und Isolde as often as The Rite of Spring .
= = = Recordings = = =
Monteux made a large number of recordings throughout his career . His first recording was as a violist in " Plus blanche que la blanche hermine " from Les Huguenots by Meyerbeer in 1903 for Pathé with the tenor Albert Vaguet . It is possible that Monteux played in the Colonne Orchestra 's 20 early cylinders recorded around 1906 – 07 . His recording debut as a conductor was the first of his five recordings of The Rite of Spring , issued in 1929 . The first of these , with the OSP , is judged by Canarina to be indifferently played ; recordings by Monteux of music by Ravel and Berlioz made in 1930 and 1931 , Canarina believes , were more impressive . Stravinsky , who also recorded The Rite in 1929 , was furious that Monteux had made a rival recording ; he made vitriolic comments privately , and for some time his relations with Monteux remained cool .
Monteux 's final studio recordings were with the London Symphony Orchestra in works by Ravel at the end of February 1964 . In the course of his career he recorded works by more than fifty composers . In Monteux 's lifetime it was rare for record companies to issue recordings of live concerts , although he would much have preferred it , he said , " if one could record in one take in normal concert @-@ hall conditions " . Some live performances of Monteux conducting the Metropolitan Opera , and among others the San Francisco Symphony , Boston Symphony , BBC Symphony and London Symphony orchestras survive alongside his studio recordings , and some have been issued on compact disc . It has been argued that these reveal even more than his studio recordings " a conductor at once passionate , disciplined , and tasteful ; one who was sometimes more vibrant than the Monteux captured in the studio , and yet , like that studio conductor , a cultivated musician possessing an extraordinary ear for balance , a keen sense of style and a sure grasp of shape and line . "
Many of Monteux 's recordings have remained in the catalogues for decades , notably his RCA Victor recordings with the Boston Symphony and Chicago Symphony orchestras ; Decca recordings with the Vienna Philharmonic ; and Decca and Philips recordings with the LSO . Of Manon , one of his few opera recordings , Alan Blyth in Opera on Record states " Monteux had the music in his blood and here dispenses it with authority and spirit " . He can be heard rehearsing in the original LP issues of Beethoven 's Eroica Symphony with the Concertgebouw Orchestra ( Philips 835132 AY ) and Beethoven 's 9th with the London Symphony ( Westminster , WST 234 ) .
Video recordings of Monteux are scarcer . He is seen conducting Berlioz 's Roman Carnival Overture and Beethoven 's 8th symphony with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , and Dukas ' L 'Apprenti sorcier with the London Symphony Orchestra in an " unshowy , deeply satisfying humane way " .
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= Chirocephalus diaphanus =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is a widely distributed European species of fairy shrimp that lives as far north as Great Britain , where it is the only surviving species of fairy shrimp and is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 . It is a translucent animal , about 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) long , with reddened tips to the abdomen and appendages . The body comprises a head , a thorax bearing 11 pairs of appendages , and a seven @-@ segmented abdomen . In males , the antennae are enlarged to form " frontal appendages " , while females have an egg pouch at the end of the thorax .
The life cycle of C. diaphanus is extremely fast , and the species can only persist in pools without predators . The eggs tolerate drying out , and hatch when re @-@ immersed in water . C. diaphanus was first reported in the scientific literature in 1704 , but was only separated from other species and given its scientific name in 1803 . The specific epithet diaphanus refers to the animal 's transparency .
= = Description = =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is a " beautiful , translucent crustacean " . Its body is subcylindrical , and around 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) long , mostly transparent , but with black eyes , and red tips to the appendages and abdomen .
The body becomes wider towards the head , which has a conspicuous mandibular groove . It also bears a pair of stalked compound eyes , as well as a sessile median eye , two pairs of antennae , and the mouthparts . The mouthparts comprise a labrum , directed backwards over the mouth and pairs of mandibles , paragnatha , maxillules and vestigial maxillae .
The thorax is made up of twelve body segments , the last of which is fused to the first segment of the abdomen . There is no carapace , but each of the eleven free segments bears a pair of phyllopodia , which have a series of bristles pointing along the animal 's midline . The abdomen consists of seven segments without appendages , and a slender telson which bears a pair of caudal rami .
Males and females can be recognised by a suite of sexually dimorphic characters . While the antennae of females are triangular and relatively short , males ' antennae are long and jointed , and each one bears a complex " frontal appendage " , which is used to clasp the female during mating . The last somite of the thorax is fused with the first somite of the abdomen . In males , it bears a pair of processes , the extensions of the vasa deferentia in a protrusible penis . In females , there is a single egg pouch , which is also thought to derive from a pair of appendages .
= = Distribution = =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is a Mediterranean species , which reaches its north @-@ western limit in Great Britain , and is missing from Fennoscandia . Its distribution in Western Europe extends almost continuously from Great Britain to the Iberian Peninsula , and as far east as the Rhine in Germany . A single occurrence of C. diaphanus is known from the Benelux countries , in pools in South Limburg , Netherlands . Further east , it occurs south of 47 ° N in the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas , reaching the Black Sea in Romania ; an isolated population exists at the mouth of the Vistula river in Poland . In the Mediterranean Sea , populations exist on Sicily and Crete .
C. diaphanus is the only species of fairy shrimp to occur naturally in Great Britain ; Tanymastix stagnalis is found in western Ireland , and Artemia salina formerly occurred in England . Within Great Britain , C. diaphanus is restricted to areas with a deficit of precipitation against evapotranspiration between April and September . This means that it is only found frequently in southern England , with scattered records as far north as Yorkshire .
= = Ecology and life cycle = =
The fairy shrimp is found in temporary pools of water , from seasonal ponds to muddy ruts , preferring sites with regular disturbance , such as passing tractors or livestock . It has a broad range of ecological tolerances , in terms of temperature , dissolved oxygen and pH , but cannot coexist with predatory fish . C. diaphanus swims with its ventral side upwards , and is a filter feeder , collecting zooplankton and detritus with its phyllopodia .
The life cycle of Chirocephalus diaphanus is extremely fast . The typical duration of a full life cycle is not known , but a figure of around 3 months has been suggested . The eggs are tolerant to drying out ; when their habitat fills with water again , some of the eggs will hatch , while others remain dormant . This enables the species to continue to survive in an unpredictable habitat , since some eggs remain in case the habitat does not persist for long enough for the animals to mate and produce offspring . Dispersal between bodies of water can occur through the movements of animals such as cattle , deer and horses .
= = Conservation status = =
Chirocephalus diaphanus is subject to protection under environmental law in some parts of its range . In Germany , it is included on the Red List of endangered species . In the United Kingdom , C. diaphanus is protected under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 , and it is listed as a " Species of Conservation Concern " under the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan . The main threat to its survival are changes in land use : its habitats are often considered unsightly , and the temporary pools it inhabits are frequently filled in or converted into permanent ponds .
= = Taxonomic history = =
The first mention of any Chirocephalus species in the scientific literature was a sketch by James Petiver in a 1704 volume of his Gazophylacii Naturae , where he named it Squilla lacustris minima , dorso natante ( " tiny freshwater Squilla , swimming on its back " ) . There was much confusion between species in the early literature , and it is often unclear what species early authors were referring to . Carl Linnaeus , having described a fairy shrimp as a possible insect larva in Fauna Suecica , described it among the crustaceans in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 , under the name " Cancer stagnalis " ( now Tanymastix stagnalis ) . That name was also used by later authors , but sometimes referring to other species .
The situation was clarified by Bénédict Prévost in 1803 , when he published a detailed description of Chirocephalus diaphanus , including mention of the frontal appendages which distinguish it from other fairy shrimp such as Tanymastix stagnalis . Prévost 's work was originally published in the Journal de Physique in 1803 , and was reprinted by Louis Jurine as an appendix to his 1820 Histoire des Monocles , qui se trouvent aux Environs de Genève .
The name Chirocephalus derives from the Greek roots χείρ ( chiro- , " hand " ) , and κεφαλή ( cephalon , " head " ) . The specific epithet diaphanus derives from the Greek διαφανής , meaning " diaphanous " or transparent . Prévost later regretted the epithet , arguing that several other species were just as transparent as the one he had described . The common name " fairy shrimp " comes from the animal 's delicate appearance , and the " iridescent gleaming of the bristles on its appendages " .
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= Survivor Man =
" Survivor Man " is the eleventh episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office — the show 's sixty @-@ fourth episode overall . Written by Steve Carell , who also acts on the show as Regional Manager Michael Scott , and directed by Paul Feig , it originally aired on NBC on November 8 , 2007 . The episode aired during NBC 's week of " green episodes " , which lasted from November 4 through November 10 , 2007 .
In the episode , Ryan excludes Michael from a company nature excursion , prompting Michael to try to prove to himself and his peers that he can survive in the wild . Dwight drops Michael off in the middle of a local wooded area and contrary to Michael 's wishes , stays behind to monitor Michael . Meanwhile , Jim spends the day as boss , but his plan to incorporate multiple birthdays into one combined event ends up alienating the entire office against him .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites the regional branch managers and Dunder Mifflin Scranton Human Resources representative Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) to a corporate wilderness retreat , but does not invite Michael Scott ( Carell ) . To show that he is capable of surviving in the wilderness , Michael leaves Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) in charge of the office and instructs Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) to abandon him deep in the forest with merely a knife and a roll of duct tape . Contrary to Michael 's wishes , Dwight stays behind and surreptitiously monitors his condition from a distance . Michael proves to be completely incapable of living out in the wild by himself . Dwight is forced to come out of hiding to save Michael when he tries to eat wild mushrooms .
Jim 's plan to consolidate three employee birthdays into a combined birthday party encounters several complications , and his constant adjustments incur the ire of Party Planning Committee chair Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) . Later , Jim discovers that no one likes his idea for a combined party , realizing the depth of his error when Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) mistakenly refers to him as Michael , and he returns to the original plan of having separate parties . Michael and Dwight return lightening the mood amongst the employees and for the lighting of Creed Bratton 's ( portrayed by the actor of the same name ) birthday cobbler , with Michael expressing that he no longer has any desire to return to the wilderness and Jim expressing his relief that Michael has returned to run the office .
= = Production = =
" Survivor Man " is the second episode written by Steve Carell . Carell also wrote the second season finale " Casino Night " . The episode is the fifth episode directed by Paul Feig , and his first since the second season episode " E @-@ mail Surveillance " . " Survivor Man " is the second episode to feature birthdays as a plot line , but the episode includes a continuity error . The episode was the next to last episode to be aired before the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike halted production . The episode 's title and plot share similarities with Survivorman , a television show in which the host is placed in the wilderness with little or no supplies for survival .
= = Reception = =
" Survivor Man " received a 4 @.@ 9 / 7 in the Nielsen ratings , meaning that 4 @.@ 9 percent of households were tuned in at any given moment and seven percent of all televisions in use were tuned in to the program . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 29 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 3 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic . Travis Fickett of IGN stated that " Overall , this isn 't a terrific episode , but holds up the show 's usual standard . Steve Carell is hilarious as usual . Watching him attempt to make shelter and clothing out of his suit over the span of only a few hours is great fun . " Fickett also stated that a good portion of the humor in the episode came from in @-@ jokes that required previous knowledge of the series , specifically pointing out the parallel comparison between Michael and Jim 's lives . Like Fickett , Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode 's comparison between Michael and Jim . Fenno also went on to praise other points of the episode , stating she also enjoyed the overall episode for its " just outdoorsiness with Michael and Dwight , and infighting among the rest of the staff . " Oscar Dahl , a Senior Writer for BuddyTV , stated that " What seems like a one and done episode without much character work at first turns into much more by the end . " Dahl went on to praise the episode , stating that it was " lighter " in comparison to Carell 's previous episode " Casino Night " .
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= 1988 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1988 Pacific hurricane season was a Pacific hurricane season that saw a below @-@ average amount of tropical cyclones form , the first time since 1981 . It officially began May 15 , 1988 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1988 in the central Pacific and lasted until November 30 , 1988 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The first named storm , Tropical Storm Aletta , formed on June 16 , and the last @-@ named storm , Tropical Storm Miriam , was previously named Hurricane Joan in the Atlantic Ocean before crossing Central America and re @-@ emerging in the eastern Pacific ; Miriam continued westward and dissipated on November 2 .
The season produced 23 tropical depressions , of which 15 attained tropical storm status . Seven storms reached hurricane status , three of which became major hurricanes . The strongest storm of the season , Hurricane Hector , formed on July 30 to the south of Mexico and reached peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) — Category 4 status — before dissipating over open waters on August 9 ; Hector was never a threat to land . Tropical Storm Gilma was the only cyclone in the season to make landfall , crossing the Hawaiian Islands , although there were numerous near @-@ misses . Gilma 's Hawaiian landfall was unusual , but not unprecedented .
= = Seasonal summary = =
The total tropical activity in the season was below @-@ average . There were 13 cyclones in the Eastern Pacific , as well as two in the Central . Of the 15 cyclones , one crossed from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific , and another moved from the Central Pacific to the Western Pacific . In the Eastern Pacific , there were seven cyclones peaking as a tropical storm , and six hurricanes , of which two reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . A tropical storm and a major hurricane occurred in the Central Pacific .
Tropical Storm Gilma made the only landfalls of the season in the Hawaiian Islands , causing some rainfall , but no direct deaths or damage occurred as a result of it . These were the only landfalls in the season that were made , which is unusual as most landfalls in the Eastern Pacific occur on the Mexican coast . This is due to the closeness of the Mexican region to the major source of tropical activity to the west of Central America . Hurricane Uleki , the strongest hurricane in the Central Pacific region during the season , caused two drownings in Oahu and heavy waves hit the coast of the Hawaiian Islands . Tropical Storm Miriam , the last storm of the season , formed as a result of Hurricane Joan from the Atlantic , and flooding resulted in parts of Central America , due to heavy rainfall .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ E = = =
A tropical disturbance organized into the first eastern Pacific tropical depression of the season on June 15 . A convective band on the north and west sides of the system became well @-@ defined , and anticyclonic outflow allowed for initial organization . After forming , the depression tracked west @-@ southwestward and intensified due to disrupted outflow from a large air stream disturbance . On June 16 , strong convection with spiral banding developed over the depression , although it failed to strengthen further . A low pressure system northwest of the depression in combination with Tropical Storm Aletta to the northeast caused the depression to weaken , and it dissipated on June 18 .
= = = Tropical Storm Aletta = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and progressed westward through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , before crossing over Central America on June 13 and emerging into the warm waters of the east Pacific on June 14 . Shortly after , satellite imagery showed good upper @-@ level outflow , although cloud banding remained disorganized . On June 16 , the broad circulation better organized on the northeastern section , with deep convection developing . A tropical depression formed later that day about 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . It developed further as it moved northward toward the southwest coast of Mexico , and had organized sufficiently to be named Tropical Storm Aletta on June 17 . The cyclone drifted north @-@ northwest for the next 36 hours before turning westward , parallel to the Mexican coast . The storm began to lose its convection on June 19 and weakened into a tropical depression later that day . The depression weakened further into a weak low @-@ level circulation before dissipating on June 21 . Although Aletta approached the Acapulco area of the Mexican coast , it did not make landfall . The portion of coast affected by Aletta received heavy rainfall ; unofficial reports state that one person died as a result of the storm , and the storm produced some damage due to rainfall and flooding .
= = = Tropical Storm Bud = = =
Satellite imagery first detected a low @-@ level circulation on June 20 , associated with some heavy convection , 200 miles ( 325 km ) south of the Mexico – Guatemala border , and it intensified into a tropical depression . The cyclone moved northwest then west @-@ northwest over two days . A 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) wind report from a ship on June 21 allowed the depression to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Bud later that day . For the next day , the low @-@ level circulation moved away from its deep convection , dissipating near Acapulco , Mexico . A portion of Bud remaining over land may have been part of the reason for the lack of strengthening of the cyclone .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
A system developed in the eastern Pacific , and later strengthened into a tropical depression on July 1 , when it obtained a better defined low @-@ level circulation . The center was exposed , with little convection on the northeast side , due to shear aloft . The system moved to the northwest , while shear continued to move the deep convection of the cyclone to the southwest of its center of circulation . The circulation completely lacked deep convection late on July 2 , although it continued to have a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center . The depression drifted slowly northward , located south of Baja California , before dissipating just south of the peninsula on July 4 , with no circulation or deep convection detected . A small amount of associated rainfall affected Baja California , as the cyclone passed near the peninsula .
= = = Hurricane Carlotta = = =
A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on June 23 , and for the next two weeks , moved through the tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean and later crossed Central America . It began developing further when it entered the Pacific Ocean and became a dense area of moisture and cloudiness . The wave developed into a disturbance on July 8 , and attained tropical depression status in the afternoon on July 8 , south of Mexico . After entering a favorable area of warm waters , the depression strengthened to Tropical Storm Carlotta on July 9 . Carlotta continued to develop , reached peak strength , and developed into Hurricane Carlotta on July 11 . During the duration of the storm , Carlotta was not considered a hurricane , however after post @-@ season reanalysis Carlotta 's strength was upgraded to minimal hurricane status . As it moved into less favorable conditions it lost strength and weakened to a tropical storm on July 12 . Carlotta began to lose its deep convection , and weakened into a tropical depression on July 13 as it moved into cooler waters . It later moved west @-@ southwest and dissipated on July 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Daniel = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of northwestern Africa on July 4 , and moved through tropical regions of the northern Atlantic and Caribbean Sea without the indication of development . The tropical disturbance crossed Central America on July 14 , and from then until July 18 , the westward motion decreased , as convection and organization increased over warm waters . It developed into a tropical depression on July 19 , and into Tropical Storm Daniel 600 miles ( 970 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California on July 20 . A high pressure system over the western United States and northern Mexico forced Daniel and an upper @-@ level low on parallel west @-@ northwest paths . Daniel stayed generally the same strength for the next few days , reaching peak strength on July 23 . Daniel declined into a tropical depression on July 25 and dissipated on July 26 .
= = = Tropical Storm Emilia = = =
On July 15 , a tropical wave exited Africa and crossed the Atlantic Ocean . It crossed into the Pacific Ocean on July 24 , developing convection and outflow . On July 27 , it organized into a tropical depression off the southwest coast of Mexico . Continuing generally westward , the thunderstorm activity fluctuated , and slowly developing , it intensified into Tropical Storm Emilia on July 29 . The storm attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on July 30 , although wind shear and interaction with nearby Tropical Storm Fabio prevented further intensification ; the low @-@ level circulation was located along the northwest edge of the deepest convection . It became disorganized and difficult to locate on satellite imagery , and soon the circulation was exposed from the thunderstorms . On August 1 , Emilia weakened to tropical depression status , and late on August 2 , the last advisory was issued as the system had become very disorganized with minimal convection . Its remnants were tracked for the next few days , and although some deep convection returned momentarily , the system 's convection soon disappeared .
= = = Hurricane Fabio = = =
A well @-@ organized ITCZ disturbance with deep convection organized further over the northeastern Pacific Ocean on July 28 . It developed into a tropical depression later that day , while 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . The position of Fabio 's formation was much further south and west than where most tropical cyclones form during the same time period . The depression moved westward while gradually strengthening and it developed into Tropical Storm Fabio on July 29 . It intensified further over the next few days and it intensified into a hurricane on July 31 . The system increased its speed as it steadily strengthened further . A trough turned the storm west @-@ northwestward on August 3 . Satellite estimates indicated that Fabio reached its maximum intensity later on August 3 , with a well @-@ defined eye with very deep convection surrounding it . The Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for the Big Island on August 4 , due to the threatening west @-@ northwest turn towards it . However , the retreat of a trough later turned Fabio back to the west and the CPHC discontinued the tropical storm watch on August 5 . Fabio 's good upper @-@ level conditions later weakened and began to lose its convection over cooler waters . Fabio quickly weakened and it weakened into a tropical storm again later on August 5 , and back to a depression on August 6 . The depression turned west @-@ northwestward again on August 8 , but Fabio dissipated on August 9 . As the cyclone moved near the Hawaiian islands , heavy rainfall fell across the chain , peaking at 18 @.@ 75 in ( 476 mm ) near Pāpa 'ikou on the island of Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E = = =
A tropical depression developed in the eastern Pacific on July 28 , forecast to be absorbed by a very close nearby depression , later Tropical Storm Gilma . The depression moved northward , although in unfavorable conditions . The cyclone weakened as the depression to the southwest strengthened further . Limited deep convection developed with the system , although the cyclone continued in unfavorable conditions with shearing . Visible satellite imagery later showed a very weak system , and the storm dissipated on July 29 .
= = = Tropical Storm Gilma = = =
A wave that previously moved through the Atlantic from the northwest coast of Africa , crossed over Central America into the Pacific on July 17 or July 18 . On July 19 , this disturbance was 700 miles ( 1125 km ) to the southeast of the developing Tropical Storm Daniel . The system moved westward for the following week without any signs of intensification . However , on July 26 and 27 , the system appeared to be strengthening due to a banding pattern . By July 28 , the convection underwent further organization with some weak outflow high in the storm . It developed into a tropical depression later on July 28 , much further west then most east Pacific storms develop at . For the next day the cyclone remained fairly stationary , but began to strengthen over warm waters . On July 29 the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gilma , based on satellite imagery . Limited intensification followed , due to shear high in the storm . It weakened a tropical depression again on July 30 , due to weakness depicted in satellite imagery . Gilma then moved west @-@ northwestward through the northeast Pacific . The depression skirted the Hawaiian Islands , but dissipated near Oahu on August 3 . On the Hawaiian Islands there were no direct damage or deaths , although some rainfall occurred on the islands .
= = = Hurricane Hector = = =
A tropical depression formed on July 30 , while 400 miles ( 645 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward , becoming Tropical Storm Hector on July 31 . Its west @-@ northwest motion continued , due to an area of high pressure to its north , and Hector intensified into a hurricane on August 2 . Based on satellite data , the hurricane is estimated to have reached its peak intensity of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) on August 3 ; this made Hector a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , which was the strongest storm of the season . Hector began to move due west on August 5 and it had already begun weakening . The storm continued westward increasing its forward speed . On August 6 it had appeared Hector had strengthened , but steadily weakened afterwards and finally dissipated on August 9 , while 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 045 km ) east of Hilo , Hawaii . Hector never a threat to land .
= = = Hurricane Iva = = =
A wave that first came off the northwest coast of Africa moved through the Atlantic , before entering the East Pacific on August 4 . The wave developed more organized convection when it entered the region , and it turned into a tropical depression on August 5 , while 165 miles ( 270 km ) south of Oaxaca , Mexico . It developed into Tropical Storm Iva on August 6 . Iva turned on a west @-@ northwestward course and continued strengthening , before it developed into a hurricane on August 7 . The cyclone moved northwestward after becoming a hurricane , and satellites estimate it reached peak intensity on August 8 . On the same day Iva passed within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Socorro Island . Winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) were reported on the island along with moderate rain . The storm moved through cooler waters for the next day , and began to weaken . Ivo declined into a tropical storm again on August 9 , and by August 10 the cyclone lost its deep convection along with organization . It intensified into a tropical depression again on August 11 , and moved southwest due to a high pressure before dissipating on August 3 . For unknown reasons , Iva was retired from the lists of Eastern Pacific storm names , but it was probably to avoid confusion with Hurricane Iwa of the 1982 Pacific season , which was itself retired due to its damage in Hawaii . The name was replaced with Ileana for 1994 .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E = = =
A tropical depression formed on August 12 , with movement towards the west @-@ northwest . It continued toward the west @-@ northwest , near the circulation of Tropical Storm Iva . The low @-@ level circulation of the cyclone was displaced to the east of the deep convection , and the system moved to the northwest . The depression lost much of its convection later on August 13 , and it had a less defined center . The cyclone turned to the south , and lost its associated deep convection . Some weak convection redeveloped near the center , but the depression dissipated later on August 14 .
= = = Tropical Storm John = = =
A disturbance that passed off the northwestern African coast on August 3 crossed the Atlantic Ocean , before entering into the Pacific . A tropical depression formed in the East Pacific on August 16 , 150 miles ( 240 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico , based on satellite estimates . The cyclone progressed slowly northwestward , and intensified Tropical Storm John on August 17 , less than 24 hours after its formation . John continued northwest for a short while , before the low @-@ level center of circulation had been exposed . John degenerated to a tropical depression on August 18 due to a lack of convection , made a loop while less than 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . It shortly became a little better organized after completing the loop on August 20 , but John dissipated on August 21 , southwest of Baja California , due to shearing and cold waters . Its remnants continued northwestward parallel to the southwest coast of Baja California . John caused no reported deaths or damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E = = =
On August 26 , a disturbance south of Baja California organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E. Initially , the system moved northwest towards cooler waters as the location of the low @-@ level circulation was to the southwest of the deep convection associated with the cyclone . The center drifted to the east of the small area of concentrated convection , and its intensity remained steady . It weakened and became loosely defined due to upper @-@ level wind shear , and the storm lost all of its convection before dissipating and degenerating into a low @-@ level swirl .
= = = Hurricane Uleki = = =
Towards the end of August , tropical activity in the ITCZ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands began to be monitored . On August 28 , this tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression , as it was located about 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 285 km ) southeast of the Big Island . It intensified at a fair rate , and intensified Tropical Storm Uleki the next day . It continued to strengthen , and reached hurricane intensity on August 31 . It moved slowly west @-@ northwest until steering currents collapsed on September 1 . Now a Category 3 hurricane , Uleki slowly edged north towards the Hawaiian Islands . After looping , Uleki resumed its westward path on September 4 . Its stalling in the ocean had weakened it , and the hurricane passed midway between Johnston Island and French Frigate Shoals . Uleki crossed the dateline on September 8 . It turned slightly to the north and meandered in the open Pacific days until it dissipated on September 14 .
As Uleki drifted towards the Hawaiian Islands , tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu , Kauai , and Niihau on September 3 . In addition , reconnaissance missions were flown into the hurricane . Uleki caused heavy surf on the Hawaiian Islands , that being its only significant effect . This heavy surf flooded the southeastern runway on Midway Island , and produced two drownings on Oahu . Nineteen people were also rescued from rough surf , with five- to six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 meter ) waves , off the coast of beaches in Hawaii .
= = = Hurricane Kristy = = =
A tropical wave passed off the northwestern coast of Africa on August 6 . It did not develop as it passed through the Atlantic Ocean , until August 19 when convection began to form . On August 20 the disturbance turned into Tropical Depression Six in the Atlantic basin . It passed from the Leeward Islands up to the central Caribbean , until it dissipated on August 23 . As it passed over Central America , the disturbance had little remaining convection . However , the convection associated with the system began to organize when it entered the Pacific , and it strengthened into a tropical depression on August 29 , while located 300 miles ( 485 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Later that day the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy , based on ship reports of tropical storm force winds . Kristy strengthened into a hurricane on August 31 , based solely on satellite imagery . Hurricane Kristy had short lifespan though , and weakened to a tropical storm on September 2 . The easterly shear associated with an anticyclone south of Baja California , which caused Kristy 's convection to be forced west of the low @-@ level center of the system , and therefore weakened it . Kristy weakened further to a depression on September 3 , and weak steering currents allowed the cyclone to remain stationary on September 4 , loop the following day , and then began to move eastward . The depression dissipated on September 6 , weakening to a low @-@ level swirl . Kristy caused heavy rains and flooding in the Mexican states of Chiapas and Oaxaca .
Although the storm passed relatively close to the coast , no tropical cyclone warnings and watches were required as the storm remained offshore . However , Kristy produced heavy rains and widespread flooding in the Mexican states of Chiapas and Oaxaca ; as a result , several rivers overflowed their banks . Thousands of tourists were stranded from the beaches . At least 21 deaths were attributed to Kristy : 16 in Oaxaca and 5 in Chiapas . More than 20 @,@ 000 people in the former were evacuated from their homes ; consequently , a state of emergency was declared . The outher rainbands of Kristy delayed the rescue of the victims of a Brazilian @-@ made aircraft that crashed west of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range . No official damage figures were reported by the Mexican government .
= = = Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E ( Debby ) = = =
The remnants of Hurricane Debby moved over the mountainous areas of Mexico , passing into the Pacific from the Pacific coast of Mexico near Manzanillo . The disturbance moved towards the north @-@ northwest and organized into a tropical depression on September 6 just south of the Gulf of California . The cyclone remained stationary due to weak low @-@ level steering currents , later drifting to the north @-@ northwest with an area of deep convection causing rain on the Mexican coast . It later moved to the northwest , with partial exposure of the center of the system , and with some shear still affecting it . The cyclone continued to have shear over the system , which caused it not to strengthen , and its movement became nearly stationary . After remaining stationary longer , the system dissipated as a low @-@ level swirl .
= = = Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E = = =
A disturbance organized , and based on satellite imagery it strengthened into a tropical depression on September 12 . The center of circulation remained on the eastern fringe of its deep convection and the storm moved west or west @-@ northwestward . On September 13 , the depression underwent shearing , while its low @-@ level circulation center had only a small amount of deep convection associated with it . The cyclone became poorly defined , and its movement turned stationary on September 14 . The low @-@ level circulation of the system remained visible , even though it weakened due to shearing . Little deep convection remained associated with the system , and the cyclone stayed stationary . The depression having no remaining convection and having become just a low @-@ level cloud swirl , dissipated on September 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Wila = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 21 as an area of deep convection . The cyclone organized slowly though , drifting slowly , initially west then to the northwest . However , the depression recurved northeast , due to a trough . As the cyclone moved northeast , the system strengthened as indicated by an Air Force reconnaissance plane showing tropical storm force winds . It therefore intensified into Tropical Storm Wila on September 25 . Wila , however , weakened within a day , and therefore became a tropical depression . The remnant low of Wila produced some heavy rain over the Hawaiian Islands on September 26 and 27 .
= = = Hurricane Lane = = =
A wave moved westward off the coast of Africa , passed through the Caribbean Sea , and into the ITCZ of the eastern Pacific on September 20 . The system developed organized deep convection , and strengthened into a tropical depression on September 21 , while 300 miles ( 485 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . As the low @-@ level circulation organized further in the depression it intensified into Tropical Storm Lane , later on September 21 . Lane developed further with an upper @-@ level outflow pattern , and the cyclone turned into a hurricane on September 23 . Later on September 23 and on September 24 , an eye appeared on satellite imagery . A trough to the northwest of Lane disturbed its upper @-@ level outflow on September 24 . Diminishing convection and loss of its eye caused Lane to weaken to a tropical storm on September 27 , and into a depression on September 28 . Later on September 28 , the cyclone moved into cooler waters and Lane lost nearly all of its deep convection . It weakened into a low @-@ level swirl , and Lane dissipated on September 30 . Lane caused no reported casualties or damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E = = =
The remnants of Atlantic basin Tropical Storm Isaac moved into the eastern Pacific . These remnants underwent better organization and strengthened into a tropical depression on October 11 south of Baja California . Strong vertical southwesterly wind shear affected the cyclone , with the center of circulation later seen on the west side of the lessening amount of deep convection . The system remained poorly organized and had trouble strengthening to this continual poor organization as it moved westward . The system could not be located on satellite imagery and therefore dissipated on October 12 .
= = = Tropical Storm Miriam = = =
Atlantic hurricane , Hurricane Joan survived the passage over Central America and entered the Pacific , although greatly weakened . Following the policy at the time , Joan was renamed Miriam .
Miriam brought heavy rains to parts of Central America . Isolated flooding and mudslides happened , although casualties and damage reports are not available . 10 @.@ 37 in ( 263 mm ) of rain fell in Kantunilkin / Lazaro Cardenas , Mexico as a result of Miriam and the former Joan . Guatemala 's ports along its Pacific coast were closed and people in El Salvador were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas due to the storm . Miriam then turned away from Central America and weakened to a depression . The depression survived for over a week until it dissipated on October 30 . Tropical Depression Miriam 's remnants regenerated the next day , and Miriam finally dissipated on November 2 .
= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) = =
The table on the right shows the Accumulated Cyclone Energy for each storm in the season . ACE is a measure of the power of a tropical cyclones multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong tropical cyclones , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
The figures in parentheses are for storms in the Central Pacific basin west of 140 ° W ; those not in parenthesis are for the Eastern Pacific basin .
The cumulative ACE for the Eastern Pacific this season fell within the official " Near Normal " grading .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed in the 1988 Pacific hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) , denoted in parenthesis , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 1988 USD .
= = 1988 storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1988 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1994 season . This is the same list used for the 1982 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
Two names from the Central Pacific list were used – Uleki and Wila , both being their first usage .
= = Retirement = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1989 : Iva . Ileana replaced the name of Iva in the 1994 season .
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= Unrequited ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Unrequited " is the sixteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Howard Gordon and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Michael Lange . It originally aired in the United States on February 23 , 1997 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 9 and was seen by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . " Unrequited " received mixed to negative reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , the murder of a U.S. Army Lieutenant General has Mulder and Scully struggling to stop a seemingly invisible assassin . The two agents soon learn that they are doomed to failure from the start , as the U.S. government is attempting to cover up the existence of American POWs still being kept in Vietnam .
Gordon was inspired to write the episode after viewing an installment of the news series 60 Minutes that dealt with American secret agents the CIA left behind during the Vietnam War . The eventual concept that the assassin could create blind spots came after the writer spoke with his ophthalmologist brother . The entry featured a finished replica of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial , and various Canadian locales substituted for various locations in Washington , D.C.
= = Plot = =
The episode begins at the National Mall , where Major General Benjamin Bloch ( Scott Hylands ) gives a speech to a crowd of Vietnam War veterans . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) patrol the crowd , searching for a potential gunman . However , when the agents see the gunman , he repeatedly disappears and makes their efforts to track him difficult . Mulder finds himself aiming his gun towards the panicked crowd , desperately searching for the gunman as he had disappeared right in front of him .
Twelve hours earlier , at Fort Evanston , Maryland , Lieutenant General Peter MacDougal ( Bill Agnew ) is shot in his limousine by the gunman . Skinner briefs the agents on the killing , noting a king of hearts playing card — used by the soldiers in Vietnam to mark their kills — was left at the scene . The FBI suspects a far @-@ right paramilitary group , the Right Hand , of killing MacDougal in an effort to stop an upcoming re @-@ dedication of a Vietnam war memorial in Washington .
Mulder and Scully head to Virginia to question the Right Hand 's leader , Denny Markham ( Larry Musser ) . A search of his fenced @-@ off cabin uncovers ammunition and a photograph showing him in the company of a Sergeant Nathaniel Teager ( Peter LaCroix ) . After being arrested , Markham reveals that Teager was a soldier in Vietnam who was left for dead as a prisoner of war . Meanwhile , at the Vietnam memorial , Teager approaches a war widow and claims that her husband is still alive as a POW . After giving the woman her husband 's dog tags , Teager mysteriously disappears .
Skinner informs the agents that Teager is officially dead , and that his remains are at the Army 's forensics lab . However , Mulder learns that the lab only possesses Teager 's dental remains , and that the cause of his death was recorded as " inconclusive " . Mulder believes that General John Steffan ( William Nunn ) , who signed Teager 's death certificate , is his next target . Teager makes his way past Pentagon security and kills Steffan in his office . Upon seeing Teager on the Pentagon 's surveillance tapes , Mulder notes the frequent unexplained appearances and disappearances of Viet Cong troops reported by POWs in Vietnam .
During a meeting with Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , Mulder learns that Steffan , McDougal , and Bloch were all involved in negotiations concerning POWs . Meanwhile , as Bloch 's motorcade makes its way to the Mall , Scully spots Teager in the crowd , only to see him vanish in an instant . Mulder tells Skinner and Scully that the government has arranged for their investigation to fail in an effort to cover up the truth about American POWs still being kept in Vietnam .
In the present , during the re @-@ dedication ceremony , Mulder realizes that no one can see Teager if they are in his line of sight . Teager follows Skinner and Bloch to the motorcade , where he unsuccessfully shoots at the general and Skinner suffers a flesh wound . Teager is shot in turn by the agents as he tries to escape . As he succumbs to his wounds , Teager repeats his Army identification . Afterwards , the Pentagon states that the assassin was a different person — which Mulder denounces as a lie . He leaves Skinner to silently ponder his own service in the Vietnam War as he looks upon Teager 's name on the memorial wall .
= = Production = =
After producer Howard Gordon saw on 60 Minutes episode about the American secret agents the CIA left behind during the Vietnam War , he was intrigued and decided to develop a future script based around this . Howard was scheduled to only write one episode of the season , the nineteenth entry " Synchrony " . However , Gordon met with Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz the day before the holiday break to pitch his idea . After getting frustrated developing the episode 's plot summary , Gordon requested Carter 's help in exchange for a shared writing credit . Gordon then wrote the script during the break .
Gordon had been considering a man that turned invisible in the political and metaphorical sense for a while , but he still needed a way for physical invisibility . The eventual concept came after the writer spoke with his ophthalmologist brother , who told about blind spots regarding malfunctioning retinal spots or optic nerves , which do not impair humans due to a brain compensation . Gordon noted , " these stories come from scientific research ... So I said , what if someone could actually create a field of vision where none actually exists ? " Gordon decided to use a Vietnam War veteran given " they are getting old , and like the Holocaust survivor of ' Kaddish ' , starting to die " , and the opportunity would allow a larger role for Skinner . General MacDougal was named after the show 's editor , Heather MacDougall .
The episode featured a finished replica of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial that was first featured in an incomplete state during " Never Again " . The replica was first put on Vancouver 's Jericho Park due to the locale 's " expansive , groomed , flat " characteristics . Only portions of the wall were real , whereas the rest were created via computer generated imagery ( CGI ) . Day scenes at the monument were shot at Jericho Park , whereas night scenes took place at Ballantyne Pier , which was a large warehouse . The grandstand that had been assembled at Jericho Park was dismantled and reassembled in the warehouse . The replica had fake names created by the sister of art assistant Kristina Lyne due to legal reasons , which included names of The X @-@ Files cast and crew . In addition , two of them , " Jesse R. Ellison " and " Harlan L. Hahn " , referenced noted writer Harlan Ellison and model Jessica Hahn . The crowd for the memorial 's reinauguration scene , which at times was duplicated through CGI , consisted of 500 extras , fifty of which won the opportunity to appear on the show in local radio contests .
A civilian underpass in Stanley Park doubled as Freedom Plaza . During the filming in the park , several public photographers sought out Anderson . Because of a stipulation of filming in parks , the police cannot deny anyone access . To compensate for this , many of the available crew and production staff members formed a " human blockade " to prevent the paparazzi from disturbing the shots . The terminal for the Canada Place waterfront building served as a stand @-@ in for the interior of the Pentagon .
= = Reception = =
" Unrequited " premiered on the Fox network on February 23 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 9 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Unrequited " was seen by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers on first broadcast . The episode first aired in the United Kingdom on January 7 , 1998 on BBC One .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " B – " . He wrote that " Unrequited " " isn 't a very good episode " of the series , but that it is " a potent one all the same " due to its " great ideas " that are unfortunately never expanded upon . VanDerWerff felt that the episode 's biggest problem was that it started in media res and revealed the episode 's conclusion , writing " it 's a pretty great starting point for an episode . Instead , it 's actually the endpoint " . Despite the negativity towards the plot , he wrote that the entry was " a good episode for Skinner " in that it gives him a mission and alludes to his past in a realistic way . Furthermore , VanDerWerff also applauded the way the show used the Vietnam War in a way that felt " fresh " . Independent reviewer Sarah Stegall awarded the episode a two out of five and derided it as a " pseudo @-@ political story " . She was negative towards the " lack of emotional investment " , which she felt was what damaged the episode ; she called Teager a cipher who was portrayed as a " Twitchy Vet " rather than a " Tragic Hero " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . They heavily criticized the episode for taking place before the events of " Kaddish " and " Memento Mori " in an attempt to not deal with Scully 's cancer . Furthermore , the two criticized the episode for being " thin stuff " and heavily padded ; Shearman and Pearson note that the long teaser is replayed in the episode " to no new dramatic effect " and that Covarrubias 's appearance offers no new information . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Unrequited " one star out of four , writing that it " collapses under the weight of its message " and that it " fails to bring to life any of its guest characters " . Furthermore , she criticized the reusing of the teaser , noting that it " just comes off as a writer 's device " .
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= Halfbeak =
The halfbeaks ( family Hemiramphidae ) are a geographically widespread and numerically abundant family of epipelagic fish inhabiting warm waters around the world . The halfbeaks are named for their distinctive jaws , in which the lower jaws are significantly longer than the upper jaws . The similar viviparous halfbeaks ( family Zenarchopteridae ) have often been included in this family .
Though not commercially important themselves , these forage fish support artisanal fisheries and local markets worldwide . They are also fed upon by other commercially important predatory fishes , such as billfishes , mackerels , and sharks .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1775 , Carl Linnaeus was the first to scientifically describe a halfbeak , Esox brasiliensis . In 1775 Peter Forsskål described two more species as Esox , Esox far and Esox marginatus . It was not until 1816 that Georges Cuvier created the genus Hemiramphus ; from then on , all three were classified as Hemiramphus . In 1859 , Gill erected Hemiramphidae , deriving its name from Hemiramphus , the family 's type genus . The name comes from the Greek hemi , meaning half , and rhamphos , meaning beak or bill .
The Hemiramphinae are primarily marine and found in the Atlantic , Pacific , and Indian Oceans , though some inhabit estuaries and rivers . The Zenarchopterinae are confined to the Indo @-@ West Pacific zoogeographic region , an area running from East Africa to the Caroline Islands .
= = Evolution = =
The halfbeaks ' fossil record extends into the Lower Tertiary . The earliest known halfbeak is Brachyrhamphus bolcensis from the Eocene at Monte Bolca , Italy . Apart from differences in the length of the upper and lower jaws , recent and fossil halfbeaks are distinguished by the fusion of the third pair of upper pharyngeal bones into a plate .
= = Phylogeny = =
The phylogeny of the halfbeaks is in a state of flux .
On the one hand , there is little question that they are most closely related to three other families of streamlined , surface water fishes : the flyingfishes , needlefishes , and sauries . Traditionally , these four families have been taken to together comprise the order Beloniformes . The halfbeaks and flyingfishes are considered to form one group , the superfamily Exocoetoidea , and the needlefishes and sauries another , the superfamily Scomberesocoidea .
On the other hand , recent studies have demonstrated that rather than forming a single monophyletic group ( a clade ) , the halfbeak family actually includes a number of lineages ancestral to the flyingfishes and the needlefishes . In other words , as traditionally defined , the halfbeak family is paraphyletic .
Within the subfamily Hemiramphinae , the " flying halfbeak " genus Oxyporhamphus has proved to be particularly problematic ; while morphologically closer to the flyingfishes , molecular evidence places it with Hemiramphus and Euleptorhamphus . Together , these three genera form the sister group to the flyingfish family . The other two hemiramphine genera Hyporhamphus and Arrhamphus form another clade of less clear placement .
Rather than being closely related to the flyingfishes , the subfamily Zenarchopterinae appears to be the sister group of the needlefishes and sauries . This is based on the pharyngeal jaw apparatus , sperm ultrastructure , and molecular evidence . However , this hypothesis has awkward implications for how the morphological evolution of the group is understood , because the fused pharyngeal plate has been considered reliably diagnostic of the halfbeak family . Furthermore , the existing theory that because juvenile needlefish pass through a developmental stage where the lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw ( the so @-@ called " halfbeak stage " ) the theory that halfbeaks are paedomorphic needlefish is untenable . In fact the unequal lengths of the upper and lower jaws of halfbeaks appears to be the basal condition , with needlefish being relatively derived in comparison .
= = Morphology = =
The halfbeaks are elongate , streamlined fish adapted to living in open water . Halfbeaks can grow to over 40 centimeters ( 16 in ) SL in the case of Euleptorhampus viridis . The scales are relatively large , cycloid ( smooth ) , and easily detached . There are no spines in the fins . A distinguishing characteristic is that the third pair of upper pharyngeal bones are anklylosed ( fused ) into a plate . Halfbeaks are one of several fish families that lack a stomach , all of which possess a pharyngeal jaw apparatus ( pharyngeal mill ) . Most species have an extended lower jaw , at least as juveniles , though this feature may be lost as the fish mature , as with Chriodorus , for example .
As is typical for surface dwelling , open water fish , most species are silvery , darker above and lighter below , an example of countershading . The tip of the lower jaw is bright red or orange in most species .
Halfbeaks carry several adaptations to feeding at the water surface . The eyes and nostrils are at the top of the head and the upper jaw is mobile , but not the lower jaw . Combined with their streamlined shape and the concentration of fins towards the back ( similar to that of a pike ) , these adaptations allow halfbeaks to locate , catch , and swallow food items very effectively .
= = Range and habitat = =
Halfbeaks inhabit warm seas , predominantly at the surface , in the Atlantic , Indian , and Pacific oceans . A small number are found in estuaries . Most species of marine halfbeaks are known from continental coastlines , but some extend into the western and central Pacific , and one species is endemic to New Zealand . Hemiramphus is a worldwide marine genus .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Marine halfbeaks are omnivores feeding on algae ; marine plants such as seagrasses ; plankton ; invertebrates such as pteropods and crustaceans ; and smaller fishes . For some subtropical species at least , juveniles are more predatory than adults . Some tropical species feed on animals during the day and plants at night , while other species alternate between carnivory in the summer and herbivory in the winter . They are in turn eaten by many ecologically and commercially important fish , such as billfish , mackerel , and sharks , and so are a key link between trophic levels .
= = = Behavior = = =
Marine halfbeaks are typically pelagic schooling forage fish . The southern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir for example is found in sheltered bays , coastal seas , estuaries around southern Australia in waters down to a depth of 20 meters ( 66 ft ) . These fish school near the surface at night but swim closer to the sea floor during the day , particularly among beds of seagrasses . Genetic analysis of the different sub @-@ populations of the eastern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir in South Australian coastal waters reveals that there is a small but consistent migration of individuals among theme , sufficient to keep them genetically homogeneous .
