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= Arthur James Dingle =
Arthur " Mud " James Dingle ( 16 October 1891 – 22 August 1915 ) was a rugby union centre and wing , who won three caps for England , and played for County Durham , Hartlepool Rovers and Oxford University .
He was born and raised in County Durham , attending Durham School , where he was head boy and excelled at many sports , especially rugby . He went on to study at Keble College , Oxford , playing rugby for the college and captaining the team in his final year . He played in the 1911 Varsity Match , in which he scored a try . He was first selected for England in February 1913 , against Ireland , although he had not been picked for Oxford that year . After graduating , he returned to Durham School as a master . He played for Hartlepool Rovers , scoring 55 tries in the 1913 – 14 season , as well as four hat @-@ tricks for County Durham , helping them reach the County Championship finals . He was picked for England against Scotland and France in the last international matches before the outbreak of the First World War .
Dingle , who had been a member of the Oxford Officers Training Corps , was gazetted second lieutenant in the 6th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment , which took part in the Suvla Bay Landing of the Gallipoli Campaign on 6 August 1915 . His battalion took Scimitar Hill on 9 August , with great loss of life , only to be forced to make a tactical withdrawal . On 21 August , the Battle of Scimitar Hill ensued , a disaster for Britain and her allies : Dingle was killed the following day , defending a trench that had earlier been captured . He is commemorated on the Helles Memorial to the missing dead .
= = Early life = =
Arthur Dingle was born on 16 October 1891 at Hetton @-@ le @-@ Hole , County Durham , the eldest son of Beatrice ( née Robson ) and Reverend Arthur Trehane Dingle , Rector of Egglescliffe . He had a brother , Hugh John Dingle . Arthur attended Bow School in Durham and then Durham School , where he was head of school , and displayed an aptitude for cricket , gymnastics , rowing and rugby . He then went up to Keble College , Oxford in 1910 , where he read theology in anticipation of being ordained .
= = Rugby career = =
At Oxford , Dingle played for his college , Keble , and captained the team in his final year . He also played on Saturdays for Rosslyn Park , joining a school friend , Nowell Oxland at the club . He was soon selected to play for Oxford , at centre , winning his Blue in the 1911 Varsity Match . In front of 10 @,@ 000 spectators at Queen 's Club on 12 December , Cambridge were the clear favourites to win : Oxford had lost 5 of the previous 13 games . Under the leadership of Ronnie Poulton , however , Oxford won a decisive victory , leading 11 – 0 already at half time . In the second half , a further two tries — one from Dingle , which Poulton described as " magnificent " — sealed the victory , 19 – 0 .
The following season , on 6 November 1912 , Oxford hosted the South African team touring the United Kingdom and France . Dingle played at centre . It was a close contest , with South Africa coming through to win 6 – 0 . After the Springboks ' convincing victory over Cambridge a little later , Oxford were favourites to win the Varsity Match and to add to their winning series . Dingle was unable to play due to injury , missing a game that went against the odds .
Dingle got his first call up to the England national team to face Ireland on 8 February 1913 , playing centre alongside Poulton , although he had not been selected to play for Oxford . The Times described his debut performance as ' strong in defence , but ... not altogether a success ' , while The Aberdeen Journal described him as ' fair ' , amongst a backline that was ' lacking in finishing power ' , with Poulton , ' poor ' . England gained an ' easy ' victory 15 – 4 but failed to turn their opportunities into points . Dingle was not picked for the next match , against Scotland on 15 March .
= = = 1913 – 14 season = = =
After he graduated , Dingle played for Richmond RFC and Surrey then , returning to Durham to become a master at his old school , he played for Hartlepool Rovers , and captained the team . At county level , he played for Durham , and had a significant part in helping the team reach the finals of the County Championship Tournament , scoring in each of the seven matches . In total , he scored 55 tries in the season , 39 for Hartlepool and a further 16 for Durham .
Early in the season , England played The South at Twickenham , winning 21 – 12 , with outstanding performances from Dingle , as well as Johnson and Poulton . Dingle then played in the third and final trial against the Rest of England , which England won 42 – 27 . His selection for the Five Nations came up for the match against Scotland , replacing Roberts on the left wing , who had had a poor game in the prior encounter against Ireland . Before the Scotland match on 21 March , Bill Maclagan described the English team as one of the best to visit Scotland . Having already defeated Wales and Ireland , England beat Scotland 15 – 16 in a close @-@ fought game . Scotland , with the wind behind them , opened the scoring in the first half with a try but England equalised just before half time . After the break , England got up a lead of 6 – 16 and victory seemed certain . Scotland responded and closed the gap to one point . After Cherry Pillman 's leg was broken in a tackle , England were playing with fourteen men , but they managed to hold on , thereby winning both the Triple Crown and the Calcutta Cup , as well as the Five Nations Championship . Dingle , in the opening minutes , missed a try @-@ scoring opportunity when he knocked @-@ on a pass from Poulton . Yet he had a positive impact in other parts of the game . It was England 's last international test on British soil before the First World War : 11 of the 30 players went on to be killed in it , including the Scotsman William Middleton Wallace , who died the same day as Dingle .
Dingle was kept on for the final match of the tournament against France . England overwhelmed France in a 13 – 39 defeat , in which the French crowd 's behaviour towards the visiting team was ' disorderly ' . The Times was once again critical of Dingle 's performance : ' AJ Dingle was the weakest of the four [ threequarters ] . He failed to take the passes and was very slow getting into his stride.'
With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , competitive rugby matches were suspended . Despite this , Edgar Mobbs , the captain of the Barbarians invitation side , organised a match against the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) on 10 April 1915 . The Barbarians team on that day was made up of military personnel , including Dingle , who contributed a try towards a 10 – 3 victory . Of Dingle 's team @-@ mates on that day , both Mobbs and another England international Billy Geen , would also die in action during the war .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military service = =
Since Dingle was a school master , he was exempt from military service , but having been a member of the Oxford University Officers Training Corps ( OTC ) , and having set up the OTC at Durham School , he sought permission to enlist from the headmaster , Canon Budworth . He was commissioned on 29 August 1914 temporary second lieutenant into the 6th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment . He was promoted to temporary lieutenant on 8 December .
Dingle 's regiment was sent to Gallipoli and took part in the Suvla Bay landings on 6 August 1915 . His battalion soon took the small hill at Lala Baba , with the loss of many lives . Three days later , with Dingle made temporary captain , his battalion captured Scimitar Hill , once again with great loss of life , but then made a tactical withdrawal . On 21 August , with Dingle as acting commanding officer of the 150 men of B Company , the battalion was involved in the Battle of Scimitar Hill , a major assault to recapture the hill , which ended in disaster . Dingle was shot through the temple and killed at dawn on 22 August 1915 , while defending a captured trench " against overwhelming odds " . It was not possible to recover his body . Of his England team @-@ mates who played Scotland in the final Calcutta Cup match in 1914 before the start of the war , three had already died : Bungy Watson , Francis Oakley and Poulton .
The Ballad of Suvla Bay by John Still , has these lines about Dingle :
He is commemorated on panels 51 to 54 of the Helles Memorial to the missing . Other rugby internationals commemorated on the monument include the two Scotsmen William Campbell Church and Eric Templeton Young , and the Englishman William Nanson . There are also memorials to him at Durham School , St Margaret 's Church in Durham , Keble College , Richmond , Rosslyn Park , Hartlepool Rovers and Oxford rugby club . There is also a tournament played amongst some of the first schools to adopt rugby , the Veterrimi IV , the winning team being awarded the AJ Dingle Cup .
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= History of silk =
The production of silk originates in China in the Neolithic ( Yangshao culture , 4th millennium BCE ) . Silk remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during the later half of the first millennium BCE . China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk production for another thousand years . Not confined to clothing , silk was also used for a number of other applications , including writing , and the color of silk worn was an important guide of social class during the Tang Dynasty .
Silk cultivation spread to Japan around 300 CE , and , by 522 CE , the Byzantines managed to obtain silkworm eggs and were able to begin silkworm cultivation . The Arabs also began to manufacture silk during this same time . As a result of the spread of sericulture , Chinese silk exports became less important , although they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market . The Crusades brought silk production to Western Europe , in particular to many Italian states , which saw an economic boom exporting silk to the rest of Europe . Changes in manufacturing techniques also began to take place during the Middle Ages , with devices such as the spinning wheel first appearing . During the 16th century France joined Italy in developing a successful silk trade , though the efforts of most other nations to develop a silk industry of their own were unsuccessful .
The Industrial Revolution changed much of Europe ’ s silk industry . Due to innovations in spinning cotton , cotton became much cheaper to manufacture and therefore caused more expensive silk production to become less mainstream . New weaving technologies , however , increased the efficiency of production . Among these was the Jacquard loom , developed for silk embroidery . An epidemic of several silkworm diseases caused production to fall , especially in France , where the industry never recovered . In the 20th century Japan and China regained their earlier role in silk production , and China is now once again the world ’ s largest producer of silk . The rise of new fabrics such as nylon reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world , and silk is now once again a rare luxury good , much less important than in its heyday .
= = Early history = =
= = = The Appearance of Silk = = =
The earliest evidence of silk was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia County , Shanxi , where a silk cocoon was found cut in half by a sharp knife , dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BCE . The species was identified as Bombyx mori , the domesticated silkworm . Fragments of primitive loom can also be seen from the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao , Zhejiang , dated to about 4000 BCE . The earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC , and was used as wrapping for the body of a child . The fabric comes from a Yangshao site in Qingtaicun at Rongyang , Henan . Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou , Zhejiang , dating back to 2700 BCE . Other fragments have been recovered from royal tombs in the Shang Dynasty ( c . 1600 – c . 1046 BCE ) .
During the later epoch , the Chinese lost their secret to the Koreans , the Japanese , and , later , the Indians , as these cultures discovered how to make silk . Allusions to the fabric in the Old Testament show that it was known in western Asia in biblical times . Scholars believe that starting in the 2nd century BCE the Chinese established a commercial network aimed at exporting silk to the West . Silk was used , for example , by the Persian court and its king , Darius III , when Alexander the Great conquered the empire . Even though silk spread rapidly across Eurasia , with the possible exception of Japan its production remained exclusively Chinese for three millennia .
= = = Myths and legends = = =
The writings of Confucius and Chinese tradition recount that , in the 27th century BCE , a silk worm 's cocoon fell into the tea cup of the empress Leizu . Wishing to extract it from her drink , the 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl began to unroll the thread of the cocoon .
She then had the idea to weave it . Having observed the life of the silk worm on the recommendation of her husband , the Yellow Emperor , she began to instruct her entourage in the art of raising silk worms , sericulture . From this point , the girl became the goddess of silk in Chinese mythology . Silk eventually left China via the heir of a princess who was promised to a prince of Khotan . This probably occurred in the early 1st century CE . The princess , refusing to go without the fabric that she loved , would finally break the imperial ban on silk @-@ worm exportation .
Though silk was exported to foreign countries in great amounts , sericulture remained a secret that the Chinese carefully guarded . Consequently , other peoples invented wildly varying accounts of the source of the incredible fabric .
In classical antiquity , most Romans , great admirers of the cloth , were convinced that the Chinese took the fabric from tree leaves . This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Elder in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics . Notably , Pliny the Elder knew better . Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth , he wrote in his Natural History " They weave webs , like spiders , that become a luxurious clothing material for women , called silk . "
= = Silk usage in Ancient and Medieval China = =
In China , silk @-@ worm farming was originally restricted to women , and many women were employed in the silk @-@ making industry . Even though some saw the development of a luxury product as useless , silk provoked such a craze among high society that the rules in the Li Ji were used to limit its use to the members of the imperial family . For approximately a millennium , the right to wear silk was reserved for the emperor and the highest dignitaries . Silk was , at the time , a sign of great wealth , because of its shimmering appearance . This appearance was due to silk 's prism @-@ like shape / structure , which refracted light from every angle . After some time , silk gradually extended to other classes of Chinese society . Silk began to be used for decorative means and also in less luxurious ways : musical instruments , fishing , and bow making . Peasants did not have the right to wear silk until the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 ) .
Paper was one of the greatest discoveries of ancient China . Beginning in the 3rd century BCE paper was made in all sizes with various materials . Silk was no exception , and silk workers had been making paper since the 2nd century BCE . Silk , bamboo , linen , wheat and rice straw were all used differently , and paper made with silk became the first type of luxury paper . Researchers have found an early example of writing done on silk paper in the tomb of a Marchioness who died around 168 , in Mawangdui , Hunan . The material was certainly more expensive , but also more practical than bamboo slips . Treatises on many subjects , including meteorology , medicine , astrology , divinity , and even maps written on silk have been discovered .
During the Han Dynasty , silk became progressively more valuable in its own right , and became more than simply a material . It was used to pay government officials and compensate citizens who were particularly worthy . By the same token that one would sometimes estimate the price of products according to a certain weight of gold , the length of the silk cloth became a monetary standard in China ( in addition to bronze coins ) . The wealth that silk brought to China stirred envy in neighboring peoples . Beginning in the 2nd century BCE , the Xiongnu regularly pillaged the provinces of the Han Chinese for around 250 years . Silk was a common offering by the emperor to these tribes in exchange for peace .
Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) . There is a surviving calendar for silk production in an Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) document . The two other known works on silk from the Han period are lost .
" [ T ] he military payrolls tell us that soldiers were paid in bundles of plain silk textiles , which circulated as currency in Han times . Soldiers may well have traded their silk with the nomads who came to the gates of the Great Wall to sell horses and furs . "
For more than a millennium , silk remained the principal diplomatic gift of the emperor of China to his neighbors or to his vassals . The use of silk became so important that silk ( 糸 ) soon constituted one of the principal radicals of Chinese script .
Broadly speaking , the use of silk was regulated by a very precise code in China . For example , the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty imposed upon bureaucrats the use of particular colors according to their different functions in society . Under the Ming , silk began to be used in a series of accessories : handkerchiefs , wallets , belts , or even an embroidered piece of fabric displaying dozens of animals , real or mythical . These fashion accessories remained associated with a particular position : there was a specific bonnet for warriors , for judges , for nobles , and others for religious use . The women of high Chinese society heeded codified practices and used silk in their garments to which they added countless motifs . A 17th @-@ century work , Jin Ping Mei , gives a description of one such motif :
Golden lotus having a quilted backgammon pattern , double @-@ folded , adorned with savage geese pecking at a landscape of flowers and roses ; the dress ' right figure had a floral border with buttons in the form of bees or chrysanthemums .
Chinese silk making process
= = Chinese silk and its commerce = =
Numerous archaeological discoveries show that silk had become a luxury material appreciated in foreign countries well before the opening of the Silk Road by the Chinese . For example , silk has been found in the Valley of the Kings in a tomb of a mummy dating from 1070 BCE . First the Greeks , then the Romans began to speak about the Seres ( people of silk ) , a term to designate the inhabitants of the far @-@ off kingdom , China . According to certain historians , the first Roman contact with silk was that of the legions of the governor of Syria , Crassus . At the Battle of Carrhae , near to the Euphrates , the legions were said to be so surprised by the brilliance of the banners of Parthia that they fled .
The silk road toward the west was opened by the Chinese in the 2nd century CE . The main road left from Xi 'an , going either to the north or south of the Taklamakan desert , one of the most arid in the world , before crossing the Pamir Mountains . The caravans that employed this method to exchange silk with other merchants were generally quite large , including from 100 to 500 people as well as camels and yaks carrying around 140 kg ( 300 lb ) of merchandise . They linked to Antioch and the coasts of the Mediterranean , about one year 's travel from Xi 'an . In the South , a second route went by Yemen , Burma , and India before rejoining the northern route .
Not long after the conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE regular commerce began between the Romans and Asia , marked by the Roman appetite for silk cloth coming from the Far East , which was then resold to the Romans by the Parthians . The Roman Senate tried in vain to prohibit the wearing of silk , for economic reasons as well as moral ones . The import of Chinese silk resulted in vast amounts of gold leaving Rome , to such an extent that silk clothing was perceived as a sign of decadence and immorality .
In the late Middle Ages , transcontinental trade over the land routes of the Silk Road declined as sea trade increased . The Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the civilizations of China , India , Ancient Egypt , Persia , Arabia , and Ancient Rome . Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China , many other goods were traded , and various technologies , religions and philosophies , as well as the bubonic plague ( the " Black Death " ) , also traveled along the Silk Routes . Some of the other goods traded included luxuries such as silk , satin , hemp and other fine fabrics , musk , other perfumes , spices , medicines , jewels , glassware , and even rhubarb , as well as slaves . China traded silk , teas , and porcelain ; while India traded spices , ivory , textiles , precious stones , and pepper ; and the Roman Empire exported gold , silver , fine glassware , wine , carpets , and jewels . Although the term the Silk Road implies a continuous journey , very few who traveled the route traversed it from end to end ; for the most part , goods were transported by a series of agents on varying routes and were traded in the bustling markets of the oasis towns . The main traders during Antiquity were the Indian and Bactrian traders , then from the 5th to the 8th century CE the Sogdian traders , then afterward the Arab and Persian traders .
= = Spread of production = =
Although silk was well known in Europe and most of Asia , China was able to keep a near monopoly on silk production . The monopoly was defended by an imperial decree , condemning to death anyone attempting to export silkworms or their eggs . Only around the year 300 CE did a Japanese expedition succeed in taking some silkworm eggs and four young Chinese girls , who were forced to teach their captors the art of sericulture . Techniques of sericulture were subsequently introduced to Japan on a larger scale by frequent diplomatic exchanges between the 8th century and 9th centuries .
Starting in the 4th century BCE silk began to reach the Hellenistic world by merchants who would exchange it for gold , ivory , horses or precious stones . Up to the frontiers of the Roman Empire , silk became a monetary standard for estimating the value of different products . Hellenistic Greece appreciated the high quality of the Chinese goods and made efforts to plant mulberry trees and breed silkworms in the Mediterranean basin . Sassanid Persia controlled the trade of silk destined for Europe and Byzantium . The Greek word for " silken " was σηρικός , from the name of the Seres ( Σῆρες ) , according to Strabo the people from whom silk was first obtained . The Greek word gave rise to Latin sericum und ultimately Old English sioloc , Middle English silk .
According to a story by Procopius , it was not until 552 CE that the Byzantine emperor Justinian obtained the first silkworm eggs . He had sent two Nestorian monks to Central Asia , and they were able to smuggle silkworm eggs to him hidden in rods of bamboo . While under the monks ' care , the eggs hatched , though they did not cocoon before arrival . The Byzantine church was thus able to make fabrics for the emperor , with the intention of developing a large silk industry in the Eastern Roman Empire , using techniques learned from the Sassanids . These gynecia had a legal monopoly on the fabric , but the empire continued to import silk from other major urban centres on the Mediterranean . The magnificence of the Byzantine techniques was not a result of the manufacturing process , but instead of the meticulous attention paid to the execution and decorations . The weaving techniques they used were taken from Egypt . The first diagrams of semple looms appeared in the 5th century .
The Arabs , with their widening conquests , spread sericulture across the shores of the Mediterranean , leading to the development of sericulture in North Africa , Andalusia and Sicily . The interactions among Byzantine and Muslim silk @-@ weaving centers of all levels of quality , with imitations made in Andalusia and Lucca , among other cities , have made the identification and date of rare surviving examples difficult to pinpoint .
While the Chinese lost their monopoly on silk production , they were able to re @-@ establish themselves as major silk supplier ( during the Tang dynasty ) , and to industrialize their production in a large scale ( during the Song dynasty ) . China continued to export high @-@ quality fabric to Europe and the Near East along the silk road .
After the start of the Crusades , techniques of silk production began to spread across Western Europe . In 1147 while Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos was focusing all his efforts on the Second Crusade , the Norman king Roger II of Sicily attacked Corinth and Thebes , two important centres of Byzantine silk production . They took the crops and silk production infrastructure , and deported all the workers to Palermo , thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish . The sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 brought decline to the city and its silk industry , and many artisans left the city in the early 13th century . Italy developed a large domestic silk industry after 2000 skilled weavers came from Constantinople . Many also chose to settle in Avignon to furnish the popes of Avignon .
The sudden boom of the silk industry in the Italian state of Lucca , starting in the 11th and 12th centuries was due to much Sicilian , Jewish , and Greek settlement , alongside many other immigrants from neighbouring cities in southern Italy . With the loss of many Italian trading posts in the Orient , the import of Chinese styles drastically declined . Gaining momentum , in order to satisfy the rich and powerful bourgeoisie 's demands for luxury fabrics , the cities of Lucca , Genoa , Venice and Florence were soon exporting silk to all of Europe . In 1472 there were 84 workshops and at least 7000 craftsmen in Florence alone .
= = = Reciprocal influences = = =
Silk was made using various breeds of lepidopterans , both wild and domestic . While wild silks were produced in many countries , there is no doubt that the Chinese were the first to begin production on such a large scale , having the most effective species for silk production , the Bombyx mandarina and its domesticated descendent B. mori . Chinese sources claim the existence of a machine to unwind silkworm cocoons in 1090 . The cocoons were placed in a large basin of hot water , the silk would leave the cauldron by tiny guiding rings , and would be wound onto a large spool , thanks to a backwards and forward motion . Little information exists about spinning techniques in use in China . The spinning wheel , in all likelihood moved by hand , was known by the beginning of the Christian era . The first accepted image of a spinning wheel appears in 1210 . There is an image of a silk spinning machine powered by a water wheel that dates to 1313 .
More information is known about the looms used . The Nung Sang Chi Yao , or Fundamentals of Agriculture and Sericulture , compiled around 1210 , is rich with pictures and descriptions , many pertaining to silk . It repeatedly claims the Chinese looms to be far superior to all others . It speaks of two types of loom that leave the worker 's arms free : the draw loom , which is of Eurasian origin , and the pedal loom which is attributed to East Asian origins . There are many diagrams originate in the 12th and 13th centuries . When examined closely , many similarities between Eurasian machines can be drawn . Since the Jin dynasty , the existence of silk damasks has been well recorded , and since the 2nd century BCE , four @-@ shafted looms and other innovations allowed the creation of silk brocades .
= = Silk in the medieval world = =
= = = A more abundant luxury = = =
The high Middle Ages saw continued use of established techniques for silk manufacture without any changes to speak of , neither in materials nor in tools used . Between the 10th and 12th centuries , small changes began to appear , though the changes of the 13th century were much larger and more radical . In a short time , new fabrics began to appear ; hemp and cotton each also had their own particular techniques of manufacture . Known since Roman times , silk remained a rare and expensive material . Byzantine magnaneries in Greece and Syria ( 6th to 8th century ) , and those of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain ( 8th to 10th century ) were able to supply the luxury material in a much greater abundance .
= = = Improved technology = = =
The 13th century saw an already changing technology undergo many dramatic changes . It is possible that , as with in England at the end of the 18th century , advances in the textile industry were a driving force behind advances in technology as a whole . Silk indeed occupies a privileged place in history on account of this .
At the start of the 13th century , a primitive form of milling the silk threads was already in use . In 1221 Jean de Garlande 's dictionary , and in 1226 , Étienne Boileau 's Livre des métiers ( Tradesman 's Handbook ) enumerated many types of devices which can only have been doubling machines . The instruments used were further perfected in Bologna between 1270 and 1280 . From the start of the 14th century , many documents allude to the use of devices that were quite complex .
The reel , originally developed for the silk industry , now has multiple uses . The earliest surviving depiction of a European spinning wheel is a panel of stained glass in the Cathedral of Chartres . Bobbins and warping machines appear together in the stained glass at Chartres and in a fresco in the Cologne Kunkelhaus ( ca 1300 ) . It is possible that the toothed warping machine was created by the silk industry ; it allowed the warp to be more uniform and allowed the warp to be of a longer length .
Starting at the end of the 14th century , no doubt on account of the devastation caused mid @-@ century by the Black Death , there was a general shift towards less expensive techniques . Many things which would have earlier been completely forbidden by the guilds were now commonplace ( using low quality wool , carding , etc . ) . In the silk industry , the use of water @-@ powered mills grew , and by the 15th century , the loom designed by Jean le Calabrais saw nearly universal use .
= = = The silk industry in France = = =
Italian silk cloth was very expensive , as much a result of the cost of the raw material as of the production costs . The craftsmen in Italy proved unable to keep up with the exigencies of French fashion , which continuously demanded lighter and less expensive materials . These materials were used for clothing , and garment production began to be done locally . Nevertheless , Italian silk long remained among the most prized , mostly for furnishings and the brilliant colours of the dyes .
Following the example of the wealthy Italian city @-@ states of the era , such as Venice , Florence , and Lucca , which had become the center of the luxury @-@ textile industry , Lyon obtained a similar function in the French market . In 1466 , King Louis XI decided to develop a national silk industry in Lyon . In the face of protests by the Lyonnais , he conceded and moved the silk fabrication to Tours , but the industry in Tours stayed relatively marginal . His main objective was to reduce France 's trade deficit with Italy , which caused France to lose 400 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 golden écus a year . It was under Francis I in around 1535 that a royal charter was granted to two merchants , Étienne Turquet and Barthélemy Naris , to develop a silk trade in Lyon . In 1540 , the king granted a monopoly on silk production to the city of Lyon . Starting in the 16th century , Lyon became the capital of the European silk trade , notably producing many reputable fashions . Gaining confidence , the silks produced in the city began to abandon the original oriental styles in favor of their own distinctive style , which emphasized landscapes . Thousand of workers , the canuts , devoted themselves to the flourishing industry . In the middle of the 17th century , over 14 @,@ 000 looms were used in Lyon , and the silk industry fed a third of the city 's population .
In the 18th and 19th centuries , Provence experienced a boom in sericulture that would last until the first world war , with much of the silk shipped north to Lyon . Viens and La Bastide @-@ des @-@ Jourdans are two of the communes of Luberon that profited the most from mulberry plantations that have since disappeared . Working at home under the domestic system , silk spinning and silk treatment employed many people and increased the income of the working class .
= = = Spread to other countries = = =
England under Henry IV was also looking to develop a silk industry , but no opportunity arose until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the 1680s , when hundreds of thousands of French Huguenots , many of whom were skilled weavers and experts in sericulture , began immigrating to England to escape religious persecution . Some areas , including Spitalfields saw many high @-@ quality silk workshops spring up , their products distinct from continental silk largely by the colors used . Nonetheless , the British climate prevented England 's domestic silk trade from becoming globally dominant .
Many envisioned starting a silk industry in the British colonies in America , starting in 1619 , under the reign of King James I of England . The silk industry in the colonies never became very large . Likewise , silk was introduced to numerous other countries , including Mexico , where it was brought by Cortez in 1522 . Only rarely did these new silk industries grow to any significant size .
= = Silk since the Industrial Revolution = =
= = = The start of the Industrial Revolution = = =
The start of the Industrial Revolution was marked by a massive boom in the textile industry , with remarkable technological innovations made , led by the cotton industry of Great Britain . In its early years , there were often disparities in technological innovation between different stages of fabric manufacture , which encouraged complementary innovations . For example , spinning progressed much more rapidly than weaving .
The silk industry , however , did not gain any benefit from innovations in spinning , as silk is naturally already a thread . Making silk , silver , and gold brocades is a very delicate and precise process , with each colour needing its own dedicated shuttle . In the 17th century and 18th centuries progress began to be made in the simplification and standardization of silk manufacture , with many advances following one after another . Bouchon and Falcon 's punched card loom appeared in 1775 , later improved on by Jacques de Vaucanson . Later , Joseph @-@ Marie Jacquard improved on the designs of Falcon and Vaucanson , introducing the revolutionary Jacquard loom , which allowed a string of punched cards to be processed mechanically in the correct sequence . The punched cards of the Jacquard loom were a direct precursor to the modern computer , in that they gave a ( limited ) form of programmability . Punched cards themselves were carried over to computers , and were ubiquitous until their obsolescence in the 1970s . From 1801 embroidery became highly mechanized due to the effectiveness of the Jacquard loom . The mechanism behind the Jacquard loom even allowed complex designs to be mass @-@ produced .
The Jacquard loom was immediately denounced by workers , who accused it of causing unemployment , but soon it had become vital to the industry . The loom was declared public property in 1806 , and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine . In 1834 there were a total of 2885 Jacquard looms in Lyon alone . The Canut revolt in 1831 foreshadowed many of the larger worker uprisings of the Industrial Revolution . The canuts occupied the city of Lyon , and would not relinquish it until a bloody repression by the army , led by Marshal Soult . A second revolt , similar to the first , took place in 1834 .
= = = Decline in the European silk industry = = =
The first silkworm diseases began to appear in 1845 , creating an epidemic . Among them are pébrine , caused by the microsporidia Nosema bombycis , grasserie , caused by a virus , flacherie , caused by eating infected mulberry leaves or white muscardine disease , caused by the fungus Beauveria bassiana . The epidemic grew to a massive scale , and after having attacked the silkworms , other viruses began to infect the mulberry trees . The chemist Jean @-@ Baptiste Dumas , French minister of agriculture , was charged with stopping the epidemic . In face of sericulturers ' call for help , he asked Louis Pasteur to study the disease , starting in 1865 . For many years , Pasteur thought that pébrine was not a contagious disease . In 1870 he changed his view , and measures were enacted that caused the disease to decline .
Nevertheless , the increase in the price of silkworm cocoons and the reduction in importance of silk in the garments of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century caused the decline of the silk industry in Europe . The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the silk shortage in France reduced the price of importing Asian silk , particularly from China and Japan .
Starting from the Long Depression ( 1873 – 1896 ) , Lyonnais silk production had become totally industrialized , and hand looms were rapidly disappearing . The 19th century saw the textile industry 's progress caused by advances in chemistry . The synthesis of aniline was used to make mauveine ( aniline purple ) dye and the synthesis of quinine was used to make indigo dye . In 1884 Count Hilaire de Chardonnet invented artificial silk and in 1891 opened a factory dedicated to the production of artificial silk ( viscose ) , which cost much less and in part replaced natural silk .
= = Silk in modern times = =
Following the crisis in Europe , the modernization of sericulture in Japan made it the world 's foremost silk producer . By the early 20th century , rapidly industrializing Japan was producing as much as 60 percent of the world 's raw silk , most exports shipping through the port of Yokohama . Italy managed to rebound from the crisis , but France was unable . Urbanization in Europe saw many French and Italian agricultural workers leave silk growing for more lucrative factory work . Raw silk was imported from Japan to fill the void . Asian countries , formerly exporters of raw materials ( cocoons and raw silk ) , progressively began to export more and more finished garments .
During the Second World War , silk supplies from Japan were cut off , so western countries were forced to find substitutes . Synthetic fibres such as nylon were used in products such as parachutes and stockings , replacing silk . Even after the war , silk was not able to regain many of the markets lost , though it remained an expensive luxury product . Postwar Japan , through improvements in technology and a protectionist market policy , became the world 's foremost exporter of raw silk , a position it held until the 1970s . The continued rise in importance of synthetic fibres and loosening of the protectionist economy contributed to the decline of Japan 's silk industry , and by 1975 it was no longer a net exporter of silk .
With its recent economic reforms , the People 's Republic of China has become the world 's largest silk producer . In 1996 it produced 58 @,@ 000 tonnes out of a world production of 81 @,@ 000 , followed by India at 13 @,@ 000 tonnes . Japanese production is now marginal , at only 2500 tonnes . Between 1995 and 1997 Chinese silk production went down 40 % in an effort to raise prices , reminiscent of earlier shortages .
In December 2006 the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres , so as to raise the profile of silk and other natural fibres .
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= Trait du Nord =
The Trait du Nord , previously also known as Ardennais du Nord or Ardennais de type Nord , is a breed of heavy draft horse developed and bred in the area of Hainaut in western Belgium and in northeastern France . Originally considered a subtype of the Ardennes , it was recognized as an individual breed with the opening of a studbook in 1903 . Developed in the fertile Flemish grasslands , it was bred for size and pulling power for agricultural work . By 1855 , the horses bred near Hainaut were considered by some veterinarians to be superior to other Flemish draft breeds . The Trait du Nord was used extensively in mining from the late 19th century through 1920 , with lesser use continuing through the 1960s .
The Trait du Nord continued to be used extensively for agriculture through World War II , but after the war this usage , and the breed population , declined significantly as farming became increasingly mechanized . During the mid @-@ 20th century , the breed was in demand for the production of horse meat , and due to this was bred to be larger and heavier . In the early 1970s , the market for horse meat began to decline , and the Trait du Nord , like many European draft breeds , was in danger of extinction . It was not until the 1990s that the breed experienced a slight revival through an increased interest in recreational riding and driving .
The Trait du Nord is large , with stallions weighing upwards of 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , and is bred for traction ability and pulling power . The breed is found in many solid colors , although bay and roan are the most common , and is known to be gentle and easy to handle . Two slightly different types of Trait du Nord are found – a larger type used for heavier pulling and a lighter type used for faster work . The breed is considered to be endangered by the French government , with fewer than 100 new foal births a year . The national breed registry in France is working with local groups in an attempt to promote this breed and bring population numbers back up . The breed currently has a high risk of inbreeding , due to the low number of breeding stallions , and is at risk of extinction .
= = Naming and registration = =
According to the French National Stud , the current official name of the breed is Trait du Nord . The name has changed several times during its history . In the mid @-@ 19th century it is mentioned as the " large horse of Hainaut " , but before 1903 it was not considered a separate breed and was often thought to be the same as the Ardennes . Beginning in 1913 , it was known as the Trait Ardennes North , and from 1945 to 1965 was known as the Northern Ardennes Draft . The name of Trait du Nord became commonly used around 1961 .
Until August 5 , 1903 , the Trait du Nord 's studbook was merged with that of the Ardennes , with the former being considered a subtype of the latter and called the Northern type Ardennes . The studbook was under the responsibility of the combined group " Studbook of Northern Workhorses " . In 1913 , the name of Trait du Nord was used for the first time and French mares began to be registered as their own breed , although Belgian horses continued to be used for breeding , with the resulting progeny able to be registered as Trait du Nords . In 1919 , the northern type was separated from the Ardennes , although the studbooks remained tied , and the horse was given the name " Northern Ardennes " . A centralized breeding union for the Northern Ardennes was created in 1945 .
In France , the Syndicat d 'élevage du cheval de trait du Nord ( Union of Trait du Nord Horse Breeders ) is the national breed association recognized by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries . Its mission is to promote the breed and assist in its recovery , as well as creating and executing a policy of genetic improvement through selective breeding . The association works with the French National Stud and the Center for Genetic Resources to develop breeding programs and represents the Trait du Nord on French breed committees . It also organizes and contributes to contests and events that help to promote and develop the breed .
= = Breed characteristics = =
In the early 1930s , the breed reached the peak of its physical structure . It was then described as a born laborer , built for traction and with a conformation that allowed it to move huge weights over short distances . Although some breeds of draft horses have declined in weight in modern times , the Trait du Nord has remained relatively large . The average size in the breed is 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 65 inches , 165 cm ) for mares and 16 @.@ 2 to 16 @.@ 3 hands ( 66 to 67 inches , 168 to 170 cm ) for stallions , weighing 1 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 800 to 900 kg ) for mares and 1 @,@ 870 to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 850 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ) for stallions . Foals of 30 months who are candidates to become registered must be at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) . Bay and roan are the most frequent colors seen in the breed . Chestnut ( including liver chestnut , although this color is quite rare ) is also allowed , as are black , brown and gray , although the latter is extremely rare .
In France , the National Stud regulates the physical standards of the Trait du Nord and eight other French breeds . The eligibility criteria have changed several times since the opening of the studbook in 1913 , and now describe the ideal Trait du Nord as large , well built , short and powerful , with a large frame and well @-@ developed muscles , energetic , with easygoing and beautiful gaits . Members of the breed are described by the breed association as courageous and observant , as well as gentle and easy to handle . The head is generally small in proportion to the mass of the horse , and often snub , with a flat profile ( neither concave nor convex ) . The neck is of medium length and strong , often slightly arched . The withers are prominent and the shoulder long and slightly oblique . The back is short and straight and the body compact , solid and very muscular . The chest is deep , with a broad , muscular breast . The croup is wide and powerfully muscled . The hooves are hard and strong .
There are two main types of Trait du Nord . One is a heavier type bred for pulling heavy loads , while the other is a lighter type bred for slightly faster work , generally at the trot . Auxois , Ardennes , Brabant and some Dutch draft breeds may be admitted to the Trait du Nord studbook after being inspected and approved by a review panel . Registered horses are marked with a stylized " N " brand on the left side of the neck , signifying conformity to the breed standard .
= = History = =
The ancestors of the breed lived in the northern river valleys of the Sambre and the Scheldt , near Valenciennes . Although it is a popular myth that many French draft breeds , including the Trait du Nord , are descendants of the prehistoric horses found at Solutré , this is not true . Two or possibly three subspecies of now @-@ extinct equines have been found at Solutré , but there is no evidence that they migrated to the area that later produced the Trait du Nord . Like Dutch and Belgian draft breeds such as the Brabant , the origin of the Trait du Nord is found in the large , fertile Flemish grasslands that cover the southern portion of the Netherlands , northern France and all of Belgium . The Hainaut region is the true birthplace of the breed in France . The Belgian draft breeds , the Ardennes and the Trait du Nord share the same ancestry , and the Trait du Nord has a history that is very similar to the Ardennes , due to the influence of the latter breed on the former . The Ardennes , Belgian , Dutch Heavy Draft , Trait du Nord and Auxois are all considered to come from the same group of breeds , due to their heritage , physical characteristics and selection for draft work . Until relatively recently , the breeds were not differentiated , and were frequently crossbred .
The region of Flanders is particularly conducive to agriculture , and in the 19th century the draining of the swamps and improved farming techniques led to a major expansion in cultivated areas and farm sizes . As there were no existing horses in the area that were suitable for plowing , the farmers found it necessary to create a breed of draft horse specifically for their use . From the 1850s on , farmers selected horses that eventually became the Trait du Nord . The farmers combined large Belgian breeds adapted to swampy ground with the Ardennes and Dutch breeds for size , weight and strength . The result was a muscular , powerful , and tough breed with long legs that facilitated movement . The Trait du Nord was unique in being selected specifically for farming , as many draft breeds were also bred for use in transport .
The Trait du Nord proved a successful breed for the farmers that developed it , and quickly spread throughout the Netherlands , Belgium and northern France . It was given different names depending on the country , and was often confused with and crossbred with draft breeds from the Netherlands , Brabants and the Ardennes . Breed associations began to organize in the late 19th century , and at this point blood from the Boulonnais was introduced to bring more elegance to the breed . The Trait du Nord gradually began to differ from the Ardennes as they gained size and volume and improved their gaits , and the breed became popular in the north and east of France . In 1855 , even before the breed had been differentiated from the Ardennes , veterinarians described the heavy horses bred near Hainaut as superior to Flemish breeds .
= = = 20th century = = =
During World War I , Trait du Nord horses were among those confiscated by Germans from Belgium and France for use in the war . In 1919 , these horses were returned to their homeland , allowing the reconstruction of the breed . During World War II , the armed forces used all stocks of fuel , and the draft horse was used to continue agricultural production in France . After the war , farmers quickly equipped themselves with mechanized equipment . The decline in the breeding of the Trait du Nord became noticeable in the early 1950s , and by 1960 breed numbers had collapsed completely . By the early 1970s , breeding had slowed so much that the Trait du Nord , along with other French draft breeds , was in danger of extinction .
As horses were replaced by tractors , the production of horse meat became the main viable market for the Trait du Nord and other French breeds . As the horses were sought for meat , the larger , heavier animals became more in demand , and these horses lost much of their power and pulling ability . A French decree on August 24 , 1976 , published in the Official Journal , encouraged farmers to select the biggest , heaviest stallions for breeding . The French National Stud backed this decree , and encouraged the breeding of foals that would fatten rapidly , to be butchered at the age of eighteen months . Between the mid @-@ 20th century and the 1980s , the average weight of the Trait du Nord increased from between 800 and 900 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 000 lb ) to over 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . Since the early 1970s , the use of the Trait du Nord for meat has declined , contributing to a further reduction in breeding .
In the early 1990s , recreational riding experienced a revival , and the consumption of horse meat continued to decrease . On March 11 , 1994 , the Trait du Nord was officially declared to be a workhorse again , and in 1996 another decree prohibited docking of tails in horses . Members of the breed are occasionally exported from France , with some going to Italy , Belgium and Germany , mainly for work in logging and pulling brewery wagons . A few are sent to Sicily and Guadeloupe , but this is quite rare .
= = Uses = =
The Trait du Nord was originally used mainly for agriculture and mining . They also towed barges on waterways , although this use ended quickly with the increased use of the engine at the beginning of the 20th century .
The peak use of the breed for agriculture was quite short , running from 1880 to around 1960 ( ending due to increased use of mechanized equipment ) , but it allowed significant progress in agriculture in northern France . The stamina and energy of the breed allows them to perform well in the heavy and compact soils in the region of Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais and recover quickly after exercise . The nature of soils in Hainaut required a horse weighing more than 1 @,@ 800 pounds ( 800 kg ) for effective plowing . Since the 1950s , the Trait du Nord has been the preferred breed for farmers who practiced intensive cropping of cereals and beets in the Northern Great Plains of France .
The pulling power of the Trait du Nord made it popular for use during the Industrial Revolution of the late 19th century in heavy industry , including mining . In mines , steam engines and internal combustion engines could not be used due to the possibility of a gas explosion . The first horses were used in the mines in 1821 and the Trait du Nord quickly became a favorite for hauling carts in the mines and operating the pulleys used to lift coal to the surface . Breeders worked to adapt the breed to mining requirements , and the breed became larger as more power was needed to pull heavier loads . Good horses were able to pull 16 @.@ 8 metric tons ( 16 @.@ 5 long tons ; 18 @.@ 5 short tons ) , usually around twelve cars worth , along a railway . As early as 1920 , the usage of horses in mines began to decline as electric locomotives came into use , and in 1969 the last horse was removed from the mines .
= = = 1990s and today = = =
Today , the breed is used mainly for meat and logging forested areas inaccessible to machinery . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , colts not intended for breeding , recreational riding , or harness work are heavily fed and sent out to slaughter before the age of eighteen months . Fillies are generally used for breeding . The breed association and its breeders are trying to secure the future of the Trait du Nord by finding new markets , especially in the areas of recreational riding , agricultural work , recreational and competitive driving . The breed is involved in several reenactments and folk villages which attract good crowds . The breed is promoted for its use in logging in forests and fragile areas , with professional foresters using them to preserve the value and biodiversity of forested areas .
The revival of team driving has prompted farmers who use the Trait du Nord to attend competitions and improve the quality of their horses . The qualities of the breed make it a popular horse for leaders in the areas of recreational and competition team driving , and the breed has the advantage of being able to be immediately returned to work even after a period of inactivity for several months . When being driven , a traditional " Flemish collar " is generally used . The horses are trained to be driven with only one rein , leaving the driver 's hands free for other work . When shown in hand , Trait du Nord horses are often presented in groups , generally between four and eight to a string .
Each year , the Trait du Nord is honored at an agricultural show and horse show in Paris . In 1995 , the breed won the International Workhorse Trophy at the Paris show and in 2010 , a Trait du Nord took the first place prize for weight pulling at the show . Trait du Nord teams participate in the Route du Poisson , a relay race commemorating the route that teams took to bring fresh fish from Boulogne to Paris until the 19th century . The race takes place every two or three years and is the biggest equine relay race in Europe .
= = Breed preservation = =
The Trait du Nord is an endangered breed ; the Haras de Compiègne ( Compiegne Stud ) , a national stud in France , had a major influence in saving the breed , until it was closed in October 2009 . The national breed registry for the Trait du Nord is supported by other local initiatives . However , breed numbers were already low when these initiatives began to be implemented , and media attention on the Trait du Nord is insufficient to maintain economically viable interest . The breed is bred mainly by enthusiasts returning to family farms , but even the number of farms has been decreasing as many young farmers prefer more to breed cattle , which are more lucrative .
Although breed associations and the French National Stud are making efforts to protect the breed , very low numbers persist , and these organizations consider the breed very close to extinction . It is one of the most threatened French horse breeds . The production of horse meat has declined due to a decrease in consumption , and most male foals are neither selected for reproduction nor work . One author says that more alternatives to slaughter are needed and that the steady decline in breed numbers is proof that the breed is slowly disappearing . Beginning in 2011 , the Trait du Nord association is working with the North Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais regional council and other groups to increase the number of births by 20 percent by December 2014 , and double the number by 2020 .
The main breeding areas are located around the former Compiegne Stud and include the departments of Nord , the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , the Oise , the Aisne and Somme . A few are found in the central region of Normandy and the Paris area . This breed is found mainly in France and is rarely exported abroad , or only very sporadically with related Belgian and Dutch breeds . A survey of mares in 2008 gave 121 mares in the region of North Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , 46 in Picardy , 6 in Normandy and one to three mares in the other regions .
Despite efforts to revive interest in the breed , numbers steadily declined in the years before 1988 . In 1995 , there were 33 stallions in service ; in 1996 this number remained the same and by 1998 it had declined to 30 . In 2004 , there were 111 breeders and 119 Trait du Nord foals were registered . By 2007 and 2008 there were only 17 stallions registered , a number which is exposing the breed to a dangerous increase in inbreeding . To combat this danger , farmers are cross breeding the Trait du Nord with approved Belgian and Dutch horses . The number of farmers breeding the Trait du Nord decreased from 150 to 125 in 2002 , then to 92 in 2007 and 86 in 2008 . After birth rates remained relatively steady in the 1990s , they began to drop in the 2000s , declining from 176 in 2000 to 100 in 2005 and just 75 in 2007 .
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= All Hope Is Gone World Tour =
The All Hope Is Gone World Tour was a concert tour by Slipknot that took place in 2008 and 2009 in support of the group 's fourth studio album All Hope Is Gone . The tour consisted of nine legs and took place in the United States , Canada , Japan , Australia , New Zealand , and Europe . The tour started with the Mayhem Festival 2008 .
Lawrence Upton acted as the tour 's director , Philippe Vachon acted as the tour 's programmer and lighting co @-@ director , and Dave Watson as lighting designer . Equipment such as LED units and Martin Atomic 3000 Strobes were used on the rig , and instead of a media server , the GrandMA mixing console was used for MA Lighting . David " Shirt " Nicholls was positioned as audio mixer , working with the digital mixing console .
Slipknot headlined every performance throughout the tour , sometimes sharing headlining status at festival appearances . Supporting acts throughout the tour included Disturbed , DragonForce , Mastodon , Machine Head , Children of Bodom , Coheed and Cambria , Trivium , 3 Inches of Blood , DevilDriver , The Black Dahlia Murder , and Sydonia . The tour consisted of nine legs and 153 shows , beginning on July 9 , 2008 and finishing on October 31 , 2009 . This was also the last tour with bassist Paul Gray who died on May 24 , 2010 .
Turntablist Sid Wilson broke both of his heels after jumping from an elevated area of a stage and landing incorrectly . He performed all dates of the tour , in a wheelchair . Drummer Joey Jordison suffered a broken ankle , causing four concerts to be cancelled . Towards the end of the leg Fehn left the tour due to a " tragic death in his family " , forcing him to miss the final two dates of the leg in Spain . Shawn Crahan left the Canadian part of the tour to return home to his family .
= = Background = =
In early February 2008 , Mick Thomson confirmed that Slipknot would be performing at the 2008 Mayhem Festival . Corey Taylor said : " This summer we are truly bringing Mayhem . Slipknot is excited to be a part of it , and to be able to bring the new chapter of our history to the masses . We are already working , building and designing a new show . " The tour acted as a follow @-@ up to The Subliminal Verses World Tour , which took place in 2004 to promote their third studio album Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) . The band began recording their fourth studio album All Hope Is Gone in late February 2008 .
= = Lighting = =
Lawrence Upton acted as the tour 's director , and Philippe Vachon acted as the tour 's programmer and lighting co @-@ director . Vachon said Upton wanted " very aggressive lighting that would attack and have punch " , because Slipknot 's music was very aggressive . Up @-@ stage provided the gear package , which included 10 Martin Professional MAC Profiles and 54 Martin Mac 2000 Wash units . Assistant lighting designer Dave Watson explained that the Martin Professional MAC Profiles were used as " key lights " , while Martin Mac 2000 Wash units generated higher light output . Issues arose during the tour , specifically times when members were barely visible due to the lighting . Vachon said , " There is so much show in your face that we would lose the guys on stage ; we had to beef up the front @-@ of @-@ house [ with ] white . "
The rig consisted of a Front of House truss , two three @-@ quarter angled trusses , and two straight mid @-@ stage trusses . These were all located up @-@ stage , and had two sub @-@ hung trusses directly below them . There were two Lycian Starklite medium @-@ throw truss spots , and an accumulation of specialty lights . The specialty lights included 54 two @-@ light Molefays , six PAR 36 rotating beacons , 24 Martin Atomic 300 Strobes , 2 six @-@ light Molefays , and 10 four @-@ light Molefays . The rig also had LED units , which can be very bright , and which shone into the audience . Throughout the tour , 65 Philips Color Kinetics ColorBlast 12s , seven Color Blaze 48s , and twelve CK ColorBlaze 72s were used to light up the wall behind the band .
Instead of a media server , the GrandMA console was used for MA Lighting . Vachon explained that the GrandMA console was " the desk you can do the most with LEDs ; if you want to go further , you need a media serverCTB . " The assistant lighting designer used a full @-@ sized GrandMA console . Two NSPs provided the necessary extra channels . The show 's color palette was somewhat restricted . There was mostly white lights , but Upton used lighter colors to get the most light output . The original palette was also based on colors like amber , steel blue , sea green , and orange . Late in the tour Vachon would add additional bursts of color , which included intense oranges , reds , and violets .
= = Sound production = =
David " Shirt " Nicholls was the audio mixer , using a Digidesign Venue with both the Eventide Anthology Pack , which provided sound effects , and Venue Pro Pack , which was a complete digital mixing console . Nicholls has expressed his admiration for the Venue Pro Pack and also explained that the A @-@ T 4050 microphones which he used on the tour took a battering during shows . Nicholls has called the T6100 vocal microphones he used " bulletproof " as they would occasionally " go flying up into the seats " during shows but would still work the next show . The Meyer P.A. , which accumulates 16 MILO seat boxes , nine Nexo CD @-@ 18 subwoofers , and six flown HP700s on the ground per side , was provided by Thunder Audio .