Some marine halfbeaks , including Euleptorhamphus velox and Euleptorhamphus viridis , are known for their ability to jump out of the water and glide over the surface for considerable distances , and have consequently sometimes been called flying halfbeaks .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Hemiramphidae species are all external fertilizers . They are usually egg @-@ layers and often produce relatively small numbers of fairly large eggs for fish of their size , typically in shallow coastal waters , such as the seagrass meadows of Florida Bay . The eggs of Hemiramphus brasiliensis and H. balao are typically 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 059 – 0 @.@ 098 in ) in diameter and have attaching filaments . They hatch when they grow to about 4 @.@ 8 – 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 19 – 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter . Hyporhamphus melanochir eggs are slightly larger , around 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) in diameter , and are unusually large when they hatch , being up to 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) in size .
Relatively little is known about the ecology of juvenile marine halfbeaks , though estuarine habitats seem to be favored by at least some species . The southern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir grows rapidly at first , attaining a length of up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) in the first three years , after which point growth slows . This species lives for a maximum age of about 9 years , at which point the fish reach up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) and weigh about 0 @.@ 35 kg ( 0 @.@ 77 lb ) .
= = Relationship to humans = =
= = = Halfbeak fisheries = = =
Halfbeaks are not a major target for commercial fisheries , though small fisheries for them exist in some places , for example in South Australia where fisheries target the southern sea garfish ( Hyporhamphus melanochir ) . and the eastern sea garfish ( Hyporhamphus australis ) . Halfbeaks are caught by a variety of methods including seines and pelagic trawls , dip @-@ netting under lights at night , and with haul nets . They are utilized fresh , dried , smoked , or salted , and they are considered good eating . However , even where halfbeaks are targeted by fisheries , they tend to be of secondary importance compared with other edible fish species .
In some localities significant bait fisheries exist to supply sport fishermen . One study of a bait fishery in Florida that targets Hemiramphus brasiliensis and Hemiramphus balao suggests that despite increases in the size of the fishery the population is stable and the annual catch is valued at around $ 500 @,@ 000 .
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= A Rugrats Chanukah =
" A Rugrats Chanukah " , titled onscreen as " Chanukah " and sometimes called the " Rugrats Chanukah Special " , is a special episode of Nickelodeon 's animated television series Rugrats . The first episode of the show 's fourth season and the sixty @-@ sixth overall , it tells the story of the Jewish holiday Chanukah through the eyes of the Rugrats , who imagine themselves as the main characters . Meanwhile , Grandpa Boris and his long @-@ time rival , Shlomo , feud over who will play the lead in the local synagogue 's Chanukah play .
Raymie Muzquiz directed " A Rugrats Chanukah " from a script by J. David Stem and David N. Weiss . In 1992 , Nickelodeon executives had pitched the idea of a Chanukah special to the production team , but the concept was revised and became the 1995 special , " A Rugrats Passover " . After production of the Passover episode wrapped , the crew returned to the Chanukah idea . Nickelodeon broadcast " A Rugrats Chanukah " on December 4 , 1996 ; the episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 and positive reviews from television critics . Along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and his wife , the special attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League compared the character designs to anti @-@ Semitic drawings from a 1930s Nazi newspaper .
= = Plot = =
On Chanukah , Grandma Minka reads a book about the meaning of the holiday to the babies Tommy , Chuckie , Phil , and Lil . The babies imagine that they are the story 's characters ; Judah ( Tommy ) is outraged by King " Antonica " , who has taken over the Jewish kingdom and forced Greek culture on its inhabitants . Judah leads an army of Jewish Maccabees to war against Antonica 's Seleucid Empire , emerging victorious . The story is left unfinished as Minka stops to help make latkes in the kitchen with her daughter Didi .
Meanwhile , Grandpa Boris is furious that Shlomo , a rival from his youth in Russia , is pictured in the local newspaper for playing the Greek king in the local synagogue 's Hanukah play , where Boris is portraying Judah . The babies find out about Shlomo and form the impression that he truly is the Greek king , whom they dub the " Meanie of Chanukah " . At the play that night , they attempt to storm on stage to defeat the " Meanie of Chanukah " , but are stopped and taken into the synagogue 's nursery . Angelica is in the nursery already and , vehement in her desire to watch a Christmas special that is airing that night , convinces the babies to help her break out and steal a television set from the custodian 's office .
Boris and Shlomo begin fighting on stage during the play , interrupting the production and inciting an intermission . Backstage , Shlomo and Boris argue once more , with Boris mentioning Shlomo 's dedication to his business pursuits over familial values . Shlomo informs Boris that he had a wife who died before bearing him children , making Boris feel sympathy for his rival . Angelica sprints backstage , bumping into Shlomo and inadvertently destroying the television set . Shlomo unsuccessfully tries to console her , but eventually lets Boris take over . Tommy hands Shlomo the Chanukah story book Minka read to the babies earlier ; Boris convinces Shlomo to read it to the children . In the conclusion of the story , the Maccabees rededicate the Holy Temple , and discover that there is only enough oil to light the Temple 's eternal flame for one day ; miraculously , it remains lit for eight . Shlomo 's reciting dissolves both the babies ' assertion of him as the " Meanie of Chanukah " and his and Boris ' rivalry .
= = Production = =
Nickelodeon executives pitched the idea of making a Chanukah special to the Rugrats production team in 1992 . Paul Germain , the show 's co @-@ creator , responded with a Passover special instead , as he considered it to be a " funny idea " and of " historical interest " . " A Rugrats Passover " was completed in 1995 ; the show was one of the first animated television series to produce a special for a Jewish holiday . After production wrapped on " A Rugrats Passover " , the crew considered creating the Chanukah special that Nickelodeon had originally pitched . The episode was written by David Stem and David Weiss , and directed by Raymie Muzquiz . By the time Weiss came to write the teleplay , he had abandoned Christianity and converted to Judaism .
Paramount Home Video finished production of the home media version in July 1997 ; originally scheduling a release date of October that year , Paramount instead pushed the VHS release into 1998 . In time for Christmas 1997 , Paramount released the video Nickelodeon Holiday , which featured " A Rugrats Chanukah " and other holiday specials , such as " Hey Arnold 's Christmas " for US $ 12 @.@ 95 ( equivalent to $ 19 @.@ 09 in 2015 ) . On August 31 , 2004 , Paramount also released a DVD compilation titled Rugrats Holiday Celebration , which featured several holiday @-@ themed episodes , including " A Rugrats Chanukah " . Sarah Willson adapted the episode into the book , The Rugrats ' Book of Chanukah , illustrated by Barry Goldberg and published by Simon & Schuster in 1997 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Rugrats Chanukah " was originally broadcast on December 4 , 1996 on Nickelodeon . Repeated twice that night , the episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 in the show 's target demographic of children aged 2 – 11 . On December 1 , 2001 , CBS broadcast the episode for the first time on its network , at 8 : 30 p.m. Eastern Time . Carrying a TV @-@ Y parental rating , it followed the Rugrats Christmas special , " The Santa Experience " . Nickelodeon has aired the episode throughout subsequent holiday seasons .
" A Rugrats Chanukah " received positive reviews from television critics , and is one of the most popular episodes of Rugrats . Delia O 'Hera of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called it a " multigenerational tale " . Judith Pearl , in her book The Chosen Image : Television 's Portrayal of Jewish Themes and Characters , described the episode as a " fun [ treatment ] of Chanukah " . Chuck Barney of Knight Ridder and the Tribune News Service considered the episode a " hilariously imaginative take on the Chanukah legend " .
In a 1999 issue of TV Guide , " A Rugrats Chanukah " was listed at number 5 in their " 10 Best Classic Family Holiday Specials " . TV Guide later wrote that " Nickelodeon 's Rugrats secured its place in television history " with the episode , opining that it could " entertain a child of any religious denomination " . Ted Cox of the Daily Herald said that although the episode was not as good as the show 's Passover special — which he considered " among the best holiday TV specials ever produced " — it was " still noteworthy " . DVD Talk reviewer Francis Rizzo III wrote that the special " has a great historical opening " . In Flickipedia : Perfect Films for Every Occasion , Holiday , Mood , Ordeal , and Whim , Michael Atkinson and Laurel Shifrin said that the special was " ... a richer meal , even , for parents than for tykes " .
= = = Anti @-@ Defamation League controversy = = =
" A Rugrats Chanukah " , along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and his wife , Minka , attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) charged that the two characters resembled anti @-@ Semitic drawings that were featured in a 1930s Nazi newspaper . Nickelodeon 's then @-@ president , Albie Hecht ( himself Jewish ) , professed bewilderment and called the accusation absurd . The controversy resurfaced in 1998 after the ADL made the same claims about Boris ' appearance in a Rugrats comic strip that ran in newspapers during the Jewish New Year . The organization was also offended by the character 's recitation of the Mourner 's Kaddish in the strip . Nickelodeon 's new president , Herb Scannell , agreed with the criticism and promised never to run the character or the strip again .
= = = Video = = =
Rugrats : " Rugrats Chanukah " Episode , Nick.com
Rugrats Chanukah Clip , Nick.com
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= Battle of Ettlingen =
The Battle of Ettlingen or Battle of Malsch ( 9 July 1796 ) was fought during the French Revolutionary Wars between the armies of the First French Republic and Habsburg Austria near the town of Malsch , 9 kilometres ( 6 mi ) southwest of Ettlingen . The Austrians under Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen tried to halt the northward advance of Jean Victor Marie Moreau 's French Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle along the east bank of the Rhine River . After a tough fight , the Austrian commander found that his left flank was turned . He conceded victory to the French and retreated east toward Stuttgart . Ettlingen is located 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) south of Karlsruhe .
The Rhine Campaign of 1796 saw Moreau 's army facing the Austrian Army of the Upper Rhine under Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour in the south . Meanwhile , Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's French Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse opposed the Army of the Lower Rhine under Archduke Charles in the north . Jourdan drubbed Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg at Altenkirchen on 4 June , compelling Archduke Charles to rush to the rescue with reinforcements . Charles defeated Jourdan at Wetzlar on the 15th , forcing him to pull back to the west bank of the Rhine . At this time there was a shake up in the high command and the archduke was put in control of both Austrian armies . In Charles ' absence , Moreau successfully crossed the Rhine at Kehl on the night of 23 – 24 June and beat Latour at Rastatt on 5 July . Leaving Wilhelm von Wartensleben in charge in the north , Charles rushed south to confront Moreau along the Alb River near Ettlingen . After an all @-@ day combat , the Austrians held the advantage on their right wing near Malsch , but the French had defeated their left wing in the Black Forest .
= = Background = =
= = = Plans = = =
At the beginning of the Rhine Campaign of 1796 , Austria had two armies in Germany , the Army of the Upper Rhine under Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser and the Army of the Lower Rhine under Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen . The left wing of the 80 @,@ 000 @-@ man Army of the Upper Rhine guarded the Rhine River from Mannheim to Switzerland under Anton Sztáray , Michael von Fröhlich and Louis Joseph , Prince of Condé while its right wing was on the west bank around Kaiserslautern . The Army of the Lower Rhine had a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong right wing under Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg on the east bank observing the French bridgehead at Düsseldorf . The archduke 's remaining 70 @,@ 000 troops lay on the west bank along the Nahe River with powerful garrisons in Mainz and Ehrenbreitstein Fortress .
The Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle led by Jean Victor Marie Moreau was deployed with its right flank at Huningue , its center on the Queich River and its left flank at Saarbrücken . The Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse commanded by Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan was responsible for a line running north from Sankt Wendel to Cologne , while the 22 @,@ 000 men of its left wing under Jean @-@ Baptiste Kléber held Düsseldorf . The French grand strategy designed by Minister of War Lazare Carnot was for each of their two armies to turn the Austrian flanks . The strategic plan called for Jourdan to start by advancing by his left wing and was designed to accomplish two goals . First , it was hoped that this would cause the Austrians to abandon the west bank of the Rhine . Second , the move would draw Austrian strength north and allow Moreau 's army a better chance to cross the Rhine in the south .
Until this time , the Army of Rhine @-@ et @-@ Moselle consisted of independent divisions . When Moreau assumed command he reorganized the army into three corps or wings plus a small reserve . Over the objections of all three men , he named Louis Desaix , Laurent Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr and Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino wing commanders . The system soon proved its worth . Moreau 's other innovation was to group many of the heavy cavalry regiments in the army reserve . The Chasseurs à Cheval , Dragoon and Hussar regiments remained attached to the infantry divisions . On 8 June , Ferino 's Right Wing had three divisions led by François Antoine Louis Bourcier ( 9 @,@ 281 infantry , 690 cavalry ) , Henri François Delaborde ( 8 @,@ 300 infantry , 174 cavalry ) and Augustin Tuncq ( 7 @,@ 437 infantry , 432 cavalry ) . Desaix 's Center had three divisions commanded by Michel de Beaupuy ( 14 @,@ 565 infantry , 1 @,@ 266 cavalry ) , Antoine Guillaume Delmas ( 7 @,@ 898 infantry , 865 cavalry ) and Charles Antoine Xaintrailles ( 4 @,@ 828 infantry , 962 cavalry ) . Saint @-@ Cyr 's Left Wing had two divisions under Guillaume Philibert Duhesme ( 7 @,@ 438 infantry , 895 cavalry ) and Alexandre Camille Taponier ( 11 @,@ 823 infantry , 1 @,@ 231 cavalry ) . Altogether , Moreau 's Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle numbered 71 @,@ 581 foot soldiers and 6 @,@ 515 cavalry , plus gunners and sappers . Counting artillery and other elements , Moreau 's total was 79 @,@ 592 soldiers while Jourdan commanded 77 @,@ 792 men .
= = = Operations = = =
The Rhine Campaign of 1795 had concluded with an armistice . On 20 May 1796 , the Austrians notified the French that the truce would end on 1 June . The minute it expired , Kléber led two divisions across the armistice line heading south toward Charles ' right wing . The French beat the Duke of Württemberg in the Battle of Altenkirchen on 4 June , capturing 3 @,@ 000 Austrians , four colors and 12 guns . By 6 June Kléber 's wing was on the Lahn River and Archduke Charles began evacuating the west bank of the Rhine in order to concentrate against the French incursion . Kléber was joined within a few days by Jourdan and most of the Army of the Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . At about this time , the Austrian high command began transferring Wurmser and 25 @,@ 000 Austrians to Italy due to the successes of Napoleon Bonaparte . On 15 June , the archduke defeated the French in the Battle of Wetzlar . Subsequently , Jourdan recrossed to the west bank of the Rhine while Kléber retreated north toward Düsseldorf .
With Wurmser leaving the theater , Archduke Charles was given command over both Austrian armies . Wilhelm von Wartensleben took command of the Army of the Lower Rhine while Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour assumed leadership of the Army of the Upper Rhine . Jourdan and Kléber 's advance had caused their opponents to abandon the west bank of the Rhine and had drawn Charles north , as planned . Meanwhile , Moreau mounted operations against the Austrian fortifications opposite Mannheim in order to lead his enemies into thinking that it was the main attack . But on 24 June 1796 , Moreau launched a successful river crossing in the Battle of Kehl . The 7 @,@ 000 defending troops of the Swabian Regional Contingent put up a stout fight but were defeated with the loss of 700 soldiers , 14 guns and 22 munition wagons . The French reported losses of 150 . Subsequently , Sztáray took command of the Swabians who were reinforced up to a strength of 9 @,@ 000 by some Austrians . On the 28th Sztáray was beaten by Desaix at Renchen . The French sustained 200 casualties while allied losses amounted to 550 killed and wounded plus 850 men , seven guns and two munition wagons captured .
Having blocked Jourdan , Archduke Charles began moving troops south to oppose the Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle as early as 21 June . He received the news that Moreau was across the Rhine on the 26th . Leaving 25 @,@ 351 foot and 10 @,@ 933 horse under Wartensleben and 27 @,@ 000 more around Mainz , the archduke raced south . The last units of the Moreau 's army made it across the Rhine on 29 June , though Delaborde remained guarding the west bank of the Rhine for a time . For a few days the French enjoyed a numerical superiority of 30 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 over their opponents . Moreau then made the remarkable decision to switch the positions of two of his wings ; Desaix now led the Left Wing while Saint @-@ Cyr commanded the Center . He also reorganized his army , reassigning some regiments that got lost in the confusion of the river crossing . Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle expanded its bridgehead in a semicircle . Desaix moved downstream ( north ) , Ferino moved upstream ( south ) and Saint @-@ Cyr operated in the hills , ready to support either wing . The French irruption caused Fröhlich and Condé to retreat up the Rhine and Kinzig Rivers while Sztáray and the Swabians fell back to Freudenstadt .
Moreau had an opportunity to smash one of the enemy forces , but he moved slowly . Saint @-@ Cyr started from Oberkirch on 2 July . The next day his wing moved in an easterly direction , seizing enemy positions at Oppenau , on the Kniebis Mountain and at Freudenstadt . This deep thrust completely separated Fröhlich from the rest of the Army of the Upper Rhine . Latour and Sztáray tried to hold a position behind the Murg River but Desaix attacked them in the Battle of Rastatt on 5 July . To assist in this operation , Moreau directed Saint @-@ Cyr to move down the Murg valley . On the same day as Rastatt , Taponier 's division captured Gernsbach . At Rastatt , the French employed 19 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 500 cavalry to spar with 6 @,@ 000 Austrians led by Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg and Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló . The French turned both Austrian flanks , forcing their enemies to pull back east toward Ettlingen . Casualties on both sides were light . The Austrians lost 200 men and three guns captured . At Ettlingen Latour found the archduke 's leading elements , with the main body still a few days distant . The Austrians were in a vulnerable situation but Moreau delayed for three days at Rastatt , allowing Charles to bring up 25 battalions and 39 squadrons .
= = Battle = =
= = = French army = = =
On 1 July 1796 , Ferino 's Right Wing was organized into one division under Delaborde and four brigades led by Nicolas Louis Jordy , Nicolas Augustin Paillard , Jean Victor Tharreau and Jean @-@ Baptiste Tholmé . Jordy led the 3rd and 38th Line Infantry Demi Brigades . Tharreau directed the 3rd Light and the 56th , 74th , 79th and 89th Line Infantry Demi Brigades . Paillard commanded the 12th and 21st ( heavy ) Cavalry Regiments while Tholmé commanded the 18th Cavalry , 4th Dragoon and 8th Hussar Regiments . Tuncq was not listed as leading a division . Ferino 's wing counted 18 @,@ 622 foot soldiers and 1 @,@ 039 horsemen .
At the same date , Desaix 's Left Wing was made up of the divisions of Beaupuy and Delmas . In Beaupuy 's division , Dominique Joba led the 10th , 62nd and 103rd Line and the 10th Light Demi Brigades while Gilles Joseph Martin Brunteau Saint @-@ Suzanne commanded the 4th and 8th Chasseurs à Cheval and the 6th Dragoons . In Delmas ' division Jean Marie Rodolph Eickemeyer directed the 50th and 97th Line and 16th Light Infantry Demi Brigades while Maurice Frimont led the 7th Hussar and 10th and 17th Dragoon Regiments . Xaintrailles was not named as a division commander . Desaix 's command comprised 17 @,@ 126 bayonets and 2 @,@ 058 sabers .
A report from 9 July 1796 showed that Saint @-@ Cyr 's Center had two divisions under Duhesme and Taponier . In Duhesme 's division , Dominique Vandamme 's brigade included the 17th Line ( 2 @,@ 793 ) and 100th Line ( 2 @,@ 479 ) , 20th Chasseurs à Cheval ( 254 ) and 11th Hussars ( 38 ) . Duhesme 's division counted 5 @,@ 272 infantry and 292 cavalry . Taponier 's division consisted of the brigades of Henri François Lambert , Antoine Laroche Dubouscat and Claude Lecourbe . Lambert led the 93rd Line ( 3 @,@ 119 ) and 109th Line ( 2 @,@ 769 ) . Laroche directed the 21st Light ( 2 @,@ 284 ) and 31st Line ( 2 @,@ 840 ) . Lecourbe commanded the 84th Line ( 2 @,@ 692 ) , 106th Line ( 3 @,@ 186 ) and 2nd Chasseurs à Cheval ( 240 ) . There were a total of 22 @,@ 162 foot soldiers , 532 horsemen and 433 gunners in Saint @-@ Cyr 's wing . However , a 14 June report showed 919 troopers present in Saint @-@ Cyr 's command , including the 9th Hussars .
On 1 July , Bourcier 's Reserve division comprised one brigade under Jean Marie Forest with the 93rd and 109th Line ( detached to Saint @-@ Cyr by 9 July ) , the 1st and 2nd Carabiniers and the 3rd , 9th , 14th and 15th Cavalry Regiments . The cavalry counted 1 @,@ 577 sabers . In Moreau 's army , all infantry demi brigades had three battalions , all Cavalry regiments had three squadrons , while Carabinier , Chasseur , Dragoon and Hussar Regiments had four squadrons . There were 8 @,@ 201 infantry and 238 cavalry in garrison at Bitche , Kehl , Landau and Strasbourg . Marc Amand Élisée Scherb with 2 @,@ 812 foot and 239 horse watched the Austrian @-@ held Philippsburg fortress . Moreau 's chief of staff was Jean Reynier and his chief of artillery was Jean Baptiste Eblé . Moreau had 36 @,@ 000 men available in 45 battalions and 55 squadrons .
= = = Austrian army = = =
On 3 July , the Army of the Upper Rhine was organized into divisions under Fröhlich , Fürstenberg , Sztáray and Johann Sigismund Riesch . In addition , Archduke Charles personally commanded divisions under Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze and von Lindt . Fröhlich had three brigades led by Condé , Johann Jacob von Klingling and Simon von Wolf . Fürstenberg led seven brigades under Zaiger , Milius , Joseph Heinrich von Staader , Ignaz Gyulai , Johann Baptist von Leloup , Franz Walter Anton von Canisius and Paul Devay . The last two brigades were detached to Latour 's direct command along with the divisions Sztáray and Riesch . Sztáray 's division included five brigades under Ludwig Wilhelm Anton Baillet de Latour @-@ Merlemont , Konrad Valentin von Kaim , Prince Joseph de Lorraine @-@ Vaudemont , Duke Alexander of Württemberg and Johann I Joseph , Prince of Liechtenstein . Riesch 's division had three brigades under Count Palatine , Adam Boros de Rákos and an unknown officer . In the archduke 's corps , Hotze commanded three Austrian brigades under Wilhelm Lothar Maria von Kerpen , Franz Seraph of Orsini @-@ Rosenberg and Joseph von Schellenberg . Lindt led five Electoral Saxon brigades .
The Austrian order of battle for 9 July showed the army organized into four columns . The 1st Column under Kaim included two brigades under Schellenberg and Christoph von Lattermann . Schellenberg had two battalions each from Grand Duke of Tuscany Nr. 23 and Olivier Wallis Nr. 29 Infantry Regiments , six companies from the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Slavonian Infantry Regiment and one squadron of the Archduke Ferdinand Hussar Regiment Nr. 32 . Lattermann led three battalions of the Archduke Charles Nr. 3 Infantry Regiment , the Abfaltern and Retz Grenadier Battalions and two squadrons each of the Szekler Hussar Regiment and Waldeck Dragoon Regiment Nr. 39 .
Sztáray commanded the 2nd Column which consisted of an Advanced Guard under Devay , two brigades led by Latour @-@ Merlemont and the Prince of Lorraine and two unbrigaded mounted units , four squadrons each of the Archduke John Dragoons Nr. 26 and Waldeck Dragoons . Devay led two battalions of the Pellegrini Nr. 49 Infantry Regiment , one battalion each of the Splenyi Nr. 51 and Serbian Infantry Regiments , seven squadrons of the Archduke Ferdinand Hussars and six squadrons of the Kinsky Chevau @-@ légers Nr. 7 . Latour @-@ Merlemont commanded three battalions of the Manfredini Nr. 12 Infantry Regiment and the Candiani , Dietrich , Reisingen and Warren Grenadier Battalions . Lorraine directed four squadrons each of the Kavanaugh Nr. 12 and Archduke Franz Nr. 29 Cuirassiers .
Latour led the 3rd Column which was organized into an Advanced Guard under Canisius and three brigades directed by Kerpen , Liechtenstein and Württemberg . Canisius commanded three battalions of the Franz Kinsky Nr. 47 Infantry Regiment , four companies from the Serbian and three companies of the Slavonian Infantry Regiments , six squadrons of the Lobkowitz Chevau @-@ légers Nr. 28 , four squadrons of the Szekler Hussars and two squadrons of the Coburg Dragoons Nr. 37 . Kerpen led three battalions of the Alton Nr. 15 Infantry Regiment and the Bideskuty , Szenassy and Benjowski Grenadier Battalions . Liechtenstein controlled three squadrons of the Kaiser Dragoons Nr. 1 . Württemberg directed six squadrons of the Mack Nr. 20 and four squadrons of the Ansbach Nr. 33 Cuirassiers .
The small 4th Column was commanded by Johann Nepomuk von Mosel and consisted of two battalions of the Schröder Nr. 7 Infantry Regiment , one battalion of the Leloup Jägers and two squadrons each of the Albert Nr. 5 and Kaiser Nr. 15 Carabiniers . Lindt 's Saxon infantry was made up of the Brandenstein and Glaffay Grenadier Battalions , one battalion of Weimar Jägers , and one battalion each of the Kürfurst , Prinz Anton , Prinz Clemens , Prince Gotha and Van der Hayde Infantry Regiments . The Saxon mounted troops included four squadrons each of the Carabinier , Hussar and Prinz Albert and Courland Chevau @-@ léger Regiments plus two squadrons of the Saxe @-@ Gotha Cavalry Regiment . Altogether , Charles had about 32 @,@ 000 troops available .
= = = Combat = = =
After conferring with Desaix and Saint @-@ Cyr at Renchen , Moreau mounted his assault on 9 July 1796 . This decision preempted Archduke Charles , who had planned to attack the French on the 10th . The French commander planned to pin the Austrians in the Rhine plain while turning their left flank among the mountains of the Black Forest . For his part , Charles hoped to outflank the French left near the river and recapture Gernsbach . Latour held the Austrian right near the Rhine , Sztáray was posted in the center near Malsch , Kaim defended the left @-@ center in the hills along the Alb River and Lindt 's Saxons held the far left near Neuenbürg .
Moreau accompanied Desaix 's Left Wing with the divisions of Delmas and Sainte @-@ Suzanne ( vice Beaupuy ) , Bourcier 's Reserve and Saint @-@ Cyr 's cavalry and horse artillery which were ineffective in the mountains . Malsch was captured twice by the French and recaptured each time by the Austrians . Latour tried to force his way around the French left with cavalry but was checked by the mounted troops of the Reserve . Finding his horsemen outnumbered near Ötigheim , Latour used his artillery to keep the French cavalry at bay . In the Rhine plain the combat raged until 10 PM . In the evening the Austrians were pushing Desaix back when bad news from the left flank caused Charles to call a halt .
Kaim had six battalions of infantry , four squadrons of cavalry and plenty of artillery deployed at Rothenzholl . He posted three more battalions at Frauenalb to the north and an advance guard in Loffenau . Saint @-@ Cyr left Duhesme 's division behind to guard Freudenstadt and the Kneibis Mountain . He started from Gernsbach with 12 battalions plus six more borrowed from the Reserve . Finding that the Saxons were marching south along the Enz River to turn his right flank , he sent Taponier with six battalions and 150 hussars east to Wildbad . Taponier surprised the Saxons and sent them scurrying back north . With Lambert and Lecourbe 's brigades , Saint @-@ Cyr advanced through Loffenau to Rothenzholl northwest of Dobel where he confronted Kaim . Finding the Austrians in powerful defenses , Saint @-@ Cyr tried to draw Kaim 's troops out of position .
Employing elements of the 84th and 106th Line , the French wing commander ordered the troops not to press home their assault , but to retreat every time they came against strong resistance . Each attack was pushed farther up the ridge before receding into the valley . When the fifth assault in regimental strength gave way , the defenders finally reacted , sweeping down the slope to cut off the French . Saint @-@ Cyr now sprung his trap . Lecourbe led the massed grenadier companies to attack one Austrian flank , other reserves bored in on the other flank and the center counterattacked . The French troops that struck the Austrian right were hidden in the nearby town of Herrenalb . As the Austrians gave way , the French followed them up the ridge right into their positions . Nevertheless , Kaim 's men laid down such a heavy fire that Lecourbe 's grenadiers were thrown into disorder and their leader nearly captured . At length , Saint @-@ Cyr 's troops emerged triumphant , inflicting 1 @,@ 000 casualties on their opponents and capturing two cannons . Kaim was compelled to withdraw east across the hills to Neuenbürg . From there , Kaim and Lindt 's soldiers fell back toward Pforzheim .
= = Results = =
French losses numbered 2 @,@ 000 killed and wounded plus 400 captured . The Austrians suffered 1 @,@ 300 killed and wounded with 1 @,@ 300 captured . On 10 July , Charles evacuated Malsch and ordered a forced march east to Pforzheim via Karlsruhe . Also on the 10th , the French occupied Ettlingen and Neuenbürg . Anxious to protect his magazines at Heilbronn , Charles halted at Pforzheim for a few days . For his part , Moreau would not believe that Charles had given up , so he waited around Ettlingen for several days . Meanwhile , the Austrians packed their supplies into wagons and headed east on 14 July . The next day , Moreau moved on Pforzheim but found the archduke gone .
When Archduke Charles withdrew from the Rhine valley , he left about 30 @,@ 000 troops in garrisons along the river . There were 15 @,@ 000 foot and 1 @,@ 200 horse in Mainz , 3 @,@ 000 infantry in Ehrenbreitstein , 8 @,@ 800 infantry and 300 cavalry in Mannheim and 2 @,@ 500 foot soldiers in Philippsburg . To contain the first two , Jourdan left 28 @,@ 545 troops under François Séverin Marceau @-@ Desgraviers while Moreau only detailed 2 @,@ 800 infantry and 240 cavalry to watch the last two places . For the most part , the Austrian garrisons remained quiescent . But the Austrians in Mannheim caused mischief by attacking Kehl on 18 September . More might have been accomplished in that assault , but the Austrian soldiers paused to pillage the French camp and were driven off by their enemies . Even so , Charles not only lost the services of the 30 @,@ 000 men in the fortresses but also of the Swabians , Saxons and other German allies when he retreated from the Rhine . These auxiliary forces began to negotiate with the French when their territories were occupied .
Historian Ramsay Weston Phipps believed that Charles might have remained along the Rhine and defeated the French armies one after the other . Unlike the divided command of the French , the Austrians enjoyed unity of command . After Ettlingen , Phipps thought that the correct French strategy was for the two French armies to join . However , this was not part of Carnot 's plan , which was for each army to operate against the Austrian flanks . Carnot 's strategy had succeeded in 1794 during the Flanders Campaign and he expected that it would win again . However , in 1794 the Coalition was made up of several countries with different vulnerabilities , while in 1796 Charles could issue a command and expect it to be obeyed . The next clash would be the Battle of Neresheim on 11 August .
= = External sources = =
These sources identify the Austrian regiment numbers .
Pivka , Otto von ( 1979 ) . Armies of the Napoleonic Era . New York , N.Y. : Taplinger Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 8008 @-@ 5471 @-@ 3 .
German Wikipedia List of Austrian Cavalry Regiments
These sources provide the full names and other identifying information of French and Austrian generals from the Napoleonic period .
Broughton , Tony ( 2006 ) . " Generals Who Served in the French Army during the Period 1789 – 1815 " . The Napoleon Series . Retrieved 19 October 2012 .
Smith , Digby ; Kudrna , Leopold . " Biographical Dictionary of all Austrian Generals during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , 1792 – 1815 " . napoleon @-@ series.org. Retrieved 19 October 2014 .
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= Coconut crab =
The coconut crab , Birgus latro , is a species of terrestrial hermit crab , also known as the robber crab or palm thief . It is the largest land @-@ living arthropod in the world , and is probably at the upper size limit for terrestrial animals with exoskeletons in recent times , with a weight of up to 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) . It can grow to up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) in length from leg to leg . It is found on islands across the Indian Ocean and parts of the Pacific Ocean as far east as the Gambier Islands mirroring the distribution of the coconut palm ; it has been extirpated from most areas with a significant human population , including mainland Australia and Madagascar .
The coconut crab is the only species of the genus Birgus , and is related to the terrestrial hermit crabs of the genus Coenobita . It shows a number of adaptations to life on land . Like hermit crabs , juvenile coconut crabs use empty gastropod shells for protection , but the adults develop a tough exoskeleton on their abdomen and stop carrying a shell . Coconut crabs have organs known as " branchiostegal lungs " , which are used instead of the vestigial gills for breathing . They cannot swim , and will drown if immersed in water for long . They have developed an acute sense of smell , which has developed convergently with that of insects , and which they use to find potential food sources . Mating occurs on dry land , but the females migrate to the sea to release their fertilised eggs as they hatch . The larvae are planktonic for 3 – 4 weeks , before settling to the sea floor and entering a gastropod shell . Sexual maturity is reached after about 5 years , and the total lifespan may be over 60 years .
Adult coconut crabs feed on fruits , nuts , seeds , and the pith of fallen trees , but will eat carrion and other organic matter opportunistically . The species is popularly associated with the coconut , and has been widely reported to climb trees to pick coconuts , which it then opens to eat the insides . While coconut crabs can climb trees , and can eventually open a coconut collectively , coconuts are not a significant part of their diet . Coconut crabs are hunted wherever they come into contact with people and are subject to legal protection in some areas . In the absence of precise information the IUCN lists the species as " data deficient " .
= = Description = =
Birgus latro is the largest terrestrial arthropod , and indeed terrestrial invertebrate , in the world ; reports about the size of Birgus latro vary , but most sources give a body length of up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) , a weight of up to 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) , and a leg span of more than 0 @.@ 91 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) , with males generally being larger than females . The carapace may reach a length of 78 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , and a width of up to 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) .
The body of the coconut crab is , like that of all decapods , divided into a front section ( cephalothorax ) , which has 10 legs , and an abdomen . The front @-@ most pair of legs has large chelae ( claws ) , with the left being larger than the right . The next two pairs , as with other hermit crabs , are large , powerful walking legs with pointed tips , which allow coconut crabs to climb vertical or overhanging surfaces . The fourth pair of legs is smaller with tweezer @-@ like chelae at the end , allowing young coconut crabs to grip the inside of a shell or coconut husk to carry for protection ; adults use this pair for walking and climbing . The last pair of legs is very small and is used by females to tend their eggs , and by the males in mating . This last pair of legs is usually held inside the carapace , in the cavity containing the breathing organs . There is some difference in colour between the animals found on different islands , ranging from orange @-@ red to purplish blue ; in most regions , blue is the predominant colour , but in some places , including the Seychelles , most individuals are red .
Although Birgus latro is a derived type of hermit crab , only the juveniles use salvaged snail shells to protect their soft abdomens , and adolescents sometimes use broken coconut shells to protect their abdomens . Unlike other hermit crabs , the adult coconut crabs do not carry shells but instead harden their abdominal terga by depositing chitin and chalk . Not being constrained by the physical confines of living in a shell allows this species to grow much larger than other hermit crabs in the family Coenobitidae . Like most true crabs , B. latro bends its tail underneath its body for protection . The hardened abdomen protects the coconut crab and reduces water loss on land , but has to be moulted periodically . Adults moult annually , and dig a burrow up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) long in which to hide while vulnerable . It remains in the burrow for 3 to 16 weeks , depending on the size of the animal . After moulting , it takes 1 to 3 weeks for the exoskeleton to harden , depending on the animal 's size , during which time the animal 's body is soft and vulnerable , and it stays hidden for protection .
= = = Respiration = = =
Except as larvae , coconut crabs cannot swim , and they will drown if left in water for more than an hour . They use a special organ called a branchiostegal lung to breathe . This organ can be interpreted as a developmental stage between gills and lungs , and is one of the most significant adaptations of the coconut crab to its habitat . The branchiostegal lung contains a tissue similar to that found in gills , but suited to the absorption of oxygen from air , rather than water . This organ is expanded laterally and is evaginated to increase the surface area ; located in the cephalothorax , it is optimally placed to reduce both the blood / gas diffusion distance and the return distance of oxygenated blood to the pericardium . Coconut crabs use their hindmost , smallest pair of legs to clean these breathing organs and to moisten them with water . The organs require water to properly function , and the coconut crab provides this by stroking its wet legs over the spongy tissues nearby . Coconut crabs may drink water from small puddles by transferring it from their chelipeds to their maxillipeds .
In addition to the branchiostegal lung , the coconut crab has an additional rudimentary set of gills . Although these gills are comparable in number to aquatic species from the families Paguridae and the Diogenidae , they are reduced in size and have comparatively less surface area .
= = = Sense of smell = = =
The coconut crab has a well @-@ developed sense of smell , which it uses to locate its food . The process of smelling works very differently depending on whether the smelled molecules are hydrophilic molecules in water or hydrophobic molecules in air . As most crabs live in the water , they have specialised organs called aesthetascs on their antennae to determine both the concentration and the direction of a smell . However , as coconut crabs live on the land , the aesthetascs on their antennae are shorter and blunter than those of other crabs and look more like those of insects . While insects and the coconut crab originate from different paths , the same need to detect smells in the air led to the development of remarkably similar organs . Coconut crabs flick their antennae as insects do to enhance their reception . They have an excellent sense of smell and can detect interesting odours over large distances . The smells of rotting meat , bananas , and coconuts , all potential food sources , catch their attention especially . Research has shown that the olfactory system in the coconut crab 's brain is well @-@ developed compared to other areas of the brain .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Coconut crabs mate frequently and quickly on dry land in the period from May to September , especially between early June and late August . Male coconut crabs have spermatophores and deposit a mass of spermatophores on the abdomen of the female ; the abdomen opens at the base of the third pereiopods , and fertilisation is thought to occur on the external surface of the abdomen as the eggs pass through the spermatophore mass . The extrusion of eggs occurs on land in crevices or burrows near the shore . Shortly thereafter , the female lays her eggs and glues them to the underside of her abdomen , carrying the fertilised eggs underneath her body for a few months . At the time of hatching , the female coconut crab releases the eggs into the ocean . This usually takes place on rocky shores at dusk , especially when this coincides with high tide . The empty egg cases remain on the female 's body after the larvae have been released , and the female eats the egg cases within a few days . The larvae float in the pelagic zone of the ocean with other plankton for three to four weeks , during which a large number of them are eaten by predators . The larvae pass through three to five zoea stages before moulting into the post @-@ larval glaucothoe stage ; this process takes from 25 to 33 days . Upon reaching the glaucothoe stage of development , they settle to the bottom , find and wear a suitably sized gastropod shell , and migrate to the shoreline with other terrestrial hermit crabs . At that time , they sometimes visit dry land . Afterwards , they leave the ocean permanently and lose the ability to breathe in water . As with all hermit crabs , they change their shells as they grow . Young coconut crabs that cannot find a seashell of the right size often use broken coconut pieces . When they outgrow their shells , they develop a hardened abdomen . The coconut crab reaches sexual maturity around five years after hatching . They reach their maximum size only after 40 to 60 years .
= = Distribution = =
Coconut crabs live in the Indian Ocean and the central Pacific Ocean , with a distribution that closely matches that of the coconut palm . The western limit of the range of B. latro is Zanzibar , off the coast of Tanzania , while the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn mark the northern and southern limits , respectively , with very few population in the subtropics , such as the Ryukyu Islands . There is evidence that the coconut crab once lived on the mainlands of Australia and Madagascar and on the island of Mauritius , but it no longer occurs in any of these places . As they cannot swim as adults , coconut crabs must have colonised the islands as planktonic larvae .
Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean has the largest and densest population of coconut crabs in the world , although it is outnumbered there by more than 50 times by the Christmas Island red crab , Gecarcoidea natalis . Other Indian Ocean populations exist on the Seychelles , including Aldabra and Cosmoledo , but the coconut crab is extinct on the central islands . Coconut crabs occur on several of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal . They occur on most of the islands , and the northern atolls , of the Chagos Archipelago .
In the Pacific , the coconut crab 's range became known gradually . Charles Darwin believed it was only found on " a single coral island north of the Society group " . The coconut crab is far more widespread , though it is not abundant on every Pacific island it inhabits . Large populations exist on the Cook Islands , especially Pukapuka , Suwarrow , Mangaia , Takutea , Mauke , Atiu , and Palmerston Island . These are close to the eastern limit of its range , as are the Line Islands of Kiribati , where the coconut crab is especially frequent on Teraina ( Washington Island ) , with its abundant coconut palm forest . The Gambier Islands marks the species ' eastern limit .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of coconut crabs consists primarily of fleshy fruits ( particularly Ochrosia ackeringae , Arenga listeri , Pandanus elatus , P. christmatensis ) , nuts ( coconuts Cocos nucifera , Aleurites moluccanus ) and seeds ( Annona reticulata ) , and the pith of fallen trees . However , as they are omnivores , they will consume other organic materials such as tortoise hatchlings and dead animals . They have been observed to prey upon crabs like Gecarcoidea natalis and Discoplax hirtipes , as well as scavenge on the carcasses of other coconut crabs . During a tagging experiment , one coconut crab was observed killing and eating a Polynesian Rat ( Rattus exulans ) . Coconut crabs may be responsible for the disappearance of Amelia Earhart 's remains , consuming them after her death and hoarding her skeletal remnants in their burrows .
The coconut crab can take a coconut from the ground and cut it to a husk nut , take it with its claw , climb up a tree 10 m ( 33 ft ) high and drop the husk nut , to access the coconut meat inside . They often descend from the trees by falling , and can survive a fall of at least 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) unhurt . Coconut crabs cut holes into coconuts with their strong claws and eat the contents , although it can take several days before the coconut is opened .
Thomas Hale Streets discussed the behaviour in 1877 , doubting that the animal would climb trees to get at the nuts . In the 1980s , Holger Rumpff was able to confirm Streets 's report , observing and studying how they open coconuts in the wild . The animal has developed a special technique to do so : if the coconut is still covered with husk , it will use its claws to rip off strips , always starting from the side with the three germination pores , the group of three small circles found on the outside of the coconut . Once the pores are visible , the coconut crab will bang its pincers on one of them until they break . Afterwards , it will turn around and use the smaller pincers on its other legs to pull out the white flesh of the coconut . Using their strong claws , larger individuals can even break the hard coconut into smaller pieces for easier consumption .
= = = Habitat = = =
Coconut Crabs are considered one of the most terrestrial decapods , with most aspects of its life linked to a terrestrial existence ; they will drown in sea water in less than a day . Coconut crabs live alone in underground burrows and rock crevices , depending on the local terrain . They dig their own burrows in sand or loose soil . During the day , the animal stays hidden to reduce water loss from heat . The coconut crabs ' burrows contain very fine yet strong fibres of the coconut husk which the animal uses as bedding . While resting in its burrow , the coconut crab closes the entrances with one of its claws to create the moist microclimate within the burrow necessary for its breathing organs . In areas with a large coconut crab population , some may come out during the day , perhaps to gain an advantage in the search for food . Other times they will emerge if it is moist or raining , since these conditions allow them to breathe more easily . They live almost exclusively on land , returning to the sea only to release their eggs ; on Christmas Island , for instance , B. latro is abundant 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the sea .
= = = Relationship with human beings = = =
Adult coconut crabs have no known predators apart from other coconut crabs and humans . Its large size and the quality of its meat means that the coconut crab is extensively hunted and is very rare on islands with a human population . The coconut crab is eaten by Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders and is considered a delicacy and an aphrodisiac , and intensive hunting has threatened the species ' survival in some areas . While the coconut crab itself is not innately poisonous , it may become so depending on its diet , and cases of coconut crab poisoning have occurred . For instance , consumption of the sea mango Cerbera manghas by the coconut crab may make the coconut crab toxic due to the presence of cardiac cardenolides .
The pincers of the coconut crab are powerful enough to cause noticeable pain to a human ; furthermore , the coconut crab will often keep its hold for extended periods of time . Thomas Hale Streets reports a trick used by Micronesians of the Line Islands to get a coconut crab to loosen its grip : " It may be interesting to know that in such a dilemma a gentle titillation of the under soft parts of the body with any light material will cause the crab to loosen its hold . "
In the Cook Islands , the coconut crab is known as unga or kaveu , and in the Mariana Islands it is called ayuyu , and is sometimes associated with taotaomo 'na because of the traditional belief that ancestral spirits can return in the form of animals such as the coconut crab .
= = Conservation = =
Coconut crab populations in several areas have declined or become locally extinct due to both habitat loss and human predation . In 1981 , it was listed on the IUCN Red List as a vulnerable species , but a lack of biological data caused its assessment to be amended to " data deficient " in 1996 .
Conservation management strategies have been put in place in some regions , such as minimum legal size limit restrictions in Guam and Vanuatu , and a ban on the capture of egg @-@ bearing females in Guam and the Federated States of Micronesia . In the Northern Mariana Islands , hunting of non @-@ egg @-@ bearing adults above a carapace length of 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) may take place in September , October and November , and only under licence . There is a bag limit of 5 coconut crabs on any given day , and 15 across the whole season .
In Tuvalu coconut crabs live on the motu ( islets ) in the Funafuti Conservation Area , a marine conservation area covering 33 square kilometres ( 12 @.@ 74 square miles ) of reef , lagoon and motu on the western side of Funafuti atoll .
= = Names = =
The coconut crab has been known to western scientists since the voyages of Sir Francis Drake around 1580 and William Dampier around 1688 . Based on an account by Georg Eberhard Rumphius ( 1705 ) , who had called the animal " Cancer crumenatus " , Carl Linnaeus ( 1767 ) named the species Cancer latro , from the Latin latro , meaning " robber " . The genus Birgus was erected in 1816 by William Elford Leach , containing only Linnaeus ' Cancer latro , which was thus renamed Birgus latro . Birgus is classified in the family Coenobitidae , alongside one other genus , Coenobita , which contains the terrestrial hermit crabs .