The system was controlled by Meyer Sound Galileo . The side @-@ hang featured 10 MICA boxes per side , with four UPJs for front @-@ fills . Ron Hurd , the tour 's monitor engineer , mixed the show using a Yamaha PM5D console . Hurd said , " I 'm not using any plug @-@ ins or rack gear except for an [ Apogee ] Big Ben word clock . Six of the nine guys are on ears : Ultimate Ears with Sennheiser G2s . "
= = Set lists = =
= = Mayhem Festival = =
Slipknot began touring at the first ever Mayhem Festival , a music festival founded by Kevin Lyman and John Reese . During the opening date of the Mayhem Festival 2008 on July 9 at Auburn , Washington , turntablist Sid Wilson broke both of his heels after jumping from an elevated area of the stage and landing incorrectly . Despite the injury , he promised to perform on all dates of the tour in a wheelchair . Wilson returned to the band , in a wheelchair and with both his legs in casts , on the second date of the festival at Mountain View , California ; he did , however , perform without the wheelchair at times .
The second date of the Mayhem Festival in Marysville , California , on July 11 was rescheduled to July 14 due to wildfires in the area .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Critics noted the band 's energy and on @-@ stage presence during their Mayhem Festival sets . Matt Weitz credited the band 's use of the stage in Dallas , saying they were " severe in their presentation . " When reviewing the show at Burgettstown , Pennsylvania , Justin Jacobs said Slipknot " [ delivered ] the pummeling performance the whole crowd had been waiting for " , while noting that part of Slipknot 's appeal was their secrecy , referring to the band 's use of masks and aliases and the fact that a curtain was used to hide the stage while it was set up .
= = Cancelled European dates = =
At the end of the 2008 Mayhem Festival , drummer Joey Jordison broke his ankle . During an interview with Drummer , Jordison explained that the injury happened when he and a friend were " messing around and kinda wrestling with each other " one afternoon , and Jordison tripped and twisted his ankle . Despite the injury , Jordison could still walk and subsequently played the next night . However , during a lengthy double bass section of " The Blister Exists " he " felt a snap " in his ankle . A doctor confirmed he had broken his ankle and suggested surgery . Jordison continued to play with a broken ankle until the band finished the Mayhem Festival . Following the festival Jordison was told that if he continued to play , he could suffer permanent damage that could affect his ability to walk . Subsequently , Slipknot were forced to cancel their European festival appearances due to the injury . On August 22 , at Leeds Festival during the Dropkick Murphys performance , a plane flew above the open air crowd advertising tickets for Slipknot 's UK dates in December . Unhappy with the fact that the band had pulled out of the festival , the crowd began to boo at the banner advert .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = Japanese leg = =
During an interview prior to the Japanese leg of the tour , percussionist Shawn Crahan discussed the difference between Japanese audiences and Western audiences . When asked whether he believed that Japanese fans are less intense , he said it is a matter of opinion for bands and when Slipknot play , " it 's almost frightening how in to it they are . " However , he did note that between songs can be " very awkward " because the crowd is almost silent , whereas the band is used to a more energetic reception .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = Australian / New Zealand leg = =
The Australian leg of the All Hope Is Gone World Tour was the first time Slipknot were able to bring what percussionist Shawn Crahan described as " the real set , the real deal " to an Australian audience . The band travelled with over 11 tons of equipment , including hydraulic drum risers , percussionist rigs , pyrotechnics , lighting and stage set @-@ ups . During an interview prior to the band 's first show of this leg , vocalist Corey Taylor revealed that he had sprained his thumb the day before while sky @-@ diving ; however , the injury did not prevent him from performing .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Reviewing the band 's show in Auckland , Chris Schulz wrote that vocalist Taylor 's performance was " schizophrenic " and that his " unpredictable , passive @-@ aggressive nature " was the focal point of Slipknot 's live show . He also declared percussionist Crahan the " most menacing member of Slipknot " , noting that in a " particularly violent " version of " Duality " he " appeared pleased to play his part in the song by violating an empty keg with a baseball bat . " When reviewing the same show , Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald compared Slipknot 's performance to their appearance at the 2005 Big Day Out festival , noting that " the gruesome obscenities , the vomiting , and fights " were absent , which made for " a far tighter and more solid " performance . Kara also commented upon the connection the fans had with the show , saying that in songs like " The Heretic Anthem " Taylor " hardly needs to sing " due to the involvement of the audience .
= = European leg = =
The opening date of the European leg of the tour was to have been the first time in Slipknot 's history that would perform in Israel , but due to " sudden personal and family conflicts " the band canceled their appearance . The band stated that they will perform in Israel in the future . The band 's appearance in Moscow marked Slipknot 's first performance in Russia . During an interview with Kerrang ! prior to their appearances in the UK , percussionist Crahan expressed excitement for the upcoming dates , saying , " There 's always been a deep love and affection between the British fans and ourselves . " Machine Head did not perform in Copenhagen on November 13 , due to frontman Robb Flynn 's " severe throat and bronchial infection . " On December 12 , in Sheffield , Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel collapsed on stage during their second to last song , forcing his band to cancel their appearances at the European leg 's final two dates . Slipknot 's performance in London on December 3 , 2008 was recorded for MTV 's World Stage series and aired on March 13 , 2009 , in the UK . It was also made available in over 160 countries .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
When reviewing Slipknot 's show in Düsseldorf , Sebastian Huhn called Shawn Crahan 's hydraulic percussion platform as a highlight of the performance . However , he also said , " Even though the tour had been named after the new album , the most part of the set consisted of tracks from the previous releases . " Huhn rated Slipknot 's overall performance 8 out of 10 . Alistair Lawrence of Kerrang ! reviewed the first of the band 's three shows at the Hammersmith Apollo in London . He said , " The choreographed chaos is too multi @-@ faceted to fully describe " , and noted that Taylor 's performance made songs like " Before I Forget " and " Psychosocial " sound better than on the recorded versions . Overall , Lawrence scored the show 4 out of 5 . When reviewing one of the Hammersmith Apollo shows , Rick Pearson of the Evening Standard wrote that there was " a strong feeling of camaraderie " at the concert . While he admitted he did not understand the draw of the band , " Spit It Out " offered " glimpses as to what got the maggots hooked on this brutal , bludgeoning band . " Adrian Osmond of Western Mail said that their show in Cardiff was " a pretty flawless , colourful and exciting piece of musical theatre " , adding that on entertainment value it would " rival any of the pantomimes out there this month . "
= = US Arena leg = =
During an interview with The Pulse of Radio , vocalist Taylor said that Slipknot would be changing their stage set around for the US arena leg . " We 're getting away from the pyro . We 're going way more visual this time . We 're incorporating a lot of video . " He explained that they always try to do something different : " We 've got people still coming to see us for , you know , after ten years , and we just want to try and give something special . " On the opening show of the leg , percussionist Crahan debuted a new mask which was significantly different from the one he wore while touring in 2008 .
During their show on January 25 in Council Bluffs , Iowa , a member of the audience collapsed from a heart attack and was later declared dead in hospital .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
News @-@ Press & Gazette Company reviewer Shea Conner said that he could not understand why anybody would buy a seat to a Slipknot concert . Saying " the madness is part of the experience " , he added that he himself was " ten feet from the stage with [ his ] head up and elbows , too . " While championing the band as " one of the greatest bands in the world to see live " , Conner wrote , " their antics and on @-@ stage spectacle match their ability to get the crowd in a frenzy . " Conner noted that due to their large line @-@ up " a few [ members ] can take a song or two off to entertain the fans , " citing events like percussionist Chris Fehn mocking a security guard , DJ Sid Wilson destroying a part of Fehn 's drumkit , and Shawn Crahan 's hydraulic drumkit with camera @-@ operated screen as particular examples . Katjusa Cisar of The Capital Times reviewed Slipknot 's show at the Alliant Energy Center , saying that despite their " satanic " reputation they put on " a pretty wholesome show . " She noted that throughout their ten years together they have " honed a show of ferocious , squealing intensity ; an unholy racket full of adolescent rage and goofy humor under a phalanx of moving and flashing lights . " Crediting frontman Corey Taylor 's ability to " [ lead ] his mutant army and the passionate crowd " , she said the crowd kept the energy high and that " mosh pits erupted like mini @-@ hurricanes . "
= = Canadian leg = =
Percussionist Shawn Crahan left the tour to return home after performing on the opening date of the tour 's Canadian leg . Slipknot continued the tour without him . While addressing their crowd during their May 1 , 2009 , concert in Toronto , Taylor explained that Crahan 's absence was due to " a very terrible , terrible predicament going on in [ Crahan 's ] family . " The band later stated that Crahan 's absence was due to the death of his mother .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
In his review of Slipknot 's show on April 29 , 2009 for the Montreal Gazette , Al Kratina said , " Their stage show is something to behold . " He said , " Not only are [ their ] songs [ ... ] absolutely crushing in a live setting , but the band is a fountain of bizarre , chaotic energy . " Describing vocalist Corey Taylor 's performance , he said , " Despite his manic energy [ he ] managed to keep his vocals tightly controlled , alternating between furious screaming and melodic passages " . While reviewing their Toronto show on May 1 , 2009 for CANOE , Jason MacNeil noted the absence of percussionist Crahan , although in noting that several other members would occasionally occupy the vacant drum kit , he added , " It didn 't seem to matter much to the fans . " He also said , " For the most part , Slipknot kept the energy high " and added that tracks like " Dead Memories " and " Vermilion " were the only moments " which served as breathers . " Overall MacNeil rated the show 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 .
= = US leg III = =
After missing six shows due to his mother 's death , percussionist Shawn Crahan returned to the tour . His first appearance since April 28 , 2009 , was in Oklahoma City on May 8 , 2009 .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
While reviewing their show on May 3 , 2009 , at the Van Andel Arena , Troy Reimink made a point of Crahan 's absence , suggesting that while it could have seriously disrupted the tour , it seemed like " merely a bump in the road for Slipknot . " Reimink said the band 's 17 song setlist , featuring songs from all their albums , " demonstrated the group 's skill at assembling relentlessly aggressive songs punctuated with fleeting , occasionally incongruous bits of melody . " While noting that Slipknot were " not [ his ] thing " , he described the show as " an exercise in finely calculated chaos " , rating the show 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 . Diana Nollen of The Gazette reviewed Slipknot 's show in Cedar Rapids , Iowa , describing their stage show as a " sophisticated sideshow of garish masks and growling lyrics . " Nollen made a note of their on @-@ stage antics saying that " it 's rather entertaining as they lumber across the stage and climb on each other 's percussion stations like baboons from hell . " Citing the singles " Before I Forget " and " Psychosocial " as particular highlights of the setlist , she concluded her review by saying that the " final visual punch " of drummer Joey Jordison 's kit raising , tipping and rotating above the stage was like " a demented version of an Adventureland ride . "
= = European leg II = =
Slipknot 's performance on June 13 , 2009 at Download Festival was streamed live on the internet , along with various other acts performing at the festival . During an interview prior to their performance on June 20 , 2009 in the Netherlands , percussionist Chris Fehn revealed that he suspected he had broken his hand . He did not say when the injury happened , but he did explain , " I lost a stick at a show and got a bit mad about it . " Towards the end of the leg , Fehn left the tour due to a " tragic death in his family " , which forced him to miss the final two dates in Spain . Additionally , Sid Wilson was absent from the Rock Am Ring show .
= = = Tour dates = = =
July 16 , 2009 Zagreb , Croatia ( Dom sportova )
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Several reporters reviewed Slipknot 's headlining slot at England 's Download Festival on June 13 , 2009 . Greg Cochrane , writing for the BBC , championed Slipknot as " spectacular headliners " , explaining : " Flame throwers , pneumatic drum kits and mass screaming , it has it all . " NME said Slipknot 's performance " saw the Main Stage become a scene of chaos " , noting how the band members " roamed the stage randomly smashing the set up with baseball bats , throwing barrels around and hanging off [ Crahan 's ] revolving drumkit . " Ian Strachan of The Sun rated their performance an 8 out of 10 , reporting that " the tunes were tight and delivered with venom . " He also cited a moment during " Spit It Out " in which Taylor got the crowd to crouch down and jump up all at once as " one of the stand out moments of the festival . " Christa Ktorides of Clickmusic said , " The sight of 70 @,@ 000 people sitting down on command is something we won 't long forget . " She also described their performance as " simply ferocious . " Metal Hammer reviewer Ted Bezer called it " arguably the greatest headline performance of the Download era " , adding , " Slipknot absolutely destroyed 70 @,@ 000 people in a way that it didn ’ t seem was possible . " He declared the performance of " Duality " the best moment at the whole festival .
= = Canceled US dates = =
Anthrax was initially announced as the main support band on this leg of the tour . However , due to the departure of vocalist Dan Nelson , Anthrax were forced to cancel most of their touring dates , including all dates on this tour .
On September 9 , 2009 , Slipknot planned on commemorating the 10 @-@ year anniversary of their debut album Slipknot by hosting a one @-@ day festival in their hometown . Slipknot were to headline the festival , which would host two stages , the second stage showcasing local bands . However , the festival was canceled shortly after it was announced , for unknown reasons .
On August 22 , 2009 , Slipknot canceled their appearance at the KISW Pain In The Grass event due to Jordison being rushed to hospital hours before their set was scheduled to start . Despite planning to return for the following date in Kennewick , Washington , Slipknot again canceled their appearance hours before their performance . Slipknot also canceled their remaining dates on the tour due to Jordison 's health , promising to reschedule the first two dates .
= = US , Canadian leg = =
As previously promised by the band , Slipknot rescheduled their first canceled appearances in Washington from August , allowing all previous ticket holders the opportunity to attend .
= = = Tour dates = = =
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= Bristol Rovers F.C. =
Bristol Rovers Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of Bristol , England . They compete in League One , the third tier of English football . The team plays their home matches at Memorial Stadium , in Horfield , a suburb of Bristol , and is affiliated to the Gloucestershire County FA .
The club was founded in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. , and were also known as Eastville Rovers and Bristol Eastville Rovers before finally changing its name to Bristol Rovers in 1899 . The club 's official nickname is The Pirates , reflecting the maritime history of Bristol . The local nickname of the club is The Gas , from the gasworks next to their former home Eastville Stadium , which started as a derogatory term used by fans of their main rival Bristol City but was affectionately adopted by the team . According to a survey conducted in December 2003 , Cardiff City and Swindon Town are considered their second and third biggest rivals .
Rovers were admitted to the Football League in 1920 and have played there ever since , apart from spending the 2014 – 15 season in the Conference Premier . They previously came close to losing their league status in 1939 , when they were re @-@ elected after finishing bottom of Division Three ( South ) , and in 2002 when the team finished one league position away from relegation to the Football Conference . Their highest finishing positions were in 1956 and 1959 , on both occasions ending the season in 6th place in Division Two , then the second tier of English football . Rovers were Football League Trophy finalists in 1990 and 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The club was formed following a meeting at the Eastville Restaurant in Bristol in September 1883 . It was initially called Black Arabs F.C. , after the Arabs rugby team and the predominantly black kits in which they played . This name only lasted for the 1883 – 84 season , and in a bid to draw more fans from the local area the club was renamed Eastville Rovers in 1884 .
The club played only friendly games until the 1887 – 88 season , when it took part in the Gloucestershire Cup for the first time . In 1892 the club became a founder member of the Bristol and District League , which three years later was renamed the Western League . In 1897 Eastville Rovers joined the Birmingham and District League , and for two seasons played in both this league and the Western League . At the beginning of the 1897 – 98 season , the club turned professional and changed its name to Bristol Eastville Rovers , and on 17 February 1899 the name was officially changed to Bristol Rovers . In 1899 Bristol Rovers joined the newly formed Southern League , where they remained until 1920 , winning the league title along the way in 1905 .
= = = Into the Football League = = =
For the 1920 – 21 season , the Southern League teams were moved into the new Division Three of the Football League , which became Division Three ( South ) the following season . They remained in this division for over 30 years , before winning the league , and promotion in the 1952 – 53 season .
The team has won promotion on four other occasions : in 1973 – 74 from the Third Division to the Second Division , again in 1989 – 90 as Division Three champions , in 2006 – 07 to the Football League One , and then in 2014 – 15 to League Two from the Conference Premier . The club has been relegated six times — in 1961 – 62 , 1980 – 81 , 1992 – 93 , 2000 – 01 , 2010 – 11 and most recently at the end of the 2013 – 14 season .
The highest position in the football ladder achieved by Rovers at the end of season is sixth place in the second tier , which they did twice ; once in 1955 – 56 , and again in 1958 – 59 . The closest they came to the top flight was in 1955 – 56 , when they ended the season just four points below the promotion positions . The lowest league position achieved by the club is twenty @-@ third out of twenty @-@ four teams in the fourth tier , which has occurred twice . In the 2001 – 02 season , relegation from the Football League was narrowly avoided on two counts ; firstly they ended just one league position above the relegation zone , and secondly the rules were changed the following season to increase the number of relegation places to two , meaning that if Rovers had finished in that position one year later they would have been relegated . This position was matched at the end of the 2013 – 14 season , which this time saw Rovers relegated to the Conference for the first time . They returned to the league at the end of their first Conference season , with a penalty shootout victory over Grimsby Town in the play @-@ off final .
= = = Cup competitions = = =
The only major cup competition won by Bristol Rovers is the 1972 Watney Cup , when they beat Sheffield United in the final . The club also won the Division Three ( South ) Cup in 1934 – 35 , as well as winning or sharing the Gloucestershire Cup on 32 occasions . The team has never played in European competition ; the closest Rovers came was when they missed out on reaching the international stage of the Anglo @-@ Italian Cup in the 1992 – 93 season on a coin toss held over the phone with West Ham United .
In the FA Cup , Rovers have reached the quarter @-@ final stage on three occasions . The first time was in 1950 – 51 when they faced Newcastle United at St James ' Park in front of a crowd of 62 @,@ 787 , the record for the highest attendance at any Bristol Rovers match . The second time they reached the quarter final was in 1957 – 58 , when they lost to Fulham , and the most recent appearance at this stage of the competition was during the 2007 – 08 season , when they faced West Bromwich Albion . They were the first Division Three team to win an FA Cup tie away to a Premier League side , when in 2002 they beat Derby County 3 – 1 at Pride Park Stadium .
They have twice reached the final of the Football League Trophy , in 1989 – 90 and 2006 – 07 , but finished runners @-@ up on both occasions . On the second occasion they did not allow a single goal against them in the competition en route to the final , but conceded the lead less than a minute after the final kicked off .
= = Rivalries = =
Bristol Rovers main rivals are city neighbours Bristol City , with whom they contest the Bristol derby . This rivalry was deemed 8th fiercest rivalry in English football in an in @-@ depth report by the Football Pools in 2008 . The most recent encounter between the clubs took place on 4 September 2013 , which saw Rovers beaten by City in a Football League Trophy tie at Ashton Gate Stadium by a 2 – 1 scoreline . Other rivals are mainly other teams from the West Country , such as Swindon Town , Plymouth Argyle , Exeter City and Yeovil Town . Since relegation to the Conference , a rivalry has also emerged with Forest Green Rovers .
In the past , rivalries also emerged with Severnside rivals Cardiff City known as the Severnside derby . Rovers most recent meeting against Cardiff was a League Cup match on 26 August 2009 , which Cardiff went on to win 3 – 1 . This game took place at the new Cardiff City Stadium and the Rovers only goal from the game came from Steve Elliot . The last time Cardiff and Bristol Rovers were in the same league was in the 1999 – 2000 season .
Bristol Rovers and Plymouth Argyle have played each other 92 times in the Football League and in national cup competitions , with the better record belonging to The Pilgrims due to their 36 wins compared with Rovers ' 30 . The most recent encounter with Plymouth Argyle occurred on 1 January 2013 , which Rovers won 2 – 1 . Rovers were 2 – 0 up at half @-@ time , the defeat for Plymouth against Rovers resulted in Plymouth sacking their manager Carl Fletcher and saw John Ward register his first win of his second spell as Rovers manager .
The first time Rovers encountered Yeovil was a Football League Trophy match which was played on 31 October 2001 , which Rovers won via a penalty shoot out . The most recent encounter between the teams was in a Football League Two match on 15 August 2015 , which Rovers won 1 – 0 with Ellis Harrison scoring a late winner . Because of the close proximity many players have also represented both the clubs , for example Adam Virgo , Gavin Williams , Dominic Blizzard and Tom Parkes .
= = Colours and badge = =
Bristol Rovers are known for their distinctive blue and white quartered shirts , which they have worn for most of their history . The current home kit consists of a light blue and white quartered shirt and white shorts , while the away kit is black and gold with the same colours as the trim . During the 2008 – 09 season a special third strip , which is black with a gold sash , and is a reproduction of the original Black Arab shirt , was used for a single match to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club .
The team began playing in black shirts with a yellow sash from their foundation in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. until 1885 , by which time they were called Eastville Rovers . For the next fourteen years , until 1899 , the team wore blue and white hooped shirts . These were replaced by black and white striped shirts until 1919 .
When Rovers were admitted to The Football League in 1920 they wore white shirts with blue shorts . These remained the team colours until 1930 , when the colours were reversed to blue shirts and white shorts for one season . The blue and white quarters were first worn in 1931 , when they were introduced to try to make the players look larger and more intimidating . Rovers continued to wear the quarters for 31 years until they were replaced by blue pinstripes on a white background .
Over the next ten years , Rovers went on to wear blue and white stripes , all blue , and blue shirts with white shorts before returning to the blue and white quarters in 1973 , which have remained the colours ever since . During the 1996 – 97 season , Rovers wore an unpopular striped quartered design , prompting fans to refer to it as the Tesco bag shirts because of their similarity to the design used for the company 's carrier bags . The change in design prompted the Trumpton Times fanzine to change its name to Wot , No Quarters ?
The black and gold shirts were also used as the away kit for the 2002 – 03 season , the club 's 120th anniversary .
In 2005 , Rovers ran an April Fools ' joke on their official website , stating that the team 's new away strip would be all pink . Although this was intended to be a joke , a number of fans petitioned the club to get the kit made for real , and also suggested that funds raised through the sale of the pink shirts should be donated to a breast cancer charity . Although the pink shirts were never used in a competitive fixture , they were worn for a pre @-@ season friendly against Plymouth Argyle in 2006 .
A pirate features on both the club badge and the badge of the supporters club , reflecting the club nickname of The Pirates . Previous club badges have featured a blue and white quartered design , based on the quartered design of the team 's jerseys .
= = = Kit suppliers and sponsors = = =
Rovers first used an official kit supplier in 1977 , and the club 's first official kit sponsor followed in 1981 . Rovers ' longest running kit supplier is Errea who supplied the club kits for eleven years ( 2005 – 16 ) . The club 's longest running kit sponsorship was from local company Cowlin Construction who sponsored the club for a total of 11 years before ending the deal in 2009 .
The Cowlin deal came to an end during the late @-@ 2000s recession . Faced with the prospect of having no shirt sponsor for the 2009 – 10 season , the club came up with the idea of a raffle to raise the funds required . Tickets were sold at £ 1 @,@ 000 with all 96 available being sold meaning the club raised £ 96 @,@ 000 for one season of shirt sponsorship , more than some Premier League clubs . First prize in the draw went to local training and recruitment company N @-@ Gaged whose logo appeared on that season 's home kit . Second prize went to Bristol @-@ based solicitors Stevens , Hewlett & Perkins whose logo appeared on the away kit . The raffle proved so successful that the club replicated it for the 2010 – 11 season with Smart Computers becoming the new home kit sponsors and Stalbridge Linen the away sponsors . Despite initially planning to return to the tradition form of sponsorship , the club again ran a sponsorship raffle for the 2011 – 12 season and continues to this day , however , with the plans to move to UWE Stadium , Rovers hope to attract a major sponsor once again in the future .
= = Stadium = =
= = = Grounds = = =
Purdown – 1883 – 1884
Three Acres – 1884 – 1891
Schoolmasters Cricket Ground – 1891 – 1892
Durdham Down – 1892 – 1894
Ridegway – 1894 – 1897
Eastville Stadium – 1897 – 1986
Twerton Park – 1986 – 1996
The Memorial Stadium – 1996 – Present
= = = History = = =
Rovers play their home games at The Memorial Stadium in Horfield , a ground they formerly shared with Bristol Rugby Club . The team moved to The Mem , as it is known informally , at the beginning of the 1996 – 97 season , initially as tenants but purchased it two years later .
When Bristol Rovers were known as Black Arabs F.C. in 1883 , they played their home games at Purdown , Stapleton . The following year they moved to Three Acres , the precise location of which is not known , but is believed to have been in the Ashley Down area of Bristol , where they remained for seven years . This was followed by brief stays at the Schoolmasters Cricket Ground , Durdham Down and Ridgeway .
For the majority of their history , Bristol Rovers have played their home games at the Eastville Stadium , where they remained for a period of 89 years from 1897 – 1986 . Financial problems led to the team being forced to leave Eastville , and they found a temporary home at Twerton Park , the home of Bath City . They stayed in Bath for 10 seasons , before returning to Bristol in 1996 .
Rovers also played five home games at Ashton Gate Stadium , home of rivals Bristol City , following a fire which destroyed the South Stand of the Eastville Stadium on the night of the 16 – 17 August 1980 . Rovers returned to Eastville in October 1980 . During World War II , some friendly matches were played in Kingswood , and in their early history some games were played at Parson Street , Bedminster
In January 2007 planning permission was granted for a new 18 @,@ 500 capacity all @-@ seater stadium to be built on the site of the Memorial Stadium . Building work was originally intended to begin late in 2007 , but a number of delays set the project back first until the summer of 2008 , and then until the summer of 2009 .
Further delays meant that by 2011 , the club had begun exploring different options with regards to the future of the club 's stadium . In June 2011 , the club announced its intention to relocate the club to a new 21 @,@ 700 all seater stadium , to be built on land at the University of the West of England 's Frenchay campus . To fund the project , the current site of the Memorial Stadium will be sold to supermarket Sainsbury 's .
In September 2012 , planning permission for the proposed UWE Stadium was granted by South Gloucestershire Council . In January 2013 , subsequent planning permission was granted by Bristol City Council for the building of a Sainsbury 's supermarket on the site of the Memorial Stadium . Disputes by a local protest group delayed the project and was followed by Sainsbury 's attempting to withdraw support for the project . Rovers therefore submitted a writ against Sainsbury 's , the hearing for which will be heard in May 2015 .
In February 2016 it was announced that a 92 % stake in the club had been bought by the Jordanian Al @-@ Qadi family and that Wael Al @-@ Qadi , a member of the Jordan Football Association , would become the president .
The club is now owned by Dwane Sports Ltd with 92 @.@ 6 % of the shares with Bristol Rovers Supporters Club owning the remaining 7 @.@ 4 % .
= = Supporter culture = =
The team traditionally draws the majority of its support from north and east Bristol and South Gloucestershire . Many towns and villages in the surrounding area are also home to significant pockets of Rovers supporters .
The nickname given to Bristol Rovers supporters is " Gasheads " . " The Gas " was originally coined as a derogatory term by the supporters of Bristol Rovers ' rivals Bristol City , and was in reference to the large gas works adjacent to the old Bristol Rovers stadium , in Eastville , Bristol which wafted the sometimes overpowering odour of town gas across the crowd . " Gasheads " was adopted as a name by a splinter group of Rovers supporters in the mid @-@ 1980s to early 1990s . The chant " Proud to be a Gashead " spread to regular fans , and a fanzine was produced called The Gashead .
The term " Gasheads " is now universally accepted within the English media and football fraternity as referring to Bristol Rovers supporters . After the club 's relegation to Football League Two in 2001 , the club designated the squad number 12 to the Gasheads to signify them as the club 's 12th Man in recognition of their loyal support .
The retired Conservative MP for Hayes and Harlington Terry Dicks is a Bristol Rovers fan . He mentioned the club in parliament on 5 May 1994 when debating with Labour MP and Chelsea fan Tony Banks . Another notable fan is Mercury Prize winning DJ Roni Size .
One Bristol Rovers print fanzine is currently active and is entitled Last Saturday Night . There is also a fan @-@ run podcast and blog called GasCast .
= = = Club song = = =
The song which is synonymous with Rovers is " Goodnight , Irene " , which was written by Lead Belly .
Opinions differ as to how this came about but it is thought to have become popular in the 1950s when a version of the song was in the British charts — the line " sometimes I have a great notion to jump in the river and drown " — seemed to be particularly apt when Rovers lost as the Bristol Frome flows alongside the old Eastville ground . Another theory is that it was sung at a fireworks display at the Stadium the night before a Home game against Plymouth Argyle in the 1950s . During the game the following day , Rovers were winning quite comfortably and the few Argyle supporters present began to leave early prompting a chorus of " Goodnight Argyle " from the Rovers supporters — the tune stuck and Irene became the club song .
Another popular Bristol Rovers song is " Tote End Boys " , which was written and sung by Ben Gunstone . The name " Tote End Boys " derives from the section of Gasheads who stood in the Tote End terrace at Rovers ' old home , Eastville Stadium .
The Rovers fans have good relations with Spanish club CE Sabadell FC , which initially began due to several Rovers fans noticing that the club had the same colours . Plans are being made for a pre @-@ season friendly between the two clubs in July 2016 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 8 May 2016
Where a player has not declared an international allegiance , nation is determined by place of birth .
The shirt number 12 is used by Gasheads to represent the fans as the 12th Man .
For recent transfers , see 2015 – 16 Bristol Rovers F.C. season .
= = = Notable former players = = =
This is a list of the most noted former players at Bristol Rovers Football Club , stating the period that each player spent at the club , their nationality and their reason for being listed . To be included in this list a player must have made over 400 league appearances for the club , scored over 100 league goals or hold a club record .
Note : all details from Byrne & Jay ( 2003 ) unless otherwise stated .
= = Club staff = =
The current manager of Bristol Rovers is Darrell Clarke . He joined Rovers in June 2013 as Assistant Manager and then took control of the first team nine months later on 29 March 2014 ( with 8 games of the season remaining ) when the previous manager John Ward changed roles to become ' Director of Football ' at the club .
= = = Managerial history = = =
As of March 2014 , 32 men have been appointed as a manager of Bristol Rovers Football Club , excluding caretaker managers . Bobby Gould , Gerry Francis and John Ward are the only men to have been given the job on a permanent basis twice , although Garry Thompson had a separate spell as caretaker manager before later being appointed permanently , and Phil Bater was caretaker manager on two separate occasions .
= = Youth Academy = =
The Bristol Rovers Academy currently operates at The City Academy Bristol and Sir Bernard Lovell School with matches being played at The Hallen Centre and Golden Hill . Current first @-@ team squad members Ryan Broom , Ollie Clarke , Ellis Harrison , Tyler Lyttle , Tom Lockyer , Jay Malpas and Kieran Preston all graduated from the Academy to earn a professional contract . Chris Lines also graduated from the academy before moving on to Sheffield Wednesday . Lines has recently returned to Rovers . Perhaps the most successful former member of the academy is Scott Sinclair , who was signed by Chelsea in 2005 for an initial fee of £ 200 @,@ 000 , with further payments to the club possible , depending on performance . He currently plays for Premier League club Aston Villa . Other recent Academy players to have appeared in the Premier League or Football League include Tyrone Mings , Eliot Richards , Sean Rigg and Alefe Santos .
= = Women 's team = =
The club had a successful women 's team , formed in 1998 as Bristol Rovers W.F.C. following a merger with Cable @-@ Tel L.F.C .. This merger came about as Bristol Rovers only had girls teams up to the under 16 age group level , so when girls reached the age of 16 they were forced to leave the club . The merger with Cable @-@ Tel meant that Bristol Rovers had a senior squad . The club 's name was changed to Bristol Academy W.F.C. in 2005 to reflect the increased investment from the Bristol Academy of Sport . Though sometimes still referred to by their former nickname , the Gas Girls , Bristol Academy W.F.C. are no longer affiliated to Bristol Rovers .
= = Honours = =
Bristol Rovers Football Club has won the following honours :
Southern Football League Division One : 1
1904 – 05
Football League Third Division South : 1
1952 – 53
Football League Third Division : 1
1989 – 90
Football League Two play @-@ offs : 1
2007
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 1
2015
Football League Trophy , Runners @-@ up : 2
1989 – 90 , 2006 – 07
Football League Third Division South Cup : 1
1934 – 35
Watney Cup : 1
1972
Gloucestershire Cup : 32
1888 – 89 , 1902 – 03 , 1904 – 05 , 1913 – 14 , 1924 – 25 , 1927 – 28 , 1934 – 35 , 1935 – 36 , 1937 – 38 , 1947 – 48 , 1948 – 49 , 1950 – 51 , 1953 – 54 , 1954 – 55 , 1955 – 56 , 1958 – 59 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1967 – 68 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1981 – 82 , 1982 – 83 , 1983 – 84 , 1984 – 85 , 1988 – 89 , 1989 – 90 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95
= = Records = =
= = = Scorelines = = =
Biggest League Win : 7 – 0 ( v Brighton & Hove Albion , Division Three ( South ) , 29 November 1952 )
7 – 0 ( v Swansea City , Division Two , 2 October 1954 )
7 – 0 ( v Shrewsbury Town , Division Three , 21 March 1964 )
7 – 0 ( v Alfreton Town , Conference Premier , 25 April 2015 )
Biggest Cup Win :
Competition proper : 6 – 0 ( v Merthyr Tydfil , FA Cup Round 1 , 14 November 1987 )
Qualifying : 15 – 1 ( v Weymouth , FA Cup Third Qualifying Round , 17 November 1900 )
Biggest League Defeat : 0 – 12 ( v Luton Town , Division Three South , 13 April 1936 )
= = = Players = = =
Most League Appearances : 546 – Stuart Taylor , 1966 – 1980
Most Goals for club : 242 – Geoff Bradford , 1949 – 1964
Most Goals in a season : 33 – Geoff Bradford , 1952 – 53
Highest Transfer Fee Paid : £ 375 @,@ 000 – Andy Tillson from Queens Park Rangers , November 1992
Highest Transfer Fee Received : £ 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 – Barry Hayles to Fulham , November 1998
= = = Other = = =
Record Home Attendance : 38 @,@ 472 ( v Preston North End , FA Cup , 30 January 1960
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= Natural History ( Pliny ) =
The Natural History ( Latin : Naturalis Historia ) is an early encyclopedia in Latin by Pliny the Elder , who died in 79 AD .
It is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day and purports to cover all ancient knowledge . The work 's subject area is thus not limited to what is today understood by natural history ; Pliny himself defines his scope as " the natural world , or life " .
The work is divided into 37 books , organised into ten volumes . These cover topics including astronomy , mathematics , geography , ethnography , anthropology , human physiology , zoology , botany , agriculture , horticulture , pharmacology , mining , mineralogy , sculpture , painting , and precious stones .
The Natural History became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter , its referencing of original authors , and its index . The work is dedicated to the emperor Titus , son of Pliny 's close friend , the emperor Vespasian , in the first year of Titus 's reign . It is the only work by Pliny to have survived and the last that he published . He began it in 77 , and had not made a final revision at the time of his death during the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius .
= = Overview = =
Pliny 's Natural History was written alongside other substantial works ( which have since been lost ) . Pliny ( 23 – 79 ) combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor Vespasian . Much of his writing was done at night ; daytime hours were spent working for the emperor , as he explains in the dedicatory preface addressed to Vespasian 's elder son , the future emperor Titus , with whom he had served in the army . As for the nocturnal hours spent writing , these were seen , not as a loss of sleep , but as an addition to life : for , as he states in the preface , Vita vigilia est , " to be alive is to be watchful " , in a military metaphor of a sentry keeping watch in the night . Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work , in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother :
Hail to thee , Nature , thou parent of all things ! and do thou deign to show thy favour unto me , who , alone of all the citizens of Rome , have , in thy every department , thus made known thy praise .
The Natural History is encyclopaedic in scope , but its format is unlike a modern encyclopaedia . A modern reader will not find dedicated articles on the natural history of the chameleon , the medical uses of cabbage , or the effects of goat 's blood on diamond . The work does however have structure : Pliny uses Aristotle 's division of nature ( animal , vegetable , mineral ) to recreate the natural world in literary form . Rather than presenting compartmentalised , stand @-@ alone entries arranged alphabetically , Pliny 's ordered natural landscape is a coherent whole , offering the reader a guided tour : " a brief excursion under our direction among the whole of the works of nature ... " The work is unified but varied : " My subject is the world of nature ... or in other words , life , " he tells Titus .
Nature for Pliny was divine , a pantheistic concept inspired by the Stoic philosophy which underlies much of his thought . But the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race : " nature , that is life " is human life in a natural landscape . After an initial survey of cosmology and geography , Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race , " for whose sake great Nature appears to have created all other things " . This teleological view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the Natural History . The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves , but also with a view to their role in human life . Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants , with a focus on their medicinal value ; the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in architecture , sculpture , painting and jewellery . If Pliny 's premise seems remote from modern ecological theories , the result is a compendium of an entire culture .
Pliny 's work frequently reflects Rome 's imperial expansion which brought new and exciting things to the capital : exotic eastern spices , strange animals to be put on display or herded into the arena , even the alleged phoenix sent to the emperor Claudius in AD 47 – although , as Pliny admits , this was generally acknowledged to be a fake . Pliny repeated Aristotle 's maxim that Africa was always producing something new . Nature 's variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite : " When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible . " This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world . These monstrous races – the Cynocephali or Dog @-@ Heads , the Sciapodae , whose single foot could act as a sunshade , the mouthless Astomi , who lived on scents – were not strictly new . They had been mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC , but Pliny made them better known .
" As full of variety as nature itself " , stated Pliny 's nephew , Pliny the Younger , and this verdict largely explains the appeal of the Natural History since Pliny 's death in the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 . Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – " shaped like an umbrella pine " , according to his nephew – rising from the mountain .
The Natural History was one of the first ancient European texts to be printed , in Venice in 1469 . Philemon Holland 's English translation of 1605 has influenced literature ever since .
= = Table of contents = =
The Natural History consists of 37 books . Pliny devised his own table of contents . The table below is a summary based on modern names for topics .
= = Production = =
= = = Purpose = = =
Pliny 's purpose in writing the Natural History was to cover all learning and art so far as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from nature . He says that
My subject is a barren one – the world of nature , or in other words life ; and that subject in its least elevated department , and employing either rustic terms or foreign , nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology . Moreover , the path is not a beaten highway of authorship , nor one in which the mind is eager to range : there is not one of us who has made the same venture , nor yet one Roman who has tackled single @-@ handed all departments of the subject .
= = = Working method = = =
His nephew , Pliny the Younger , described the method that Pliny used to write the Natural History :
Does it surprise you that a busy man found time to finish so many volumes , many of which deal with such minute details ? ... He used to begin to study at night on the Festival of Vulcan , not for luck but from his love of study , long before dawn ; in winter he would commence at the seventh hour ... He could sleep at call , and it would come upon him and leave him in the middle of his work . Before daybreak he would go to Vespasian – for he too was a night @-@ worker – and then set about his official duties . On his return home he would again give to study any time that he had free . Often in summer after taking a meal , which with him , as in the old days , was always a simple and light one , he would lie in the sun if he had any time to spare , and a book would be read aloud , from which he would take notes and extracts .
Pliny the Younger told the following anecdote illustrating his uncle 's enthusiasm for study :
After dinner a book would be read aloud , and he would take notes in a cursory way . I remember that one of his friends , when the reader pronounced a word wrongly , checked him and made him read it again , and my uncle said to him , " Did you not catch the meaning ? " When his friend said " yes , " he remarked , " Why then did you make him turn back ? We have lost more than ten lines through your interruption . " So jealous was he of every moment lost .
= = = Style = = =
Pliny 's writing style emulates that of Seneca . It aims less at clarity and vividness than at epigrammatic point . It contains many antitheses , questions , exclamations , tropes , metaphors , and other mannerisms of the Silver Age . His sentence structure is often loose and straggling . There is heavy use of the ablative absolute , and ablative phrases are often appended in a kind of vague " apposition " to express the author 's own opinion of an immediately previous statement , e.g. ,
dixit ( Apelles ) ... uno se praestare , quod manum de tabula sciret tollere , memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam diligentiam .
This might be translated " In one thing Apelles stood out , namely , knowing when he had put enough work into a painting . A salutary warning : too much effort can be counterproductive . " The whole of the second sentence represents the ablative phrase starting with " memorabili praecepto " .
= = Publication history = =
= = = First publication = = =
Pliny wrote the first ten books in AD 77 , and was engaged on revising the rest during the two remaining years of his life . The work was probably published with little revision by the author 's nephew Pliny the Younger , who , when telling the story of a tame dolphin and describing the floating islands of the Vadimonian Lake thirty years later , has apparently forgotten that both are to be found in his uncle 's work . He describes the Naturalis Historia as a Naturae historia and characterises it as a " work that is learned and full of matter , and as varied as nature herself . "
The absence of the author 's final revision may explain many errors , including why the text is as John Healy writes " disjointed , discontinuous and not in a logical order " ; and as early as 1350 , Petrarch complained about the corrupt state of the text , referring to copying errors made between the ninth and eleventh centuries .
= = = Manuscripts = = =
About the middle of the 3rd century , an abstract of the geographical portions of Pliny 's work was produced by Solinus . Early in the 8th century , Bede , who admired Pliny 's work , had access to a partial manuscript which he used in his " De Rerum Natura " , especially the sections on meteorology and gems . However , Bede updated and corrected Pliny on the tides .
There are about 200 extant manuscripts , but the best of the more ancient manuscripts , that at Bamberg State Library , contains only books XXXII – XXXVII . In 1141 Robert of Cricklade wrote the Defloratio Historiae Naturalis Plinii Secundi consisting of nine books of selections taken from an ancient manuscript .
= = = Printed copies = = =
The work was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed , at Venice in 1469 by Johann and Wendelin of Speyer , but J.F. Healy described the translation as " distinctly imperfect " . A copy printed in 1472 by Nicolas Jenson of Venice is held in the library at Wells Cathedral .
= = = Translations = = =
Philemon Holland made an influential translation of much of the work into English in 1601 . John Bostock and H. T. Riley made a complete translation in 1855 .
= = Topics = =
The Natural History is generally divided into the organic plants and animals and the inorganic matter , although there are frequent digressions in each section . The encyclopedia also notes the uses made of all of these by the Romans . Its description of metals and minerals is valued for its detail in the history of science , being the most extensive compilation still available from the ancient world .
Book I serves as Pliny 's preface , explaining his approach and providing a table of contents .
= = = Astronomy = = =
The first topic covered is Astronomy , in Book II . Pliny starts with the known universe , roundly criticising attempts at cosmology as madness , including the view that there are countless other worlds than the Earth . He doubts the four ( Aristotelian ) elements , fire , earth , air and water , but records the seven " planets " including the sun and moon . The earth is a sphere , suspended in the middle of space . He considers it a weakness to try to find the shape and form of God , or to suppose that such a being would care about human affairs . He mentions eclipses , but considers Hipparchus 's almanac grandiose for seeming to know how Nature works . He cites Posidonius 's estimate that the moon is 230 @,@ 000 miles away . He describes comets , noting that only Aristotle has recorded seeing more than one at once .
Book II continues with natural meteorological events lower in the sky , including the winds , weather , whirlwinds , lightning , and rainbows . He returns to astronomical facts such as the effect of longitude on time of sunrise and sunset , the variation of the sun 's elevation with latitude ( affecting timetelling by sundials ) , and the variation of day length with latitude .
= = = Geography = = =
In Books III to VI , Pliny moves to the Earth itself . In Book III he covers the geography of Spain and Italy ; Book IV covers Europe including Britain ; Book V looks at Africa and Asia , while Book VI looks eastwards to the Black Sea , India and the Far East .
= = = Anthropology = = =
Book VII discusses the human race , covering anthropology and ethnography , aspects of human physiology and assorted matters such as the greatness of Julius Caesar , outstanding people such as Hippocrates and Asclepiades , happiness and fortune .
= = = Zoology = = =
Zoology is discussed in Books VIII to XI . The encyclopedia mentions different sources of purple dye , particularly the murex snail , the highly prized source of Tyrian purple . It describes the elephant and hippopotamus in detail , as well as the value and origin of the pearl and the invention of fish farming and oyster farming . The keeping of aquariums was a popular pastime of the rich , and Pliny provides anecdotes of the problems of owners becoming too closely attached to their fish .
Pliny correctly identifies the origin of amber as the fossilised resin of pine trees . Evidence cited includes the fact that some samples exhibit encapsulated insects , a feature readily explained by the presence of a viscous resin . Pliny refers to the way in which it exerts a charge when rubbed , a property well known to Theophrastus . He devotes considerable space to bees , which he admires for their industry , organisation , and honey , discussing the significance of the queen bee and the use of smoke by beekeepers at the hive to collect honeycomb . He praises the song of the nightingale .
= = = Botany = = =
Botany is handled in Books XII to XVIII , with Theophrastus as one of Pliny 's sources . The manufacture of papyrus and the various grades of papyrus available to Romans are described . Different types of trees and the properties of their wood are explained in Books XII to XIII . The vine , viticulture and varieties of grape are discussed in Book XIV , while Book XV covers the olive tree in detail , followed by other trees including the apple and pear , fig , cherry , myrtle and laurel , among others .
Pliny gives special attention to spices , such as pepper , ginger , and cane sugar . He mentions different varieties of pepper , whose values are comparable with that of gold and silver , while sugar is noted only for its medicinal value .
He is critical of perfumes : " Perfumes are the most pointless of luxuries , for pearls and jewels are at least passed on to one 's heirs , and clothes last for a time , but perfumes lose their fragrance and perish as soon as they are used . " He gives a summary of their ingredients , such as attar of roses , which he says is the most widely used base . Other substances added include myrrh , cinnamon , and balsam gum .
= = = Drugs , medicine and magic = = =
A major section of the Natural History , Books XX to XXIX , discusses matters related to medicine , especially plants that yield useful drugs . Pliny lists over 900 drugs , compared to 600 in Dioscorides 's De Materia Medica , 550 in Theophrastus , and 650 in Galen . The poppy and opium are mentioned ; Pliny notes that opium induces sleep and can be fatal . Diseases and their treatment are covered in book XXVI .
Pliny addresses magic in Book XXX . He is critical of the Magi , attacking astrology , and suggesting that magic originated in medicine , creeping in by pretending to offer health . He names Zoroaster of Ancient Persia as the source of magical ideas . He states that Pythagoras , Empedocles , Democritus and Plato all travelled abroad to learn magic , remarking that it was surprising anyone accepted the doctrines they brought back , and that medicine ( of Hippocrates ) and magic ( of Democritus ) should have flourished simultaneously at the time of the Peloponnesian War .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The methods used to cultivate crops are described in Book XVIII . He praises Cato the Elder and his work De Agri Cultura , which he uses as a primary source . Pliny 's work includes discussion of all known cultivated crops and vegetables , as well as herbs and remedies derived from them . He describes machines used in cultivation and processing the crops . For example , he describes a simple mechanical reaper that cut the ears of wheat and barley without the straw and was pushed by oxen ( Book XVIII , chapter 72 ) . It is depicted on a bas @-@ relief found at Trier from the later Roman period . He also describes how grain is ground using a pestle , a hand @-@ mill , or a mill driven by water wheels , as found in Roman water mills across the Empire .
= = = Metallurgy = = =
Pliny extensively discusses metals starting with gold and silver ( Book XXXIII ) , and then the base metals copper , mercury , lead , tin and iron , as well as their many alloys such as electrum , bronze , pewter , and steel ( Book XXXIV ) .
He is critical of greed for gold , such as the absurdity of using the metal for coins in the early Republic . He gives examples of the way rulers proclaimed their prowess by exhibiting gold looted from their campaigns , such as that by Claudius after conquering Britain , and tells the stories of Midas and Croesus . He discusses why gold is unique in its malleability and ductility , far greater than any other metal . The examples given are its ability to be beaten into fine foil with just one ounce , producing 750 leaves four inches square . Fine gold wire can be woven into cloth , although imperial clothes usually combined it with natural fibres like wool . He once saw Agrippina the Younger , wife of Claudius , at a public show on the Fucine Lake involving a naval battle , wearing a military cloak made of gold . He rejects Herodotus 's claims of Indian gold obtained by ants or dug up by griffins in Scythia .
Silver , he writes , does not occur in native form and has to be mined , usually occurring with lead ores . Spain produced the most silver in his time , many of the mines having been started by Hannibal . One of the largest had galleries running up to two miles into the mountain , while men worked day and night draining the mine in shifts . Pliny is probably referring to the reverse overshot water @-@ wheels operated by treadmill and found in Roman mines . Britain , he says , is very rich in lead , which is found on the surface at many places , and thus very easy to extract ; production was so high that a law was passed attempting to restrict mining .
Fraud and forgery are described in detail ; in particular coin counterfeiting by mixing copper with silver , or even admixture with iron . Tests had been developed for counterfeit coins and proved very popular with the victims , mostly ordinary people . He deals with the liquid metal mercury , also found in silver mines . He records that it is toxic , and amalgamates with gold , so is used for refining and extracting that metal . He says mercury is used for gilding copper , while antimony is found in silver mines and is used as an eyebrow cosmetic .
The main ore of mercury is cinnabar , long used as a pigment by painters . He says that the colour is similar to scolecium , probably the kermes insect . The dust is very toxic , so workers handling the material wear face masks of bladder skin . Copper and bronze are , says Pliny , most famous for their use in statues including colossi , gigantic statues as tall as towers , the most famous being the Colossus of Rhodes . He personally saw the massive statue of Nero in Rome , which was removed after the emperor 's death . The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero 's death during Vespasian 's reign , to make it a statue of Sol . Hadrian moved it , with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants , to a position next to the Flavian Amphitheatre ( now called the Colosseum ) .
Pliny gives a special place to iron , distinguishing the hardness of steel from what is now called wrought iron , a softer grade . He is scathing about the use of iron in warfare .
= = = Mineralogy = = =
In the last two books of the work ( Books XXXVI and XXXVII ) , Pliny describes many different minerals and gemstones , building on works by Theophrastus and other authors . The topic concentrates on the most valuable gemstones , and he criticises the obsession with luxury products such as engraved gems and hardstone carvings . He provides a thorough discussion of the properties of fluorspar , noting that it is carved into vases and other decorative objects . The account of magnetism includes the myth of Magnes the shepherd .
Pliny moves into crystallography and mineralogy , describing the octahedral shape of the diamond and recording that diamond dust is used by gem engravers to cut and polish other gems , owing to its great hardness . He states that rock crystal is valuable for its transparency and hardness , and can be carved into vessels and implements . He relates the story of a woman who owned a ladle made of the mineral , paying the sum of 150 @,@ 000 sesterces for the item . Nero deliberately broke two crystal cups when he realised that he was about to be deposed , so denying their use to anyone else .