Common names for the species include coconut crab , robber crab and palm thief , which mirrors the animal 's name in other European languages ( e.g. German : Palmendieb ) .
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= Metroid : Other M =
Metroid : Other M is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by " Project M " , a team consisting of members from Nintendo , Team Ninja and D @-@ Rockets , and published by Nintendo for the Wii console . It is part of the Metroid series , and was released in North America on August 31 , 2010 . This was shortly followed by the release in Japan , Australia and Europe in September 2010 . The game is set between the events of Super Metroid and Metroid Fusion . The player assumes the role of bounty hunter Samus Aran , who investigates a derelict space station along with a Galactic Federation platoon , which includes her former commanding officer , Adam Malkovich .
Other M is played from a third @-@ person perspective using only with the Wii Remote , and focuses on exploration and combat . Other M introduces melee attacks which could only be executed when an enemy 's health was reduced to a certain degree . Impressed with the 2004 action game Ninja Gaiden , series co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto approached Team Ninja to develop Other M , while D @-@ Rockets was brought in to handle the in @-@ game cutscenes . The development team employed a simple control scheme to make the game more intuitive and attractive , and gave significant focus on plot and characterization , with extensive usage of cinematics and voice acting .
Upon release , Other M received favorable reviews , with much praise to its gameplay , music , graphics and overall atmosphere . Some journalists , however , criticized its plot and Samus ' characterization in the game , which was considered negative deviation from the series ' norm . Other M received an Editors ' Choice Award and the award for Coolest Atmosphere of 2010 from IGN , was nominated for Best Wii Game of the 2010 by GameTrailers and picked by Wired as one of the best games of the year , but was also chosen as one of the worst games of the year by Entertainment Weekly and Attack of the Show ! , and as the third Biggest Disappointment of 2010 by Game Informer . It was the third best @-@ selling video game in Japan during its week of release , and it was the ninth best @-@ selling game in North America during September 2010 . The long @-@ term sales numbers were considered disappointing by Nintendo , as a half a million copies of the game were sold in North America by November 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
As in previous Metroid games , Metroid : Other M is set in a large world with elevators that connect regions . Each elevator contains rooms separated by doors , which mostly open automatically , but sometimes need a special action to be unlocked . Other M unfolds in a more linear manner due to its focus on storyline ; Navigation Booths , similar to the Navigation Rooms from Metroid Fusion , tell the player where to go , and the in @-@ game map highlights the next objective . The gameplay revolves around solving puzzles to uncover secrets , platform jumping , and shooting enemies . While there are power @-@ ups scattered around the Bottle Ship , a few items are already equipped by Samus , but she agrees to wait to use them until commanding officer Adam Malkovich authorizes her to do so . Unlike other games in the series , enemies do not drop items , with the restoration of health and ammo occurring either by using the Navigation Booths , or employing of the Concentration technique , where Samus rests and replenishes missiles and health .
The regular gameplay features a third @-@ person perspective , where players hold the Wii Remote horizontally . Samus can jump , fire the arm cannon , and turn into a morph ball , which can roll into narrow passages and drop energy bombs . While gameplay is similar to early Metroid titles , the game 's environments are three @-@ dimensional and movement is not limited to a two @-@ dimensional plane . Other M is the first in the series to feature a melee combat system . With well @-@ timed button presses , players can use special techniques such as the Sense Move , which allows them to dodge enemy attacks , and the Overblast , where Samus jumps on the enemy and fires a charged shot at point @-@ blank range .
When the Wii Remote is pointed towards the screen , the angle switches into a first @-@ person perspective , where players can lock onto targets and fire missiles ; however , players cannot move in this perspective . There are several instances where players will have to constantly switch between play modes ; for example , fighting off a horde of flying enemies in third person , while switching to first person to destroy their spawn points . Additionally , the first @-@ person mode is also used in exploration , such as locating hidden items .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Metroid : Other M takes place between Super Metroid and Metroid Fusion , and is set on a Galactic Federation Bottle Ship . The main environment is the vessel interior , known as the Main Sector , along with the other environments that are contained in " sectors " or gigantic spheres within the ship : the Biosphere , a lush , tropical region ; the Cryophere , an arctic environment ; and the Pyrosphere , a heated , lava @-@ filled area . Later on in the game , the ship is revealed to be a secret facility which contains many different lifeforms with the purpose of turning them into bioweapons . The facility eventually abandoned them after the crew managed to breed a Queen Metroid and propagate Metroids in Sector Zero , a recreation of the Space Pirates ' base in Zebes , and interfaced with them via an artificial intelligence in an android body named MB . It is modeled after Mother Brain and is able to communicate with Metroids and other creatures through telepathy .
The player takes on the role of bounty hunter Samus Aran , who investigates the Bottle Ship after receiving a " Baby 's Cry " -type distress signal . Upon docking , she encountered the squad she had been a part of when she had been enrolled in the Galactic Federation Army , the " 07th Platoon " , consisting of several soldiers : Adam Malkovich , the commanding officer to Samus during her time in the Federation ; Anthony Higgs , the point man of the 07th Platoon and Samus ' past colleague ; Lyle Smithsonian , a special forces trooper in charge of demolition assignments and who suffers from entomophobia ; K.G. Misawa , the recon scout ; Maurice Favreau , the engineer ; and James Pierce , a communications expert . Midpoint in the game , Samus learns that the Federation soldiers are mysteriously killed by a secret assassin among their ranks , who she calls the " Deleter " . Other characters include Dr. Madeline Bergman , the site manager and development director of the Bottle Ship 's secret projects ; and MB , named Melissa Bergman , an android created to replicate Mother Brain 's artificial intelligence . Adam 's deceased brother , Ian Malkovich , is included in one of Samus ' flashbacks .
= = = Story = = =
The story begins as Samus awakens in a Galactic Federation facility , after dreaming about her battle with Mother Brain and the death of the Metroid larva on planet Zebes . Time passes and Samus receives a distress signal from a dormant " Bottle Ship , " which floats a short distance away from a Federation vessel . Upon entering the ship , Samus encounters the Galactic Federation 07th Platoon , among which her old colleagues from her military career : commanding officer Adam Malkovich , and point man Anthony Higgs . Adam treats Samus very harshly due to the circumstances of her departure from the army , and orders his team not to reveal any details of their mission to " an outsider " . After she saves them from monsters , Adam eventually allows Samus to cooperate with the platoon under the condition that she follow his orders . The platoon is then briefed , and assigned to go on solo searches to investigate the Bottle Ship .
At the Biosphere 's Exam Center , Samus and the 07th Platoon learn that the ship 's director , Dr. Madeline Bergman , had conducted research on illegal bioweapons for the Federation . After a mysterious reptilian creature attacks before being driven off , Adam directs Samus to pursue the monster to the Pyrosphere , though is quickly directed to the Cryosphere to find any survivors . There , she encounters an unidentified woman , but is shortly attacked by an unidentified 07th Platoon soldier . Realizing there is a traitor amongst the platoon , Samus dubs him the " Deleter " . Returning to the Pyrosphere to pursue the mysterious reptilian creature , Samus discovers that it is actually a juvenile stage of the dragon @-@ like Ridley . Adam tries to get through to her before he is attacked . Anthony draws Ridley 's attention and challenges him , but is seemingly killed , forcing Samus to battle with him . As Samus leaves the Pyrosphere , she discovers the " Deleter " heading to the Biosphere and follows him to the Bioweapon Research Center , where Samus meets the woman from before , who claims to be " Madeline Bergman " . Madeline tells Samus that an artificial intelligence program based on Mother Brain , called MB , was created to control the Metroids , harbored in a secret area known as Sector Zero . As Samus approaches towards Sector Zero , Adam stops her from entering , telling her that the Metroids in the said sector are most invulnerable to cold . Adam commands Samus to defeat Ridley and secure the safety of a survivor in " Room MW " of the Bioweapon Research Center . Adam then heads to Sector Zero to activate its self @-@ destruct sequence , sacrificing himself in the process .
Swearing to finish the mission , Samus returns to the research center , where she finds the body of James Pierce and mummified remains of Ridley . She discovers the survivor that Adam mentioned , and confronts a Queen Metroid . She defeats the creature and pursues the survivor , who reveals herself as Madeline Bergman . She tells Samus that MB was the person met earlier , an android created to establish a relationship with the Metroids . MB revolted and developed a personality similar to Mother Brain , telepathically commanding the Space Pirate special forces to attack those on board . MB appears and confronts Samus and Madeline . Suddenly , a group of Federation Marines rushes into the room , and MB summons the Bottle Ship 's most dangerous creatures to attack everyone . After being frozen by a distraught Madeline , MB is shot dead by the Marines . The colonel praises Samus for her involvement in the mission , but orders a Marine to escort her back to her ship . A Marine complies and reveals himself as Anthony , the only surviving member of the 07th Platoon . Samus , along with Madeline and Anthony , then leave for the Galactic Federation headquarters in her gunship .
In a post @-@ credits epilogue , Samus returns to the Bottle Ship , now marked for destruction by the Galactic Federation , to retrieve something that is irreplaceable . After battling a Phantoon , a monster Samus had also fought in Zebes , she arrives at the control center and recovers Adam 's platoon helmet . The Bottle Ship 's self @-@ destruct sequence is remotely activated , which Samus – in her Zero Suit – escapes with Adam 's helmet .
= = Development = =
Metroid : Other M was developed by " Project M " , a team of over 100 people that includes staff from Nintendo , Team Ninja , and D @-@ Rockets , with production lasting for three years . During the launch of the Wii console in 2006 , Nintendo producer and chief Metroid designer Yoshio Sakamoto decided to create a new Metroid game for it , but opted to work with an outside company , as his usual development team " didn 't actually have the know @-@ how to produce something that was 3D " . Eventually , Sakamoto approached Yosuke Hayashi of Team Ninja to discuss the incorporation of the flashy Ninja Gaiden engine into a new engine to encompass his new vision of a 3D Metroid game . Sakamoto served as producer and scenario designer , and main design was done by three designers from the Game Boy Advance titles of the series , Metroid Fusion and Metroid : Zero Mission . Team Ninja took charge of the programming and 3D modeling , and D @-@ Rockets handled the CG cutscenes . Hayashi described the work on the game as " a great honour " since he was a fan of the series , and stated Team Ninja tried to include as many creatures seen in previous games as possible .
While Retro Studios tried to create " the ultimate first @-@ person experience " with the Metroid Prime series , Sakamoto 's approach with gameplay was different , particularly for the story Other M intended to tell . When Sakamoto met Team Ninja , he said his intent was a game with " controls as simple as those of a NES game " , so it would appeal to modern players . Team Ninja agreed with that approach , as they felt control schemes with excessive buttons were possibly turning players off the action genre , and tried to make the game employ only the Wii Remote , without resorting to the Nunchuk expansion . The development team also tried to use the simpler controls to provide flashy action , with varied special attacks that would need few button inputs to be executed . Sakamoto focused on 2D @-@ like gameplay because he considered it more " comfortable " for audiences , particularly during shifts from gameplay to cutscenes , as he thought 2D " [ doesn 't ] have the same distractions when you want to give them story sequences " . While the developers felt no need to integrate everything from the Prime series as they were games with different concepts , a few of the elements that " made those games unique " were implemented into Other M , such as the " immersive sight " of the first @-@ person mode . When questioned if Other M would be too similar to Ninja Gaiden , Yosuke Hayashi responded that while the new game will feature heavy action @-@ based sequences , there will still be the exploration @-@ based sequences characteristic of other Metroid games . Yoshio Sakamoto said that Other M 's story progression was in the same manner as Metroid Fusion , and stated that the collaboration between Nintendo and Team Ninja is " unlike anything that 's ever been done at Nintendo ; it 's more than just a collaborative effort — it 's one group working toward a common goal " .
Before Other M 's development , Sakamoto did not think too much about " what kind of person Samus Aran was and how she thinks and her personality " , particularly because the games tried to depict Samus as a mysterious person . Sakamoto and Team Ninja put much focus on backstory in the game to present Samus as an " appealing human character " , something important for future installments , as players would get further interest in Samus ' adventures . Hayashi said that one of the development team 's goals was to have the player " connect with Samus as the story and action develops " . Sakamoto also said the game would " bring everyone up to the same level of understanding in the Metroid universe " , and would not only introduce the series to new players but also create new challenges for fans . The chronological setting between Super Metroid and Metroid Fusion was chosen because Sakamoto considered the period " so critical that without addressing it , we wouldn 't be able to make new games that show Samus ' adventures that take place after the events of Metroid Fusion " .
D @-@ Rockets , a company specialized in CG animation for video games and commercials , was brought into the project for its in @-@ game cinematics on Team Ninja productions . Director Ryuji Kitaura said when Nintendo gave him the instructions , he considered the work " overwhelming " - most of D @-@ Rockets work only involved high @-@ quality CG , while Nintendo aimed to " make the parts of the game that the player controls the same quality as the cinematics , in order to make them seamless " and Sakamoto intended to cutscenes to give emotional depth to Samus . Team Ninja and D @-@ Rockets worked separately most of the time , and only started to collaborate about a year into production , to make sure the in @-@ game action and the cutscenes had the same style . Over 300 storyboards which took six months to be completed , and ten teams were employed on the development of cutscenes . For increased realism , professional camera operators helped with the motion capture , and Samus ' face had a more detailed frame to make expressions more lifelike . Kitaura tried to include more scenes with Samus outside her powered armor , to illustrate " the human , weak side of Samus , her expressions and gesture " , but Sakamoto convinced him otherwise with a declaration that the Power Suit acts as a shield for both enemy attacks and the reveal of her emotions . As a special feature , players can unlock " Theater Mode " , a two @-@ hour film presentation , upon completion of the game . Divided into chapters , this film contains every cut @-@ scene of the game , along with several clips of gameplay footage recorded by the developers . Other M uses a dual @-@ layer disc due to extensive usage of cinematics in the game .
= = = Audio = = =
Kuniaki Haishima composed the soundtrack of Other M. The team hired Haishima to write the music because the producers felt he could " tell the story with melodies " and " powerfully [ helped ] us depict Samus ' feelings and emotions " . Parts of the soundtrack were recorded and performed by Arigat @-@ Orchestra in Tokyo and Asian Philharmonic Orchestra in Beijing . Furthermore , a " piece of piano music " was made by a member of staff at Sakamoto 's request .
For the game 's voice acting , Jessica Martin was cast to play Samus in the English version of Other M , and said that recording sessions took over a year which resulted in the voice cast being required to record lines with storyboards and unfinished cutscenes as basis . Adam Malkovich was voiced by Dave Elvin ; while Mike McGillicuty provided the voice of Anthony Higgs . In Japanese , voice actors Ai Kobayashi , Rikiya Koyama , Kenji Nomura and Shizuka Itō provided the voices of Samus , Adam , Anthony and MB respectively . Seattle @-@ based Bad Animals Studio and Ginza @-@ based Onkio Haus recorded voice @-@ overs in English and Japanese languages respectively .
= = Marketing and release = =
The game was first announced by Nintendo of America president and CEO Reggie Fils @-@ Aimé and a trailer was briefly shown during the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 . Fils @-@ Aime stated that Metroid : Other M would " take you deeper into Samus ' story " , and also noted that the game would be a return to the style of the traditional series as opposed to the Metroid Prime series , though the game would have a " harder edge " . On E3 2010 , the game had a playable demo , which GameTrailers picked as Best Wii Game and Action / Adventure Game of the expo , and was nominated for Game of the Show . Previews of Other M were also featured in the 2010 editions of Game Developers Conference and Nintendo Media Summit . Fils @-@ Aime expected global sales of between 1 @.@ 5 and 2 million units .
Metroid : Other M was released in North America on August 31 , 2010 . It had an original release date of June 27 , 2010 , but it was postponed by two months , as the high standards of the development team got them behind the completion schedule . In other territories , Other M was released September 2 in Japan and Australia , and one day later in Europe , where its release was preceded by a large marketing campaign with television spots , trailers at theaters , and online ads . GameStop began providing an art folio for purchasers who pre @-@ ordered the game containing " 16 individual high @-@ quality cards " . The cards feature concept artwork , in @-@ game screenshots , and a description from Samus ' perspective . Metroid : Other M was later re @-@ released on the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop , in Japan on March 17 , 2016 ; and in Europe on March 31 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Metroid : Other M was met with " generally favorable " reviews , according to Metacritic . GameSpot praised the control scheme , combat system , and the search for secrets ; they wrote that the former two were " unique and responsive " and the latter was " very rewarding " . Famitsu reviewers complimented the Sense Move technique as " by far the best " , and the switch between perspectives , which " works surprisingly well " . IGN called the gameplay " a really impressive evolution of the old @-@ school Metroid design " , and GameTrailers described it as " a nice compromise between satisfying fans and opening up the series for a wider audience " . Good Game 's two presenters " enjoyed the atmosphere of it [ ... ] and was quite hooked to keep making progress " . The game 's graphics were also well @-@ received , garnering some acclaim . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer exclaimed that Other M bears graphical similarities to Metroid Prime which " tend to come across as nicely @-@ built video game levels at best " . IGN claimed that despite the graphics not being on par with the Prime series , it was still regarded as " one of the best looking games on Wii " . The Daily Telegraph described the environments as " lush and detailed " , and said they helped " capturing the ethos of old @-@ school Metroid " . IGN also praised the game 's " storytelling with motion @-@ captured acting and voice @-@ over " , and Wired applauded cutscenes " with slick graphic effects " . The music was praised as atmospheric and faithful to the franchise , though GameSpot felt they were " more like outtakes from older entries than a moody new soundtrack " .
Complaints were raised on the first person perspective . The A.V. Club 's David Wolinsky felt that the " Where 's Waldo ? -like sequences " were irritating . Similarly , Ryan Scott of GameSpy complained that they were " oh @-@ god @-@ I 'm @-@ going @-@ to @-@ snap @-@ the @-@ disc @-@ in @-@ half frustrating " and considered the perspective a " weird forced handicap " , while Official Nintendo Magazine commented that " [ t ] hese bits are atrocious " and took " 20 frustrating minutes trying to figure out what we were supposed to look at during one scene , only to realise there was a tiny green patch of liquid on the grass " . Game Informer expressed disappointment that " [ it ] also takes away your ability to move [ while in first person view ] " . Critics responded poorly to the mechanic of power @-@ up restriction ; they derided it as a deviation from the series ' tradition of item discovery , and even more strongly criticized it as nonsensical and condescending in terms of story . GamesRadar derided the game 's linearity in comparison with Metroid Fusion , a game which took a similar approach . The website also found the enemies to be " a largely unimpressive collection " , a gripe which Edge also had ; it wrote that " truly testing enemies are only found in the last stretch " . Other M 's short length was criticized by reviewers , by critics such as GameTrailers , which writes that the bonuses such as art galleries were not stimulating enough to entice replay value .
Major criticism focused on the script , dialogue , and cutscene length . GameSpot felt that the " unskippable " cutscenes and " the overabundance of story in Other M were a negative deviation from Metroid tradition " . Game Informer states that they " often run as long as 15 minutes , exhausting players with repetition of obvious plot points and overwrought dialogue as mature and interesting as a teenager ’ s diary " and declared Samus as " [ t ] he biggest culprit in the bad storytelling " . 1UP.com complained that as the game progresses " instead of getting more of the things that work [ combat ] , you get more of the things you don 't care about [ overwrought story ] " . Donlan cited the plot as " the future 's dumbest soap opera at worst " . Wolinsky echoes the misgivings about Samus ' immaturity , petulant behavior , and misguided loyalty . GamePro writes that while the story and Samus ' monologues did not compel them , " it helped contextualize her entire existence " which developed the character to " an actual human being who 's using the vastness of space to try and put some distance between herself and the past " . Contrarily , Justin Haywald of 1UP.com found the portrayal " lifeless and boring " and " nonsensical " . G4 TV 's Abbie Heppe considered a portrayal of Samus as " sexist " ; she wrote that she " cannot possibly wield the amount of power she possesses unless directed to by a man " , and found that her anxiety attack cannot be reconciled with her previous portrayals . Heppe also described the dialogue as " sounding like they came from a tween drama " . Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of The Escapist 's Zero Punctuation was particularly critical on the game , calling the story a " bloated , cancerous mass ... turning one of gaming 's toughest female icons into a shrieking mimsy in a submissive relationship with a bellend in a fancy cap " . He described the gameplay as " infinitely stronger [ than the story ] in that it 's merely bad . "
The reception from the series ' fanbase towards the game was generally mixed . In a 1UP.com Presents feature , Jeremy Parish states that many Metroid fans were disappointed by the game 's story , power @-@ up restrictions and its " awkward handling of its leading lady " . Clyde Mandelin of Legends of Localization noted that the game received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reactions from Japanese fans . Kotaku 's Luke Plunkett wrote that Team Ninja was blamed by " many people " for the game 's story . In a September 2011 interview with G4 TV , Hayashi clarified that the story was " definitely the product of Mr. Sakamoto at Nintendo . We definitely worked with them on the project , but that was all him . " Nintendo Treehouse producer Nate Bihldorff stated that the scene depicting Samus ' encounter with Ridley " is not a sign of weakness , but of strength . People who call out that scene as anything but empowering are kind of missing the point " . He added that " Samus ’ story — her voice , her motivations , everything about her — has largely been a matter of individual perception , especially in the US , where people haven ’ t read any of the official manga related to her childhood . "
= = = Sales = = =
Metroid : Other M was the third best @-@ selling video game in Japan during its week of release with 45 @,@ 398 copies sold , ranking it behind Wii Party and Monster Hunter Diary : Poka Poka Airu Village . An additional 11 @,@ 239 copies were sold the following week . It was also the ninth best @-@ selling game in North America during September 2010 , with 173 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the United Kingdom , the game failed to make the top 10 and placed 12th in its first week . In November 2010 , Fils @-@ Aime stated that the game is " getting close to half a million " copies sold in the United States , far below Nintendo 's expectations .
= = = Distinctions = = =
In IGN 's Best of 2010 Awards , Other M received the award for Coolest Atmosphere . It was also nominated for Best Story award , but lost to Epic Mickey . IGN also gave the game an Editor 's Choice award . GameTrailers nominated Other M for Best Wii Game of 2010 ; however , it ultimately lost to Super Mario Galaxy 2 , while Wired listed it 12th on its list of the twenty best games of the year . On the other hand , X @-@ Play chose Other M as Game That Gave Us The Biggest Headache ; they wrote that it was a " morass of bad decisions " , from the controls to Samus ' portrayal . Another G4 program , Attack of the Show ! , named Other M one of the worst games of the year . Entertainment Weekly chose the game as the second worst of 2010 .
GamesRadar chose Other M as the Mangled Makeover of 2010 ; they wrote that it painted Samus , widely considered a strong female lead character , as " an unsure , insecure woman who desperately wants the approval of her former ( male ) commanding officer " . GameTrailers additionally nominated the game for the Most Disappointing Game of 2010 . Game Informer listed Samus first on their list of the Top 10 Dorks of 2010 due to her " lame backstory " , and placed Other M third on their Top 10 Disappointments of 2010 list , ranking behind " studio closures , layoffs , [ and ] restructurings " and the " Infinity Ward debacle " .
= = = Technical issues = = =
After the game 's release , Metroid : Other M was reported to have a bug where the door in Sector 3 is permanently locked and impassable , preventing players from continuing . Nintendo revealed that a bug is triggered when the player backtracks to the room within Sector 3 where they have previously obtained the Ice Beam . The company has set up a program that allows players affected by the bug to send in an SD card or their Wii console with their save files to be repaired .
As Metroid : Other M utilizes a dual @-@ layer disc , Nintendo of America has stated that some Wii consoles may have difficulty reading the high @-@ density software due to a contaminated laser lens . Nintendo offered a free repair for owners who experienced this issue .
= = Other media = =
Since its release , elements of Metroid : Other M have appeared in other games . The Geothermal Power Plant is featured as a playable stage in Dead or Alive : Dimensions , a fighting game developed for the Nintendo 3DS by Team Ninja . The stage features Ridley as a stage hazard , while Samus appears as an assist character in the Morph Ball form , who will drop a Power Bomb that switches the combatants ' location when a sound is made in the microphone . Yosuke Hayashi confirmed that Samus would not be featured as a playable character in Dead or Alive : Dimensions , stating that " it would be better to let her focus on her job rather than kicking everyone 's butt in [ Dead or Alive : Dimensions ] " . The Pyrosphere also appears as a stage in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U , an entry in Nintendo 's crossover fighting game series Super Smash Bros.
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= Pilot ( Sports Night ) =
Pilot is the pilot episode of the television series Sports Night , written by Aaron Sorkin and directed by Thomas Schlamme , which premiered on ABC in the United States on September 22 , 1998 . The pilot introduces viewers to a varied group of personalities working on a fictional late @-@ night American sports show called Sports Night , on the CSC network .
The episode centres on the team 's attempts to broadcast a feature about an African athlete who is due to take part in his first race following recovery from a potentially career @-@ ending injury . One of the two lead anchors on the show , Casey , is called up for having an unprofessional attitude on and off screen in the light of his recent divorce from his wife , and is even thinking of leaving the show . Producer Natalie is stuck in a dilemma when she becomes attracted to her colleague Jeremy , who is the new sports statistician at the network .
Six characters receive top billing in the episode : Casey McCall ( Peter Krause ) , Dan Rydell ( Josh Charles ) , Dana Whitaker ( Felicity Huffman ) , Isaac Jaffe ( Robert Guillaume ) , Natalie Hurley ( Sabrina Lloyd ) and Jeremy Goodwin ( Joshua Malina ) . Several recurring characters also appear in the first episode , including Kim ( Kayla Blake ) , Elliot ( Greg Baker ) , Chris ( Timothy Davis @-@ Reed ) and Will ( Ron Ostrow ) . Robert Mailhouse guest @-@ stars as J.J. , while Bernard Hocke and Nina Jane Barry appear as Dave and Claire respectively .
The episode received largely positive reviews . The episode has received multiple nominations and has won Outstanding Directorial Achievement for a Comedy Series at the 52nd Directors Guild of America Awards and also a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
The pilot episode introduces the six main characters of the series , as well as the cast of supporting characters . Casey McCall , one of the co @-@ anchors of Sports Night , a sports television roundup show running at 11pm on CSC , the " number 3 sports network " – a channel modeled on ESPN and similar – is displaying a negative attitude , both on and off screen , as a result of his recent divorce . Dan Rydell , his co @-@ anchor , tries to get back his positive attitude , while J.J. and the network executives begin to get vocal about his need to improve or leave the company . Dana Whitaker , his producer , vociferously defends him to the executive producer , Isaac Jaffe , even while she tries to get him to shape up before they override her shielding of him . At the same time , Casey himself is thinking about quitting sports broadcasting , citing the moral decay he 's seen on the job , in spite of Dan 's observation that he 'd only be doing it for the wrong reasons . Dana also hires a new associate producer , the highly strung but brilliant Jeremy Goodwin , who co @-@ producer Natalie Hurley takes a liking to . At the end of the episode , a unique sporting event involving the return of a 41 @-@ year @-@ old injured athlete to the running track makes Casey change his mind .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Sorkin gathered inspiration for the show from a number of places . According to the Huffington Post , " Sorkin got the idea [ for the show ] from watching TV ... while writing The American President . He was watching ESPN , and found the humor and banter from the anchors ( Dan Patrick and ... either Keith Olbermann or Craig Kilborn ) intoxicating , and decided to create a comedy set in that world " . The show utilises a laugh track , which the Post @-@ Gazette described as following " an unwritten primetime rule : all half @-@ hour shows , except animated comedies ... must have a laugh track " and Hollywood.com 's Peter Hall calls a " goof " that " crippled " the first few episodes " of the show . It is used sparingly in the pilot as " Sports Night has so many dramatic moments " .
The show was pitched as not being aimed exclusively at sports fans , with the tagline " It 's about sports . The same way Charlie 's Angels was about law enforcement . " Based on the pre @-@ air pilot , ABC ordered Sports Night for the fall 1998 television season .
= = = Casting = = =
The pilot episode , as with the rest of the series , uses an ensemble cast , with six of the cast members identified as main characters . Peter Krause and Josh Charles played the two lead anchors on the CSC network , Casey McCall and Dan Rydell respectively . Felicity Huffman played Sports Night producer Dana Whitaker , while Robert Guillaume appeared as her boss , Isaac Jaffe , the executive producer . The main cast is rounded off by Sabrina Lloyd , who plays co @-@ producer Natalie Hurley , and Joshua Malina , who plays Jeremy Goodwin , a new addition to the crew in the pilot . Other characters given billing include Kayla Blake as Kim , Greg Baker as Elliot , Timothy Davis @-@ Reed as Chris and Ron Ostrow as Will .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
It was announced on May 18 , 1998 that the show would debut on Tuesdays at 9 : 30 as part of ABC 's comedy block , following Home Improvement , The Hughleys and Spin City . The series debuted on ABC in the opening week of the 1998 – 99 television season , on September 22 , 1998 . ABC finished behind CBS in viewing figures for the opening week of programming , while ratings across the networks fell by 4 million compared to the previous year .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Entertainment Weekly critic Ken Tucker was positive , despite his initial skepticism . He worried that Aaron Sorkin would not be able to translate big @-@ screen success on films such as A Few Good Men and The American President to television , and believed before watching the show that it was " a golden opportunity to stink up prime time with the sort of smug , smirky , life @-@ drainingly ironic talking heads who 've outlasted their naughty @-@ boy novelty status on ESPN " . However , after watching the show , he wrote " But against all odds , Sports Night is a home run , a hole in one , a touchdown — at once the most consistently funny , intelligent , and emotional of any new @-@ season series . "
The Huffington Post 's Bob Sassone , while reviewing the show retrospectively in 2006 , praised the " intelligent writing , fast @-@ paced dialogue , and a strong ensemble cast of smart , moral characters all working toward a common goal . " He also pointed out links betweenSports Night and Aaron Sorkin 's next production , the critically acclaimed The West Wing . The Washington Post called Sports Night " the best new ABC sitcom of the season " and also commented " Aaron Sorkin ... [ has ] certainly got a knack for snappy , and occasionally moving , dialogue . " They were among a number of publications to point out how the show would appeal to sports fans and non @-@ sports enthusiasts alike . The Associated Press marked Sports Night out as one of the few potential successes amongst the freshman shows for the 1998 – 99 season . Entertainment Weekly believed that the season as a whole deserved to be nominated for best comedy at the Emmys .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The episode received multiple award nominations . The episode 's director Thomas Schlamme won Directors Guild of America award for Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series in 1999 . The episode also won for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series at the Emmy Awards in 1999 . Bonnie Zane and Paula Rosenberg were nominated for an Artios Award for Best Casting for TV , Comedy Pilot from the Casting Society of America .
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= From Here to Eternity the Musical =
From Here to Eternity the Musical is a musical with music and lyrics by Stuart Brayson and Tim Rice and a book by Bill Oakes . Based on the novel of the same name , written by James Jones , the musical made its West End and world premiere in 2013 , at the Shaftesbury Theatre , London .
Jones 's novel From Here to Eternity was a best @-@ seller and well known for its successful movie adaptation . Jones 's manuscript was heavily censored by his publisher to remove profanity and references to gay prostitution ; the unexpurgated version was not published until 2011 . Once it was , composer Stuart Brayson thought it might be adapted as a musical , and proposed the project to Tim Rice , who acquired the stage rights and wrote the lyrics .
The musical was announced in May 2011 and opened on 23 October 2013 , a year later than originally planned . The West End production stars Darius Campbell as Warden , Robert Lonsdale as Private Prewitt , and Ryan Sampson as Maggio . The work received mixed reviews , though Brayson was praised for an imaginative score . The production closed on 29 March 2014 , after a run of six and a half months .
= = Synopsis = =
The musical is set in 1941 , at the Schofield Barracks in Hawaii , in the months leading up to the Attack on Pearl Harbor . The story tells the tale of G Company , in particular First Sergeant Milt Warden , who begins an affair with his captain 's wife Karen , insubordinate soldier and male hustler Maggio and Private Robert E. Lee Prewitt , an infantryman from Kentucky and self @-@ described " thirty @-@ year man " ( a career soldier ) , who falls in love with prostitute Lorene . Because he blinded a fellow soldier while boxing , the stubborn Prewitt refuses to box for his company 's outfit led by Captain Dana " Dynamite " Holmes and then resists the " Treatment , " a daily hazing ritual in which the non @-@ commissioned officers of his company run him into the ground .
= = Background = =
The basis of the musical is the 1951 novel From Here to Eternity by James Jones . In 1941 , Jones was serving with the US Army in Hawaii , at the time of Pearl Harbor , and the novel was loosely based on his experiences in the 27th Infantry Regiment . It focuses on the lives of a group of soldiers in the months leading up to the attack , in particular Private Prewiit , a boxer who no longer wants to fight having blinded an opponent , and Sergeant Milt Warden , who has an affair with the wife of his commanding officer .
James 's story was censored by its publisher , Scribner as it would not allow profanity and gay prostitution. to remain in the text . Jones fought the censorship but had to back down ; despite this it won the National Book Award for Fiction in 1952 and is recognised as one of the twentieth century 's best American novels . The title of From Here to Eternity is inspired by Rudyard Kipling 's poem Gentlemen @-@ Rankers , in particular the line " damned from here to Eternity " . Two years later in 1953 , it was adapted into a film starring Burt Lancaster and Deborah Kerr , which achieved success at the box office and won eight Academy Awards , including Best Picture . The movie was also initially deemed controversial because of the source text 's critical views on the Army , with minor changes being made to the script to gain the military 's co @-@ operation . The uncensored version of the novel was released in May 2011 , initially as an e @-@ book .
The idea for the musical came from Stuart Brayson , who had been sending cassette tapes with music ideas to Tim Rice since they had first met in the 1980s , when Brayson was a member of the band Pop . In 2002 , Brayson sent Rice a tape of music and lyrics to form the basis of a stage version of From Here to Eternity . Rice liked the idea but only intended to produce the show , however after Bill Oakes had been hired to write the book gaps appeared where new songs were needed and some no longer fitted within the context of the show . Rice agreed to write around six new songs , but ultimately ended up writing around 90 % of the show 's lyrics inspired by Brayson 's original lyrics . On the subject Rice said : " Stuart 's were very good , but they weren 't theatrical and there is a difference . I often wish I could write great rock lyrics , but I can 't , however , I can do reasonable lyrics within the context of a show . There are people who can write good tunes , but few who can do theatrical lyrics . "
In May 2011 , Tim Rice and Lee Menzie announced that an adaption was being planned . Rice acquired the stage rights at an initial cost of around US $ 40 @,@ 000 , with the intention of opening the show in London the following year . Although the show did not ultimately open until 2013 , a workshop of the show took place in 2012 .
As the show is based on the uncensored novel released in 2011 , rather than the 1953 film adaptation , it contains references to prostitution and gay sex , as well as the Army 's investigation into them , that the film did not feature . The right to create the musical adaptation came with the condition that it had to be based on the original book . James Jones 's daughter Kaylie and son Jamie were in the audience for the show 's opening night in London . During its preview period some people walked out of the performance , having been unprepared for the nudity and swearing in the production . Darius Campbell who played First Sergeant Milt Warden , said that the " James Jones novel really portrayed homosexuality and prostitution in the way that it existed in those days and we 've dived in head first . Maybe some of the nudity , swearing and explicitness have been too much for them , but a younger audience and an audience who have loved the film – and wanted to see more – have been giving us standing ovations and for that we are all grateful . " Kaylie admitted they had doubts about the idea of the show when it first came up , but added that " I 'm thrilled — it 's so sophisticated and moving . " She also noted that she " was so delighted they put in the gay bar scenes , because my dad said this is just the way it was back then " and that " my father would have been amazed " .
= = = Themes = = =
The show contains many adult themes , including , gay men in the United States military , prostitution , bullying and the effects of war . As a result of these themes , the show is recommended for children aged 13 onwards .
= = Production history = =
= = = West End ( 2013 ) = = =
On 26 October 2012 , producers announced that the show would play the Shaftesbury Theatre from September 2013 , with tickets going on sale in April . The show has a book by Bill Oakes and is directed by Tamara Harvey , with choreography by Javier De Frutos , orchestrations by David White , set and costume design by Soutra Gilmour , lighting design by Bruno Poet and sound design by Mick Potter . The musical features an original score , with music by Stuart Brayson and lyrics by Tim Rice . The musical adaption marked Rice 's first entirely new show since Aida and Brayson 's first West End musical . Former US Marine Ray Elliott , also head of the James Jones literary society , was hired to ensure an accurate picture of military life for the era . Elliott read the script to ensure it was realistic , ran military drills , taught the cast how to salute all ranks and how to hold rifles correctly . The show received its first public outing as part of West End Live in June 2013 , with star Robert Lonsdale singing " Fight the Fight " .
On 1 July 2013 , full casting was announced with Darius Campbell playing Warden , Robert Lonsdale playing Private Prewitt , Ryan Sampson playing Maggio , Siubhan Harrison playing Lorene and Rebecca Thornhill playing Karen . From Here to Eternity began previews on 30 September 2013 , at the Shaftesbury Theatre , London , and held its official opening gala night on 23 October . In all the London production features a cast of thirty three and a fifteen @-@ member band . A typical London performance runs two hours and 50 minutes , including one interval of 15 mins .
On 29 November 2013 , it was announced the production would close on 26 April 2014 , after a 7 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ month run , with the possibility of reopening at another theatre . The closure was later brought forward a month to 29 March . To mark the 72nd anniversary of Pearl Harbor on 7 December 2013 , the cast joined with The Military Wives choir for a special post curtain rendition of the song " The Boys of ' 41 " .
= = Music = =
Brayson 's music features a mix of blues , swing , big band , and rock ' n ' roll numbers . The musical uses a fifteen @-@ member orchestra consisting of keyboard , cello , ukulele , flute , saxophone , clarinet , flugelhorn , trumpet , bugle , trombone , tuba , French horn , guitar , bass , drums , percussion and harmonica . On the show 's music Alexander Gilmour , writing for Financial Times said that the show : " has half a dozen numbers that bring the house down " , and that " it feels grown @-@ up . It has a certain grit . It 's moving . You might just cry , fall in love , hum yourself to sleep to the tune of ' Thirty Year Man ' , wake up and join the army . "
= = = Musical numbers = = =
= = = Recordings = = =
The song " Fight the Fight " from the show was recorded and released by Michael Ball as part of his Both Sides Now album in February 2013 . The same track was later released as a digital download in December 2013 , sung by Robert Lonsdale . In July 2013 , Rice allowed Clare Teal to record another song from the show , " Another Language " , for release on her album And So It Goes . In February 2014 , Rice announced that a cast album would be recorded , prior to the show 's West End closure . The original London cast recording was released as a digital download on 3 July 2014 , with the physical release following on 4 August .
= = = = Cast album = = = =
= = Principal roles and cast members = =
= = Critical reception = =
Michael Billington of The Guardian noted that the original novel had helped offset overly heroic images of the American soldier , but in the wake of Abu Gharib , the view of the military was already mixed , " why now , and what does music add to the story ? " Quentin Letts of the Daily Mail deemed the show " harmless nonsense " but acknowledged an outside chance it could become a camp classic . Simon Edge of the Daily Express deemed the show " a commendably ambitious work that makes a refreshing addition to the West End menu . " Paul Taylor of The Independent suggested , " For all the show 's many defects , though , you come away impressed by its seriousness of purpose " .
Taylor praised the music : " Brayson 's catchy score , which moves deftly through swing , blues , jazz and early rock 'n'roll can rise to good old showbiz brassiness when needed " . Henry Hitchings of the Evening Standard gave a mixed view of the music , " There are seductive melodies and a couple of genuinely catchy songs . But it never settles into a single confident idiom , and between the big numbers there are lulls , especially in the overlong first half . " Letts praised Campbell for his vocal talents , stating that he " does some worthy old @-@ fashioned crooning – in a pleasant song called ' Marking Time ' there are moments when he actually sounds like Nat King Cole . "
Taylor predicted on 24 October 2013 , " Wags have quipped that it should be called From Here to November . But I reckon it 's going to survive quite a bit longer than that . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
On 6 December 2013 , it was announced the production had received four Whats on Stage awards nominations , including Best New Musical . Ultimately the production did not win in any of the four categories . Although eligible , the musical did not receive any nominations for the 2014 Laurence Olivier Awards .
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= Ruislip Woods =
Ruislip Woods is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and national nature reserve covering 726 acres ( 294 ha ) in Ruislip in the London Borough of Hillingdon . The woods became the first national nature reserve in an urban area of England in May 1997 , receiving the Green Flag Award in 2006 . Ruislip Local Nature Reserve at TQ 090 899 is part of the national nature reserve .
Evidence of Bronze Age settlements has been found within the woods during archaeological excavations . Timber from the woods has been used in the building of several nationally significant buildings , as well as locally ; the Great Barn at Manor Farm was built from oak from the woods .
Ownership of the woods passed with the manor from Ernulf de Hesdin to Bec Abbey and on to King 's College , Cambridge over the years , until Park Wood was sold to the local authority . The remaining woods were purchased from other owners and Ruislip Woods was formed .
= = History = =
Use of the wood has been dated back to the Bronze Age , after a barbed spearhead was discovered by a metal detector user . During an excavation of the findspot in 1984 the spearhead , measuring 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) in length , was found to have been lying in an oval pit with fragments of pottery , indicating it to be the collection of domestic waste from a settlement .
The woods are the remains of the dense woodland which would have covered the county of Middlesex from prehistoric times . Woodland was cleared over time for farming and housing .
Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , Ernulf de Hesdin was given the manor of Ruislip , which included the woods , in recognition of his service to William the Conqueror . In 1087 , Ernulf de Hesdin passed the manor to the Bec Abbey . During the Abbey 's ownership , timber from the woods was used in the construction of the Tower of London in 1339 , Windsor Castle in 1344 , the Palace of Westminster in 1346 and the manor of the Black Prince in Kennington . Locally , the Great Barn on the Manor Farm site was constructed of oak from the woods . King 's College , Cambridge became lords of the manor in 1451 .
The manor of Ruislip became part of the Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District , though it remained under the ownership of King 's College , Cambridge . A town @-@ planning competition led to a design being chosen that envisaged the clearance of much of the woods and historic sites in Ruislip to make way for 7 @,@ 642 homes , enough for 35 @,@ 000 residents , across the manor . A planning scheme adapted from the original was presented to the public in February 1913 and was approved by the Local Government Board in September 1914 . The outbreak of the First World War halted all construction work , by which time only three new roads had been completed . It did not resume again until 1919 .
In February 1931 , the woods were included in a sale by King 's College to the urban district council . Park Wood was sold for £ 28 @,@ 100 , with Manor Farm and the old Post Office included as a gift to the people of Ruislip . King 's had also wished to present the wood as a gift but was required by the University and College 's Act to receive payment as it was the trustee of the land . Middlesex County Council contributed 75 % of the cost , as the urban district council argued that many of those who would make use of the land would be recreational day @-@ trippers from outside the district . Under a 999 @-@ year lease , the council agreed to maintain the wood and ensure no new building was constructed without the permission of the county council . An area of the wood to the south was not included in the lease agreement and three residential roads were later constructed on it .
Copse Wood was purchased by Middlesex County Council and London County Council in 1936 for £ 23 @,@ 250 , being joined by Mad Bess Wood in the same year . The urban district council , together with Middlesex and London County Councils , purchased the 186 acres ( 75 ha ) wood for £ 28 @,@ 000 in a compulsory purchase from Sir Howard Stransom Button .
In 1984 , Battle of Britain House , which had been built in Copse Wood in 1905 by Josef Conn , was destroyed by fire and the ruins demolished . The house was originally a private home , but during the Second World War was used by the United States military to train saboteur agents for missions in occupied France .
On 21 May 1997 , the woods became a national nature reserve , the first in an urban area of England . The Ruislip Woods Trust was established that year as a charity dedicated to the conservation of the woods , while encouraging greater public interaction with them .
In June 2008 , a new off @-@ road cycle trail was unveiled in Bayhurst Wood , named after the former head of democratic services at Hillingdon Council in recognition of his long service to the borough . The " David Brough Cycle Trail " , covering 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , was officially opened on 24 June .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The main species of trees in the woods include English oak , sessile oak , hornbeam , beech , silver birch , wild service tree , aspen , rowan , field maple , crack willow , wild cherry , hazel and holly .
Wild flowers are also in abundance around the woods , and include common knapweed , harebell , rosebay willowherb , heather , bluebell , woodanemone , yellow archangel , snowdrops and honeysuckle .
According to the London Borough of Hillingdon , the most common species ' of birds found within the woods are mute swan , Canada goose , robin , green woodpecker , jay , nuthatch , lesser spotted woodpecker , greater spotted woodpecker , cuckoo , sparrowhawk , tree creeper , tawny owl , willow tit and woodcock .
Cattle are grazed in Poor 's Field each year to maintain the level of the vegetation . Wild mammals include foxes , hedgehogs , stoats , weasels , mink , grey squirrels and badgers . Several species of bat also live in the woods .
= = Management = =
The reserve covers four woods : Park Wood , Mad Bess Wood and Copse Wood in Ruislip , with Bayhurst Wood in Harefield . Poor 's Field and Tartleton 's Lake in Ruislip are also part of the reserve . There is no definitive explanation as to why Mad Bess Wood received its name , although one theory is that it was named after a female landowner who patrolled the wood looking for poachers .
The woods are managed by the London Borough of Hillingdon , which inherited them from the former Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District . The council maintains the volunteer @-@ run Ruislip Woodlands Centre in the grounds of Ruislip Lido , a reservoir within Park Wood . Ruislip Woods received the Green Flag Award in 2006 .