Pliny returns to the problem of fraud and the detection of false gems using several tests , including the scratch test , where counterfeit gems can be marked by a steel file , and genuine ones not . Perhaps it refers to glass imitations of jewellery gemstones . He refers to using one hard mineral to scratch another , presaging the Mohs hardness scale . Diamond sits at the top of the series because , Pliny says , it will scratch all other minerals .
= = = Art history = = =
Pliny 's chapters on Roman and Greek art are especially valuable because his work is virtually the only classical source of information on the subject .
In the history of art , the original Greek authorities are Duris of Samos , Xenocrates of Sicyon , and Antigonus of Carystus . The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris ( XXXIV : 61 ) ; the notices of the successive developments of art and the list of workers in bronze and painters to Xenocrates ; and a large amount of miscellaneous information to Antigonus . Both Xenocrates and Antigonus are named in connection with Parrhasius ( XXXV : 68 ) , while Antigonus is named in the indexes of XXXIII – XXXIV as a writer on the art of embossing metal , or working it in ornamental relief or intaglio .
Greek epigrams contribute their share in Pliny 's descriptions of pictures and statues . One of the minor authorities for books XXXIV – XXXV is Heliodorus of Athens , the author of a work on the monuments of Athens . In the indices to XXXIII – XXXVI , an important place is assigned to Pasiteles of Naples , the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of art ( XXXVI : 40 ) , probably incorporating the substance of the earlier Greek treatises ; but Pliny 's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by Kalkmann , who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of Apollodorus of Athens , as well as a current catalogue of artists . Pliny 's knowledge of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro , whom he often quotes ( e.g. XXXIV : 56 , XXXV : 173 , 156 , XXXVI : 17 , 39 , 41 ) .
For a number of items relating to works of art near the coast of Asia Minor and in the adjacent islands , Pliny was indebted to the general , statesman , orator and historian Gaius Licinius Mucianus , who died before 77 . Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian in the Temple of Peace and in his other galleries ( XXXIV : 84 ) , but much of his information about the position of such works in Rome is from books , not personal observation . The main merit of his account of ancient art , the only classical work of its kind , is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost textbooks of Xenocrates and on the biographies of Duris and Antigonus .
In several passages , he gives proof of independent observation ( XXXIV : 38 , 46 , 63 , XXXV : 17 , 20 , 116 seq . ) . He prefers the marble Laocoön and his Sons in the palace of Titus ( widely believed to be the statue that is now in the Vatican ) to all the pictures and bronzes in the world ( XXXVI : 37 ) . The statue is attributed by Pliny to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes : Agesander , Athenodoros ( possibly son of Agesander ) and Polydorus .
In the temple near the Flaminian Circus , Pliny admires the Ares and the Aphrodite of Scopas , " which would suffice to give renown to any other spot " . He adds :
At Rome indeed the works of art are legion ; besides , one effaces another from the memory and , however beautiful they may be , we are distracted by the overpowering claims of duty and business ; for to admire art we need leisure and profound stillness ( XXXVI : 26 – 72 ) .
= = = Mining = = =
Pliny provides lucid descriptions of Roman mining . He describes gold mining in detail , with large @-@ scale use of water to scour alluvial gold deposits . The description probably refers to mining in Northern Spain , especially at the large Las Médulas site . Pliny describes methods of underground mining , including the use of fire @-@ setting to attack the gold @-@ bearing rock and so extract the ore . In another part of his work , Pliny describes the use of undermining to gain access to the veins . Pliny was scathing about the search for precious metals and gemstones : " Gangadia or quartzite is considered the hardest of all things – except for the greed for gold , which is even more stubborn . "
Book XXXIV covers the base metals , their uses and their extraction . Copper mining is mentioned , using a variety of ores including copper pyrites and marcasite , some of the mining being underground , some on the surface . Iron mining is covered , followed by lead and tin .
= = Reception = =
The anonymous fourth @-@ century compilation Medicina Plinii contains more than 1 @,@ 100 pharmacological recipes , the vast majority of them from the Historia naturalis ; perhaps because Pliny 's name was attached to it , it enjoyed huge popularity in the Middle Ages .
Isidore of Seville 's Etymologiae ( The Etymologies , c . 600 – 625 ) quotes from Pliny 45 times in Book XII alone ; Books XII , XIII and XIV are all based largely on the Natural History .
Niccolò Leoniceno 's 1509 De Erroribus Plinii ( " On Pliny 's Errors " ) attacked Pliny for lacking a proper scientific method , unlike Theophrastus or Dioscorides , and for lacking knowledge of philosophy or medicine .
Sir Thomas Browne expressed scepticism about Pliny 's dependability in his 1646 Pseudodoxia Epidemica :
Now what is very strange , there is scarce a popular error passant in our days , which is not either directly expressed , or diductively contained in this Work ; which being in the hands of most men , hath proved a powerful occasion of their propagation . Wherein notwithstanding the credulity of the Reader is more condemnable then the curiosity of the Author : for commonly he nameth the Authors from whom he received those accounts , and writes but as he reads , as in his Preface to Vespasian he acknowledgeth .
Grundy Steiner of Northwestern University , in a 1955 judgement considered by Thomas R. Laehn to represent the collective opinion of Pliny 's critics , wrote of Pliny that " He was not an original , creative thinker , nor a pioneer of research to be compared either with Aristotle and Theophrastus or with any of the great moderns . He was , rather , the compiler of a secondary sourcebook . "
The Italian author Italo Calvino , in his 1991 book Why Read the Classics ? , wrote that while people often consult Pliny 's Natural History for facts and curiosities , he is an author who " deserves an extended read , for the measured movement of his prose , which is enlivened by his admiration for everything that exists and his respect for the infinite diversity of all phenomena " . Calvino notes that while Pliny is eclectic , he was not uncritical , though his evaluations of sources are inconsistent and unpredictable . Further , Calvino compares Pliny to Immanuel Kant , in that God is prevented by logic from conflicting with reason , even though ( in Calvino 's view ) Pliny makes a pantheistic identification of God as being immanent in nature . As for destiny , Calvino writes that
it is impossible to force that variable which is destiny into the natural history of man : this is the sense of the pages that Pliny devotes to the vicissitudes of fortune , to the unpredictability of the length of any life , to the pointlessness of astrology , to disease and death . "
The art historian Jacob Isager writes in the introduction to his analysis of Pliny 's chapters on art in the Natural History that his intention is " to show how Pliny in his encyclopedic work – which is the result of adaptations from many earlier writers and according to Pliny himself was intended as a reference work – nevertheless throughout expresses a basic attitude to Man and his relationship with Nature ; how he understands Man 's role as an inventor ( ' scientist and artist ' ) ; and finally his attitude to the use and abuse of Nature 's and Man 's creations , to progress and decay . " More specifically , Isager writes that " the guiding principle in Pliny 's treatment of Greek and Roman art is the function of art in society " , while Pliny " uses his art history to express opinions about the ideology of the state " .
Paula Findlen , writing in the Cambridge History of Science , asserts that " Natural history was an ancient form of scientific knowledge , most closely associated with the writings of the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder ... His loquacious and witty Historia naturalis offered an expansive definition of this subject . [ It ] broadly described all entities found in nature , or derived from nature , that could be seen in the Roman world and read about in its books : art , artifacts , and peoples as well as animals , plants , and minerals were included in his project . " Findlen contrasts Pliny 's approach with that of his intellectual predecessors Aristotle and Theophrastus , who sought general causes of natural phenomena , while Pliny was more interested in cataloguing natural wonders , and his contemporary Dioscorides explored nature for its uses in Roman medicine in his great work De Materia Medica .
In the view of Mary Beagon , writing in The Classical Tradition in 2010 , " the Historia naturalis has regained its status to a greater extent than at any time since the advent of Humanism . Work by those with scientific as well as philological expertise has resulted in improvements both to Pliny 's text and to his reputation as a scientist . The essential coherence of his enterprise has also been rediscovered , and his ambitious portrayal , in all its manifestations , of ' nature , that is , life ' .. is recognized as a unique cultural record of its time . "
= = = Text = = =
Latin
Complete Latin text at LacusCurtius
Complete Latin text with translation tools at Perseus Digital Library
version printed in Venice by Johannes de Spira before 18 September 1469 . Copy owned by the Earls of Pembroke , now held by Corning Museum of Glass .
English
First English translation , by Philemon Holland , 1601
Second English translation , by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley , 1855 ; complete , with index
The Natural History public domain audiobook at LibriVox
10 volume Harvard / Heinemann edition of 1949 – 1954 , translated by H. Rackham , W.H.S. Jones and D.E. Eichholz
= = = Secondary material = = =
Article on Pliny by Jona Lendering , with detailed table of contents of the Natural History
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica : Pliny the Elder
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= HMS Foxhound ( H69 ) =
HMS Foxhound was one of nine F @-@ class destroyers built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . Although she was assigned to the Home Fleet , the ship was detached as part of the Mediterranean Fleet to enforce the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . Several weeks after the start of the Second World War in September 1939 , Foxhound helped to sink a German submarine and participated in the Second Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 . The ship was sent to Gibraltar in mid @-@ 1940 and formed part of Force H where she participated in the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . Foxhound escorted the aircraft carriers of Force H as they flew off aircraft for Malta and covered convoys resupplying and reinforcing the island until late 1941 . During this time the ship helped to sink another German submarine .
In December , she was briefly transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet where she escorted several convoys to Malta from the Eastern Mediterranean . Foxhound was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in early 1942 and was then assigned to convoy escort duties off South Africa and then in West Africa until mid @-@ 1943 when she was converted into an escort destroyer . When the conversion was completed in early 1944 , the ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and renamed HMCS Qu 'Appelle . She was assigned escort duties in the Western Approaches for several months before the ship was transferred to the English Channel to protect convoys during the Normandy landings . Qu 'Appelle engaged German surface ships several times before she was sent to Iceland for more convoy escort work in October . The ship received a lengthy refit in Canada at the end of the year that was not completed until mid @-@ 1945 . Qu 'Appelle then ferried Canadian troops back to Canada for several months before she became a training ship . She was placed in reserve in mid @-@ 1946 and was sold for scrap at the end of 1947 .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E @-@ class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Foxhound barely exceeded her designed speed during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' in sequence from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the Second World War began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
By October 1940 , Foxhound had her rear torpedo tube mount replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . While the ship was under repair in late 1941 , her existing director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge was replaced by a new director with a Type 285 gunnery radar mounted on its roof . These fed target data to the new Fuze @-@ Keeping Clock , an analogue fire @-@ control system that calculated the gunnery information for the guns . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder at the top of her foremast . Her short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge , a pair on the enlarged searchlight platform and , probably , another pair were added on the quarterdeck .
When she was converted into an escort destroyer in late 1943 , ' B ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and stowage was increased for a total of 70 depth charges which meant that ' Y ' gun and the 12 @-@ pounder AA gun had to be removed to compensate for the weight . A Type 271 target @-@ indication radar replaced the director . It is likely that the Vickers guns were replaced by the Oerlikons from the quarterdeck at this time .
= = Construction and career = =
Foxhound , the seventh ship of that name in the Royal Navy , was laid down by John Brown & Company at their Clydebank shipyard on 15 August 1933 . She was launched on 12 October 1934 and completed on 21 June 1935 . The ship cost 247 @,@ 234 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Foxhound was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , but often detached to the Mediterranean Fleet to enforce the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Between November 1936 and 13 February 1937 , the ship was based in Gibraltar except for a brief refit at Sheerness Dockyard in January . She patrolled the Spanish ports on the Bay of Biscay in May – June and August – October before returning home for a refit at Chatham Dockyard from 27 October to 30 December . Foxhound then returned to the Mediterranean to patrol the area between Gibraltar and Oran , French Algeria from January to March 1938 . On 22 September , the ship collided with the submarine Seahorse , damaging one of her propellers . She was repaired at Sheerness from 10 November to 12 December . Foxhound remained in home waters for the rest of 1938 – 39 . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the start of World War II .
In September 1939 , Foxhound was assigned to the Home Fleet and based at Scapa Flow . In the first month of hostilities she was part of an anti @-@ submarine hunting group centred on the aircraft carrier Ark Royal . On 14 September , the carrier was unsuccessfully attacked by the German submarine U @-@ 39 . Foxhound , in company with her sisters Faulknor and Firedrake , counter @-@ attacked and sank U @-@ 39 north @-@ west of Ireland . In February 1940 , she was one of the escorts for Convoy TC 3 carrying troops from Canada to the UK . Later that month the ship rescued the survivors of the torpedoed freighter SS Orania on 11 February .
During the Second Battle of Narvik , Foxhound and the destroyers Icarus and Hero streamed their TSDS minesweeping gear in advance of the battleship Warspite and her escort as they steamed up the Vestfjord to engage the remaining German destroyers on 13 April . The ship and four other British destroyers pursued the remaining German ships into the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where the lack of ammunition had forced the German ships to retreat . During the battle , Foxhound rescued two officers and nine ratings from the destroyer Z12 Erich Giese . During May , she escorted troop convoys to Iceland as they occupied the island . In early June , the ship was escorting the battlecruiser Repulse and two cruisers as they searched for illusory German commerce raiders off Iceland ; they were recalled to Norwegian waters on 9 June after the Germans launched Operation Juno , an attack on the Allied convoys evacuating Norway , but the Germans had already returned to base by the time the ships arrived . Later , Foxhound escorted Ark Royal and the battlecruiser Hood , together with her sisters Faulknor and Fearless and the destroyer Escapade , from Scapa Flow to Gibraltar where they would form Force H.
= = = Force H , 1940 – 41 = = =
On the morning of 3 July , she ferried Captain Cedric Holland , the emissary of Admiral James Somerville , commander of Force H , to meet with Admiral Marcel @-@ Bruno Gensoul , commander of the Vichy French forces at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , Algeria . Holland was to deliver an ultimatum regarding the disposition of the French ships there to ensure that they could not fall into the hands of the Germans . Gensoul initially refused to meet with such a low @-@ ranking envoy , but later relented and negotiations were underway that afternoon to disarm the French ships in place when the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , ordered the talks terminated to forestall the impending arrival of French reinforcements . The British opened fire a half @-@ hour later , including Foxhound . A month later the ship escorted Force H during Operation Hurry , a mission to fly off fighter aircraft for Malta and conduct an airstrike on Cagliari on 2 August . Shortly afterwards , she escorted Hood back home and began a refit at Sheerness that lasted until October .
Foxhound then returned to Gibraltar and escorted the aircraft carriers Argus and Ark Royal during Operations Coat and White in November . In between sorties into the Mediterranean , the ship escorted convoys between Gibraltar and West Africa . In early January 1941 , she was involved in Operation Excess . On 31 January , Force H , including Foxhound , departed Gibraltar to carry out Operation Picket , an unsuccessful night torpedo attack by eight of Ark Royal 's Fairey Swordfish on the Tirso Dam in Sardinia . The British ships returned to Gibraltar on 4 February and began preparing for Operation Grog , a naval bombardment of Genoa , that was successfully carried out five days later . On 7 April , Foxhound was escorting Convoy WS 7 off the coast of Sierra Leone , West Africa , when she rescued three seamen . They were survivors from the cargo liner Umona , which had been sunk a week earlier . In mid @-@ May , she participated in Operation Splice , another mission in which the carriers Ark Royal and Furious flew off fighters for Malta .
Force H was ordered to join the escort of Convoy WS 8B in the North Atlantic on 24 May , a day after the Battle of the Denmark Strait , but they were directed to search for the German battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen on the 25th . Heavy seas increased fuel consumption for all of the escorts and Foxhound was forced to return to Gibraltar to refuel later that day before rejoining the capital ships of Force H on the 29th , after Bismarck had been tracked down and sunk . The destroyer screened another flying @-@ off mission to Malta on 14 June ; two days later , after German blockade runners reached France , Force H sortied into the Atlantic on a failed search for more blockade runners . Together with her sisters Faulknor , Fearless , Forester and Foresight , Foxhound helped to sink the German submarine U @-@ 138 on 18 June . Four days later , the 8th DF was tasked to intercept a German supply ship spotted heading towards the French coast . The next day they intercepted MS Alstertor which was scuttled by her crew upon the approach of the British ships . They rescued 78 British POWs taken from ships sunk by German raiders and the crew . In late June , Foxhound screened Ark Royal and Furious as they flew off more fighters for Malta in Operation Railway .
During Operation Substance , Firedrake and Foxhound were each leading a column of the convoy , streaming their TSDS minesweeps , through the Sicilian Narrows on 23 July when an Italian bomb near missed Firedrake and disabled her so that she had to be towed back to Gibraltar . The bulk of the convoy reached Malta the next day before the escorts rejoined Force H. A week later she screened the capital ships of Force H as they covered another Malta convoy ( Operation Style ) . Foxhound returned to the UK in August for a refit that lasted until November . The ship was briefly assigned to Escort Group EG.3 in the North Atlantic for convoy escort duties later that month until she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in late December .
= = = 1942 – 46 = = =
Foxhound screened the light cruisers of Force B and the freighter Glengyle of Convoy MF 2 from Alexandria , Egypt , to Malta in early January 1942 . A week later , she escorted the cruisers covering Convoy MF 3 to Malta and was detached to escort the freighter MV Thermopylae to Benghazi , Libya , after she developed engine trouble on 18 January . En route the freighter was sunk by German aircraft and Foxhound arrived back at Alexandria on 20 January . By 29 March , the ship had been transferred to the Eastern Fleet and was assigned to the fast ships of Force A as Somerville organised his forces in anticipation of the Japanese invasion of the Indian Ocean . Shortly afterwards she was transferred to South Africa and the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla to escort convoys . Foxhound was then transferred to 4th Destroyer Flotilla at Freetown , Sierra Leone , in May – July 1943 .
Foxhound was converted to an escort destroyer from August 1943 and she was transferred to Canada on completion on 8 February 1944 . The ship was commissioned into the Royal Canadian Navy that same day as HMCS Qu 'Appelle . After working up at the Anti @-@ Submarine Training School at Tobermory on the Isle of Mull , she was assigned to the Western Approaches Command . Initially Qu 'Appelle was a part of the 6th Escort Group based at Londonderry Port , but she was transferred to the 12th Escort Group in May where she later patrolled the western entrance to the English Channel after the Normandy landings to protect shipping from German attacks .
Together with the destroyers Saskatchewan , Skeena , and Restigouche , Qu 'Appelle attacked three German patrol boats off Brest on the night of 5 – 6 July , with the German patrol boat V715 being sunk and Qu 'Appelle lightly damaged . On 11 August , the ship , Restigouche , Skeena and the destroyer Assiniboine intercepted a small convoy south of Brest . While they sank two naval trawlers , Qu 'Appelle was accidentally rammed by Skeena during the engagement and was under repair until 5 September . The following month she joined the 11th Escort Group for patrols off Iceland until the end of November . The ship arrived at Halifax on 29 November to begin a refit at Pictou , Nova Scotia , that lasted from 5 December to 30 June 1945 .
Qu 'Appelle made four trips to the UK to ferry Canadian troops back to Canada by 25 September . The ship then became a stationary training ship for the Torpedo School at Halifax . She was placed in reserve on 27 May 1946 and then sold to German and Milne for scrap in December 1947 .
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= Like Father , Like Clown =
" Like Father , Like Clown " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 24 , 1991 . In the episode , after recalling a traumatic memory , Krusty the Clown reveals to the Simpson family that he is of Jewish heritage , and that his father , Rabbi Hyman Krustofski , disowned him for pursuing a career in comedy . Krusty is emotionally upset and Bart and Lisa decide to try to reunite Krusty with his long @-@ estranged father .
" Like Father , Like Clown " was written by the duo of Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky . Krusty 's religion had not been part of the original concept of the character , so Kogen and Wolodarsky decided to parody the 1927 film The Jazz Singer and establish that Krusty is Jewish . The episode was carefully researched and two rabbis , Lavi Meier and Harold M. Schulweis , were credited as " special technical consultants " . It was directed by Jeffrey Lynch and Brad Bird ; as it was Lynch 's first credit as a director , Bird was assigned to help him . Comedian Jackie Mason , who had once been an ordained rabbi , provided the voice of Rabbi Krustofski . The rabbi later became an infrequently recurring character voiced by Dan Castellaneta . Mason returned to voice the character in several later episodes .
In its original broadcast , " Like Father , Like Clown " finished 34th in ratings with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . Jackie Mason won a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for his performance as Rabbi Krustofski .
= = Plot = =
Although Krusty the Clown agrees to have dinner with the Simpson family as part of his repayment for Bart 's help in exonerating him in the episode " Krusty Gets Busted " , Krusty keeps canceling , much to Bart 's disappointment . An upset Bart writes a letter to Krusty saying he is no longer his fan . Krusty 's secretary is so moved by the letter that she angrily threatens to quit if Krusty does not keep his promise to Bart , finally persuading him to do so . Upon learning that Krusty is coming to the Simpson house for dinner , Milhouse comes along , to which Bart reluctantly allows . When asked to say grace , Krusty recites a Hebrew blessing . Realizing that Krusty is Jewish , Lisa speaks of his heritage , making Krusty break down in tears . After some convincing from the family to why he 's so depressed about it , Krusty tells the family his real name , Herschel Krustofski , and describes his upbringing in the Lower East Side of Springfield .
His father , Hyman Krustofski , was a rabbi and strongly opposed young Herschel 's wish to become a comedian ; he wanted the boy to go to yeshiva instead . Krusty did attend the school , where he said he made the other students laugh by doing funny impressions of his father . As a result , Krusty became a slapstick comedian behind his father 's back . One night , Krusty performed at a rabbi 's convention and a rabbi squirted seltzer on him , washing off his clown makeup . Rabbi Krustofski , who was in the audience , recognized him , was furious and disowned his son , and now it has been 25 years since they have seen or spoken to each other .
In the weeks following this admission , Krusty thinks about his father and becomes depressed , breaking down on live television after watching a father @-@ son related Itchy and Scratchy cartoon . Bart and Lisa decide to help reunite father and son , but the rabbi still refuses to accept Krusty 's career choice , explaining that Krusty " turned his back on their traditions , on their faith , and on him " . They decide to try to outsmart the rabbi , and Lisa does research and finds Judaic teachings that urge forgiveness , but Rabbi Krustofski has responses for each of them out of stubbornness . In a last @-@ ditch effort , Bart convinces the rabbi to realize his stubborn ways with a quote from Sammy Davis , Jr . , a Jewish entertainer just like Krusty , in which the entertainer makes a passionate speech about the struggles that the Jewish people have overcome . This quote finally convinces Rabbi Krustofski that entertainers have a place in Jewish heritage . A deeply depressed Krusty is glumly doing a live telecast of his show , when Rabbi Krustofski appears . The two joyously hug and reconcile in front of the audience of children , with Rabbi Krustofsky accepting a cream pie from Bart and throwing it in his son 's face .
= = Production = =
" Like Father , Like Clown " was written by the duo of Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky . Krusty 's religion had not been part of the original concept of the character , so Kogen and Wolodarsky decided to parody The Jazz Singer and establish that Krusty is Jewish . They pitched the idea to co @-@ executive producer Sam Simon , who rejected it , but it was approved by James L. Brooks . Krusty 's last name , Krustofski , was established in this episode as pitched by Al Jean . The portion of the episode where characters quote the Bible in support or opposition of clowning were carefully researched . Cited passages from the Bible include Exodus 20 : 12 and Joshua 1 : 8 . The quotations from the Talmud were also researched , and two rabbis , Lavi Meier and Harold M. Schulweis , were credited as " special technical consultants " . Schulweis was asked to take a look at a draft of the script . While not a fan of the show , he felt " it was profound " and added some corrections . He later commented , " I thought it had a Jewish resonance to it . I was impressed by the underlying moral seriousness . "
The episode was co @-@ directed by Jeffrey Lynch and Brad Bird . It was Lynch 's first credit as a director , so Bird was assigned to help him out and " usher [ Lynch ] into the world of directing things quickly " . Krusty is one of Bird 's favorite characters , and he always tries to animate a scene in every Krusty episode .
Rabbi Krustofski was voiced by Jackie Mason , who had once been an ordained rabbi , but had resigned to become a comedian . Mason recorded his lines in New York City , and Dan Castellaneta , voice of Krusty , went there to record with him . In the script , Bart and Lisa try to trick Rabbi Krustofski into meeting with Krusty by arranging a lunch date between him and Saul Bellow , the " Nobel Prize @-@ winning Jewish novelist " . Originally , this was intended to be Isaac Bashevis Singer , but the writers changed it when Singer died . Mason 's lines had to be re @-@ recorded in order to complete the change . Rabbi Krustofski became an infrequently recurring character , and his occasional speaking parts were voiced by Castellaneta . Mason later returned to voice the rabbi in " Today I Am a Clown " in the fifteenth season , " Once Upon a Time in Springfield " in the twenty @-@ first season , and " Clown in the Dumps " in the twenty @-@ sixth season , in which the character dies .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is an homage to the film The Jazz Singer , about a son with a strict religious upbringing who defies his father to become an entertainer . The film is mentioned when Rabbi Krustofski states , " Oh , if you were a musician or a jazz singer , this I could forgive ! " Lisa tells Homer that there are many Jewish entertainers , including Lauren Bacall , Dinah Shore , William Shatner and Mel Brooks , the latter of which shocks Homer . In Krusty 's flashback , he and his father walk down the street in a parody of a scene from The Godfather Part II . In the Simpsons house , Krusty plays The Concert for Bangladesh . In Krusty 's studio , there are pictures of him with Alfred Hitchcock and The Beatles . At the end of the episode , Krusty and his father sing " O Mein Papa " , a 1952 song originally by Eddie Fisher . Bart quotes a passage from Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s 1965 autobiography Yes , I Can . When Rabbi Krustofski reads the menu at a restaurant , the sandwiches are named after Jewish comedians including Joey Bishop , Jackie Mason ( the voice of Rabbi Krustofski ) and Krusty the Clown himself .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Like Father , Like Clown " finished 34th in ratings for the week of October 21 – 27 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . It was the highest rated program on Fox that week . Mason won a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for his performance as Rabbi Krustofski . He was one of six voice actors from The Simpsons to win the award in its inaugural year . He is one of three The Simpsons guest stars to win the award ; Marcia Wallace won in 1992 for voicing Edna Krabappel , and Kelsey Grammer won for voicing Sideshow Bob in 2006 .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called the episode , " a magnificent show , with Jackie Mason wonderfully over the top as Krusty 's long @-@ lost pa , and Lois Pennycandy giving Krusty a good talking to about Bart. " Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz of The Star @-@ Ledger listed " Like Father , Like Clown " as one of the ten episodes of The Simpsons that shows the " comic and emotional scope of the show . " They wrote , " Most Krusty the Klown episodes go heavy on celebrity cameos , while playing up the character 's misanthropic greed . This one gave him a heart , as Bart and Lisa try to reunite him with his estranged rabbi father ( voice of Jackie Mason ) , who has never forgiven his son for going into show biz . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that the episode " lacks a surfeit of guffaws , but it manages to be sweet and heartfelt without becoming sappy . It 's more of a charming show than a laughfest , but it does the job . "
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= Somerset Coalfield =
The Somerset Coalfield in northern Somerset , England is an area where coal was mined from the 15th century until 1973 . It is part of a larger coalfield which stretched into southern Gloucestershire . The Somerset coalfield stretched from Cromhall in the north to the Mendip Hills in the south , and from Bath in the east to Nailsea in the west , a total area of about 240 square miles ( 622 km2 ) . Most of the pits on the coalfield were concentrated in the Cam Brook , Wellow Brook and Nettlebridge Valleys and around Radstock and Farrington Gurney . The pits were grouped geographically , with clusters of pits close together working the same coal seams often under the same ownership . Many pits shared the trackways and tramways which connected them to the Somerset Coal Canal or railways for distribution .
The early pits were adits where coal outcropped or bell pits where coal was close to the surface . These methods were abandoned when deep seams were mined . The deepest shaft on the coalfield was at the Strap mine at Nettlebridge which reached 1 @,@ 838 feet ( 560 m ) . Flooding and coal dust explosions in some mines required improved ventilation and pumping engines . Several pits closed in the 19th century as the coal was worked out . Those that survived until 1947 became part of the National Coal Board , but the expense of improving equipment and working conditions meant that these became uneconomical and the last pit closed in 1973 . There is still evidence of the mine workings , with the remains of buildings , spoil heaps and tramways in the area .
= = Geology = =
= = = Structure = = =
The Somerset Coalfield covers a total area of about 240 square miles ( 622 km2 ) . It consists of three synclines , informally referred to as ' coal basins ' . The Pensford Syncline in the north and the Radstock Syncline in the south are separated by the east @-@ west trending Farmborough Fault Belt . Further to the west is the smaller Nailsea Syncline . The Radstock Syncline in particular is cut by a series of east @-@ west thrust faults and north @-@ south trending normal faults .
= = = Stratigraphy = = =
The Coal Measures are divided into a Lower , Middle and Upper with coal seams found within each of these divisions . Lower and Middle Coal Measures are found at depths between 500 and 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 152 @-@ 1 @,@ 525 m ) . Together the Lower and Middle Coal Measures are 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 610 – 762 m ) thick with the Middle Coal Measures averaging about 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 488 m ) and the Lower Coal Measures about 600 feet ( 183 m ) .
Only in the southern part of the Radstock Syncline have coals of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures been worked , mainly at the Newbury and Vobster collieries in the southeast and in the New Rock and Moorewood pits to the southwest . Only in the eastern part of Pensford Syncline have coals of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures been worked , at the Globe Pit in the Newton St Loe area in the 19th century . The Variscan orogeny involved lateral compression of the rock sequence resulting in the tight folding , fracturing and faulting of the sandstone and mudstone strata , and the associated Coal Measures . Along the Radstock Slide Fault the distance between the broken ends of a coal seam can be as much as 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 457 m ) . The complex geology and thin seams gained the field notoriety and three underground explosions , in 1893 , 1895 and 1908 were amongst the first attributable solely to airborne coal dust .
= = = William Smith = = =
Exploratory surveys of the local geology were carried out by William Smith , who became known as the " father of English geology " , building on work by John Strachey . Smith worked for the Stracheys who owned Sutton Court , at one of their older mines , the Mearns Pit at High Littleton . As he observed the rock strata at the pit , he realised that they were arranged in a predictable pattern that the various strata could always be found in the same relative positions and each particular stratum could be identified by the fossils it contained and the same succession of fossil groups from older to younger rocks could be found in other parts of England . Smith noticed an easterly dip in the beds of rock- small near the surface ( about three degrees ) then greater after the Triassic rocks which led to him a testable hypothesis , which he termed the principle of faunal succession , and he began to determine if the relationships between the strata and their characteristics were consistent throughout the country . During work as a surveyor ( appointed by engineer John Rennie ) for the Somerset Coal Canal Company and subsequently , he mapped the locations of rock strata , and their vertical extent , and drew cross @-@ sections and tables of what he saw and earned the name " Strata Smith " .
= = = Coal seams = = =
The following coal seams are recognised within the coalfield . They are listed stratigraphically i.e. uppermost / youngest first . Note that not all seams are continuous across the coalfield and that correlation of some seams from one basin to another is uncertain .
= = History = =
It is believed that coal was mined in the area during Roman times and there is documentary evidence of coal being dug on the Mendips in 1305 and at Kilmersdon in 1437 . By the time of Henry VIII there were coal pits at Clutton , High Littleton and Stratton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Fosse .
During the early 17th century coal was largely obtained by excavating the outcrops and driving drifts which followed the seam into the ground . Only small amounts of coal could be obtained by these methods and bell pits were also dug . These were vertical pits , with a 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) diameter shaft up to 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) deep , which were opened out at the bottom . When all the coal that could safely be extracted from the pit had been recovered , another pit was sunk close by to intersect the seam and the waste from the second pit thrown into the first .
At the beginning of the 19th century there were about 4000 people employed on the coalfield . The Somerset Miners ' Association was founded in 1872 , later becoming an area of the National Union of Mineworkers .
The uses of coal were varied . Coal was used in limekilns to produce lime for mortar used in building and by farmers to improve the soil . From 1820 coal was used to produce gas for lighting and to power steam driven woollen mills in the area . Coke was used to dry malt for the brewing industry .
= = = Transport = = =
The coalfield had a relatively low population density and did not have a major coal @-@ consuming industry nearby . Transporting coal to market was a key problem for the coalfield 's development . In the pre @-@ turnpike era , the roads serving the coalfield were unsuited to moving coal . Bulley notes " The problem ... was rendered far worse by the state of the roads in Somerset , which were notorious down to the middle of the 18th century . Parishes in the area sometimes neglected or refused to repair those roads which were heavily used by coal carts . Thus in 1617 the inhabitants of Stoke St Michael ... complained that " of late by reason of many coalmines ... the highways there are much in decay and grown very founderous " .
In Somerset , turnpike roads began in 1707 with the establishment of the Bath Trust , but turnpikes did not reach the coalfield until the mid @-@ 1700s . The Bristol Trust , which passed close to the western boundary of the coalfield , established in 1727 was of little importance , as Bristol was never a significant market , having its own coalfield . Turnpikes facilitated the movement of coal , and John Billingsley enthused " Nothing so much contributes to the improvement of a county as good roads . Before the establishment of turnpikes , many parts of the county were scarcely accessible . .... coal was carried on horses ' backs to the distance of fifteen or twenty miles from the colliery ; each horse carried about two hundred and half weight . Now one horse with a light cart will draw four hundred weight or four times more than a horse could carry . Can an insignificant toll be put in competition with this saving ? "
Not all roads were improved , and in 1819 John Skinner observed roads " rendered bad " by the passage of coal wagons . Expansion of production was limited by access to market . Such a need implied a canal project , following Lord Middleton 's dictum " Water transport is what all coal owners must aim at " . There were large gains from being connected to a canal system , as stated by the Coal Commission : " At about this period ( 1800 ) the system of coal navigation was being rapidly extended , and the result was that coals were gradually finding their way into districts that could not be reached unless at great cost , by road " .
A scheme for an extension of the Avon Navigation was proposed in 1766 , but canals did not reach the coalfield for almost another 50 years . In 1794 coal proprietors formed a committee to construct the Somerset Coal Canal with two branches into the Cam Brook and Wellow Brook Valleys , and from a junction at Midford , to join the proposed Kennet and Avon Canal at the Dundas Aqueduct near Bath . Coal was transported by the Somerset Coal Canal and later by the Bristol and North Somerset Railway and Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway , which were accessed from the pits by a series of tramways . After 1854 , when the first railway line was opened , the tonnage carried by the coal canal declined rapidly .
= = = Decline and closure = = =
The total tonnage of coal produced by the coalfield increased throughout the 19th century , reaching a peak around 1901 , when there were 79 separate collieries and production was 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 tons per annum . The peak years for production were 1900 to 1920 . However decline took hold and the number of pits reduced from 30 at the beginning of the 20th century to 14 by the mid @-@ 1930s , 12 at nationalisation when the National Coal Board was created on 1 January 1947 , under the Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946 , 5 in 1959 and none after 1973 . Despite some investment in new infrastructure , particularly at Norton Hill , thin seams made production expensive , limiting profit and investment . The conversion of Portishead power station from coal to oil and reduced national demand together with competition from more economical coalfields led to the closure of the last two pits , Kilmersdon and Writhlington , in September 1973 .
= = = Area today = = =
Although there are still the remains of mines , disused or redeveloped buildings and a few spoil tips , most have been removed or landscaped , the area has returned to a largely rural nature between the Mendip Hills and the River Avon in north east Somerset . The towns and villages have some light industry but are often commuter towns for Bath and Bristol . There are several limestone quarries particularly in the Mendips .
The Colliers Way ( NCR24 ) national cycle route passes landmarks associated with the coalfield , and other roads and footpaths follow tramways developed during the coal mining years . The cycleway runs from Dundas Aqueduct to Frome via Radstock , and is intended to provide part of a continuous cycle route to Southampton and Portsmouth .
Radstock Museum has exhibits which offer an insight into life in north Somerset since the 19th century . Exhibits relate to the coalfield and its geology . Artefacts and memorabilia from the Somerset Coal Canal , Somerset and Dorset and Great Western Railways are also on display .
= = Pensford coal basin = =
The Pensford coal basin is in the northern part of the coalfield around Bishop Sutton , Pensford , Stanton Drew , Farmborough and Hunstrete . At least one pit was operating near Bishop Sutton before 1719 . Four bell pits in Bishop Sutton were marked on field tithe No 1409 , and four shaft pits on field tithe No 1428 , but were no longer working by 1824 .
The Old Pit at Bishop Sutton , which was also known as Sutton Top Pit or Upper Sutton Pit was dug before 1799 and owned by Lieutenant Henry Fisher , who sold it in 1821 to Robert Blinman Dowling . After Dowling 's death in 1852 the Old Pit was sold to Mr T.T. Hawkes , but he defaulted on the payments and it was sold in 1853 to William Rees @-@ Mogg ( ancestor of William Rees @-@ Mogg ) and his associates . The shaft reached a depth of 304 feet ( 93 m ) , but the pit went out of production by 1855 , when " New Pit " , which had been sunk in the early 19th century but then closed , was reopened and deepened to exploit deeper seams . New Pit had two shafts of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) diameter , one for winding and one for pumping . In 1896 it was owned by F. Spencer of New Rock Colliery , and in 1908 by Jesse Lovell and Sons . By 1921 the pit employed 150 men and boys and produced 10 @,@ 000 tins per annum . The pit finally closed in 1929 .
Pensford Colliery , which opened in 1909 , had the latest equipment at the time including coal cutters . It had a red brick winding house , pithead baths and a coal washery . Faulting made coal production expensive and it closed in 1958 .
= = Earl of Warwick 's Clutton Collieries = =
The Earl of Warwick 's estates included sawmills , quarries , brickworks and collieries in addition to agricultural holdings . Bell pits , around Clutton and High Littleton , were described in a survey of 1610 . All were closed by 1836 . The first deep mine in the parish of High Littleton was Mearns Coalworks which began in 1783 . The Greyfield Coal Company did not start until 1833 and expanded after the opening of the Bristol and North Somerset Railway in 1847 . Greyfield Colliery closed in 1911 , and the railway in 1964 . Maynard Terrace in Clutton was built to house some of the miners .
= = Paulton Basin = =
Collieries in the Paulton basin were connected to the terminal basin of the northern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal which was the focus for tramroads that connected at least 15 collieries around Paulton , Timsbury and High Littleton . On the northern side of canal was the terminus for the tramroad which served Old Grove , Prior 's , Tyning and Hayeswood pits , with a branch line to Amesbury and Mearns pits . Parts of this line were still in use in 1873 , probably carrying horse @-@ drawn wagons of coal . The southern side of the canal basin was connected to the pits at Brittens , Littlebrook , Paulton Ham , Paulton Hill , Simons Hill by a tramway which terminated at Salisbury Colliery . In addition the Paulton Foundry used this line . The entire line was disused by 1871 as were the collieries it served .
The area has been designated as an ‘ area of special architectural or historic interest , the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance ’ under section 69 of the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 .
= = Timsbury and Camerton = =
The first of the collieries around Timsbury village was sunk in 1791 and known as Conygre ( Conigre in old spellings ) . Camerton Old Pit opened in 1781 and the shaft went down to 921 feet ( 281 m ) . It closed around circa 1898 but the shaft was then used as an airway and escape route for the New Pit , until 1930 when it was closed and capped . The New Pit was half a mile east of the Old Pit and went down to 1 @,@ 818 feet ( 554 m ) . In 1928 it was joined underground to Braysdown Colliery and eventually closed in 1950 .
There is very little landscape evidence remaining of the previous mining activities around Clutton , Temple Cloud , High Littleton and Timsbury . There are small batches at Clutton , east of Radford Hill and at Greyfields , High Littleton .
= = East of Camerton = =
East of Camerton the coal is buried beneath newer rock strata , which meant that mining in the area was more difficult .
The dominant features of the valleys of the Cam and Wellow Brooks are remnants of coal mining from the 18th @-@ 20th centuries . In both valleys there are frequent shafts and batches together with the remains of the railway and tram lines that connected the mines to the Avon Valley . Remains of the Somersetshire Coal Canal are also significant reminders of this coal mining history in this area .
= = Farrington Gurney = =
Mining around Farrington Gurney has been undertaken since the 17th century where , by 1780 the pits were known as Farrington Colliery .
The main geological feature south of Hallatrow consists of Supra @-@ Pennant Measures which include the upper coal measures and outcrops of sandstone . Relics of its industrial past are evident in the area , including the highly visible and distinct conical shaped Old Mills Batch with its generally unvegetated surface . The three disused colliery sites have been developed for light industry , a depot and a superstore .
= = Duchy Mines = =
The Duchy of Cornwall owned most of the mineral rights around Midsomer Norton and various small pits opened around 1750 to exploit these .
= = Earl Waldegrave 's Radstock Collieries = =
In 1763 coal was discovered in Radstock and mining began on land owned by the Waldegrave family , Lords of the Manor since the English Civil War . In 1896 the pits were owned by the Trustee of Frances , late Countess of Waldegrave .
Radstock was the terminus for the southern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal which was subsequently turned into a tramway and became the centre for railway development and coal depots , coal washeries , workshops and a gas works . As part of the development of the Wiltshire , Somerset and Weymouth Railway , an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) line from Radstock to Frome was built to carry coal . In the 1870s the broad @-@ gauge line was converted to standard gauge and connected to the Bristol and North Somerset Line connecting it to the Great Western Railway . The Radstock railway site comprises approximately 8 @.@ 8 hectares of land which has been subject to planning and development applications .
= = Writhlington Collieries = =
The Writhlington Collieries , close to the Waldegrave Collieries , were further east of Radstock and under different ownership . In 1896 they were owned by the Writhlington , Huish and Foxcote Colliery Co . , and in 1908 by the Writhlington Collieries Co . Ltd . The Upper and Lower Writhlington , Huish & Foxcote pits were merged into a single colliery .
The base of the Kilmersdon valley consists of alluvium deposits . Above these , on both sides of all of the valleys , is a band of shales and clays from the Penarth group from the Triassic period . Most of the upland in this area is Lias Limestone ( white and blue ) while the highest part , above 130 m , south of Haydon , is an outcrop of Inferior Oolitic Limestone , both are from the Jurassic period . The steepest slopes of both the Kilmersdon and Snail ’ s Bottom valleys have frequently slipped . Below these rocks are the coal bearing Carboniferous strata . Haydon is an outlying settlement of Radstock built to house miners from the local pit . The disused railway line and inclined railway at Haydon are important elements in the Kilmersdon valley east of Haydon . The modern landscape has a less maintained and ‘ rougher ’ character and texture than neighbouring agricultural areas caused mainly by the remnants of the coal industry and its infrastructure and changes in agricultural management . Disturbance caused by coal mining and the railways and the subsequent end of mining and abandonment of the railways has created valuable habitats for nature conservation .
The Writhlington spoil heap or " batch " is a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) because of the rich collection of fossils in the spoil . The Braysdown batch was planted with conifers , and is known as Braysdown Hill . The offices , blacksmith 's shop and stables at the Upper Writhlington Colliery were converted into dwellings .
= = Norton Hill Collieries = =
Norton Hill Collieries at Westfield were owned by members of the Beauchamp family such as Sir Frank Beauchamp and his brother Louis Beauchamp who owned other collieries and related works on the coalfield at various times . They were also known as the Beauchamp goldmines as they were the most productive mines in the whole coalfield .
In 1900 a railway linking the colliery to the main Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway was constructed , and sidings laid in 1905 and 1907 which were reconstructed in 1953 .
On 9 April 1908 an explosion approximately 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) underground killed 10 men and boys . As there were no mines rescue teams at that time , the manager and volunteers searched for survivors for 10 days . In 1911 , partly as a result of the Norton Hill explosion , Winston Churchill was instrumental in the passing of the Coal Mines Act 1911 .
After nationalisation after World War II the National Coal Board spent £ 500 @,@ 000 on modernising the mine 's infrastructure to give it the capability for annual production of 315 @,@ 000 tons , however manpower shortages and geological problems caused the pit to close in 1966 .
= = Nettlebridge Valley = =
There were numerous coal workings in the area from Gurney Slade east to Mells around the villages of Holcombe , Coleford and Stratton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Fosse . These included at least 52 bell pits , some with deeper shafts and 16 adits . Some coal may have been mined during Roman times and in the 13th century , making them the earliest coal mines in Somerset , but most development occurred in the 17th century . Most mining ended in the 19th century , however Strap Colliery was opened in 1953 as Mendip Colliery and worked until 1969 .
The Vobster Breach colliery had a unique system of long coking ovens which , along with the other buildings , have been designated as a Scheduled monument . The boiler chimney of Oxley 's Colliery near Buckland Dinham which operated for a few years in the 1880s is a Grade II listed building .
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= HMS Campania ( 1914 ) =
HMS Campania was a seaplane tender and aircraft carrier , converted from an elderly ocean liner by the Royal Navy early in the First World War . After her conversion was completed in mid @-@ 1915 the ship spent her time conducting trials and exercises with the Grand Fleet . These revealed the need for a longer flight deck to allow larger aircraft to take off , and she was modified accordingly . Campania missed the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , but made a number of patrols with elements of the Grand Fleet . She never saw combat and was soon relegated to a training role because of her elderly machinery . In November 1918 Campania was anchored with the capital ships of the Grand Fleet when a sudden storm caused her anchors to drag . She hit several of the ships and the collisions punctured her hull ; she slowly sank , with no loss of life .
= = Early career = =
Originally built as a passenger liner for Cunard Line 's service between Liverpool and New York in 1893 , RMS Campania was the holder of the Blue Riband award for speed early in her career . In October 1914 , she was sold to the shipbreakers T. W. Ward as she was wearing out .
= = Purchase and conversion = =
The Royal Navy purchased Campania from the shipbreakers on 27 November 1914 for £ 32 @,@ 500 , initially for conversion to an armed merchant cruiser equipped with eight quick @-@ firing 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) guns . The ship was converted by Cammell Laird to an aircraft carrier instead and the two forward 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns were deleted in favour of a 160 @-@ foot ( 48 @.@ 8 m ) flying @-@ off deck . Two derricks were fitted on each side to transfer seaplanes between the water and the two holds . The amidships hold had the capacity for seven large seaplanes . The forward hold , underneath the flight deck , could fit four small seaplanes , but the flight deck had to be lifted off the hold to access the airplanes . HMS Campania was commissioned on 17 April 1915 .
The first takeoff from the flight deck did not occur until 6 August 1915 when a Sopwith Schneider floatplane , mounted on a wheeled trolley , used 130 feet ( 39 @.@ 6 m ) of the flight deck while the ship was steaming into the wind at 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . The Sopwith aircraft was the lightest and highest @-@ powered aircraft in service with the Royal Naval Air Service , and the close call in a favourable wind demonstrated that heavier aircraft could not be launched from the flight deck .
By October 1915 Campania had exercised with the Grand Fleet seven times , but had only flown off aircraft three times as the North Sea was often too rough for her seaplanes to use . Her captain recommended that the flying @-@ off deck be lengthened and given a steeper slope to allow gravity to boost the aircraft 's acceleration and the ship was accordingly modified at Cammell Laird between November 1915 and early April 1916 . The forward funnel was split into two funnels and the flight deck was extended between them and over the bridge to a length of 245 feet ( 74 @.@ 7 m ) , so that aircraft from both holds could use the flight deck . A canvas windscreen was provided to allow the aircraft to unfold their wings out of the wind , and a kite balloon and all of its supporting equipment were added in the aft hold . Campania now carried seven Short Type 184 torpedo bombers and three or four smaller fighters or scouts ; a Type 184 made its first takeoff from the flight deck on 3 June 1916 , also using a wheeled trolley . This success prompted the Admiralty to order the world 's first aircraft designed for carrier operations , the Fairey Campania . The ship received the first of these aircraft in late 1917 where they joined smaller Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter scouts . At various times Campania also carried the Sopwith Baby and Sopwith Pup .
Campania failed to receive the signal to deploy when the Grand Fleet departed Scapa Flow on 30 May 1916 en route to the Battle of Jutland , but she sailed two hours and fifteen minutes later . Even though she was slowly overtaking the fleet early in the morning of 31 May , she was ordered to return to Scapa Flow as she lacked an escort and German submarines had been reported in the area . The ship participated in some anti @-@ submarine and anti @-@ Zeppelin patrols , but she was later declared unfit for fleet duty because of her defective machinery and became a seaplane training and balloon depot ship . In April 1918 Campania , along with the Grand Fleet , was transferred from Scapa Flow to Rosyth .
On the morning of 5 November 1918 , Campania was lying at anchor off Burntisland in the Firth of Forth . A sudden Force 10 squall caused the ship to drag anchor . She collided first with the bow of the nearby battleship Royal Oak , and then scraped along the side of the battlecruiser Glorious . Campania 's hull was breached by the initial collision with Royal Oak , flooding her engine room and shutting off all main electrical power . The ship then started to settle by the stern , and sank some five hours after breaking free . The ship 's crew were all rescued by neighbouring vessels . A Naval Board of Inquiry into the incident held Campania 's watch officer largely responsible for her loss , citing specifically the failure to drop a second anchor once the ship started to drift .
The wreck of HMS Campania was designated in 2001 under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 as a site of historic importance , making it an offence to dive it without a licence . The remains of the four Campania aircraft and seven 1 ½ Strutters that she had on board when she sank are still entombed in her wreck .
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= Red Tail Squadron =
The Red Tail Squadron , part of the non @-@ profit Commemorative Air Force ( CAF ) and until June 2011 , known as the Red Tail Project , maintains and flies a World War II era North American P @-@ 51C Mustang . The twice @-@ restored aircraft flies to create interest in the history and accomplishments of the members of the World War II @-@ era 332nd Fighter Group , also known as the Tuskegee Airmen , whose distinctive red markings on the tails of the P @-@ 51s they flew during that war , gave the organization its name .
The all African American 332d Fighter Group originally flew 15 @,@ 550 sorties as bomber escorts in the Mustang ; eventually the Airmen , who were originally shunned in the white military , acquired the right to fly combat missions . In 1970 , the Commemorative Air Force acquired an original P @-@ 51 to include in their educational program . In 1980 , Don Hinz took charge of the aircraft 's restoration , and developed the idea of the Red Tail Project , named for the distinctive red paint on the Airmen 's aircraft . Originally conceived as a restoration project , Red Tail evolved into an education program . Although the P @-@ 51 was restored , mechanical failure caused a crash and the death of the pilot , a retired U.S. Navy commander ; the Tuskegee Airmen endorsed and encouraged the aircraft 's second restoration , and the newly restored P @-@ 51C made its debut at AirVenture 2009 in Oshkosh , Wisconsin .