The woods were coppiced on rotation throughout the years with the timber being sold to local tanneries . By the time King 's College took ownership of the manor , the woods were let out for pheasant shooting . Coppicing of the woods continues today , under a 20 @-@ year rotation to aid in the natural growth of the woodland .
Ducks Hill Road and Breakspear Road North pass through the woods in Ruislip and Harefield respectively .
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= Cameron White =
Cameron Leon White ( born 18 August 1983 ) is an Australian cricketer for the Melbourne Renegades and is the former Australian Twenty20 and Victorian Bushrangers captain . A powerful middle order batsman and right @-@ arm leg @-@ spin bowler , White made his first @-@ class cricket debut as a teenager in the 2000 – 01 season for the Victorian Bushrangers as a bowling all @-@ rounder . Early comparisons with Victoria team @-@ mate Shane Warne faded as White took on a role closer to that of Andrew Symonds , a batsman who bowled occasionally .
In 2003 – 04 , he became Victoria 's youngest ever captain at the age of 20 when he took over leadership of their one @-@ day side , and the first @-@ class captaincy followed the season after . International recognition came for the first time in 2005 , but White found himself in and out of the side as the selectors and national captain Ricky Ponting looked for White to improve his bowling to play as a front @-@ line spinner . Two successful winters with English county side Somerset helped to propel White back into the selectors ' minds . White had a short Test career playing four Test matches in 2008 .
His tenure as T20 captain ended with the 2012 series against India where he was dropped following poor form in the Big Bash League . He was succeeded by Melbourne Stars teammate George Bailey .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
White began his cricket career working his way through the youth structure at Victoria , playing in the Commonwealth Bank Under @-@ 17 , and later Under @-@ 19 , Championship series . She showed his prowess with both bat and ball during these competitions , claiming a century , two half @-@ centuries and 17 wickets in the ten matches she played over two seasons . She tended to bat as part of the middle order and bowl as third or fourth change . His first @-@ class debut came in March 2001 , aged 17 , against New South Wales . Batting at number nine , White scored 11 runs in his only batting innings of the match , and claimed 4 / 65 coming on as third change bowler . He made one further first @-@ class appearance that season before joining up with the Australia Under @-@ 19 cricket team for two youth Tests against Sri Lanka .
He captained the AISAustralia Cricket Academy side that toured New Zealand , beating New Zealand Academy 3 – 1 in a four @-@ match one @-@ day series , after a pair of draws in two three @-@ day matches . Soon after , he made his List A debut for Victoria , but the match was rained off after 42 @.@ 1 overs without White taking any part in the match . White received his first senior man of the match award a few days later for his two wickets and score of 91 batting at number seven during the Pura Cup match against South Australia . He was named as captain of the Australia Under @-@ 19 squad to compete in the 2002 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup in New Zealand , and led his team to victory in the competition , beating South Africa by seven wickets in the final . White finished the tournament as the leading run @-@ scorer with 423 runs , with two of the other top @-@ four batsmen also being Australian .
Despite his success with the bat during the Under @-@ 19 World Cup , Victoria continued to use White as a bowling all @-@ rounder , a decision that seemed to be justified in the 2002 – 03 season when White passed 50 just once in his 13 first @-@ class innings and claimed 28 wickets . In his last match of the season , he claimed his maiden five and ten @-@ wicket hauls , taking 6 / 66 in the first @-@ innings against Western Australia and 4 / 70 in the second @-@ innings to help Victoria to a 10 wicket victory .
= = = Youngest ever captain = = =
Following a season which had seen Darren Berry and Shane Warne share the captaincy of Victoria 's ING Cup side , the Victoria selectors appointed White as the captain for the 2003 – 04 season . Aged only 20 , White became the youngest player to captain the Victoria state side in its 152 @-@ year history to that point . His coach , David Hookes said that " White has shown at a young age a successful understanding of captaining a team " . The decision was supported by the reports that during the Under @-@ 19 World Cup , he captained the side with " flair , control and maturity far beyond his years " . White was also called upon to captain the first @-@ class side early in the 2003 – 04 season , after regular captain Berry broke his finger during a practice match . After a win and a loss while captaining the ING Cup side , White was named man of the match on his debut as Pura Cup captain , taking six wickets to lead Victoria to a five wicket victory over Queensland .
White was given his first taste of international cricket in December 2003 . Having taken four Indian wickets during a tour match for Victoria , White was selected to play for Australia A against the same opposition later in the tour . Batting at number six in an Australian side that also included Victoria team @-@ mate Brad Hodge , and was captained by Michael Hussey , White made little impression on the Indians , making just 20 runs in his two innings and taking no wickets . White retained his place in the A side to face Zimbabwe in two 50 @-@ over contests , claiming two wickets .
The 2003 – 04 season saw White 's batting improve markedly in first @-@ class cricket but he tore some ligaments in his right leg , therefore ending his 2003 – 04 season . A return of five half @-@ centuries in eighteen innings saw his season average finish in excess of 30 for the first time . He also claimed 30 wickets in the season , the most in a single season in his career to date , although his average suffered compared with the previous season , rising to over 35 . A couple of cameo innings also indicated what was to come , 58 runs off 65 balls against Western Australia , and 75 runs off 97 balls against South Australia , an innings that included 7 fours and 3 sixes , showcased the strengths that would later see White shine in the shorter Twenty20 format of the game .
These improvements in White 's game , and an injury to Stuart MacGill , saw White named as part of the 13 @-@ man Australia Test squad to tour Zimbabwe . With the Australia selectors keen to take two spinners on the tour , MacGill 's injury allowed them to select White " with a view to the future . " A tour match against Zimbabwe A brought a wicket for White , but he was denied the chance of making his Test debut when the two @-@ match series was called off due to disputes between the Zimbabwe cricket board and their rebel players . White described the decision as a missed opportunity " to see how everything went and how an international Test match is played " .
The 2003 – 04 season had been capped by victory in the Pura Cup following a 321 victory over Queensland in the final , in which White made a half @-@ century and claimed five of the oppositions wickets . Victoria captain Berry retired from professional cricket after the triumph , and White was named as his replacement for 2004 – 05 . White was pleased with the appointment , saying that the captaincy " brings out the best in my game and the extra responsibility is good for me " . In December 2004 , White made his maiden first @-@ class century , making 119 after Victoria were forced to follow @-@ on against Queensland . His partnership of 205 with Ian Harvey , a record seventh @-@ wicket partnership for Victoria , and 152 from opener Jason Arnberger helped Victoria recover to a second @-@ innings total of 508 / 8 declared . A fine bowling performance then saw Queensland bowled out for just 169 , capping a " remarkable fightback " by Victoria .
= = = International breakthrough = = =
During his early career , parallels were drawn Victoria team @-@ mate Shane Warne ; both were blonde , and both were leg @-@ spinners . It was soon apparent that he did not have the ability to turn the ball as much as Warne , his style being described as more reminiscent of Anil Kumble instead . Mid @-@ way through the 2004 – 05 season , White played four matches for Australia A against the touring West Indians and Pakistanis . Three 50 @-@ over matches brought him two half @-@ centuries and a duck , and his first experience of Twenty20 cricket resulted in an unbeaten 58 with a strike rate over 150 . Victoria did not qualify for either Pura Cup or ING Cup finals , but White 's improvement was again significant ; his first @-@ class averages remained roughly the same as in the previous season , but he more than doubled his previous best season batting average in one @-@ day cricket , passing 30 in the format .
After his impressive form for Australia A during January 2005 , White was selected as part of the Australia A side to tour Pakistan in September that year . After claiming four wickets , and averaging 35 @.@ 50 with the bat in the 2 four @-@ day matches , White shone in the subsequent one @-@ day games . Not required to bat in the first , he then scored 106 not out in the second and 59 not out in the third , also claiming a tail @-@ end wicket . Having now demonstrated his ability as a big @-@ hitting all @-@ rounder , White was selected to make his international debut during the 2005 ICC Super Series against the ICC World XI . Shaun Pollock , captaining the World XI team , said that his batsmen would target the young leg @-@ spinner , but Australia captain Ricky Ponting said he expected White to bowl , after he 'd " handled things well in the Victoria game against them " . He was named as supersub in the first two matches , being on field only during the ICC World XI innings , therefore being unable to bat . He did not bowl in the first match , and only bowled three wicket @-@ less overs in the second . Despite controversy regarding the official status of the matches , these two appearances as supersub signified White 's first two One Day International ( ODI ) appearances . He started the third match , but as Australia closed their innings on 293 / 5 , White was again not required to bat , nor did he bowl in the following ICC World XI innings .
White was named as a bowling supersub again for the first ODI of the Chappell – Hadlee Trophy , replacing Katich at the start of the New Zealand innings . He bowled one wicket @-@ less over , conceding four runs . After missing out on the second match , White returned for the third , getting the opportunity to bat for the first time . He was dismissed for a golden duck , falling to Chris Martin first ball . In the New Zealand innings , he claimed his first senior international wicket , bowling Hamish Marshall .
= = = International contract not renewed = = =
2005 – 06 was the first season that Twenty20 cricket was played domestically in Australia , and White with his Victoria team were the quickest to adapt to the new format . White earnt a man of the match award in his first match in the tournament , scoring 45 runs off 32 balls and claiming a single wicket . Two wickets followed in the second match , and a second victory granted Victoria a place in the final . Facing New South Wales in the final , White added 46 off 16 balls , scoring at almost three runs a ball . He claimed 3 / 8 in the following innings , helping to restrict New South Wales to 140 , giving Victoria the championship title . White finished the tournament with 99 runs , second only to Brad Hodge , and 6 wickets , trailing only Shane Harwood , both Victoria team @-@ mates .
In April 2006 , White joined up with English county side Somerset for the first match of the County Championship . After Somerset were forced to follow @-@ on by Gloucestershire , White came in at number five and scored 172 runs off 228 balls before finally being caught off the bowling of former Victoria team @-@ mate Ian Harvey . Despite this innings , Somerset only managed a team total of 287 , and lost the match by an innings and seven runs . Two weeks later , on 1 May , Cricket Australia announced that along with James Hopes and Mick Lewis , Cameron White 's national contract would not be renewed for the next 12 months . When Somerset captain Ian Blackwell suffered a shoulder injury that put him out of the game for three months , White was named as his replacement . As with Australia Under @-@ 19s and Victoria , the added responsibility seemed to improve his game . A score of 109 * against Glamorgan in the 50 @-@ over Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy was followed immediately by 131 * in the County Championship against Worcestershire , a half @-@ century against the touring Sri Lankans and then a second @-@ innings 108 against Surrey , all made in the first half of June .
The Twenty20 Cup gave White another chance to display his skills in the shortest format of the game . White was joined at Somerset by fellow Australian Justin Langer for the tournament , and the pair shone in Somerset 's opening match of the competition . Opening the innings , Langer made 90 runs off 46 balls , but was outscored and outpaced by White 's 116 * , scored at more than two runs a ball . The century was White 's first in Twenty20 cricket , and he capped off his performance by claiming Gloucestershire 's tenth wicket to wrap up a 117 run victory . Just under two weeks later , White surpassed this score , at the time the joint highest made in Twenty20 cricket , with 141 * against Worcestershire . His runs , made off 70 balls , set a new world record Twenty20 total that would stand for almost two years before being beaten by Brendon McCullum . He finished the competition with the leading batting average , and his 403 runs trailed only team @-@ mate Langer 's 464 and Leicestershire batsman Hylton Ackerman 's 409 .
In August , with Somerset slumping , White scored back @-@ to @-@ back fourth @-@ innings centuries in the County Championship , but neither could rescue his side from defeat . First , he made 111 against Essex , and then under a week later , he made the highest individual score in the fourth @-@ innings of a first @-@ class match by remaining 260 not out at the close of Somerset 's innings as Derbyshire beat them to record their first home win in four years . Despite Somerset finishing bottom of Division Two of the County Championship , White had his most successful season of cricket in his career to that point . Having made his highest score , and hit five centuries in first @-@ class cricket , his batting average was almost 60 , and his one @-@ day batting average exceeded 40 .
= = = One Day International cricket 2006 – 07 = = =
A strong start to the 2006 – 07 Australian domestic season , exemplified by 150 * against Tasmania in the Pura Cup and 126 * against New South Wales in the Ford Ranger Cup ( previously ING Cup ) saw White recalled to the Australia one @-@ day squad . Chief of selectors , Andrew Hilditch described his inclusion in the squad , praising his " great form with the bat and [ he ] has had some terrific performances with the ball " . In an interview with Australian newspaper The Age , White professed his relief at returning to the international scene , stating that " I don 't really care if I get picked as a batting allrounder or a bowling allrounder , or just as a bat or bowler , as long as I get picked . " An international Twenty20 against England saw White rewarded with a man of the match award for his 40 * off 20 balls , and 1 / 11 with the ball in hand . In his next batting innings , White scored 45 runs including 3 sixes against New Zealand , leading team @-@ mate Andrew Symonds to praise his ability to strike the cricket ball , saying that " when you 've got that going on at the other end , it makes it a lot easier for me " . Despite his excellent form with the bat , White 's bowling was proving to be mostly ineffective . For this reason , as well as the improved form of Brad Hodge and the selection of Brad Hogg and Shane Watson for their ability with the ball , he was dropped for the finals of the Commonwealth Bank Series and left out of the World Cup squad .
Despite not being named in the World Cup squad , White played all three ODIs in the Chappell – Hadlee Trophy against New Zealand . This was because some of the senior players were rested ahead of the World Cup , or sustained injuries . Stand @-@ in captain Michael Hussey only called upon him to bowl three overs during the series , all in the second match , in which he was expensive , conceding almost 10 runs an over . He hit a quick 42 * in that match , scoring six boundaries including 3 sixes . He was less impressive with the bat in the other two matches , making 13 on both occasions .
= = = Another domestic year = = =
White returned to the Victoria side in time to captain his team in the Ford Ranger Cup final , which they lost to Queensland by 21 runs . Two Pura Cup matches brought a couple of wickets and 96 runs , and then a month 's break before his first match back in England , where he returned to Somerset for a second season . He was amongst the runs immediately , one of eight centurions as Somerset played Middlesex . Fellow Australian Langer , also returning to Somerset made 315 , and White added 114 as Somerset eventually reached 850 / 7 declared . White scored three more half @-@ centuries before the month was out , and in the first match of May , was one of four Australians to reach three figures as Somerset hosted Derybshire . Against Gloucestershire , he again showed his ability to remain calm and keep scoring even as those around him fell , making 241 in a Somerset first @-@ innings in which James Hildreth was the only other player to pass 50 . White passed 1 @,@ 000 runs in the County Championship for the second time , and his batting average topped 70 as Somerset won promotion from Division Two , a turnaround from the previous season when they had finished bottom of the division , ' winning ' the competition 's wooden spoon . The season also saw a slight improvement in White 's bowling , his 20 first @-@ class wickets coming at an average of 32 @.@ 75 , his best in a domestic season . Despite his impressive season , due to English counties only being allowed one overseas player for the 2008 season , White did not see his contract with the county renewed , Somerset preferring to keep captain Justin Langer . Somerset 's Director of Cricket , Brian Rose paid tribute to White , saying " It was a difficult choice with the new ruling about only one overseas player because Cameron has also done tremendous things for us . "
It was on the back of this form that White once again toured Pakistan with the Australia A squad , but he finished the series with just two wickets , both coming in the first @-@ class matches , and a handful of runs . Two months into the Australian domestic season , White was forced to retire hurt after colliding with Queensland bowler Lee Carseldine , and after the match it was revealed he 'd fractured his foot . He 'd been carrying the injury since the start of the season , and the collision led to a full break , putting White out for six weeks . White conceded that the injury would almost certainly rule out any chance he had of playing for the national team that summer . He returned in early January , playing the last three matches of the Twenty20 tournament , including the final which Victoria won by 32 runs , although White only managed to make one run off eight balls . For the second season in a row , White was named as captain of the Prime Minister 's XI , and claimed two Sri Lankan wickets in the 50 @-@ over contest . White led Victoria to both Pura Cup and Ford Ranger Cup finals in 2007 – 08 , but they lost both , to New South Wales and Tasmania respectively .
The auction for the inaugural season of the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) saw the majority of the world 's cricketing talent up for sale in a very public forum . For the thirteen Australians on offer , this was in sharp contrast to the secrecy which surrounded the value of national contracts . White was finally sold for $ 500 @,@ 000 to the Royal Challengers Bangalore , $ 50 @,@ 000 more than Shane Warne fetched , and more again than Ricky Ponting , Matthew Hayden and Michael Hussey . The apparent discrepancy was in part due to the possibility that international involvement could rule Australia 's Test players out of much , if not all of the first two years of the tournament . Rahul Dravid , Bangalore 's ' icon ' player , described White as an exciting addition , saying " White is a very exciting Twenty20 player and his domestic record [ with two Twenty20 hundreds ] in Australia is phenomenal . " Despite his price , White had a largely disappointing time in his only IPL season . He finished the tournament with 114 runs , over 500 less than fellow Australian and the competition 's leading run @-@ scorer Shaun Marsh .
= = = On the international fringes = = =
White was recalled to the Australian ODI and Twenty20 squads for the 2008 tour of the West Indies . He scored 10 runs off 6 balls in a rain @-@ reduced 11 @-@ over Twenty20 contest , and in a 50 @-@ over tour match against University of West Indies Vice @-@ Chancellor 's XI , made 34 but remained wicket @-@ less in his eight overs with the ball . By this stage in his career , White was generally considered a middle @-@ order batsman who bowled a bit , but Australia captain Ponting saw his place in the team as that of the front @-@ line spinner . " White 's obviously been picked as the spinner on this tour . We just need to keep exposing him to different situations and putting him under a bit more pressure . Hopefully he plays a big role for us during the series . " Despite Ponting 's comments , he used White as the fourth @-@ change bowler in the first ODI , bringing the slow left @-@ arm spin of Michael Clarke on first . White conceded 32 runs in his six overs without a breakthrough , and did not bowl at all in the second match , as Clarke claimed the man of the match award for his half @-@ century and three wickets . Although White scored 40 * at quicker than a run a ball , the return of Andrew Symonds for the last three ODIs left White out of the team again .
It was the absence of Symonds , sent home from the 2008 – 09 series against Bangladesh for skipping a team meeting to go fishing , that gave White another opportunity in the ODI team . Although stand @-@ in captain Clarke mirrored the action of Ponting by bringing himself on before the Victoria captain , White claimed a career @-@ best three wickets for five runs off the 10 balls he bowled . After the match , White admitted he had to prove he could deal with the pressures of international cricket , but was upbeat , saying " it was nice to get a few wickets but it would have been nice to get a few overs under the belt as well . " He claimed two more wickets in the second match and , after not being required to bowl in the third , finished the series with an average under 10 .
He was selected as captain of the Australia A team to compete against New Zealand A and India A in a tri @-@ series hosted by India . The captaincy gave White an opportunity to give himself plenty of overs , in total he bowled over 30 overs , claiming eight wickets in the competition , second only to Piyush Chawla . He displayed his all @-@ round ability by finishing with the fifth highest batting average and leading his team to the final , in which they beat India A by 156 runs .
When Symonds was dropped from the tour of India due to disciplinary issues , Greg Shipperd , White 's coach at Victoria , claimed that White should have been called up rather than Watson , claiming that the leg @-@ spinner " looked ideal to fill the aggressive role vacated by Symonds – he is a great counter @-@ puncher " . When fellow Victorian leg @-@ spinner Bryce McGain left the tour injured , White got the call @-@ up to the Test squad that Shipperd felt he deserved , although he was nominally selected as a specialist bowler . After Jason Krejza , the other spinner on the tour , conceded 199 runs for no wickets in a match against the Board President 's XI , White was considered the safer option , although Ponting publicly endorsed Krejza after his wicket @-@ less match . Despite Ponting 's apparent leanings , White was preferred , and became the 402nd Australian to receive his Test cap . He was selected to bat at number eight , usually a specialist bowler 's position , despite generally playing first @-@ class cricket as a batsman .
At the end of the first Test , in which White took the solitary wicket of Sachin Tendulkar , Ponting said " He 's come along in leaps and bounds in his bowling . He 's probably exceeded my expectations with what he 's done , although he did not take the wickets . " White improved his return in the second Test , claiming three wickets , but only took one more in the last two matches . Although Ponting extolled White in public , he once again often opted to use the part @-@ time spin of Clarke before and more frequently than White throughout the series . White 's five wickets on the tour came at a bowling average of almost 70 , and with Symonds named in Test squad to face New Zealand , there was no place in the squad for White .
= = = One @-@ day specialist = = =
Although not included in the Test squads to face either New Zealand or South Africa , White was named in the ODI and Twenty20 squads to face South Africa at home , and professed " it was a good feeling to know you are still in the mix " . White played in a more familiar role in the Twenty20s , batting in the middle @-@ order , and after a disappointing 7 in the first match , made 40 * off 18 in the second to push Australia 's total up beyond South Africa 's reach . He had a steady ODI series , in which he was again used as a middle @-@ order batsman , and part @-@ time spinner . He retained his place for the one @-@ day series against New Zealand , but had limited involvement , making 27 runs from his two innings , though he did claim two wickets in his seven overs bowling .
His lack of involvement with the Test squad allowed him to return to Victoria to lead them in a losing cause in the Ford Ranger Cup final , a narrow 12 run loss to Queensland . Draws against Tasmania and Queensland , set up another Queensland – Victoria final , this time in the Sheffield Shield ( formerly the Pura Cup ) . White was named as man of the match as he led his team to their first championship since 2003 – 04 , scoring 135 and 61 as Queensland were out @-@ played comprehensively .
White remained in Australia 's Twenty20 team for their two matches in South Africa , but was not involved in their ODI matches , and subsequently was not named as part of their squad for the ICC World Twenty20 . However , after Symonds was sent home from the tournament due to ' an alcohol @-@ related incident ' , White was called up as his replacement . Australia were knocked out in the group @-@ stage of the competition with White unused in their two matches , Cricinfo 's Brydon Coverdale lambasting Australia 's belief that " the players who carry them in Test and 50 @-@ over cricket can do the same in three @-@ hour games " . White returned to Australia to captain the A team against Pakistan and showed consistency with the bat , culminating in 73 * in the Twenty20 match .
= = = Knowing his role = = =
Named in both one @-@ day squads for the tour of England , and in the Champions Trophy squad , White 's role in the team was now that of a batsman . In the rain @-@ abandoned Twenty20 in England , he made his best Twenty20 International score of 55 , and was the only player to cope with the poor conditions on a two @-@ paced pitch . In the ODI series , White saw himself promoted to number three in the absence of Ponting , and responded with scores of 53 and 42 in the first two matches , before making his maiden international century in the third . His 124 @-@ ball 105 saw him named man of the match in his last match before Ponting 's return which would see him drop back down the batting order . He played the remaining four matches of the series at number six , but finished the tour as Australia 's leading run @-@ scorer in ODIs .
White was ever @-@ present in Australia 's triumph in the 2009 Champions Trophy , saving his best performance for the final where , having been promoted to number four , he scored a patient 62 against New Zealand to help Australia recover from 6 / 2 to ease to a six wicket victory . The following ODI series against India saw White remain at number four due to injuries to Michael Clarke and Brad Haddin , and he made three half @-@ centuries including a remarkable 57 off 33 balls including 5 sixes . After being in and out of the Australian set @-@ up earlier in his career , White claimed " I think my best position is up around where I have been batting " , a statement backed up by an average of 41 @.@ 71 in his 18 appearances since his call @-@ up to face England earlier that year . The higher responsibility placed on White as a batsman was balanced by a much lower responsibility with the ball ; across the whole of the 2009 season , he only bowled three balls in One Day International cricket .
Upon the retirement of Ricky Ponting from international Twenty20 cricket , there were some calls for White to be promoted to captain the side , led by his Victoria coach Greg Shipperd . Despite these calls , White backed the favourite , incumbent vice @-@ captain Michael Clarke for the role . White was eventually named as Clarke 's vice @-@ captain , although worries about Clarke 's injury @-@ prone back and his struggles with form in Twenty20 resulted in continued calls for White to take over , though White again backed Clarke , claiming " Michael 's going to do a great job and I 'll just look forward to working with him . I 'm still really young in the [ Australia ] job as well and very inexperienced at this level , so I think I can learn a lot off him . "
The return of Clarke to the ODI team for the Pakistan series also saw White move down the order again , although batting at number five , he made his second international century in the first match , scoring 105 from 88 balls to help drive Australia to victory . White continued to perform well with the bat in the series , making a half @-@ century in the second match and making decent totals in a number of the other games as Australia swept the series 5 – 0 .
= = Indian Premier League = =
= = = 2011 = = =
In the fourth season , White was bought by Deccan Chargers for US $ 1 @.@ 1 million . He became the 2nd highest paid Australian in the IPL , behind David Hussey . He was named Vice Captain of the Deccan Chargers , with Kumar Sangakkara captain of the side .
= = = 2012 – Return to form = = =
In the fifth season , White captained the Chargers for the first match against the Chennai Super Kings , with regular captain Kumar Sangakkara on international duties . White scored his first fifty in the IPL against Pune Warriors India , batting at No. 3 . White scored a further 4 half @-@ centuries for the Chargers , ending the season with the second most runs for the Chargers ; 479 runs with an average of 43 @.@ 54 , and a strike rate of 149 @.@ 68 , with a high score of 78 from 13 innings . He also captained the Chargers in a further 2 matches .
= = = 2013 – Sunrisers Hyderabad = = =
After the termination of the Deccan Chargers , he was retained by the new franchise , Sunrisers Hyderabad , captaining the team when Kumar Sangakkara wasn 't selected in the playing XI . White made 209 runs , averaging 17 @.@ 41 with a strike rate of 109 @.@ 42 .
= = International Recall = =
White signed for Northamptonshire Steelbacks to play in the Friends Life T20 competition , as their second overseas player . White scored the most runs for the Steelbacks ; 228 runs with an average of 57 and a strike rate of 131 @.@ 03 , with a high score of 62 * from 8 innings . White re @-@ signed to play for the Melbourne Stars in the Big Bash League , signing a 3 @-@ year contract . It was also announced White would step down as captain of the Melbourne Stars , with Shane Warne succeeding him .
In the same week , White was rewarded for his Twenty20 form , earning a recall to the Australian Twenty20 team to play Pakistan in the desert of the UAE . This led of the Australian selectors naming White in the 15 @-@ man squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 , held in Sri Lanka .
= = Captain of Australia = =
When Michael Clarke retired from Twenty20 International , White was named captain for the 2 @-@ match Twenty20 International series against England after the 2010 – 11 Ashes Series .
White was then named vice @-@ captain to Clarke for the following 7 @-@ match One Day Series against England . When Clarke was rested for the last ODI , White was named captain of the side . He is the first Victorian since Shane Warne to captain the Australia ODI Team .
On the same day Michael Clarke was announced as captain , of the Test & ODI teams , Cameron White was announced as the permanent Twenty20 Captain , with Shane Watson vice captain in all formats . However , he was dropped as captain of the Australian Twenty20 team , following poor form in the Big Bash League . He was succeeded by Melbourne Stars teammate George Bailey .
= = International centuries and half @-@ centuries = =
Key
* denotes that he remained not out .
♠ denotes that he was the captain of the Australian team in that match .
Pos. denotes his position in the batting order .
Inn. denotes the number of innings in the match .
S / R denotes strike rate .
H / A / N denotes whether the venue is home ( Australia ) , away ( opposition 's home ) or neutral .
Lost denotes that the match was lost by Australia .
Won denotes that the match was won by Australia .
Centuries in bold .
= = = One Day Internationals Centuries = = =
= = = Twenty20 Internationals = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = ODI Awards = = =
= = = = Player of the Series Awards = = = =
= = = = ODI Man of the Match = = = =
= = = Twenty20 International Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
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= Straight Outta Lynwood =
Straight Outta Lynwood is the twelfth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on September 26 , 2006 . It was the sixth studio album self @-@ produced by Yankovic . The musical styles on the album are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 2000s . The album 's lead single , " White & Nerdy " , is a parody of Chamillionaire 's hit single " Ridin ' " . The single peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 ; " Canadian Idiot " also charted , peaking at number 82 .
The album featured five parodies . Aside from the aforementioned " White & Nerdy " and " Canadian Idiot " , the album also contains lampoons of " Confessions Part II " by Usher , " Do I Make You Proud " by Taylor Hicks , and " Trapped in the Closet " by R. Kelly . The other half of the album is original material , featuring many " style parodies " , or musical imitations of existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like Brian Wilson , Rage Against the Machine , Sparks , animated musical specials , Cake , and 1980s charity songs . Originally , there were plans for the album 's lead single to have been a spoof of James Blunt 's hit " You 're Beautiful " entitled " You 're Pitiful " , but Blunt 's record label , Atlantic , blocked the commercial release of the parody .
The CD release was a DualDisc ; one side of the disc played the album , and the other side functioned as a DVD , featuring animated music videos for many of the songs on the record . Straight Outta Lynwood was met with mostly positive reviews , with many critics praising " White & Nerdy " and " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " . Some of the original songs , however , were met with a more mixed reception . The album peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200 . " White & Nerdy " became Yankovic 's highest @-@ charting single , as well as his first Platinum @-@ certified single . The record itself was certified Gold for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Production = =
= = = Originals = = =
On July 5 , 2005 , recording for Straight Outta Lynwood officially began at Santa Monica Sound Records , in Santa Monica , California . By late 2005 , six originals — " Pancreas " , " Close but No Cigar " , " Virus Alert " , " Don 't Download This Song " , " I 'll Sue Ya " , and " Weasel Stomping Day " — had been recorded . " Weasel Stomping Day " describes , in the style of animated musical specials of the 1960s , a supposedly traditional holiday in which participants don Viking helmets , spread mayonnaise on their lawns , and " snap [ the titular animals ' ] weasely spines in half . " " I 'll Sue Ya " is a Rage Against the Machine style parody , taking aim at the abundance of frivolous lawsuits in the United States . Yankovic chose to juxtapose the style of Rage Against the Machine with lyrics about lawsuits because he felt that humor could be derived by pairing the angriness of the band 's music with a topic so vacuous . " Don 't Download This Song " , a style parody of 1980s charity songs , such as " We are the World " , " Hands Across America " , and " Do They Know It ’ s Christmas ? " , " describes the perils of online music file @-@ sharing " . According to Yankovic himself , the song takes a moderate approach to the peer @-@ to @-@ peer music download situation , arguing that both sides — people trying to illegally download music and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) — can act hypocritically depending on the situation .
" Virus Alert " is a style parody of Sparks , specifically their work in the mid @-@ 1970s , such as their album Kimono My House ( 1974 ) . It details " the evil that lurks in your email inbox . " " Close but No Cigar " is a style parody of Cake . It tells the story of a man that breaks up with his seemingly perfect girlfriends due to the most inconsequential of flaws . The song was inspired by an actual friend of Yankovic 's who was never satisfied with any of his dates ; Yankovic later explained that " the song was inspired by [ the ] attitude , that nothing could ever be good enough . " The final original recorded , " Pancreas " , is a song mainly about the biological functions of the aforementioned organ . The song is an imitation of the musical stylings of Brian Wilson , specifically his work found on the 1966 album Pet Sounds , released by the Beach Boys , and their aborted follow @-@ up album , Smile . Yankovic joked that the reason the song was written was because " my pancreas has given so much to me over the years , I felt like I needed to give something back to it " .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
On February 19 , 2006 , Yankovic began working on the album 's parodies . During these sessions , three parodies were recorded ; the first of these , " Canadian Idiot " , is a play on " American Idiot " by Green Day . It is a satirical commentary on American nationalism and the stereotypical American view of Canadians . The song is ironic , and Yankovic has stated that the song 's anger is a joke and that he loves Canada . Next , Yankovic began working on " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " , a parody of R. Kelly 's " Trapped in the Closet " . Yankovic was inspired to pen the spoof after hearing the " brilliant and wonderful and ridiculous " original . Efforts to make the parody more convoluted than the original were first considered but then abandoned by Yankovic ; he eventually reasoned , however , that he could make his version " a little more stupid " . Thus , the song is an excruciatingly detailed narrative about a couple getting hamburgers at the drive @-@ thru , which was " the most banal thing [ Yankovic ] could think of at the time . " Because the song was three times the length of a normal song , legally , Yankovic would have been required to pay thrice the statutory rate for royalties . This in turn would have forced Yankovic to remove one of his parodies from the album . However , R. Kelly allowed Yankovic to only pay the royalty rate for one song . To round out the first session , Yankovic recorded " Confessions Part III " , a play on " Confessions Part II " by Usher . The song purports to be a continuation of the Usher songs " Confessions " and " Confessions Part II " , focusing on trivial , silly , strange , and disturbing confessions ; Yankovic explained that , " After hearing Usher do [ the original songs ] , I couldn ’ t help but think that maybe he ’ d left a few things out , that there were a few confessions he had yet to make . "
After being denied permission to release " You 're Pitiful " , Yankovic penned " Do I Creep You Out " and " White & Nerdy " to take the parody 's place , recording both on July 22 , 2006 . The first of these is a play on " Do I Make You Proud " by Taylor Hicks , in which a singer addresses the object of his affection and stalking ; the song was also Yankovic 's jab at American Idol , a musical competition show that Hicks had won in May 2006 . The final parody written and recorded for the album was " White & Nerdy " , a parody of " Ridin ' " by Chamillionaire featuring Krayzie Bone . The song describes the life of a white nerd whose wish to " roll with the gangstas " is impeded by his stereotypically white and nerdy behavior ; the song is also filled with references to nerd culture . Yankovic later joked that it was a song he " was born to write " due to association with nerd humor . While Yankovic usually records his songs together with his band , the backing tracks for " White and Nerdy " were completely recorded by guitarist Jim West — who handled the synthesizer production — and Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz — who was tasked with recording the drums . The two musicians recorded their specific tracks at their home studios , and the finished audio tracks were then brought to Westlake Studio in Los Angeles , California , where Yankovic added his vocals . Chamillionaire himself put " White & Nerdy " on his official MySpace page and said that he enjoys the parody . In an interview , he also stated he was pleasantly surprised by Yankovic 's rapping ability , saying : " He 's actually rapping pretty good on it , it 's crazy ... I didn 't know he could rap like that . "
" Polkarama ! " , a medley of popular hit songs set to a polka beat , was recorded during the second parody session . Yankovic explained that , " if there ’ s a song that I think is really ripe for parody but I just can ’ t think of a clever enough idea , sometimes it ’ ll end up in the polka medley . " Regarding their popularity , Yankovic has said , " At this point , it 's sort of mandatory for me to do a polka medley . Fans would be rioting in the streets , I think , if I didn 't do a polka medley . "
= = = " You 're Pitiful " controversy = = =
Yankovic had originally wanted to record a parody of James Blunt 's hit " You 're Beautiful " and release it as the lead single for the album . The parodist had approached Blunt about the spoof , and the singer approved his idea . Yankovic then went into the recording studio on April 12 , 2006 , and recorded his version , entitled " You 're Pitiful " . However , Blunt 's record company , Atlantic Records , told Yankovic that he could not include the song on his album . Yankovic eventually learned that Atlantic felt " it was ' too early ' in James ' career for a parody , and that they were afraid that focusing any more attention on ' Beautiful ' at that point might lead to the perception of James as a ' one @-@ hit wonder . ' "
At first , the label promised that they would let Yankovic release the parody at an unspecified later date . Yankovic , however , later learned that they had no such intentions . Since Blunt himself was fine with the parody , Yankovic decided to release " You 're Pitiful " as a free digital download on his website , noting that , " if James Blunt himself were objecting I wouldn 't even offer my parody for free on my Web site . But since it 's a bunch of suits — who are actually going against their own artist 's wishes — I have absolutely no problem with it . "
= = = Unused ideas = = =
Yankovic had wanted to record a parody of Daniel Powter 's " Bad Day " for the album entitled " You Had a Bad Date " , but Powter initially refused . Powter then changed his mind " literally the day before [ Yankovic ] went into the studio to record ' White & Nerdy ' " , at which point , according to Yankovic , " the train had left the station " . T @-@ Pain had also given Yankovic permission to record a parody of " I 'm N Luv ( Wit A Stripper ) " called " I 'm in Luv Wit Da Skipper " , referencing the character from the 1960s sitcom Gilligan 's Island . Yankovic later decided not to record the song , but T @-@ Pain was still thanked in the album 's liner notes . Despite this , Yankovic still performed the song in the parody medley during his Straight Outta Lynwood Tour . Besides his " Bad Day " and " I 'm N Luv ( Wit A Stripper ) " parodies , Yankovic also claimed to have several " mediocre " ideas such as " Holodeck Girl " ( a spoof of " Hollaback Girl " by Gwen Stefani ) , " IRS " ( a play on " S.O.S. " by Rihanna ) , and " HairyBack " ( a parody of " SexyBack " by Justin Timberlake ) . In addition , Nickelback had originally given Yankovic permission to use their song " Photograph " in " Polkarama " ; however , Yankovic was unable " to find a way to incorporate the song into [ Polkarama ] where it didn 't sound wedged in or tacked on " , and he decided not to use it , although Nickelback was also thanked in the liner notes for Straight Outta Lynwood .
= = Title and artwork = =
The title is a takeoff on Straight Outta Compton , an album by N.W.A. Lynwood , California , Yankovic 's home town , is a neighboring community to Compton , California . The cover art , inspired by " gangsta imagery " , depicts Yankovic , wearing a Lynwood , California , letterman 's jacket and holding a pit bull on a leash , in front of a Chevrolet . All of the images from the album were taken on April 22 , 2006 , by Michael Blackwell , an Atlanta , Georgia , photographer who has also taken images of notable hip hop stars as T.I. , Lil ' Scrappy , and Young Jeezy . The pit bull on the cover is named Dough Boy , and is owned by a local couple that was walking by during the photo shoot . Yankovic had always planned for this album to be titled Straight Outta Lynwood , even when the lead single was going to be " You 're Pitiful " ; Yankovic had liked the ironic juxtaposition of having a gangsta rap @-@ inspired album cover and title , with " such a toothless ballad for the lead parody " . However , the cover ended up being unintentionally appropriate when " White & Nerdy " became the lead track on the album . The numbers and letters on the album cover have several meanings : " NLY " are the initials of both Yankovic 's daughter and his father . The number " 27 " is an in @-@ joke with Yankovic 's fans , but February 7 was also his mother 's birthday . The license plate originally read " 27 4LIFE " during the photo shoot . The photograph that was originally going to be the cover was later used for the back of the CD case .
= = Visuals = =
While Yankovic 's previous albums generated only one or two official music videos , Straight Outta Lynwood spawned nine , and the DualDisc release of the album included videos for all six original songs . Yankovic 's record label had suggested he release a DualDisc , and he was in favor of the idea once he realized that he could hire animators to create videos for the original songs , in order to make the release more rewarding for fans who purchased it . At first , Yankovic was unsure who he would be able to hire , because of the budget , but to his surprise , many artists signed on . Bill Plympton animated a video for " Don 't Download This Song " , which preceded the release of the album , and Thomas Lee , best known for his Flash music video " Star Wars Gangsta Rap " , animated a video for " I 'll Sue Ya " . A music video for " Virus Alert " was helmed by David Lovelace , creator of Retarded Animal Babies ; Yankovic admitted to exercising more creative control over this video than the others present on the DVD , citing concern with Lovelace 's previous content . John Kricfalusi and Katie Rice animated a video for " Close but No Cigar " . Yankovic had long been a fan of Kricfalusi , who is perhaps best known as the creator of the cartoon series Ren & Stimpy . The video " takes an irreverent look at the world of dating as seen thru [ sic ] the eyes of Cigarettes the cat . " Jim Blashfield created a video for " Pancreas " using stock footage from the Prelinger Archives . Finally , Shadowmachine Films released a stop @-@ motion video for " Weasel Stomping Day " that aired on September 24 , 2006 as part of " The Munnery " , the show 's 32nd episode of the Adult Swim TV show Robot Chicken .
Subsequent videos were also made for three of the album 's parodies . On August 15 , 2006 , Yankovic announced that he planned to shoot a music video for " White & Nerdy " in the Los Angeles area on August 21 , 24 , 25 , and 27 . He posted a solicitation for volunteers to appear in the video on his MySpace blog . The video was filmed in high definition . Originally , it was going to be released on September 18 at 9 PM Pacific Time on AOL.com , but , since the video had been leaked , AOL cancelled the premiere event and uploaded the video early . Soon thereafter , VH1 began airing the video in " large rotation " , meaning it was shown roughly 20 times a day . Near the end of 2006 , animators at JibJab made a video for " Do I Creep You Out " , and Doug Bresler released a video for " Trapped in the Drive Thru " in 2007 . In regards to the latter , Bresler 's original cut of the video featured the male in the song looking like Yankovic . Yankovic later asked that Bresler give the character a more neutral look , noting that if a live action video had been made , he " would almost certainly be playing a character [ in the video , and ] not ' Weird Al ' " . Bresler complied , and gave the character a more generic hairstyle . MuchMusic , a 24 @-@ hour Canadian cable music and variety television channel , ran a fan @-@ made " Canadian Idiot " video contest on their website , but it was later scrapped due to lack of entries .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Following the release of Straight Outta Lynwood , Yankovic undertook the two @-@ year @-@ long Straight Outta Lynwood Tour . Starting on March 10 , 2007 and concluding on August 28 , 2008 , Yankovic played 163 shows across the United States . To promote the album , a promotional website was launched for the single " Don 't Download This Song " , " dontdownloadthissong.com " . The site allowed a user to launch an e @-@ card that included a download and stream of the song , as well as options to email the card to friends .
= = = Reviews = = =
Chris Carle of IGN awarded the album an 8 out of 10 , denoting a " great " release . He called it " another solid record to add to the collection ; just the right nostalgic blend of parodies , gross @-@ out songs and polka . " Specifically , he selected " White & Nerdy " , " Polkarama ! " , and " Weasel Stomping Day " as the album 's stand @-@ out tracks , but felt that original songs like " Pancreas " and " I 'll Sue Ya " were either not funny or " late to the party " . David Jeffries of AllMusic awarded the record three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it " inspired " . He highlighted " White & Nerdy " as a choice single , calling it a " reason to celebrate [ Yankovic 's ] return " . Jeffries applauded " Canadian Idiot " and " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " , calling both funny , and he also noted that the originals from the album were humorous as well . However , he felt that the Usher and Taylor Hicks parodies were " only mildly humorous " and that some of the original songs " really drag " when compared to the others . Gavin Edwards of Rolling Stone awarded the album three out of five stars and highlighted " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " as the album 's best song , writing , " ' Weird Al ' is funniest when he 's singing about food . "
Al Shipley of Stylus gave the album a " B – " and felt that , while " White & Nerdy " was a solid parody , the other spoofs on the album were not quite up to par . He praised " Pancreas " and " Virus Alert " as the album 's best style parodies , comparing the latter to the 1985 single " Dare to Be Stupid " , while criticizing " I 'll Sue Ya " , " Close but No Cigar " , and " Don 't Download This Song " . Shipley concluded that the most hilarious moment on the album was Yankovic singing the lyrics to " Candy Shop " by 50 Cent over a polka beat in " Polkarama ! " Scott Shetler of Slant Magazine awarded the album three stars out of five . He felt that in the 2000s , Yankovic 's work had gradually declined in quality , but that Straight Outta Lynwood displayed " occasional flashes of genius " , such as " White & Nerdy " , which he praised for Yankovic 's rapping ability . Shetler also felt that " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " , was impressive , although he noted it was not as spectacular as it could have been . Once again , " Confessions , Pt . III " and " Do I Creep You Out " were described as " throwaways " . However , Shetler wrote that " for once , Yankovic 's originals are better than his parodies " , highlighting " Pancreas " , " I 'll Sue Ya " , and " Don 't Download This Song " as the best songs on the album .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Straight Outta Lynwood was released on September 26 , 2006 . On April 4 , 2007 , the album was certified gold for shipments exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album 's lead @-@ off single , " White & Nerdy " was a hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , charting at number 9 . This made it his highest @-@ charting single , surpassing " Eat It " , which had peaked at number 12 in 1984 . It also marked the first time that Yankovic had ever cracked the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 . " Canadian Idiot " also charted on the Hot 100 , peaking at number 82 . On June 15 , 2007 , " White & Nerdy " was certified gold — his first gold single since " Eat It " in 1984 — and on January 31 , 2008 , the single was certified platinum for selling over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies , making this the first time that Yankovic had ever achieved this level of certification . In addition , the ringtone for " White & Nerdy " was certified gold .
Internationally , the album charted at number 27 on the Australian Albums Chart . " White & Nerdy " also peaked at number 14 on the Swedish singles chart , and number 80 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = = Awards , nominations and accolades = = =
Straight Outta Lynwood was nominated for two Grammy Awards in the categories for " Best Comedy Album " and " Best Surround Sound Album " . Rolling Stone later named " Trapped in the Drive Thru " as one of the 100 Greatest Songs of 2006 , ranking it at 77th , while Blender ranked " White & Nerdy " at number 76 on their Top 100 Songs of 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Mac Scelling =
Mac Scelling ( fl . 1154 – 1173 / 1174 ) , also known as Mac Scilling , was a prominent twelfth @-@ century military commander engaged in conflicts throughout Ireland . He is first recorded in 1154 commanding the maritime forces of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain in a bloody encounter against Toirrdelbach Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht . Muirchertach 's naval forces were drawn from the western peripheries of Scotland and the Isles . He next appears on record in 1173 / 1174 , supporting the cause of Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht against the English colonisation of Mide . An early modern Scottish source claims that a man of the same name was a bastard son of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , King of the Isles . If Mac Scelling was indeed related to Somairle , this relationship could cast light on the latter 's conflict with Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles , a man who appears to have opposed Muirchertach at some point in his career . Although not termed so in contemporary sources , Mac Scelling may be regarded as an early archetype of later gallowglasses , heavily @-@ armed Scottish mercenaries recruited by Irish rulers in centuries that followed .
= = In the service of the Meic Lochlainn = =
Midway through the twelfth @-@ century , Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1166 ) pressed forth to claim to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland , an office then held by elderly Toirrdelbach Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht ( died 1156 ) . In 1150 , Muirchertach invaded Connacht , and succeeded in gaining hostages from the kingdom . Although Muirchertach and Toirrdelbach made peace the following year , their forces clashed the year after that , with Muirchertach 's defeat of Toirrdelbach 's son , Ruaidrí ( died 1198 ) . In 1154 , the forces of Toirrdelbach and Muirchertach again met in a major conflict fought off the Inishowen coast , in what was perhaps one of the greatest naval battles of the twelfth century . The engagement is briefly recorded by the Annals of Tigernach , and expanded upon by the Annals of the Four Masters . According to the latter source , Muirchertach 's maritime forces were mercenaries drawn from Galloway , Arran , Kintyre , Mann , and " the territories of Scotland " . The annal @-@ entry further reveals that Mac Scelling himself commanded Muirchertach 's forces , and that his teeth were knocked out in the affair . Although Toirrdelbach 's forces obtained a narrow victory , his northern maritime power seems to have been virtually nullified by the severity of the contest , and Muirchertach soon after marched on Connacht , Bréifne , and Dublin . As a result of the Dubliners ' resulting submission , Muirchertach effectively secured himself the high @-@ kingship . There is reason to suspect that Muirchertach 's use of foreign warriors — including Mac Scelling himself — strongly influenced the composition of Cath Ruis na Ríg for Bóinn , a contemporary Gaelic text that forms a sequel to the epic Táin Bó Cúailgne .
= = An apparent Meic Somairle namesake = =
Mac Scelling 's identity and origins are unknown . His name is similar to that of " Gall mac Sgillin " , a supposed bastard son of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , Lord of Argyll ( died 1164 ) , noted by the early modern Book of Clanranald . Somairle was a brother @-@ in @-@ law of Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles ( died 1187 ) , a man who succeeded to the kingship of the Isles after the death of his father in 1153 . Within a few years , Somairle and Guðrøðr fought for control of the Kingdom of the Isles . Although Somairle succeeded in ousting Guðrøðr , he himself was dead within a decade , and Guðrøðr regained the throne . If Mac Scelling was indeed a member of the Meic Somairle — the descendants of Somairle — this relationship may cast light upon Somairle 's struggles in the Isles . For instance , Mac Scelling 's cooperation with Muirchertach could be evidence that Guðrøðr faced united opposition from Somairle and Muirchertach . In fact , there is evidence indicating that Guðrøðr and Muirchertach were indeed at odds at some point in the 1150s or 1160s , as the former appears to have briefly gained the kingship of Dublin at the expense of Muirchertach 's authority as overlord . Nevertheless , it is also possible that the battle took place before Somairle and Guðrøðr struggled for the kingship . Guðrøðr is otherwise known to have married a granddaughter of Muirchertach , and seems to have had an earlier marriage to another member of the Uí Néill . These matrimonial unions could be evidence of an alliance between Guðrøðr and Muirchertach in the 1150s . Mac Scelling 's participation in Muirchertach 's service , therefore , could have been undertaken during a period of cooperation between the Isles and the Uí Néill .
= = In the service of the Uí Conchobair = =
In the last third of the twelfth century , Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster ( died 1171 ) was deposed and driven from Ireland by his rivals . He subsequently enlisted the aid of English mercenaries and launched an invasion of Ireland . In 1170 , the combined forces of Diarmait and Richard fitz Gilbert de Clare , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1176 ) conquered Dublin . The following year , the aforesaid Ruaidrí , who was then the reigning High King of Ireland and King of Connacht , along with Lorcán Ua Tuathail , Archbishop of Dublin ( died 1180 ) , appealed to Guðrøðr for military assistance from the Isles . Although Ruaidrí besieged the town by land , whilst Guðrøðr blockaded it by sea , Dublin remained firmly in English hands . Within the year , Henry II , King of England ( died 1189 ) arrived in Ireland and consolidated English control . One of the few provincial kings who refused to submit to Henry was Ruaidrí himself ; and in 1173 or 1174 , he assembled a massive host from northern Ireland in campaign to bring a halt to the English colonisation of Mide . According to the Song of Dermot and the Earl , one of the numerous rulers who rallied to Ruaidrí 's cause was Mac Scelling himself . This source further states that Ruaidrí enlisted support not only support from Leath Cuinn — a reference to northern Ireland — but also from " les Norreys " and " les Norreis " — two terms that may refer to Norsemen . The Song of Dermot and the Earl , therefore , appears to indicate that Ruaidrí indeed received support from the Hebrides .
= = Archetypical gallowglass = =
The little that is known of Mac Scelling suggests that he was an early archetype of what latter became known as gallowglasses , heavily @-@ armed mercenaries , recruited from the West Highlands and Islands of Scotland by Irish rulers in later centuries . Although first specifically recorded in the last decade of the thirteenth century , gallowglasses were almost certainly utilised at least a generation before . The aforesaid apparent reference to Mac Scelling by the Song of Dermot and the Earl could be evidence that he had taken up residence in Ireland like later gallowglasses .
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= 1943 Mazatlán hurricane =
The 1943 Mazatlán hurricane was a powerful tropical cyclone ( at least Category 4 ) that lashed the southern coast of Sinaloa on the morning of 9 October 1943 . The hurricane went essentially undetected before it made landfall just south of Mazatlán on 9 October with a pressure below 958 @.@ 6 millibars ( 28 @.@ 31 inHg ) and maximum sustained winds of at least 136 miles per hour ( 219 km / h ) . The hurricane destroyed two small towns and half of Mazatlán , killing at least 106 persons , injuring 102 , and leaving over 1 @,@ 000 homeless . Total damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( 1943 USD , $ 56 million 2008 USD ) . The hurricane was the strongest on record to strike Mazatlán .
= = Meteorological history = =
Sources do not reveal the exact origin of this tropical cyclone . On 8 October , a developing tropical cyclone passed between the Revillagigedo Islands and Islas Marías . It moved rapidly northeastward and arrived on the coast of Sinaloa as an intense hurricane .
Mazatlán Observatory reported that the atmospheric pressure began dropping at 1 : 30 am on 9 October and fell 0 @.@ 827 inches of mercury ( 28 @.@ 0 hPa ) in 8 hours , and reached a minimum of 958 @.@ 6 millibars ( 28 @.@ 31 inHg ) . At 1530 UTC 9 October , the hurricane made landfall just south of Mazatlán . At 9 : 30 am , the observatory reported winds of 134 miles per hour ( 216 km / h ) for a period of 15 minutes , which period ended when the wind blew the anemometer loose . The hurricane ranks as the strongest on record to strike the city .
The storm dropped little precipitation as it passed Mazatlán , but 2 inches ( 51 mm ) fell on the afternoon of 9 October .
As the storm continued inland , it rapidly weakened and apparently dissipated over the Sierra Madre Occidental . The storm apparently passed into Chihuahua and was predicted to continue into the southern United States , though the remainder of its path is unknown .
The cyclone was dissipated over the state of Durango within a day after landfall . Heavy rain developed across parts of Texas on 12 / 13 October 1943 .
= = Effects and aftermath = =
Moving ashore as a powerful hurricane , the storm destroyed the small towns of El Roble , now in Mazatlán Municipality , and Palmillas . The storm partially destroyed Villa Unión ( a town now in Mazatlán Municipality ) and severely damaged the port at Mazatlán . In these towns , approximately 100 persons lost their lives . Though the storm was reported to have struck " without warning " , most residents in the destroyed cities ably reached safety in higher ground . The hurricane destroyed about half of the buildings in Mazatlán , and near the ocean , the combination of strong waves , high winds , and rainfall heavily damaged many hotels and houses . The storm damaged water systems , leaving people without potable water or sewage systems . In a 50 miles ( 80 km ) portion of the coastline , the storm severely impacted the communication and transportation infrastructure . The airport at Mazatlán sustained damage to its radio tower , and for at least 18 hours , the only communication between the city and the rest of Mexico was through the radio of a plane in the airport . Total damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( 1943 USD , $ 56 million 2008 USD ) .
Of several fishing boats and a small Mexican Navy vessel caught in the storm , no trace reportedly was found ; all persons aboard these vessels apparently died . A small coastal boat arrived in the port of Mazatlán after the storm and reported six crew members missing .
Within two days after the storm , the death toll rose to 18 ; the next day , the Associated Press reported 52 deaths and 102 injuries . Ten days after the storm , military officials reported the death toll rose to 57 , and the number of people left homeless by the storm reached over 1 @,@ 000 .
By 24 hours after the storm , President Manuel Ávila Camacho ordered nurses and doctors on standby , and for military workers in the area to prepare to assist in the aftermath . By five days after the storm , officials had restored power and communications in the area . Around the same time , the president issued an appeal for public donations for storm victims . Within a week , citizens sent large quantities of food , clothing , and medicine to the worst affected areas . The President of Mexico personally visited Mazatlán with other officials , bringing aid in the form of medicine and clothing .
= = Famous people who witnessed it = =
Walt Disney
= = Comparison = =
Only two other intense hurricanes struck Mazatlan during the period of record : Hurricane Olivia ( 1975 ) , which hit the city with winds of 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) , and a storm in 1957 . However , Hurricane Tico ( 1983 ) moved ashore very near the city as a major hurricane .
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= British rhythm and blues =
British rhythm and blues ( or R & B ) was a musical movement that developed in the United Kingdom between the late 1950s and the early 1960s , and reached a peak in the mid @-@ 1960s . It overlapped with , but was distinct from , the broader British beat and more purist British blues scenes , attempting to emulate the music of African American blues and rock and roll pioneers , such as Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf , Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley . It often placed greater emphasis on guitars and was often played with greater energy .
The origins of the movement were in the British jazz , skiffle and folk movements of the 1950s . The 1958 visit of Muddy Waters influenced key figures Cyril Davies and Alexis Korner to turn to electric blues and form the band Blues Incorporated , which became something of a clearing house for British rhythm and blues musicians . A flourishing scene of clubs and groups emerged in the later 1950s and 1960s and bands began to break through into mainstream success . Major acts included the Rolling Stones , Manfred Mann , The Animals , The Yardbirds , Them , and the Spencer Davis Group , who dominated the UK and US charts from 1964 , in the wake of the Merseybeat craze , becoming central to the mod subculture in the UK and a second wave of British Invasion acts in the US .
Several of the bands and their members went on to become leading rock music performers of the late 1960s and early 1970s , helping to create psychedelic , progressive and hard rock and making rhythm and blues a key component of that music . In the mid to late @-@ 1970s , British R & B enjoyed a revival through the British soul and disco scenes , the pub rock circuit , new wave music and the mod revival , and has enjoyed a resurgence of interest since the late 1980s . In the 2000s , a British version of contemporary R & B began gaining popularity , and since the late 2000s the success of British female singers influenced by soul and R & B led to talk of another " R & B British invasion " .
= = Characteristics = =
Commentators often distinguish British rhythm and blues bands from beat bands ( who were influenced by rock and roll and rockabilly ) on the one hand , and , from " purist " British blues ( which particularly emulated Chicago electric blues artists ) , on the other , although there was considerable crossover between the three sets of musicians . Merseybeat bands like the Beatles , or from the parallel beat scene in Manchester , were influenced by American forms of music that included rockabilly , girl groups and the early Motown sound , helping them to produce commercial orientated form of music that began to dominate the British charts from 1963 . However , bands from the developing London club scene were mainly concerned to emulate black rhythm and blues performers , including the work of Chess Records ' blues artists like Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf , but also wider rhythm and blues singer and rock and roll pioneers like Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley resulting in a " rawer " or " grittier " sound .
British rhythm and blues differed in tone from that of African American artists , often with more emphasis on guitars and sometimes with greater energy . British rhythm and blues singers were criticised for their emulation of rhythm and blues vocal styles , with shouts , glottal stops , moans and cries . However , vocalists such as Van Morrison , Mick Jagger , Eric Burdon and Steve Winwood did not attempt to emulate a particular singer and were seen by critics as able to sing the blues convincingly and with some power . In cover versions of R & B songs , riffs were often simplified or used less frequently . The object of the music was usually to whip up energy , rather than to produce musical finesse . Many groups were based around guitars ( rhythm , lead and bass ) and drums and as a result arrangements tended to be guitar @-@ oriented and at higher tempos than the originals . Amplification of guitars to the highest levels of underpowered amplifiers created the over @-@ driven guitar sound that would become characteristic of rock music .
Nick Logan and Bob Woffinden noted that after the split of Blues Incorporated at the end of 1962 , four main strands could be discerned in British Rhythm and Blues . Cyril Davies left to attempt to recreate the Chicago electric blues of Muddy Waters . The style would be the major influence on the later emergence of the blues boom , particularly through the work of John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers . Alexis Korner continued with Blues Incorporated , bringing in jazz saxophonist Graham Bond and developing a more jazz orientated sound . This strand would be taken up by acts including the Graham Bond Organisation , Manfred Mann and Zoot Money . A unique form was pursued by Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames , who as the resident band at the Flamingo club on Wardour Street , unusual in having a predominantly black audience of American GIs and locals , also utilised jazz , but mixed R & B with elements of Caribbean music , including Ska and bluebeat . The Rolling Stones and others focused on rocking guitar music based on the work of Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley and would be followed by many small guitar and drum based groups , many of which would rapidly move into rock music .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the early 1950s blues music was largely known in Britain through blues @-@ influenced boogie @-@ woogie , and the jump blues of Fats Waller and Louis Jordan . Imported recordings of American artists were brought over by African American servicemen stationed in Britain during and after World War II , merchant seamen visiting the ports of London , Liverpool , Newcastle on Tyne and Belfast , and in a trickle of ( illegal ) imports . From 1955 major British record labels HMV and EMI ( the latter , particularly through their subsidiary Decca Records ) , began to distribute American jazz and increasingly blues records to the emerging market .
Outside of recordings , occasional radio broadcasts were one of the few ways that British people could become familiar with the blues . A one @-@ off broadcast by Josh White while he was visiting Britain in 1951 was so popular that he was asked to perform for a series of programmes for the BBC , eventually titled The Glory Road and broadcast in 1952 . Later that year , folk song collector Alan Lomax , then resident in London , produced a series of three programmes under the title The Art of the Negro , of last of which , " Blues in the Mississippi Night " featured folk blues recordings by artists including Muddy Waters , Robert Johnson and John Lee Hooker and was the first introduction of many later followers of the blues to the music and hardships of life for African Americans in the Southern US . The next year the Jazz Club programme , hosted by Max Jones , included a recital of " Town and Country Blues " , which played music by a wide range of blues artists .
= = = Jazz = = =
The British rhythm and blues scene developed in London out of the related jazz , skiffle and folk club scenes of the 1950s . The first of these scenes , that of jazz , had developed during the Second World War as a reaction to swing , consciously re @-@ introducing older elements of American jazz , particularly that of New Orleans to produce trad jazz . This music incorporated elements of the blues and occasional blues @-@ influenced singles reached the British Charts , including Humphrey Lyttelton 's self @-@ penned " Bad Penny Blues " ( 1956 ) , the first jazz record to reach the British top 20 .
British trad jazz band @-@ leader Chris Barber was one of the major figures in the development and popularisation of rhythm and blues in Britain the 1950s . His interest in the blues would help foster both the skiffle craze and the development of electric rhythm and blues , as members of his dance band would be fundamental to both movements . He founded the National Jazz League partly as a means of popularising the blues , served as co @-@ director of the National Jazz Federation and helped establish the Marquee Club , which would become one of the major venues for British R & B bands . He also brought over American folk and blues performers who found they were much better known and paid in Europe than America , a series of tours that began with Josh White and Big Bill Broonzy in 1951 , and would include Brownie McGhee , Sonny Terry , Memphis Slim , Muddy Waters and Lonnie Johnson .
= = = Skiffle = = =
Lonnie Johnson played at the Royal Festival Hall in 1952 on a bill opened by a group led by the young Tony Donegan , who later took Johnson 's forename as his own . Donegan became the key figure in the development of the British skiffle " craze " , beginning in Ken Colyer 's Jazzmen by playing American folk and blues songs , particularly those derived from the recordings of Huddie Leadbetter , during intervals to the accompaniment of guitar , washboard and tea @-@ chest bass in a lively style that emulated American jug bands . After Colyer left in 1954 to form a new outfit , the band became Chris Barber 's Jazz Band , and members of the band played " race blues " songs in concert intervals and recorded as The Lonnie Donegan Skiffle Group . They released their high @-@ tempo version of Leadbelly 's " Rock Island Line " in 1956 and it became a major hit , spending eight months in the Top 20 , peaking at number six ( and number eight in the U.S. ) . It was the first début record to go gold in Britain , selling over a million copies worldwide . This stimulated the explosion of the British " skiffle craze " and it has been estimated that in the late 1950s there were 30 – 50 @,@ 000 skiffle groups in Britain . Sales of guitars grew rapidly and groups performed on banjos , improvised bass and percussion in church halls , cafes and the flourishing coffee bars of Soho , London . In addition to members of the Beatles , a large number of British rhythm and blues musicians began their careers playing skiffle , including Van Morrison , Ronnie Wood , Mick Jagger and Roger Daltrey . The fashion created a demand for opportunities to play versions of American folk , blues and jazz music that would contribute to the growth of a club scene .
= = = Folk = = =
Until the mid @-@ 1950s in Britain the blues was seen as a form of folk music . When Broonzy toured England he played a folk blues set to fit British expectations of American blues , rather than his current electric Chicago blues . Skiffle clubs included the ‘ Ballad and Blues ’ club in a pub in Soho , co @-@ founded by Ewan MacColl . In its early stages these clubs saw the playing of British and American folk music that included folk blues . As the skiffle craze subsided from the mid @-@ 1950s many of these clubs , following the lead of MacColl , began to shift towards the performance of English traditional folk material , partly as a reaction to the growth of American dominated pop and rock n ’ roll music , often banning American music from performances and became more exclusively English folk clubs .
The more traditional American folk blues continued to provide 1960s British groups with material , particularly after the emergence of Bob Dylan , who also popularised folk blues songs . In 1964 , for example , the song @-@ catalogue of Huddie Ledbetter ( " Leadbelly " ) provided The Animals with " The House of the Rising Sun " , Manfred Mann with " John Hardy " and The Four Pennies with " Black Girl " . British acoustic blues continued to develop as part of the folk scene . In the early 1960s , folk guitar pioneers Bert Jansch , John Renbourn and particularly Davy Graham , played blues , folk and jazz , developing a distinctive guitar style known as folk baroque . It continued with figures like Ian A. Anderson and his Country Blues Band , and Al Jones . Most British acoustic blues players could achieve little commercial success and found it difficult to gain recognition for their " imitations " of the blues in the US , being overshadowed by the rhythm and blues and electric blues that had emerged in the later 1950s .
= = = Development = = =
= = = = Blues Incorporated = = = =
Blues harpist Cyril Davies ran the London Skiffle Club at the Roundhouse public house in London ’ s Soho , which served as a focal point for British skiffle acts . Like guitarist Alexis Korner , he had worked for Chris Barber , playing in the R & B segment Barber introduced to his show and as part of the supporting band for visiting US artists . They began to play together as a duo and in 1957 , deciding their central interest was blues , they closed the skiffle club and reopened a month later as The London Blues and Barrelhouse Club . It acted as a venue for visiting artists and their own performances . The visit of Muddy Waters in 1958 had a major impact on the duo and on the nature of British R & B in general . Initially British audiences were shocked by Waters 's amplified electric blues , but he was soon playing to ecstatic crowds and receiving rave reviews . Where British blues had often emulated Delta blues and country blues in the emerging British folk revival , Davies and Korner , who had supported Waters on tour , now began to play high @-@ powered electric blues , forming the band Blues Incorporated .
Blues Incorporated had a fluid line up and became a clearing house for British rhythm and blues musicians in the later 1950s and early 1960s . These included future members of the Rolling Stones , The Yardbirds , Manfred Mann and The Kinks ; beside Graham Bond and Long John Baldry . As well as acting as a mentor to these figures and others , including John Mayall and Jimmy Page , Korner was also a historian , writer and record collector pivotal in the growth of the movement , and often referred to as " the father of British blues " . Blues Incorporated established a regular " Rhythm and Blues Night " at the Ealing Jazz Club and were given a residency at the Marquee Club , from which in 1962 they took the name of the first British blues album , R & B from the Marquee ( Decca ) , but Korner and Davies had split over the issue of including horn sections in the Blues Incorporated sound before its release . Korner continued with various line @-@ ups for Blues Incorporated , while Davies went on to form his R & B All Stars .
= = = = Expansion of the scene = = = =
Early British rhythm and blues bands like Blues Incorporated found that folk clubs would not accept amplified blues performances . However , many London trad jazz clubs moved over to the style . In addition to the Roundhouse and the Marquee in central London , these included The Flamingo , the Crawdaddy Club , Richmond , where the Rolling Stones first began to gain attention , Klooks Kleek , The Ealing Club and the Eel Pie Island Hotel . Blues clubs were appearing in the capital at such a rate that in 1963 Melody Maker declared London " The New Chicago ! " . The scene soon began to spread out beyond London , particularly into East Anglia and the Midlands , with clubs in Norwich and Birmingham adopting the genre . Jazz bands also followed suit , with the Mike Cotton Jazz Band becoming the Mike Cotton Sound , Warwick 's Tony and the Talons becoming the Original Roadrunners and Burton on Trent 's Atlantix becoming Rhythm and Blues Incorporated .
From 1962 demand for blues recordings in Britain and Europe led to new outlets for American recordings , Chicago recordings that were now available included Vee Jay Records through EMI 's Stateside label and Chess Records through Pye International 's R & B series . These records were enthusiastically sought and collected by a new generation of enthusiasts . The increasing appetite for rhythm and blues was reflected in the growing numbers of Afro @-@ American artists visiting the country . From 1962 the American Folk Blues Festival , organised by German promoters Horst Lippmann and Fritz Rau , brought American blues stars including Waters , Wolf , Sonny Boy Williamson , and John Lee Hooker to the country . In 1964 the American Folk Blues and Gospel Caravan arrived in the UK for an 11 @-@ date tour , including in its line @-@ up Sister Rosetta Tharpe , Blind Gary Davis , Sonny Terry , Muddy Waters and Otis Spann . The original dates sold out rapidly and six more had to be added . Later that year , the first of what was to become the annual National Jazz and Blues Festival was held at Reading in Berkshire .
= = = = Peak = = = =
1964 was the year of most rapid expansion and the peak of the British R & B boom . It has been estimated that there were 300 rhythm and blues bands in England at the beginning of the year and over 2 @,@ 000 by the end . In June 1964 John Lee Hooker 's 1956 " Dimples " reached number 23 on the UK charts during a stay of 10 weeks . The song was chosen by The Spencer Davis Group as their May 1964 debut single and The Animals covered it on their first album . Howling Wolf 's " Smokestack Lightning " , released in the UK by Pye International Records that year , peaked at number 42 in the singles chart and was covered by The Yardbirds , Manfred Mann , The Animals and The Who . On 5 December 1964 the Rolling Stones version of Willie Dixon 's " Little Red Rooster " , based on Howlin ' Wolf 's 1961 version and recorded at Chess Records in Chicago , topped the UK chart for one week . Willie Dixon @-@ penned songs would continue to be covered by British artists .
= = = Major acts = = =
= = = = The Rolling Stones = = = =
The most commercially successful act in the genre , were the Rolling Stones . Keith Richards and Mick Jagger , who had renewed their childhood association after discovering a shared interest in R & B records , were introduced to guitarist Brian Jones through Alexis Korner , after a Blues Incorporated gig at the Ealing Jazz Club . Blues Incorporated contained two other future members of the Rolling Stones : Ian Stewart and Charlie Watts . Formed in London in 1962 , Jones took their name from a track on the cover of a Muddy Waters album and they abandoned blues purism before their line @-@ up solidified to focus on a wide range of rhythm and blues artists . They debuted at The Marquee and soon gained a residency at the Crawdaddy Club , building up a reputation as a live act . They signed a recording contract with Decca and their first single was a cover of Chuck Berry 's " Come On " released in June 1963 . Despite its being virtually unpromoted by the band or the record company , their reputation among R & B fans helped it reached number 21 on the UK singles chart .
They produced their first eponymously titled album in 1964 , which largely consisted of rhythm and blues standards . Following in the wake of the Beatles ' national and then international success , the Rolling Stones soon established themselves as the second most popular UK band and joined the British Invasion of the American record charts as leaders of a second wave of R & B oriented bands . In addition to Chicago blues numbers , the Rolling Stones also covered songs by Chuck Berry and Bobby and Shirley Womack , the latter 's , " It 's All Over Now " , giving them their first UK number one in 1964 . After the success of their cover of " Little Red Rooster " in 1964 , the song @-@ writing partnership between Jagger and Richards gradually began to dominate the band 's output , giving them their breakthrough international hit " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction ( 1965 ) , a song which borrowed phrases and rhythms from R & B standards , and would be covered by both Otis Redding and Aretha Franklin . The importance of the writing partnership contributed to the marginalisation of Jones and marked a shift away from R & B material . They would investigate a series of new musical styles in their long career , but blues songs and influences continued to surface in the Rolling Stones ' music .
= = = = Other London bands = = = =
Other London @-@ based bands that pursued a similar course to the Rolling Stones included the Yardbirds , the Kinks , the Downliners Sect , the Pretty Things and Pink Floyd .
The Yardbirds began as the Metropolis Blues Quartet . By 1963 they had acquired Eric Clapton as a lead guitarist and were acting as the backing band for Sonny Boy Williamson on his British tour . They earned a formidable reputation as a live act , developing frantic improvised guitar – harmonica " rave @-@ ups " , but they enjoyed only modest success with singles based on R & B covers . In 1965 they cut the more pop @-@ oriented single " For Your Love " , which made the top 10 in the UK and US , but the move away from the blues prompted Clapton to quit the band for a stint with John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers and then to form Cream . His replacement Jeff Beck ( and eventually his replacement Jimmy Page ) , saw the band enjoy a series of transatlantic hits and to go on to become pioneers of psychedelic rock .
After an early lack of success with R & B standards , the Kinks enjoyed their breakthrough with the single " You Really Got Me " ( 1964 ) . It was written by Ray Davies , provided a model for later riff @-@ based hard rock , and reached number one in the UK and the top 10 in the US . The follow @-@ up " All Day and All of the Night " ( 1964 ) reached number two in the US , while the band also released two full @-@ length albums and several EPs in this period .
The Downliners Sect formed in 1963 , and developed a strong reputation in London clubs , but had less commercial success than many of their contemporaries .
The Pretty Things had UK hits with " Don 't Bring Me Down " ( 1964 ) and the self penned " Honey I Need " ( 1965 ) , which both reached the top twenty , but they failed to break into the American market and would be chiefly remembered for their later psychedelic work .
The Pink Floyd began as rhythm and blues outfit the Tea Set , adopting a new name based on those of blues musicians Floyd Council and Pink Anderson and playing the London blues clubs from 1966 . By the time they began to record they had already moved on to psychedelic compositions and jams that would make them a central feature of the emerging London Underground scene .
= = = = Provincial groups = = = =
Bands to emerge from other major British cities included The Animals from Newcastle , Them from Belfast and the Spencer Davis Group and The Moody Blues from Birmingham . None of these bands played exclusively rhythm and blues , often relying on sources that included Brill Building and girl group songs for their hit singles , but it remained at the core of their early albums .
The Animals ' sound was characterised by the keyboards of Alan Price and the powerful vocals of Eric Burdon . They moved to London in 1964 and released a series of successful singles , beginning with transatlantic hit " House of the Rising Sun " , mixing more commercial folk and soul , while their albums were dominated by blues standards .
Them , with their vocalist and multi @-@ instrumentalist Van Morrison , had a series of hits with " Baby , Please Don 't Go " ( 1964 ) , which reached the top 10 in the UK , and " Here Comes the Night " ( 1965 ) , which made the top 40 in the U.S. , but perhaps their most enduring legacy was the B @-@ side " Gloria " , which became a garage rock standard .
The Spencer Davis Group had their first UK number one with the Jackie Edwards penned " Keep on Running " ( 1965 ) , but became largely a vehicle for the young keyboard player and vocalist Steve Winwood , who at only 18 co @-@ wrote " Gimme Some Lovin ' " ( 1967 ) and " I 'm a Man " ( 1967 ) , both of which reached the Billboard 100 top 10 and became R & B standards .
The Moody Blues had only one major R & B hit with a cover of " Go Now " ( 1964 ) , which reached number one in the UK and number ten in the US . Subsequent singles failed to penetrate the top 20 and hardly broke the top 100 in the US , marking a steep decline in the band 's fortunes . However , they would return after line @-@ up changes to be one of the most important psychedelic rock bands and a major influence on progressive rock .
= = = = Mod groups = = = =
The British Mod subculture , which was at its height in 1965 and 1966 , was musically centred on rhythm and blues and later soul music , but the artists that performed the original music were not available in small London clubs around which the scene was based . British R & B bands like the Stones , Yardbirds and Kinks had a following among mods but a large number of specifically mod bands also emerged to fill this gap . These included The Small Faces , The Creation , The Action , The Smoke , John 's Children and most successfully The Who . The Who 's early promotional material tagged them as producing " maximum rhythm and blues " , but by about 1966 they moved from attempting to emulate American R & B to producing songs that reflected the Mod lifestyle . Many of these bands were able to enjoy cult and then national success in the UK , but found it difficult to break into the American market . Only the Who managed , after some difficulty , to produce a significant US following , particularly after their appearances at the Monterey Pop Festival ( 1967 ) and Woodstock ( 1969 ) .
= = = = Jazz @-@ influenced acts = = = =
Among more jazz @-@ influenced acts the Organisation were led by Graham Bond 's organ and saxophone playing and gruff vocals . Their rhythm section of Jack Bruce and Ginger Baker would go on to form Cream with Eric Clapton in 1967 . Manfred Mann had a much smoother sound and one of the most highly rated vocalists in the scene in Paul Jones . They enjoyed their first success with covers of girl group songs " Do Wah Diddy Diddy " ( 1964 ) and " Sha La La " ( 1964 ) , the first of which reached number one in both the UK and the US , but largely stuck to rhythm and blues standards on their albums . Zoot Money , whose Big Roll Band mixed R & B , soul , rock and roll and jazz , and was one of the most popular live acts of the era , made little impact in terms of record sales , but is noted for the later successes of its members , including guitarist Andy Summers , pianist Dave Greenslade , drummer Jon Hiseman , bassist Tony Reeves and saxophonist Clive Burrows . Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames mixed jazz , ska and bluebeat into his music and had three number one singles in the UK , beginning with " Yeh Yeh " ( 1965 ) .
= = = = African @-@ Caribbean and Afro @-@ American artists = = = =
A number of visiting black stars became part of the British R & B scene . These included Geno Washington , an American singer stationed in England with the Air Force . He was invited to join what became Geno Washington & The Ram Jam Band by guitarist Pete Gage in 1965 and enjoyed top 40 hit singles and two top 10 albums before the band split up in 1969 . Another American GI , Herbie Goins , sang with Blues Incorporated before leading his own band , the Nightimers . Jimmy James , born in Jamaica , moved to London after two local number one hits with The Vagabonds in 1960 and built a strong reputation as a live act , releasing a live album and their debut The New Religion in 1966 and achieving moderate success with singles before the original Vagabonds broke up in 1970 . Champion Jack Dupree was a New Orleans blues and boogie woogie pianist , who toured Europe and settled there from 1960 , living in Switzerland and Denmark , then in Halifax , England in the 1970s and 1980s , before finally settling in Germany .
The most significant and successful visiting artist was Jimi Hendrix who in early 1966 , after years on the chitlin circuit as sideman for major R & B acts as well as playing in bands in New York , was invited to England to record as a solo artist by former Animals bassist Chas Chandler . With Mitch Mitchell on drums and Noel Redding on bass , the band formed around him as The Jimi Hendrix Experience became major stars in the UK , with three top ten hits in early 1967 @.@ it was followed later that year by the psychedelic album Are You Experienced ? , which became a major hit in the US after Hendrix 's triumphant return at the Monterey Pop Festival and made him one of the major figures of late 60s rock .
= = = = Solo artists = = = =
A number of solo artists who emerged from the British R & B scene would go on to highly successful careers in the later 1960s and 1970s . These included Long John Baldry , Rod Stewart and Elton John . After the dissolution of Blues Incorporated in 1962 Long John Baldry joined the Cyril Davies R & B All Stars , and after Davies ' death in early 1964 took over leadership of the group , renaming it Long John Baldry and His Hoochie Coochie Men . The band featured Rod Stewart as a second vocalist , with whom Baldry formed short lived proto @-@ supergroup Steampacket in 1965 . Baldry moved on to front Bluesology , which had originally been formed as an R & B band in 1962 by teenage keyboardist Reggie Dwight , later better known as Elton John . Baldry enjoyed his greatest success with pop ballads , beginning with " Let the Heartaches Begin " ( 1967 ) , which reached number one in Britain , but , despite supporting the Beatles and the Rolling Stones , he remained virtually unknown outside of the UK . After Steampacket dissolved in 1966 , Rod Stewart joined blues @-@ rock combo Shotgun Express and then The Jeff Beck Group , and when that broke up in 1969 he moved on to The Small Faces , which became The Faces , and also began to pursue his solo career , mixing R & B with rock and folk , to become one of the most successful British solo artists of the 1970s . Elton John , taking his first name from Bluesology saxophonist Elton Dean and his last from John Baldry , formed a partnership with lyricist Bernie Taupin in 1968 and after writing hits for major pop artists embarked on a solo career that would be the most commercially successful of the early 1970s and one of the most sustained in pop music .
= = = = British blues boom = = = =
The wider rhythm and blues boom overlapped , both chronologically and in terms of personnel , with the later and more narrowly focused British blues boom . The blues boom began to come to prominence in the mid @-@ 1960s as the rhythm and blues movement began to peter out leaving a nucleus of instrumentalists with a wide knowledge of blues forms and techniques . Central to the blues boom were John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , who began to gain national and international attention after the release of Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton ( Beano ) album ( 1966 ) , considered one of the seminal British blues recordings . Peter Green started a " second great epoch of British blues " , as he replaced Clapton in the Bluesbreakers after Clapton 's departure to form Cream .
In 1967 , after one record with the Bluesbreakers , Green , with the Bluesbreakers ' rhythm section Mick Fleetwood and John McVie , formed Peter Green 's Fleetwood Mac . Mike Vernon , who had produced the " Beano " album set up the Blue Horizon record label and signed Fleetwood Mac and other emerging blues acts . Other major acts included Free , Ten Years After , and Duster Bennett . Fleetwood Mac 's eponymous début album reached the UK top 5 in early 1968 and as the instrumental " Albatross " reached number one in the single charts in early 1969 . Chicken Shack , formed at the peak of the boom in 1965 by Stan Webb , were unusual in having a female vocalist and keyboard player in Christine Perfect . They had a British hit with Etta James ' R & B classic " I 'd Rather Go Blind " in 1969 , before Perfect left to join her husband John McVie in Fleetwood Mac , but remained largely focused on blues standards . The band then suffered a series of line @-@ up changes and , although managing a comeback on the club circuit , they never achieved another mainstream breakthrough and split up in 1973 . The last years of the 1960s were , as Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz put it , " the commercial apex of the British blues boom " .
= = = Decline = = =
By 1967 most of the surviving major British R & B acts had moved away from covers and R & B @-@ inspired music to psychedelic rock , and from there they would shift into new subgenres . Some , like Jethro Tull followed bands like the Moody Blues away from 12 @-@ bar structures and harmonicas into complex , classical @-@ influenced progressive rock . Members of the next generation of blues @-@ based bands , including Led Zeppelin , Deep Purple and Black Sabbath , played a loud form of blues @-@ influenced rock , would lead to the development of hard rock and ultimately heavy metal . Some , like Mayall , continued to play a " pure " form of the blues , but largely outside of mainstream notice . The structure of clubs , venues and festivals that had grown up in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Britain virtually disappeared in the 1970s . By 1970 British rhythm and blues had virtually ceased to exist as an active genre . Rhythm and blues bands began to find it very difficult to achieve serious album sales , even in the UK . Vinegar Joe , formed in 1971 around the vocals of Elkie Brooks and Robert Palmer and the instrumental talents of Pete Gage and Steve York , despite popular stage performances , broke up after only three albums with disappointing sales two years later .
= = = Revivals = = =
British R & B continued to be played in the Northern Soul club scene , where early soul records , particularly those of Motown , were highly prized . There were also bands on the London pub rock circuit . Occasional R & B @-@ based pub rock acts like Dr Feelgood managed to build a following through tireless touring . They topped the British charts with live album Stupidity ( 1976 ) , but failed to make a significant impact in the US . With the rise of disco music , British soul music became popular in the mid @-@ late 1970s .
A handful of pub rock acts managed to achieve mainstream success after the advent of punk rock , often being re @-@ categorised as new wave music , including Graham Parker and the Rumour , Nick Lowe , Squeeze and Elvis Costello . London @-@ based R & B pub rock bands received a major boost when The Jam kicked off the mod revival in 1977 with their debut album In the City , which mixed R & B standards with originals modelled on The Who 's early singles . They confirmed their status as the leading mod revival band with their third album All Mod Cons ( 1978 ) , on which Paul Weller 's song @-@ writing drew heavily on the British @-@ focused narratives of the Kinks . Pub rock bands like Red Beans and Rice , The Little Roosters , The Inmates , Nine Below Zero and Eddie and the Hot Rods , became major acts in the growing mod revival scene in London . Other bands grew up to feed the desire for mod music , often combining the music of 60s mod groups with elements of punk music , including The Lambrettas , The Merton Parkas , Squire , and Purple Hearts . These acts managed to develop cult followings and some had pop hits , before the revival petered out in the early 80s . Weller broke up The Jam in 1982 and formed The Style Council , who abandoned most of the elements of punk to adopt music much more based in R & B and early soul . Some major figures of the movement , including Robert Palmer and Steve Winwood , re @-@ emerged as solo artists in the early 1980s , being as defined as blue @-@ eyed soul singers .
In 1979 , Dave Kelly , who had been a member of the John Dummer Blues Band formed The Blues Band with ex @-@ Manfred Mann vocalist Paul Jones and Gary Fletcher , who continued to tour and record rhythm and blues into the new millennium . Roots music , including rhythm and blues , began to enjoy another resurgence of interest towards the end of the 1980s and in the 1990s . Annual blues festivals were established , including The Great British Rhythm and Blues Festival , held at Colne in Lancashire from 1989 , which hosts both US and British R & B acts . In 1994 Jools Holland , former keyboard player with Squeeze and presenter of the highly influential TV show Later ... , reshaped his backing band as Jools Holland 's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra and , as well as supporting him on the show , they embarked on a series of tours . After leaving the Rolling Stones in 1997 Bill Wyman formed the Rhythm Kings , which featured guitarists Peter Frampton and Albert Lee as well former Procol Harum keyboardist Gary Brooker , touring and producing a series of R & B based albums . By 2000 the fanzine Blues Matters ! had managed to become a regular glossy magazine .
During the 1980s and 1990s musicians , particularly African Americans , mixed pop with disco like beats and high tech electronic production to produce the new genre of contemporary R & B , adding elements of other genres , including funk , hip hop , and soul music . In the 2000s , British artists began to enjoy success with the genre , including Craig David and Estelle . Much of the music produced by modern British R & B artists tend to incorporate electropop sounds , as exemplified by artists such as Jay Sean and Taio Cruz . In the 2000s ( decade ) there was success in the US for British female artists who mixed soul music with elements of rhythm and blues , including Amy Winehouse , Duffy , Leona Lewis and Adele , leading to talk of another " R & B British invasion " .
= = Significance = =
Because of the very different circumstances from which they came , and in which they played , the rhythm and blues produced by British artists was very different in tone from that created by African Americans , often with more emphasis on guitars and sometimes with greater energy . They have been criticised for exploiting the massive catalogue of African American music , but it has also been noted that they both popularised that music , bringing it to British , world and in some cases American audiences , and helping to build the reputation of existing and past rhythm and blues artists . In order to sustain their careers most British R & B artists soon moved on from recording and performing American standards to writing and recording their own music . Many from the 60s helped pioneer psychedelic , and eventually progressive , hard rock and heavy metal , mixing in elements of world , folk and classical music . Others from the 1970s and 1980s , helped shape new wave and post @-@ punk music and had a major impact on later genres , including Britpop . As a result , British rhythm and blues has been a major component of the sound of rock music .
= = UK chart hits = =
This table lists recordings that made the UK Singles Chart in the early 1960s , by British groups , of material previously recorded by American rhythm and blues musicians :
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= Oryzomys nelsoni =
Oryzomys nelsoni is an extinct rodent of María Madre Island , Nayarit , Mexico . Within the genus Oryzomys of the family Cricetidae , it may have been most closely related to the mainland species O. albiventer . Since its first description in 1898 , most authors have regarded it as a distinct species , but it has also been classified as a mere subspecies of the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) .
After its discovery in 1897 , it has never been recorded again and it is now considered extinct ; the presence of introduced black rats on María Madre may have contributed to its extinction . Oryzomys nelsoni was a large species , distinguished in particular by its long tail , robust skull , and large incisors . It was reddish to yellowish above and mostly white below . Its diet may have included plant material and small animals .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys nelsoni was collected by Edward William Nelson and Edward Goldman in May 1897 and never found again . Their visit for the Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture was one of the first scientific explorations of the islands . Clinton Hart Merriam identified the mammals they obtained , including four specimens of Oryzomys nelsoni , which were deposited in the United States National Museum and remain there . He named it as a species of the genus Oryzomys , Oryzomys nelsoni ; the specific name honors Nelson . Investigators have generally retained it as a species distinct from other Oryzomys , but in 1971 Hershkovitz listed it as one of many subspecies of Oryzomys palustris , which he envisaged as a wide @-@ ranging species encompassing what is now the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the southern and eastern United States , O. couesi of Central America , and several other species with more limited distributions .
In his 1918 revision of North American Oryzomys , Goldman considered O. nelsoni to be most closely related to the nearest mainland subspecies of O. couesi , O. couesi mexicanus . In 2009 , Michael Carleton and Joaquin Arroyo @-@ Cabrales revised the Oryzomys of western Mexico and confirmed that O. nelsoni is a very distinct species . Their morphometrical analysis found some resemblance between the species and Oryzomys albiventer of interior mainland Mexico , and they suggested that although O. nelsoni likely represents an old , distinctive lineage , it may have derived from a common ancestor with O. albiventer .
Oryzomys nelsoni is one of about eight species in the genus Oryzomys , which occurs from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. nelsoni is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were progressively removed in various studies culminating in a contribution by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than forty species from the genus . All are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
Common names proposed for this species include Nelson rice rat , Nelson 's rice rat , Nelson 's oryzomys , and Tres Marias Island rice rat .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys nelsoni was a large and long @-@ tailed Oryzomys ; its tail was longer than that of any other western Mexican Oryzomys . The upperparts were ochraceous to buff , most richly so on the rump , and paler further to the front and low on the flanks . On the head and the back , blackish hairs somewhat darkened the overall color . The underparts were white , with lead @-@ colored underfur that was visible in some places . The ears were covered on both sides with scanty grayish hairs . The large hindfeet were sparsely covered with pale hairs . The tail was largely dark , but the underside of the basal one third to one half was light yellow .
Oryzomys nelsoni was distinctive in its large skull with broad , well @-@ developed incisors and a strong front part ( rostrum ) that is strongly curved downwards . In O. albiventer , the rostrum and incisors were not as massive , but the molars are larger . The interparietal bone , part of the roof of the braincase , was broad and the incisive foramina , which perforated the palate between the incisors and the molars , were relatively short .
Total length in the four known specimens is 282 to 344 mm ( 11 @.@ 1 to 13 @.@ 5 in ) , averaging 322 mm ( 12 @.@ 7 in ) ; head and body length is 122 to 153 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 140 @.@ 5 mm ( 5 @.@ 53 in ) ; tail length is 160 to 191 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 in ) , averaging 181 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 15 in ) ; and hindfoot length is 35 to 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) , averaging 37 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 47 in ) .
= = Ecology and extinction = =
Nelson and Goldman found the species only in a damp , herbaceous site now known as the " Sacatal " near a spring high on María Madre Island , the largest of the Islas Marías off the coast of Nayarit , western Mexico , and Nelson wrote that it was rare . He gave the elevation of this place as 1800 ft , which Álvarez @-@ Castañeda and Méndez converted to 550 m , but in his 1918 paper , Goldman gave 800 ft instead , which Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales in 2009 converted to 245 m . The next survey of small mammals on the island took place in March 1976 by a team led by Don E. Wilson . They failed to collect O. nelsoni and instead found only the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) at the locality where Nelson and Goldman had collected O. nelsoni ; this species may have contributed to the decline of the indigenous rodent .
The species is now considered extinct , although as late as 2002 the Mexican government listed it as " threatened " . Another Islas Marías endemic , the deermouse Peromyscus madrensis , still occurred on María Madre in 1976 . Oryzomys nelsoni is thought to have fed on plant material such as weeds , fruit , and seeds , and more rarely on animals such as fish and invertebrates .
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= The Volcano ( British Columbia ) =
The Volcano , also known as Lava Fork volcano , is a small cinder cone in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains in northwestern British Columbia , Canada . It is located approximately 60 km ( 40 mi ) northwest of the small community of Stewart near the head of Lava Fork . With a summit elevation of 1 @,@ 656 m ( 5 @,@ 433 ft ) and a topographic prominence of 311 m ( 1 @,@ 020 ft ) , it rises above the surrounding rugged landscape on a remote mountain ridge that represents the northern flank of a glaciated U @-@ shaped valley .