Since the 1990s , the Red Tail Squadron has raised over $ 2 million ( US ) for the aircraft 's two restorations , its ongoing maintenance and associated educational programs . The Mustang has been featured in two documentary films : Red Tail Reborn , and Flight of the Red Tail .
= = The Tuskegee Airmen = =
The Tuskegee Airmen / tʌsˈkiːɡiː / is the popular name of a group of African American pilots who fought in World War II as the 332nd Fighter Group of the US Army Air Corps . This was the first unit of African American military aviators in the United States armed forces . During World War II , in much of the United States , African Americans were still subjected to Jim Crow laws and the American military itself was racially segregated . Legal and social prejudice prevented the Airmen from flying combat missions . Despite their adversities , the Tuskegee Airmen flew with distinction : In 2007 , 350 Tuskegee Airmen and their widows received the Congressional Gold Medal , and the airfield where they trained has been designated as Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site . Although some sources claimed the Airmen had a perfect record in their 15 @,@ 000 missions as bomber escorts , recent research has revealed they lost 25 bombers .
= = Provenance = =
At the conclusion of World War II in 1945 , The United States Army sold off military surplus and for $ 1 ( $ 13 @.@ 1 today ) Montana State University in Bozeman , Montana bought a P @-@ 51C aircraft , which it parked on its campus in front of the engineering building . According to the Red Tail Reborn Internet Movie Database page , in a prank , drunken students taxied the aircraft around the campus in the late 1940s . Thereafter , the aircraft was secured to the ground with steel and concrete . Otherwise , the P @-@ 51C was essentially left alone in Montana , except for an occasional coat of silver paint . In 1965 , when the University wanted to add a parking lot , restorer Lloyd Creek bought it from the University for $ 1 , provided that he could remove it from the campus in 24 hours of notification in winning the bid . To move the P @-@ 51C promptly to Billings , Montana necessitated the removal of the wings , which were sawed off with a circular saw . When the aircraft arrived in Billings , the wings were reattached to the fuselage .
In 1970 , frustrated with restoration efforts , Creek donated the P @-@ 51C to the CAF , which disassembled the aircraft and shipped it to the organization 's home base in Texas . While awaiting restoration , the aircraft endured a hurricane described erroneously in the documentary as Hurricane Beulah , although that storm was an earlier , 1967 storm . Regardless , a hurricane exposed numerous parts of the aircraft to seawater damage . Several CAF volunteers attempted to rehab the aircraft in Minneapolis , Minnesota , Texas , Council Bluffs , Iowa , and finally in the late 1980s at the home of the Southern Minnesota wing of the CAF , which had just completed the restoration of the North American B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber , Miss Mitchell . After noting the P @-@ 51C was in need of restoration , Don Hinz channeled his energy and talents into the emerging Red Tail project . The aircraft is now one of only four existing P @-@ 51C Mustangs in existence . As one of the four flying Mustangs , it is worth $ 2 @.@ 5 million .
= = History = =
The Commemorative Air Force , which has approximately 9 @,@ 000 members and a fleet of 156 aircraft , is an educational association with the purpose to pay tribute to American military aviation through flight , exhibition and remembrance . It has been collecting , restoring and flying vintage historical aircraft for more than half a century . In the 1990s , the CAF 's Minnesota Wing began restoring a P @-@ 51 that many branches of the CAF organization had attempted to restore but found the task beyond their capabilities . The P @-@ 51C once served Capt. Andrew " Jug " Turner . Pilot Don Hinz , a retired United States Navy commander based at Fleming Field in South St. Paul , Minnesota , heard of the project and enlisted some experts as well as named the effort " The Red Tail Project " .
Originally , the restoration was attempted at Fleming Field . After soliciting the assistance of outside contractors from North Dakota , the aircraft was airborne in May 2001 . The P @-@ 51C , which was named " Tuskegee Airmen " , was included in numerous air shows to tell the history of the pilot group . From May 2001 to May 2004 , the aircraft flew before more than an estimated three million people . By 2004 , Hinz envisioned an educational program around the restored aircraft . In a May 2004 show in Red Wing , Minnesota the camshaft drive of the Rolls Royce Merlin engine failed . Although Hinz successfully landed the aircraft between two houses in a residential suburb , both wings were ripped off and the body was badly damaged . A tree damaged in the crash fell on Hinz , causing head trauma from which he did not recover .
The Tuskegee Airmen decided to restore the aircraft . The five @-@ year restoration occurred at Tri @-@ State Aviation in Wahpeton , North Dakota . In 2007 , Gerry Beck , one of the primary restorers , was in a fatal collision of his P @-@ 51A and a P @-@ 51D during AirVenture 2007 . Beck was the owner of Tri @-@ State Aviation , but about a half dozen other CAF volunteer aviation mechanics contributed to the effort to pick up where he left off . The rebuilding continued with the mounting of the engine in 2008 and the mating of the wing in 2009 . On July 22 , 2009 , four days before AirVenture 2009 in Oshkosh , Wisconsin , the P @-@ 51C had its first flight . Then , it was flown to Wisconsin for its public debut . After the show it returned to Minnesota with a 6 AT @-@ 6 escort . The aircraft has also served a tribute via military flyovers for fallen Tuskegee Airmen .
In 2011 , the volunteer @-@ driven organization changed its name from the " Red Tail Project " to the " CAF Red Tail Squadron " and also completed construction of the RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit as an additional tool to help tell the story of these pilots and their support personnel ( who are also known as Tuskegee Airmen ) . The Mustang and the RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit appear together at air shows , and the Traveling Exhibit also goes to schools and other youth @-@ oriented venues .
= = Documentary = =
After the 2004 crash , the restoration became the impetus for a nationwide fund raising effort and attracted the attention of Adam White , an independent film maker who was , at the time , filming a documentary on vintage aircraft restoration called The Restorers . He was attracted to both the aircraft and the cause , and his 2007 historical documentary , Red Tail Reborn won Emmy Award recognition in his home state of Ohio , where it was first broadcast in February 2007 , and , subsequently released on DVD in March of that year . Narrated by Michael Dorn of Star Trek fame , himself a pilot and warbird owner , the film documents the difficulties of the restoration of the P @-@ 51C and the travails of the Tuskegee Airmen . The following year PBS picked up the film in its Black History Month programming . White also completed a sequel , Flight of the Red Tail , a 12 @-@ minute film released in 2009 .
The restoration , completed in 2009 , cost $ 1 million . In 2005 , the Red Tail Project , which is not for profit , sought to raise about $ 2 million to fund the initial restoration . The organization held several types of events to raise funds . Since then , community @-@ based organizations adopted the project . For example , in Wahpeton , North Dakota , where the aircraft was restored , each August , the " Red Tail Run " is held . This motorcycle and vehicle run , which starts at the Harry Stern Airport , raises money for the project . In 2008 , the organization hired Fund Raising Strategies , a fund raising specialist firm , to develop a direct mail fund raising program .
= = The RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit = =
The Red Tail Project endavors to preserve the legacy of the airmen through aviation education . Going forward , the group made plans in 2009 , to add a mobile exhibition in the form of a semi @-@ trailer truck and a 53 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) semi @-@ trailer . The name of the educational traveling exhibition program is entitled " RISE ABOVE " . It is intended to precede the Red Tail Project P @-@ 51 exhibitions .
The " RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit " was introduced at EAA AirVenture 2011 . It consists of a 53 @-@ foot ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) long semi trailer and tractor . The trailer , which has colorful graphics on all four sides , has expandable sides and houses a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) long , curved IMAX movie screen plus comfortable seating for 30 guests ; it is also climate controlled . An original IMAX movie called RISE ABOVE , developed and filmed specifically for the Red Tail Squadron and the unique movie screen , is shown . The traveling exhibit goes to air shows with the Red Tail Project Mustang and spends 40 weeks per year at schools and places where young people congregate . The idea is to take the story of the Tuskegee Airmen , and how they overcame so many obstacles by setting goals and working to meet them , directly to the students who can benefit from hearing about the Airmen 's experiences . The RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit is sponsored by the Texas Flying Legends Museum .
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= Sága and Sökkvabekkr =
In Norse mythology , Sága ( Old Norse : [ saːɣa ] , possibly meaning " seeress " ) is a goddess associated with the wisdom Sökkvabekkr ( Old Norse : [ sɔkːwabekːr ] ; " sunken bank " , " sunken bench " , or " treasure bank " ) . At Sökkvabekkr , Sága and the god Odin merrily drink as cool waves flow . Both Sága and Sökkvabekkr are attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholars have proposed theories about the implications of the goddess and her associated location , including that the location may be connected to the goddess Frigg 's fen residence Fensalir and that Sága may be another name for Frigg .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of the name Sága is generally held to be connected to the Old Norse verb sjá , meaning " to see " ( from Proto @-@ Germanic * sehwan ) . This may mean that Sága is to be understood as a seeress . Since Frigg is referred to as a seeress in the poem Lokasenna , this etymology has led to theories connecting Sága to Frigg . Rudolf Simek says that this etymology raises vowel problems and that a link to saga and segja ( meaning " say , tell " ) is more likely , yet that this identification is also problematic .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , Sökkvabekkr is presented fourth among a series of stanzas describing the residences of various gods . In the poem , Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) tells the young Agnar that Odin and Sága happily drink there from golden cups while waves resound :
In the Poetic Edda poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , the hero Sinfjötli references Sága in the name of a location found in a stanza where Sinfjötli flyts with Guðmundr . The location name , nes Ságu , has been variously translated as " Saga 's Headland , " " Saga 's Cape , " and " Saga 's ness " Part of the stanza may be missing and , due to this , some editors have joined it with the stanza prior .
Sága is mentioned once in both the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál , while Sokkvabekk is only mentioned once , in Gylfaginning . In chapter 35 of Gylfaginning , High tells Gangleri ( described as king Gylfi in disguise ) about the ásynjur . High follows a description of Frigg and her dwelling Fensalir with " Second is Saga . She dwells in Sokkvabekk , and that is a big place . " In chapter 75 of the book Skáldskaparmál , Sága is present among a list of 27 ásynjur , but no information is provided about her there .
= = Theories = =
John Lindow says that due to similarity between Sökkvabekkr and Fensalir , " Odin 's open drinking with Sága " , and the potential etymological basis for Sága being a seeress has " led most scholars to understand Sága as another name for Frigg . " Stephan Grundy states that the words Sága and Sökkvabekkr may be by @-@ forms of Frigg and Fensalir , respectively , used for the purpose of composing alliterative verse .
Britt @-@ Mari Näsström theorizes that " Frigg 's role as a fertility goddess is revealed in the name of her abode , Fensalir [ ... ] " , that Frigg is the same as Sága , and that both the names Fensalir and Sökkvabekkr " imply a goddes [ sic ] living in the water and recall the fertility goddess Nerthus " . Näsström adds that " Sökkvabekkr , the subterranean water , alludes to the well of Urd , hidden under the roots of Yggdrasil and the chthonic function , which is manifest in Freyja 's character . "
Rudolf Simek says that Sága should be considered " one of the not closer defined Asyniur " along with Hlín , Sjöfn , Snotra , Vár , and Vör , and that they " should be seen as female protective goddesses . " Simek adds that " these goddesses were all responsible for specific areas of the private sphere , and yet clear differences were made between them so that they are in many ways similar to matrons . "
19th century scholar Jacob Grimm comments that " the gods share their power and influence with goddesses , the heroes and priests with wise women . " Grimm notes that Sökkvabekkr is " described as a place where cool waters rush " and that Odin and Sága " day to day drink gladly out of golden cups . " Grimm theorizes that the liquid from these cups is :
the drink of immortality , and at the same time of poesy . Saga may be taken as wife or as daughter of Oðinn ; in either case she is identical to him as god of poetry . With the Greeks the Musa was a daughter of Zeus , but often hear of three or nine Muses , who resemble our wise women , norns and schöpferins ( shapers of destiny ) , and dwell beside springs or wells . The cool flood well befits the swanwives , daughters of Wish . Saga can be no other than our sage ( saw , tale ) , the ' mære ' [ ... ] personified and deified .
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= Stupid in Love =
" Stupid in Love " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . The song was written by Shaffer Smith , Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen , with production helmed by StarGate . Ne @-@ Yo served as the assistant producer . It was written two days before Rihanna and then boyfriend Chris Brown 's altercation on the night of the 2009 Grammy Awards , which occurred on February 8 , 2009 . The lyrical content , which describes an abusive relationship , led Ne @-@ Yo to describe the song as a " premonition " .
" Stupid in Love " is a R & B power ballad . Instrumentation is provided by finger snapping , minor piano keys and piano riffs . The lyrics of the song revolve around a female protagonist who realizes that she needs to escape an abusive and adulterous boyfriend . " Stupid in Love " received a mixed to positive response from music critics . Some critics praised Rihanna 's emotional delivery of the song whereas others criticized it as being overly dark . Upon the release of Rated R , the song peaked at number seven on the South Korea Gaon International Chart on December 27 , 2009 .
= = Background and development = =
" Stupid in Love " was written by Shaffer Smith , under his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , and Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen , under their production name StarGate . Ne @-@ Yo served as the assistant producer . The song was recorded in 2009 at Metropolis Studios , London . On February 8 , 2009 , Rihanna 's scheduled performance at the 2009 Grammy Awards was cancelled . Reports later surfaced regarding an alleged altercation with then boyfriend , singer Chris Brown , who was arrested on suspicion of making criminal threats . On March 5 , 2009 , Brown was charged with assault and making criminal threats . In the months that proceeded the altercation , both Rihanna and Brown kept low profiles and avoided media attention .
In an interview for MTV News , co @-@ writer of " Stupid in Love " Ne @-@ Yo , who had collaborated with Rihanna on her previous albums A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) and Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) , clarified that he would not write a song for Rihanna with regard to Brown as he found it unnecessary and because of his friendship with Brown . Producer Chuck Harmony concurred with Ne @-@ Yo 's statement , saying that no matter what song Rihanna released as the lead single people would immediately think that the song is about Brown . In an interview with USA Today , Ne @-@ Yo later revealed that the song was written two days before Rihanna and Brown 's altercation , citing it as " a premonition . " In an interview with Sway Calloway for MTV News at Rated R 's preview in New York City , Rihanna stated that the album represented her honesty and vulnerbility . During the preview , Calloway noted that " Stupid in Love " was the song most likely to receive comparisons to Brown , with emphasis on the lyric " I still love you , but I can 't do this / I may be dumb but I 'm not stupid . "
= = Composition = =
" Stupid in Love " is a R & B power ballad which lasts for 4 : 01 ( four minutes , one second ) . Instrumentation is provided by finger snapping , minor piano keys and piano riffs , a style of repeated chord progression . The lyrics of " Stupid in Love " revolve around a woman in an abusive and adulterous relationship , progressing to the female protagonist leaving her boyfriend . The song begins with the line " Let me tell you somethin ' / Never / Have I ever / Been a size 10 in my whole life . " Rihanna sings the line " This is stupid / I 'm not stupid / Don 't talk to me / Like I 'm stupid " during the chorus . The bridge consists of Rihanna singing " Trying to make this work / but you act like a jerk . " As noted by Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice , the bridge represents the moment when Rihanna realizes that it is not worth her while to stay in the relationship , writing " the dunce cap is off " . " Stupid in Love " contains a lyrical metaphor , " Blood on your hands . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Stupid in Love " garnered mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Leah Greenblatt for Entertainment Weekly praised Rihanna 's high level of emotional conviction on " Stupid in Love " , writing that it is a piece of " self @-@ lacerating balladry . " Neil McCormick for The Daily Telegraph thought that the song was a direct reference to Rihanna and Brown , writing " Rihanna notoriously received a black eye prior to the 2009 Grammy awards when she was attacked by her then boyfriend , R & B singer Chris Brown . Clearly , this is a potentially life @-@ changing incident , and we get some sense of the emotional aftermath on the ballad Stupid In Love . " Norman Mayers for Nu @-@ Soul Magazine concurred with McCormick , writing that Rihanna does not shy away from what happened between herself and Brown , rather , she confronts it directly on " Stupid in Love " . Alex Thornton for HipHopDX wrote that it is difficult to listen to the song without thinking of " you know who , " referring to Brown .
Michaelangelo Matos for The A.V. Club wrote that " Stupid in Love " sounded more like a therapy sessions than a song . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media was critical of the song , labeling it as " quite @-@ dim . " Emily Tartanella for Popmatters was not impressed by the song , writing " ' Stupid in Love ' might be aiming for something more , but they arrive at something less . " Chris Richards for The Washington Post wrote that " Stupid in Love " , along with the lead single released from the album " Russian Roulette " , consisted of " plodding beats " and " forgettable hooks " . Richards continued in his review to write that the song is about " heavyhearted confessions to the treacliest of melodies . " Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine was critical of the first six songs on Rated R ( " Mad House " , " Wait Your Turn " , " Hard " , " Stupid in Love " , " Rockstar 101 " and " Russian Roulette " ) were " grim and relentless . "
= = Track listing = =
Album version
" Stupid in Love " – 4 : 01
Remix version
" Stupid in Love " ( Chew Fu Small Room Fix ) – 5 : 32
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Metropolis Studios , London ;
Mixed at Chung King Studios , New York City
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R , Def Jam Recordings .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Rated R , " Stupid in Love " debuted at number eight on the South Korea Gaon International Chart on December 27 , 2009 . The following week , it peaked at number seven for two consecutive weeks .
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= Petrified Forest National Park =
Petrified Forest National Park is a United States national park in Navajo and Apache counties in northeastern Arizona . Named for its large deposits of petrified wood , the fee area of the park covers about 170 square miles ( 440 square kilometers ) , encompassing semi @-@ desert shrub steppe as well as highly eroded and colorful badlands . The park 's headquarters is about 26 miles ( 42 km ) east of Holbrook along Interstate 40 ( I @-@ 40 ) , which parallels the BNSF Railway 's Southern Transcon , the Puerco River , and historic U.S. Route 66 , all crossing the park roughly east – west . The site , the northern part of which extends into the Painted Desert , was declared a national monument in 1906 and a national park in 1962 . About 800 @,@ 000 people visit the park each year and take part in activities including sightseeing , photography , hiking , and backpacking .
Averaging about 5 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) in elevation , the park has a dry windy climate with temperatures that vary from summer highs of about 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) to winter lows well below freezing . More than 400 species of plants , dominated by grasses such as bunchgrass , blue grama , and sacaton , are found in the park . Fauna include larger animals such as pronghorns , coyotes , and bobcats , many smaller animals , such as deer mice , snakes , lizards , seven kinds of amphibians , and more than 200 species of birds , some of which are permanent residents and many of which are migratory . About half of the park is designated wilderness .
The Petrified Forest is known for its fossils , especially fallen trees that lived in the Late Triassic Period , about 225 million years ago . The sediments containing the fossil logs are part of the widespread and colorful Chinle Formation , from which the Painted Desert gets its name . Beginning about 60 million years ago , the Colorado Plateau , of which the park is part , was pushed upward by tectonic forces and exposed to increased erosion . All of the park 's rock layers above the Chinle , except geologically recent ones found in parts of the park , have been removed by wind and water . In addition to petrified logs , fossils found in the park have included Late Triassic ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and many other plants as well as fauna including giant reptiles called phytosaurs , large amphibians , and early dinosaurs . Paleontologists have been unearthing and studying the park 's fossils since the early 20th century .
The park 's earliest human inhabitants arrived at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago . By about 2 @,@ 000 years ago , they were growing corn in the area and shortly thereafter building pit houses in what would become the park . Later inhabitants built above @-@ ground dwellings called pueblos . Although a changing climate caused the last of the park 's pueblos to be abandoned by about 1400 CE , more than 600 archeological sites , including petroglyphs , have been discovered in the park . In the 16th century , Spanish explorers visited the area , and by the mid @-@ 19th century a U.S. team had surveyed an east – west route through the area where the park is now located and noted the petrified wood . Later , roads and a railway followed similar routes and gave rise to tourism and , before the park was protected , to large @-@ scale removal of fossils . Theft of petrified wood remains a problem in the 21st century .
= = Geography = =
Petrified Forest National Park straddles the border between Apache County and Navajo County in northeastern Arizona . The park is about 30 miles ( 48 km ) long from north to south , and its width varies from a maximum of about 12 miles ( 19 km ) in the north to a minimum of about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) along a narrow corridor between the north and south , where the park widens again to about 4 to 5 miles ( 6 to 8 km ) .
I @-@ 40 , former U.S. Route 66 , the BNSF Railway , and the Puerco River bisect the park generally east – west along a similar route . Adamana , a ghost town , is about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the park along the BNSF tracks . Holbrook , about 26 miles ( 42 km ) west of park headquarters along I @-@ 40 , is the nearest city . Bisecting the park north – south is Park Road , which runs between I @-@ 40 near park headquarters on the north and U.S. Route 180 on the south . Historic Highway 180 , an earlier alignment of the modern route , crosses the southern edge of the park . Like Route 66 , it has deteriorated and is closed . Many unpaved maintenance roads , closed to the public , intersect Park Road at various points .
The fee area of the park covers about 170 square miles ( 440 km2 ) . The Navajo Nation borders the park on the north and northeast . State @-@ owned land , federal land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management , and private land , much of it used for cattle ranching , adjoin the other borders . The park ’ s elevation above sea level varies from a low of 5 @,@ 340 feet ( 1 @,@ 630 m ) along the Puerco River to a high of 6 @,@ 230 feet ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at Pilot Rock ; the average elevation is about 5 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) . The terrain varies from gentle hills and major petrified wood deposits in the south to eroded badlands in the north . Most of the park 's intermittent streams — including Lithodendron Wash , Dead Wash , Ninemile Wash , and Dry Wash — empty into the Puerco River . In the southern part of the park , Cottonwood Wash and Jim Camp Wash flow into the Little Colorado River .
= = Geology = =
Petrified Forest National Park is known for its fossils , especially of fallen trees that lived in the Late Triassic period of the Mesozoic era , about 225 million years ago . During this period , the region that is now the park was near the equator on the southwestern edge of the supercontinent Pangaea , and its climate was humid and sub @-@ tropical . What later became northeastern Arizona was a low plain flanked by mountains to the south and southeast and a sea to the west . Streams flowing across the plain from the highlands deposited inorganic sediment and organic matter , including trees as well as other plants and animals that had entered or fallen into the water . Although most organic matter decays rapidly or is eaten by other organisms , some is buried so quickly that it remains intact and may become fossilized . Within the park , the sediments containing the fossil logs for which the park is named are part of the Chinle Formation .
The colorful Chinle , which appears on the surface in many parts of the southwestern United States and from which the Painted Desert gets its name , is up to 800 feet ( 240 m ) thick in the park . It consists of a variety of sedimentary rocks including beds of soft , fine @-@ grained mudstone , siltstone , and claystone — much of which is bentonite — as well as harder sandstone and conglomerate , and limestone . Exposed to wind and water , the Chinle usually erodes differentially into badlands made up of cliffs , gullies , mesas , buttes , and rounded hills . Its bentonite clay , which swells when wet and shrinks while drying , causes surface movement and cracking that discourages plant growth . Lack of plant cover makes the Chinle especially susceptible to weathering .
About 60 million years ago , tectonic movements of Earth ’ s crust began to uplift the Colorado Plateau , of which the Painted Desert is part . Eventually parts of the plateau rose to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) above sea level . This warping of Earth ’ s surface led to the gradual and continuing destruction of the plateau by erosion . An unconformity ( break in the rock record ) of about 200 million years occurs within the park , where erosion has removed all the rock layers above the Chinle except geologically recent ones . The Bidahochi Formation , laid down only 8 to 4 million years ago , rests directly atop the Chinle , and rocks laid down in the Jurassic , Cretaceous , and much of the Tertiary are absent .
During the period of the Bidahochi deposition , a large lake basin covered much of northeastern Arizona . The older ( lower ) layers of the formation consist of fluvial and lacustrine ( lake @-@ related ) deposits of silt , sand , and clay . The younger ( upper ) Bidahochi contains ash and lava from volcanoes that erupted nearby and as far away as southwestern Nevada . Although much of the Bidahochi has since eroded , a small part of it outcrops in the northern part of the park — on Pilot Rock in the park ’ s wilderness section and along the rim of the Painted Desert between Pintado and Tawa points . Exposed by erosion of the Bidahochi are volcanic landforms called maars ( flat @-@ bottomed , roughly circular volcanic craters of explosive origin ) . A maar vent can be seen from the Pintado Point lookout .
During the Quaternary Period ( 2 @.@ 6 million years ago up to today ) , deposits of windblown sand and alluvium covered much of the Chinle and Bidahochi . Older dunes range in age from 500 @,@ 000 years at higher elevations in the northern part of the park to about 10 @,@ 000 years in sandy drainage areas such as Lithodendron Wash . Stabilized by grasses and other vegetation , young dunes of about 1 @,@ 000 years old are found throughout the park .
= = = Fossils = = =
During the Late Triassic , downed trees accumulating in river channels in what became the park were buried periodically by sediment containing volcanic ash . Groundwater dissolved silica ( silicon dioxide ) from the ash and carried it into the logs , where it formed quartz crystals that gradually replaced the organic matter . Traces of iron oxide and other substances combined with the silica to create varied colors in the petrified wood .
In Petrified Forest National Park , most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during petrification but lost their internal structure . However , a small fraction of the logs and most of the park ’ s petrified animal bones have cells and other spaces that are mineral @-@ filled but still retain much of their original organic structure . With these permineralized fossils , it is possible to study the cellular make @-@ up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope . Other organic matter — typically leaves , seeds , cones , pollen grains , spores , small stems , and fish , insect , and animal remains — have been preserved in the park as compression fossils , flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock .
Much of the park ’ s petrified wood is from Araucarioxylon arizonicum trees , while some found in the northern part of the park is from Woodworthia arizonica and Schilderia adamanica trees . At least nine species of fossil trees from the park have been identified ; all are extinct . The park has many other kinds of fossils besides trees . The Chinle , considered one of the richest Late Triassic fossil @-@ plant deposits in the world , contains more than 200 fossil plant taxa . Plant groups represented in the park include lycopods , ferns , cycads , conifers , ginkgoes , as well as unclassified forms . The park has also produced many fossil vertebrates — including giant crocodile @-@ like reptiles called phytosaurs , large salamander @-@ like amphibians called Buettneria , and early dinosaurs — and invertebrates , including freshwater snails and clams .
= = Climate = =
Average summer daytime temperatures range in the mid- to high 90s Fahrenheit . Because the clear skies of the park allow for rapid cooling at night , summer lows are sometimes 40 ° F ( 22 ° C ) below the daily highs . July is the warmest month , with an average high of 92 ° F ( 33 ° C ) and an average low of 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . January is the coldest month , when highs average 48 ° F ( 9 ° C ) and lows average 21 ° F ( − 6 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature was 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) in 1998 , and the lowest was − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) in 1971 .
Winter winds can reach 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . Summer breezes are lighter , but the 10 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 16 km / h ) average wind causes frequent sandstorms and dust devils , some of which reach altitudes of several thousand feet .
Rain is heaviest from July through September , when about half of the park 's annual average precipitation falls during short , violent thunderstorms . August is generally the wettest month . At an elevation of more than 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , Petrified Forest National Park has a chance of light snow from October through March , although snow cover rarely persists . The average relative humidity of the area is well below 50 percent and at times less than 15 percent .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ U.S. = = =
More than 600 archeological sites have been found inside the boundaries of Petrified Forest National Park . Evidence suggests that the earliest inhabitants of the park arrived at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago . Two Folsom @-@ type spear points , the earliest artifacts of Paleo @-@ Indians found in the park , are at least that old . Between 6000 BCE and 1 CE , the Archaic – Early Basketmaker Era , nomadic groups established seasonal camps in the Petrified Forest from which they hunted small game such as rabbits , pronghorn antelope , and deer and harvested seeds from Indian ricegrass and other wild plants . Around 150 BCE , they began to grow corn in the area . By 1 CE , as their farming techniques improved , some built houses in the Petrified Forest and began to stay there year @-@ round .
The early farmers from the Early Basketmaker II Era , lived in the Petrified Forest from about 1 CE to about 800 CE . They occupied pit houses at fewer than 100 sites , at first on mesas or other vantage points and later at the base of bluffs and in lowlands , where the soil was better . As climatic conditions worsened for farming between 750 and 900 CE , the settlements changed with the Pueblo I Era . Rather than below @-@ ground pits , the Pueblo Builders constructed above @-@ ground houses and storerooms that may have been capable of storing food for more than one year . At the same time , climatic conditions changed again , this time for the better , between 900 and 1275 CE . More than 200 pueblo @-@ builder sites have been identified in the park at a wide variety of locations — at the mouths of washes , near seeps , and on moisture @-@ holding sand dunes .
During the Pueblo I Era , most sites were single @-@ family homes , but as soils became exhausted many sites were abandoned by 1250 CE in favor of very large multi @-@ room pueblos close to more dependable sources of water . The Pueblo Builders constructed two of these large pueblos , one called Stone Axe , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) east of the park , and the other at Puerco Pueblo , which overlooks the Puerco River near the middle of the park . There they built about 100 one @-@ story rooms around an open plaza . The rooms had no windows or doors but each could be entered by climbing a ladder and descending through a hole in the roof . At its peak , perhaps 200 people lived in this pueblo . Over time , however , a persistently dry climate led to out @-@ migration , and the last residents abandoned Puerco Pueblo in about 1380 CE .
At Puerco Pueblo and many other sites within the park , petroglyphs — images , symbols , or designs — have been scratched , pecked , carved , or incised on rock surfaces , often on a patina known as desert varnish . Most of the petroglyphs in Petrified Forest National Park are thought to be between 650 and 2 @,@ 000 years old .
From the 16th through the 18th centuries , explorers looking for routes between Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande to the southeast and other Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast to the west passed near or through the area , which they called El Desierto Pintado , the Painted Desert . However , the park 's oldest Spanish inscriptions , left by descendants of the region 's early Spanish colonists , date only to the late 19th century .
= = = U.S. = = =
After the Southwest became part of the U.S. , explorers continued to look for good east – west routes along the 35th parallel . In 1853 , a crew led by U.S. Army Lieutenant Amiel Whipple surveyed along a sandy wash in the northern part of the Petrified Forest . So impressed was Whipple by the petrified wood along the banks of the arroyo that he named it Lithodendron Creek ( Stone Tree Creek ) . Geologist Jules Marcou , a member of the Whipple expedition , observed that the petrified trees were from the Triassic .
A slightly later route along the parallel was a wagon road , built between 1857 and 1860 , that involved experimental use of camels as transport . In the late 19th century , settlers and private stagecoach companies followed similar east – west routes . Homesteaders who stayed in the area developed cattle ranches on the grasslands , and cattle grazed in the Petrified Forest until the mid @-@ 20th century .
Also close to the 35th parallel was the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad . Its opening in the early 1880s led to the founding of towns like Holbrook and Adamana . Visitors could stop at the Adamana train station , book a hotel room , and take a tour of what was then called the Chalcedony Forest . Over the years , the line changed hands , becoming the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , and then the BNSF . More than 60 BNSF trains , mostly carrying freight , pass through the park every day . U.S. Route 66 , a former transcontinental auto highway developed in 1926 from part of the National Old Trails Road , ran parallel to the railroad tracks until it was decommissioned in 1985 . The park has preserved within its boundaries a small grassy section of the road . Interstate 40 , which crosses the park , replaced the older highway .
Increasing tourist and commercial interest in petrified wood during the late 19th century began to alarm residents of the region . In 1895 , the Arizona Territorial Legislature asked the U.S. Congress to create a petrified forest national park . Although this first attempt failed , in 1906 the Antiquities Act signed by President Theodore Roosevelt was used to create the Petrified Forest National Monument . Between 1934 and 1942 , the federal Civilian Conservation Corps built road , trails , and structures in the monument , and the government acquired additional land in the Painted Desert section . The monument became a national park in 1962 . Six years after the signing of the Wilderness Act in 1964 by President Lyndon B. Johnson , wilderness areas ( where human activity is limited ) , were designated in the park . In 2004 , President George W. Bush signed a bill authorizing the eventual expansion of the park from 93 @,@ 353 acres ( about 146 mi2 or 378 km2 ) to 218 @,@ 533 acres ( about 341 mi2 or 884 km2 ) . Theft of petrified wood is still a problem . Despite a guard force of seven National Park Service rangers , fences , warning signs , and the threat of a $ 325 fine , an estimated 12 short tons ( 11 @,@ 000 kg ) of the fossil wood is stolen from the Petrified Forest every year .
Jessee Walter Fewkes , the first archeologist to visit Puerco Ruin , predicted in the late 19th century that it would yield many artifacts . Conservationist John Muir conducted the first excavations of the ruin in 1905 – 06 . Although he did not publish his findings , he urged the federal government to preserve Petrified Forest . Professional archeological work in the park began in the early 20th century when Walter Hough conducted excavations at Puerco Ruin and other sites . In 1919 , a phytosaur skull was discovered near Blue Mesa in the Petrified Forest and sent to the Museum of Paleontology in Berkeley , California . In 1921 , Annie Alexander , founder of the museum , visited Blue Mesa to collect more of the phytosaur and other specimens ; this led to further excavations by paleontologist Charles Camp . Since then , more than 250 fossil sites have been documented in the park . In the 1930s , the Civil Works Administration funded research in the park by archeologists H.P. Mera and C.B. Cosgrove . A National Park Service resurvey of the Petrified Forest in the early 1940s identified most of the large sites with stone ruins , and subsequent surveys since 1978 have identified a total of more than 600 artifact sites , many of them small . Research in paleontology and archeology continues at the park in the 21st century .
= = Biology = =
= = = Flora = = =
A 2005 survey found that 447 species of flora , of which 57 species are invasive , occur in the park . Although the park is known for its fossils and eroded badlands , its main environment is semi @-@ desert shrub steppe . Protected from development and overgrazing for many years , the park has some of the best grassland in northeastern Arizona . In the northern part of the park , the volcanic soils of the Bidahochi Formation support abundant plant life along the Painted Desert rim . In contrast to the relatively bare badlands below , the rim is covered with shrubs , small trees , grasses , and herbs .
The dominant plants in the park include more than 100 grass species , many native to the region . Growing among the grasses are flowering species such as evening primrose , mariposa lily , and blue flax , and shrubs such as sagebrush , saltbush , and rabbitbrush . Among the wide variety of grasses are native perennial bunchgrass , blue grama , sacaton , sideoats grama , bearded sprangletop , and bush muhly . Invasive species that crowd out slower @-@ spreading natives include annual lovegrass and brome ( cheat grass ) .
Trees and shrubs grow in riparian zones along the park 's washes . Willows and cottonwoods are the larger plants , joined by rushes and sedges . Here the invasive Eurasian tamarisk , also known as saltcedar , threatens native plants by crowding , using most of the available water , and increasing soil salinity by exuding salt through its leaves .
= = = Fauna = = =
Some of the larger animals roaming the grasslands include pronghorns , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits ( hares ) , Gunnison 's prairie dogs , coyotes , bobcats and foxes . Pronghorns , the fastest land animals in North America , are capable of 60 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 97 km / h ) sprints . The blood vessels in the huge , thin @-@ walled ears of the jackrabbits act as heat exchangers . These hares are known for their bursts of speed , long leaps , and zigzag routes , all of which protect them from being eaten by golden eagles and other predators . The prairie dogs live in large colonies or " towns " , near which many other species find food and shelter . Coyotes dine largely on rodents but also eat fruits , reptiles , insects , small mammals , birds , and carrion .
Bobcats and bullsnakes hunt smaller animals , such as deer mice and white @-@ tailed antelope squirrels in the park 's riparian zones . Western pipistrelle bats feast on insects , and pallid bats eat beetles , centipedes , cicadas , praying mantises , scorpions , and other arthropods . On the Painted Desert rim , small animals find food and shelter among the denser foliage , and mule deer sometimes frequent the area .
More than 16 kinds of lizards and snakes live in various habitats in the park and consume large quantities of insects , spiders , scorpions , other reptiles , and small mammals . The collared lizard , which occurs in every habitat , is the largest and most often seen .
Plateau striped whiptails , a species consisting entirely of females , prefer grasslands and developed areas . Side @-@ blotched lizards live in rocky areas of the park but are seldom seen . Gopher snakes , which sometimes imitate rattlesnakes when disturbed , are among the most common snakes in the park . The Western rattlesnake , the only venomous snake found in the park , prefers grasslands and shrub areas .
Seven kinds of amphibians , which drink no water but absorb it through their permeable skins , have been identified in Petrified Forest National Park . Tiger salamanders , found in grassland and near major drainages , are the only salamander species known in Arizona . Woodhouse ’ s toads , which are seldom seen , are the largest toads in the park . They like grasslands , riparian corridors , and developed areas . Red @-@ spotted toads , most active in the rainy season , July through September , are found in rocky areas near streams and in canyons . The Great Plains toad , the most common toad in the park , prefers grasslands . Resident spadefoot toads include the New Mexico , plains , and Couch 's varieties .
A survey conducted in 2006 identified 216 species of birds known to have occurred in Petrified Forest National Park since the park became a protected area in 1906 . Of those , 33 species breed within the park , 6 other species probably do , and 18 species live in the park year @-@ round . Thirty @-@ five species live in the park only during the summer and 11 species only during the winter . The greatest diversity of birds occurs during fall and winter migrations .
Raptors , songbirds , and ground birds are found in the park 's grassland , while the Puerco River 's riparian corridor is a good place for year @-@ round residents as well as migrants such as warblers , vireos , avocets , and killdeer . Developed areas around the visitor center and museum attract western tanagers , hermit warblers , house finches , and others . Occasional shorebirds and eastern birds also visit the park .
Birds commonly seen in the park include the common raven and the western meadowlark , known for its charming song . Anna 's hummingbird , which can hover and fly backwards as well as forwards , is among the smallest birds in the park . The largest is the golden eagle , with a wingspan of up to 7 feet ( 2 m ) .
= = Activities = =
The park is open every day except Christmas ( December 25 ) on a schedule that varies slightly with the seasons . In 2010 , it and its Painted Desert Visitor Center and Rainbow Forest Museum were open from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. from May 9 through September 6 but opened as early as 8 a.m. and closed as late as 5 p.m. during other parts of the year . The Painted Desert Inn ( an historic museum and bookstore ) is open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. year @-@ round except Christmas . Park clocks are always set to Mountain Standard Time , as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time .
The Painted Desert Visitor Center , designed by modernist architect Richard Neutra , is part of the Painted Desert Community Complex Historic District and is on the National Register of Historic Places . Eight other sites within the park are also on the National Register , including the Painted Desert Inn and associated cabins , the Agate House Pueblo , the Painted Desert Petroglyphs and Ruins Archeological District , Newspaper Rock Petroglyphs Archeological District , Puerco Ruins and Petroglyphs , the Flattops Site ( an archeological site ) , the Twin Buttes Archeological District , and the 35th Parallel Route ( also known as the Beale Camel Trail ) . The Painted Desert Inn was upgraded to a National Historic Landmark in 1987 .
The visitor center , which is near the north entrance to the park , offers visitor information and shows a 20 @-@ minute orientation movie , " Timeless Impressions " , once every half @-@ hour . It has a bookstore , exhibits , a restaurant open from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m. , a gift shop , a gas station , a post office open from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. Monday through Friday , a postal drop box , and public restrooms . The Rainbow Forest Museum complex 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the park 's south entrance offers services including information and " Timeless Impressions " showings once every half @-@ hour . It has a bookstore , fossil exhibits , an interactive Triassic Virtual Tour , limited food service , a gift shop , and public restrooms . The Painted Desert Inn , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the Painted Desert Visitor Center , offers visitor information . It has a bookstore , museum exhibits ( including the building itself ) , and public restrooms .
No campgrounds or overnight lodging are available in the park , although nearby communities such as Holbrook offer motels and other accommodations . Overnight parking is not allowed except in the case of backpackers with wilderness hiking permits . Sightseeing is available by private automobile , motorcycle , commercial tour , bicycle , and hiking . The park road , parking lots , and turn @-@ outs are big enough to accommodate large recreational vehicles . Off @-@ road vehicle travel , including by mountain bike , is not allowed . With a few exceptions such as unpaved Old Highway 66 , bicycles must stay on paved roads such as the 28 @-@ mile ( 45 km ) main park road and stay off trails and unpaved surfaces .
The park 's seven maintained hiking trails , some paved , vary in length from less than 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to nearly 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Pets are allowed on these trails if kept on a leash , but bicycles are not . These named trails are Painted Desert Rim , Puerco Pueblo , Blue Mesa , Crystal Forest , Giant Logs , Long Logs , and Agate House . Hikers and backpackers may also visit the park 's wilderness areas . Free permits are required for overnight stays ; they are issued from the Painted Desert Visitor Center , Painted Desert Inn , and Rainbow Forest Museum . Most backpackers enter the wilderness at the north end of the park , where parking and an access trail are available at Painted Desert Inn . Group camping is limited to eight people . Horseback riding is allowed in the wilderness areas ; water for horses is available at the service station near the Painted Desert Visitor Center . Riders and hikers are asked to travel along dry washes as much as possible to reduce the impact on fragile desert soils .
Rangers offer a variety of programs about the park . Regularly scheduled events include a Painted Desert Inn tour , a Triassic program at the Rainbow Forest Museum sunroom , a talk or walk along the Giant Logs Trail behind the museum , and a Puerco Pueblo guided walk . The park hosts special events related to Earth Science Week and National American Indian Heritage Month . On Saturdays from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day at the Painted Desert Inn , artisans from the region give cultural demonstrations related to ancient peoples , intertribal relationships , and European @-@ descent cultures . For students and teachers , the rangers offer educational materials and field @-@ trip talks . In some years during the summer months , artists @-@ in @-@ residence work in the park .
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= Italian battleship Dante Alighieri =
Dante Alighieri was the first dreadnought battleship built for the Regia Marina ( Royal Italian Navy ) . Completed in 1913 , she was the first battleship built with her main armament in triple @-@ gun turrets . The ship served as a flagship during World War I , but saw very little action other than the Second Battle of Durazzo in 1918 where she did not engage enemy forces . She never fired her guns in anger during her career . Dante Alighieri was refitted in 1923 , stricken from the Navy List in 1928 and subsequently sold for scrap .
= = Description = =
Dante Alighieri was designed by Rear Admiral Engineer Edoardo Masdea , Chief Constructor of the Regia Marina , based on the ideas of General Vittorio Cuniberti who advocated a battleship with main guns of a single caliber and optimized for broadside fire . In addition , the ship 's superstructure and funnels were to be kept to a minimum .
The dreadnought was 158 @.@ 4 meters ( 519 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline , and 168 @.@ 1 meters ( 551 ft 6 in ) overall . The ship had a beam of 26 @.@ 6 meters ( 87 ft 3 in ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 8 meters ( 28 ft 10 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 552 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 243 long tons ) at normal load , and 21 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 300 long tons ) at deep load . Dante Alighieri had two rudders , one behind the other , and a crew of 31 officers and 950 enlisted men .
The ship was propelled by four propeller shafts driven by Parsons steam turbines . Steam for the turbines was provided by 23 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers , seven of which burned oil and the remaining 16 burned a mixture of oil and coal . The boilers were widely separated in two compartments , each with two funnels , and the turbines were positioned between the two center turrets . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) from 35 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 26 @,@ 000 kW ) , Dante Alighieri failed to reach this goal on her sea trials . The ship only made a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 83 knots ( 42 @.@ 28 km / h ; 26 @.@ 27 mph ) using 32 @,@ 190 shp ( 24 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship could store a maximum of 3 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) of coal and an unknown quantity of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Dante Alighieri 's main armament consisted of a dozen 46 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 inch ) guns , in four triple @-@ gun turrets positioned on the ship 's centerline . None of the turrets were superfiring . While the later classes of battleships and battlecruisers designed for the Imperial Russian Navy shared the turret layout of the Dante Alighieri , all surviving evidence shows that the Russians decided on this layout for their own reasons .
Sources disagree regarding these guns ' performance , but naval historian Giorgio Giorgerini claims that they fired 452 @-@ kilogram ( 996 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at the rate of one round per minute and that they had a muzzle velocity of 840 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) which gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) .
The ship 's secondary armament consisted of twenty 50 @-@ caliber 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns . Eight of these guns were fitted in twin @-@ gun turrets abreast the forward and aft main gun turrets while the remaining 12 guns were mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull . These guns could depress to − 10 degress and had a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees ; they had a rate of fire of six shots per minute . They could fire a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 49 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile with a muzzle velocity of 850 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . For defense against torpedo boats , Dante Alighieri carried thirteen 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns mounted on the turret tops . These guns had the same range of elevation as the secondary guns , although their rate of fire was higher at 10 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 @-@ kilogram ( 13 lb ) AP projectile with a muzzle velocity of 815 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . The ship was also fitted with three submerged 45 @-@ centimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern .
Dante Alighieri had a complete waterline armor belt that had a maximum thickness of 254 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) . The ship 's armored deck was 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick . The main turrets were protected by a maximum of 254 millimeters of armor while the secondary turrets and the casemates had 98 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor . The conning tower had walls 305 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Construction and service = =
Dante Alighieri , named after the medieval Italian poet , was the only battleship ever named for a poet . She was laid down at the naval shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia on 6 June 1909 , launched on 20 August 1910 , and completed on 15 January 1913 . The ship was used to evaluate Curtiss floatplanes in 1913 – 14 . When Italy entered World War I in May 1915 , Dante Alighieri was the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron based at Taranto and remained with the squadron through 1916 . For the rest of the war , the ship was assigned to the Southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea forces . Under the command of Vice Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the ship was positioned to intercept any Austro @-@ Hungarian ships based at Cattaro if they sortied to attack the Allied ships bombarding Durazzo on 2 October 1918 . The Austro @-@ Hungarians remained in harbor and Dante Alighieri did not fire her guns during the battle .
King Victor Emmanuel III entertained delegates to the Genoa Conference aboard Dante Alighieri in 1922 . The ship was refitted in 1923 with a tripod foremast , an aircraft flying @-@ off platform on Turret No. 3 , and her forward funnels was made taller to reduce smoke interference with the bridge . She tested a new fire @-@ control system in 1924 at ranges up to 26 @,@ 000 meters ( 28 @,@ 000 yd ) ; her new tripod mast was not sturdy enough for the weight of the system , but it was judged to be successful and subsequently installed in the Conte di Cavour @-@ class battleships . That same year , the ship transported Benito Mussolini to Palermo , Sicily . The Italian economy had been weakened by fighting World War I , and by the late 1920s , it could no longer afford to maintain a sizable fleet . As a result , Admiral Sechi decided to scrap Dante Alighieri and the salvaged battleship Leonardo da Vinci to reduce the naval budget . The ship was stricken on 1 July 1928 and was subsequently scrapped .
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= My Sweet Lord =
" My Sweet Lord " is a song by English musician and former Beatle George Harrison that was released in November 1970 on his triple album All Things Must Pass . Also issued as a single , Harrison 's first as a solo artist , " My Sweet Lord " topped charts worldwide and was the biggest @-@ selling single of 1971 in the UK . In America and Britain , the song was the first number 1 single by an ex @-@ Beatle . Harrison originally gave the song to his fellow Apple Records artist Billy Preston to record ; this version , which Harrison co @-@ produced , appeared on Preston 's Encouraging Words album in September 1970 .
Harrison wrote " My Sweet Lord " in praise of the Hindu god Krishna , while at the same time intending the lyrics to serve as a call to abandon religious sectarianism through his deliberate blending of the Hebrew word hallelujah with chants of " Hare Krishna " and Vedic prayer . The recording features producer Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound treatment and heralded the arrival of Harrison 's much @-@ admired slide guitar technique , which one biographer described as being " musically as distinctive a signature as the mark of Zorro " . Preston , Ringo Starr , Eric Clapton and the group Badfinger are among the other musicians appearing on the recording .
Later in the 1970s , " My Sweet Lord " was at the centre of a heavily publicised copyright infringement suit , due to its similarity to the Ronnie Mack song " He 's So Fine " , a 1963 hit for the New York girl group the Chiffons . In 1976 , Harrison was found to have subconsciously plagiarised the earlier tune , a verdict that had repercussions throughout the music industry . He claimed to have used the out @-@ of @-@ copyright " Oh Happy Day " , a Christian hymn , as his inspiration for the song 's melody .
Harrison performed " My Sweet Lord " at the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 , and it remains the most popular composition from his post @-@ Beatles career . He reworked the song as " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " for inclusion as a bonus track on the 30th anniversary reissue of All Things Must Pass . Many artists have covered the song including Andy Williams , Peggy Lee , Edwin Starr , Johnny Mathis , Nina Simone , Julio Iglesias , Richie Havens , Megadeth , Boy George , Elton John , Jim James , Bonnie Bramlett and Elliott Smith . " My Sweet Lord " is ranked 460th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of " the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The song reached number 1 in Britain for a second time when re @-@ released in January 2002 , two months after Harrison 's death .
= = Background = =
George Harrison began writing " My Sweet Lord " in December 1969 , when he , Billy Preston and Eric Clapton were in Copenhagen , Denmark , as guest artists on Delaney & Bonnie 's European tour . By this time , Harrison had already written the gospel @-@ influenced " Hear Me Lord " and " Gopala Krishna " , and ( with Preston ) the African @-@ American spiritual " Sing One for the Lord " . He had also produced two religious @-@ themed hit singles on the Beatles ' Apple record label : Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " and Radha Krishna Temple ( London ) ' s " Hare Krishna Mantra " . The latter was a musical adaptation of the 5000 @-@ year @-@ old Vaishnava Hindu mantra , performed by members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) , colloquially known as " the Hare Krishna movement " . Harrison now wanted to fuse the messages of the Christian and Gaudiya Vaishnava faiths into what musical biographer Simon Leng terms " gospel incantation with a Vedic chant " .
The Copenhagen stopover marked the end of the Delaney & Bonnie tour , with a three @-@ night residency at the Falkoner Theatre on 10 – 12 December . According to Harrison 's 1976 court testimony , " My Sweet Lord " was conceived while the band members were attending a backstage press conference and he had ducked out to an upstairs room at the theatre . Harrison recalled vamping chords on guitar and alternating between sung phrases of " hallelujah " and " Hare Krishna " . He later took the idea to the others , and the chorus vocals were developed further . Band leader Delaney Bramlett 's more recent version of events is that the idea originated from Harrison asking him how to go about writing a genuine gospel song , and that Bramlett demonstrated by scat singing the words " Oh my Lord " while wife Bonnie and singer Rita Coolidge added gospel " hallelujah " s in reply . British music journalist John Harris has questioned the accuracy of Bramlett 's account , however , comparing it to a fisherman 's " It was this big " -type bragging story .
Using as his inspiration the Edwin Hawkins Singers ' rendition of an eighteenth @-@ century Christian hymn , " Oh Happy Day " , Harrison continued working on the theme . He completed the song , with some help from Preston , once they had returned to London .
= = Composition = =
The song 's lyrics reflect Harrison 's often @-@ stated desire for a direct relationship with God , expressed in simple words that all believers could affirm , regardless of their religion . Author Ian Inglis observes a degree of " understandable " impatience in the first verse 's line , " Really want to see you , Lord , but it takes so long , my Lord " . By the end of the song 's second verse , Harrison declares a wish to " know " God also and attempts to reconcile the impatience :
I really want to know you
Really want to go with you
Really want to show you , Lord , that it won 't take long , my Lord
Following this verse , in response to the main vocal 's repetition of the song title , Harrison devised a choral line singing the Hebrew word of praise , " hallelujah " , common in the Christian and Jewish religions . Later in the song , after an instrumental break , these voices return , now chanting the first twelve words of the Hare Krishna mantra , known more reverentially as the Maha mantra :
Hare Krishna , Hare Krishna
Krishna Krishna , Hare Hare
Hare Rama , Hare Rama
These Sanskrit words are the main mantra of the Hare Krishna faith , with which Harrison identified , although he did not belong to any spiritual organisation . In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison explained that he intended repeating and alternating " hallelujah " and " Hare Krishna " to show that the two terms meant " quite the same thing " , as well as to have listeners chanting the mantra " before they knew what was going on ! "
Following the Sanskrit lines , " hallelujah " is sung twice more before the mantra repeats , along with an ancient Vedic prayer . According to Hindu tradition , this prayer is dedicated to a devotee 's spiritual teacher , or guru , and equates the teacher to the divine Trimurti – Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva ( or Maheshvara ) – and to the Godhead , Brahman .
Gurur Brahmā , gurur Viṣṇur
gurur devo Maheśvaraḥ
gurus sākṣāt , paraṃ Brahma
tasmai śrī gurave namaḥ .
Former Krishna devotee Joshua Greene translates the lines as follows : " I offer homage to my guru , who is as great as the creator Brahma , the maintainer Vishnu , the destroyer Shiva , and who is the very energy of God . " The prayer is the third verse of the Guru Stotram , a fourteen @-@ verse hymn in praise of Hindu spiritual teachers .
Some Christian fundamentalist anti @-@ rock activists objected that chanting " Hare Krishna " in " My Sweet Lord " was anti @-@ Christian or satanic , while some born @-@ again Christians adopted the song as an anthem . Several commentators cite the mantra and the simplicity of Harrison 's lyrics as central to the song 's universality . The " lyrics are not directed at a specific manifestation of a single faith 's deity , " Inglis writes , " but rather to the concept of one god whose essential nature is unaffected by particular interpretations and who pervades everything , is present everywhere , is all @-@ knowing and all @-@ powerful , and transcends time and space ... All of us – Christian , Hindu , Muslim , Jew , Buddhist – can address our gods in the same way , using the same phrase [ ' my sweet Lord ' ] . "
= = Billy Preston 's version = =
With the Beatles still together officially in December 1969 , Harrison had no plans to make a solo album of his own and reportedly intended to offer " My Sweet Lord " to Edwin Hawkins . Instead , following the Delaney & Bonnie tour , he decided to record it with Billy Preston , for whom Harrison was co @-@ producing a second Apple album , Encouraging Words . Recording took place at Olympic Studios in London , in January 1970 , with Preston as principal musician , supported by the guitarist , bass player and drummer from the Temptations ' backing band . The Edwin Hawkins Singers happened to be on tour in the UK as well , so Harrison invited them to participate ; Hawkins ' gospel group also overdubbed vocals onto the Harrison – Preston collaboration " Sing One for the Lord " at this time .
Preston 's version of " My Sweet Lord " differs from Harrison 's later reading in that the " hallelujah " refrain appears from the start of the song and , rather than the full mantra section , the words " Hare Krishna " are sung only twice throughout the whole track . With the Vedic prayer likewise absent , Simon Leng views this original recording as a possible " definitive ' roots ' take ' " of the song , thanks to its " pure gospel groove " and Hawkins ' participation . In his review of Encouraging Words , Bruce Eder of AllMusic describes " My Sweet Lord " and " All Things Must Pass " ( another Harrison composition originally given to Preston to record ) as " stunning gospel numbers ... that make the Harrison versions seem pallid " .
Preston 's " My Sweet Lord " was a minor hit in Europe when issued as a single there in September 1970 , but otherwise , Encouraging Words made little impression commercially . The album and single releases were delayed for at least two months in the United States , where " My Sweet Lord " would climb to number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 by the end of February 1971 , helped by the enormous success of Harrison 's version .
= = Recording = =
Five months after the Olympic session , with the Beatles having now broken up , " My Sweet Lord " was one of 30 or more tracks that Harrison recorded for his All Things Must Pass triple album . It was a song he had been reluctant to record , for fear of committing himself publicly to such an overt religious message . " I was sticking my neck out on the chopping block because now I would have to live up to something , " Harrison explained in I Me Mine , " but at the same time I thought ' Nobody 's saying it ; I wish somebody else was doing it . ' "
With Phil Spector co @-@ producing the sessions at Abbey Road Studios , Preston again played on the track , along with Clapton , Ringo Starr , Jim Gordon and all four members of Badfinger . The identity of the remaining musicians has traditionally been open to question , with drummer Alan White once claiming he played on the song , with Carl Radle on bass , Starr on tambourine and John Lennon among the rhythm guitarists . The common view , following research by Simon Leng , is that Harrison and Spector chose from a number of rhythm tracks before selecting the master take , which featured , among others , Klaus Voormann on bass and Gary Wright on a second keyboard ; Bruce Spizer suggests that Peter Frampton may have added acoustic guitar after the main session . Harrison 's original vocal appears to have been acceptable , according to notes written by Spector in August , but the chorus vocals ( all sung by Harrison and credited to " the George O 'Hara @-@ Smith Singers " ) , his harmonised slide guitar parts , and John Barham 's orchestral arrangement were overdubbed during the next two months , partly at Trident Studios in central London .
Leng describes the recording as a " painstakingly crafted tableau " of sound , beginning with a bank of " chiming " acoustic guitars and the " flourish " of zither strings that introduces Harrison 's slide @-@ guitar motif . At close to the two @-@ minute mark , after the tension @-@ building bridge , a subtle two @-@ semitone shift in key ( from E major to the rarely used key of F @-@ sharp major , via a C # dominant seventh chord ) signals the song 's release from its extended introduction . This higher register is then complemented by Harrison 's " increasingly impassioned " vocal and the subsequent " timely reappearance " of his twin slide guitars , before the backing vocals " deftly " switch to the Sanskrit mantra and prayer . Leng also notes the Indian music aspects of the production , in the " swarmandal @-@ like " zithers , representing the sympathetic strings of a sitar , and the slide guitars ' evocation of sarangi , dilruba and other string instruments . In an interview for Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary on George Harrison , Spector recalls that he liked the results so much , he insisted that " My Sweet Lord " be the lead single from the album .
This later , rock version of the song was markedly different from the " Oh Happy Day " -inspired gospel arrangement in musical and structural terms , aligning Harrison 's composition with pop music conventions , but also drawing out the similarities of its melody line with that of the Chiffons ' 1963 hit " He 's So Fine " . Spizer suggests that this was due to Harrison being " so focused on the feel of his record " , while Record Collector editor Peter Doggett wrote in 2001 that , despite Harrison 's inspiration for " My Sweet Lord " having come from " Oh Happy Day " , " in the hands of producer and arranger Phil Spector , it came out as a carbon copy of the Chiffons ' [ song ] " . Chip Madinger and Mark Easter remark on the " sad " fact that Spector , as " master of all that was ' girl @-@ group ' during the early ' 60s " , failed to recognise the similarities .
= = Release = =
Before arriving in New York on 28 October to carry out mastering on All Things Must Pass , Harrison had announced that no single would be issued – so as not to " detract from the impact " of the triple album . Apple 's US executive , Allan Steckler , together with business manager Allen Klein and Spector all pushed for " My Sweet Lord " to be released immediately , however , even though Billy Preston 's version was already scheduled for release as a single in America the following month . Film director Howard Worth recalls a preliminary finance meeting for the Raga documentary ( for which Harrison would provide emergency funding through Apple Films ) that began with the ex @-@ Beatle asking him to listen to a selection of songs and pick his favourite , which was " My Sweet Lord " .
Harrison relented , and " My Sweet Lord " was issued as the album 's lead single around the world , but not in Britain ; the release date was 23 November 1970 in the United States . The mix of the song differed from that found on All Things Must Pass by featuring less echo and a slightly altered backing @-@ vocal track . Both sides of the North American picture sleeve consisted of a Barry Feinstein photo of Harrison taken through a window at his recently purchased Friar Park home , with some of the estate 's trees reflected in the glass . Released as a double A @-@ side with " Isn 't It a Pity " , with Apple catalogue number 2995 in America , both sides of the disc featured a full Apple label .
Public demand via constant airplay in Britain led to a belated UK release , on 15 January 1971 . There , as Apple R 5884 , the single was backed by " What Is Life " , a song that Apple soon released elsewhere internationally as the follow @-@ up to " My Sweet Lord " .
Harrison 's version of " My Sweet Lord " was an international number 1 hit by the end of 1970 and through the early months of 1971 – the first solo single by a Beatle to reach the top , and the biggest seller by any of the four throughout the 1970s . Without the support of any concert appearances or promotional interviews by Harrison , the single 's commercial success was due to its impact on radio , where , Harrison biographer Gary Tillery writes , the song " rolled across the airwaves like a juggernaut , with commanding presence , much the way Dylan 's ' Like a Rolling Stone ' had arrived in the mid @-@ sixties " . Elton John recalls first hearing " My Sweet Lord " in a taxi and names it as the last of the era 's great singles : " I thought , ' Oh my God , ' and I got chills . You know when a record starts on the radio , and it 's great , and you think , ' Oh , what is this , what is this , what is this ? ' The only other record I ever felt that way about [ afterwards ] was ' Brown Sugar ' ... " In his 40 @-@ page Harrison tribute article for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Mikal Gilmore credited " My Sweet Lord " as being " as pervasive on radio and in youth consciousness as anything the Beatles had produced " .
The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 14 December 1970 for sales of over 1 million copies . It reached number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on 26 December , remaining on top for four weeks , three of which coincided with All Things Must Pass 's seven @-@ week reign atop the Billboard albums chart . In Britain , " My Sweet Lord " entered the charts at number 7 , before hitting number 1 on 30 January and staying there for five weeks . It was the biggest @-@ selling single of 1971 in the UK and performed similarly well around the world , particularly in France and Germany , where it held the top spot for nine and ten weeks , respectively . In his 2001 appraisal of Harrison 's Apple recordings , for Record Collector , Doggett described Harrison as " arguably the most successful rock star on the planet " over this period , adding : " ' My Sweet Lord ' and All Things Must Pass topped charts all over the world , easily outstripping other solo Beatles projects later in the year , such as Ram and Imagine . "
The single 's worldwide sales amounted to 5 million copies by 1978 , making it one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . By 2010 , according to Inglis , " My Sweet Lord " had sold over 10 million copies . The song returned to the number 1 position again in the UK when reissued in January 2002 , two months after Harrison 's death from cancer at the age of 58 .
= = Reception = =
Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , has written of Harrison 's first solo single : " ' My Sweet Lord ' was everything that people wanted to hear in November 1970 : shimmering harmonies , lustrous acoustic guitars , a solid Ringo Starr backbeat , and an exquisite [ Harrison ] guitar solo . " Reviewing the single for Rolling Stone , Jon Landau called the track " sensational " . In an era when songs by Radha Krishna Temple and adaptations of the Christian hymns " Oh Happy Day " and " Amazing Grace " were all worldwide hits , Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone observed that the substituting of Harrison 's " Hare Krishna " refrain for the trivial " Doo @-@ lang , doo @-@ lang , doo @-@ lang " s of " He 's So Fine " was " a sign of the times " . ( As John Lennon famously told a reporter around this time , " Every time I put the radio on , it 's ' Oh my Lord ' – I 'm beginning to think there must be a God ! " ) In his December 1970 album review for NME , Alan Smith bemoaned the apparent lack of a UK single release for " My Sweet Lord " and noted that the song " seems to owe something " to " He 's So Fine " . To Gerson , it was an " obvious re @-@ write " of the Chiffons hit , and within two months US music publisher Bright Tunes had served a writ on Harrison citing unauthorised copyright infringement . In a January 1971 review for NME , Derek Johnson expressed surprise at Apple 's delay in releasing the single in the UK , before declaring : " In my opinion , this record – finally and irrevocably – establishes George as a talent equivalent to either Lennon or McCartney . "
More recently , AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger explains the international popularity of Harrison 's single : " ' My Sweet Lord ' has a quasi @-@ religious feel , but nevertheless has enough conventional pop appeal to reach mainstream listeners who may or may not care to dig into the spiritual lyrical message . " Added to this was a slide guitar riff that Simon Leng describes as " among the best @-@ known guitar passages in popular music " . Ian Inglis highlights the combination of Harrison 's " evident lack of artifice " and Spector 's " excellent production " , such that " My Sweet Lord " can be heard " as a prayer , a love song , an anthem , a contemporary gospel track , or a piece of perfect pop " .
Due to the ensuing plagiarism suit , " My Sweet Lord " became somewhat stigmatised by association , to the point where no mention of the song was complete without a reference to " He 's So Fine " . " My Sweet Lord " was ranked 460th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of " the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2004 , yet the accompanying text only briefly mentioned the success of the single and Harrison 's " teardrop slide licks " before concentrating on the controversial lawsuit . While acknowledging the common ground between the two songs , music critic David Fricke describes Harrison 's composition as " the honest child of black American sacred song " . Writing around the time of All Things Must Pass 's 2001 reissue , again for Rolling Stone , Anthony DeCurtis described " My Sweet Lord " as " capturing the sweet satisfactions of faith " , while to Mikal Gilmore , it is an " irresistible devotional " .
At the end of 1971 , " My Sweet Lord " topped the Melody Maker reader 's polls for both " Single of the Year " and " World 's Single of the Year " ; in the US publication Record World , the song was also voted best single and Harrison was honoured as " Top Male Vocalist of 1971 " . In June 1972 , Harrison won two Ivor Novello songwriter 's awards for " My Sweet Lord " . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners voted " My Sweet Lord " the best song from George Harrison 's solo years , ahead of " Blow Away " and " What Is Life " . Mick Jagger and Keith Richards have both named it among their personal favourites of all Harrison 's songs , along with " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . According to the website Acclaimed Music , " My Sweet Lord " has also appeared in the following critics ' best @-@ song lists and books , among others : The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 by author Bruce Pollock ( 2005 ) , Dave Thompson 's 1000 Songs That Rock Your World ( 2011 ; ranked at number 247 ) , Ultimate Classic Rock 's " Top 100 Classic Rock Songs " ( 2013 ; number 56 ) , the NME 's " 100 Best Songs of the 1970s " ( 2012 ; number 65 ) , and the same magazine 's " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " ( 2014 ; number 270 ) .
= = Copyright infringement suit = =
= = = Initial action = = =
On 10 February 1971 , Bright Tunes filed suit against Harrison and associated organisations ( including Harrisongs , Apple Records and BMI ) , alleging copyright infringement of the late Ronnie Mack 's song " He 's So Fine " . In I Me Mine , Harrison admits to having thought " Why didn 't I realise ? " when others started pointing out the similarity between the two songs ; by June that year , country singer Jody Miller had released a cover of " He 's So Fine " incorporating Harrison 's " My Sweet Lord " slide @-@ guitar riffs , thus " really putting the screws in " from his point of view . On Harrison 's behalf , manager Allen Klein entered into negotiations with Bright Tunes to resolve the issue , by offering to buy the financially ailing publisher 's entire catalogue , but no settlement could be reached before the company was forced into receivership .
While comparing the two compositions , author and musicologist Dominic Pedler writes that both songs have a three @-@ syllable title refrain ( " My sweet Lord " , " He 's so fine " ) followed by a 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 descent of the major scale in the tonic key ( E major for " My Sweet Lord " and G major for " He 's So Fine " ) ; respective tempos are similar : 121 and 145 beats per minute . In the respective B sections ( " I really want to see you " and " I dunno how I 'm gonna do it " ) , there is a similar ascent through 5 @-@ 6 @-@ 8 , but the Chiffons distinctively retain the G tonic for four bars and , on the repeat of the motif , uniquely go to an A @-@ note 9th embellishment over the first syllable of " gonna " . Harrison , on the other hand , introduces the more complex harmony of a relative minor ( C # m ) , as well as the fundamental and distinctly original slide @-@ guitar motif .
While the case was on hold , Harrison and his former bandmates Lennon and Starr chose to sever ties with Klein at the end of March 1973 – an acrimonious split that led to further lawsuits for the three ex @-@ Beatles . Bright Tunes and Harrison later resumed their negotiations ; his final offer of 40 per cent of " My Sweet Lord " ' s US composer 's and publisher 's royalties , along with a stipulation that he retain copyright for his song , was viewed as a " good one " by Bright 's legal representation , yet the offer was rejected . It later transpired that Klein had renewed his efforts to purchase the ailing company , now solely for himself , and to that end was supplying Bright Tunes with insider details regarding " My Sweet Lord " ' s sales figures and copyright value . In the build @-@ up to the case going to court , the Chiffons recorded a version of " My Sweet Lord " , with the aim of drawing attention to the lawsuit . Beatles author Alan Clayson has described the plagiarism suit as " the most notorious civil action of the decade " , the " extremity " of the proceedings provoked by a combination of the commercial success of Harrison 's single and the intervention of " litigation @-@ loving Mr Klein " .
= = = Court hearing and ruling = = =
Bright Tunes Music v. Harrisongs Music finally went to the United States district court on 23 February 1976 , to hear evidence on the allegation of plagiarism . Harrison attended the proceedings in New York , with a guitar , and each side called musical experts to support its argument .
After reconvening in September 1976 , the court found that Harrison had " subconsciously " copied the earlier tune , since he admitted to having been aware of the Chiffons ' recording . Judge Richard Owen said in his conclusion to the proceedings :
Did Harrison deliberately use the music of He 's So Fine ? I do not believe he did so deliberately . Nevertheless , it is clear that My Sweet Lord is the very same song as He 's So Fine with different words , and Harrison had access to He 's So Fine . This is , under the law , infringement of copyright , and is no less so even though subconsciously accomplished .
= = = Damages and subsequent litigation = = =
With liability established , the court then recommended an amount for the damages to be paid by Harrison and Apple to Bright Tunes , which Owen totalled at $ 1 @,@ 599 @,@ 987 – amounting to three @-@ quarters of the royalty revenue raised in North America from " My Sweet Lord " , as well as a significant proportion of that from the All Things Must Pass album . This figure has been considered over @-@ harsh and unrealistic by some observers , since it both underplayed the unique elements of Harrison 's recording – the universal spiritual message of its lyrics , the signature guitar hook , and its production – and ignored the critical acclaim his album received in its own right . Elliot Huntley observes : " People don 't usually hear a single and then automatically go and buy an expensive boxed @-@ set triple album on the off @-@ chance . " The award factored in the royalty revenue raised from " My Sweet Lord " ' s inclusion on the recent Best of George Harrison compilation , though at a more moderate percentage than for the 1970 album .
The ruling set new legal precedents and was a personal blow for Harrison , who admitted he was too " paranoid " to write anything new for some time afterwards . Early reaction in the music industry saw Little Richard claim for breach of copyright in a track recorded by the Beatles in 1964 for the Beatles for Sale album , as well as Ringo Starr credit songwriter Clifford T. Ward as the inspiration for his Ringo 's Rotogravure song " Lady Gaye " . In the UK , the corresponding damages suit , brought by Peter Maurice Music , was swiftly settled out of court in July 1977 .
During the drawn @-@ out damages portion of the US suit , events played into Harrison 's hands when Klein 's ABKCO Industries finally purchased the copyright to " He 's So Fine " , and with it all litigation claims , after which Klein proceeded to negotiate sale of the song to Harrison . On 19 February 1981 , the court decided that due to Klein 's duplicity in the case , Harrison would only have to pay ABKCO $ 587 @,@ 000 instead of the $ 1 @.@ 6 million award and he would also receive the rights to " He 's So Fine " – $ 587 @,@ 000 being the amount Klein had paid Bright Tunes for the song in 1978 . The court ruled that the former manager 's actions had been in breach of the fiduciary duty owed to Harrison , a duty that continued " even after the principal – agent relationship ended " . The litigation continued through to the early 1990s , however , as the finer points of the settlement were ironed out ; in his 1993 essay on Bright Tunes v. Harrisongs , Joseph Self describes it as " without question , one of the longest running legal battles ever to be litigated in [ the United States ] " . Matters would not ultimately be concluded until March 1998 .
Subsequent charges of plagiarism in the music industry have resulted in a policy of swift settlement and therefore limited damage to an artist 's credibility : the Rolling Stones ' " Anybody Seen My Baby ? " , Oasis ' " Shakermaker " , " Whatever " and " Step Out " , and the Verve 's " Bitter Sweet Symphony " are all examples of songs whose writing credits were hastily altered to acknowledge composers of a plagiarised work , with the minimum of litigation .
Shortly before the ruling was handed down in September 1976 , Harrison wrote and recorded a song inspired by the court case – the upbeat " This Song " – which includes the line " This tune has nothing ' Bright ' about it " . The 1960s soul hits " I Can 't Help Myself ( Sugar Pie Honey Bunch ) " and " Rescue Me " , as well as his own composition " You " , are all name @-@ checked in the lyrics , as if to demonstrate the point that , as he later put it , " 99 % of the popular music that can be heard is reminiscent of something or other . "
In a 1980 interview with Playboy magazine , John Lennon expressed his doubts about the notion of " subconscious " plagiarism , saying : " He must have known , you know . He 's smarter than that ... He could have changed a couple of bars in that song and nobody could ever have touched him , but he just let it go and paid the price . Maybe he thought God would just sort of let him off . " Ringo Starr 's reaction was more charitable : " There 's no doubt that the tune is similar but how many songs have been written with other melodies in mind ? George 's version is much heavier than The Chiffons – he might have done it with the original in the back of his mind , but he 's just very unlucky that someone wanted to make it a test case in court . "
Speaking to his friend and I , Me , Mine editor Derek Taylor in 1979 , Harrison said of the episode : " I don 't feel guilty or bad about it , in fact it saved many a heroin addict 's life . I know the motive behind writing the song in the first place and its effect far exceeded the legal hassle . "
= = Re @-@ releases and alternative versions = =
Since its initial release on All Things Must Pass , " My Sweet Lord " has appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison and 2009 's career @-@ spanning Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison . The original UK single ( with " What Is Life " as the B @-@ side ) was reissued on Christmas Eve 1976 in Britain – a " provocative " move by EMI , given the publicity the lawsuit had attracted that year for the song .
= = = 1975 – " The Pirate Song " = = =
On 26 December 1975 , Harrison made a guest appearance on his friend Eric Idle 's BBC2 comedy show Rutland Weekend Television , sending up his serious public image , and seemingly about to perform " My Sweet Lord " .
As a running gag throughout the half @-@ hour show , Harrison interrupts the sketches , trying to land an acting role as a pirate ( and dressed accordingly ) , but gets turned down each time by RWT regulars Idle and Neil Innes , who simply want him to play the part of " George Harrison " . He then reappears at the end in more normal attire , strumming the well @-@ known introduction to " My Sweet Lord " on an acoustic guitar , and backed by the house band ; instead of continuing with the song , Harrison finally takes his chance to play " Pirate Bob " by abruptly segueing into a sea shanty – to the horror of the " greasy " compère , played by Idle . The other musicians follow Harrison 's lead , after which a group of dancers appear on stage and the show 's closing credits roll .
This performance is known as " The Pirate Song " , co @-@ written by Harrison and Idle , and the recording is only available unofficially on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs . Observing the parallels with Harrison 's real @-@ life reluctance to play the pop star , Simon Leng writes , " there was great resonance within these gags . "
= = = 2001 – " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " = = =
In January 2001 , Harrison included a new version of the song as a bonus track on the remastered All Things Must Pass album . " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " featured Harrison sharing vocals with Sam Brown , daughter of his friend Joe Brown , backed by mostly new instrumentation , including acoustic guitar by his son Dhani and tambourine by Ray Cooper . The track opens with a " snippet " of sitar , to " emphasize its spiritual roots " , Leng suggests . On release , Harrison explained that his motivation for remaking the song was partly to " play a better slide guitar solo " ; he also cited the " spiritual response " that the song had traditionally received , together with his interest in reworking the tune to avoid the contentious musical notes , as further reasons . Of the extended slide @-@ guitar break on " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " , Leng writes : " [ Harrison ] had never made so clear a musical statement that his signature bottleneck sound was as much his tool for self @-@ expression as his vocal cords . " Elliot Huntley opines that Harrison 's vocal was more " gospel inflected " and perhaps even more sincere than on the original recording , " given his deteriorating health " during the final year of his life .
This version also appeared on the January 2002 posthumous release of the " My Sweet Lord " single – a three @-@ song charity CD comprising the original 1970 – 71 hit , the acoustic run @-@ through of " Let It Down " ( with recent overdubs , another 2001 bonus track ) , and Harrison 's reworking of the title song . Proceeds from the single went to the Material World Charitable Foundation , set up by Harrison in April 1973 . For some months after the single 's release , a portion of " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " played on Harrison 's official website , on a constant loop , over screen images of lotus petals scattering and then re @-@ forming . The song also appears on the 2014 Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of All Things Must Pass .
= = = 2011 – Demo version = = =
In November 2011 , a demo of " My Sweet Lord " , with Harrison backed by just Voormann and Starr , was included on the deluxe edition CD accompanying the British DVD release of Martin Scorsese 's George Harrison : Living in the Material World documentary . Described as an early " live take " by compilation producer Giles Martin , and an " acoustic hosanna " by David Fricke of Rolling Stone , it was recorded at the start of the All Things Must Pass sessions and was later released internationally on Early Takes : Volume 1 in May 2012 .
= = Live versions = =
Harrison performed " My Sweet Lord " at every one of his relatively few solo concerts , starting with the two Concert for Bangladesh shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden on 1 August 1971 . The recording released on the subsequent live album was taken from the evening show and begins with Harrison 's spoken " Hare Krishna " over his opening acoustic @-@ guitar chords . Among the 24 backing musicians was a " Soul Choir " featuring singers Claudia Linnear , Dolores Hall and Jo Green , but it was Harrison who sung the end @-@ of @-@ song Guru Stotram prayer in his role as lead vocalist , unlike on the studio recording ( where it was sung by the backing chorus ) ; the slide guitar parts were played by Eric Clapton and Jesse Ed Davis .
During his 1974 North American tour , Harrison 's only one there as a solo artist , " My Sweet Lord " was performed as the encore at each show . In contrast with the subtle shift from " hallelujah " s to Sanskrit chants on his 1970 original , Harrison used the song to engage his audience in the practice of " chanting the holy names of the Lord " , or kirtan – from " Om Christ ! " and Krishna , to Buddha and Allah – with varying degrees of success . Backed by a band that again included Billy Preston , Harrison turned " My Sweet Lord " into an " R & B @-@ styled " extended gospel @-@ funk piece , closer in its arrangement to Preston 's Encouraging Words version and lasting up to ten minutes . The performance of the song at Tulsa 's Assembly Center on 21 November marked the only guest appearance of the tour when Leon Russell joined the band on stage .
Harrison 's second and final solo tour took place in Japan in December 1991 , with Clapton 's band . A live version of " My Sweet Lord " recorded at the Tokyo Dome , on 14 December , was released the following year on the Live in Japan album .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are believed to have played on Harrison 's original version of " My Sweet Lord " :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitar , slide guitars , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – acoustic guitar
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Billy Preston – piano
Gary Wright – electric piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Ringo Starr – drums , percussion
Jim Gordon – drums , percussion
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
John Barham – harmonium , string and woodwind arrangements
uncredited – zithers
= = Cover versions = =
Andy Williams covered " My Sweet Lord " on his 1971 Love Story album , backed by members of the choir of the Wee Kirk o ' the Valley of Reseda , California .
Ronnie Aldrich , British easy listening pianist , covered the song , as well as Harrison 's " What Is Life " , on his 1971 album , also entitled Love Story ( after the equally popular theme song to the 1970 movie Love Story , by Francis Lai ) .
Tony Orlando and Dawn performed the song on their television series in the 1970s .
Homer Louis Randolph III recorded a version of " My Sweet Lord " for his eponymous 1971 album .
Peggy Lee recorded " My Sweet Lord " in April 1971 for her album Where Did They Go , arranged by Don Sebesky ; it was issued on CD in 2008 .
Phil Allen covered the song on his 1971 album The Happy Hammond Goes Pop .
Ray Coniff 's version was released on another 1971 album titled Love Story .
Bola Sete 's version was released on his 1971 album Shebaba .
Johnny Mathis covered " My Sweet Lord " on his Love Story album .
Edwin Starr recorded a version in 1971 , produced by Norman Whitfield , which was released as a single and appeared on his Involved album .
A version by Eddy Arnold appeared on his 1971 album Welcome to My World .
Also in 1971 , John Holt recorded a reggae version of " My Sweet Lord " , without the background chorus of " hallelujahs " and Krishna references .
Another 1971 easy listening version of " My Sweet Lord " was recorded by Stu Phillips & The Hollyridge Strings , for their Beatles tribute album The George , John , Paul & Ringo Songbook .
Marion Williams covered " My Sweet Lord " on her 1971 album Standing Here Wondering Which Way to Go ; the song was later released on Daytrippers : Songs of the Beatles .
French orchestral leader Franck Pourcel recorded the song for his Friends album in 1971 .
Swedish jazz singer Monica Zetterlund recorded the Swedish @-@ language cover " Du mitt liv " in 1971 .
Another French orchestrator , Paul Mauriat , recorded " My Sweet Lord " for his 1972 album Le Grand Orchestre de Paul Mauriat Joue Les Beatles .
Italian singer Iva Zanicchi covered the song on her album Fantasia n . 2 : The Beatles in 1972 .
Nina Simone performed an 18 @-@ minute gospel reworking of " My Sweet Lord " at Fort Dix before a group of African @-@ American soldiers , a version released on her 1972 album Emergency Ward ! ( along with her cover of Harrison 's " Isn 't It a Pity " ) . She interspersed the song with the David Nelson poem " Today Is a Killer " , at the end of which , God is accused of being a killer , giving the otherwise exuberant atmosphere of the performance an apocalyptic ending . No references to Krishna appear in Simone 's version .
Richie Havens covered the song on his 1972 live album Richie Havens on Stage , a version later released on the 1987 album Sings Beatles and Dylan .
Also in 1972 , The Tribe recorded the song for an album titled Bangla Desh , which included cover versions of other highlights from The Concert for Bangladesh .
In 1973 , The Violinaires covered " My Sweet Lord " on their album Groovin ' with Jesus .
Marjorie McCoy released her version of the song on the 1973 album The Other Side .
In 1975 , Julio Iglesias covered the song on his album El Amor , singing it in English even though the song was retitled in Spanish as " Mi Dulce Señor ( My Sweet Lord ) " .
The Chiffons ' version of the song was released as a non @-@ album single in 1975 .
Larry Norman covered " My Sweet Lord " on his 1977 album Streams of White Light into Darkened Corners , and like John Holt , omitted the " hallelujah " refrains and references to Krishna .
On her 1978 Christmas TV special , Dolly Parton performed the song as part of a spiritual medley , with guest Cher and a choir , with only " hallelujah " being chanted .
The song was briefly included in Stars on 45 's medley of songs , released as a single in May 1981 .
For his 1981 Don 't Give In album , Leon Patillo recorded a heavily revised version of " My Sweet Lord " . ( Among other things , because this was a Christian release , the entire background " hallelujah " section is replaced with the refrain " Jesus " . )
Five Thirty covered the song for the anti @-@ poll tax album Alvin Lives ( In Leeds ) , released in 1990 .
Boy George recorded a version of the song in 1992 for the Ruby Trax : The NME 's Roaring Forty compilation album .
Spanish house music band PCA released their version of " My Sweet Lord " as a single in 1995 .
Stacey Q covered " My Sweet Lord " on her 1997 album Boomerang .
Swedish band Brainpool recorded the song as a medley with " He 's So Fine " and released it as a single in 1997 , titled " My Sweet Lord ( She 's So Fine ) " .
In December 1997 , Megadeth played the song live ( with modified lyrics ) at their concert at the Centro Cultural Recoleta in Buenos Aires .
The Wailing Souls covered " My Sweet Lord " for their 1998 album Psychedelic Souls .
In 1999 , an instrumental version of " My Sweet Lord " was included on Aretha Franklin 's Amazine Grace : The Complete Recordings collection , a repackaging of her bestselling album Amazing Grace , recorded live in a Los Angeles Baptist church in January 1972 .
David Young recorded the song for his 2000 covers album Songbook .
At the American Music Awards in January 2002 , soul singer Luther Vandross performed a medley of " Something " and " My Sweet Lord " in tribute to Harrison , among others who died in 2001 .
In April 2002 , Elton John , Sting , James Taylor , Ravi Shankar , Anoushka Shankar and others performed " My Sweet Lord " to close the Harrison @-@ tribute opening portion of the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert , held at Carnegie Hall in New York City .
Crown of Thorns covered this track on their 2002 album Karma .
Richard Clayderman recorded a cover of " My Sweet Lord " for his 2002 album Everybody Loves Somebody Sometime .
At the Concert for George on 29 November 2002 , the song was performed by Billy Preston , with Sam Brown joining on backing vocals .
In 2003 , Brazilian artist Emmerson Nogueira included a cover of " My Sweet Lord " on his album Versão Acústica 3 .
BeBe Winans recorded a version with specifically Christian , additional verses ( and without Krishna references ) on his album My Christmas Prayer .
Girlyman also covered this song , released on their 2003 album Remember Who I Am .
Danny Colfax Mallon included " My Sweet Lord " on his album George : Harrison 's Compositions Interpreted on Piano in 2004 .
Reggae artist Little Roy ( Earl Lowe ) , a Rastafarian , recorded the song for his 2005 album Children of the Most High , replacing the background chorus with sung references to Rastafari .
Les Fradkin 's cover was released in 2005 on his Something for George tribute album , featuring guest appearances from Richie Furay and former Apple recording artist Lon Van Eaton .
Joel Harrison covered " My Sweet Lord " on his album Harrison on Harrison : Jazz Explanations of George Harrison , released in October 2005 .
Nina Hagen recorded a version of " My Sweet Lord " ( with Loka Nunda ) in 2008 .
John Mayer performed the song live throughout 2008 , notably during his performance at that year 's Glastonbury Festival .
A version by Gary Christian & Desa Basshead appeared on the 2008 charity album Liverpool : The Number Ones Album .
Osibisa covered this track on their 2009 album Osee Yee .
Jim James ( under the name Yim Yames ) covered six of Harrison 's songs , including " My Sweet Lord " , on his 2009 EP Tribute To .
Klaus Voormann , who had played bass on Harrison 's studio version and on the Concert for Bangladesh performance of the song , included a cover of " My Sweet Lord " on his 2009 solo album A Sideman 's Journey ; Bonnie Bramlett supplied lead vocals on the track .
Kevin Max has covered this song , with no references to Krishna , for Christian audiences .
Elliott Smith performed " My Sweet Lord " live with Grandaddy .
Jose Feliciano has also played this song live .
Hurray for the Riff Raff contributed " My Sweet Lord " to Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
In 2014 , Brian Wilson played this song with his band ( including Al Jardine ) live during a tribute to George Harrison .
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Weekly singles charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Certifications and sales = = =
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= Thích Quảng Đức =
Thích is a Buddhist honorary title and Quảng Đức is descriptive of meritorious attributes : see dharma name .
Thích Quảng Đức ( 1897 — 11 June 1963 , born Lâm Văn Túc ) , was a Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk who burned himself to death at a busy Saigon road intersection on 11 June 1963 . Quang Duc was protesting the persecution of Buddhists by the South Vietnamese government led by Ngô Đình Diệm . Photographs of his self @-@ immolation were circulated widely across the world and brought attention to the policies of the Diệm government . John F. Kennedy said in reference to a photograph of Duc on fire , " No news picture in history has generated so much emotion around the world as that one . " Malcolm Browne won a Pulitzer Prize for his photograph of the monk 's death .
Quảng Đức 's act increased international pressure on Diệm and led him to announce reforms with the intention of mollifying the Buddhists . However , the promised reforms were not implemented , leading to a deterioration in the dispute . With protests continuing , the ARVN Special Forces loyal to Diệm 's brother , Ngô Đình Nhu , launched nationwide raids on Buddhist pagodas , seizing Quảng Đức 's heart and causing deaths and widespread damage . Several Buddhist monks followed Quảng Đức 's example , also immolating themselves . Eventually , an Army coup toppled Diệm , who was assassinated on 2 November 1963 .
= = Biography = =
Accounts of the life of Quảng Đức are derived from information disseminated by Buddhist organizations . He was born in the village of Hội Khánh , in Vạn Ninh District of Khánh Hòa Province in central Vietnam as Lâm Văn Túc , one of seven children of Lâm Hữu Ứng and his wife , Nguyễn Thị Nương . At the age of seven , he left to study Buddhism under Hòa thượng Thích Hoằng Thâm , who was his maternal uncle and spiritual master . Thích Hoằng Thâm raised him as a son and Lâm Văn Túc changed his name to Nguyễn Văn Khiết . At age 15 , he took the samanera ( novice ) vows and was ordained as a monk at age 20 under the dharma name Thích Quảng Đức . The Vietnamese name Thích ( 釋 ) is from " Thích Ca " or " Thích Già " ( 釋迦 ) , means " of the Shakya clan . " After ordination , he traveled to a mountain near Ninh Hòa , vowing to live the life of a solitary Buddhism @-@ practicing hermit for three years . He returned in later life to open the Thien Loc pagoda at his mountain retreat .
After his self @-@ imposed isolation ended , he began to travel around central Vietnam expounding the dharma . After two years , he went into retreat at the Sac Tu Thien An pagoda near Nha Trang . In 1932 , he was appointed an inspector for the Buddhist Association in Ninh Hòa before becoming the inspector of monks in his home province of Khánh Hòa . During this period in central Vietnam , he was responsible for the construction of 14 temples . In 1934 , he moved to southern Vietnam and traveled throughout the provinces spreading Buddhist teachings . During his time in southern Vietnam , he also spent two years in Cambodia studying the Theravada Buddhist tradition .
After his return from Cambodia , he oversaw the construction of a further 17 new temples during his time in the south . The last of the 31 new temples that he was responsible for constructing was the Quan The Am pagoda in the Phú Nhuận District of Gia Định Province on the outskirts of Saigon . The street on which the temple stands was later renamed Quảng Đức Street by Communists in 1975 . After the temple @-@ building phase , Đức was appointed to serve as the Chairman of the Panel on Ceremonial Rites of the Congregation of Vietnamese Monks , and as abbot of the Phuoc Hoa pagoda , which was the initial location of the Association for Buddhist Studies of Vietnam ( ABSV ) . When the office of the ABSV was relocated to the Xá Lợi Pagoda , the main pagoda of Saigon , Đức resigned .
= = Self @-@ immolation = =
= = = Religious background = = =
In a country where surveys of the religious composition at the time estimated the Buddhist majority to be between 70 and 90 percent , President Diệm was a member of the Catholic minority , and pursued discriminatory policies favoring Catholics for public service and military promotions , as well as in the allocation of land , business arrangements and tax concessions . Diệm once told a high @-@ ranking officer , forgetting that the officer was from a Buddhist family , " Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places . They can be trusted . " Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam converted to Roman Catholicism as their military prospects depended on it . Additionally , the distribution of firearms to village self @-@ defense militias saw weapons given only to Roman Catholics , with some Buddhists in the army being denied promotion if they refused to convert to Roman Catholicism .
Some Roman Catholic priests ran their own private armies , and there were forced conversions and looting , shelling , and demolition of pagodas in some areas , to which the government turned a blind eye . Some Buddhist villages converted en masse to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diệm 's regime . The " private " status that was imposed on Buddhism by the French , which required official permission to be obtained by those wishing to conduct public Buddhist activities , was not repealed by Diệm . Catholics were also de facto exempt from corvée labor , which the government obliged all citizens to perform , and United States aid was distributed disproportionately to Catholic majority villages by Diệm 's regime .
The Roman Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country and enjoyed special exemptions in property acquisition , and land owned by the Roman Catholic Church was exempt from land reform . The white and gold Vatican flag was regularly flown at all major public events in South Vietnam , and Diệm dedicated his country to the Virgin Mary in 1959 .
Buddhist discontent erupted following a ban in early May on flying the Buddhist flag in Huế on Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . Just days before , Catholics had been encouraged to fly the Vatican flag at a celebration for Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục of Huế , Diệm 's elder brother . A large crowd of Buddhists protested the ban , defying the government by flying Buddhist flags on the Buddhist holy day of Vesak and marching on the government broadcasting station . Government forces fired into the crowd of protesters , killing nine people . Diệm 's refusal to take responsibility — he blamed the Viet Cong for the deaths — led to further Buddhist protests and calls for religious equality . As Diem remained unwilling to comply with Buddhist demands , the frequency of protests increased .
= = = Day of the act = = =
On 10 June 1963 , U.S. correspondents were informed that " something important " would happen the following morning on the road outside the Cambodian embassy in Saigon . Most of the reporters disregarded the message , since the Buddhist crisis had at that point been going on for more than a month , and the next day only a few journalists turned up , including David Halberstam of The New York Times and Malcolm Browne , the Saigon bureau chief for the Associated Press . Đức arrived as part of a procession that had begun at a nearby pagoda . Around 350 monks and nuns marched in two phalanxes , preceded by an Austin Westminster sedan , carrying banners printed in both English and Vietnamese . They denounced the Diệm government and its policy towards Buddhists , demanding that it fulfill its promises of religious equality . Another monk offered himself , but Đức 's seniority prevailed .
The act occurred at the intersection of Phan Đình Phùng Boulevard ( now Nguyễn Đình Chiểu Street ) and Lê Văn Duyệt Street ( now Cách Mạng Tháng Tám Street ) a few blocks Southwest of the Presidential Palace ( now the Reunification Palace ) . Duc emerged from the car along with two other monks . One placed a cushion on the road while the second opened the trunk and took out a five @-@ gallon petrol can . As the marchers formed a circle around him , Duc calmly sat down in the traditional Buddhist meditative lotus position on the cushion . A colleague emptied the contents of the petrol container over Đức 's head . Đức rotated a string of wooden prayer beads and recited the words Nam mô A di đà Phật ( " Homage to Amitābha Buddha " ) before striking a match and dropping it on himself . Flames consumed his robes and flesh , and black oily smoke emanated from his burning body .
Quảng Đức 's last words before his self @-@ immolation were documented in a letter he had left :
Before closing my eyes and moving towards the vision of the Buddha , I respectfully plead to President Ngô Đình Diệm to take a mind of compassion towards the people of the nation and implement religious equality to maintain the strength of the homeland eternally . I call the venerables , reverends , members of the sangha and the lay Buddhists to organize in solidarity to make sacrifices to protect Buddhism .
David Halberstam wrote :
I was to see that sight again , but once was enough . Flames were coming from a human being ; his body was slowly withering and shriveling up , his head blackening and charring . In the air was the smell of burning human flesh ; human beings burn surprisingly quickly . Behind me I could hear the sobbing of the Vietnamese who were now gathering . I was too shocked to cry , too confused to take notes or ask questions , too bewildered to even think ... As he burned he never moved a muscle , never uttered a sound , his outward composure in sharp contrast to the wailing people around him .
The spectators were mostly stunned into silence , but some wailed and several began praying . Many of the monks and nuns , as well as some shocked passersby , prostrated themselves before the burning monk . Even some of the policemen , who had orders to control the gathered crowd , prostrated before him .
In English and Vietnamese , a monk repeated into a microphone , " A Buddhist priest burns himself to death . A Buddhist priest becomes a martyr . " After approximately ten minutes , Đức 's body was fully immolated and it eventually toppled backwards onto its back . Once the fire subsided , a group of monks covered the smoking corpse with yellow robes , picked it up and tried to fit it into a coffin , but the limbs could not be straightened and one of the arms protruded from the wooden box as he was carried to the nearby Xá Lợi Pagoda in central Saigon . Outside the pagoda , students unfurled bilingual banners which read : " A Buddhist priest burns himself for our five requests . "
By 1 : 30 p.m , around one thousand monks had congregated inside to hold a meeting while outside a large crowd of pro @-@ Buddhist students had formed a human barrier around it . The meeting soon ended and all but a hundred monks slowly left the compound . Nearly one thousand monks , accompanied by laypeople , returned to the cremation site . The police lingered nearby . At around 6 : 00 p.m , thirty nuns and six monks were arrested for holding a prayer meeting on the street outside Xá Lợi . The police encircled the pagoda , blocking public passage and giving observers the impression that an armed siege was imminent by donning riot gear .
= = = Funeral and aftermath = = =
After the self @-@ immolation , the U.S. put more pressure on Diệm to re @-@ open negotiations on the faltering agreement . Diệm had scheduled an emergency cabinet meeting at 11 : 30 on 11 June to discuss the Buddhist crisis which he believed to be winding down . Following Quảng Đức 's death , Diệm canceled the meeting and met individually with his ministers . Acting U.S. Ambassador to South Vietnam William Trueheart warned Nguyễn Đình Thuận , Diệm 's Secretary of State , of the desperate need for an agreement , saying that the situation was " dangerously near breaking point " and expected Diệm would meet the Buddhists ' five @-@ point manifesto . United States Secretary of State Dean Rusk warned the Saigon embassy that the White House would publicly announce that it would no longer " associate itself " with the regime if this did not occur . The Joint Communiqué and concessions to the Buddhists were signed on 16 June .
15 June was set as the date for the funeral , and on that day 4 @,@ 000 people gathered outside the Xá Lợi pagoda , only for the ceremony to be postponed . On 19 June , his remains were carried out of Xa Loi to a cemetery 16 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) south of the city for a re @-@ cremation and funeral ceremony . Following the signing of the Joint Communiqué , attendance was limited by agreement between Buddhist leaders and police to approximately 500 monks .
= = = Intact heart and symbolism = = =
The body was re @-@ cremated during the funeral , but Đức 's heart remained intact and did not burn . It was considered to be holy and placed in a glass chalice at Xá Lợi Pagoda . The intact heart relic is regarded as a symbol of compassion . Duc has subsequently been revered by Vietnamese Buddhists as a bodhisattva ( Bồ Tát ) , and accordingly is often referred to in Vietnamese as Bồ Tát Thích Quảng Đức . On 21 August , the ARVN Special Forces of Nhu attacked Xá Lợi and other Buddhist pagodas across Vietnam . The secret police intended to confiscate Đức 's ashes , but two monks had escaped with the urn , jumping over the back fence and finding safety at the U.S. Operations Mission next door . Nhu 's men managed to confiscate Đức 's charred heart .
The location chosen for the self @-@ immolation , in front of the Cambodian embassy , raised questions as to whether it was coincidence or a symbolic choice . Trueheart and embassy official Charles Flowerree felt that the location was selected to show solidarity with the Cambodian government of Prince Norodom Sihanouk . South Vietnam and Cambodia had strained relations : in a speech on 22 May , Sihanouk had accused Diệm of mistreating Vietnamese and ethnic minority Khmer Buddhists . The pro @-@ Diem Times of Vietnam published an article on 9 June which claimed that Cambodian monks had been encouraging the Buddhist crisis , asserting it was part of a Cambodian plot to extend its neutralist foreign policy into South Vietnam . Flowerree noted that Diệm was " ready and eager to see a fine Cambodian hand in all the organized Buddhist actions " .
= = = Diệm reaction = = =
Diệm made a radio address at 19 : 00 on the day of Đức 's death , asserting that he was profoundly troubled by the event . He appealed for " serenity and patriotism " , and announced that stalled negotiations would resume with the Buddhists . He claimed that negotiations had been progressing well and in a time of religious tension emphasized the role of the Roman Catholic philosophy of personalism in his rule . He alleged that extremists had twisted the facts and he asserted that the Buddhists can " count on the Constitution , in other words , me . "
The Army of the Republic of Vietnam responded to the appeal , putting on a show of solidarity behind Diệm to isolate dissident officers . Thirty high @-@ ranking officers headed by General Lê Văn Tỵ declared their resolve to carry out all missions entrusted to the army for the defense of the constitution and the Republic . The declaration was a veneer which masked a developing plot to oust Diệm . Some of the signatories were to become personally involved in Diệm 's overthrow and death in November . Generals Dương Văn Minh and Trần Văn Đôn , the presidential military advisor and the chief of the army who were to lead the coup , were overseas .
Madame Nhu , a Catholic convert from Buddhism and the wife of Diệm 's younger brother and chief adviser Ngô Đình Nhu , who was regarded as the First Lady of South Vietnam at the time ( as Diệm was a bachelor ) , said she would " clap hands at seeing another monk barbecue show " . Later that month , Diệm 's government charged that Đức had been drugged before being forced to commit suicide . The regime also accused Browne of bribing Đức to burn himself .
= = = Political and media impact = = =
Photographs taken by Malcolm Browne of the self @-@ immolation quickly spread across the wire services and were featured on the front pages of newspapers worldwide . The self @-@ immolation was later regarded as a turning point in the Buddhist crisis and a critical point in the collapse of the Diệm regime .