Lava Fork volcano is associated with a small group of related volcanoes called the Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones . This forms part of the much larger Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , which extends from the Alaska – Yukon border to near the port city of Prince Rupert , British Columbia . Eruptive activity at The Volcano is relatively young compared to most other volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province . Geologic studies have shown that The Volcano and its eruptive products were emplaced in the past 400 years ; this is well after the last glacial period , which ended about 10 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = Geology = =
The Volcano is the southernmost of 10 volcanoes comprising the Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones volcanic field , as well as the most recent to erupt . Its structure is poorly formed and has been reduced by erosion from alpine glacial ice found at its elevation and latitude . It represents one of the few historically active volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , with a base elevation estimated to be 100 m ( 330 ft ) . Like most cinder cones , The Volcano consists of a pile of loose volcanic ash , lapilli @-@ sized tephra and volcanic bombs . These were deposited during periods of lava fountain activity . The vent area contains volcanic bombs up to 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) long and small deposits of sulfur precipitated from volcanic gases .
Like other Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones , The Volcano has its origins in continental rifting — a long rupture in the Earth 's crust where the lithosphere is being pulled apart . This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault , on its way to the Aleutian Trench . As the continental crust stretches , the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults . Basaltic magma rises along these fractures to create effusive eruptions . The rift zone has existed for at least 14 @.@ 9 million years , and has created the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province . Several dormant volcanoes in the province are potentially active , with The Volcano being one of the three having erupted in the last few hundred years . Tseax Cone , which last erupted in the 18th century , is the southernmost volcano in the province , while Prindle Volcano in easternmost @-@ central Alaska , which erupted more than 10 @,@ 000 years ago , is generally considered the northernmost .
= = = Volcanic history = = =
At least two phases of volcanic activity have been identified at The Volcano . Each event was followed by the eruption of lengthy basaltic lava flows that flowed down steep granitic flanks of the mountain ridge on which The Volcano lies . After this took place , they travelled through the Lava Fork valley for 5 km ( 3 mi ) . Here , the flows crossed the British Columbia border into the U.S. state of Alaska and blocked the Blue River , a tributary of the Unuk River , forming several lakes . The lava flows in total are about 22 km ( 14 mi ) long and still contain their original features from when they cooled , including pressure ridges and lava channels . A series of large trees were engulfed by the lava flows during eruption . The bases of the trees burned and the upper trunks and branches collapsed into the solidifing lava , leaving the trees embedded on the surface of the lava flows . After the flows solidified , tree molds and lava tubes collapsed to form volcanic pits . At the southern end of one of the lava flows , it spreads into a broad terminal lobe on the flat alluvial plain of the Unuk River . Volcanic ash and lava from The Volcano still linger on small glaciers near Mount Lewis Cass , a 2 @,@ 094 m ( 6 @,@ 870 ft ) high mountain near the Alaska @-@ British Columbia border .
At least one lava flow from The Volcano was notified by a surveyor named Fremont Morse in 1905 during a survey for the International Boundary Commission . In 1906 , Morse wrote that the most recently erupted lava flow had " probably occurred within less than fifty years " . Since Morse 's report , tree ring and radiocarbon dating techniques have been used to establish the dates of The Volcano 's two volcanic phases . The first is estimated to have occurred about 360 years ago and the latest possibly took place only 150 years ago . This indicates that The Volcano is the youngest known volcanic mountain in Canada and that its volcanic activity is recent compared to many other volcanoes in British Columbia . In several documents , the last eruption of The Volcano is written to have occurred in 1904 . However , according to the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program , this eruption is considered uncertain .
Although The Volcano is estimated to have last erupted 150 years ago , it is one of the five volcanoes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province that have recorded seismicity since 1985 . Others include Castle Rock ( two events ) , Hoodoo Mountain ( eight events ) , Crow Lagoon ( four events ) and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex ( eight events ) . Seismic data suggest that these volcanoes still contain active magma chambers , indicating that some Northern Cordilleran volcanoes are probably active , with significant potential hazards . The seismic activity corresponds both with some of Canada 's recently formed volcanoes and with persistent volcanoes that have had major explosive activity throughout their history , such as Hoodoo Mountain and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex .
= = Human history = =
= = = Naming controversy = = =
The name of the peak was suggested by an explorer named Chris Dickinson during the Cambridge Coast Mountains Expedition in 1979 . It was adopted on November 24 , 1980 , and has been its official name since then . However , this name for the peak does not normally show up in any volcanological resources . Instead , it is informally referred to as Lava Fork or Lava Fork volcano due to its close association with the creek of the same name . The reason for this controversy is because The Volcano is generic . In speech it may not be obvious whether The Volcano or the volcano is intended , leading to confusion . Similar named volcanoes in Canada include Volcano Vent in the Tuya volcanic field of northwestern British Columbia and Volcano Mountain in the Fort Selkirk volcanic field of central Yukon . As of 2009 , the unofficial terms for The Volcano continue to be used by Natural Resources Canada .
= = = Protection and monitoring = = =
The Volcano , its eruptive products and a large mineral spring are protected in Lava Forks Provincial Park . Founded in 2001 as a Class A provincial park , this highly remote park covers an area of 7 @,@ 000 ha ( 17 @,@ 000 acres ) . Lying within its boundaries are the Lava Lakes , two lakes dammed by lava flows erupted from The Volcano . Located in asserted traditional territory of the Tahltan First Nation , Lava Forks Provincial Park provides a location to study ecological processes associated with primary succession or the establishment of vegetation after a major disturbance . After 150 years of non @-@ eruptive activity , vegetation has grown on the surface of the lava flows , including mosses and lichens . Western Hemlock , Mountain Hemlock and Alpine tundra biogeoclimatic subzones also occur in the area , which form part of the Boundary Ranges Ecosection .
Like other Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones , The Volcano is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active its magma system is . This is partly because it is located in a remote region and no major eruptions have occurred in Canada in the past few hundred years . As a result , volcano monitoring is less important than dealing with other natural processes , including tsunamis , earthquakes and landslides . However , with the existence of earthquakes , further volcanism is expected and would probably have effects on the surrounding landscape . Because of these concerns , significant support from Canadian university scientists have resulted in the construction of a baseline of knowledge on the state of volcanoes in Canada .
= = Volcanic hazards = =
At least seven eruptions have occurred in the Iskut @-@ Unuk River volcanic field in the past 10 @,@ 000 years . Since around 1600 all eruptions have occurred at The Volcano . Its total eruption volume is estimated to be 2 @.@ 2 km3 ( 0 @.@ 53 cu mi ) . Future eruptions from The Volcano will probably be similar in character to those that have occurred throughout its 360 @-@ year eruptive history . There is a one in 200 chance per year of an eruption occurring in Canada and one in 220 chance per year of an effusive eruption . An eruption in the foreseeable future is probably more likely along the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province than in an unrelated volcanic zone outside the province . This is because the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province , which includes the Iskut @-@ Unuk River Cones , is the most active volcanic zone in Canada .
= = = Effects = = =
A small range of effects are expected from future eruptions at The Volcano . Its remote uninhabited location makes volcanic hazards less extreme and is therefore not very hazardous . Ash and rock fragments ( tephra ) ejected during lava fountain activity are unlikely to be high enough to disrupt regional air traffic . However , they could possibly endanger lower flying aircraft along the northern coastal corridor between Vancouver and Alaska . The closest major air route is about 170 km ( 110 mi ) to the east . Volcanic ash reduces visibility and can cause jet engine failure , as well as damage to other aircraft systems .
Lava flows emitted during future volcanic eruptions would likely be basaltic in nature based on the composition of its lavas produced during past volcanic activity . Basaltic lava flows are low in silica content and can have speeds extending from 15 to 50 km / h ( 10 to 30 mph ) . The last eruption at The Volcano 150 years ago had a large impact on fish , plant and animal inhabitants in the valley the lava flows travelled through to cross the Canada – United States border . Because of these circumstances , future eruptions may again block the flow of local water courses if the volume of the erupted lavas are significant enough . This would again have disastrous consequences for fish habitats and spawning grounds . However , there are neither records of any impacts on people during this eruption , nor evidence that it was even witnessed by people . A repeat of wildfires in the Lava Fork valley is also a possibility due to the existence of vegetation on and around the erupted lavas .
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= Albert Downing =
Albert " Doolan " Joseph Downing ( 12 July 1886 – 8 August 1915 ) was a New Zealand international rugby union player , capped 26 times at lock between 1913 and 1914 . He was born in Napier , and began his playing career for Napier Marist in 1909 , from which he was selected for Hawke 's Bay and for the North Island . He moved at the end of 1912 to Auckland and there joined Auckland Marist , where he was the club 's first All Black , playing his debut match against a touring Australian team in 1913 . He was selected for the highly successful tour of North America in 1913 , playing in 14 of the 16 matches and scoring 6 tries .
While the All Blacks were on a tour of Australia in 1914 , the British Empire declared war on Germany and the team collectively decided to enlist . Three of them were killed , Downing the first of the All Blacks in World War I. After enlisting in early 1915 , he took part in the Battle of Chunuk Bair , part of the Gallipoli Campaign , and was killed on 8 August . Henry Dewar , a team mate from the USA tour , died the following day at Anzac Cove .
= = Early life = =
Albert Downing was born on 12 July 1886 in Port Ahuriri , Napier , New Zealand , the eldest son of Mr and Mrs John Downing . He attended Napier Boys ' High School until 1904 . He was a farmer before joining Barry Brothers , carriers and coal merchants , choosing to work as a carter outdoors , rather than join the clerical staff . Later , he worked as a storeman for the Ellison and Duncan Company .
= = Rugby career = =
Downing ’ s rugby career , playing at lock , started with the Napier Old Boys Rugby Club and then Napier Marist Rugby Club ; he represented Hawke 's Bay from 1909 to 1912 . In 1911 , he was selected for a North Island Country team , playing all games of a five match tour . The tour was part of a scheme by the New Zealand Rugby Union to discover talent , which brought Downing to the selectors ' attention . The North Island team played four games , against Auckland , Taranaki Union , Wanganui and Wellington , between 29 July and 9 August , and played a final match against the South Island on 12 August . Reports from the tour show Downing was very involved in the games , scoring a try against Wanganui for a 13 – 0 victory , and nearly scoring in a close game against Auckland , which resulted in a 8 – 8 draw . The North versus South match , which the North won 18 – 6 , was described in the press as lacking in quality : it was an " uninteresting match " , and " play was crude and poor and lacked vigour " . Downing stood out : " The only member of either team who could be said to have played up to inter @-@ island form was Downing – a fine forward in the North Island team . "
The following year , Downing 's name was put forward by Hawke 's Bay to play for the North Island in the annual Inter @-@ Island match and he made selection . The North beat the South 12 – 8 in a closely contested , entertaining game in front of a full capacity crowd . The Northern forwards in general played a good game ; it was suggested that Downing 's passing back from the lineout to the halfback was something that other forwards might consider imitating . A tour with the North Island Country team followed , in which Downing played all four games . The last , against South Island Country in Wellington on 4 August , had to be stopped at half time due to the condition of the match ground , and the North won 14 – 3 . His Hawke 's Bay and North Island Country team @-@ mate Norman McKenzie described him as " an outstanding line @-@ out forward with a wonderful pair of hands " .
= = = Auckland and the All Blacks = = =
Downing relocated to Auckland at the end of 1912 and was recruited by Auckland Marists on the strength of his playing and the links with the Napier Marists . He was the club 's first All Black , joined shortly after by Jim " Buster " Barrett . Downing 's debut match was against Australia in Wellington on 6 September , which the All Blacks won easily 30 – 6 , bettering Australia " in every respect " .
He was subsequently selected for the tour of North America the same year . On 10 September , the eve of departure , Wellington took on the All Blacks in a " thrilling " game which saw the visitors nearly defeated . With the wind behind them in the first half , the All Blacks gained a 13 @-@ point lead ; but in the second half , Wellington came back strongly ; and with a drop @-@ goal in the final three minutes , closed the lead to just one point , 19 – 18 . There was strong back play on both sides ; amongst the forwards , one player from each side received special mention in the press : Downing for the All Blacks , Miller for Wellington .
It is possible that Downing might not have been selected for the tour had he not moved to Auckland . As it was , he played in 14 of the 16 matches , and contributed 6 tries for 18 points towards a total tally of 610 points . There was little interest in the American press about the tour . A single short paragraph in the New York Tribune reports on the 51 – 3 defeat of the All America team on 15 November . In New Zealand , meanwhile , detailed match reports were coming in , and many of these were full of praise for Downing . Of all the players in the USA match , four would die in the Great War : Frank Jacob Gard , the USA captain ( died 29 September 1918 ) ; and three All Blacks : Henry Dewar , George Sellars and Downing himself .
In 1914 , Downing was again selected for the Inter @-@ Island match in Wellington on 9 June , which the South won 8 – 0 . Later in the year , four of Downing 's Marist team @-@ mates were with him in the All Black side selected to tour Australia : Barrett , five eighths Jock McKenzie , who had transferred from Wellington , and fullback Jack O ’ Brien , a founding member of the club . The All Blacks played Wellington again on the day before leaving for Australia , this time losing 19 – 14 , Downing contributing a try . Downing played in 10 of the 11 matches , including the 3 tests , and was praised for his line @-@ out ability . In the first test on 18 July , he was , according to The Star , " easily the best forward in the team " , and after the second test , The Southland Times opined that " it is quite possible that before he leaves the lengthy Aucklander may prove himself to be included in the star category of New Zealand forwards . "
In an obituary , Downing was described as " big , strong , fast , brainy , clever with hands and feet , dashing , and resourceful . " He was best known for his work in the line @-@ out and in the loose , equally good in attack as in defence . He played hard but clean . Such was his devotion to rugby that Downing had a tattoo on his left forearm of the Ranfurly Shield .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military career = =
During the All Black tour of Australia , in the game against Metropolitan Union in Sydney on 5 August 1914 , the news was posted on the scoreboard that the British Empire – and therefore New Zealand and Australia – had declared war . On the ship home , the players collectively decided to volunteer for military service . Three of them were killed , including Downing at Gallipoli , Bobby Black at the Somme and Jim McNeece at Messines .
Downing enlisted with the Fifth Reinforcements ( Wellington Battalion ) on 2 February 1915 . While doing basic training , he also played two games of rugby for the Trentham Military Forces Team , against Wellington on 1 May and Auckland on 5 June . In the first of these , Downing was reckoned to be the standout forward of the Trentham team , and " played splendidly " .
On 13 June , he departed bound for Suez in Egypt , arriving 24 July . His unit took part , beginning on 6 August , in the Battle of Chunuk Bair , in support of the landing at Suvla Bay , which was intended to break the deadlock in the Gallipoli Campaign . The initial assault was successful and early on the morning of 8 August , Downing was with A Company occupying the Turkish trench on the crest of Chunuck Bair . The Turks counter @-@ attacked at dawn , forcing back the British battalions and the Wellingtons . The crest was lost and the battle continued for 12 hours on the seaward slopes . By nightfall , Downing , who had earlier distinguished himself in a bayonet charge , was killed , reportedly " blown to pieces " . Downing was the first of 13 All Blacks killed in the war , just a day before Henry Dewar , the second All Black to fall , was killed in action with the Wellington Mounted Rifles at Anzac Cove .
Sergeant Doolan Downing is commemorated on panel 17 of the New Zealand Memorial to the Missing on Chunuk Bair , along with his commanding @-@ officer , Lt Col William George Malone , who died aged 56 , and more than 300 other men of his battalion .
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= Atom =
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element . Every solid , liquid , gas , and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms . Atoms are very small ; typical sizes are around 100 pm ( a ten @-@ billionth of a meter , in the short scale ) . However , atoms do not have well @-@ defined boundaries , and there are different ways to define their size that give different but close values .
Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls , for example - gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects . Through the development of physics , atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior .
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus . The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons . Protons and neutrons are called nucleons . More than 99 @.@ 94 % of an atom 's mass is in the nucleus . The protons have a positive electric charge , the electrons have a negative electric charge , and the neutrons have no electric charge . If the number of protons and electrons are equal , that atom is electrically neutral . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons , then it has an overall negative or positive charge , respectively , and it is called an ion .
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force . The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force , the nuclear force , which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another . Under certain circumstances the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force , and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus , leaving behind a different element : nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation .
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs : for example , all copper atoms contain 29 protons . The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element . The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom . Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules . The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature , and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry .
= = History of atomic theory = =
= = = Atoms in philosophy = = =
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea , appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India . The word " atom " was coined by ancient Greek philosophers . However , these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation . As a result , their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect . They also could not convince everybody , so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter . It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists , when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain .
= = = First evidence @-@ based theory = = =
In the early 1800s , John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers ( the law of multiple proportions ) . For instance , there are two types of tin oxide : one is 88 @.@ 1 % tin and 11 @.@ 9 % oxygen and the other is 78 @.@ 7 % tin and 21 @.@ 3 % oxygen ( tin ( II ) oxide and tin dioxide respectively ) . This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen . 13 @.@ 5 and 27 form a ratio of 1 : 2 , a ratio of small whole numbers . This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units — in other words , atoms . In the case of tin oxides , one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms .
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions . For example , he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen . Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases ' respective particles , and carbon dioxide molecules ( CO2 ) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules ( N2 ) .
= = = Brownian motion = = =
In 1827 , botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically , a phenomenon that became known as " Brownian motion " . This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about . In 1905 Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion . French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein 's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms , thereby conclusively verifying Dalton 's atomic theory .
= = = Discovery of the electron = = =
The physicist J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays , showing they were made of particles , but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom , hydrogen . Therefore , they were not atoms , but a new particle , the first subatomic particle to be discovered , which he originally called " corpuscle " but was later named electron , after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 . He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials . It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires , and carry the negative electric charge within atoms . Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work . Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible , ultimate particles of matter . Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass , negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge . This became known as the plum pudding model .
= = = Discovery of the nucleus = = =
In 1909 , Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden , under the direction of Ernest Rutherford , bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered . They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection , because Thomson 's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much . However , Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90 ° , which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson 's model . To explain this , Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom .
= = = Discovery of isotopes = = =
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay , in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table . The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element . J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases , which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes .
= = = Bohr model = = =
In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits , and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon . This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable ( given that normally , charges in acceleration , including circular motion , lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation , see synchrotron radiation ) and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra .
Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr 's theory . These results refined Ernest Rutherford 's and Antonius Van den Broek 's model , which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its ( atomic ) number in the periodic table . Until these experiments , atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity . That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today .
= = = Chemical bonding explained = = =
Chemical bonds between atoms were now explained , by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916 , as the interactions between their constituent electrons . As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law , in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner . Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus .
= = = Further developments in quantum physics = = =
The Stern – Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom . When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field , the beam was split based on the direction of an atom 's angular momentum , or spin . As this direction is random , the beam could be expected to spread into a line . Instead , the beam was split into two parts , depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down .
In 1924 , Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves . In 1926 , Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three @-@ dimensional waveforms rather than point particles . A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time ; this became known as the uncertainty principle , formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926 . In this concept , for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum , and vice versa . This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not , such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen . Thus , the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed .
= = = Discovery of the neutron = = =
The development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy . The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions , and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom 's mass to its charge . The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses . The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts , called the whole number rule . The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron , an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton , by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932 . Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons , but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus .
= = = Fission , high @-@ energy physics and condensed matter = = =
In 1938 , the German chemist Otto Hahn , a student of Rutherford , directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements . Instead , his chemical experiments showed barium as a product . A year later , Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn 's result were the first experimental nuclear fission . In 1944 , Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry . Despite Hahn 's efforts , the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized .
In the 1950s , the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies . Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons , or composites of smaller particles called quarks . The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub @-@ atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions .
= = Structure = =
= = = Subatomic particles = = =
Though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles , in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles . The constituent particles of an atom are the electron , the proton and the neutron ; all three are fermions . However , the hydrogen @-@ 1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons .
The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at 9 @.@ 11 × 10 − 31 kg , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques . It is the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured . Under ordinary conditions , electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges . If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number , then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole ; a charged atom is called an ion . Electrons have been known since the late 19th century , mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson ; see history of subatomic physics for details .
Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1 @,@ 836 times that of the electron , at 1 @.@ 6726 × 10 − 27 kg . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number . Ernest Rutherford ( 1919 ) observed that nitrogen under alpha @-@ particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei . By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton .
Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1 @,@ 839 times the mass of the electron , or 1 @.@ 6929 × 10 − 27 kg , the heaviest of the three constituent particles , but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy . Neutrons and protons ( collectively known as nucleons ) have comparable dimensions — on the order of 2 @.@ 5 × 10 − 15 m — although the ' surface ' of these particles is not sharply defined . The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick .
In the Standard Model of physics , electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure . However , both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks . There are two types of quarks in atoms , each having a fractional electric charge . Protons are composed of two up quarks ( each with charge + 2 / 3 ) and one down quark ( with a charge of − 1 / 3 ) . Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks . This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles .
The quarks are held together by the strong interaction ( or strong force ) , which is mediated by gluons . The protons and neutrons , in turn , are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force , which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range @-@ properties ( see the article on the nuclear force for more ) . The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons , which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces .
= = = Nucleus = = =
All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus , and are collectively called nucleons . The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1 @.@ 07 3 √ A fm , where A is the total number of nucleons . This is much smaller than the radius of the atom , which is on the order of 105 fm . The nucleons are bound together by a short @-@ ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force . At distances smaller than 2 @.@ 5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other .
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons , called the atomic number . Within a single element , the number of neutrons may vary , determining the isotope of that element . The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide . The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus , with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay .
The proton , the electron , and the neutron are classified as fermions . Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions , such as multiple protons , from occupying the same quantum state at the same time . Thus , every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons , and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud . However , a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state .
For atoms with low atomic numbers , a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron – proton ratio is closer to one . However , as the atomic number increases , a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons . Thus , there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number Z
= 20 ( calcium ) and as Z increases , the neutron – proton ratio of stable isotopes increases . The stable isotope with the highest proton – neutron ratio is lead @-@ 208 ( about 1 @.@ 5 ) .
The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified , although this can require very high energies because of the strong force . Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus , such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei . For example , at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 – 10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion — the coulomb barrier — and fuse together into a single nucleus . Nuclear fission is the opposite process , causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei — usually through radioactive decay . The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons . If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus , the atom changes to a different chemical element .
If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles , then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy ( such as a gamma ray , or the kinetic energy of a beta particle ) , as described by Albert Einstein 's mass – energy equivalence formula , E =
mc2 , where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light . This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus , and it is the non @-@ recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate .
The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel — a total nucleon number of about 60 — is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together . It is this energy @-@ releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self @-@ sustaining reaction . For heavier nuclei , the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease . That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26 , and atomic masses higher than about 60 , is an endothermic process . These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy @-@ producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star .
= = = Electron cloud = = =
The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force . This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus , which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape . The closer an electron is to the nucleus , the greater the attractive force . Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations .
Electrons , like other particles , have properties of both a particle and a wave . The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three @-@ dimensional standing wave — a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus . This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital , a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured . Only a discrete ( or quantized ) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus , as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form . Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures , and differ from each other in size , shape and orientation .
Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron . The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state . Likewise , through spontaneous emission , an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon . These characteristic energy values , defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states , are responsible for atomic spectral lines .
The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron — the electron binding energy — is far less than the binding energy of nucleons . For example , it requires only 13 @.@ 6 eV to strip a ground @-@ state electron from a hydrogen atom , compared to 2 @.@ 23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus . Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons . Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions . Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms . By this mechanism , atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals .
= = Properties = =
= = = Nuclear properties = = =
By definition , any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element . Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element . For example , all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton , but isotopes exist with no neutrons ( hydrogen @-@ 1 , by far the most common form , also called protium ) , one neutron ( deuterium ) , two neutrons ( tritium ) and more than two neutrons . The known elements form a set of atomic numbers , from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118 @-@ proton element ununoctium . All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive .
About 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth , of which 254 ( about 75 % ) have not been observed to decay , and are referred to as " stable isotopes " . However , only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay , even in theory . Another 164 ( bringing the total to 254 ) have not been observed to decay , even though in theory it is energetically possible . These are also formally classified as " stable " . An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half @-@ lives longer than 80 million years , and are long @-@ lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system . This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides . Finally , an additional 51 short @-@ lived nuclides are known to occur naturally , as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay ( such as radium from uranium ) , or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth , such as cosmic ray bombardment ( for example , carbon @-@ 14 ) .
For 80 of the chemical elements , at least one stable isotope exists . As a rule , there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements , the average being 3 @.@ 2 stable isotopes per element . Twenty @-@ six elements have only a single stable isotope , while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten , for the element tin . Elements 43 , 61 , and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes .
Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons , and also by the presence of certain " magic numbers " of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells . These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus ; filled shells , such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin , confers unusual stability on the nuclide . Of the 254 known stable nuclides , only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons : hydrogen @-@ 2 ( deuterium ) , lithium @-@ 6 , boron @-@ 10 and nitrogen @-@ 14 . Also , only four naturally occurring , radioactive odd – odd nuclides have a half @-@ life over a billion years : potassium @-@ 40 , vanadium @-@ 50 , lanthanum @-@ 138 and tantalum @-@ 180m . Most odd – odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay , because the decay products are even – even , and are therefore more strongly bound , due to nuclear pairing effects .
= = = Mass = = =
The large majority of an atom 's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up . The total number of these particles ( called " nucleons " ) in a given atom is called the mass number . It is a positive integer and dimensionless ( instead of having dimension of mass ) , because it expresses a count . An example of use of a mass number is " carbon @-@ 12 , " which has 12 nucleons ( six protons and six neutrons ) .
The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit ( u ) , also called dalton ( Da ) . This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon @-@ 12 , which is approximately 1 @.@ 66 × 10 − 27 kg . Hydrogen @-@ 1 ( the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass ) has an atomic weight of 1 @.@ 007825 u . The value of this number is called the atomic mass . A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal ( within 1 % ) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit ( for example the mass of a nitrogen @-@ 14 is roughly 14 u ) . However , this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon @-@ 12 ( see below ) . The heaviest stable atom is lead @-@ 208 , with a mass of 207 @.@ 9766521 u .
As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly , chemists instead use the unit of moles . One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms ( about 6 @.@ 022 × 1023 ) . This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u , a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram . Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit , each carbon @-@ 12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 u , and so a mole of carbon @-@ 12 atoms weighs exactly 0 @.@ 012 kg .
= = = Shape and size = = =
Atoms lack a well @-@ defined outer boundary , so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius . This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus . However , this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape , which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space . Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond . The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart , the type of chemical bond , the number of neighboring atoms ( coordination number ) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin . On the periodic table of the elements , atom size tends to increase when moving down columns , but decrease when moving across rows ( left to right ) . Consequently , the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm , while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm .
When subjected to external forces , like electrical fields , the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry . The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons , as shown by group @-@ theoretical considerations . Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals , where large crystal @-@ electrical fields may occur at low @-@ symmetry lattice sites . Significant ellipsoidal deformations have recently been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyrite @-@ type compounds .
Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light ( 400 – 700 nm ) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope . However , individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope . To visualize the minuteness of the atom , consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width . A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion ( 2 × 1021 ) atoms of oxygen , and twice the number of hydrogen atoms . A single carat diamond with a mass of 2 × 10 − 4 kg contains about 10 sextillion ( 1022 ) atoms of carbon . If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth , then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple .
= = = Radioactive decay = = =
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay , causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation . Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force , which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm .
The most common forms of radioactive decay are :
Alpha decay : this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle , which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons . The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number .
Beta decay ( and electron capture ) : these processes are regulated by the weak force , and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton , or a proton into a neutron . The neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino , while proton to neutron transition ( except in electron capture ) causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino . The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles . Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one . Electron capture is more common than positron emission , because it requires less energy . In this type of decay , an electron is absorbed by the nucleus , rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus . A neutrino is still emitted in this process , and a proton changes to a neutron .
Gamma decay : this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state , resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation . The excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle . Thus , gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay .
Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus , or more than one beta particle . An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way , is internal conversion — a process that produces high @-@ speed electrons that are not beta rays , followed by production of high @-@ energy photons that are not gamma rays . A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons , in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission .
Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period — the half @-@ life — that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay . This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50 % every half @-@ life . Hence after two half @-@ lives have passed only 25 % of the isotope is present , and so forth .
= = = Magnetic moment = = =
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin . This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass , although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point @-@ like and cannot be said to be rotating . Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant ( ħ ) , with electrons , protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ , or " spin- ½ " . In an atom , electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin , while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin .
The magnetic field produced by an atom — its magnetic moment — is determined by these various forms of angular momentum , just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field . However , the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin . Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle , in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state , bound electrons pair up with each other , with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite , spin down state . Thus these spins cancel each other out , reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons .
In ferromagnetic elements such as iron , cobalt and nickel , an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment . The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other , a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction . When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up , the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field . Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present , but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field .
The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons , but for other cases of odd numbers , the nucleus may have a spin . Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium . However , for certain elements ( such as xenon @-@ 129 ) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction — a condition called hyperpolarization . This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging .
= = = Energy levels = = =
The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative , its dependence of its position reaches the minimum ( the most absolute value ) inside the nucleus , and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity , roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance . In the quantum @-@ mechanical model , a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus , and each state corresponds to a specific energy level ; see time @-@ independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation . An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom , and is usually given in units of electronvolts ( eV ) . The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state , i.e. stationary state , while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state . The electron 's energy raises when n increases because the ( average ) distance to the nucleus increases . Dependence of the energy on ℓ is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus , but by interaction between electrons .
For an electron to transition between two different states , e.g. grounded state to first excited level ( ionization ) , it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels , according to Niels Bohr model , what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation . Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle @-@ like fashion . For example , if a single photon strikes the electrons , only a single electron changes states in response to the photon ; see Electron properties .
The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency , so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum . Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge , subshells filled by electrons , the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors .
When a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma , some of the photons are absorbed by atoms , causing electrons to change their energy level . Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon , traveling in a random direction , and so drop back to lower energy levels . Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output . ( An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background , instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms . ) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined .
Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting . This occurs because of spin – orbit coupling , which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron . When an atom is in an external magnetic field , spectral lines become split into three or more components ; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect . This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons . Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level , which thus appear as a single spectral line . The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels , resulting in multiple spectral lines . The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels , a phenomenon called the Stark effect .
If a bound electron is in an excited state , an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level . For this to occur , the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon . The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases . That is , the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized . This physical property is used to make lasers , which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band .
= = = Valence and bonding behavior = = =
Valency is the combining power of an element . It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine or displace in forming compounds . The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell , and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons . The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms . Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills ( or empties ) their outer valence shells . For example , a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one @-@ electron more than a filled shell , and others that are one @-@ electron short of a full shell , such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts . However , many elements display multiple valences , or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds . Thus , chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron @-@ sharing that are more than simple electron transfers . Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds .
The chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties , and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table . ( The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons . ) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons , which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases .
= = = States = = =
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions , such as temperature and pressure . By varying the conditions , materials can transition between solids , liquids , gases and plasmas . Within a state , a material can also exist in different allotropes . An example of this is solid carbon , which can exist as graphite or diamond . Gaseous allotropes exist as well , such as dioxygen and ozone .
At temperatures close to absolute zero , atoms can form a Bose – Einstein condensate , at which point quantum mechanical effects , which are normally only observed at the atomic scale , become apparent on a macroscopic scale . This super @-@ cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom , which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior .
= = Identification = =
The scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level . It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon , which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable . Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes , on each of which is an adsorbed atom , providing a tunneling @-@ current density that can be measured . Scanning one atom ( taken as the tip ) as it moves past the other ( the sample ) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current . The calculation shows the extent to which scanning @-@ tunneling @-@ microscope images of an individual atom are visible . It confirms that for low bias , the microscope images the space @-@ averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels — the Fermi level local density of states .
An atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons . The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field . The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom . The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass @-@ to @-@ charge ratio of ions . If a sample contains multiple isotopes , the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions . Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry , both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis .
A more area @-@ selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy , which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample . The atom @-@ probe tomograph has sub @-@ nanometer resolution in 3 @-@ D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time @-@ of @-@ flight mass spectrometry .
Spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars . Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms . These colors can be replicated using a gas @-@ discharge lamp containing the same element . Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth .
= = Origin and current state = =
Atoms form about 4 % of the total energy density of the observable Universe , with an average density of about 0 @.@ 25 atoms / m3 . Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way , atoms have a much higher concentration , with the density of matter in the interstellar medium ( ISM ) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms / m3 . The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble , a region of highly ionized gas , so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atoms / m3 . Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM , and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium . Up to 95 % of the Milky Way 's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10 % of the mass of the galaxy . ( The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter . )
= = = Formation = = =
Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang . Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions . In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium , lithium , and deuterium in the Universe , and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron .
Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy , which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons . Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential , the matter exists in the form of plasma — a gas of positively charged ions ( possibly , bare nuclei ) and electrons . When the temperature drops below the ionization potential , atoms become statistically favorable . Atoms ( complete with bound electrons ) became to dominate over charged particles 380 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang — an epoch called recombination , when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei .
Since the Big Bang , which produced no carbon or heavier elements , atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium , and ( via the triple alpha process ) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron ; see stellar nucleosynthesis for details .
Isotopes such as lithium @-@ 6 , as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation . This occurs when a high @-@ energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus , causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected .
Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r @-@ process and in AGB stars through the s @-@ process , both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei . Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements .
= = = Earth = = =
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System . The rest are the result of radioactive decay , and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating . Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth ( about 99 % of the helium from gas wells , as shown by its lower abundance of helium @-@ 3 ) is a product of alpha decay .
There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning ( i.e. , not " primordial " ) , nor are results of radioactive decay . Carbon @-@ 14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere . Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by @-@ products of nuclear reactors or explosions . Of the transuranic elements — those with atomic numbers greater than 92 — only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth . Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed , with the exception of traces of plutonium @-@ 244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust . Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore .
The Earth contains approximately 1 @.@ 33 × 1050 atoms . Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist , such as argon , neon , and helium , 99 % of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules , including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen . At the surface of the Earth , an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds , including water , salt , silicates and oxides . Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules , including crystals and liquid or solid metals . This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small @-@ scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter .
= = = Rare and theoretical forms = = =
= = = = Superheavy elements = = = =
While isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead ( 82 ) are known to be radioactive , an " island of stability " has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103 . These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay . The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom , unbihexium , has 126 protons and 184 neutrons .
= = = = Exotic matter = = = =
Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge . Thus , the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton . When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet , they annihilate each other . Because of this , along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles , the latter are rare in the universe . The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood , although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation . As a result , no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature . However , in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom ( antihydrogen ) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva .
Other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons , neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge . For example , an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon , forming a muonic atom . These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics .
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= Check on It =
" Check on It " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé , featuring American rappers Bun B and Slim Thug . It was composed by Beyoncé , Swizz Beatz , Sean Garrett , Angela Beyincé and Slim Thug . Initially recorded by Beyoncé only , the song was supposed to be featured on the soundtrack album for 2006 film The Pink Panther , in which she co @-@ stars . As it was ultimately not included on its soundtrack album , the song with additional vocals from Slim Thug was placed on the 2005 Destiny 's Child 's greatest hits album # 1 's . Columbia Records released " Check on It " in the United States on December 13 , 2005 . The official single version of the song includes vocals from American rapper Bun B.
The song 's development was motivated by the phrase ' Check on It ' which Beyoncé and her management jokingly used before they decided to turn it into a song . " Check on It " is an R & B and hip hop song , which is instrumentally complete with a heavy bassline , strings , and wind instrument . Lyrically , it takes place in a club , where Beyoncé is letting the male patrons know that they are welcome to come and look at her sexually attractive body when she is dancing . The song consists of two verse @-@ raps by Slim Thug . " Check on It " was well received by contemporary music critics , who universally complimented Beyoncé 's vocals , and the assertiveness with which she sings her lines .
" Check on It " was not originally lined up for a release as a single from the album # 1 's . However , it received heavy rotation on US radio stations , following the release of the first single , " Stand Up for Love " ( 2005 ) , which performed poorly on the charts . Eventually , " Check on It " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 in November 2005 , before its official release date . The single peaked at number one for five consecutive weeks , becoming one of the two longest @-@ running number @-@ one single in 2006 , and Beyoncé 's third US number @-@ one single as a solo artist . " Check on It " reached number one in New Zealand and the top ten on various singles chart in mainland Europe .
The music video for the song was directed by Hype Williams , and premiered on December 16 , 2005 on MTV . The version of " Check on It " used in the clip features a remix of " The Pink Panther Theme " and a verse @-@ rap from American rapper Bun B. Incorporating 1950s influences , the video was shot in pink to brand the relationship with The Pink Panther . It won the Best R & B Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards , and was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2006 BET Awards . Although Beyoncé did not perform " Check on It " in any televised appearances , it was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) and the I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Check on It " was written by Beyoncé , Slim Thug , Angela Beyincé and Sean Garrett . Production was handled by Swiss Beatz , who also co @-@ wrote the song . Matt Hennessy , Dave Pensado , and Dexter Simmons mixed " Check on It " with assistance from Geoffrey Rice , and Matt Serrecchio . Beyoncé said that the song 's title , " Check on It " , was a phrase that she and her management jokingly used several times before they decided to turn it into a song . Originally recorded by Beyoncé only , the song was supposed to be included on the track @-@ listing of the soundtrack album for the remake of The Pink Panther ( 2006 ) , starring Steve Martin , Kevin Kline and Beyoncé . However , it was not used for the soundtrack album at the last minute , and the song with added vocals from Slim Thug , was then added on Beyoncé 's former group Destiny 's Child 's greatest hits , # 1 's ( 2005 ) . " Check on It " was nevertheless played during The Pink Panther 's end credits .
" Check on It " was not initially intended for release as a single from the album # 1 's . However , it received heavy rotation from US radio stations after the release of the first single " Stand Up for Love " ( 2005 ) , which recorded by all members of Destiny 's Child was a commercial failure . Meanwhile , " Check on It " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in November 2005 , that is , before its official release as it had amassed considerable listener impressions . A remix of the song featuring American rapper Bun B was recorded prior to its release . The task of remixing the song was undertaken by Maurice Joshua with further assistance from Junior Vasquez who helped in its production .
" Check on It " was first digitally released in the US on December 13 , 2005 . Remixes of the song were later made available on January 31 , 2006 in both the United Kingdom and the US . " Check on It " was also released a CD Single in these two countries on February 28 , 2006 . It was serviced as a CD Single and a digital download on February 6 , 2006 , and February 7 , 2006 respectively in European countries . " Check on It " was never released in Australia . It was included as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of Beyoncé 's second studio album , B 'Day in European territories on April 3 , 2007 . Though the song was a commercial success worldwide , Beyoncé has revealed that she dislikes the song . She has said that she was surprised at the commercial reception of the " Check on It " as according to her , it is too simple , and not catchy like some of her previous singles .
= = Composition = =
" Check on It " is an midtempo R & B and hip hop song , which makes use of a heavy bassline , strings , wind instrument , and frequent " swinging pelvic taunts " . According to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing at Musicnotes.com , the song is written in the key of G major , and is set in common time at 83 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocal range spans from the low note A3 to the high note B5 . According to Bill Lamb of About.com , Beyoncé adopts smooth and alluring vocals throughout " Check on It " . Lyrically , the song takes place in a dance club , where the female protagonist is letting the male patrons know that they are welcome to come and look at her sexually attractive body when she is dancing . " Check on It " starts with a verse @-@ rap from Slim Thug : " Good girls gotta get down with them gangstas / Go head girl put some back and some neck up on it ... " . The rapper sounds like a 1975 Mercury Cougar turning over as he growls in his burly purr , as written by Bret McCabe of Baltimore City Paper .
In the first verse , Beyoncé sings to the " sexual teasing " lyrics , which are addressed to the men looking at her : " I can be a tease , but I really wanna please you [ ... ] Oohhh you watchin [ g ] me shake it , Ya can 't take it , it ’ s blazin [ g ] ... " . The chorus lines ; " Dip it , pop it , twerk it , stop it , check on me tonight " are sung in a very quick and breathless manner by Beyoncé . Bret McCabe noted that her pace could be compared to that of American singer Donna Summer . Slim Thug appears again after the second verse to perform another different verse rap : " I ’ m checking on you boo , do what ’ chu do / And while you dance I ’ ma glance at this beautiful view / I ’ m keep my hands in my pants , I need to glue ’ em with glue ... " . Before the song ends , Beyoncé repeats the chorus lines four times as additional vocals of hers are played in the background .
= = Critical reception = =
Music critics received the song positively , complimenting Beyoncé 's vocal performance , and the easiness as well as the confidence she displays while singing her lyrics . A reviewer from the UK website Contactmusic.com described " Check on It " as a " booty shaking anthem " and complimented Beyoncé for switching to a club song after " Stand Up for Love " . Bret McCabe of Baltimore City Paper noted that the song is " less a DC joint than a Beyoncé sex @-@ kitten solo " . He praised the lyrics of the song and the easiness with which Beyoncé sings , highlighting her " million @-@ selling R & B pipes " . James Blake of BBC Music wrote that the lyrics are pleasantly aggressive and critical of women .
Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music described " Check on It " as " sinuously brilliant " . James Anthony of the British newspaper The Guardian wrote that the song " espouses a blissful disregard for traditional songwriting conventions . No Hova ( Jay @-@ Z ) this time , but Houston rapper Slim Thug 's lazy southern drawl suits the fractionally slower tempo . " In the July 2006 issued copy of Spin magazine , Nick Duerden ranked the song at the seventh place on his list of The ten Beyoncé tracks you need to download , writing that " Check on It " is Beyoncé 's sexiest song to date . " Check on It " was nominated in for Best Duet / Collaboration at the 2006 BET Awards , and for the Best Rap / Hip Hop Dance Track at the 2007 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2007 . It also received a Broadcast Music , Inc . ( BMI ) Award for " Award @-@ Winning Song " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Check on It " debuted at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated November 19 , 2005 . After twelve weeks on the chart , the song received the airplay gainer title , and reached number one on the Hot 100 chart issue dated February 4 , 2006 , becoming Beyoncé 's third Hot 100 number @-@ one as a solo artist and Slim Thug 's first Hot 100 single . For the same week ending , " Check on It " was also at the top of the US Hot Digital Songs and the US Pop 100 charts . The single remained at number @-@ one for on the Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks , tying Beyoncé with Jennifer Lopez for having her first three number @-@ one Hot 100 singles stay on top for five weeks or more . " Check on It " also tied with Canadian singer Daniel Powter 's 2005 single " Bad Day " for the longest @-@ running number @-@ one single in 2006 . " Check on It " spent a total of twenty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot 100 .
The song also topped the US Pop Songs , the US Hot Dance Club Play , the US Rhythmic Top 40 , and the Hot 100 Airplay charts . It reached number three on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . According to Mediabase and Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems , " Check on It " passed the 200 million audience impressions mark in on January 31 , 2006 . Another single of Beyoncé , " Irreplaceable " also passed this mark on December 11 , 2006 . Beyoncé thus became the second female singer to achieve this feat in the US after Mariah Carey 's two singles " We Belong Together " and " Shake It Off " both passed the same mark within 2005 . At the end of 2006 , " Check on It " emerged as the tenth best selling , and fourth most played song on radio stations in the US . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . As of October 2012 , it has sold 1 @,@ 438 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the US .