Historian Seth Jacobs asserted that Duc had " reduced America 's Diệm experiment to ashes as well " and that " no amount of pleading could retrieve Diệm 's reputation " once Browne 's images had become ingrained into the psyche of the world public . Ellen Hammer described the event as having " evoked dark images of persecution and horror corresponding to a profoundly Asian reality that passed the understanding of Westerners . " John Mecklin , an official from the U.S. embassy , noted that the photograph " had a shock effect of incalculable value to the Buddhist cause , becoming a symbol of the state of things in Vietnam . " William Colby , then chief of the Central Intelligence Agency 's Far East Division , opined that Diệm " handled the Buddhist crisis fairly badly and allowed it to grow . But I really don 't think there was much they could have done about it once that bonze burned himself . "
President John F. Kennedy , whose government was the main sponsor of Diệm 's regime , learned of Đức 's death when handed the morning newspapers while he was talking to his brother , Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , on the phone . Kennedy reportedly interrupted their conversation about segregation in Alabama by exclaiming " Jesus Christ ! " He later remarked that " no news picture in history has generated so much emotion around the world as that one . " U.S. Senator Frank Church ( D @-@ ID ) , a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , claimed that " such grisly scenes have not been witnessed since the Christian martyrs marched hand in hand into the Roman arenas . "
In Europe , the photographs were sold on the streets as postcards during the 1960s , and communist China distributed millions of copies of the photograph throughout Asia and Africa as evidence of what it called " US imperialism " . One of Browne 's photographs remains affixed to the sedan in which Đức was riding and is part of a tourist attraction in Huế . For Browne and the Associated Press ( AP ) , the pictures were a marketing success . Ray Herndon , the United Press International ( UPI ) correspondent who had forgotten to take his camera on the day , was harshly criticized in private by his employer . UPI estimated that 5 @,@ 000 readers in Sydney , then a city of around 1 @.@ 5 – 2 million , had switched to AP news sources .
Diệm 's English @-@ language mouthpiece , the Times of Vietnam , intensified its attacks on both journalists and Buddhists . Headlines such as " Xá Lợi politburo makes new threats " and " Monks plot murder " were printed . One article questioned the relationship between the monks and the press by posing the question as to why " so many young girls are buzzing in and out of Xá Lợi early [ in the day ] " and then going on to allege that they were brought in for sexual purposes for the U.S. reporters .
Browne 's award @-@ winning photograph of Quảng Đức 's death has been reproduced in popular media for decades , and the incident has been used as a touchstone reference in many films and television programs .
A still photograph of the footage of Quảng Đức 's self @-@ immolation ( the one taken by Browne ) was used for the cover of American rap metal band Rage Against the Machine 's debut album which came out in 1992 , as well as the cover of their single " Killing in the Name " .
= = = Precedents and influence = = =
Despite the shock of the Western public , the practice of Vietnamese monks self @-@ immolating was not unprecedented . Instances of self @-@ immolations in Vietnam had been recorded for centuries , usually carried out to honor Gautama Buddha . The most recently recorded case had been in North Vietnam in 1950 . The French colonial authorities had tried to eradicate the practice after their conquest of Vietnam in the nineteenth century , but had not been totally successful . They did manage to prevent one monk from setting fire to himself in Huế in the 1920s , but he managed to starve himself to death instead . During the 1920s and 1930s , Saigon newspapers reported multiple instances of self @-@ immolations by monks in a matter @-@ of @-@ fact style . The practice had also been seen in the Chinese city of Harbin in 1948 when a monk seated down in the lotus position on a pile of sawdust and soybean oil and set fire to himself in protest against the treatment of Buddhism by the communists of Mao Zedong . His heart remained intact , as did that of Đức .
After Đức , five more Buddhist monks self @-@ immolated up until late October 1963 as the Buddhist protests in Vietnam escalated . On 1 November , the Army of the Republic of Vietnam overthrew Diệm in a coup . Diệm and Nhu were assassinated the next day . Monks have followed Đức 's example since for other reasons .
Đức 's actions were copied by United States citizens in protests against the Vietnam War :
Norman Morrison , a 31 @-@ year @-@ old Quaker pacifist , poured kerosene over himself and set himself alight below the third @-@ floor window of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara at the Pentagon on 2 November 1965 .
Alice Herz , an 82 @-@ year @-@ old woman , also burned herself that year in Detroit , Michigan .
Roger Allen LaPorte self @-@ immolated outside the United Nations building in New York City on 9 November 1965 .
Florence Beaumont burned herself to death outside the Federal Building in Los Angeles on 15 October 1967 .
George Winne , Jr . , a student , self @-@ immolated on 10 May 1970 on the campus of the University of California , San Diego and died the following day .
In an apparently non @-@ political case of imitation of Thich Quang Duc , the young son of an American officer based at the U.S. Embassy in Saigon doused himself with gasoline and set himself on fire . He was seriously burned before the fire was extinguished and later could only offer the explanation that " I wanted to see what it was like . "
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= M @-@ 155 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 155 was a signed state trunkline in the US state of Michigan that served as a spur route from Business Loop Interstate 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) in Howell in Livingston County to the Hillcrest Center , the former Howell State Hospital . It was originally designated in the early 1930s and outlasted the hospital which closed in 1982 . The roadway was removed from state maps after 1991 but remains under state maintenance as an unsigned trunkline listed as either M @-@ 155 or Old M @-@ 155 .
= = Route description = =
OLD M @-@ 155 begins in front of the former state hospital on High Hillcrest Drive and runs north and northwesterly through a field and out of the property . The road passes some houses in the area as it curves onto Country Farm Road next to Sanatorium Lake , turning northward . From there , the trunkline follows Country Farm Road to Norton Road through Marion Township . The trunkline follows Norton Road east over the South Branch of the Shiawassee River and then northeasterly past a residential subdivision . OLD M @-@ 155 then turns due east on Mason Road , running along the Marion – Howell township line before crossing into the city of Howell next to I @-@ 96 . There is no interchange for the unsigned trunkline as it crosses over the freeway . The trunkline runs through more residential subdivisions before it turns northward onto Michigan Avenue . After one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) , the trunkline terminates at the intersection with BL I @-@ 96 ( Grand River Avenue ) in downtown Howell .
As the highway is still under state jurisdiction , M @-@ 155 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 13 @,@ 699 vehicles used the highway daily in Howell and 3 @,@ 960 vehicles did so each day near the souther terminus , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of OLD M @-@ 155 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The Michigan State Sanatorium was opened on September 1 , 1907 , to treat adult patients with tuberculosis . Children were later treated there starting in 1915 . After 1955 the hospital also handled patients with mental illnesses . In 1961 the sanatorium became the Howell State Hospital , and later the Hillcrest Center in 1978 . The facility operated until September 30 , 1982 , when it was closed. and the building finally demolished a few years after . M @-@ 155 was designated in 1931 ; it began at the hospital and ran to a junction with US Highway 16 ( modern BL I @-@ 96 ) in Howell . After the hospital was abandoned , the trunkline designation remained on the road , serving a field . The designation last appeared on official state maps in 1991 . The highway remains an unsigned trunkline .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Livingston County .
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= The Great American Bash ( 2005 ) =
The Great American Bash ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was the second annual event and took place on July 24 , 2005 , at the HSBC Arena in Buffalo , New York . The event featured wrestlers and other talent that performed on the SmackDown ! program .
The main event was Batista defending the World Heavyweight Championship against John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) . JBL won the match after Batista was disqualified , but did not win the title because a championship can only be won via pinfall or submission . One of the featured matches on the undercard was Rey Mysterio versus Eddie Guerrero , which Mysterio won by pinfall . The other was Orlando Jordan versus Chris Benoit for the WWE United States Championship , which Jordan won , also by pinfall .
The event grossed over $ 375 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8 @,@ 000 , and received about 233 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , the same amount as the following year 's event . This enabled WWE 's pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue to increase by $ 4 @.@ 7 million from the previous year . When the 2005 event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart . The event was also available free of charge for Armed Forces members and their families .
= = Background = =
The Great American Bash event featured a card , which contained matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match . The name of a wrestler 's character was not always the person 's birth name , as wrestlers often use a stage name to portray their character .
The main event at The Great American Bash was a standard wrestling match for the World Heavyweight Championship , in which Batista defended the championship against John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) . The buildup to the match began when WWE Champion John Cena was drafted to the Raw brand , taking the title with him and leaving SmackDown ! without a top @-@ tier championship for the heavyweight division . General Manager Theodore Long , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , announced a match between six wrestlers for a new top @-@ tier SmackDown ! championship . On the June 30 episode of the SmackDown ! television program , the match took place between JBL , Chris Benoit , Christian , Booker T , Muhammad Hassan , and The Undertaker . JBL was victorious in the match , but Long announced that he was still not the champion . Instead he had won the right to a match against the World Heavyweight Champion , Batista , who was SmackDown ! ' s final 2005 draft pick , making the World Heavyweight Championship exclusive to SmackDown ! .
On the July 14 episode of SmackDown ! , Batista defeated Orlando Jordan in a standard match after performing a Batista Bomb . After the match , JBL successfully attacked Batista by executing a clothesline . The following week on SmackDown ! , JBL , who was accompanied by Jordan , threw himself a celebration party with the belief that he had already won the World Heavyweight Championship . Batista appeared , and as JBL fled the scene , performed a spinebuster on Jordan .
The event also featured a feud between Rey Mysterio and Eddie Guerrero . At the No Way Out event , Guerrero and Mysterio won the WWE Tag Team Championships from the Basham Brothers . After Guerrero and Mysterio lost the championships , Guerrero then began to portray a villainous character , turning on Mysterio in the process . At WrestleMania , Mysterio defeated Guerrero in a standard match . On the April 21 episode of SmackDown ! , MNM ( Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury ) defeated Mysterio and Guerrero to win the tag team championship . On the April 28 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero and Mysterio faced MNM in a rematch for the title , but MNM retained them after pinning Mysterio for the win . At the Judgment Day event , Mysterio defeated Guerrero by disqualification , and on the June 30 episode of SmackDown ! , the rivalry between Guerrero and Mysterio continued when Guerrero threatened to reveal a secret concerning Mysterio 's son Dominick . Both the Mysterio and Guerrero families continued to beg Guerrero to not reveal the secret . A match was made between Mysterio and Guerrero for The Great American Bash , where if Mysterio won , Guerrero could not reveal the secret , but if Guerrero won , he would be able to reveal the secret on live television .
The third predominant feud prior to the event was between Chris Benoit and Orlando Jordan for the WWE United States Championship . On the July 7 edition of SmackDown ! , Benoit defeated Booker T in a match to become the new Number One contender for the title . As a result of his winning the match and becoming the number @-@ one contender , Long granted Benoit a match against Jordan for The Great American Bash .
= = Event = =
Before the pay @-@ per @-@ view went live , a match took place on the Sunday Night Heat pre @-@ show between Paul London and Nunzio for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship , which London won to retain the title .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match on the card was between MNM ( Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury , managed by Melina ) and The Legion of Doom ( Heidenreich and Road Warrior Animal ) for the WWE Tag Team Championship . During the match , Nitro hit Animal with one of the championship belts , but Animal retaliated by powerslamming him . Animal and Heidenreich then performed the doomsday device on Nitro and got the pin to win the match and capture the titles . This began their reign as WWE Tag Team Champions .
The next match was between Booker T ( managed by Sharmell ) and Christian . Booker T won the match after using his scissor kick . The following match was between Orlando Jordan and Chris Benoit for the WWE United States Championship . During the match , Jordan removed the top turnbuckle pad before Benoit attempted to slam Jordan . Jordan avoided the attack and instead forced Benoit to run into the exposed turnbuckle . Jordan got the pin to win the match and retain the title .
The fourth match was between The Undertaker and Muhammad Hassan ( managed by Daivari ) . During Hassan 's entrance , men in masks accompanied him to the ring to represent his Arabic culture . The masked men proceeded to interfered in the match , but Undertaker retaliated and removed all of the masked men from the ring . Midway through the match , Undertaker attempted to use a Tombstone piledriver on Hassan , but Hassan escaped the move and attempted to hit Undertaker with a clothesline . The Undertaker countered by chokeslamming Hassan . Undertaker scored the pinfall on Hassan to win the match . Following this , Hassan was given the Last Ride powerbomb through the stage floor , writing him out of storylines .
The next match was between The Mexicools and The Blue World Order in a six @-@ man tag team match . At the match 's end , Super Crazy executed a moonsault onto Big Stevie Cool from the top ring rope , and Psicosis performed a leg drop . Psicosis proceeded to pin Big Stevie and win the match for his team .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The following match was between Rey Mysterio and Eddie Guerrero , where the stipulation was that if Guerrero won the match , he would reveal the secret he has been hiding from the public that neither Mysterio 's nor Guerrero 's families wanted revealed . If Mysterio won , however , Guerrero would not reveal the secret . Guerrero suplexed Mysterio three times . Afterward , Guerrero performed a frog splash . Guerrero then tried to score the pinfall , but Mysterio countered by pinning Guerrero to win the match . As a result , Guerrero was not able to reveal the secret .
The seventh match was between Melina and Torrie Wilson ( managed by Candice Michelle , who was also the guest referee ) , in a Bra and Panties match . The only way to win a " Bra and Panties " match is for a wrestler to strip her opponent down to her underwear . At the start of the match , Melina pulled off Wilson 's shirt to reveal her bra , but Wilson retaliated and pulled off Melina 's shirt . Wilson then lifted Melina to her shoulders and dropped her to the mat , while she attempted to pull off her pants , but Melina countered the attack by pulling Wilson 's pants off to win the match . Afterward , Michelle stripped Melina and then removed her own clothes , as well .
The main event was between JBL ( managed by Orlando Jordan ) and Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . Jordan interfered by attempting to hit Batista with a folding chair , but Batista grabbed the chair from him . Batista then used the chair to hit Jordan and JBL , and JBL was declared the winner , via disqualification . In WWE , a title cannot be won by disqualification , but only by pinfall or submission ( the normal scoring conditions in professional wrestling matches ) . As a result , Batista retained the title .
= = Aftermath = =
The feud between Batista and JBL continued after the Bash . On the July 28 episode of SmackDown ! , JBL defeated The Undertaker after interference from Randy Orton to become the number @-@ one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam . The following week on SmackDown ! , Batista and JBL held a scripted official contract signing , where it was announced that their match at SummerSlam would be a No Holds Barred match that allowed for no disqualification . At SummerSlam , Batista defeated JBL to retain the World Heavyweight Championship . The feud between the two ended when Batista defeated JBL in a Texas Bullrope match on the September 9 edition of SmackDown ! , a match where the objective is to touch all four ring corners while tied to one 's opponent with a bullrope .
On the edition of SmackDown ! following The Great American Bash , Eddie Guerrero revealed the secret he had been keeping ; he was Dominick 's real father , not Rey Mysterio ( was thought to be ) . At SummerSlam , Mysterio defeated Guerrero in a ladder match , where the goal is to climb a ladder to retrieve an object that is suspended in the air . As per pre @-@ match stipulations , Mysterio gained complete custody of Dominick . On the September 9 edition of SmackDown ! , Guerrero defeated Mysterio in a steel cage match to end the feud . Guerrero then began a feud with Batista when Guerrero was given a title match at No Mercy . Guerrero , however , died unexpectedly of heart failure on November 13 , 2005 . In 2006 Guerrero was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by Mysterio , his nephew Chavo Guerrero , and Chris Benoit .
The feud between Chris Benoit and Orlando Jordan continued . At SummerSlam , Benoit defeated Jordan for the WWE United States Championship in a match that lasted 25 @.@ 5 seconds . On the September 1 edition of SmackDown ! , Benoit once again defeated Jordan for the title , but this time the match lasted 23 @.@ 4 seconds . The following week on SmackDown ! , Benoit defeated Jordan in another title match , where the match lasted 22 @.@ 5 seconds .
= = = Reception = = =
The HSBC Arena has a maximum capacity of 18 @,@ 690 , but it was reduced for The Great American Bash . The event grossed over $ 375 @,@ 000 in ticket sales from an attendance of 8 @,@ 000 , the maximum allowed . The event resulted in 233 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was the same amount as the following year 's Great American Bash . The promotion 's pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue was $ 21 @.@ 6 million , greater than the previous year 's revenue of $ 16 @.@ 9 million . The event was widely criticized by fans and critics alike . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event a five out of ten . The World Heavyweight Championship main event match was rated three out of ten , and the match between Rey Mysterio and Eddie Guerrero received the highest match rating of eight out of ten .
The event was released on DVD on August 23 , 2005 , by Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD reached seventh on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of October 8 , 2005 , and it rose to the fourth spot the following week . It remained on the chart 's " top ten " for four consecutive weeks , until the week of December 15 , 2005 , when it ranked thirteenth .
= = Results = =
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= Janina San Miguel =
Janina Miller San Miguel ( born November 14 , 1990 ) is a Filipino beauty queen who was crowned Binibining Pilipinas World at the Binibining Pilipinas 2008 beauty pageant . She gained notoriety for her performance in the pageant 's question and answer portion , where she lost her composure and gave an unfocused and rambling response with a thick accent . A video of the incident has garnered millions of views on websites such as YouTube .
San Miguel resigned from her title in September 2008 , citing personal reasons including the death of her grandfather . The title was transferred to first runner up Danielle Castaño , who went on to represent the country at the Miss World 2008 pageant .
= = Background = =
Janina San Miguel came from a poor family living in a residential compound in Quezon City , Metro Manila . She is the eldest of three children , with her father working as a jeepney driver and her mother as a laundry washer or " labandera " ( hired to wash other people 's clothes ) . She has Indian blood among her ancestors .
At the time of the Binibining Pilipinas 2008 pageant , San Miguel was a freshman student taking up broadcast communication at the University of the East in Manila , with the ambition of becoming a professional broadcaster . She had previously garnered first runner @-@ up at her school 's Mister and Miss UE pageant , and said she joined the Binibining Pilipinas competition to gain " experiences , new friends and opportunities " .
= = Binibining Pilipinas = =
The 2008 Binibining Pilipinas pageant was held on March 8 , 2008 at the Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City , Metro Manila . At seventeen years old , Janina San Miguel was the youngest contestant of the twenty @-@ four women in the competition , as well as one of the tallest at 5 ft 11 in ( 180 cm ) . Early in the competition , San Miguel had won special awards for Best in Swimsuit and Best in Long Gown .
= = = Question and answer = = =
As part of the question and answer portion of the pageant , candidates were made to randomly select the name of their questioner @-@ judge out of a fishbowl . The name that San Miguel picked was that of Vivienne Tan , who asked " What role did your family play for you as candidate to Binibining Pilipinas ? "
San Miguel responded :
As San Miguel lost her composure in giving her answer , the audience reacted with jeers and applause , as well as laughter from the panel of judges and other contestants . Midway through her answer , pageant host Paolo Bediones encouraged her off @-@ microphone to continue in Tagalog , though she proceeded with her response in English .
Despite the problems with her answer , she went on to win the competition and was crowned Binibining Pilipinas World . The criteria for judging the winner of the pageant allotted 80 percent to physical beauty , leaving just 20 percent to be divided evenly between personality and intelligence . Bediones later defended San Miguel , saying " I admire her for not buckling under the pressure and for being as blatantly honest as possible " . However , he also added , " No matter how badly she may have performed in the Q & A , she couldn 't have lost much considering she had a huge headstart in the scores " . Winning the title made her the official designated Philippine delegate to the Miss World 2008 pageant , which was scheduled to be held later that year in Kiev , Ukraine ( the venue was later moved to Johannesburg , South Africa due to the conflict between Georgia and Russia ) .
San Miguel has admitted to being offended by criticism of her response . In an interview with entertainment commentator Ricky Lo a week after the event , she explained that she did not comprehend the question clearly when she was on stage at the pageant , due to the softness of the questioner 's voice . When given another opportunity to answer the same question , she smiled and said , " My family is my inspiration " .
= = = Reaction = = =
Video clips of her response have been uploaded to YouTube and garnered over 3 million views . Rep. Eduardo Gullas , a senior lawmaker in the Philippine House of Representatives who authored a bill to reinstate English as the medium of instruction in schools , said the video of the incident was " tormenting to watch " , and added , " She is a Filipino , and English is our highly favored second language . So people expected more from her . " Following the incident , the director of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority offered to coordinate with pageant organizers to conduct English courses for all Miss Philippines candidates to better express themselves .
San Miguel 's response has drawn comparisons between her and Melanie Marquez , Filipina winner of the 1979 Miss International pageant who is well @-@ known for her shortcomings in speaking English .
= = = Resignation = = =
It was announced on September 30 , 2008 that Janina San Miguel had resigned her position of Binibining Pilipinas World . A short official statement released by Binibining Pilipinas Charities said " The untimely demise of her grandfather , among other personal reasons , has caused her undue stress , thus hindering her from fulfilling her duties for the said title " . Her resignation came 6 1 ⁄ 2 months after winning the title , and just 2 1 ⁄ 2 months before the scheduled Miss World pageant .
The announcement of her resignation was met with speculation that San Miguel had been forced by Binibining Pilipinas pageant organizers to relinquish her title due to a lack of professionalism during preparatory training sessions , which strained the patience of her mentors and superiors . In a later interview , she admitted that due to multiple conflicts in schedule she was unable to attend all the training sessions arranged for her by pageant organizers , which included sessions to improve her speaking ability . She also admitted to throwing a fit in the middle of a rehearsal when she received news that her grandfather was dying , and demanded that she be allowed to leave .
In accordance with pageant rules , San Miguel 's title was automatically transferred to the first runner up , Danielle Castaño . Castaño represented the Philippines at the Miss World 2008 pageant held in Johannesburg , South Africa in December 2008 , where she placed as a finalist in the Miss World Beach Beauty fast track event and a semi @-@ finalist in the Miss World Top Model fast track event .
= = Entertainment career = =
San Miguel was strongly considered for a role as a contestant in the second season of the reality television series Survivor Philippines , which began filming in May 2009 . Though one of the show 's criteria is that the contestants must not be celebrities , San Miguel was not regarded to be a celebrity by the show 's producers . Show host Paolo Bediones ( who incidentally also hosted the Binibining Pilipinas pageant ) explained in an interview that she was a shoo @-@ in for the part , but decided to back out at the last minute .
In August 2009 , San Miguel became a contestant in the third season of Celebrity Duets : Philippine Edition . In the season 's first three episodes , she performed duets with Maureen Larrazabal , Bituin Escalante , and Paolo Ballesteros . However , she garnered the lowest number of text votes in the first round of eliminations , and became the first contestant voted off of the show on September 12 , 2009 .
San Miguel has stated that she is refraining from focusing full time on her entertainment career due to her ongoing studies , though she continues to work on her figure in preparation for modeling opportunities . On October 23 , 2009 , she was one of the ten finalists in the Philippine qualifying round of the Ford Models Supermodel of the World modeling contest , which was held at the SMX Convention Center in Pasay . She advanced to the top three , but the contest was won by Charlene Almarvez , who went on to win first @-@ runner up to Karlina Caune of the Baltics in the Supermodel of the World finals held in São Paulo , Brazil .
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= Sunset Overdrive =
Sunset Overdrive is an open world third @-@ person shooter video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Microsoft Studios for the Xbox One . It was announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013 , and released worldwide in October 2014 . The game is set in 2027 , in a fictional metropolis called Sunset City . The player controls an employee of FizzCo , who has to fight off the OD , short for Overcharge Drinkers : humans who have turned into mutants after drinking FizzCo 's energy drink beverage . In the dystopian Sunset City the player character can wall @-@ run , use zip @-@ lines , and grind rails to swiftly navigate through it , with a large arsenal of weapons to use . The game also has a cooperative multiplayer mode called Chaos Squad , which tasks players to complete a series of missions with seven players . As the game put emphasis on momentum , the game does not feature any cover system .
The development of the game began in 2010 when Insomniac completed Resistance 3 . After the project was green @-@ lit internally , the studio partnered with Microsoft Studios , which helped fund the game and allowed Insomniac to keep the rights to the franchise . Insomniac described the game as a " celebration of games " , as the team took inspiration from different sources , including Prince of Persia , Jet Set Radio and Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater , though at its early stage of development the team took inspirations from DayZ instead . The game is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic future , but the team depicted it as an " awesomepocalypse " that turns the game 's initial world depiction into a " playground " for players . Sunset Overdrive is powered by Insomniac 's internal engine , previously used in Fuse , one of their previous games .
The game received generally positive reviews , with praise for the its visuals , traversal system , combat system , and humor . However , the game was criticized for the lack of a compelling story or innovative quest design . It was awarded multiple year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year and Best Xbox Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . The game was supported with multiple downloadable content , including the story @-@ based The Mystery of the Mooil Rig and Dawn of the Rise of the Fallen Machine , after the game 's release .
= = Gameplay = =
Sunset Overdrive is an action @-@ adventure game set in a third @-@ person perspective . Players navigate a metropolis called Sunset City in the year 2027 . This dystopian world has been overrun by mutants called the OD , short for Overcharge Drinkers . The player character is a former FizzCo employee , tasked with cleaning up the mess left behind from a party FizzCo had thrown to celebrate the launch of its new energy drink , Overcharge Delirium XT .
At the start of the game , Players can customize the protagonist 's gender , body type , hairstyle , and outfit using the character creator . Players may also alter the look of their customized character at any point during the game by approaching a vendor named Callista . After creating their characters , players proceed to the game 's open world , which is free for players to explore at any time . A fast travel system is provided allowing players to reach different locations and to navigate the world quickly . The game features a main campaign with story elements and side @-@ missions , which are triggered automatically when players enter certain locations in the city . These quests mainly involve players delivering objects to other non @-@ playable characters and collecting items from the world . Some of these quests have time limits .
Throughout the game , players encounter both human enemies , such as gang members , OD 'd humans who have mutated from drinking too much of the energy drink , and several bosses who are more difficult to defeat compared with other ordinary enemies . The game features a variety of weapons for players to use to combat enemies . These include the standard assault rifle AK @-@ FU and the TNTeddy grenade launcher , which fires teddy bears strapped to sticks of dynamite , fireworks and toy helicopters . All weapons eventually run out of ammunition but do not need to be reloaded while being used . Players unlock more weapons by progressing through the story or purchasing them from shops . Weapons can be upgraded and modified by applying " Amps " , which increases weapons ' lethality , efficiency , and strength . The weapons can be leveled up when players earn enough experience points or defeat enough enemies with them .
The game 's combat focuses on velocity , and encourages players to defeat enemies in a fast @-@ paced way . As a result , players can employ different moves including : wall running , air @-@ dashing , zip lining , performing parkour , acrobatics , and water traversal . Players use grind rails to deftly navigate city streets , and are able to switch direction instantly at will . The city is also filled with items for players to bounce up into the air . Players may utilize their weapons while performing these movements and slow down time for players to take aim . On @-@ foot , players cannot walk , take cover , or take out enemies silently , but instead must rely on agility to survive as they will be overwhelmed quickly by enemies if they choose to walk on the ground . The game also features a Style Meter . Shown in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) of the game , the Meter increases as players perform stylish moves like killing enemies and grinding on @-@ rails without touching the ground . When players are killed , they do not have to wait for the game to load . Players can respawn and return to the world by different methods , such as descending with a rocket or exiting a golden sarcophagus . Insomniac named this system " Next @-@ Gen Respawning " .
The game features an eight @-@ player co @-@ operative multiplayer mode called the Chaos Squad , which tasks players to complete a series of missions , as decided by the players themselves . Players defend vats of Overcharge Delirium XT from waves of OD 'd at night and stop their progression by setting up fortifications and barriers , in a manner similar to tower defense games . It is inter @-@ connected with the single @-@ player mode allowing players to transfer their story character , with all the weapons and gadgets they have already accumulated , to the mode . Although players work together , players also try to earn more Style points during play than their co @-@ op partners .
= = Plot = =
On July 13 , 2027 , FizzCo releases its new energy drink , OverCharge Delirium XT ( also known as OCD ) , exclusively in Sunset City . In an attempt to sell OCD faster , FizzCo skipped health regulation protocols , in turn causing anyone who drinks it to turn into a violent boil @-@ bodied mutant known as an Overcharge Drinker ( OD ) . In order to cover up the deception , FizzCo claims that a virus has broken out and quarantines the whole city , preventing anyone from entering or exiting . The player , a FizzCo employee who works in the sanitation division , is saved from an attacking OD by Walter , a fellow survivor .
Upon learning that Walter is creating a plane to escape the quarantine , the player obtains the aid of Sam and the Oxfords , a group of rich but lazy geniuses . After multiple errands , the Oxfords build a propeller to complete the plane . The player joins Walter in his plane to escape the city and reveal the truth about the outbreak . At the last second , Walter notices an invisible wall preventing their escape and pushes the player out of the plane before dying in the subsequent crash .
Still planning to escape , the player aids Troop Bushido , scouts living in a samurai museum , and Fargarths , a group of larpers . In thanks , the two groups design and build a ship out of garbage which tricks the FizzCo sensors and allow them past . As the player is about to escape , they learn that FizzCo robots are attacking the Oxfords and Troop Bushido in order to kill all witnesses . The player returns to Sunset City and forms a band led by King Buzzo ( voiced and mocapped by the real Melvins singer ) in order to save the survivors . Following the battle , Sam learns that FizzCo is planning something else at its headquarters . To break in , the player obtains the help of Las Catrinas , a trio of cheerleaders caring for the Children 's ' Ward of the hospital . It is discovered that the FizzCo main office is a robot that is going to destroy Sunset City . The player defeats the robot and has milk and crackers with the other survivors . After the credits , Protocol X26 is activated and FizzCo helicopters are seen being sent around the world to deliver OCD .
= = Development = =
= = = Origin = = =
Sunset Overdrive was developed by Insomniac Games , which had mainly developed games for PlayStation consoles . Drew Murray and Marcus Smith , the game 's creative directors , began brainstorming Sunset Overdrive after the completion of Resistance 3 in 2011 . They presented their ideas to Insomniac 's owners and CEO Ted Price , outlining a project that would borrow influences from the documentary Hyena Men of Kenya , Tank Girl comics , the novel I Am Legend , the British television series The Young Ones , Halloween masks from the 1960s , and Lego . The initial presentation failed to generate interest , but Murray and Smith were asked to come back a week later to explain how the game would actually be played . In their second presentation , they explained their vision of a game featuring fast @-@ paced action that would be " the rock and roll end times " . According to Smith this confused some team members who thought that they were making Brütal Legend .
The team received approval after their second presentation . After Sunset Overdrive was green @-@ lit internally , Insomniac had to pitch it to a number of publishers . Insomniac wanted to retain brand ownership , causing some firms to opt out of publishing it . Murray and Smith traveled to Microsoft Studios a number of times to pitch the game to them . The main pitch began with the playing of " Kick Out the Jams " by MC5 , and ended with Murray : " ... on top of a chair , mimicking how the game was going to play , and the last minute heroics . " Microsoft was eager to work with Insomniac and agreed to fund and publish the game . The team originally did not want to make it a console exclusive , but they were impressed by Microsoft 's philosophy toward the development of Xbox One , and the capabilities of Xbox Live features , which allow the initiation of a " two @-@ way dialogue " with players .
= = = Design = = =
Choosing a name for the game was the first thing the team did before starting development . They decided on the name Sunset Overdrive because they felt it was unique , and captured the feeling of the " grindhouse " from the 1970s . The project was originally conceived as an open world survival game similar to DayZ . The initial version of the game did not feature the traversal system , nor the unusual weapons included in the final version , and was described as " grounded " by Murray . In this version , players were tasked with scavenging resources during daytime , and defending their base at night . This later evolved to become the game 's cooperative multiplayer mode . It employed the animation model from Insomniac 's previous game , Fuse . The direction of the game changed after the team watched a video based on Gorillaz , and Murray gave up the idea of a realistic survival game . He then asked the team to start prototyping ideas for a game that they thought would work . Some team members came up with the idea of having skateboarding elements in the game , which led the development team to start working and experimenting with a new traversal system . In hindsight , Murray described the shift in focus as an " organic , evolutionary process " . As the game 's development progressed , the team began to draw on elements from other video game franchises such as Prince of Persia , Jet Set Radio , and Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater , and put the emphasis on momentum .
In 2013 , the team had released Fuse , which was a critical and commercial failure . The team now reflected on the reasons for its poor reception , and felt that they should go back to Insomniac 's roots — developing unusual titles with vibrant visuals — instead of another dark shooter like Fuse . They also thought that Sunset Overdrive 's stylization should reflect the personality of the company , and that building a world that has a sense of humor and irreverence was something the team was eager to do . Ted Price , CEO of Insomniac Games , described it as a game Insomniac had wanted to develop for a long time . The game 's producer , Bryan Intihar , called it : " ... the game [ they 've ] been meaning to make for 20 years . " Microsoft supported it and shared the same vision and the idea of creating something new .
According to Price , Insomniac wanted to " break the rules of shooters " . He felt that the last generation of shooters had established a formula of staying behind cover for defense , and leaning out from it to attack . He wanted to change that pattern with Sunset Overdrive by encouraging players to attack in an aggressive manner and to focus on momentum . To accomplish this , the team developed a city that supported parkour and fast movements . They also hoped that with the introduction of a new generation of video game consoles , they could establish a new standard for the genre which would " retrain " shooter fans playing the game .
Smith compared Sunset Overdrive 's gameplay to pinball games , where a player 's every movement has consequences , and the on @-@ screen chaos created by players is based on their actions . The game 's combat and traversal elements were originally separate from each other , but were later connected as the team began to think that : " shooting while grinding was fun " . The combination of these aspects led the studio to adjust the game 's world design . The team calculated how the city should be designed so that it could support both combat and traversal . As a result , they ensured that the world was built in modular 4x4 blocks , and that no surface featured an angle that was between 26 and 45 degrees . Furthermore , the team considered how long grinds should be , and decided that they should be at least 8 meters in length . The grinds were designed to be longer than usual in enemy @-@ concentrated areas so as to allow additional time for players to consider both combat and traversal options . In order to encourage experimentation , the game features a vertical map @-@ design , in which the difficulty the enemies ' players face increases as they move towards higher ground .
Insomniac described the game as " a celebration of games " , in which the team pushed existing concepts in a new direction . Besides drawing influences from Prince of Persia , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater and Jet Set Radio series of games for the game 's traversal system , they drew influences from Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure for their " Next @-@ Gen Respawn " system , Scott Pilgrim and The Omega Man for the game 's setting , and Peggle when they were creating the game 's weaponry . The game 's humor was inspired by Insomniac 's own game series Ratchet & Clank and Spyro the Dragon . There are also references to other pop culture icons such as Breaking Bad and Portal . Despite that , Smith said that the game would be completely different from The Last of Us , in which the unnamed protagonist sometimes broke the fourth wall and communicated with players .
The game 's character creator function allowed players to create different kinds of combinations in an avatar . The team ensured that there were many customization options , including allowing players to " dress like a crazy person " . The developers felt that this feature would suit the story , because the game 's city enters a state of anarchy , where social norms no longer exist . The team wanted the character creator to feature diversity , so that players could build an avatar based on their own choices . They found the process of introducing diversity challenging . As a result , a system was developed that broke the character creator down into three different categories : mainstream , street ( emo and goth ) , and costume . The team originally added role @-@ playing games @-@ styled stats to the game 's costumes , but later decided to scrap that so that players " would just choose what they thought looked cool . "
= = = Art and setting = = =
The game is set in a near @-@ future , post @-@ apocalyptic world . The team wanted to try something different , unwilling to return to a setting that was similar to Resistance 3 . Instead of depicting a world with a dark atmosphere and gritty environments , the catastrophe that occurs in the game 's story line is referred to as an " awesomepocalypse ” that transforms the user 's initial view of the game 's world as a " playground " for players to explore and do whatever they want – " emphasizing the fun of free reign [ sic ] during end times . " The goal was to make players feel that the post @-@ apocalyptic world in Sunset Overdrive is fun and limitless , delighting and lively , instead of a place that is dreadful and worrying . To achieve this , vibrant and vivid colors were used to create the game 's world and the team hoped that by tweaking the nature of the setting , the game would be " self @-@ aware , humorous , and fun " . The team also intentionally avoided creating a very serious tone because the final product needed to be entertaining and comparable to games like Crazy Taxi and Jet Grind Radio , instead of something too serious that looked like an interactive movie . The team emphasized " fun trumps realism " and reflected that through the " Next @-@ gen Respawn " system , unrealistic weaponry , and the game 's visual style .
While the game features colorful graphics that appeal to a broad audience , it was intended for a mature audience which is reflected in the game 's story , dialogue , and characters ' portrayals . The story was designed to be casual , but compelling . The game 's setting is inspired by both I Am Legend and imagining Iggy Pop as the last person surviving in a post @-@ apocalyptic world . The team also wanted to create a satirical story , and explore the theme of anti @-@ corporatism . The punk rock style was implemented in the game because the game 's directors thought that it reflected a sense of " aggression " , which suited the gameplay .
When designing the cover art , the team collaborated with the English studio Ilovedust . They wanted it to be easily recognized and stand out from the cover art of other video games in stores . They also wanted it to represent the game 's characteristics : " intensity " , " fun in the end times " in a " dynamic and vibrant world " . There were three different iterations of the cover art , with major changes made to the game 's protagonist throughout its development , as the studio struggled with the protagonist 's portrayal . Insomniac was ultimately satisfied with Ilovedust 's finished art design .
= = = Technology = = =
Price called Sunset Overdrive the biggest game the studio had worked on . As it was the first open world game developed by Insomniac they had to deploy new design and development skills to produce it . The time and resources needed to develop the game also expanded significantly . While developing the game 's world , the team broke it down into 10 to 11 hexes and zones . They are classified into three different types : low resolution zones , shadow zones , and mission zones , and they overlap each other so that they can keep all zones loaded at the same time . Sunset City had three different iterations . In the early stages , it was called Greenlight City , based on Burbank , California . This version of the city featured interior structures that could be explored by players , and existed when the game 's core concept revolved around " scavenge , craft , defend " . This city was replaced with " Razor City " when skateboarding , which later became oil slicks and trampolines , was introduced to the game . Razor City was " Neo @-@ Tokyo " -styled , but was later replaced by Sunset City which was more organized . While designing the game 's artificial intelligence , the team thought that the game 's enemies must force players to use the traversal system while simultaneously engaging in combat with them . Because of the game 's vertical design , the enemies were designed to adopt the game 's vertical map @-@ design . The team also developed a “ nav position tracker ” , which programmed these enemies to detect the location of players and find an ambush point .
The game is powered by an internal engine developed previously by Insomniac Games for its game Fuse . The engine of the game was reworked and optimized for the Xbox One . The game runs on 900p at 30 frame rate per second . The game originally ran at a higher definition of 1080p , but it was decided to fix it at 900p so that more actions and enemies can appear on @-@ screen .
= = = Audio = = =
Development of the game 's music was led by Boris Salchow , who had composed scores for Insomniac 's previous games Ratchet & Clank : A Crack In Time , Resistance 2 and Resistance 3 . He collaborated with composers from Microsoft Studios , and Pyramind music studio . The design team wanted the composers to implement eight different styles of music for eight different sections featured in the game . However , this idea was dropped as being confusing and overly @-@ chaotic . The team wanted to achieve a " high energy vibe " for this title and the resulting soundtrack features a lot of punk rock and electronic dance music . Fourteen different bands and artists were hired to perform the music often avoiding using musical instruments and writing lyrics for the game instead . The game 's soundtrack was also inspired by works from FIDLAR , DZ Deathrays and Ty Segall .
Composers tried to match beats @-@ per @-@ minute to the gameplay and traversal system . The game features a dynamic music system , in which in @-@ game actions are reflected by the music . When there is more on @-@ screen action , or when players perform kills , the music becomes more frantic and exciting to help players further immerse themselves in the game .
= = = Release = = =
Sunset Overdrive was among one of the first Xbox One exclusives revealed at Microsoft 's press conference at E3 2013 . The first gameplay details were revealed by gaming magazine Edge in May 2014 . A gameplay demo and a release date announcement happened at E3 2014 . Insomniac had worked solely for the PlayStation family for about twenty years , and the announcement of Sunset Overdrive being an Xbox exclusive led to speculation that the relationship between Sony and Insomniac had ended . Insomniac denied such rumors , saying the company would still be working with other publishers to produce titles and that petitions would not change Sunset Overdrive 's status as an Xbox exclusive . It was released on October 28 , 2014 .
In addition to the game 's standard edition , players can purchase the game 's Season Pass , which adds new in @-@ game items , locations , quests , and bosses . There is also a Day One Edition , which includes three different downloadable content items : " Nothin ' but the Hits " gun , the Hardcore Hammer , and a Fizzie costume . Players who pre @-@ ordered the game from Xbox Live Marketplace also got two additional weapons : the Accordes de la Muerte and the Hangover . A white Xbox One bundle was also released for the game . To promote the game , Insomniac organized a series of shows called the Sunset TV . They provided new information to players regarding the game prior to its release . Microsoft also launched a website called Sunset Overdrive : Walter 's Workshop , which is a browser game that allows players to use some of the weapons featured in the game with footage captured in real @-@ life .
A three @-@ hour free trial of the game was available for players to download for a limited time . Once it was launched the game was supported with downloadable content ( DLC ) . Insomniac released multiple packs which add new weapons to the game . A story @-@ based DLC , titled The Mystery of the Mooil Rig , was released on December 23 , 2014 . Another story DLC , Dawn of the Rise of the Fallen Machine , was released on April 1 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sunset Overdrive received positive reviews . It received aggregated scores of 83 % from GameRankings based on 63 reviews and 81 / 100 from Metacritic based on 89 reviews .
The game 's tone was praised by reviewers . Daniel Bischoff from Game Revolution praised the game 's comedic elements describing them as " contemporary " . He added that the game is one of the rare few that made him laugh while playing . Sam Prell from Joystiq appreciated the humor , and thought that its quality was boosted by the performance of the voice @-@ actors . His opinion was echoed by Peter Brown from GameSpot , who found the voice acting in the game entertaining and believable . However , Prell considered some humorous moments " hit @-@ or @-@ miss " . Andrew Reiner from Game Informer described the game as a " full circle " , in which Insomniac has incorporated all the elements from their previous game into this one . As a result , he thought that while the story emphasized comedy , it successfully reflected some pressing issues existing in society . Mollie L Patterson from Electronic Gaming Monthly appreciated the game 's humor , but noted that it would not be able to satisfy every type of player . Arthur Gies from Polygon described the story as " gleefully stupid " , and commended the self @-@ aware narrative . Chris Carter from Destructoid praised the jokes featured in the game . However , he disliked the story , which he thought failed to offer motivation for players to complete the game .
Sunset Overdrive 's gameplay was also commended by many reviewers . Prell compared the game favorably to Jet Grind Radio , Saints Row The Third , Infamous , and Ratchet & Clank . He singled out the traversal system , which he thought was fluid and well @-@ executed . He added that the fast travel system was not useful in this game , since players can find a lot of fun by simply traveling between different locations in the game 's world . He thought that all of the game 's systems intertwined with each other , and ultimately made the game a complete and worthwhile experience . Reiner echoed similar thoughts , and considered getting around Sunset City fun for players . He added that the traversal system increased the game 's replay value . However , he was disappointed by the game 's occasionally repetitive mission design . Sliva and Brown shared similar thoughts , with the latter saying that the game featured too many fetch quests . Patterson disliked the game 's traversal ; he found that the system was frustrating at times . However , he thought that this problem lessened as players unlocked new moves and skills . Gies felt overwhelmed by the traversal options . He added that Insomniac had successfully created a system that was accessible for ordinary players , while creating challenges for those who want to master the system . However , he noted the camera system may not able to track the movement of the character accurately . He further commended the game 's world design , and described it as one of the most " navigationally sophisticated " worlds he had ever experienced in a game . Bischoff considered the shooting mechanic " loose " , but thought that the problem was overshadowed by the game 's forgiving aiming and steady difficulty curve . Lucas Sullivan also criticized the mechanic , calling it " inconsistent " .
The customization options received acclaim . Bischoff praised the arsenal of weapons featured in the game , which he thought was deep , interesting , and creative , benefited by the Amps system , which added additional complexity to them . Prell described it as the " king " of the game . He praised the game 's ability to allow players to customize their characters , and considered the weapons featured " varied " , and thought they enhanced the game with personality . Reiner thought that all of the weapons featured in the game were fun to use , and that the amps system made experimenting with different weapons rewarding . Patterson also commended the game 's weapons though he was initially skeptical about them . Gies thought that the customization options allowed players to play the game as they preferred , and described the character creator as " flexible " . Marty Sliva from IGN praised the Amp upgrade system , which he felt encouraged players to try out unusual ways to experiment with it .
The game 's art style was applauded . Bischoff praised the colorful graphics and the different graphical effects featured in the game . He further praised the game 's presentation , which he thought would lead " the Xbox One console ’ s personality this generation . " Reiner compared the colorful graphics of the game to Sesame Street , and thought the bright colors " [ electrified ] the screen " . Reiner also praised the " Next @-@ Gen Respawn " system , and the protagonist 's animation . Sliva praised the design of the city , as he thought it featured a unique artistic style , and aided the traversal system . He added that the game 's visuals " pop " , and compared them to the " Easter Bunny on an acid trip " . Carter praised the variety existed within the game 's world , which he considered has prevented the game 's world from being repetitive , and made landmarks easily recognizable . Brown thought that the game did not look realistic , but felt this did not stop the game from being one of the best @-@ looking games available for the console . Sullivan also praised the use of colors , which he found was organic and vibrant . However , Steven Burns from VideoGamer.com was critical of the game 's world , finding it empty .
The game 's multiplayer received mixed reviews . Prell thought that the mission @-@ design was varied , and the voting system kept the mode from being repetitive . He also praised the interconnected structure between the single @-@ player and multiplayer , noting that the items that could be carried over from multiplayer to campaign made the mode feel rewarding for players . Reiner thought that the action featured in this mode is satisfying , but thought that the system lacked enough depth and complexity to engage players . Patterson echoed similar thoughts , and felt that the ability of players to switch between the campaign and the Chaos Squad mode made the multiplayer mode a rewarding experience . Brown criticized the mode , saying that its difficulty was not properly scaled .
The game was the second best @-@ selling game in the UK on its release , and was outsold by FIFA 15 . In its second week of release , it was the eighth best @-@ selling game .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Tropical Storm Delfina =
Severe Tropical Storm Delfina was a damaging tropical cyclone that affected southeastern Africa in January 2003 . The fourth named storm of the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Delfina formed off the northwest coast of Madagascar on December 30 , 2002 . It quickly intensified while moving westward , becoming a strong tropical storm before hitting northeastern Mozambique on December 31 . Delfina weakened while moving inland , and it was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by January 1 , 2003 . However , its remnants moved across the country and into Malawi , later looping around and crossing back over Mozambique ; the remnants of Delfina were last observed on January 9 .
In both Mozambique and Malawi , Delfina dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding . In the former country , over 18 @,@ 000 houses were severely damaged or destroyed , leaving thousands homeless . The storm damaged roads and bridges , which disrupted relief efforts in the aftermath , and floods destroyed widespread areas of crops in the midst of an ongoing food shortage . Lingering flooding caused an outbreak of cholera and malaria in Mozambique , and 47 people were killed by Delfina . In Malawi , flooding was not widespread , although the storm destroyed about 3 @,@ 600 houses and killed eight people . Only two months after the storm struck , however , Cyclone Japhet left damage and deaths in many of the same areas that Delfina affected .
= = Meteorological history = =
At 1100 UTC on December 30 , 2002 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) noted in its Significant Tropical Weather Outlook that an area of convection persisted in the Mozambique Channel off the northwest coast of Madagascar . The system had a weak circulation , located in an area of minimal wind shear . At 1200 UTC that day , Météo @-@ France classified the system as the sixth zone of disturbed weather of the season . It quickly developed , organizing into Tropical Disturbance 6 at 1800 UTC on December 30 . At around the same time , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 08S . The convection became better organized , developing outflow and rainbands . With a ridge to the south , the storm tracked in a generally westward direction toward Mozambique . At 0600 UTC on December 31 , MFR upgraded the system to Tropical Depression 6 , and six hours later the agency upgraded it to Tropical Storm Delfina .
While approaching the Mozambique coastline , Delfina quickly intensified , developing en eye feature and reaching maximum 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . At 1800 UTC on December 31 , MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . At about 2130 UTC , Delfina made landfall near Angoche in eastern Mozambique . It rapidly weakened while moving inland , and MFR discontinued advisories early on January 1 , 2003 . Delfina entered Malawi on January 2 , where dry air affected the storm . The remnants turned to the northeast , drifting into Mozambique and later turning to the south . On January 6 , it crossed over its track and emerged into the Mozambique Channel . When the remnants reached the Mozambique Channel , they were reclassified as Tropical Disturbance 07 , which moved southward over waters . It re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on January 8 before weakening the next day , becoming extratropical . The remnants persisted for several days , dissipating on January 14 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Upon striking Mozambique , Delfina produced strong winds and heavy rains , particularly in the northern portion of the country . A station in Nampula reported 281 mm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) in a 48 ‑ hour period . Delfina washed out roads and bridges in Nampula and Zambezia provinces , which isolated towns and disrupted the transportation network . A train derailed due to effects from the storm , which cut rail travel between northern Mozambique and neighboring Malawi . The cyclone destroyed or severely damaged over 18 @,@ 000 houses , which directly affected about 133 @,@ 000 people , mostly in Nampula where 22 @,@ 000 people were displaced . Floods along the Ligonha River forced 1 @,@ 800 people to leave their homes . In Nampula and Zambezia , Delfina damaged four health facilities and 376 schools . The storm caused a power outage in Nampula for several days , and in Monapo , there were water shortages after the storm . The cyclone destroyed over 2 @,@ 000 ha ( 4 @,@ 900 acres ) of beans and cassava crops and knocked down thousands of cashew trees , in areas already affected by food shortages due to drought conditions . Overall , Delfina resulted in $ 3 @.@ 5 million in damage ( 2003 USD ) , and caused 47 deaths in the country , at least 19 due to flooding .
After Delfina moved through Mozambique , the local Red Cross chapter provided shelter , water , and relief items to the affected residents . Residual flooding in northern Mozambique , compounded with lack of drinking water , caused a cholera outbreak that affected at least 400 people . By January 27 , 12 people had died from the disease . Flooding also caused a malaria outbreak that killed 45 people in the country . Government officials deployed food to the affected areas by airplane and by road , after workers repaired damaged bridges . Residents in Mozambique gradually recovered from storm damage in the weeks after it struck . Only two months after the storm struck , however , Cyclone Japhet left damage and deaths in many of the same areas .
In neighboring Malawi , the storm 's remnants caused flooding in seven provinces , although it was not widespread . Delfina damaged roads , and destroyed one rail bridge in Balaka District . The storm destroyed about 3 @,@ 600 houses ; which forced about 30 @,@ 000 people to leave their homes . The floods affected 57 @,@ 000 properties , damaging 23 @,@ 500 ha ( 58 @,@ 000 acres ) in the midst of a food shortage . Delfina killed eight people in Malawi , prompting President Bakili Muluzi to declare the country as a disaster area on January 11 . After the storm , the Red Cross provided blankets and food for the affected residents . The damaged rail line that initially prevented relief supplies from entering the country was repaired in early February .