" Check on It " debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart on January 28 , 2006 . The following week , it peaked at number three and charted for twelve weeks in the top 75 positions of the UK Singles Chart . " Check on It " debuted at number 35 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on January 30 , 2006 , and reached number one for two consecutive weeks . In mainland Europe , " Check on It " reached the top five in Norway and the Netherlands , the top 10 in Switzerland , Denmark , and Austria , and the top 20 in Germany and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
When demand was growing for the song , Beyoncé decided to make a music video for it , serving as promotion for both # 1 's and The Pink Panther . It was directed by Hype Williams . The version of " Check on It " used in the clip features a remix of " The Pink Panther Theme " and a verse @-@ rap from Bun B. The video premiered on December 12 , 2005 on MTV , and was included on the DVD of The Pink Panther . The video was shot in 12 hours and features Beyoncé in 12 different set @-@ ups and outfits . It incorporates 1950s influences . Hype Williams told Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly that the concept was to make everything pink to brand the relationship with The Pink Panther . He added that the pink sails reflect the wind instrument sound of the string section . Speaking about the video to MTV , Beyoncé said :
[ ' Check on It ' ] is so fun , it makes you feel like a child again and we wanted to put some of that in the choreography and the feel of the video . It 's all about checking on yourself and making sure you 're moving tight and your man admiring how you move . It 's simple . "
In the video , Beyoncé is seen mostly in all pink , and the dancers wear PVC jackets and dance around rippling satin sheets . She occasionally bends over and grabs her behind . The video cuts to Beyoncé wearing a polka dot corset against a hot magenta polka @-@ dotted wall , wearing a pink wig and pink lipstick . Where black bars normally appear on a 4 : 3 ( full screen ) television showing a widescreen production , footage is displayed of curtains moving in the background . This was a trend in the videos directed by Williams during that year , with the effect being used in Ne @-@ Yo 's 2006 single " So Sick " and Jamie Foxx 's 2005 single " Unpredictable " . " Check on It " won the Best R & B Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . It was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2006 BET Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Although Beyoncé did not perform " Check on It " on televised appearances , it was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience at the Staples Center in Los Angeles and I Am ... Tour during various stops . In Los Angeles , Beyoncé performed segments of the song , dressed in a golden , translucent slip and golden , sparkling panties . It was executed without backup dancers or live instrumentation , only backup singers toward the performance 's conclusion . When Beyoncé performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittery gold leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders and other club equipment were projected behind Beyoncé , her dancers and musicians . " Check on It " was subsequently included as the sixteenth track and the twentieth track on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , and I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) respectively .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Official Versions = =
Album version featuring Slim Thug – 3 : 30
Acpaella version featuring Slim Thug - 3 : 50
Single version featuring Slim Thug & Bun B – 3 : 30 ( replaces Slim Thug 's second rap verse with Bun B )
Junior Vasquez Club Mix – 8 : 31
Maurice 's Nu Soul Mix – 5 : 59
King Klub Mix – 6 : 48
Bama Boyz Remix – 3 : 54
Bama Boyz Reggaeton Remix featuring Voltio – 3 : 28
Bama Boyz Reggaeton Remix Instrumental – 3 : 28
No Rap Version – 3 : 08
= = Personnel = =
Credits for the song , adapted from Allmusic
Vocals – Beyoncé Knowles , Slim Thug , Bun B , Kelly Rowland , L.A.K.C
Writing – Angela Beyince , Swizz Beatz , Sean Garrett , Kelly Rowland
Producing – Beyoncé Knowles , Swiss Beatz , L.A.K.C , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams
Engineering – Joe Carrano , Jim Caruana , Nathan Jenkins
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Mixing – Matt Hennessy , Dave Pensado , Dexter Simmons
Artists and repertoire – Huy Nguyen
Assistance – Geoffrey Rice , Matt Serrecchio
Additionally , the remixes also credit the following people :
Remixing – Maurice Joshua
Producing – Junior Vasquez
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Official scorer =
In the game of baseball , the official scorer is a person appointed by the league to record the events on the field , and to send the official scoring record of the game back to the league offices . In addition to recording the events on the field such as the outcome of each plate appearance and the circumstances of any baserunner 's advance around the bases , the official scorer is also charged with making judgment calls that do not affect the progress or outcome of the game . Judgment calls are primarily made about errors , unearned runs , fielder 's choice , the value of hits in certain situations , and wild pitches , all of which are included in the record compiled . This record is used to compile statistics for each player and team . A box score is a summary of the official scorer 's game record .
Newspaper writers initially performed this function in the early days of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . As the importance of baseball player statistics increased , teams began to pressure writer @-@ scorers for favorable scoring decisions for their players in games played at home stadiums , and a home team scoring bias was perceived by many coaches , players , and writers . Controversies related to perceived bias or errors in scoring have led to questions about important baseball records , including several no @-@ hitters and Joe DiMaggio 's 56 @-@ game hitting streak of 1941 . By 1979 , many major newspapers decided to ban their writers from scoring baseball games due to conflict @-@ of @-@ interest concerns , and in 1980 MLB began to hire independent official scorers .
Since 1980 , some reforms have been suggested to improve the performance of official scorers . In 2001 , MLB formed a scoring committee to review their performance , and by 2008 the committee was given the authority to overturn scoring decisions . This authority was used by the scoring committee three times during the 2009 season . In 2006 , an academic study seemed to confirm the historical existence of a home @-@ team bias in scoring decisions , but this measurable bias decreased after 1979 .
= = History = =
Henry Chadwick is generally credited with the invention of scorekeeping in baseball . Chadwick was also the inventor of the modern box score and the writer of the first rule book for the game of baseball . Since baseball statistics were initially a subject of interest to sportswriters , the role of the official scorer in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) in the early days of the sport was performed by newspaper writers . A judgment call that is required by the official scorer does not alter the outcome of a game , but these judgments impact the statistical records of the game . As the subjective scoring decisions which are used to calculate baseball statistics began to be used to determine the relative value of baseball players , MLB began to require approval from the league before a writer @-@ scorer could be assigned to produce the scoring report for a game . By the 1970s , writers who were willing to score games for MLB were required to have attended 100 or more games per year in the prior three years and to be chosen by the local chapter chairman of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Qualified candidates for scoring were submitted to the leagues for approval .
= = = Early controversies = = =
Baseball writer @-@ scorers usually worked at the games played at the home stadium of the team which they covered for their newspaper . The writer @-@ scorers were tasked with making objective decisions that could impact the statistics of the team they were writing about . Because of this affiliation , the official scorer was often presumed by the baseball players and managers to favor the home team when making the required judgment calls during the course of a game .
Criticism of scoring decisions date to the earliest days of the game . Some historians claim that Joe DiMaggio 's record 56 @-@ game hitting streak in 1941 was made possible by several generous rulings at Yankee Stadium . In 1953 , Al Rosen narrowly missed being recognized for achieving a rare " triple crown " in hitting after a questioned error caused him to finish the season one hit short of winning the American League batting title .
Although scoring decisions were widely believed to favor the hitter over the defense , many players believed this bias shifts in favor of the pitcher when he carries a no @-@ hitter ( where a pitcher throws a complete game without giving up a hit ) into the late innings . Infielder Dave Johnson said , " I 've been involved in five or six no @-@ hit games , and all of them were suspected of being helped by hometown scoring . " One of the last controversies of the writer @-@ scorer era was seen in a 1978 game at St. Louis . In that game , St. Louis pitcher Bob Forsch was pitching a no @-@ hitter in the 8th inning against Philadelphia when a hard ground ball hit into the hole between shortstop and third was narrowly missed by third baseman Ken Reitz . The official scorer ( who was a writer for the local newspaper ) judged the play to be an error rather than a hit , and Forsch went on to pitch the first no @-@ hitter of the 1978 season .
= = = Newspaper reaction = = =
A player 's baseball statistics can increase or reduce the leverage which he may have in future contract negotiations . Many players also have monetary incentives written in their contracts which are based on statistical measurements , and official scorers have the option to reverse a scoring decision within 24 hours of the conclusion of a game . Because of this , baseball writer @-@ scorers were often subject to pressure from the players they were covering in their newspaper . After a game in 1962 , infielder Jerry Adair asked for a meeting with local writer Neal Eskridge after learning that he was the scorer for the game . Angry about an error he had received in the game , Jerry " cursed [ Neal ] thoroughly and imaginatively , and told him , ' Never talk to me again . ' " They reportedly did not speak to each other for almost four years . In the early days of baseball , a disagreement over a scoring decision occasionally led to physical altercations between the player and the writer . Confrontational incidents decreased after 1974 following a warning from MLB .
The pressure and the perceived conflict of interest faced by the baseball writers who scored games for MLB eventually led many major newspapers to end the practice for their employees . In 1958 , The Washington Post prohibited their writers from scoring baseball games . Over the next two decades other major newspapers joined in the writer @-@ scorer ban , including The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , The Boston Globe , and the major daily newspapers published in Atlanta , Detroit , Milwaukee , Minneapolis , and Philadelphia . In 1980 , MLB resolved the conflict by directly hiring official scorers for each stadium .
= = = After 1980 = = =
Today , the MLB commissioner 's office directly employs the official scorers who are responsible for producing score reports , but most scorers are hired on the recommendation of the public relations directors of baseball teams . Official scorers are typically retired writers , coaches , and umpires . Unlike umpiring teams , MLB official scorers do not typically travel between stadiums . Each official scorer is assigned to a stadium for the season , with each stadium having one or more scorers . Scorers now have access to replay video from different angles which they can review before making a decision . As of 2012 , MLB official scorers earned $ 150 per game . Official scorers are not required to meet the old BBWAA requirements , and are also no longer required to pass a written test , which was once administered by the National League before it was phased out in the mid @-@ 1990s . Potential scorers are generally required to briefly apprentice under an existing scorer before they are allowed to work alone .
Official scorers are only occasionally terminated , but there have been cases when a scorer was replaced after making decisions which displeased the home team . In 1992 the Seattle Mariner players signed a petition to have their official scorer replaced , and in 2001 the management of the Boston Red Sox ordered that a rookie scorer not be allowed to score another game after pitcher Hideo Nomo lost a no @-@ hitter on a close play in right field that was ruled a hit rather than an error .
In 2001 , MLB formed a scoring committee to evaluate the performance of official scorers . In 2008 , the scoring committee was given the authority to enforce the portion of rule 10 @.@ 01 ( a ) which allows the league to change a scoring decision that is " clearly erroneous " . The committee has used this authority on only a few occasions , having overturned three scoring decisions in the 2009 season . The scoring committee came under some scrutiny after a game on August 31 , 2008 . Milwaukee pitcher C.C. Sabathia threw a disputed 7 – 0 one @-@ hit shutout at Pittsburgh . Milwaukee manager Ned Yost argued that the hit recorded by Pittsburgh should have been recorded as an error by the pitcher , but Pittsburgh official scorer Bob Webb disagreed . Yost commented , " That 's a joke . That wasn 't even close . Whoever the scorekeeper was absolutely denied major league baseball a nice no @-@ hitter right there . " The official scorer had argued that the batter was too close to first base to be put out by a clean play . Milwaukee appealed the ruling to the scoring committee , but on September 3 the committee reviewed the footage and supported the ruling by Webb , saying the ruling was not " clearly erroneous " as required by rule 10 @.@ 01 ( a ) .
= = = Outside MLB = = =
Official scorers in the minor leagues are generally hired by the teams to score games at their stadium . Some minor league scorers have a history or connection with the team , including former players , former coaches , and local writers . Official scorers for international baseball competitions are generally selected by the organizer of the competition .
= = Analysis and proposed changes = =
Baseball players , managers , and writers have speculated about bias by the official scorer for decades , but this subject has been objectively studied only recently . In 2006 , the rate at which errors have been recorded in MLB by the official scorer was investigated under many situations . The rate at which errors are called " is higher when the quality of fielding is suspect " and is " lower when playing conditions are better " , but these factors " do not fully explain variations in error rate " . After other known factors are accounted for , evidence was found that official scorers are biased toward the home team , but that this bias was reduced after the end of the writer @-@ scorer era in 1979 . Further , errors are significantly more likely to be called in the National League than in the American League .
Changes have been proposed over the years to reduce possible inconsistencies between scorers and possible mistakes made by the official scorer , especially as the end of the writer @-@ scorer era began to seem likely in the late 1970s . The BBWAA and professional baseball umpires have suggested the creation of a " fifth umpire " . Four @-@ man umpire crews rotate officiating responsibilities after each game , and travel to several stadiums per year . This new fifth umpire would travel with the umpiring crew to score games and take his turn on the bases , but MLB has been reluctant to incur the increased cost . More recently , there have been suggestions to move the official scorer out of the press box and closer to the field behind the plate to get the best view of the game . MLB has conceded that this could be a good idea , but it is not currently feasible because of the design of most stadiums in the league .
= = Responsibilities = =
The rules which govern the official scorer are spelled out in Rule 10 of the official rules of baseball . The fundamental responsibilities of the official scorer are explained in rule 10 @.@ 01 .
= = = Rule 10 @.@ 01 = = =
The rules of baseball require that the official scorer view the game only from the press box , for two basic reasons . First , this ensures that every scorer has nearly the same perspective of the game . One of the intentions of this rule is to improve consistency in scorekeeping decisions between different official scorers working on different games at the same stadium , and between scorers in different stadiums . Second , the press box is the most neutral position within the stadium . Seated in the press box , the official scorer is surrounded by writers and broadcasters who are ostensibly neutral , and the scorer is less likely to be unduly influenced by the players , the coaches , and the crowd .
Rule 10 @.@ 01 states that the scorer is never allowed to make scorekeeping decisions that conflict with the official rules governing scorekeeping . The official scorer is permitted to view available replays and to solicit the opinions of others , but the official scorer is given the sole authority to make the judgment calls that are required in the score report . When a judgment call is made , the official scorer is obligated to immediately communicate that decision to the media in the press box and to the broadcasters , usually through a microphone . The official scorer has up to 24 hours to reconsider or reverse a judgment call that was made during the game . In rare circumstances , MLB 's scoring committee may reverse a scoring decision that is " clearly erroneous " .
Finally , within 36 hours of a game 's conclusion ( including the conclusion of a suspended game ) , the official scorer is required to create a summary of the game using a form established by the league . This task is performed for each game that is scored , including called games which must be completely replayed at a later date , and games that end in forfeit . The information in the score report includes the date , location of the game , the names of the teams , the names of the umpires who officiated the game , the final score , and the data that is required in rule 10 @.@ 02 .
= = = Judgment calls = = =
Most plays in the game are resolved in such a way that the scorer is not given more than one choice when recording the outcome of the play , but several types of plays are open to the interpretation of the official scorer . In any difficult judgment call where the official scorer is required to decide whether to credit a hit to the batter , the scorer is guided by rule 10 @.@ 05 . This rule directs the official scorer to give the benefit of the doubt to the hitter when the scorer believes that the decision to credit the batter with a hit is equally valid to an alternative scoring decision . In a similarly difficult judgment call where the official scorer believes that an earned run or an unearned run are equally valid scoring decisions , rule 10 @.@ 16 directs the official scorer to give the benefit of the doubt to the pitcher .
= = = = Errors = = = =
The decision to charge an error to the defense is the most well @-@ known responsibility of the official scorer . Some situations automatically call for an error to be charged to the defense by rule , but most charged errors are the result of a play that requires a judgment call . Broadly speaking , an error is charged to the defense when an " ordinary effort " by the defense would have either recorded an out or prevented a runner from advancing , but the defense fails to do so . When an error is charged , the official scorer must charge the error to one of the fielders who were involved in the play . Errors are primarily discussed in rule 10 @.@ 12 .
One exception in this rule occurs when the defense makes at least one out and attempts to complete a double play or triple play . An error is not charged in that situation if a wild throw allows the runner to reach safely . If a wild throw allows the runner to advance an additional base , an error may then be charged for the additional advance . However , if an accurate throw is made in time to complete a double play or triple play , but the fielder on the base fails to make the catch , an error may be charged .
Rule 10 @.@ 12 also states that an error should not be charged for a " mental mistake " by the defense . Rather , errors are charged when the defense attempts to make a logical play against the offense , but fails to record an out or prevent an advance due to a mechanical misplay . There is one rare exception to this rule against charging an error for a " mental mistake " . If a fielder fails to tag the runner , batter , or a base in a force situation in time to record an out when he could have done so , that fielder is charged with an error .
The most common judgment call involving an error occurs when the defense fails to put out a batter @-@ runner who puts the ball in play . If the out is not recorded and the official scorer believes that an " ordinary effort " by the defense would have resulted in an out , the defense is charged with an error , and the batter is not credited with a hit . Other common situations requiring a judgment call include unintentionally dropped foul balls that allow the batter to continue his at @-@ bat , and poor throws to the next base when a runner attempts to advance .
One of the most controversial and poorly understood situations related to the charging of an error occurs when an outfielder misjudges the flight of a ball and allows the ball to drop out of his reach . This is usually considered to be a " mental mistake " by the outfielder , so the batter is usually credited with a hit . On that topic Bill Shannon , who was an official scorer for the New York Yankees , said " That 's a base hit whether we like it or not . As a practical matter , we don 't charge errors on those plays . No one says that baseball is entirely fair . " Outfielders are generally charged with an error on a fly ball when they arrive at the ball 's destination with sufficient time to make a catch with an ordinary effort , but simply miss the catch or drop the ball .
= = = = Unearned runs = = = =
Earned runs are runs that are directly attributable to a pitcher 's efforts without a lapse by the defense . An unearned run does not adversely impact a pitcher 's earned run average ( ERA ) , and is only possible when an error ( including catcher 's interference ) or a passed ball occurs earlier in the inning . Unearned runs are primarily discussed in rule 10 @.@ 16 and often require a judgment call by the official scorer .
At the conclusion of an inning during which runs are scored after an error or passed ball , the official scorer attempts to recreate the events of the inning without the errors or passed balls . If in the official scorer 's opinion a run would not have scored without the defensive lapses , then the run is unearned . If the scorer believes that a run would have scored anyway , the run is earned and charged to the pitcher . In one basic example , if the first batter reaches by an error , the second batter hits a home run , and the next three batters strike out , then one of the two runs which were scored are unearned . There are rules and restrictions which govern this general guideline .
When reconstructing an inning without errors or passed balls :
Potential outs that were not recorded because of an error are presumed to be an out when the inning is reconstructed by the official scorer .
Intentional walks which were issued are still presumed to be walks .
Runs that are scored after what should have been the third out are automatically considered to be unearned .
When the batter is given first base because of interference , the official scorer must presume that an out would have been recorded on that batter .
When a runner is given a base because of obstruction , the official scorer does not presume that an out would have been recorded on that runner , but if that runner later scores the run is unearned .
A run scored by a runner who advances due to an error or passed ball is unearned , unless it would not have made a difference in the reconstruction of the inning .
Most of the above rules are straightforward , but some judgment is required by the official scorer when a baserunner advances due to a defensive lapse and later scores . In this situation , the official scorer must decide what would have happened if the runner had not advanced . This is often an easy decision , but it can occasionally be difficult . In one difficult example with a runner on first and two outs , the batter hits a single but a defensive error allows an advance by the lead runner from second to third , and a soft run @-@ scoring single is hit followed by an out . In that situation , the offense " should " have had runners on first and second with 2 outs when the run @-@ scoring single was hit . Since the next batter was put out , the official scorer must decide based on the hit , the speed of the baserunner , and the positioning of the defense whether the runner would have been able to score from second in the reconstruction of the inning without the error .
= = = = Fielder 's choice = = = =
In the rules of baseball , aside from the rare case of interference or obstruction , a batter who puts a ball into play and safely reaches first base is ruled to have reached in one of three possible ways : a hit , an error , or by fielder 's choice . Fielder 's choice is primarily discussed in rules 10 @.@ 05 and 10 @.@ 06 , and it generally occurs when it is judged that a batter @-@ runner would have been put out had the defense chosen to do so .
Most judgment calls made by the official scorer under this rule occur in three situations : when an infielder , pitcher , or catcher attempts to put out an unforced preceding runner who is attempting to advance one base , when any fielder attempts and fails to put out a forced preceding runner , and when any fielder attempts and fails to put out an unforced preceding runner who returns to their original base . In these situations , the official scorer is required to determine whether the batter @-@ runner would have safely reached first base if the defense made an ordinary effort to put him out . If the defense could not be reasonably expected to make the play , the batter is credited with a hit , otherwise he is ruled to have reached by fielder 's choice . If an error is made on the attempt to put out a preceding runner , that has no impact on this decision . It is instead noted to have occurred in addition to the hit or fielder 's choice .
In some cases the official scorer is not given the discretion to decide between awarding a hit to the batter or ruling that he safely reached first base by fielder 's choice . If a preceding runner is forced out or if an unforced preceding runner is put out while attempting to return to their original base , a hit is automatically not credited and the batter by rule is judged to have reached by a fielder 's choice . In some situations this rule may appear unfair to the batter . For example , if the batter is a fast runner , the ball is slowly hit to the third baseman , and an unforced runner from second realizes ( too late ) that he can not safely advance , the batter @-@ runner will lose the potential hit on a fielder 's choice by the third baseman . This occurs regardless of whether the batter @-@ runner would have reached first base with an ordinary effort to put him out .
= = = = Value of hits = = = =
In cases where a batter indisputably gets a hit and is able to safely advance past first base on the play , the value of that hit may be adjusted by the official scorer because of an error or a fielder 's choice .
If the defense attempts to put out a preceding runner during the play , the official scorer must determine whether the batter would have reached second or third base safely had the defense attempted to limit the batter 's advance . For example , if a runner on second attempts to score after a soft hit to center field and the center fielder chooses to throw to home while the batter advances to second , the official scorer must decide the value of the hit . In this situation , the scorer may either choose to credit the batter with a double , or the scorer may rule that the batter hit a single with an advance to second by fielder 's choice . This is often referred to as " an advance on the throw " .
If an error occurs during the play when a batter records a hit , the official scorer must determine whether the batter would have advanced as far as he did had the error not occurred . For example , if a batter hits a ball into an outfield gap , the ball is badly misplayed by an outfielder attempting to retrieve and throw the ball back into the infield , and the batter is able to reach all four bases to score , then the official scorer must decide whether an error should be charged to the outfielder . If no error is charged , then the batter would be credited with an " inside the park " home run . If an error is charged to the outfielder , then the batter would likely be credited with either a double or triple .
= = = = Wild pitch = = = =
When a baserunner is able to advance after a pitch is not caught or controlled by the catcher , the official scorer must determine whether the advance was due to a wild pitch or a passed ball . The pitch is never considered to be an error . If a pitch is thrown so high , wide , or low in relation to the strike zone that a catcher is not able to catch or control the ball with ordinary effort before a runner can advance , the advance is ruled to have occurred by a wild pitch . Any such pitch which strikes the ground before it reaches home plate is automatically considered to be a wild pitch . However , a pitch is not a wild pitch merely because it is off @-@ target . If the official scorer determines that the catcher should have been able to control the pitch and prevent an advance with ordinary effort , then the catcher is charged with a passed ball on the advance .
One exception to this rule occurs when a baserunner attempts to steal a base . If the runner " starts for the next base " before the pitcher delivers the pitch , the runner is credited with a stolen base and a wild pitch or passed ball is not charged . If a wild pitch or passed ball allows a runner to advance beyond the base that is stolen , the scorer may rule that the further advance occurred by a wild pitch or passed ball .
= = = = Other judgment calls = = = =
Some relatively uncommon situations may also require a judgment call by the official scorer .
When a defensive player has the ball and can end the play by preventing further advance , but fails to do so because of a mental mistake ( not an error ) and a runner subsequently scores , the official scorer must decide whether to credit the batter with a run batted in ( RBI ) . If the runner recognized the mistake after slowing or pausing his advance , an RBI is not credited . If the runner was oblivious to the mistake or runs home without slowing , the batter is credited with an RBI .
If a runner advances because the defense does nothing to try to stop the advance , the scorer may rule that the advance was due to defensive indifference and no stolen base is credited . However , a throw is not required for a stolen base . If a fielder begins to visibly make an attempt to prevent an advance but then elects not to throw , the advance is not due to defensive indifference .
When a batter attempts a sacrifice bunt and the resulting bunt is so well @-@ placed that he safely reaches first base , the official scorer may elect to credit the batter with a hit instead of a sacrifice if there is no error on the play and an ordinary effort by the defense would not have recorded an out .
Finally , when the starting pitcher of the winning team does not qualify for the win under rule 10 @.@ 17 , and the relief pitcher who would otherwise qualify for the win pitches " ineffectively " in a " brief appearance " , the official scorer may choose to credit a " succeeding relief pitcher " with the win .
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= 2009 World Series =
The 2009 World Series was the 105th edition of Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) championship series . The best @-@ of @-@ seven playoff was contested between the Philadelphia Phillies , champions of the National League ( NL ) and defending World Series champions , and the New York Yankees , champions of the American League ( AL ) . The Yankees defeated the Phillies with a score of 4 games to 2 , to win their 27th World Series championship . The series was played between October 28 and November 4 , broadcast on Fox , and watched by an average of roughly 19 million viewers . Due to the start of the season being pushed back by the 2009 World Baseball Classic in March , this was the first World Series regularly scheduled to be played into the month of November .
Home field advantage for the Series went to the AL for the eighth straight year as a result of its 4 – 3 win in the All @-@ Star Game . The Phillies earned their berth into the playoffs by winning the National League East . The Yankees won the American League East to earn their berth , posting the best record in the Major Leagues . The Phillies reached the World Series by defeating the Colorado Rockies in the best @-@ of @-@ five National League Division Series , and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the best @-@ of @-@ seven NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) . The Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in the American League Division Series and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) to advance to their first World Series since 2003 . As a result of their loss , the Phillies became the first team since the 2001 Yankees to lose the World Series after winning it the previous year .
Cliff Lee pitched a complete game in the Phillies ' Game 1 victory , allowing only one unearned run , while Chase Utley hit two home runs . In Game 2 , solo home runs by Mark Teixeira and Hideki Matsui helped the Yankees win by a score of 3 – 1 . After a rain delayed start , Game 3 featured more offense , with a combined six home runs and thirteen total runs en route to a Yankee victory . The Yankees won Game 4 by scoring the decisive three runs in the ninth inning after an alert base running play by Johnny Damon . The Phillies avoided elimination with a win in Game 5 , aided by Utley 's second two – home run game of the series . The Yankees secured their World Series championship with a Game 6 victory in which Matsui hit his third home run of the series . He was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the series , making him the first Japanese @-@ born player and the first full @-@ time designated hitter to win the award ; Matsui was the series ' MVP despite starting only the three games that were played at Yankee Stadium , since the designated hitter position is not used in NL ballparks .
Several records were tied , extended , or broken during this World Series , including team championships ( Yankees with 27 ) , career postseason wins ( Andy Pettitte with 18 ) , career World Series saves ( Mariano Rivera with 11 ) , career World Series home runs ( Chase Utley with seven ) , home runs in a postseason series ( Chase Utley with five ) , strikeouts by a hitter in a World Series ( Ryan Howard with 13 ) , and runs batted in in a single World Series game ( Hideki Matsui with six ) .
= = Route to the series = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
The off @-@ season the Phillies named Rubén Amaro , Jr. general manager , replacing Pat Gillick who retired at the end of a three @-@ year contract . Their most notable offseason player change was in left field , as Pat Burrell departed due to free agency and was replaced by free agent Raúl Ibañez . Another notable acquisition was free agent pitcher Chan Ho Park . Park was originally signed as a backup option for the bullpen , as reliever J. C. Romero was assigned a 50 @-@ game suspension after violating the Major League Baseball drug policy , but Park won the fifth starter 's job in Spring Training .
In July 2009 , Phillies scouts evaluated pitcher Pedro Martínez in two simulated games against the Phillies DSL team , leading to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @-@ million contract . Replacing Jamie Moyer as a starter in the Phillies rotation on August 12 , 2009 , Philadelphia won each of Martínez 's first seven starts , the first time in franchise history that this had occurred with any debuting Phillies pitcher . The Phillies made one large acquisition at the trade deadline , trading four minor league players to the Cleveland Indians for pitcher Cliff Lee and outfielder Ben Francisco . Lee won seven of his twelve regular season starts for Philadelphia in 2009 .
During the regular season , the Phillies led the National League East for most of the year , taking first place for good on May 30 . Ibáñez had started the year strongly , batting well over .300 with 17 home runs and 46 runs batted in ( RBI ) in the first two months of the season , which led the New York Post to call him an " early MVP candidate " . He was placed on the disabled list in mid @-@ June for a groin injury , however , and though he returned he did not bat above .260 for any other month that season . Although Ibáñez did not receive MVP votes his teammates Ryan Howard and Chase Utley had successful years , finishing 3rd and 8th in the balloting respectively . The Phillies finished the season with a record of 93 – 69 ( .574 ) , six games above the second @-@ place Florida Marlins in their division .
The Phillies defeated the wild card @-@ winning Colorado Rockies in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , three games to one , advancing to the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . Facing the Los Angeles Dodgers , the Phillies won the NLCS , four games to one , becoming the first team to repeat as National League champions since the 1995 – 96 Atlanta Braves . Ryan Howard won the NLCS MVP for his strong offensive performance during the series . Howard tied Lou Gehrig 's postseason record by having at least one RBI in eight straight games across the NLDS and NLCS . They became the first World Series champion to return to the World Series the following year since the 2000 – 01 New York Yankees .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Yankees ' offseason began in November 2008 with control over their organization shifting from long @-@ time owner George Steinbrenner to his son Hal Steinbrenner . Notable player departures included Mike Mussina — who announced his retirement on November 20 , 2008 — as well as Bobby Abreu , Jason Giambi , and Carl Pavano , who all left as free agents . Notable free agent acquisitions included starting pitchers CC Sabathia and A. J. Burnett , and first baseman Mark Teixeira . Another major addition was outfielder Nick Swisher , acquired in a trade with the Chicago White Sox .
The Yankees played the 2009 season in Yankee Stadium , their first year in that park after playing for 84 years in " Old " Yankee Stadium . They won the American League East with an eight @-@ game lead over their rivals , the Boston Red Sox , compiling a record of 103 – 59 . Sabathia won 19 games and position players Alex Rodriguez and Teixeira both had strong seasons offensively , Rodriguez with 30 home runs and 100 RBI and Teixeira with 39 and 122 respectively . Closing pitcher Mariano Rivera earned his 500th save against the Yankees ' cross @-@ town rival New York Mets , becoming the second pitcher in history to do so . On September 11 , 2009 , shortstop Derek Jeter recorded his 2,722nd career hit , passing Lou Gehrig to become the all @-@ time leader in career hits recorded as a Yankee .
The Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in three games in the American League Division Series and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in six games in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) to win their first American League pennant since 2003 . Sabathia was named MVP of the ALCS with two wins in the series . The Yankees ' victory in the ALCS earned them their 40th World Series appearance in franchise history , and their first since losing to the Florida Marlins in 2003 .
= = = Series preview = = =
The two teams played a three @-@ game interleague series at Yankee Stadium in May 2009 , with the Phillies winning two of the three games . The series included two blown saves by Phillies ' closer Brad Lidge in games 2 and 3 , although the Phillies came back to win the final game in extra innings .
The Yankees had home field advantage for the Series as the American League had won that year 's All @-@ Star Game . The team match @-@ up was heavily discussed and analyzed in the media prior to the beginning of the series . Both teams ' offensive lineups were heavily touted , with the Yankees and Phillies leading their respective leagues in runs scored per game . Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez drew particular focus in the media for his success in earlier rounds of the 2009 playoffs in contrast to past postseason performances . The two lineups featured twenty former All @-@ Stars and three former MVP award winners . Only one regular starter between both teams , Phillies catcher Carlos Ruiz , did not have at least ten home runs during the 2009 regular season . The two teams combined for 468 home runs during the season , more than any pair of opponents in World Series history .
The pitching staffs were also the subject of significant discussion prior to the series . The starting pitchers for Game 1 , CC Sabathia and Cliff Lee , were regarded as " aces " who " dominated " the 2009 postseason with a 0 @.@ 96 earned run average ( ERA ) between them . This matchup was of particular note , as Sabathia and Lee were former teammates from the Cleveland Indians and each had won a Cy Young Award with that franchise . Yankees manager Joe Girardi had been using a three @-@ man starting rotation during the playoffs , in contrast to the four @-@ pitcher rotation used by the Phillies . This difference led USA Today to give the Phillies ' starting rotation the " edge " in the series , as the World Series had one fewer day off than previous rounds of the playoffs , making the series less conducive to using a three @-@ man rotation . Gene Wojciechowski of ESPN criticized Girardi 's strategy , arguing that Chad Gaudin should have pitched in Game 5 or 6 , instead of A. J. Burnett or Andy Pettitte on reduced , three days rest . Wojciechowski argued that while Sabathia had proven his ability to pitch on shorter rest , Burnett and Pettitte should have been given their regular time between starts . Burnett had drawn some criticism , as he performed poorly in his last appearance before the World Series , a start in Game 5 of the ALCS in which he allowed six runs over six innings . However , Burnett had previously been successful on short rest , going 4 @-@ 0 with a 2 @.@ 33 ERA in four career starts on short rest before this game . Some believed Girardi settled on a three @-@ man rotation because he had limited options for a fourth starting pitcher , either Gaudin or Joba Chamberlain , who had been inconsistent as starters in the regular season and had been shifted into the bullpen for the postseason .
The matchup of closers , Mariano Rivera and Brad Lidge , also drew attention . Rivera and Lidge were the only closers who had not blown a save during the 2009 postseason , whereas closers on other postseason teams blew 11 saves in the 24 postseason games before the World Series in 2009 . Both had performed well during the postseason , but Lidge had posted a 7 @.@ 21 ERA during the 2009 regular season , in contrast to Rivera 's 1 @.@ 76 . Lidge 's 2009 numbers were in stark contrast to the previous season ( 41 out of 41 save opportunities , a 1 @.@ 95 ERA , and 92 strikeouts in 62 games ) . As a result , USA Today gave the Yankees the edge , noting that Lidge had blown two saves against the Yankees during their regular season series earlier that year .
= = Series summary = =
The Series started on October 28 , 2009 , which was the latest start in World Series history . Game 4 was played on Sunday , November 1 and the series @-@ winning Game 6 took place on November 4 . The Series was only the third to end in a month other than October . The first came in 1918 , which was played entirely in September after the regular season was cut short due to World War I. The other such series was in 2001 when the September 11 attacks caused a delay in the baseball season that eventually forced the end of the World Series into November .
Earlier in the season Commissioner Bud Selig expressed interest in scheduling a World Series game during daylight hours instead of the evening . The starting times were ultimately moved before 8 p.m. ET for the first time in 30 years , but no day games were played . The Philadelphia Eagles and New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) played across the street from Citizens Bank Park at Lincoln Financial Field on the day of Game 4 . The NFL moved that game 's kickoff time to 1 p.m. to avoid it ending too close to the start of Game 4 . Similarly , Game 5 was played at Citizens Bank Park on the same day as the Philadelphia Flyers hosted the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) at the Wachovia Center . The opening faceoff of the hockey game was scheduled for 7 p.m. but the NHL moved it to 5 p.m. to avoid conflict .
The umpires for the series were Joe West , Dana DeMuth , Gerry Davis , Brian Gorman , Jeff Nelson , and Mike Everitt . The World Series crew had included at least 1 umpire who had never worked the World Series in 24 of the past 25 series ; however , following several mistakes by umpires in earlier rounds of the playoffs , this crew did not .
The Phillies might have won the previous season 's World Series against the Tampa Bay Rays for the franchise 's second championship . The Yankees could have their previous World Series appearance to the Florida Marlins in 2003 and might have not won since 2000 against the New York Mets . This was the fifth Series played between teams from New York and Philadelphia , and possibly was the first Yankees – Phillies matchup since 1950 . The series also might have been the fourth consecutive time that the Phillies would have faced a team from the current AL East in the World Series , while the Yankees could have had faced a NL East opponent in three of their four most recent World Series appearances .
This Series had two unofficial nicknames : " Turnpike Series " , for the New Jersey Turnpike , which connects New York to Philadelphia through the state of New Jersey , and " Liberty Series " , based on the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia and the Statue of Liberty in New York .
= = = Game 1 = = =
Line score for Wednesday , October 28 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx , New York
Prior to the game , First Lady Michelle Obama and Second Lady Jill Biden escorted former Yankees catcher and World War II veteran Yogi Berra to the mound , where the ceremonial first pitch was thrown by a veteran of the Iraq War . The Phillies ' Ryan Howard got the first hit of the 2009 World Series by doubling in the first inning . Howard was stranded in the first and the game was scoreless after two innings . The Phillies scored first with a two @-@ out solo home run by Chase Utley in the top of the third inning . Through the first five innings , Philadelphia starting pitcher Cliff Lee allowed no runs and three hits , striking out seven Yankees batters . In the top of the sixth , Utley hit another solo home run to give the Phillies a 2 – 0 lead . The starting pitchers Lee and CC Sabathia continued to pitch until the top of the eighth when Sabathia was replaced by Phil Hughes . Hughes walked the first two batters and was replaced by Dámaso Marte . Marte got two quick outs and was relieved by David Robertson , who walked Jayson Werth and gave up a two @-@ run single to Raúl Ibáñez . The Phillies added two more runs in the ninth with an RBI single by Shane Victorino and an RBI double by Howard . Lee finished with a complete game allowing one unearned run on six hits and striking out ten batters , not walking any of the hitters he faced .
Lee 's pitching performance made history in several ways :
This was the fourth postseason start of Lee 's career . In all four starts , he went at least seven innings and gave up no more than one earned run . The only other starting pitcher ever to begin his postseason career with four such starts was Christy Mathewson .
He was also the first left @-@ handed starter to beat the Yankees in The Bronx to open a World Series since Sandy Koufax in 1963 .
He was the first starting pitcher to throw a complete game without giving up an earned run against the Yankees in Game 1 of a postseason series .
Lee was the first pitcher ever to strike out at least ten , walk no one , and give up no earned runs in a World Series start .
= = = Game 2 = = =
Line score for Thursday , October 29 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx , New York
Prior to the game , Jay @-@ Z and Alicia Keys performed the song " Empire State of Mind " for the Yankee Stadium crowd . This game marked the first postseason appearance of Pedro Martínez against the Yankees since the 2004 American League Championship Series , when he was with the Boston Red Sox and a part of the two teams ' long standing rivalry ; it was also the second @-@ ever World Series start that Martínez made . There was much media interest in Martínez 's " return to Yankee Stadium " for Game 2 , as he told reporters at a pre @-@ game press conference " When you have 60 @,@ 000 people chanting your name , waiting for you to throw the ball , you have to consider yourself someone special , someone that really has a purpose out there . "
The Phillies scored first for the second game in a row , with Raúl Ibáñez hitting a ground rule double and then scoring on a Matt Stairs RBI single off A. J. Burnett in the second inning .
Mark Teixeira tied the game with a solo home run in the fourth inning , and Hideki Matsui broke the tie in the sixth with another solo homer . Martínez departed the game after giving up consecutive hits to Jerry Hairston , Jr. and Melky Cabrera to start the seventh inning , and reliever Chan Ho Park gave up an RBI single to Jorge Posada . With Cabrera at second base and Posada at first , Johnny Damon hit a low line drive at Phillies first baseman Ryan Howard . Howard grabbed the ball and threw to second where Posada was tagged and called out while standing on the base . First @-@ base umpire Brian Gorman ruled that Howard had caught the ball in the air and thus the result was an inning @-@ ending double play . This was the first of two calls by Gorman in this game which were later shown to have been wrong by video replays .
Burnett left after seven innings and was replaced by Mariano Rivera in the eighth . The Phillies put two runners on with a walk to Jimmy Rollins and a single by Shane Victorino with one out in the eighth . However , Chase Utley grounded into an inning @-@ ending double play ending on a close play at first base , the second close call made by the first base umpire Brian Gorman . Gorman himself later admitted he missed this call , saying " on a freeze frame , it looks like there 's a little bit of a ball outside his glove when he hits the bag . " Ultimately , Rivera threw 39 pitches and got six outs for his 38th postseason save , his tenth in World Series play .
= = = Game 3 = = =
Saturday , October 31 , 2009 , 9 : 17 p.m. ( ET ) at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
The start of the game was postponed 80 minutes due to a rain delay , pushing the start time to 9 : 17 p.m. The cast of the television series Glee ( with Amber Riley singing lead ) performed the national anthem prior to the game as part of a ceremony featuring a large American flag and several members of the armed services . The Phillies scored first with Jayson Werth 's lead @-@ off solo home run , which was followed by a bases @-@ loaded walk and a sacrifice fly to make the score 3 – 0 in the bottom of the second inning . Following Mark Teixeira 's walk in the top of the fourth inning , Alex Rodriguez hit a deep ball down the right field line . It was originally ruled a double and Teixeira held at third base . The play was reviewed using MLB instant replay , which revealed that the ball had struck a camera sticking over the top of the wall , and the ball was ruled a two @-@ run home run , giving Rodriguez his first World Series hit . This was the first home run reviewed by instant replay in postseason play . Specifically , the ball hit a camera owned by Fox and MLB which extended slightly over the right field wall . The camera was moved back for Game 4 such that its lens was in line with the wall . Coincidentally , Alex Rodriguez also had the first regular season home run reviewed by replay .
Nick Swisher opened the top of the fifth inning with a double and scored on a single to center field by Andy Pettitte . This was Pettitte 's first career postseason RBI and the first RBI by a Yankees pitcher in a World Series since Jim Bouton in 1964 . Derek Jeter followed Pettitte with another single , and both runners scored on a two @-@ run double by Johnny Damon . Cole Hamels then walked Teixeira and was relieved by J. A. Happ . Happ closed out the fifth without allowing further scoring , but Nick Swisher added to the Yankees lead with a solo home run off of him in the sixth . Werth hit his second solo home run of the game leading off the bottom of the sixth to close the Yankees lead to 6 – 4 , becoming the second Phillies player to hit multiple home runs in this World Series .
Chad Durbin relieved Happ in the top of the seventh . He walked Johnny Damon , who then stole second base . Rodriguez was then hit by a pitch , and Damon scored on a single by Jorge Posada . Joba Chamberlain relieved Pettitte in the bottom of the seventh and retired the side in order . Brett Myers retired the first two batters in the top of the eighth , but Hideki Matsui then hit a solo home run pinch hitting for Chamberlain . Phil Hughes pitched a third of an inning in the bottom of the ninth and allowed a solo home run to Carlos Ruiz before being relieved by Mariano Rivera . Rivera closed out the game , throwing just five pitches to record the final two outs . This game was Pettitte 's 17th career postseason win , extending his MLB record .
= = = Game 4 = = =
Line score for Sunday , November 1 , 2009 , 8 : 20 p.m. ( ET ) at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
Prior to the start of the game , Derek Jeter and Albert Pujols were named winners of the Hank Aaron Award for their offensive performances in 2009 . This was the first game to test manager Joe Girardi 's decision to use a three @-@ man starting rotation , as CC Sabathia started the game on three days rest , a shorter period than he normally got during the regular season . Jeter led the game off with a single and advanced to third base on a double by Johnny Damon . Jeter scored via a Mark Teixeira ground out and Alex Rodriguez was hit by a pitch . Rodriguez was hit twice the night before and the umpires issued warnings to both benches . Jorge Posada then added to the Yankees lead that inning with a sacrifice fly . The Phillies answered quickly , scoring a run on successive doubles by Shane Victorino and Chase Utley in the bottom of the first . Sabathia intentionally walked Jayson Werth , but escaped the inning without further scoring . The Phillies tied the game in the bottom of the fourth as Ryan Howard singled , stole second , and scored on a single by Pedro Feliz . Although the run counted , instant replay of Howard 's slide later showed that he did not touch home plate .
Nick Swisher walked to lead off the fifth inning and advanced to second on a Melky Cabrera single . Swisher restored the Yankees ' lead , scoring on a single by Jeter , and Cabrera added to it by scoring a run on a Damon single . Brett Gardner replaced Cabrera in center field as a defensive substitution in the bottom of the sixth inning after Cabrera left the game due to a hamstring injury . Chan Ho Park relieved Phillies starter Joe Blanton in the seventh and held the Yankees scoreless in that inning . Chase Utley hit his third solo home run of the series in the bottom of the seventh with two outs , bringing the game to 4 – 3 . Dámaso Marte relieved Sabathia and got the final out of the seventh without further scoring .
Ryan Madson relieved Park in the eighth and allowed a walk and a single but held the Yankees scoreless . Joba Chamberlain replaced Marte in the bottom of the inning . He struck out the first two batters he faced but allowed a game @-@ tying home run to Feliz before closing the inning . Brad Lidge came into the game in the ninth and gave up a two @-@ out single to Damon — after a nine @-@ pitch at bat . Then , with Teixeira batting , Damon stole second and , on the same play , advanced to third as the base was uncovered due to a defensive shift against Teixeira . Several news outlets referred to this as a " mad dash " , which Mike Vaccaro of the New York Post compared to Enos Slaughter 's " Mad Dash " in the 1946 World Series . Some believed that Damon 's play caused Lidge to avoid throwing his best pitch — a slider with sharp downward movement — for the rest of the inning , as it risked a wild pitch that would have allowed Damon to score from third base . Teixeira was then hit by a pitch and Rodriguez put the Yankees ahead with a double , scoring Damon . Posada added to that lead with a single that scored Teixeira and Rodriguez , but was thrown out at second to end the inning . Mariano Rivera entered in the bottom of the ninth and saved the game for the Yankees on eight pitches for his second save of the series .
= = = Game 5 = = =
Line score for Monday , November 2 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
The Yankees replaced Melky Cabrera on their postseason roster with Ramiro Peña due to his injury in Game 4 , while Brett Gardner took Cabrera 's place in center field . A. J. Burnett , the Yankees ' Game 2 starter , started Game 5 on three days rest , one less than the Phillies ' Cliff Lee . The Yankees scored first in the first inning , with Johnny Damon reaching base with a single and then scoring on a two @-@ out double by Alex Rodriguez . The Phillies responded in the bottom of the inning with a single by Jimmy Rollins , Shane Victorino reaching after being hit by a pitch , and finally a three @-@ run home run by Chase Utley to take the lead . The Phillies added to their lead in the third inning with Utley and Ryan Howard drawing walks followed by RBI singles by Jayson Werth and Raúl Ibáñez . With no outs in the inning , Burnett was relieved by David Robertson , who allowed another run to score on a Carlos Ruiz ground out .
Robertson held the Phillies scoreless for a second inning in the fourth . Jorge Posada entered as a pinch hitter in the fifth inning for José Molina and grounded out . Eric Hinske then pinch hit for Robertson and walked , advanced to third on a Derek Jeter single , and scored on a ground out by Damon . Alfredo Aceves entered as the new Yankee pitcher in the bottom of the fifth . The first batter he faced , Jayson Werth , hit a deep drive to center field but it was caught for an out by Gardner , who collided into the outfield wall to complete the play . Aceves completed the inning without a run scoring , inducing ground outs from Ibáñez and Ruiz . Phil Coke relieved Aceves in the seventh inning and allowed two Phillies players tie World Series records . First , Utley tied Reggie Jackson 's record for most home runs in a World Series with a solo home run , his fifth of the series . Coke then struck out Howard , Howard 's 12th strikeout in the series , tying Willie Wilson 's record for most strikeouts in a World Series . Finally , Coke was driven from the game after allowing another solo home run , this time to Ibáñez , and was relieved by Phil Hughes .
Victorino was replaced defensively in the eighth inning by Ben Francisco . Lee was driven from the game after allowing a single to Damon , followed by a double by Mark Teixeira , and then a double by Rodriguez that scored both runners . Chan Ho Park relieved Lee and induced a ground out from Nick Swisher , which advanced Rodriguez to third base . Rodriguez scored on a sacrifice fly by Robinson Canó . Ryan Madson entered in the ninth to close the game , allowing a double to Posada and a single to Hideki Matsui without recording an out . Batting with men on first and third base , Jeter grounded into a double play , allowing Posada to score but emptying the bases . Damon singled to bring Teixeira to bat as the potential tying run , but Madson struck him out to record his first World Series save . Members of the news media , such as Gene Wojciechowski , were critical of the three @-@ man starting rotation strategy following Game 3 , and contended that Burnett 's poor performance was caused by insufficient rest in between starts . However , Burnett had been successful up to this point in such situations , going 4 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 33 ERA in four career starts on short rest ( less than the normal four days between starts ) before this game .
= = = Game 6 = = =
Line score for Wednesday , November 4 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx , New York
This game was the first Game 6 in a World Series since the 2003 World Series six years earlier , the longest such gap in the history of the World Series . Prior to the game , Mary J. Blige , a Bronx native , performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Andy Pettitte started on three days rest , the third straight game in which the Yankees fielded a pitcher on short rest . The Phillies started Pedro Martínez , who called himself and opposing pitcher Andy Pettitte " old goats " and acknowledged that Red Sox fans were rooting for him : " I know that they don 't like the Yankees to win , not even in Nintendo games . "
The Yankees scored first with an Alex Rodriguez walk opening the bottom of the second inning followed by a two @-@ run home run by designated hitter Hideki Matsui . The Phillies quickly responded with a triple by Carlos Ruiz who then scored on a sacrifice fly from Jimmy Rollins in the top of the third . Matsui answered back , adding to the Yankees lead again with a single with the bases loaded in the bottom of the third , scoring Derek Jeter and Johnny Damon . Damon , injured running the bases while scoring , was replaced defensively in the top of the fourth by Jerry Hairston , Jr .
Phillies starter Pedro Martínez was removed after allowing four runs in four innings , relieved in the fifth by Chad Durbin . Durbin allowed a ground rule double to Jeter , who advanced to third on a sacrifice bunt by Hairston and scored on a single by Mark Teixeira . Durbin then hit Rodriguez with a pitch and was relieved by J. A. Happ after recording just one out . Happ allowed a two @-@ run double to Matsui , his fifth and sixth RBI of the game , which tied a World Series record for most RBI in a single game set by Bobby Richardson in the 1960 World Series .
The Phillies made the game closer in the top of the sixth inning , as Chase Utley drew a walk and Ryan Howard followed him with a two @-@ run home run , bringing the score to 7 – 3 . After Raúl Ibáñez hit a double into right field , Joba Chamberlain relieved Andy Pettitte and closed the sixth without scoring . Chan Ho Park came in for Happ , ending any Yankees threat that inning . Chamberlain was relieved by Dámaso Marte in the top of the seventh after allowing two baserunners , but Marte struck out Utley to end the inning scoreless . After Park allowed a single to Rodriguez , Scott Eyre replaced him . Eyre allowed Rodriguez to steal second and intentionally walked Jorge Posada but escaped the inning without allowing a run .
Marte recorded one out , a strikeout of Howard , in the top of the eighth inning . With it Howard set a new World Series record for most strikeouts by a hitter in a single series with a total of 13 . After the out , Marte was relieved by the Yankees closer Mariano Rivera in a non @-@ save situation . Rivera allowed a double to Ibáñez , but no runs , in the eighth . After retiring the first two batters in the eighth , Eyre gave way to Ryan Madson , who allowed a single to Jeter before ending the bottom of the eighth inning . Matt Stairs led off the ninth as a pinch hitter , but lined out . Ruiz worked a walk from Rivera , but successive outs by Rollins and Victorino ended the game 7 – 3 to clinch the World Series for the Yankees . Pettitte added to his own record for most playoff wins , bringing his career total to 18 .
= = Statistics = =
AL New York Yankees ( 4 ) vs. NL Philadelphia Phillies ( 2 )
= = = Cumulative line score = = =
= = Broadcasting = =
For the tenth consecutive year in the United States , Fox Sports televised the Series . Joe Buck called play @-@ by @-@ play and Tim McCarver provided analysis . The Series was also broadcast on ESPN Radio , with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan calling the action . Fox Sports en Español also broadcast the Series for the US Spanish @-@ speaking audience . The flagship radio stations of the respective teams broadcast all Series games with their local announcers . In Philadelphia , WPHT carried the Phillies ' English @-@ language broadcasts , with Scott Franzke , Larry Andersen , Tom McCarthy , Gary Matthews , and Chris Wheeler announcing , while WUBA aired the team 's Spanish broadcasts . In New York , WCBS @-@ AM carried the Yankees ' English broadcasts with John Sterling and Suzyn Waldman announcing . This broadcast made Waldman the first woman to announce a World Series game on radio . XM Satellite Radio offered multiple feeds of each game to its subscribers .
= = Ratings = =
Television ratings for the 2009 World Series were excellent . Game 1 attracted 19 @.@ 5 million viewers , second only to the opening of the 2004 World Series for a series opener since 2000 and 29 % higher than 2008 's opening game . Game 4 produced the highest total viewership of the series with 22 @.@ 8 million viewers , the highest for any World Series game since 2004 and the highest for a " non @-@ decisive Game 4 " since 2001 . At 11 @.@ 7 overall , the 2009 World Series remains comfortably the highest rated World Series since 2004 and the only World Series to average double digits since 2007 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Many players with both teams won awards for their performances during the 2009 season . Teixeira and Jeter each won a Gold Glove and Silver Slugger Award ; Jimmy Rollins and Shane Victorino won Gold Gloves , as well ; and Chase Utley won a Silver Slugger Award . Rivera was named the 2009 DHL Delivery Man of the Year , as well as Sporting News ' Pro Athlete of the Year . Along with the Hank Aaron Award announced before Game 4 , Jeter won the Roberto Clemente Award and was named Sports Illustrated 's Sportsman of the Year for 2009 . Matsui won the World Series MVP for his play , becoming the first Japanese player and first full @-@ time designated hitter to win the award . Several items related to the series were sent to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum including bats from Jeter and Matsui ; caps from Rivera , Lee , and Pettitte ; and Johnny Damon 's cleats .
= = = Yankees = = =
The series win brought the Yankees ' franchise championship total to 27 , more than any other North American professional sports franchise . This championship came in the Yankees ' first year in their new stadium . They had also won the 1923 World Series , the opening year of the previous Yankee Stadium . The victory was noted by some sportswriters as a personal success for Alex Rodriguez , winning his first championship and succeeding in the playoffs where some had previously claimed he was a " choker and a loser " . Prior to this series , Rodriguez had appeared in 2 @,@ 166 regular season games without a World Series appearance , then the second @-@ most among active players to Ken Griffey , Jr .
The Yankees ' victory was credited to a number of different sources . Many players drew praise for their performances , including Series MVP Hideki Matsui ; free agents signed the previous offseason including Mark Teixeira , CC Sabathia , and A. J. Burnett ; and the so @-@ called " Core Four " of Derek Jeter , Mariano Rivera , Andy Pettitte , and Jorge Posada , who had all played a large role in the Yankees ' past success in the 1990s . Manager Joe Girardi was also credited for his management of the team , particularly in his decision to use only three starting pitchers in the Yankees postseason starting rotation . The Yankees were the first team to use only three starters in a World Series since the San Diego Padres in the 1998 Series .
Several members of the Yankees franchise dedicated the World Series in part to team owner George Steinbrenner , who had recently stepped back from his once prominent position with the team . Steinbrenner died on the day of the All @-@ Star Game the following season at the age of 80 . On November 6 , a victory parade took place for the Yankees in the " Canyon of Heroes " in Manhattan , New York City . The Yankees sent a group of players , coach Tony Peña , and team Senior Vice President Felix Lopez with the Commissioner 's Trophy to the Dominican Republic in early January 2010 to meet with President Leonel Fernández . Most of the 2009 Yankees received their championship rings on Opening Day the next season . Matsui was on the Angels in 2010 and when the Angels played their first series of the season in the Bronx , the Yankees home opener , they presented him with his ring . They also visited U.S. President Barack Obama in the White House in April 2010 , presenting him with a signed jersey .
The Yankees returned to the playoffs the following season , as the wild card . They lost to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 ALCS ; which included an 8 @-@ 0 shutout in Yankee Stadium by former Phillie ace Cliff Lee ; it was Lee 's seventh straight postseason win which included three victories against the Yankees ( two as a Phillie in the 2009 World Series , and in 2010 during the ALCS ) .
= = = Phillies = = =
Following Game 4 , after the Yankees took a 3 – 1 series lead , The Philadelphia Inquirer accidentally printed a three @-@ quarters @-@ page Macy 's advertisement congratulating the Phillies for winning the World Series , along with a picture of a Phillies championship T @-@ shirt . The newspaper subsequently apologized for the mistake .
Lee Jenkins of Sports Illustrated attributed Philadelphia 's loss to a lack of pitching depth , noting that three different Yankees starters managed to win games in the series , while only Cliff Lee won games for the Phillies . The Phillies ' 2008 postseason star pitchers , starter Cole Hamels and closer Brad Lidge , struggled in their only appearances of the 2009 World Series . The Phillies bullpen which did well in the NLCS performed poorly in the World Series , allowing seven runs in just 11 2 / 3 innings with a 5 @.@ 40 ERA . Jorge Arangure Jr. of ESPN partially attributed the Phillies ' loss to their lack of offensive production , citing the team 's .227 batting average in the World Series . Only Chase Utley performed well with 5 home runs and 22 of the Phillies ' 90 bases , while Shane Victorino and Jimmy Rollins struggled at the plate , and Ryan Howard struck out a record 13 times in the World Series after his NLCS MVP performance .
Before the start of the 2010 season , the Phillies traded away their 2009 postseason ace pitcher Cliff Lee . The Phillies posted the league 's best record in 2010 , and returned to the playoffs where they lost to the eventual champions the San Francisco Giants in the NLCS .
= = = David Paterson ticket scandal = = =
Among those in attendance during Game 1 was New York Governor David Paterson , whose party had five tickets behind home plate . On March 3 , 2010 , the New York Commission on Public Integrity found that Paterson had violated state laws concerning gifts to public officials , and that he lied under oath to the commission about his intent to pay for the tickets . The commission further found that Paterson used his position to solicit and receive the five tickets — valued at US $ 425 each — free of charge from the Yankees , that he had never intended to pay for the tickets despite testimony to the contrary , and that he or a person acting on his behalf wrote a backdated check to pay for them only after scrutiny in the case arose . The Commission ultimately fined Paterson $ 62 @,@ 125 for his actions .
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= UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff =
UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff is the sixth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on July 18 , 1989 . The album is the final of Yankovic 's to be produced by former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer . Recorded between December 1988 and May 1989 , the album served as the official soundtrack to 1989 film of the same name , although the original score by John Du Prez is omitted . The album 's lead single was the titular " UHF " , although it was not a hit and did not chart .
The music on UHF is built around pastiches of rock , rap , and pop music of the late @-@ 1980s , featuring parodies of songs by Dire Straits , Tone Lōc , Fine Young Cannibals , and R.E.M .. The album also features many " style parodies , " or musical imitations of existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like Harry Chapin , as well as various musical genres like blues . The album also features many music cuts from the film as well as some of the commercials , like " Spatula City " , and other parody bits , like " Gandhi II " .
Peaking at only 146 on the Billboard 200 , the album was not a commercial success , and received only lukewarm critical attention . The UHF soundtrack is one of only a few of Yankovic 's studio albums that is not certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . It would also be Yankovic 's last studio album to be released on vinyl record in the US until 2011 's Alpocalypse .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and recording = = =
Following the success of Yankovic 's 1988 album Even Worse , which featured the Michael Jackson spoof " Fat " , Yankovic pitched a screenplay co @-@ written by his manager Jay Levey called UHF to Orion Pictures . A satire of the television and film industries , the film starred Yankovic as George Newman , a man who stumbles into managing a low @-@ budget UHF television station and finds success with his eclectic programming choices . Also starring Michael Richards , Fran Drescher , and Victoria Jackson , it brought the floundering studio Orion their highest test scores since the movie RoboCop . Although the movie made slightly over US $ 6 million domestically — out of a budget of $ 5 million — it was considered unsuccessful .
In December 1988 , Yankovic returned to the studio to record the soundtrack to his feature film . Once again , former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer was brought in to produce the album . This would be Derringer 's last production credit for Yankovic , as subsequent studio albums would be produced by the artist himself . Recording with Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in six different sessions at both Santa Monica Sound Records in Santa Monica , California and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles . During the first session , the song " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " was recorded . The second session yielded the titular " UHF " and " Let Me Be Your Hog " . During the third session , Yankovic recorded " Stanley Spudowski 's Theme " — which would later be renamed " Fun Zone " — as well as the skit " Gandhi II " . Only one song was recorded during the fourth sessions , the skit " Spatula City " . The fifth recording session resulted in five songs : " Spam " , " Attack of the Radioactive Hamsters From a Planet Near Mars " , " Hot Rocks Polka " , " Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota " , and " Generic Blues " . The sixth and final session produced the two parodies " Isle Thing " and " She Drives Like Crazy " .
= = = Originals = = =
On February 24 , 1989 , Yankovic recorded the first original song for the album , " Let Me Be Your Hog " . The song is a short rock snippet that is heard in the movie as Newman 's uncle Harvey ( Stanley Brock ) lounges in his pool . Originally , Yankovic had wanted to use the 1974 single " Kung Fu Fighting " by Carl Douglas for the scene , but he could not gain the rights to the song , and thus " Let Me Be Your Hog " was recorded . Yankovic then recorded the theme from his movie , the titular " UHF " , written in the style of a TV station 's large promotional campaign . On February 25 , Yankovic recorded the instrumental " Fun Zone " , also known as " Stanley Spudowski 's Theme " . Originally written four years earlier for a failed Saturday Night Live replacement titled Welcome to the Fun Zone , this song is played at the beginning of every " Weird Al " concert .
Three months later , on May 24 , 1989 , Yankovic recorded three more originals . The first of these , " Attack of the Radioactive Hamsters from a Planet Near Mars " , is a rock song about a number of mutated hamsters terrorizing Earth . The second original song , " The Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota " , is a folk ballad about a family road trip to a tourist location in Minnesota . Musically , the song was inspired both by the book Roadside America , which " featured all the campy places around the country that one could possibly visit " , as well as the music of Harry Chapin and Gordon Lightfoot , which Yankovic described as " storyteller songs , [ with ] sprawling narratives . " The final original song recorded for the album was " Generic Blues " , Yankovic 's attempt to write " the ultimate blues song " . After the release of the song , B.B. King listed it as one of his top ten favorite blues songs .
UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff is also notable in that it was Yankovic 's first and only studio album to dabble in the art of skits . The first of these segments is called " Gandhi II " which re @-@ imagines Mahatma Gandhi as the hero of a blaxploitation @-@ style sequel to the film Gandhi , spoofing both the theme and promos for the film Shaft . The second skit is called " Spatula City " and is an advertisement for a spatula outlet store . These short segments were used in the film as commercials ; other commercial segments , such as " Plots ' R Us " and " Conan the Librarian " , were not used on the album .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
On December 20 , 1988 , Yankovic recorded " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " . The song features the lyrics of The Beverly Hillbillies theme song altered slightly and set to the tune of " Money for Nothing " . The song appears in its entirety within UHF as a computer @-@ animated dream sequence , framed as if it were part of a music video . As part of his terms that allowed Yankovic to record this parody , Dire Straits guitarist and " Money for Nothing " songwriter Mark Knopfler insisted that he be allowed to play the guitar featured in the parody . As a result , both he and Guy Fletcher — Dire Straits ' keyboardist — recorded their parts on guitar and synthesizer respectively . According to Yankovic , his guitarist Jim West had practiced the song for weeks , and , as a result could recreate the original ; Knopfler , on the other hand , had been playing the song for several years and was much more relaxed with his playing . As a result , West 's version sounded more like the original version , although Knopfler 's track was the one used . Yankovic revealed in the DVD commentary for UHF that the concept " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " was originally a parody of Prince 's 1984 hit " Let 's Go Crazy " . Prince , however , refused , and has been unreceptive to any parody ideas Yankovic has ever presented him with . The fractured titled " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " is a result of Dire Straits ' lawyers insisting that " Money for Nothing " remain in the parody 's title . Yankovic was unhappy with the title and stated that he would rather have had the title be either " Money for Nothing for the Beverly Hillbillies " or " Beverly Hillbillies for Nothing " . The legal title for the song features an asterisk after the word " Hillbillies " , although it is often printed without the marking .
On May 24 , 1989 , Yankovic started recording the second parody for the album , " Spam " . The song , a play on R.E.M. ' s hit " Stand " , is an ode to the canned luncheon meat Spam . Yankovic noted that it was " fun to pick [ apart the song ] and figure out some of those almost subliminal parts — parts that would fade in and out , little bell sounds , things you don 't really hear on first listening . " On May 25 , 1989 , Yankovic recorded " Isle Thing " , a parody of " Wild Thing " by Tone Lōc , about a woman who introduces the narrator to the television show Gilligan 's Island . Notably , the song is Yankovic 's first rap parody ; an earlier rap , " Twister " , is a Beastie Boys style spoof , but not a direct parody . Another Tone Lōc hit , " Funky Cold Medina " , is referenced in the lyrics : " Ginger and Mary Ann coulda used some funky cold medina " . The final parody , " She Drives Like Crazy " — recorded the same day as " Isle Thing " — is a spoof of Fine Young Cannibals ' 1988 single " She Drives Me Crazy " . Lyrically , the song is about a man who fears his girlfriend 's crazy driving habits .
Much like Yankovic 's previous album , UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff features a polka medley of hit songs called " The Hot Rocks Polka " . All of the songs in the medley are songs written or made popular by the English rock band The Rolling Stones .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Due to the short stint of UHF in theaters , its soundtrack got " lost in the shuffle " and did not receive much of a critical response . However , from the few reviews it did receive , the album received a mixed response . Jacob Lunders of Allmusic awarded the album three stars out of five and called it a " guilty pleasure " . Lunders noted that the album " endures artistically as a transitional album between his ' 80s heyday and the imminent artistic makeover revealed on 1992 's Off the Deep End " . He ultimately concluded that the album is something that only " moderate [ to ] genuine " fans may want , but that it is " nearly as accessible " as many of his compilation albums . The Rolling Stone Album Guide awarded the album three stars out of five , denoting a " good " album . A TV Guide critic , in a review of the movie , wrote that " the quality of [ the movie 's ] parodies " are " inconsistent , with the movie and music takeoffs being obvious and out of date . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff was released July 18 , 1989 . After it was released , the album peaked at number 146 on the Billboard 200 . Much like Polka Party ! ( 1986 ) , the album was considered a major commercial disappointment for the comedian ; the album is his second @-@ lowest charting album after Polka Party ! ( 1986 ) . The UHF soundtrack is one of only a few of Yankovic 's studio albums that is not certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . The others include Polka Party ! and Poodle Hat ( 2003 ) . UHF would also be Yankovic 's last studio album to be released in the US on vinyl record until 2011 's Alpocalypse .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
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= Sergei Shirokov =
Sergei Sergeyevich Shirokov ( Russian : Серге ́ й Серге ́ евич Широков , Russian pronunciation : [ sʲɪrˈɡʲej sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ ʂɨˈrokəf ] ; born 10 March 1986 ) is a Russian professional ice hockey winger currently with SKA Saint Petersburg of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . Drafted 163rd overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft , he is a prospect for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Prior to signing with Vancouver in 2009 , Shirokov played with CSKA Moscow for four seasons in the Russian Superleague and Kontinental Hockey League . He returned to CSKA Moscow in 2011 after two years with the Vancouver Canucks and Manitoba Moose .
= = Playing career = =
Shirokov first played in the Russian Hockey First League ( RUS @-@ 3 ) with HC CSKA Moscow 's second @-@ tier team in 2001 . He spent several seasons at that level and debuted with CSKA 's senior team in the Russian Superleague in 2004 – 05 , going pointless in eight games . The following season , he recorded 14 points playing 39 games in the Superleague . Shirokov was then selected 163rd overall in the sixth round of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft by the Vancouver Canucks . The sixth round draft pick was acquired by the Canucks in a trade with the Florida Panthers .
Though selected by an NHL team , Shirokov continued to play in Russia for HC CSKA Moscow and recorded a team @-@ best and career @-@ high 40 points in 56 games for CSKA , who competed in the newly formed Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) in 2008 – 09 . He then turned down a tax @-@ free $ 500 @,@ 000 contract to stay in the KHL . Instead , Shirokov defected to North America and signed with the Canucks to a two @-@ year , two @-@ way US $ 1 @.@ 75 million contract on 17 August 2009 . The deal allowed him to make an annual US $ 875 @,@ 000 at the NHL level or C $ 67 @,@ 500 in the minor leagues .
Shirokov made an immediate impression in his first training camp with the Canucks , but suffered a minor setback during the pre @-@ season , missing a week with an injured knee . He recovered in time for the end of the pre @-@ season to lead the team in exhibition scoring with seven points in four games . As a result , Shirokov earned a roster spot for the start of the 2009 – 10 season , beating out fellow Canucks prospects Cody Hodgson and Michael Grabner .
Shirokov made his NHL debut on 1 October against the Calgary Flames , starting the season on the second line with Ryan Kesler and Mikael Samuelsson , as well as the first power @-@ play unit . However , after going pointless in his first three games before becoming a healthy scratch , he was sent down to the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose on 8 October . Shirokov scored his first AHL goal in his Moose debut the next day against Drew MacIntyre of the Chicago Wolves , also adding an assist in a 4 – 1 win . After scoring 10 points in his first 10 games with the Moose , Shirokov was re @-@ called by the Canucks on 25 October after an injury to forward Kyle Wellwood , but was returned to the AHL after three games on 30 October in favour of centre Mario Bliznak . On 30 December , Shirokov was chosen to Team PlanetUSA for the 2010 AHL All @-@ Star Game . At the time of the selection , he was leading the Moose in scoring with 11 goals and 23 points through 33 games . He finished his first campaign in North America with 22 goals and 45 points over 76 games . Among AHL rookies , Shirokov was ninth in points and tied for third in goals . He added two assists in six playoff games as the Moose were eliminated by the Hamilton Bulldogs in the opening round .
Shirokov started the 2010 – 11 season with the Moose . After a slow start , he was leading the Moose in scoring with 33 points in 39 games , including a team record 12 @-@ game point streak , when he was recalled by the Canucks on 17 January 2011 . In his first game back in the NHL the following day , Shirokov scored his first NHL goal against Craig Anderson in a 4 – 3 overtime loss to the Colorado Avalanche . After two games , he was sent back to the Moose on 23 January . Shirokov was selected as the Moose representative for the 2011 AHL All @-@ Star Game , the second year in a row he would be at the game . He went on to complete the season with a team @-@ leading 22 goals , 36 assists and 58 points in 76 games . As the Moose advanced to the second round of the 2011 playoffs , he led the team in scoring with 7 goals , while adding 3 assists for 10 points over 14 games .
In the off @-@ season Shirokov signed a three @-@ year deal with CSKA Moscow . Then on 9 July 2011 , Vancouver traded his rights to the Florida Panthers for the rights to forward Mike Duco . In his first year upon returning to CSKA Moscow , he finished eighth in KHL point scoring and was named to the 2012 KHL All @-@ Star Game . The following season , Shirokov participated in the 2013 KHL All @-@ Star Game . On 5 November 2013 , CSKA Moscow traded Shirokov to Avangard Omsk along with Maxim Goncharov in exchange for Alexander Frolov and Stanislav Egorsheva . On 19 December 2015 in exchange the Anton Burdasov and Peter Khokhryakov has joined SKA Saint Petersburg .
= = International play = =
Shirokov made his international debut with Russia at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , earning a silver medal while contributing four points in five games . He continued to play with the national under @-@ 18 team , helping Russia to the best records at the 2003 Four Nations and 2004 Five Nations Tournaments . At the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships , he helped Russia to another gold medal in Minsk , Belarus , defeating the United States 3 – 2 in the final . Shirokov contributed two goals in six games .
Shirokov made the jump to the Russia 's under @-@ 20 team in September 2004 , posting the second @-@ best record with Russia at the Four Nations Tournament . Several months later , he made his first of two appearance at the World Junior Championships . In 2005 he scored eight points in six games at the top under @-@ 20 tournament in Grand Forks , North Dakota , helping Russia to a silver medal finish , losing in the final to Canada . In April 2005 , Russia hosted the Big Prize Tournament in St. Petersburg , where Shirokov recorded an assist in two games as Russia posted the best record .
The next hockey season , Shirokov competed in the under @-@ 20 Four Nations Tournament in September 2005 , where Russia finished with the worst record of the tournament . A couple months later , he helped Russia to the best record at the Four Nations Tournament in November . At the 2006 World Junior Championships in British Columbia , Shirokov helped Russia to a second consecutive silver medal , losing once again to Canada in the final . He scored five points in six games .
Shirokov was a member of the gold medal @-@ winning Russian teams at the 2012 IIHF World Championship and 2014 IIHF World Championship tournaments , scoring a combined five goals and seven assists between the two events . He scored a goal and an assist in the gold @-@ medal match against Finland at the 2014 IIHF World Championship . He won a silver medal the following year at the 2015 IIHF World Championship in Czech Republic .
= = Awards and achievements = =
KHL All @-@ Star Game - 2012 , 2013
AHL All @-@ Star Game - 2010 , 2011
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
All statistics taken from NHL.com
= = International statistics = =
All statistics taken from Eliteprospects.com
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= Undone ( MercyMe album ) =
Undone is the third studio album by Christian rock band , MercyMe . It was produced by Pete Kipley and released on April 20 , 2004 on INO Records . Following the success of MercyMe 's previous studio efforts , they were given significantly more resources with which to develop the album and brought in a sixth member , guitarist Barry Graul . Unlike the band 's previous songwriting style , which was to write the lyrics first , they wrote the music for the songs on the album before writing the lyrics . The album has a pop rock and adult contemporary sound , while the lyrics are personal and convey Christian themes .
Undone received generally favorable reviews from critics with many praising the album 's personal style , although some critics argued the album 's songwriting and sound were too similar to MercyMe 's previous efforts . It won the GMA Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards . In the United States , Undone debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , selling over 55 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It spent a total of two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and was the fifth @-@ best selling Christian album of 2004 and the fourteenth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2005 . Undone has sold over 627 @,@ 000 albums in the United States and was the thirty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s .
Three official singles were released from Undone . " Here with Me " , the album 's lead single , was released to Christian and mainstream radio , peaking at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts as well as at No. 12 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart . The second single from the album , " Homesick " , peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts and at No. 9 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart . The third single , " In the Blink of an Eye " , peaked at No. 1 on the Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the success of the band 's previous albums Almost There and Spoken For , MercyMe was given " significantly " more resources to develop their next record by their record label , INO Records . Although they decided not to alter their Christian approach to songwriting , live performances , and interviews , they opted to work with outside songwriters on the album , employed the London Symphony Orchestra to play strings on several tracks , and added a sixth member to the band , guitarist Barry Graul . Additionally , MercyMe wrote and recorded the music for Undone before they wrote any of the lyrics . Lead singer Bart Millard noted that by using this method , instead of his lyrics swaying the musical elements of the song , the music acted as " a canvas with which to write [ the lyrics ] " . He elaborated that " We ’ ve been making records for 10 years , so anything that sparks creativity ... is very much welcomed " . The title of the album was inspired by " the unexpected twists and turns in the band 's journey " ; Millard commented that " We had our plans for what we were going to do ; but when the bigger picture happened , all of our plans came unraveled . We don ’ t know what tomorrow will hold . When you make your own plans , you suddenly find yourself undone ; and that ’ s exactly where God wants us in the first place " .
Undone was produced by Pete Kipley and was recorded by F. Reid Shippen , Mike O ' Connor , and Steve Bishir ; recording took place at Blueberry Hill , Sound Stage , Abbey Road , The Indigo Room , Maximedia , Luminous Sound , and The Schwoodio . Mixing was conducted by F. Reid Shippen and Lee Bridges , while mastering was done by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound . The string tracks on " Homesick " , " Where You Lead Me " , " Unaware " , and " Here with Me " were arranged by Rob Mathes and recorded by Simon Rhodes and Andrew Dudman at Abbey Road . The cello on " Keep Singing " was performed by Matt Slocum .
= = Composition = =
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Although he did not focus less on Christian lyrical material for Undone , mainstream radio was on Millard 's mind when he wrote the lyrics on the album . Millard attempted to write lyrics that , while still focused on God , tapped into the things people deal with every day . Further , he avoided using Christian jargon , as people who are not churchgoers might not understand what those terms mean ; instead , he tried to be " clearer in the things [ the band ] were talking about " . Another impact on the songwriting was the band 's experiences over the previous year ; while working on Undone , Millard and the other members of the band lost eight people close to them . Millard noted that " There 's a lot of personal stuff on [ the album ] about the things we 've gone through and how Christ has been the solution " . One particular song , " Homesick " , was written after two incidents . The first incident occurred during the holiday season of 2004 ; a friend of Millard 's lost her twin babies during pregnancy and was so far along in the pregnancy that doctors had to induce labor . After attending the funeral for the two babies , Millard wrote the chorus to the song . However , he didn 't write any more to " Homesick " after that as he did not want to " fake " his way through writing it . Following the death of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Chris , however , Millard finished the song . Although Undone was " essentially complete " at that point , the band recorded and included it on the album .
The album has been noted as having ' personal ' lyrics , a trait that is common for MercyMe . Otherwise , most of the lyrics deal with Christian themes and there is an " abundance " of " spiritually vertical " content . " Here with Me " discusses and conveys the theme of God 's love and omnipotence , while " Homesick " focuses on " persevering on earth in anticipation of heaven " . The title track describes the human " never @-@ ending quest for self @-@ improvement " . " Unaware " and " Caught Up In The Middle " are about making everything in life secondary to God while " Keep Singing " is about " pressing on and praising God in light of tragedy " .
= = = Music = = =
Musically , the band regarded the album as a ' new progression ' . Bassist Nathan Cochran said that " It ’ s not a sharp left turn ; it ’ s a step beyond what we ’ ve ever done . We feel like our message and calling are the same ... We ’ re still worship leaders ; we ’ re just on a different scale " . As a whole , Undone is a guitar @-@ driven album with a pop rock and adult contemporary sound . The album 's opening track , " Where You Lead Me " , builds from an acoustic guitar @-@ driven opening into a crescendo featuring synthesizers and guitars . " Here with Me " has a musical vibe similar to alternative rock band Coldplay . " Homesick " is a ballad featuring strings from the London Symphony Orchestra . More upbeat cuts on the album include " In The Blink Of An Eye " , " Caught Up In The Middle " , and " A Million Miles Away " , while " Keep Singing " is driven by a piano .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Undone received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Although some critics felt the songwriting and music were too similar to the band 's previous efforts , others praised the album 's ' personal ' style . Kim Jones of About.com gave the album five out of five stars , saying that " [ the album ] has been called by many people as one of the best new releases of 2004 and I have to agree " . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic gave it three out of five stars , saying that " With its slick production and MercyMe 's full lineup of guitars , percussion , and keys , [ Undone ] suggests the tangent of Nashville contemporary country that favors straightforward pop melody over any sort of hard twang . Likewise , the album 's more upbeat moments reflect the trend in secular adult alternative toward earnest vocals over whitewashed rock ( à la Vertical Horizon ) . Both sounds work well for MercyMe on Undone , doubtless giving fans of the band 's music and devotion plenty more to believe in " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine gave Undone an A , calling it " [ MercyMe 's ] most mature , personal recording to date " , also praising Bart Millard 's vocals . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave the album nine out of ten stars , calling it a " huge improvement " over Spoken For ( 2002 ) .
While calling Undone MercyMe 's " most satisfying " record to date , Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today regarded the songwriting as " monotonous " and felt that MercyMe was " beginning to sound like they 're repeating themselves " . Josh Taylor of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album three out of five stars , opining that " Frankly , this is the same stuff they were doing three years and two albums ago ... If you ’ re a diehard MercyMe fan , this disc will be music to your ears . But for those of us who long for change ( Not drastic ones , mind you . But small , significant ones . ) , Undone seems redundant . It ’ s still good , but it ’ s beginning to become stale " .
At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , Undone won the award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year .
= = = Commercial = = =
Undone sold 55 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week , MercyMe 's highest sales week at that point . It debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , their second career number @-@ one album on the latter . The album 's lead single , " Here with Me " , played a large part in the early sales of the album by having success on both Christian and mainstream radio . It spent a total of two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and became the fifth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2004 and fourteenth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2005 . It ranked as the thirty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States and has sold over 627 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Singles = =
Three official singles were released from Undone . " Here with Me " , the album 's lead single , topped the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for thirteen weeks and the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart for ten weeks . It also appeared on mainstream chart formats , peaking at No. 12 on the Adult Contemporary chart and No. 38 on the Adult Top 40 chart . " Here with Me " ranked at No. 16 on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
The album 's second single , " Homesick " , peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts and at No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC Indicator and Inspo charts . It also peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart .
The third and final single from Undone , " In the Blink of an Eye " , spent five weeks atop the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart and six weeks atop the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart . It ranked at No. 48 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jim Bryson , Nathan Cochran , Barry Graul , Pete Kipley , Bart Millard , Mike Scheuchzer and Robby Shaffer except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Cyclone Hina =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Hina in March 1997 was the worst tropical cyclone to affect the South Pacific island nation of Tonga since Cyclone Isaac in 1982 . The system was first noted within the monsoon trough on March 11 , 1997 , as a weak shallow depression within the vicinity of Rotuma . Over the next two days , the depression remained near Rotuma with no preferred movement , as it started to develop further within favorable conditions for further development . The system was subsequently named Hina on March 15 , after it had started to move eastwards and had passed to the southeast of Niulakita , Tuvalu . During that day the system moved south @-@ eastwards and impacted Wallis and Futuna , before it passed over Tonga 's southern islands of Tongatapu and ' Eua during March 16 . After impacting Tonga the system moved rapidly towards the south @-@ southeast and weakened below tropical cyclone intensity , before it was last noted on March 21 about 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) to the south of the Pitcairn Islands . During the systems post analysis it was determined that the warning centers had underestimated Hina 's intensity as it passed over Tonga , after damage had been greater than expected in the island nation .
Within Tuvalu it was difficult to assess damage done by Hina alone , after Cyclone Gavin impacted the area a week earlier . Storm surge and strong winds from both cyclones caused a severe amount of coastal erosion on all of the country ’ s nine atolls , with about 6 @.@ 7 % of land washed into the sea . Hina caused no significant damage on Walls Island , while it caused some damage to crops and destroyed parts of the road on Futuna Island . As Hina affected Tonga , there were no casualties reported as the system affected the island nation , however , Vaiola Hospital reported that they had treated a number of patients for injuries that were caused during the systems aftermath . One indirect death was also reported , after a person suffering a heart attack while evacuating from his home . The cyclone left extensive damage to utilities and agriculture on Tongatapu , where trees were uprooted and more than 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) of fruit and food crops were destroyed , mostly to banana and coconut trees . After the cyclone the Tongan Government requested and received emergency aid , from the governments of several countries including France , Australia , New Zealand , Japan and the United Kingdom . This was after the government had provided T $ 5 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 97 million ) , or about 5 % of its national budget to facilitate the immediate start of emergency relief and repairs to essential services .
= = Meteorological history = =
During March 11 , 1997 , a shallow tropical depression developed within the monsoon trough near the Fijian Dependency : Rotuma . Over the next two days the depression remained near Rotuma with no preferred movement , as it started to develop further in an area of minimal vertical wind shear and good upper air divergence . During March 13 , as the system moved northwards , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) subsequently initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 33P . During that day after having moved to the north , Hina curved to the east and later south @-@ eastwards , before it passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the southeast of Niulakita the southernmost island of Tuvalu during March 14 . Early on March 15 , after the system had passed near Niulakita , the depression developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale and was named Hina by the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) . After being named the system accelerated towards the south @-@ southeast and an area of increasing vertical wind shear , as it passed near the west coast of Futuna Island . The system also crossed the 180th meridian during that day , which prompted the JTWC to pass the responsibility for warning the United States Government to the Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) .
Early on March 16 , as Hina passed over the southern islands of Tonga , the FMS reported that based on satellite imagery and guidance from other meteorological centers , the system had 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 85 km / h ( 55 mph ) . Hina subsequently passed over the islands of Tongatapu and ʻEua in southern Tonga at around 08 : 30 UTC and took less than 2 hours to inflict considerable damage on the islands . The system subsequently emerged back into the South Pacific Ocean , with the FMS estimating that the system had storm force winds of about 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Later that day the NPMOC estimated that Hina had peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) as it rapidly moved below 25 ° S and out of the FMS 's area of responsibility . Over the next few days the system continued to move towards the south @-@ southeast and gradually weakened , before the NPMOC issued its final advisory during March 18 , as the system was undergoing a transition to become an extratropical cyclone . The system weakened below tropical cyclone intensity during the next day , before it was last noted by the Wellington Tropical Cyclone Warning Center on March 21 , while located about 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) to the south of the Pitcairn Islands .
After an analysis of the observed data and the damage in Tonga , the FMS estimated that Hina 's landfall intensity was underestimated . The observed wind data suggested that the system had storm force sustained winds but had peak gusts comparable to hurricane force . Furthermore , the lowest pressure values also indicated that the winds had to be stronger than estimated for it to fit known wind pressure relationships . It was subsequently deduced by the FMS that Hina was a minimal category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with peak 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) when it crossed the Tonga island of Tongatapu at around 08 : 30 UTC ( 21 : 30 UTC + 13 ) . The NPMOC also revised their estimate of Hina 's peak 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds from 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) to 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) during post analysis , which made the system equivalent to a category one hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Cyclone Hina caused over US $ 15 @.@ 2 million worth of damage and was indirectly responsible for one death as it affected Tuvalu , Wallis and Futuna and Tonga . The system 's worst impact was reported on the Tongatapu and ' Eua , which are the southern most islands of the Kingdom of Tonga . Due to the impact of this storm , the name Hina was retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists .
= = = Tuvalu = = =
On March 12 , the FMS issued gale warnings for the southern islands of Tuvalu and a tropical cyclone alert for the rest of the archipelago . The gale warning was subsequently extended out to cover the whole of the archipelago during the next day , after marginal squally gale force winds were observed to the north of the monsoon trough in association with the system . Over the next two days the warning was kept in force while Tuvalu experienced strong to gale force winds because of a convergence zone located over the islands and Hina which passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the southeast of Niulakita , Tuvalu . Cyclone Hina was the second of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996 @-@ 97 cyclone season , after Cyclone Gavin had severely damaged the islands a weak earlier and Cyclone Keli affected the islands during June 1997 .
Cyclone Gavin and Hina 's waves , storm surge and strong winds both caused a severe amount of coastal erosion on all of the country ’ s nine atolls with about 6 @.@ 7 % of the land washed into the sea . Both cyclones caused severe coastal erosion and destruction to food crops , mostly to the southern islands of Niulakita and Nukulaelae , while damage in northern and central islands was confined mostly to houses . A damage assessment team noted that it was difficult to assess damage done by Hina alone and estimated the total damage from both cyclones at US $ 2 @.@ 23 million ( AU $ 2 @.@ 14 million ) . It was later estimated after Cyclone Keli had affected the islands between June 12 – 16 , 1996 , that the three cyclones had been responsible for about 50 hectares ( 120 acres ) of land disappearing into the sea . Rehabilitation costs from all three cyclones , amounted to US $ 653 thousand ( AU $ 1 million ) .
= = = Wallis and Futuna = = =
As the system developed into a tropical cyclone during March 14 , gale warnings were issued for the French territory of Wallis and Futuna . The system at this time was located about 220 km ( 135 mi ) to the northwest of Futuna Island and subsequently accelerated , towards the south @-@ southeast and passed near the island during the next day . Cyclone Hina was the second of four tropical cyclones to affect Wallis and Futuna in a ten @-@ month period , after cyclone Gavin had severely damaged food crops ten days earlier and Cyclones Keli and Ron affected the islands during June 1997 and January 1998 . During March 15 as Hina affected the islands , winds of 76 km / h ( 47 mph ) and 115 km / h ( 71 mph ) were recorded at Hihifo on Wallis and Maopoopo on Futuna respectively . Rainfall totals of 220 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 69 in ) and 182 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 19 in ) were also recorded at Maopoopo and in Point Vele respectively . Hina caused no significant damage on Walls Island , while it caused some damage to the remaining crops and destroyed parts of the road on Futuna Island .
= = = Tonga = = =
Hina was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tonga during a ten @-@ month period , with Cyclones Keli and Ron affecting the island nation during June 1997 and January 1998 . Late on March 15 , ahead of the system affecting Tonga , gale warnings were issued for the Southern Tongan island groups of Haʻapai , Tongatapu and Vavaʻu . During the next day , Hina took less than two hours to inflict considerable damage on the Tongan islands and became the worst tropical cyclone to affect Tonga since Cyclone Isaac during 1982 . The two worst @-@ affected Tongan islands were Tongatapu and ' Eua after major damages were reported on both islands . As the system impacted Tonga , the FMS received several reports of one or more tornadoes occurring in Tonga ; however , during a post @-@ disaster survey no evidence was found to prove or disprove this claim . It was noted that several of the badly damaged houses had little or no cyclone protection while over 600 people were left homeless . Damages were greater than had been expected , with an estimated damage total of about T $ 18 @.@ 2 million Tongan Pa 'anga ( US $ 15 @.@ 2 million ) reported . A post disaster survey attributed the greater damages to higher than expected wind gusts caused by either a low level squall or a jet streak . There were no casualties reported as the system affected the island nation , however , Vaiola Hospital reported that they had treated a number of patients for injuries that were caused during the system 's aftermath . One indirect death was also reported , after a sea captain suffered a heart attack while evacuating from his home . Within the islands severe damage to power lines and telecommunication systems was reported . The system affected the islands after the lowest tide for the day , as a result sea damage was minimal , though some evidence of salt damage to taro plantations was observed .
On the main island of Tongatapu , extensive damages to utilities , vegetation and agriculture in places , with more than 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) of fruit and food crops including banana trees and coconut palms destroyed . Some of the coconut palms were snapped , which suggested that wind gusts of between 165 – 185 km / h ( 105 – 115 mph ) had been experienced on the island . Within Nukuʻalofa the capital city of Tonga , there was not a lot of structural damage reported ; however , the villages to the east of the capital were severely affected . The roof and grand stand of Teufaiva Stadium was blown off , while the Parliament house , government buildings and schools were severely damaged . The MV Lofa was driven by fierce winds onto Mounu Reef in Nuku 'alofa Harbour . The Electric and Water boards sustained over T $ 2 @.@ 9 million in damage to its infrastructure , with power lines brought down throughout Tongatapu which caused a complete blackout during March 16 . Some of the uprooted trees knocked down power lines , sometimes causing a domino effect of bringing down additional power poles . As a result of the electric problems , there was a lack of electrical power to power pumps , with the water supply becoming intermittent . On ' Eua Island , Hina was estimated to have caused greater damage then Cyclone Isaac had done fifteen years previously , after the island was completely devastated by the system . The Tongan Government estimated that damage to the wharfs on Lifuka and Foa islands would cost over T $ 10 thousand to repair , while the land bridge between the two islands was closed after Hina 's winds and waves swept boulders on to the bridge .
During the system 's aftermath , insurance companies flew in people to assess the damage , while agricultural authorities on Tongatapu and ' Eua advised landowners to plant fast maturing produce such as sweet potatoes . The Tongan Government provided T $ 5 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 97 million ) or about 5 % of its national budget to facilitate the immediate start of emergency relief and repairs to essential services . Tents were supplied by the National Disaster Committee and Ministry of Works to act as temporary shelters for those who were homeless after the system . By March 19 , the Tonga Electric Power Board had restored electricity to several consumers including major government buildings and the Nuku 'alofa Business District . However , several consumers were expected to be without electric until at least June 1997 . On March 25 , the Acting Prime Minister of Tonga convened a meeting of donors , where an official request for international assistance was presented . At the meeting donors were requested to review existing of proposed bilateral programs , to see if they can be adjusted or brought forward to cater for the repairs or rebuilding of schools and other government buildings . The New Zealand Government deployed to Tonga , four electricity line mechanics , a fully equipped truck , along with various supplies including tarpaulins , blankets and electric . New Zealand also offered grants off up to NZ $ 120 thousand to replace village water tanks , and NZ $ 7 thousand towards the clean @-@ up costs .
The Government of the United Kingdom granted T $ 60 thousand ( GB £ 30 thousand , US $ 48 thousand ) for ten emergency generators , while the Chinese Government pledged T $ 36 thousand ( US $ 30 thousand ) . The French government provided a cargo plane , to conduct a damage survey of the affected areas and US $ 100 thousand for tents , tarpaulins and blankets and two diesel generators . The Japanese Government provided tents , plastic sheets and other emergency aid materials to the value of T $ 59 thousand . Australia provided T $ 320 thousand for temporary roof repairs and equipment to restore electricity supplies in both Tongatapu and ' Eua . Grants between T $ 22 thousand and T $ 24 thousand were pledged by Germany , Norway and the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs respectively . By early September 1997 , the reconstruction of primary school buildings damaged by the cyclone had been completed after the Tongan Government funded the project . New accommodation for primary school teachers in the Ha 'apai islands and the Niuas was also completed after the Australian and New Zealand Governments funded the projects . MMI insurance provided the Tonga Amateur Sports Association with T $ 384 thousand to cover damages to the Teufaiva Grand Stand .
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