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= Sweetheart of the Rodeo =
Sweetheart of the Rodeo is the sixth album by American rock band The Byrds and was released on August 30 , 1968 on Columbia Records ( see 1968 in music ) . Recorded with the addition of country rock pioneer Gram Parsons , it was influential as the first major country rock album by an established act and represented a stylistic move away from the psychedelic rock of the band 's previous LP , The Notorious Byrd Brothers . The Byrds had occasionally experimented with country music on their four previous albums , but Sweetheart of the Rodeo represented their fullest immersion into the genre thus far . The album was also responsible for bringing Gram Parsons , who had joined The Byrds prior to the recording of the album , to the attention of a mainstream rock audience for the first time . Thus , the album can be seen as an important chapter in Parsons ' personal and musical crusade to make country music fashionable for a young audience .
The album was initially conceived as a musical history of 20th century American popular music , encompassing examples of country music , jazz and rhythm and blues , among other genres . However , steered by the passion of the little @-@ known Parsons , who had only joined The Byrds in February 1968 , this proposed concept was abandoned early on and the album instead became purely a country record . The recording of the album was divided between sessions in Nashville and Los Angeles , with contributions from several notable session musicians , including Lloyd Green , John Hartford , JayDee Maness and Clarence White . Tension developed between Parsons and the rest of the band , guitarist Roger McGuinn especially , with some of Parsons ' vocals being re @-@ recorded , partly due to legal complications , and by the time the album was released in August , Parsons had left the band . The Byrds ' move away from rock and pop towards country music elicited a great deal of resistance and hostility from the ultra @-@ conservative Nashville country music establishment who viewed The Byrds as a group of long @-@ haired hippies attempting to subvert country music .
Upon its release , the album reached # 77 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , but failed to reach the charts in the United Kingdom . Two attendant singles were released during 1968 , " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , which achieved modest success , and " I Am a Pilgrim " , which failed to chart . The album received mostly positive reviews in the music press , but the band 's shift away from psychedelic music alienated much of its pop audience . Despite being the most commercially unsuccessful Byrds ' album to date upon its initial release , Sweetheart of the Rodeo is today considered to be a seminal and highly influential country rock album .
= = Background ( January – March 1968 ) = =
The initial concept by Roger McGuinn for the album that would become Sweetheart of the Rodeo was to expand upon the genre @-@ spanning approach of The Byrds ' previous LP , The Notorious Byrd Brothers , by recording a double album overview of the history of American popular music . The planned album would begin with bluegrass and Appalachian music , then move through country and western , jazz , rhythm and blues , and rock music , before culminating with futuristic proto @-@ electronica , featuring the Moog modular synthesizer .
But with a U.S. college tour to promote The Notorious Byrd Brothers looming , a more immediate concern was the recruitment of new band members . David Crosby and Michael Clarke had departed the band in late 1967 , leaving Roger McGuinn as de facto leader of The Byrds , along with Chris Hillman , the only other remaining member of the band . To address this problem , McGuinn hired Hillman 's cousin , Kevin Kelley ( formerly a member of the Rising Sons ) , as the band 's new drummer , and it was this three @-@ piece line @-@ up , with McGuinn on guitar and Hillman on bass , that embarked on the early 1968 college tour . It soon became apparent , however , that The Byrds were having difficulty in performing their studio material live as a trio , and so it was decided that a fourth member was required . McGuinn , with an eye still on his envisaged American music concept album , felt that a pianist with a jazz background would be ideal for the group .
A candidate was found by Larry Spector , the band 's business manager , in the shape of 21 @-@ year @-@ old Gram Parsons . Parsons , a marginal figure in the L.A. music scene , had been acquainted with Hillman since 1967 and he auditioned for the band as a piano player in February 1968 . His faux @-@ jazz piano playing and genial personality at audition was enough to impress both McGuinn and Hillman ; so Parsons was recruited as the fourth member of the band , although he quickly switched to playing guitar instead of piano . Although Parsons and Kelley were considered full members of The Byrds , they both received a salary from McGuinn and Hillman , and did not sign with Columbia Records when The Byrds ' recording contract was renewed on February 29 , 1968 .
Unbeknownst to McGuinn or Hillman , Parsons had his own musical agenda in which he planned to marry his love of traditional country music ( which he saw as being the purest form of American music ) with youth culture 's passion for rock . He had already successfully attempted this fusion as a member of the little @-@ known International Submarine Band , on the album Safe at Home , but Parsons ' new status as a Byrd offered him an international stage from which to launch his bid to reclaim country music for his generation .
Following his recruitment , Parsons began to lure Hillman away from McGuinn 's proposed concept album idea and towards a blend of what Parsons would later term " Cosmic American Music " . In essence , this was a hybrid of various roots music forms , primarily oriented towards honky tonk country music but also encompassing American folk , soul , rhythm and blues , rock ’ n ’ roll and contemporary rock . Hillman , who had come from a musical background firmly rooted in bluegrass , had himself successfully persuaded The Byrds to incorporate country influences into their music in the past , beginning with the song " Satisfied Mind " on their 1965 album , Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! Many of Hillman 's songs on the Younger Than Yesterday and The Notorious Byrd Brothers albums also had a pronounced country feel to them , with several featuring Clarence White ( a renowned bluegrass guitar player and session musician ) on lead guitar , rather than McGuinn . During time spent singing old country songs with Parsons , Hillman became convinced that Parsons ' concept of a country @-@ oriented version of The Byrds could work .
Parsons ' passion for his country rock vision was so contagious that he even convinced McGuinn to abandon his plans for The Byrds ' next album and follow Parsons ' lead in recording a country rock album . Parsons also persuaded McGuinn and Hillman to record the album in the country music capital of Nashville , Tennessee , as Bob Dylan had done for his Blonde On Blonde and John Wesley Harding albums . Although McGuinn had some reservations about the band 's new direction , he decided that such a move could expand the already declining audience of the group . After long @-@ time Byrds ' producer Gary Usher , who had little interest in producing McGuinn 's proposed concept album , indicated a preference for the country concept , McGuinn finally acquiesced . On March 9 , 1968 , the band decamped to Columbia 's recording facility in Nashville , with Clarence White in tow , to begin recording sessions for Sweetheart of the Rodeo .
= = Recording ( March – May 1968 ) = =
Between March 9 and March 15 , 1968 , the band , accompanied by several prominent session musicians , recorded multiple takes of eight songs at Columbia Records ' recording studios in the Music Row area of Nashville . Recording sessions for the album continued from April 4 through May 27 , 1968 at Columbia Studios in Hollywood , with a further seven songs recorded during these sessions and finishing touches applied to many of the tracks recorded in Nashville .
The songs that The Byrds recorded for the album included " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " and " Nothing Was Delivered " , two country @-@ influenced Dylan covers from his then @-@ unreleased Basement Tapes sessions . Despite the change in musical style that the Sweetheart of the Rodeo album represented for The Byrds , the inclusion of two Dylan covers provided a link with their previous folk @-@ rock incarnation , when Dylan 's material had been a mainstay of their repertoire . The Byrds also recorded a trio of classic country songs for the album : the traditional " I Am a Pilgrim " , which had been popularized by Merle Travis in the late @-@ 1940s ; the Cindy Walker @-@ penned " Blue Canadian Rockies " , which had been sung by Gene Autry in the 1952 film of the same name ; and " The Christian Life " , written by the Louvin Brothers , which was the antithesis of a traditional rock song with its gentle lyrics extolling the simple pleasures of Christianity as a lifestyle .
The band supplemented these older country standards and Dylan covers with a couple of contemporary country songs : Merle Haggard 's maudlin convict 's lament , " Life in Prison " ; and Luke McDaniel 's " You 're Still On My Mind " , a sorrowful tale of a heartbroken drunkard failing to find solace at the bottom of a bottle . Additionally , The Byrds gave William Bell 's Stax hit , " You Don 't Miss Your Water " , a country flavored make @-@ over , highlighted by the band 's trademark crystal clear harmonies and contributions from JayDee Maness and Earl P. Ball , on pedal steel guitar and honky @-@ tonk piano respectively . With its fusion of country and soul , " You Don 't Miss Your Water " was a perfect example of what Parsons would later define , with his self @-@ coined phrase , as " Cosmic American Music " .
Lacking any country songs of his own , McGuinn delved into his pre @-@ Byrds folk song repertoire instead , contributing Woody Guthrie 's " Pretty Boy Floyd " , a romanticized portrayal of the real @-@ life folk hero and outlaw . The March 12 , 1968 recording session that produced " Pretty Boy Floyd " saw McGuinn attempting to play the song 's banjo accompaniment , but feeling dissatisfied with his efforts he finally ceded the part to session player John Hartford . The Byrds also recorded a Kelley original , " All I Have Are Memories " , Tim Hardin 's " You Got a Reputation " , and the traditional song , " Pretty Polly " , but none of these songs were selected for the final Sweetheart of the Rodeo album .
Parsons also brought three of his songs to the recording sessions : " Lazy Days " , " One Hundred Years from Now " and " Hickory Wind " , the latter of which had been written by Parsons and former International Submarine Band member , Bob Buchanan , during an early 1968 train ride from Florida to Los Angeles . " One Hundred Years from Now " has a quicker tempo than most of the material on Sweetheart of the Rodeo and functions as a speculation on current human vanities and how they might be viewed by successive generations . The Chuck Berry influenced " Lazy Days " was not included in the final album , but was re @-@ recorded by Parsons and Hillman 's later band , The Flying Burrito Brothers , for their 1970 album , Burrito Deluxe .
= = Nashville reaction and touring = =
Upon completion of the Music Row recording sessions , the band ended their stay in Nashville with an appearance at the Grand Ole Opry at Ryman Auditorium ( introduced by future " outlaw " country star Tompall Glaser ) , on March 15 , 1968 . The band was greeted with derision by the conservative audience because they were the first group of hippie " longhairs " to play at the venerable country music establishment . In fact , The Byrds had all had their hair cut shorter than they normally wore it , specifically for their appearance at the Grand Ole Opry , but this did nothing to appease their detractors in the audience . The Byrds opened with a rendition of Merle Haggard 's " Sing Me Back Home " , which was met with derisive heckling , booing , and mocking calls of " tweet , tweet " from the hostile Opry audience . Any hope of salvaging the performance was immediately destroyed when Parsons , rather than singing a song announced by Glaser , launched into a rendition of " Hickory Wind " dedicated to his grandmother . The deviation from protocol stunned Opry regulars such as Roy Acuff and embarrassed Glaser , ensuring that The Byrds would never be invited back to play on the show .
Nearly as disastrous was the group 's appearance on the WSM program of legendary Nashville DJ , Ralph Emery , who mocked his guests throughout the interview and initially refused to play an acetate of " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " . Eventually playing the record , he dismissed it over the air and in the presence of the band as being mediocre . Clearly upset by their treatment , Parsons and McGuinn would make Emery the subject of their song , " Drug Store Truck Drivin ' Man " , which was written by the pair in London in May 1968 . The song appeared on The Byrds ' next album , Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde , although this recording did not feature Parsons because he had left the band by this time .
After returning from Nashville , the band played a handful of concerts throughout the Los Angeles area with the addition of pedal steel guitarist JayDee Maness , who had played on several tracks on the album . Throughout April 1968 , McGuinn came under considerable pressure from Parsons to recruit Maness as a full member of The Byrds , so that the band 's new country material would sound authentic in concert , but McGuinn resisted , although Maness has stated in interview that he declined the invitation anyway . Having failed to recruit Maness as a permanent member of the band , Parsons next recommended another pedal steel guitar player , Sneaky Pete Kleinow , but once again , McGuinn held firm . Parsons ' attempts to recruit new members and dictate the band 's musical direction caused a power struggle within the band , with McGuinn finding his position as band leader challenged by Parsons , who was also pushing for a higher salary . At one point Parsons even demanded that the album be billed as Gram Parsons and The Byrds , a demand that was ignored by McGuinn and Hillman .
In May 1968 the band embarked on a short European tour and while in England for concerts at the Middle Earth Club and Blaises , The Byrds met with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards who both expressed concern over The Byrds ' intention to tour South Africa during the summer . McGuinn remained undaunted regarding these concerns over the country 's apartheid policies , however , having already received the blessing of South African singer Miriam Makeba , and convinced the rest of The Byrds that a trip to South Africa would be an interesting experience . This meeting between The Byrds and the two Rolling Stones would play an important part in Parsons departure from the band two months later .
= = Post @-@ production = =
Upon the group 's return to California , post @-@ production work on the Sweetheart of the Rodeo album was disrupted when Parsons ' appearance on the album was contested by Lee Hazlewood , who contended that the singer was still under contract to his LHI record label . While the legal problems were being resolved , McGuinn replaced three of Parsons ' lead vocals with his own singing , a move that still infuriated Parsons as late as 1973 , when he told Cameron Crowe in an interview that McGuinn " erased it and did the vocals himself and fucked it up . " However , Parsons was still featured singing lead vocals on the songs " Hickory Wind " , " You 're Still on My Mind " , and " Life in Prison " . There has been speculation that McGuinn 's decision to re @-@ record Parsons ' lead vocals himself was not entirely motivated by the threat of legal action , but by a desire to decrease Parsons ' presence on the album . According to producer Gary Usher :
The three songs that had their lead vocals replaced by McGuinn were " The Christian Life " , " You Don 't Miss Your Water " , and " One Hundred Years from Now " , with the last featuring McGuinn and Hillman sharing vocals on the final album version . However , Parsons ' lead vocals weren 't completely eradicated from these songs and can still be faintly heard , despite having either McGuinn or Hillman 's voice overdubbed on them . The master recordings of these three songs , with their original Parsons ' vocals restored to full prominence , were finally issued as part of The Byrds box set in 1990 . These same master recordings , featuring Parsons ' lead vocals , were also included as bonus tracks on disc one of the 2003 Legacy Edition of Sweetheart of the Rodeo .
With the legal problems surrounding Parsons ' appearance on the album resolved , The Byrds returned to England for an appearance at the Royal Albert Hall on July 7 , 1968 . Following the concert , Parsons announced that he would not be accompanying the band on their imminent tour of South Africa in protest over the country 's policies of apartheid ( a policy that did not cease until 1994 ) . Both McGuinn and Hillman doubted the sincerity of Parsons ' protest , believing instead that Parsons had used the apartheid issue as a convenient excuse to leave the band and stay in England to hang out with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards . Consequently , by the time Sweetheart of the Rodeo was released in August 1968 , Parsons had been an ex @-@ member of The Byrds for almost eight weeks . Following the South African tour , McGuinn and Hillman replaced Parsons with longtime Byrd @-@ in @-@ waiting Clarence White , and Kevin Kelley was dismissed from the band soon after . In total , the McGuinn , Hillman , Parsons , and Kelley line @-@ up of The Byrds had lasted a mere five months .
= = Release and reception = =
Sweetheart of the Rodeo was released on August 30 , 1968 , in the United States ( catalogue item CS 6970 ) and September 27 , 1968 , in the UK ( catalogue item 63353 ) . Columbia Records launched an accompanying print advertising campaign proclaiming " This Country 's for the Byrds " and featuring the tag line " Their message is all country ... their sound is all Byrds . " The album is notable for being the first Byrds LP to be issued exclusively in stereo in the United States , although the album was released in mono and stereo variations in the United Kingdom . The album reached # 77 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , during a chart stay of ten weeks , but failed to chart in the United Kingdom . The lead single from the album was a cover of Bob Dylan 's " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , which was released on April 2 , 1968 , climbing to # 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 45 in the UK charts . A second single from the album , " I Am a Pilgrim " , was released on September 2 , 1968 , but failed to chart .
Despite receiving generally favourable reviews from the critics , the country rock style of Sweetheart of the Rodeo was such a radical departure from the band 's previous sound that large sections of the group 's counter @-@ culture following were alienated by its contents , resulting in the lowest sales of any Byrds album up to that point . Barry Gifford , in the August 1968 edition of Rolling Stone magazine , said of the album : " The new Byrds do not sound like Buck Owens & his Buckaroos . They aren 't that good . The material they 've chosen to record , or rather , the way they perform the material , is simple , relaxed and folky . It 's not pretentious , it 's pretty . The musician @-@ ship is excellent . " Gifford added that " The Byrds have made an interesting album . It 's really very uninvolved and not a difficult record to listen to . It ought to make the " Easy @-@ Listening " charts . " Bringing it all back home " has never been an easy thing to do . "
Rolling Stone also praised the album in its September 1968 issue , with Jon Landau writing " The Byrds , in doing country as country , show just how powerful and relevant unadorned country music is to the music of today . " Landau added " they leave just enough rock in the drums to let you know that they can still play rock & roll . " Noted rock critic , Robert Christgau , described Sweetheart of the Rodeo in a 1969 article for The New York Times as " a bittersweet tribute to country music . " However , contemporary reviews of the album were not universally positive , with an anonymous Melody Maker review from late 1968 deriding the album as " Not typical Byrds music , which is rather a pity . " Similarly , Robert Shelton , writing in The New York Times in November 1968 , commented that " The latest Byrds album adheres to most of the ' rules of the game ' about country sound , and yet , sad to say , to this old fan of The Byrds , the album is a distinguished bore . "
In more recent years , AllMusic critic Mark Deming noted in his review of the album that " no major band had gone so deep into the sound and feeling of classic country ( without parody or condescension ) as the Byrds did on Sweetheart ; at a time when most rock fans viewed country as a musical " L 'il Abner " routine , the Byrds dared to declare that C & W could be hip , cool , and heartfelt . " Alexander Lloyd Linhardt , reviewing the album for Pitchfork Media , described it as " a blindingly rusty gait through parched weariness and dusted reverie . It 's not the natural sound of Death Valley or Utah , but rather , a false portrait by people who wished it was , which makes it even more melancholy and charismatic . " Journalist Matthew Weiner commented in his review for Stylus that " Thirty @-@ five years after it startled Byrds fans everywhere with its Podunk proclivities , Sweetheart remains a particularly fascinating example of two musical ships passing in the night , documenting both Parsons ’ transformation into a visionary country @-@ rock auteur and a pop band ’ s remarkable sense of artistic risk . "
The Byrds ' biographer , Johnny Rogan , noted that the album " stood alone as a work almost completely divorced from the prevailing rock culture . Its themes , mood and instrumentation looked back to another era at a time when the rest of America was still recovering from the recent assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy . " Ultimately , The Byrds ' experimentation with the country genre on Sweetheart of the Rodeo was slightly ahead of its time , to the detriment of the band 's commercial fortunes , as the international success of country rock flavoured bands like The Eagles , America and Dr. Hook & The Medicine Show during the 1970s demonstrated .
= = Legacy = =
Released at a time when The Byrds ' surprising immersion in the world of country music coincided with their declining commercial appeal , Sweetheart of the Rodeo was certainly an uncommercial proposition at the time of its release . However , the album has proved to be a landmark , serving not only as a blueprint for Parsons ' and Hillman 's The Flying Burrito Brothers , but also for the entire nascent 1970s Los Angeles country rock movement . The album was also influential on the outlaw country and new traditionalist movements , as well as the so @-@ called alternative country genre of the 1990s and 2000s . Among fans of The Byrds , however , opinion is often sharply divided regarding the merits of the album , with some seeing it as a natural continuation of the group 's innovations , and others mourning the loss of the band 's trademark Rickenbacker guitar jangle and psychedelic experimentation . Nonetheless , Sweetheart of the Rodeo is widely considered to be The Byrds ' last truly influential album .
Although it was not the first country rock album , Sweetheart of the Rodeo was the first album widely labeled as country rock to be released by an internationally successful rock act , pre @-@ dating the release of Bob Dylan 's Nashville Skyline by over six months . The first bona fide country rock album is often cited as being Safe at Home by Parsons ' previous group , The International Submarine Band . However , the genre 's antecedents can be traced back to the Rockabilly music of the 1950s , The Beatles ' covers of Carl Perkins and Buck Owens ' material on Beatles For Sale and Help ! , as well as the stripped down arrangements of Dylan 's John Wesley Harding album and The Byrds ' own forays into country music on their pre @-@ Sweetheart albums . The Band 's debut album , Music from Big Pink , released in July 1968 , was also influential on the genre but it was Sweetheart of the Rodeo that saw an established rock band playing pure country music for the first time .
In 2003 , the album was ranked # 117 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and Stylus Magazine named it their 175th favorite album of all time in the same year .
Sweetheart of the Rodeo went on to inspire the name of the 1980s country duo , Sweethearts of the Rodeo , who paid tribute to The Byrds ' album with the sleeve of their 1990 album , Buffalo Zone .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Singles = = =
" You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " b / w " Artificial Energy " ( Columbia 44499 ) April 2 , 1968 ( US # 75 , UK # 45 )
" I Am a Pilgrim " b / w " Pretty Boy Floyd " ( Columbia 44643 ) September 2 , 1968
= = Personnel = =
Sources as follows :
= = Release history = =
Sweetheart of the Rodeo was remastered at 20 @-@ bit resolution as part of the Columbia / Legacy Byrds series and reissued in an expanded form on March 25 , 1997 . The eight bonus tracks featured on this reissue include the outtakes " You Got a Reputation " , " Lazy Days " , and " Pretty Polly " , as well as four previously unreleased rehearsal takes and an instrumental backing track for " All I Have Are Memories " . A hidden track on the CD features a 1968 Columbia Records radio advertisement for the album .
On September 2 , 2003 , a 2 CD Legacy Edition of Sweetheart of the Rodeo was released by Columbia / Legacy . This version of the album features additional outtakes , rehearsal versions , and the master takes of the songs that had their Parsons ' lead vocals replaced , presented here with their Parsons ' vocals intact . Most of the alternate versions and rehearsal takes on disc two of the Legacy Edition feature Parsons singing songs that were later released with vocals by McGuinn on the original album . Also included on the Legacy Edition is an outtake from the album sessions called " All I Have Are Memories " , written and sung by drummer Kevin Kelley . In addition , the Legacy Edition of Sweetheart of the Rodeo includes six tracks performed by the International Submarine Band ( Parsons ' previous group ) .
In 2007 , Sundazed Records released a 7 " single featuring previously unreleased alternate versions of " Lazy Days " and " You Got a Reputation " ( titled " Reputation " on this release ) that date from The Byrds ' March 1968 recording sessions in Nashville . These two alternate versions have not been issued on CD .
= = = 1997 reissue bonus tracks = = =
The final song on the 1997 reissue ( " All I Have Are Memories " ) ends at 2 : 48 ; at 3 : 48 begins the hidden track " Radio Spot : Sweetheart of the Radio Album "
= = = 2003 Legacy Edition bonus tracks = = =
The 2003 CD reissue contains alternative versions of songs with Parsons singing lead , along with recordings by Parsons ' pre @-@ Byrds group , The International Submarine Band ( tracks 1 @-@ 6 on disc two ) .
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= Parental Advisory =
The Parental Advisory label ( abbreviated PAL ) is a warning label first introduced by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 1985 and later adopted by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in 2011 . It is placed on audio recordings in recognition of excessive profanities or inappropriate references , with the intention of alerting parents of potentially unsuitable material for younger children . The label was first affixed on physical compact discs and cassette tapes , and it has been included on digital listings offered by online music stores to accommodate the growing popularity of the latter platform .
Recordings with the Parental Advisory label are often released alongside censored versions that reduce or eliminate the questionable material . Several retailers will distribute all varieties of the product , occasionally with an increased price for censored versions , while some sellers offer the amended pressings as their main options and choose not to distribute the explicit counterparts . However , the label has been questioned for its perceived ineffectiveness in limiting the amount of inappropriate material that young audiences are exposed to .
= = Background = =
Shortly after their formation in April 1985 , the Parents Music Resource Center ( PMRC ) assembled a list of fifteen songs with deemed unsuitable content . Particular criticism was placed on " Darling Nikki " by Prince , after the daughter of PMRC co @-@ founder Mary " Tipper " Gore recognized its references to masturbation . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) responded by introducing an early version of their content warning label , although the PMRC was displeased and proposed that a music rating system structured like the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system be enacted . The RIAA alternatively suggested using a warning label reading " Parental Guidance : Explicit Lyrics " , and after continued conflict between the organizations , the matter was discussed on September 19 during a hearing with the United States Senate Committee on Commerce , Science , and Transportation . Notable musicians , Frank Zappa , Dee Snyder , and John Denver each testified at this hearing with strong opposition to PMRC ’ s warning label system , and censorship in general . Approximately two months after the hearing , the organizations agreed on a settlement in which audio recordings were to either be affixed with a warning label reading " Explicit Lyrics : Parental Advisory " or have its lyrics attached on the backside of its packaging .
In 1990 , a black @-@ and @-@ white warning label reading " Parental Advisory : Explicit Lyrics " was introduced as a standard for affected records to follow , and was to be placed on the bottom right @-@ hand section of a given product . By May 1992 , approximately 225 records had been marked with the warning . In response to later hearings in the following years , it was reworded as " Parental Advisory : Explicit Content " in 1996 . The system went unchanged until 2002 , when record labels affiliated with Bertelsmann Music Group began including specific areas of concern including " strong language " , " violent content " , or " sexual content " on compact discs alongside the generic Parental Advisory label . The Parental Advisory label was first used on music streaming services and online music stores in 2011 . That year , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) revised its own music censorship policies to incorporate more prominent usage of the warning label .
= = Application = =
The " Parental Advisory Label Program " in the United States and the " Parental Advisory Scheme " in the United Kingdom lack agreed @-@ upon standards for using the warning label , although they provide guidelines for its recommended inclusion . Although a voluntary practice that is ultimately left to the discretion of record labels , the RIAA suggests that material with " strong language or depictions of violence , sex , or substance abuse to such an extent as to merit parental notification " be affixed with the Parental Advisory label . The BPI additionally requests that " racist , homophobic , misogynistic or other discriminatory language or behavior " be taken under consideration when determining the appropriateness of a record .
Audio recordings that include Parental Advisory labels in their original formats are generally released in censored versions that reduces or completely eliminates the questionable material , They are recognized as " clean " editions by the RIAA , and are left unlabeled in their revised formats . American retailers including Best Buy and f.y.e. distribute explicit and censored records ; Target has sold both varieties of a given record , although has occasionally offered only the explicit version depending on the product . Walmart and their affiliated properties are well known for only carrying censored versions of records ; in one instance , the retailer refused to distribute 21st Century Breakdown ( 2009 ) by Green Day because they were not given the " clean " copies that they requested . Online music stores , including the iTunes Store , generally have the Parental Advisory logo embedded into digital files .
= = Impact = =
Since its introduction , the effectiveness of the Parental Advisory label has frequently been called into question . Jon Wiederhorn from MTV News suggested that artists benefited from the label and noted that younger customers interested in explicit content could more easily find it with a label attached . On behalf of Westword , Andy Thomas implied that the label was purposeless on the grounds that a young customer " would get a copy of the album sooner or later from a friend or another lethargic record store clerk " like the cashier that sold him a labeled pressing of La Sexorcisto : Devil Music , Vol . 1 ( 1992 ) by White Zombie in his childhood . He noted that its intended reaction in parents was varied ; his lax mother was indifferent towards the warning , while the mother of his stricter companion did not allow her child to listen to the record .
Danny Goldberg from Gold Village Entertainment opined that the Parental Advisory label offered minimal value other than " being a way for certain retailers like Wal @-@ Mart to brand themselves as ' family friendly ' " ; he felt that children were successful in getting content they desired " even before the Internet " , and believed that the label had little impact on sales figures . In contrast , the RIAA maintains that " it 's not a PAL Notice that kids look for , it 's the music " . They stated that research they had gathered revealed that " kids put limited weight on lyrics in deciding which music they like , caring more about rhythm and melody " and implied that the label is not a deciding factor for a given purchase . Tom Cole from NPR commented that the Parental Advisory label has become " a fact of music @-@ buying life " , which made it difficult for current consumers to understand the widespread controversy that came about from its introduction .
= = Edited counterparts = =
It is fairly common for an album which received the Parental Advisory seal to be sold alongside an " edited " version which removes objectionable content , usually to the same level as a radio edit . However , the RIAA Uniform Guidelines say " An Edited Version need not remove all potentially objectionable content from the sound recording . " These albums are packaged nearly @-@ identically to their explicit counterparts , usually with the only indicator being the lack of Parental Advisory seal . ( A notable exception is Box Car Racer , in which a black box reading " EDITED VERSION " is placed where the Parental Advisory seal would be ) .
Most of the time , the edited version will only edit the content which is absolutely necessary , in order to be as identical to the explicit counterpart as possible . However , some edited albums , such as Halfway Between the Gutter and the Stars ( " Star 69 " ) and Curtain Call : The Hits ( first 2 tracks ) will have tracks removed completely , while others , such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( " Happy Holidays You Bastards " renamed " Happy Holidays " ) and The Slim Shady LP ( 4 tracks were renamed ) will remove objectionable content from song titles . The edited version of Life After Death is notable for having so many tracks omitted that it was able to be condensed to one disc in spite of being a double album .
The edited version of an album will normally edit to the level in which the content would be considered appropriate for radio airplay . Strong language is almost always edited out ( however the edited version of The Marshall Mathers LP left in nearly all profanities other than " fuck " , with the exception of the album 's singles in which the existing radio edits were used ) , in addition to racial slurs ( most albums will remove " nigga / nigger " ) . Specific drug references are also usually edited out , primarily slang terms for illegal drugs . Generally , however , some edited albums are not consistent with editing violent and sexual lyrics , as often , these lyrics are left in unedited . An example is " Tomb of the Boom " on the edited version of Speakerboxxx / The Love Below , which leaves in detailed lyrics about street violence ( including sound effects of gunfire and police sirens ) and sexual innuendos , both of which would normally be edited out , but on the other hand , all obscenities are muted .
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= Rare Replay =
Rare Replay is a 2015 compilation of 30 video games from the 30 @-@ year history of developers Rare and its predecessor , Ultimate Play the Game . The emulated games span multiple genres and consoles — from the ZX Spectrum to the Xbox 360 — and retain the features and errors of their original releases with minimal edits . The compilation adds cheats to make the older games easier and a Snapshots mode of specific challenges culled from parts of the games . Player progress is rewarded with behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage and interviews about Rare 's major and unreleased games .
The compilation was one of several ideas Rare considered to celebrate their 30th anniversary . Inspired by fans , upcoming Xbox One backwards compatibility features , and the idea to connect Rare 's past and future , the company sorted through 120 games to choose titles that best represented its oeuvre . They prioritized games with characters and environments original to the company . Rare incorporated six hardware emulators in the package , and worked with its parent company , Microsoft , to use its unannounced Xbox 360 emulation . Rare Replay released worldwide as an Xbox One exclusive on August 4 , 2015 .
Rare Replay 's reviews were generally favorable . Critics appreciated the package 's design and craft and called the release a new pinnacle for compilation releases . They commended its " rewind " and Snapshot features , but criticized technical issues in the Xbox 360 emulation and game installation . Rare 's Nintendo 64 classics , with Blast Corps in particular , were communal favorites among reviewers , while Perfect Dark Zero , Grabbed by the Ghoulies , and the Spectrum games were liked least . Some reviewers were disappointed by the absence of the Donkey Kong Country series and GoldenEye 007 due to inevitable licensing issues , while a few thought the package was fine without them . Critics deemed the archival game content and developer interviews as among the compilation 's best features , but were upset to see the content hidden behind time @-@ consuming in @-@ game challenges . Reviewers noted that Rare 's founders , the Stamper brothers , were conspicuously absent from the interviews . Rare Replay became Rare 's first United Kingdom all @-@ format charts bestseller since Banjo @-@ Kazooie in 1998 .
= = Gameplay = =
Rare Replay is a compilation of 30 games previously developed by Rare and its predecessor , Ultimate Play the Game , over their 30 @-@ year history across platforms from the ZX Spectrum to the Xbox 360 ( 1983 to 2008 ) , up until Rare 's Kinect Sports series . The 30 games span multiple genres , including fighting , first @-@ person shooter , simulation , 3D platforming , racing , and skiing . The compilation opens with a musical number featuring Rare characters . Each game has a landing page with a variation on its theme music . While the core gameplay remains unedited , Rare added extra features to the older releases . The player can toggle the visual appearance of scanlines and " rewind " up to ten seconds of gameplay in pre @-@ Nintendo 64 games . The older games can be saved at will and autosave progress upon the player 's exit . Rare also added an infinite lives cheat setting for some older games and fixed a game @-@ breaking bug in Battletoads . The " Snapshots " feature presents small segments of the older games as challenges for the player , such as collecting a set amount of points in a set amount of time in a set scenario , similar in function to the NES Remix series . Some Snapshots are connected sequentially as a playlist .
The ZX Spectrum emulation retains the technical idiosyncrasies of the original hardware . For instance , the game 's graphics speed up or slow down dependent on the number of items for the computer to process on @-@ screen . The Nintendo 64 emulation upgrades the games ' polygon rendering and frame rate . The nine Xbox 360 releases ( and re @-@ releases ) install directly to the Xbox One dashboard separately from the Rare Replay compilation , and require online activation before they can be played offline . The Xbox 360 games share player saved game and Achievement progress between the consoles via Xbox Live 's cloud sync features . Rare Replay uses the prior Xbox 360 ports of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Banjo @-@ Tooie , and Perfect Dark rather than emulating their originals . However , Rare chose to emulate the original Conker 's Bad Fur Day rather than using its Xbox port . Grabbed by the Ghoulies runs natively on the Xbox One , as a port upgraded its display resolution and frame rate . Rare Replay retains the local and online multiplayer modes of the original games , and includes their main downloadable content add @-@ ons . Multiple classic Rare titles , such as the Donkey Kong Country series and GoldenEye 007 , are not included in the compilation due to licensing issues .
A bonus feature section , " Rare Revealed " , contains over an hour of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage focusing on Rare 's major and unreleased games . The player completes in @-@ game challenges to collect stamps , which increase the player 's rank and unlock the bonus features . The player must finish each game to receive all stamps . The compilation automatically grants stamps for prior progress in the package 's Xbox 360 games . Current and former Rare employees , such as Grant Kirkhope , feature in the documentary clips , though studio founders Tim and Chris Stamper do not appear . Rare Revealed unveils gameplay footage from several unreleased games . In the open world adventure game Black Widow , the player controls a spider @-@ like robot equipped with missiles . The spider was expected to be recycled in Kameo 2 . This unreleased sequel to Kameo was designed with a darker tone than the original . Rare also worked on The Fast and the Furriest , a spiritual successor to Diddy Kong Racing with vehicle customization and track alterations . The company 's other planned intellectual properties included the survival game prototype Sundown and the airplane @-@ based Tailwind . The " Rare Revealed " videos include trivia behind some game design decisions such as Blast Corps ' character design , the fate of Banjo @-@ Kazooie 's Stop ' n ' Swop features , and audio overrides built into Killer Instinct . Additional Rare Revealed featurettes not present in Rare Replay have been released since the game 's launch via the company 's official YouTube channel .
= = Development = =
Rare began work on Rare Replay in 2014 as a 30th anniversary celebration . They wanted to do something unique for what they considered a rare milestone in the industry . Rare was also influenced by community requests to bring their classics to Xbox One , and the Microsoft backwards compatibility team 's progress on the feature . The compilation was one of several celebration ideas , but once it was chosen , the " 30 years " theme led to the 30 game limit and US $ 30 price point . As reflective of the company 's character and celebratory theme , Rare chose a papercraft art style and theatrical stage setting for the compilation . Rare Replay became part of Rare 's plan to simultaneously celebrate its past and introduce its future with a logo redesign , new website , and announcement of their upcoming game , Sea of Thieves . Rare sorted through 120 games in their history and rated each for fitness to select the collection 's final 30 . Rare prioritized titles that featured characters and environments original to the company , which was their explanation for excluding licensed titles . The availability of licensed titles was a secondary factor , as was how fun they considered the game and how well the title aged against its contemporary video games . They wanted a wide and representative sample of " popular games that would hit that nostalgic beat that everyone likes " . Rare chose the Nintendo 64 Conker 's Bad Fur Day over the Xbox version ( Conker : Live & Reloaded ) because they felt the latter had strayed too far from the original . While Rare Replay 's designers made the final call , other Rare employees and veterans gave input and recollected old game development stories .
Unlike the usual product development cycle , which grows a concept into a final product , most of the development work in Rare Replay was in converging 30 games across six platforms onto one disc . The engineering challenge rested in the quantity of games and platforms being emulated rather than the emulation effort itself . Rare worked in close collaboration with Microsoft as the latter developed the Xbox One 's backwards compatibility features in secret , which Rare ultimately used in Rare Replay . The Microsoft team helped prepare Rare 's nine Xbox 360 games for the release . Their discontinued online services were not restored for the compilation . On Rare Replay 's design , lead designer Paul Collins added that the Snapshot challenges were built to encourage players to sample all of the games , and that the rewind feature was to help all players finish the games without quitting in frustration . The compilation 's opening musical number was a compromise from the original vision : a musical history of the company 's oeuvre , as told through small musical introductions to each Snapshot . The final opening was intended to evoke players ' memories of Rare properties , and includes several Easter eggs .
Rare Replay was announced during the Microsoft press conference at the June 2015 Electronic Entertainment Expo . The reveal was leaked in the hours prior to the show . The compilation was released as an Xbox One exclusive worldwide on August 4 , 2015 . There are no plans for a Windows 10 release or downloadable content additions . While Rare 's founders , the Stamper brothers , were not interviewed in the bonus features , Tim Stamper appeared in a Develop interview set to coincide with the compilation 's release . Rare also added a tie @-@ in wherein Rare Replay owners unlocked the Battletoads character Rash as a playable character in the 2013 fighting game Killer Instinct during a limited test period .
= = Reception = =
Rare Replay received " generally favorable " reviews , according to review aggregator Metacritic . It reached the top of the United Kingdom all @-@ format games sales charts — the first Xbox One exclusive to do so and Rare 's first since Banjo @-@ Kazooie in 1998 . Rare Replay was also the first top @-@ ranked budget title since Wii Fit Plus ( 2009 ) before it fell to sixth place the next week . Rare Replay was the sixth best selling game in North America for August 2015 . The compilation had earlier been Amazon.com 's most preordered game of the 2015 Electronic Entertainment Expo . Reviewers liked its value proposition and low price .
Reviewers noted the quality and craft that went into the compilation 's design . Jaz Rignall ( USgamer ) was impressed by the compilation 's presentation and balance between frills and efficiency , and Dan Whitehead ( Eurogamer ) felt that the theatrical theme fit Rare 's character . Reviewers considered Rare Replay a high @-@ water mark for video game compilations . Stephen Totilo ( Kotaku ) called it the best since Valve 's The Orange Box . Chris Plante ( The Verge ) praised Rare Replay as a viable response to retrogame copyright infringement , with its slight hardware improvements and added touches . Alternatively , Jeremy Parish ( USgamer ) judged the Criterion Collection @-@ style presentation of the contemporaneous Mega Man Legacy Collection ( 2015 ) to provide a more authentic appreciation of its original material . Ars Technica wrote that the compilation 's target audience — gamers who experienced the originals in their heyday — would likely not be affected by a critical review of the included games . He felt that the compilation 's variety offered players at least eight new and exciting games apiece regardless of their feelings towards Rare . Many of the compilation 's games already had long @-@ established legacies .
Communal favorites of the package included Blast Corps , Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts , the Viva Piñata games , and the Nintendo 64 classics ( especially Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Conker , and Perfect Dark ) . Least favorites included Perfect Dark Zero , Grabbed by the Ghoulies , Snake Rattle & Roll , and the early Spectrum games , which reviewers felt had aged the worst . However , Sam Machkovech of Ars Technica felt that the seven Spectrum games showed a more experimental and unrefined side of the company that tested the bounds of game design . He called the selections " incredibly forward @-@ thinking " but too confusing to control and heavily focused on repeated quests and item collection .
Critics were disappointed at the exclusion of Donkey Kong Country , GoldenEye 007 , and Diddy Kong Racing , which they considered among the company 's best games , but an inevitable absence due to licensing issues . Other reviewers were not as disappointed , and felt that the package was fine without them . The Kotaku reviewer found that the package 's omission of Nintendo franchises and Kinect Sports hurt its overall continuity , such as understanding how Conker was a response to the " cutesy " Nintendo characters of its predecessors . The reviewer discerned that Rare Replay was , in part , " image rehabilitation for a studio that had stopped making classic games many years ago " , and hoped that the package was a sign of commitment to more " deep and daring games " in Rare 's future . Ars Technica 's critic lamented that GoldenEye was yet to receive any remaster or rerelease while Donkey Kong Country was rereleased on Nintendo 's Virtual Console . He was impressed by Microsoft 's ability to license from publishers including Tradewest , Nintendo , Milton Bradley , and Electronic Arts , but noted that Rare 's Super Nintendo @-@ era games were unrepresented and was upset to see Rare 's " Mario Kart clones " and It 's Mr. Pants ! left out . Eurogamer 's reviewer considered the compilation a feat in an era where consoles were receiving endless re @-@ releases . He was surprised to see Rare 's style remain consistent over time , and compared the company 's legacy to that of Cosgrove Hall . Philip Kollar ( Polygon ) said that the selections represented Rare 's full gamut . Kyle Hilliard ( Game Informer ) wrote that the compilation had two pleasant surprises for every dud .
Reviewers felt that the archival game content and developer interviews were among Rare Replay 's best features . Some were frustrated that the features were locked behind time @-@ consuming in @-@ game challenges . Machkovech ( Ars Technica ) found himself stuck not even halfway through the stamp card progress after finishing the easiest achievements . This made the unreleased game footage particularly hard to access . Totilo ( Kotaku ) similarly became uninterested in finishing the stamp collection . He called the stamps the package 's " sickest joke " in consideration of Rare 's reputation for collectible @-@ heavy games . Some reviewers found the developer content more important than individual games . Polygon 's reviewer called the compilation " an essential piece of gaming history " , while Kotaku 's critic noted that the features lacked a straightforward history of the company and hid Rare 's significant , former ties with Nintendo . Whitehead ( Eurogamer ) wondered why Mire Mare and other early games were ignored in the bonus content . Machkovech ( Ars Technica ) found Rare Replay to be as much a " memorial " as an anthology since Rare had become " a shadow of its former self " . He noted how the compilation ends around the time when Rare 's founding Stamper brothers left the company . Reviewers felt that the Stamper brothers were a conspicuous absence from the compilation and Jaz Rignall figured that the compilation 's stamps feature was a reference to the brothers .
Reviewers praised the feature by which players could " rewind " time and reattempt difficult sections of ZX Spectrum and Nintendo Entertainment System games , which were known for their difficulty , especially in the notoriously challenging Battletoads . Kotaku figured that Rare added cheats to make the esoteric and " crushingly tough " Spectrum games tolerable , and the Ars Technica review wished that this " rewind " feature had been extended to the Nintendo 64 titles . Critics liked the Snapshot challenges and Polygon reported that they were crucial for learning basic game mechanics , though less accessible than those of NES Remix . Reviewers complained that the Spectrum game controls were difficult to decipher . The Ars Technica reviewer thought that the compilation did a poor job of explaining each game 's controls , and wondered why Rare did not include introductory or how @-@ to videos . Instead , he turned to YouTube videos and external FAQs before playing each game . Eurogamer and Ars Technica disagreed on the virtues of having the Spectrum emulator replicate the graphical glitches of the original console . Jaz Rignall of USgamer appreciated the added option to save game progress at any time for the Spectrum classics , and wrote that the collection will remind players how difficult games used to be .
Rare Replay 's Nintendo 64 emulation pleased critics . Ars Technica wrote that the polygonal upgrades compensated for the " blurry " and " pixelated " source material , though the Nintendo 64 multiplayer modes lacked the frame rate upgrades that their single @-@ player modes received . Kotaku noted that the Xbox One had more Nintendo 64 re @-@ releases than Nintendo 's Wii U Virtual Console . Its reviewer found the in @-@ game Xbox One button prompts to be " delightful anachronisms " . Ars Technica 's reviewer commended Rare 's choice to the Nintendo 64 version of Conker 's Bad Fur Day over its updated yet censored Xbox re @-@ release . Initial reviews found Jet Force Gemini unplayable without dual thumbstick controls , which were later added . While Machkovech ( Ars Technica ) considered Rare 's Microsoft games to the weakest of the lot , Whitehead ( Eurogamer ) found them even more enjoyable in the context of Rare Replay . Reviewers noted frame rate and technical issues in the Xbox 360 emulation and did not like its separation from the rest of the compilation . Kollar ( Polygon ) called the Xbox 360 game installation process needlessly complex , and Marty Sliva ( IGN ) did not like how the Xbox 360 startup sequence interrupted the compilation 's cohesion . He added that the emulated Xbox 360 experience was subpar compared to the unemulated experience .
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= Battle of the Nile =
The Battle of the Nile ( also known as the Battle of Aboukir Bay ; French : Bataille d 'Aboukir ; Egyptian Arabic : معركة أبي قير البحرية ) was a major naval battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the Navy of the French Republic at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast off Egypt from 1 to 3 August 1798 . The battle was the climax of a naval campaign that had ranged across the Mediterranean during the previous three months , as a large French convoy sailed from Toulon to Alexandria carrying an expeditionary force under then General Napoleon Bonaparte . In the battle , the British fleet , led by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson , decisively defeated the French under Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys d 'Aigalliers .
Napoleon Bonaparte sought to invade Egypt as the first step in a campaign against British India in an effort to drive Britain out of the French Revolutionary Wars . As Bonaparte 's fleet crossed the Mediterranean , it was pursued by a British force under Nelson , who had been sent from the British fleet in the Tagus to learn the purpose of the French expedition and defeat it . For more than two months , he chased the French , on several occasions only missing them by a matter of hours . Bonaparte , aware of Nelson 's pursuit , enforced absolute secrecy about his destination and was able to capture Malta and then land in Egypt without interception by the British naval forces .
With the French army ashore , the French fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay , 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Alexandria . Commander Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys d 'Aigalliers believed he had established a formidable defensive position . When the British fleet arrived off Egypt on 1 August and discovered Brueys 's dispositions , Nelson ordered an immediate attack . His ships advanced on the French line and split into two divisions as they approached . One cut across the head of the line and passed between the anchored French and the shore while the other engaged the seaward side of the French fleet . Trapped in a crossfire , the leading French warships were battered into surrender during a fierce three @-@ hour battle , while the centre succeeded in repelling the initial British attack . As British reinforcements arrived , the centre came under renewed assault and at 22 : 00 the French flagship Orient exploded . With Brueys dead , and his vanguard and centre defeated , the rear division of the French fleet attempted to break out of the bay , but ultimately only two ships of the line and two frigates escaped , from a total of 17 ships engaged .
The battle reversed the strategic situation between the two nations ' forces in the Mediterranean and entrenched the Royal Navy in the dominant position it would retain for the rest of the war . It also encouraged other European countries to turn against France , and was a factor in the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition . Bonaparte 's army was trapped in Egypt , and Royal Navy dominance off the Syrian coast contributed significantly to its defeat at the Siege of Acre in 1799 that preceded Bonaparte 's return to Europe . Nelson , who had been wounded in the battle , was proclaimed a hero across Europe and was subsequently made Baron Nelson , although he was privately dissatisfied with his rewards . His captains were also highly praised and would go on to form the nucleus of the legendary Nelsonic Band of Brothers . The legend of the battle has remained prominent in the popular consciousness , with perhaps the best @-@ known representation being Felicia Hemans ' 1826 poem Casabianca .
= = Background = =
Following Napoleon Bonaparte 's victories over the Austrian Empire in northern Italy – which helped secure victory for the French in the War of the First Coalition in 1797 – Great Britain remained the only major European power still at war with the French Republic . The French Directory investigated a number of strategic options to counter British opposition , including projected invasions of Ireland and Britain and the expansion of the French Navy to challenge the Royal Navy at sea . Despite significant efforts , British control of Northern European waters rendered these ambitions impractical in the short term , and the Royal Navy remained firmly in control of the Atlantic Ocean . However , the French navy was dominant in the Mediterranean , following the withdrawal of the British fleet after the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain in 1796 . This allowed Bonaparte to propose an invasion of Egypt as an alternative to confronting Britain directly , believing that the British would be too distracted by an imminent Irish uprising to intervene in the Mediterranean .
Bonaparte believed that by establishing a permanent presence in Egypt ( nominally part of the neutral Ottoman Empire ) the French would obtain a staging point for future operations against British India , possibly in conjunction with the Tipu Sultan of Seringapatam , that might successfully drive the British out of the war . The campaign would sever the chain of communication that connected Britain with India , an essential part of the British Empire whose trade generated the wealth Britain required to prosecute the war successfully . The French Directory agreed with Bonaparte 's plans , although a major factor in their decision was a desire to see the politically ambitious Bonaparte and the fiercely loyal veterans of his Italian campaigns travel as far from France as possible . During the spring of 1798 , Bonaparte assembled more than 35 @,@ 000 soldiers in Mediterranean France and Italy and developed a powerful fleet at Toulon . He also formed the Commission des Sciences et des Arts , a body of scientists and engineers intended to establish a French colony in Egypt . Napoleon kept the destination of the expedition top secret — most of the army 's officers did not know of its target , and Bonaparte did not publicly reveal his goal until the first stage of the expedition was complete .
= = = Mediterranean campaign = = =
Bonaparte 's armada sailed from Toulon on 19 May 1798 , making rapid progress through the Ligurian Sea and collecting more ships at Genoa , before sailing southwards along the Sardinian coast and passing Sicily on 7 June . On 9 June , the fleet arrived off Malta , then under the ownership of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem , ruled by Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim . Bonaparte demanded that his fleet be permitted entry to the fortified harbour of Valletta . When the Knights refused , the French general responded by ordering a large scale invasion of the Maltese Islands , overrunning the defenders after 24 hours of skirmishing . The Knights formally surrendered on 12 June and , in exchange for substantial financial compensation , handed the islands and all of their resources over to Bonaparte , including the extensive property of the Roman Catholic Church on Malta . Within a week , Bonaparte had resupplied his ships , and on 19 June , his fleet departed for Alexandria in the direction of Crete , leaving 4 @,@ 000 men at Valletta under General Claude @-@ Henri Vaubois to ensure French control of the islands .
While Bonaparte was sailing to Malta , the Royal Navy re @-@ entered the Mediterranean for the first time in more than a year . Alarmed by reports of French preparations on the Mediterranean coast , Lord Spencer at the Admiralty sent a message to Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St. Vincent , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet based in the Tagus River , to despatch a squadron to investigate . This squadron , consisting of three ships of the line and three frigates , was entrusted to Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson .
Nelson was a highly experienced officer who had been blinded in one eye during fighting in Corsica in 1794 and subsequently commended for his capture of two Spanish ships of the line at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent in February 1797 . In July 1797 , he lost an arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and had been forced to return to Britain to recuperate . Returning to the fleet at the Tagus in late April 1798 , he was ordered to collect the squadron stationed at Gibraltar and sail for the Ligurian Sea . On 21 May , as Nelson 's squadron approached Toulon , it was struck by a fierce gale and Nelson 's flagship , HMS Vanguard , lost its topmasts and was almost wrecked on the Corsican coast . The remainder of the squadron was scattered . The ships of the line sheltered at San Pietro Island off Sardinia ; the frigates were blown to the west and failed to return .
On 7 June , following hasty repairs to his flagship , a fleet consisting of ten ships of the line and a fourth @-@ rate joined Nelson off Toulon . The fleet , under the command of Captain Thomas Troubridge , had been sent by Earl St. Vincent to reinforce Nelson , with orders that he was to pursue and intercept the Toulon convoy . Although he now had enough ships to challenge the French fleet , Nelson suffered two great disadvantages : He had no intelligence regarding the destination of the French , and no frigates to scout ahead of his force . Striking southwards in the hope of collecting information about French movements , Nelson 's ships stopped at Elba and Naples , where the British ambassador , Sir William Hamilton , reported that the French fleet had passed Sicily headed in the direction of Malta . Despite pleas from Nelson and Hamilton , King Ferdinand of Naples refused to lend his frigates to the British fleet , fearing French reprisals . On 22 June , a brig sailing from Ragusa brought Nelson the news that the French had sailed eastwards from Malta on 16 June . After conferring with his captains , the admiral decided that the French target must be Egypt and set off in pursuit . Incorrectly believing the French to be five days ahead rather than two , Nelson insisted on a direct route to Alexandria without deviation .
On the evening of 22 June , Nelson 's fleet passed the French in the darkness , overtaking the slow invasion convoy without realising how close they were to their target . Making rapid time on a direct route , Nelson reached Alexandria on 28 June and discovered that the French were not there . After a meeting with the suspicious Ottoman commander , Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim , Nelson ordered the British fleet northwards , reaching the coast of Anatolia on 4 July and turning westwards back towards Sicily . Nelson had missed the French by less than a day — the scouts of the French fleet arrived off Alexandria in the evening of 29 June .
Concerned by his near encounter with Nelson , Bonaparte ordered an immediate invasion , his troops coming ashore in a poorly managed amphibious operation in which at least 20 drowned . Marching along the coast , the French army stormed Alexandria and captured the city , after which Bonaparte led the main force of his army inland . He instructed his naval commander , Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers , to anchor in Alexandria harbour , but naval surveyors reported that the channel into the harbour was too shallow and narrow for the larger ships of the French fleet . As a result , the French selected an alternative anchorage at Aboukir Bay , 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Alexandria .
Nelson 's fleet reached Syracuse in Sicily on 19 July and took on essential supplies . There the admiral wrote letters describing the events of the previous months : " It is an old saying , ' the Devil 's children have the Devil 's luck . ' I cannot find , or at this moment learn , beyond vague conjecture where the French fleet are gone to . All my ill fortune , hitherto , has proceeded from want of frigates . " By 24 July , his fleet was resupplied and , having determined that the French must be somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean , Nelson sailed again in the direction of the Morea . On 28 July , at Coron , Nelson finally obtained intelligence describing the French attack on Egypt and turned south across the Mediterranean . His scouts , HMS Alexander and HMS Swiftsure , sighted the French transport fleet at Alexandria on the afternoon of 1 August .
= = = Aboukir Bay = = =
When Alexandria harbour had proved inadequate for his fleet , Brueys had gathered his captains and discussed their options . Bonaparte had ordered the fleet to anchor in Aboukir Bay , a shallow and exposed anchorage , but had supplemented the orders with the suggestion that , if Aboukir Bay was too dangerous , Brueys could sail north to Corfu , leaving only the transports and a handful of lighter warships at Alexandria . Brueys refused , in the belief that his squadron could provide essential support to the French army on shore , and called his captains aboard his 120 @-@ gun flagship Orient to discuss their response should Nelson discover the fleet in its anchorage . Despite vocal opposition from Contre @-@ amiral Armand Blanquet , who insisted that the fleet would be best able to respond in open water , the rest of the captains agreed that anchoring in a line of battle inside the bay presented the strongest tactic for confronting Nelson . It is possible that Bonaparte envisaged Aboukir Bay as a temporary anchorage : on 27 July , he expressed the expectation that Brueys had already transferred his ships to Alexandria , and three days later , he issued orders for the fleet to make for Corfu in preparation for naval operations against the Ottoman territories in the Balkans , although Bedouin partisans intercepted and killed the courier carrying the instructions .
Aboukir Bay is a coastal indentation 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ) across , stretching from the village of Abu Qir in the west to the town of Rosetta to the east , where one of the mouths of the River Nile empties into the Mediterranean . In 1798 , the bay was protected at its western end by extensive rocky shoals which ran 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) into the bay from a promontory guarded by Aboukir Castle . A small fort situated on an island among the rocks protected the shoals . The fort was garrisoned by French soldiers and armed with at least four cannon and two heavy mortars . Brueys had augmented the fort with his bomb vessels and gunboats , anchored among the rocks to the west of the island in a position to give support to the head of the French line . Further shoals ran unevenly to the south of the island and extended across the bay in a rough semicircle approximately 1 @,@ 650 yards ( 1 @,@ 510 m ) from the shore . These shoals were too shallow to permit the passage of larger warships , and so Brueys ordered his thirteen ships of the line to form up in a line of battle following the northeastern edge of the shoals to the south of the island , a position that allowed the ships to disembark supplies from their port sides while covering the landings with their starboard batteries . Orders were issued for each ship to attach strong cables to the bow and stern of their neighbours , which would effectively turn the line into a long battery forming a theoretically impregnable barrier . Brueys positioned a second , inner line of four frigates approximately 350 yards ( 320 m ) west of the main line , roughly halfway between the line and the shoal . The van of the French line was led by Guerrier , positioned 2 @,@ 400 yards ( 2 @,@ 200 m ) southeast of Aboukir Island and about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) from the edge of the shoals that surrounded the island . The line stretched southeast , with the centre bowed seawards away from the shoal . The French ships were spaced at intervals of 160 yards ( 150 m ) and the whole line was 2 @,@ 850 yards ( 2 @,@ 610 m ) long , with the flagship Orient at the centre and two large 80 @-@ gun ships anchored on either side . The rear division of the line was under the command of Counter @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve in Guillaume Tell .
In deploying his ships in this way , Brueys hoped that the British would be forced by the shoals to attack his strong centre and rear , allowing his van to use the prevailing northeasterly wind to counterattack the British once they were engaged . However , he had made a serious misjudgement : he had left enough room between Guerrier and the shoals for an enemy ship to cut across the head of the French line and proceed between the shoals and the French ships , allowing the unsupported vanguard to be caught in a crossfire by two divisions of enemy ships . Compounding this error , the French only prepared their ships for battle on their starboard ( seaward ) sides , from which they expected the attack would have to come ; their landward port sides were unprepared . The port side gun ports were closed , and the decks on that side were uncleared , with various stored items blocking access to the guns . Brueys ' dispositions had a second significant flaw : The 160 @-@ yard gaps between ships were large enough for a British ship to push through and break the French line . Furthermore , not all of the French captains had followed Brueys ' orders to attach cables to their neighbours ' bow and stern , which would have prevented such a manoeuvre . The problem was exacerbated by orders to only anchor at the bow , which allowed the ships to swing with the wind and widened the gaps . It also created areas within the French line not covered by the broadside of any ship . British vessels could anchor in those spaces and engage the French without reply . In addition , the deployment of Brueys ' fleet prevented the rear from effectively supporting the van due to the prevailing winds .
A more pressing problem for Brueys was a lack of food and water for the fleet : Bonaparte had unloaded almost all of the provisions carried aboard and no supplies were reaching the ships from the shore . To remedy this , Brueys sent foraging parties of 25 men from each ship along the coast to requisition food , dig wells , and collect water . Constant attacks by Bedouin partisans , however , required escorts of heavily armed guards for each party . Hence , up to a third of the fleet 's sailors were away from their ships at any one time . Brueys wrote a letter describing the situation to Minister of Marine Étienne Eustache Bruix , reporting that " Our crews are weak , both in number and quality . Our rigging , in general , out of repair , and I am sure it requires no little courage to undertake the management of a fleet furnished with such tools . "
= = Order of battle = =
= = Battle = =
= = = Nelson 's arrival = = =
Although initially disappointed that the main French fleet was not at Alexandria , Nelson knew from the presence of the transports that they must be nearby . At 14 : 00 on 1 August , lookouts on HMS Zealous reported the French anchored in Aboukir Bay , its signal lieutenant just beating the lieutenant on HMS Goliath with the signal , but inaccurately describing 16 French ships of the line instead of 13 . At the same time , French lookouts on Heureux , the ninth ship in the French line , sighted the British fleet approximately nine nautical miles off the mouth of Aboukir Bay . The French initially reported just 11 British ships – Swiftsure and Alexander were still returning from their scouting operations at Alexandria , and so were 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the west of the main fleet , out of sight . Troubridge 's ship , HMS Culloden , was also some distance from the main body , towing a captured merchant ship . At the sight of the French , Troubridge abandoned the vessel and made strenuous efforts to rejoin Nelson . Due to the need for so many sailors to work onshore , Brueys had not deployed any of his lighter warships as scouts , which left him unable to react swiftly to the sudden appearance of the British .
As his ships readied for action , Brueys ordered his captains to gather for a conference on Orient and hastily recalled his shore parties , although most had still not returned by the start of the battle . To replace them , large numbers of men were taken out of the frigates and distributed among the ships of the line . Brueys also hoped to lure the British fleet onto the shoals at Aboukir Island , sending the brigs Alerte and Railleur to act as decoys in the shallow waters . By 16 : 00 , Alexander and Swiftsure were also in sight , although some distance from the main British fleet . Brueys gave orders to abandon the plan to remain at anchor and instead for his line to set sail . Blanquet protested the order on the grounds that there were not enough men aboard the French ships to both sail the ships and man the guns . Nelson gave orders for his leading ships to slow down , to allow the British fleet to approach in a more organised formation . This convinced Brueys that rather than risk an evening battle in confined waters , the British were planning to wait for the following day . He rescinded his earlier order to sail . Brueys may have been hoping that the delay would allow him to slip past the British during the night and thus follow Bonaparte 's orders not to engage the British fleet directly if he could avoid it .
Nelson ordered the fleet to slow down at 16 : 00 to allow his ships to rig " springs " on their anchor cables , a system of attaching the bow anchor that increased stability and allowed his ships to swing their broadsides to face an enemy while stationary . It also increased manoeuvrability and therefore reduced the risk of coming under raking fire . Nelson 's plan , shaped through discussion with his senior captains during the return voyage to Alexandria , was to advance on the French and pass down the seaward side of the van and centre of the French line , so that each French ship would face two British ships and the massive Orient would be fighting against three . The direction of the wind meant that the French rear division would be unable to join the battle easily and would be cut off from the front portions of the line . To ensure that in the smoke and confusion of a night battle his ships would not accidentally open fire on one another , Nelson ordered that each ship prepare four horizontal lights at the head of their mizzen mast and hoist an illuminated White Ensign , which was different enough from the French tricolour that it would not be mistaken in poor visibility , reducing the risk that British ships might fire on one another in the darkness . As his ship was readied for battle , Nelson held a final dinner with Vanguard 's officers , announcing as he rose : " Before this time tomorrow I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey , " in reference to the rewards of victory or the traditional burial place of British military heroes .
Shortly after the French order to set sail was abandoned , the British fleet began rapidly approaching once more . Brueys , now expecting to come under attack that night , ordered each of his ships to place springs on their anchor cables and prepare for action . He sent the Alerte ahead , which passed close to the leading British ships and then steered sharply to the west over the shoal , in the hope that the ships of the line might follow and become grounded . None of Nelson 's captains fell for the ruse and the British fleet continued undeterred . At 17 : 30 , Nelson hailed one of his two leading ships , HMS Zealous under Captain Samuel Hood , which had been racing Goliath to be the first to fire on the French . The admiral ordered Hood to establish the safest course into the harbour . The British had no charts of the depth or shape of the bay , except a rough sketch map Swiftsure had obtained from a merchant captain , an inaccurate British atlas on Zealous , and a 35 @-@ year @-@ old French map aboard Goliath . Hood replied that he would take careful soundings as he advanced to test the depth of the water , and that , " If you will allow the honour of leading you into battle , I will keep the lead going . " Shortly afterwards , Nelson paused to speak with the brig HMS Mutine , whose commander , Lieutenant Thomas Hardy , had seized some maritime pilots from a small Alexandrine vessel . As Vanguard came to a stop , the following ships slowed . This caused a gap to open up between Zealous and Goliath and the rest of the fleet . To counter this effect , Nelson ordered HMS Theseus under Captain Ralph Miller to pass his flagship and join Zealous and Goliath in the vanguard . By 18 : 00 , the British fleet was again under full sail , Vanguard sixth in the line of ten ships as Culloden trailed behind to the north and Alexander and Swiftsure hastened to catch up to the west . Following the rapid change from a loose formation to a rigid line of battle both fleets raised their colours ; each British ship added additional Union Flags in its rigging in case its main flag was shot away . At 18 : 20 , as Goliath and Zealous rapidly bore down on them , the leading French ships Guerrier and Conquérant opened fire .
Ten minutes after the French opened fire Goliath , ignoring fire from the fort to starboard and from Guerrier to port , most of which was too high to trouble the ship , crossed the head of the French line . Captain Thomas Foley had noticed as he approached that there was an unexpected gap between Guerrier and the shallow water of the shoal . On his own initiative , Foley decided to exploit this tactical error and changed his angle of approach to sail through the gap . As the bow of Guerrier came within range , Goliath opened fire , inflicting severe damage with a double @-@ shotted raking broadside as the British ship turned to port and passed down the unprepared port side of Guerrier . Foley 's Royal Marines and a company of Austrian grenadiers joined the attack , firing their muskets . Foley had intended to anchor alongside the French ship and engage it closely , but his anchor took too long to descend and his ship passed Guerrier entirely . Goliath eventually stopped close to the bow of Conquérant , opening fire on the new opponent and using the unengaged starboard guns to exchange occasional shots with the frigate Sérieuse and bomb vessel Hercule , which were anchored inshore of the battle line .
Foley 's attack was followed by Hood in Zealous , who also crossed the French line and successfully anchored next to Guerrier in the space Foley had intended , engaging the lead ship 's bow from close range . Within five minutes Guerrier 's foremast had fallen , to cheers from the crews of the approaching British ships . The speed of the British advance took the French captains by surprise ; they were still aboard Orient in conference with the admiral when the firing started . Hastily launching their boats , they returned to their vessels . Captain Jean @-@ François @-@ Timothée Trullet of Guerrier shouted orders from his barge for his men to return fire on Zealous .
The third British ship into action was HMS Orion under Captain Sir James Saumarez , which rounded the engagement at the head of the battle line and passed between the French main line and the frigates that lay closer inshore . As he did so , the frigate Sérieuse opened fire on Orion , wounding two men . The convention in naval warfare of the time was that ships of the line did not attack frigates when there were ships of equal size to engage , but in firing first French Captain Claude @-@ Jean Martin had negated the rule . Saumarez waited until the frigate was at close range before replying . Orion needed just one broadside to reduce the frigate to a wreck , and Martin 's disabled ship drifted away over the shoal . During the delay this detour caused , two other British ships joined the battle : Theseus , which had been disguised as a first @-@ rate ship , followed Foley 's track across Guerrier 's bow . Miller steered his ship through the middle of the melee between the anchored British and French ships until he encountered the third French ship , Spartiate . Anchoring to port , Miller 's ship opened fire at close range . HMS Audacious under Captain Davidge Gould crossed the French line between Guerrier and Conquérant , anchoring between the ships and raking them both . Orion then rejoined the action further south than intended , firing on the fifth French ship , Peuple Souverain , and Admiral Blanquet 's flagship , Franklin .
The next three British ships , Vanguard in the lead followed by HMS Minotaur and HMS Defence , remained in line of battle formation and anchored on the starboard side of the French line at 18 : 40 . Nelson focused his flagship 's fire on Spartiate , while Captain Thomas Louis in Minotaur attacked the unengaged Aquilon and Captain John Peyton in Defence joined the attack on Peuple Souverain . With the French vanguard now heavily outnumbered , the following British ships , HMS Bellerophon and HMS Majestic , passed by the melee and advanced on the so far unengaged French centre . Both ships were soon fighting enemies much more powerful than they and began to take severe damage . Captain Henry Darby on Bellerophon missed his intended anchor near Franklin and instead found his ship underneath the main battery of the French flagship . Captain George Blagdon Westcott on Majestic also missed his station and almost collided with Heureux , coming under heavy fire from Tonnant . Unable to stop in time , Westcott 's jib boom became entangled with Tonnant 's shroud .
The French suffered too , Admiral Brueys on Orient was severely wounded in the face and hand by flying debris during the opening exchange of fire with Bellerophon . The final ship of the British line , Culloden under Troubridge , sailed too close to Aboukir Island in the growing darkness and became stuck fast on the shoal . Despite strenuous efforts from the Culloden 's boats , the brig Mutine and the 50 @-@ gun HMS Leander under Captain Thomas Thompson , the ship of the line could not be moved , and the waves drove Culloden further onto the shoal , inflicting severe damage to the ship 's hull .
= = = Surrender of the French van = = =
At 19 : 00 the identifying lights in the mizzenmasts of the British fleet were lit . By this time , Guerrier had been completely dismasted and heavily battered . Zealous by contrast was barely touched : Hood had situated Zealous outside the arc of most of the French ship 's broadsides , and in any case Guerrier was not prepared for an engagement on both sides simultaneously , with its port guns blocked by stores . Although their ship was a wreck , the crew of Guerrier refused to surrender , continuing to fire the few functional guns whenever possible despite heavy answering fire from Zealous . In addition to his cannon fire , Hood called up his marines and ordered them to fire volleys of musket shot at the deck of the French ship , driving the crew out of sight but still failing to secure the surrender from Captain Trullet . It was not until 21 : 00 , when Hood sent a small boat to Guerrier with a boarding party , that the French ship finally surrendered . Conquérant was defeated more rapidly , after heavy broadsides from passing British ships and the close attentions of Audacious and Goliath brought down all three masts before 19 : 00 . With his ship immobile and badly damaged , the mortally wounded Captain Etienne Dalbarade struck his colours and a boarding party seized control . Unlike Zealous , these British ships suffered relatively severe damage in the engagement . Goliath lost most of its rigging , suffered damage to all three masts and suffered more than 60 casualties . With his opponents defeated , Captain Gould on Audacious used the spring on his cable to transfer fire to Spartiate , the next French ship in line . To the west of the battle the battered Sérieuse sank over the shoal . Its masts protruded from the water as survivors scrambled into boats and rowed for the shore .
The transfer of Audacious 's broadside to Spartiate meant that Captain Maurice @-@ Julien Emeriau now faced three opponents . Within minutes all three of his ship 's masts had fallen , but the battle around Spartiate continued until 21 : 00 , when the badly wounded Emeriau ordered his colours struck . Although Spartiate was outnumbered , it had been supported by the next in line , Aquilon , which , uniquely of the French van squadron , was fighting only one opponent , Minotaur . Captain Antoine René Thévenard used the spring on his anchor cable to angle his broadside into a raking position across the bow of Nelson 's flagship , which consequently suffered more than 100 casualties , including the admiral . At approximately 20 : 30 , an iron splinter fired in a langrage shot from Spartiate struck Nelson over his blinded right eye . The wound caused a flap of skin to fall across his face , rendering him temporarily completely blind . Nelson collapsed into the arms of Captain Edward Berry and was carried below . Certain that his wound was fatal , he cried out " I am killed , remember me to my wife " , and called for his chaplain , Stephen Comyn . The wound was immediately inspected by Vanguard 's surgeon Michael Jefferson , who informed the admiral that it was a simple flesh wound and stitched the skin together . Nelson subsequently ignored Jefferson 's instructions to remain inactive , returning to the quarterdeck shortly before the explosion on Orient to oversee the closing stages of the battle . Although Thévenard 's manoeuvre was successful , it placed his own bow under Minotaur 's guns and by 21 : 25 the French ship was dismasted and battered , Captain Thévenard killed and his junior officers forced to surrender . With his opponent defeated , Captain Thomas Louis then took Minotaur south to join the attack on Franklin .
Defence and Orion attacked the fifth French ship , Peuple Souverain , from either side and the ship rapidly lost the fore and main masts . Aboard the Orion , a wooden block was smashed off one of the ship 's masts , killing two men before wounding Captain Saumarez in the thigh . On Peuple Souverain , Captain Pierre @-@ Paul Raccord was badly wounded and ordered his ship 's anchor cable cut in an effort to escape the bombardment . Peuple Souverain drifted south towards the flagship Orient , which mistakenly opened fire on the darkened vessel . Orion and Defence were unable to immediately pursue . Defence had lost its fore topmast and an improvised fireship that drifted through the battle narrowly missed Orion . The origin of this vessel , an abandoned and burning ship 's boat laden with highly flammable material , is uncertain , but it may have been launched from Guerrier as the battle began . Peuple Souverain anchored not far from Orient , but took no further part in the fighting . The wrecked ship surrendered during the night . Franklin remained in combat , but Blanquet had suffered a severe head wound and Captain Gillet had been carried below unconscious with severe wounds . Shortly afterwards , a fire broke out on the quarterdeck after an arms locker exploded , which was eventually extinguished with difficulty by the crew .
To the south , HMS Bellerophon was in serious trouble as the huge broadside of Orient pounded the ship . At 19 : 50 the mizzenmast and main mast both collapsed and fires broke out simultaneously at several points . Although the blazes were extinguished , the ship had suffered more than 200 casualties . Captain Darby recognised that his position was untenable and ordered the anchor cables cut at 20 : 20 . The battered ship drifted away from the battle under continued fire from Tonnant as the foremast collapsed as well . Orient had also suffered significant damage and Admiral Brueys had been struck in the midriff by a cannonball that almost cut him in half . He died fifteen minutes later , remaining on deck and refusing to be carried below . Orient 's captain , Luc @-@ Julien @-@ Joseph Casabianca , was also wounded , struck in the face by flying debris and knocked unconscious , while his twelve @-@ year @-@ old son had a leg torn off by a cannonball as he stood beside his father . The most southerly British ship , Majestic , had become briefly entangled with the 80 @-@ gun Tonnant , and in the resulting battle , suffered heavy casualties . Captain George Blagdon Westcott was among the dead , killed by French musket fire . Lieutenant Robert Cuthbert assumed command and successfully disentangled his ship , allowing the badly damaged Majestic to drift further southwards so that by 20 : 30 it was stationed between Tonnant and the next in line , Heureux , engaging both . To support the centre , Captain Thompson of Leander abandoned the futile efforts to drag the stranded Culloden off the shoal and sailed down the embattled French line , entering the gap created by the drifting Peuple Souverain and opening a fierce raking fire on Franklin and Orient .
While the battle raged in the bay , the two straggling British ships made strenuous efforts to join the engagement , focusing on the flashes of gunfire in the darkness . Warned away from the Aboukir shoals by the grounded Culloden , Captain Benjamin Hallowell in Swiftsure passed the melee at the head of the line and aimed his ship at the French centre . Shortly after 20 : 00 , a dismasted hulk was spotted drifting in front of Swiftsure and Hallowell initially ordered his men to fire before rescinding the order , concerned for the identity of the strange vessel . Hailing the battered ship , Hallowell received the reply " Bellerophon , going out of action disabled . " Relieved that he had not accidentally attacked one of his own ships in the darkness , Hallowell pulled up between Orient and Franklin and opened fire on them both . Alexander , the final unengaged British ship , which had followed Swiftsure , pulled up close to Tonnant , which had begun to drift away from the embattled French flagship . Captain Alexander Ball then joined the attack on Orient .
= = = Destruction of Orient = = =
At 21 : 00 , the British observed a fire on the lower decks of the Orient ( the French flagship ) . Identifying the danger this posed to the Orient , Captain Hallowell directed his gun crews to fire their cannon directly into the blaze . Sustained British cannon fire spread the flames throughout the ship 's stern and prevented all efforts to extinguish it . Within minutes the flames had ascended the rigging and set the vast sails alight . The nearest British ships , Swiftsure , Alexander , and Orion , all stopped firing , closed their gunports , and began edging away from the blazing ship in anticipation of the detonation of the enormous ammunition supplies stored on board . In addition , they took crew away from the guns to form fire parties and soak the sails and decks in seawater to help contain any resulting blazes . Likewise the French ships Tonnant , Heureux and Mercure all cut their anchor cables and drifted southwards away from the blazing ship . At 22 : 00 the fire reached the magazines and the Orient was almost completely destroyed by a massive explosion . The concussion of the blast alone was sufficient to rip open the seams of the nearest ships , and flaming wreckage landed in a huge circle , much of it flying directly over the surrounding ships into the sea beyond . Falling wreckage started fires on Swiftsure , Alexander , and Franklin , although in each case teams of sailors with water buckets succeeded in extinguishing the flames , despite a secondary explosion on Franklin .
It has never been firmly established how the fire on Orient broke out , but one common account is that jars of oil and paint had been left on the poop deck , rather than properly stowed away after paintwork on the ship 's hull had been completed shortly before the battle . Burning wadding from one of the British ships is believed to have floated onto the poop deck and ignited the paint . The fire rapidly spread through the admiral 's cabin and into a ready magazine that stored carcass ammunition , which was designed to burn more fiercely in water than in air . Conversely , Fleet Captain Honoré Ganteaume later reported the cause as an explosion on the quarterdeck , preceded by a series of minor fires on the main deck among the ship 's boats . Whatever its origin , the fire spread rapidly through the ship 's rigging , unchecked by the fire pumps aboard , which had been smashed by British shot . A second blaze then began at the bow , trapping hundreds of sailors in the ship 's waist . Subsequent archaeological investigation found debris scattered over 500 metres ( 550 yd ) of seabed and evidence that the ship was wracked by two huge explosions one after the other . Hundreds of men dived into the sea to escape the flames , but fewer than 100 survived the blast . British boats picked up approximately 70 survivors , including the wounded staff officer Léonard @-@ Bernard Motard . A few others , including Ganteaume , managed to reach the shore on rafts . The remainder of the crew , numbering more than 1 @,@ 000 men , were killed , including Captain Casabianca and his son , Giocante .
For ten minutes after the explosion there was no firing ; sailors from both sides were either too shocked by the blast or desperately extinguishing fires aboard their own ships to continue the fight . During the lull , Nelson gave orders that boats be sent to pull survivors from the water around the remains of Orient . At 22 : 10 , Franklin restarted the engagement by firing on Swiftsure . Isolated and battered , Blanquet 's ship was soon dismasted and the admiral , suffering a severe head wound , was forced to surrender by the combined firepower of Swiftsure and Defence . More than half of Franklin 's crew had been killed or wounded .
By 24 : 00 only Tonnant remained engaged , as Commodore Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars continued his fight with Majestic and fired on Swiftsure when the British ship moved within range . By 03 : 00 , after more than three hours of close quarter combat , Majestic had lost its main and mizzen masts while Tonnant was a dismasted hulk . Although Captain Du Petit Thouars had lost both legs and an arm he remained in command , insisting on having the tricolour nailed to the mast to prevent it from being struck and giving orders from his position propped up on deck in a bucket of wheat . Under his guidance , the battered Tonnant gradually drifted southwards away from the action to join the southern division under Villeneuve , who failed to bring these ships into effective action . Throughout the engagement the French rear had kept up an arbitrary fire on the battling ships ahead . The only noticeable effect was the smashing of Timoléon 's rudder by misdirected fire from the neighbouring Généreux .
= = = Morning = = =
As the sun rose at 04 : 00 on 2 August , firing broke out once again between the French southern division of Guillaume Tell , Tonnant , Généreux and Timoléon and the battered Alexander and Majestic . Although briefly outmatched , the British ships were soon joined by Goliath and Theseus . As Captain Miller manoeuvred his ship into position , Theseus briefly came under fire from the frigate Artémise . Miller turned his ship towards Artémise , but Captain Pierre @-@ Jean Standelet struck his flag and ordered his men to abandon the frigate . Miller sent a boat under Lieutenant William Hoste to take possession of the empty vessel , but Standelet had set fire to his ship as he left and Artémise blew up shortly afterwards . The surviving French ships of the line , covering their retreat with gunfire , gradually pulled to the east away from the shore at 06 : 00 . Zealous pursued , and was able to prevent the frigate Justice from boarding Bellerophon , which was anchored at the southern point of the bay undergoing hasty repairs .
Two other French ships still flew the tricolour , but neither was in a position to either retreat or fight . When Heureux and Mercure had cut their anchor cables to escape the exploding Orient , their crews had panicked and neither captain ( both of whom were wounded ) had managed to regain control of his ship . As a result , both vessels had drifted onto the shoal . Alexander , Goliath , Theseus and Leander attacked the stranded and defenceless ships , and both surrendered within minutes . The distractions provided by Heureux , Mercure and Justice allowed Villeneuve to bring most of the surviving French ships to the mouth of the bay at 11 : 00 . On the dismasted Tonnant , Commodore Du Petit Thouars was now dead from his wounds and thrown overboard at his own request . As the ship was unable to make the required speed it was driven ashore by its crew . Timoléon was too far south to escape with Villeneuve and , in attempting to join the survivors , had also grounded on the shoal . The force of the impact dislodged the ship 's foremast . The remaining French vessels : the ships of the line Guillaume Tell and Généreux and the frigates Justice and Diane , formed up and stood out to sea , pursued by Zealous . Despite strenuous efforts , Captain Hood 's isolated ship came under heavy fire and was unable to cut off the trailing Justice as the French survivors escaped seawards . Zealous was struck by a number of French shot and lost one man killed .
For the remainder of 2 August Nelson 's ships made improvised repairs and boarded and consolidated their prizes . Culloden especially required assistance . Troubridge , having finally dragged his ship off the shoal at 02 : 00 , found that he had lost his rudder and was taking on more than 120 long tons ( 122 t ) of water an hour . Emergency repairs to the hull and fashioning a replacement rudder from a spare topmast took most of the next two days . On the morning of 3 August , Nelson sent Theseus and Leander to force the surrender of the grounded Tonnant and Timoléon . The Tonnant , its decks crowded with 1 @,@ 600 survivors from other French vessels , surrendered as the British ships approached while Timoléon was set on fire by its remaining crew who then escaped to the shore in small boats . Timoléon exploded shortly after midday , the eleventh and final French ship of the line destroyed or captured during the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
" [ I ] went on deck to view the state of the fleets , and an awful sight it was . The whole bay was covered with dead bodies , mangled , wounded and scorched , not a bit of clothes on them except their trousers . "
British casualties in the battle were recorded with some accuracy in the immediate aftermath as 218 killed and approximately 677 wounded , although the number of wounded who subsequently died is not known . The ships that suffered most were Bellerophon with 201 casualties and Majestic with 193 . Other than Culloden the lightest loss was on Zealous , which had one man killed and seven wounded .
The casualty list included Captain Westcott , five lieutenants and ten junior officers among the dead , and Admiral Nelson , Captains Saumarez , Ball and Darby , and six lieutenants wounded . Other than Culloden , the only British ships seriously damaged in their hulls were Bellerophon , Majestic , and Vanguard . Bellerophon and Majestic were the only ships to lose masts : Majestic the main and mizzen and Bellerophon all three .
French casualties are harder to calculate but were significantly higher . Estimates of French losses range from 2 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 , with a suggested median point of 3 @,@ 500 , which includes more than 1 @,@ 000 captured wounded and nearly 2 @,@ 000 killed , half of whom died on Orient . In addition to Admiral Brueys killed and Admiral Blanquet wounded , four captains died and seven others were seriously wounded . The French ships suffered severe damage : Two ships of the line and two frigates were destroyed ( as well as a bomb vessel scuttled by its crew ) , and three other captured ships were too battered ever to sail again . Of the remaining prizes , only three were ever sufficiently repaired for frontline service . For weeks after the battle , bodies washed up along the Egyptian coast , decaying slowly in the intense , dry heat .
Nelson , who on surveying the bay on the morning of 2 August said , " Victory is not a name strong enough for such a scene " , remained at anchor in Aboukir Bay for the next two weeks , preoccupied with recovering from his wound , writing dispatches , and assessing the military situation in Egypt using documents captured on board one of the prizes . Nelson 's head wound was recorded as being " three inches long " with " the cranium exposed for one inch " . He suffered pain from the injury for the rest of his life and was badly scarred , styling his hair to disguise it as much as possible . As their commander recovered , his men stripped the wrecks of useful supplies and made repairs to their ships and prizes .
Throughout the week , Aboukir Bay was surrounded by bonfires lit by Bedouin tribesmen in celebration of the British victory . On 5 August , Leander was despatched to Cadiz with messages for Earl St. Vincent carried by Captain Edward Berry . Over the next few days the British landed all but 200 of the captured prisoners on shore under strict terms of parole , although Bonaparte later ordered them to be formed into an infantry unit and added to his army . The wounded officers taken prisoner were held on board Vanguard , where Nelson regularly entertained them at dinner . Historian Joseph Allen recounts that on one occasion Nelson , whose eyesight was still suffering following his wound , offered toothpicks to an officer who had lost his teeth and then passed a snuff @-@ box to an officer whose nose had been torn off , causing much embarrassment . On 8 August the fleet 's boats stormed Aboukir Island , which surrendered without a fight . The landing party removed four of the guns and destroyed the rest along with the fort they were mounted in , renaming the island " Nelson 's Island " .
On 10 August , Nelson sent Lieutenant Thomas Duval from Zealous with messages to the government in India . Duval travelled across the Middle East overland via camel train to Aleppo and took the East India Company ship Fly from Basra to Bombay , acquainting Governor @-@ General of India Viscount Wellesley with the situation in Egypt . On 12 August the frigates HMS Emerald under Captain Thomas Moutray Waller , HMS Alcmene under Captain George Johnstone Hope , and the sloop HMS Bonne Citoyenne under Captain Robert Retalick arrived off Alexandria . Initially the British mistook the frigate squadron for French warships and Swiftsure chased them away . They returned the following day once the error had been realised . The same day as the frigates arrived , Nelson sent Mutine to Britain with dispatches , under the command of Lieutenant Thomas Bladen Capel , who had replaced Hardy after the latter 's promotion to captain of Vanguard . On 14 August , Nelson sent Orion , Majestic , Bellerophon , Minotaur , Defence , Audacious , Theseus , Franklin , Tonnant , Aquilon , Conquérant , Peuple Souverain , and Spartiate to sea under the command of Saumarez . Many ships had only jury masts and it took a full day for the convoy to reach the mouth of the bay , finally sailing into open water on 15 August . On 16 August the British burned and destroyed the grounded prize Heureux as no longer fit for service and on 18 August also burned Guerrier and Mercure . On 19 August , Nelson sailed for Naples with Vanguard , Culloden , and Alexander , leaving Hood in command of Zealous , Goliath , Swiftsure , and the recently joined frigates to watch over French activities at Alexandria .
The first message to reach Bonaparte regarding the disaster that had overtaken his fleet arrived on 14 August at his camp on the road between Salahieh and Cairo . The messenger was a staff officer sent by the Governor of Alexandria General Jean Baptiste Kléber , and the report had been hastily written by Admiral Ganteaume , who had subsequently rejoined Villeneuve 's ships at sea . One account reports that when he was handed the message , Bonaparte read it without emotion before calling the messenger to him and demanding further details . When the messenger had finished , the French general reportedly announced " Nous n 'avons plus de flotte : eh bien . Il faut rester en ces contrées , ou en sortir grands comme les anciens " ( " We no longer have a fleet : well , we must either remain in this country or quit it as great as the ancients " ) . Another story , as told by the general 's secretary , Bourienne , claims that Bonaparte was almost overcome by the news and exclaimed " Unfortunate Brueys , what have you done ! " Bonaparte later placed much of the blame for the defeat on the wounded Admiral Blanquet , falsely accusing him of surrendering Franklin while his ship was undamaged . Protestations from Ganteaume and Minister Étienne Eustache Bruix later reduced the degree of criticism Blanquet faced , but he never again served in a command capacity . Bonaparte 's most immediate concern however was with his own officers , who began to question the wisdom of the entire expedition . Inviting his most senior officers to dinner , Bonaparte asked them how they were . When they replied that they were " marvellous , " Bonaparte responded that it was just as well , since he would have them shot if they continued " fostering mutinies and preaching revolt . " To quell any uprising among the native inhabitants , Egyptians overheard discussing the battle were threatened with having their tongues cut out .
= = = Reaction = = =
Nelson 's first set of dispatches were captured when Leander was intercepted and defeated by Généreux in a fierce engagement off the western shore of Crete on 18 August 1798 . As a result , reports of the battle did not reach Britain until Capel arrived in Mutine on 2 October , entering the Admiralty at 11 : 15 and personally delivering the news to Lord Spencer , who collapsed unconscious when he heard the report . Although Nelson had previously been castigated in the press for failing to intercept the French fleet , rumours of the battle had begun to arrive in Britain from the continent in late September and the news Capel brought was greeted with celebrations right across the country . Within four days Nelson had been elevated to Baron Nelson of the Nile and Burnham Thorpe , a title with which he was privately dissatisfied , believing his actions deserved better reward . King George III addressed the Houses of Parliament on 20 November with the words :
The unexampled series of our naval triumphs has received fresh splendour from the memorable and decisive action , in which a detachment of my fleet , under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson , attacked , and almost totally destroyed a superior force of the enemy , strengthened by every advantage of situation . By this great and brilliant victory , an enterprise , of which the injustice , perfidy , and extravagance had fixed the attention of the world , and which was peculiarly directed against some of the most valuable interests of the British empire , has , in the first instance , been turned to the confusion of its authors and the blow thus given to the power and influence of France , has afforded an opening , which , if improved by suitable exertions on the part of other powers , may lead to the general deliverance of Europe .
Saumarez 's convoy of prizes stopped first at Malta , where Saumarez provided assistance to a rebellion on the island among the Maltese population . It then sailed to Gibraltar , arriving on 18 October to the cheers of the garrison . Saumarez wrote that , " We can never do justice to the warmth of their applause , and the praises they all bestowed on our squadron . " On 23 October , following the transfer of the wounded to the military hospital and provision of basic supplies , the convoy sailed on towards Lisbon , leaving Bellerophon and Majestic behind for more extensive repairs . Peuple Souverain also remained at Gibraltar : The ship was deemed too badly damaged for the Atlantic voyage to Britain and so was converted to a guardship under the name of HMS Guerrier . The remaining prizes underwent basic repairs and then sailed for Britain , spending some months at the Tagus and joining with the annual merchant convoy from Portugal in June 1799 under the escort of a squadron commanded by Admiral Sir Alan Gardner , before eventually arriving at Plymouth . Their age and battered state meant that neither Conquérant nor Aquilon were considered fit for active service in the Royal Navy and both were subsequently hulked , although they had been bought into the service for £ 20 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of £ 1 @,@ 772 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) each as HMS Conquerant and HMS Aboukir to provide a financial reward to the crews that had captured them . Similar sums were also paid out for Guerrier , Mercure , Heureux and Peuple Souverain , while the other captured ships were worth considerably more . Constructed of Adriatic oak , Tonnant had been built in 1792 and Franklin and Spartiate were less than a year old . Tonnant and Spartiate , both of which later fought at the Battle of Trafalgar , joined the Royal Navy under their old names while Franklin , considered to be " the finest two @-@ decked ship in the world " , was renamed HMS Canopus . The total value of the prizes captured at the Nile and subsequently bought into the Royal Navy was estimated at just over £ 130 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of £ 11 @,@ 520 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
Additional awards were presented to the British fleet : Nelson was awarded £ 2 @,@ 000 ( £ 189 @,@ 870 as of 2016 ) a year for life by the Parliament of Great Britain and £ 1 @,@ 000 per annum by the Parliament of Ireland , although the latter was inadvertently discontinued after the Act of Union dissolved the Irish Parliament . Both parliaments gave unanimous votes of thanks , each captain who served in the battle was presented with a specially minted gold medal and the first lieutenant of every ship engaged in the battle was promoted to commander . Troubridge and his men , initially excluded , received equal shares in the awards after Nelson personally interceded for the crew of the stranded Culloden , even though they did not directly participate in the engagement . The Honourable East India Company presented Nelson with £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 949 @,@ 340 as of 2016 ) in recognition of the benefit his action had on their holdings and the cities of London , Liverpool and other municipal and corporate bodies made similar awards . Nelson 's own captains presented him with a sword and a portrait as " proof of their esteem . " Nelson publicly encouraged this close bond with his officers and on 29 September 1798 described them as " We few , we happy few , we band of brothers " , echoing William Shakespeare 's play Henry V. From this grew the notion of the Nelsonic Band of Brothers , a cadre of high @-@ quality naval officers that served with Nelson for the remainder of his life . Nearly five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
Other rewards were bestowed by foreign states , particularly the Ottoman Emperor Selim III , who made Nelson the first Knight Commander of the newly created Order of the Crescent , and presented him with a chelengk , a diamond studded rose , a sable fur and numerous other valuable presents . Tsar Paul I of Russia sent , among other rewards , a gold box studded with diamonds , and similar gifts in silver arrived from other European rulers . On his return to Naples , Nelson was greeted with a triumphal procession led by King Ferdinand IV and Sir William Hamilton and was introduced for only the third time to Sir William 's wife Emma , Lady Hamilton , who fainted violently at the meeting , and apparently took several weeks to recover from her injuries . Lauded as a hero by the Neapolitan court , Nelson was later to dabble in Neapolitan politics and become the Duke of Bronté , actions for which he was criticised by his superiors and his reputation suffered . British general John Moore , who met Nelson in Naples at this time , described him as " covered with stars , medals and ribbons , more like a Prince of Opera than the Conqueror of the Nile . "
Rumours of a battle first appeared in the French press as early as 7 August , although credible reports did not arrive until 26 August , and even these claimed that Nelson was dead and Bonaparte a British prisoner . When the news became certain , the French press insisted that the defeat was the result both of an overwhelmingly large British force and unspecified " traitors . " Among the anti @-@ government journals in France , the defeat was blamed on the incompetence of the French Directory and on supposed lingering Royalist sentiments in the Navy . Villeneuve came under scathing attack on his return to France for his failure to support Brueys during the battle . In his defence , he pleaded that the wind had been against him and that Brueys had not issued orders for him to counterattack the British fleet . Writing many years later , Bonaparte commented that if the French Navy had adopted the same tactical principles as the British :
" Admiral Villeneuve would not have thought himself blameless at Aboukir , for remaining inactive with five or six ships , that is to say , with half the squadron , for twenty four hours , whilst the enemy was overpowering the other wing . "
By contrast , the British press were jubilant ; many newspapers sought to portray the battle as a victory for Britain over anarchy , and the success was used to attack the supposedly pro @-@ republican Whig politicians Charles James Fox and Richard Brinsley Sheridan .
There has been extensive historiographical debate over the comparative strengths of the fleets , although they were ostensibly evenly matched in size , each containing 13 ships of the line . However , the loss of Culloden , the relative sizes of Orient and Leander and the participation in the action by two of the French frigates and several smaller vessels , as well as the theoretical strength of the French position , leads most historians to the conclusion that the French were marginally more powerful . This is accentuated by the weight of broadside of several of the French ships : Spartiate , Franklin , Orient , Tonnant and Guillaume Tell were each significantly larger than any individual British ship in the battle . However inadequate deployment , reduced crews , and the failure of the rear division under Villeneuve to meaningfully participate , all contributed to the French defeat .
= = = Effects = = =
The Battle of the Nile has been called " arguably , the most decisive naval engagement of the great age of sail " , and " the most splendid and glorious success which the British Navy gained . " Historian and novelist C. S. Forester , writing in 1929 , compared the Nile to the great naval actions in history and concluded that " it still only stands rivalled by Tsu @-@ Shima as an example of the annihilation of one fleet by another of approximately equal material force " . The effect on the strategic situation in the Mediterranean was immediate , reversing the balance of the conflict and giving the British control at sea that they maintained for the remainder of the war . The destruction of the French Mediterranean fleet allowed the Royal Navy to return to the sea in force , as British squadrons set up blockades off French and allied ports . In particular , British ships cut Malta off from France , aided by the rebellion among the native Maltese population that forced the French garrison to retreat to Valletta and shut the gates . The ensuing Siege of Malta lasted for two years before the defenders were finally starved into surrender . In 1799 , British ships harassed Bonaparte 's army as it marched east and north through Palestine , and played a crucial part in Bonaparte 's defeat at the Siege of Acre , when the barges carrying the siege train were captured and the French storming parties were bombarded by British ships anchored offshore . It was during one of these latter engagements that Captain Miller of Theseus was killed in an ammunition explosion . The defeat at Acre forced Bonaparte to retreat to Egypt and effectively ended his efforts to carve an empire in the Middle East . The French general returned to France without his army late in the year , leaving Kléber in command of Egypt .
The Ottomans , with whom Bonaparte had hoped to conduct an alliance once his control of Egypt was complete , were encouraged by the Battle of the Nile to go to war against France . This led to a series of campaigns that slowly sapped the strength from the French army trapped in Egypt . The British victory also encouraged the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire , both of whom were mustering armies as part of a Second Coalition , which declared war on France in 1799 . With the Mediterranean undefended , a Russian fleet entered the Ionian Sea , while Austrian armies recaptured much of the Italian territory lost to Bonaparte in the previous war . Without their best general and his veterans , the French suffered a series of defeats and it was not until Bonaparte returned to become First Consul that France once again held a position of strength on mainland Europe . In 1801 a British Expeditionary Force defeated the demoralised remains of the French army in Egypt . The Royal Navy used its dominance in the Mediterranean to invade Egypt without the fear of ambush while anchored off the Egyptian coast .
In spite of the overwhelming British victory in the climactic battle , the campaign has sometimes been considered a strategic success for France . Historian Edward Ingram noted that if Nelson had successfully intercepted Bonaparte at sea as ordered , the ensuing battle could have annihilated both the French fleet and the transports . As it was , Bonaparte was free to continue the war in the Middle East and later to return to Europe personally unscathed . The potential of a successful engagement at sea to change the course of history is underscored by the list of French army officers carried aboard the convoy who later formed the core of the generals and marshals under Emperor Napoleon . In addition to Bonaparte himself , Louis @-@ Alexandre Berthier , Auguste de Marmont , Jean Lannes , Joachim Murat , Louis Desaix , Jean Reynier , Antoine @-@ François Andréossy , Jean @-@ Andoche Junot , Louis @-@ Nicolas Davout and Dumas were all passengers on the cramped Mediterranean crossing .
= = = Legacy = = =
The Battle of the Nile remains one of the Royal Navy 's most famous victories , and has remained prominent in the British popular imagination , sustained by its depiction in a large number of cartoons , paintings , poems , and plays . One of the best known poems about the battle is Casabianca , which was written by Felicia Dorothea Hemans in 1826 and describes a fictional account of the death of Captain Casabianca 's son on Orient . Monuments were raised , including Cleopatra 's Needle in London . Muhammad Ali of Egypt gave the monument in 1819 in recognition of the battle of 1798 and the campaign of 1801 but Great Britain did not erect it on the Victoria Embankment until 1878 . Another memorial , the Nile Clumps near Amesbury , consists of stands of beech trees purportedly planted by Lord Queensbury at the bequest of Lady Hamilton and Thomas Hardy after Nelson 's death . The trees form a plan of the battle ; each clump represents the position of a British or French ship . A similar arboreal memorial is thought to have been planted near Alnwick by Nelson 's agent Alexander Davison . The Royal Navy commemorated the battle with the ship names HMS Aboukir and HMS Nile , and in 1998 commemorated the 200th anniversary of the battle with a visit to Aboukir Bay by the modern frigate HMS Somerset , whose crew laid wreaths in memory of those who lost their lives in the battle .
Although Nelson biographer Ernle Bradford assumed in 1977 that the remains of Orient " are almost certainly unrecoverable , " the first archaeological investigation into the battle began in 1983 , when a French survey team under Jacques Dumas discovered the wreck of the French flagship . Franck Goddio later took over the work , leading a major project to explore the bay in 1998 . He found that material was scattered over an area 500 metres ( 550 yd ) in diameter . In addition to military and nautical equipment , Goddio recovered a large number of gold and silver coins from countries across the Mediterranean , some from the 17th century . It is likely that these were part of the treasure taken from Malta that was lost in the explosion aboard Orient . In 2000 , Italian archaeologist Paolo Gallo led an excavation focusing on ancient ruins on Nelson 's Island . It uncovered a number of graves that date from the battle , as well as others buried there during the 1801 invasion . These graves , which included a woman and three children , were relocated in 2005 to a cemetery at Shatby in Alexandria . The reburial was attended by sailors from the modern frigate HMS Chatham and a band from the Egyptian Navy , as well as a descendant of the only identified burial , Commander James Russell .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Author Julian Stockwin features this battle in detail in his novel " Tenacious " ISBN 0340832207
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= St. Boniface General Hospital ( Winnipeg ) =
St. Boniface General Hospital ( also called St. Boniface Hospital or St. B ) is Manitoba 's second @-@ largest hospital , located in the St. Boniface neighbourhood of Winnipeg . It was founded by the Sisters of Charity ( Grey Nuns ) of Montreal in 1871 , and was the first hospital in Western Canada . The hospital was incorporated in 1960 , and as of 2003 has 554 beds and 78 bassinets .
St. Boniface Hospital is a tertiary health care facility , employing nearly 700 doctors and around 1 @,@ 500 nurses . The hospital buildings cover about 120 @,@ 774 m2 ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The St. Boniface Hospital & Research Foundation is the primary fundraising organization for the hospital . The general admissions program cares for 4 @,@ 000 patients per year in @-@ hospital , and about 40 @,@ 000 as outpatients . Over 5 @,@ 000 births per year occur at the hospital . St. Boniface is a regional centre for cardiac care , and is one of two specialized laboratory testing facilities . It also provides diagnostic imaging and hemodialysis for the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority .
Besides patient care , St. Boniface Hospital also carries out medical research and offers practicum positions for university students through its affiliation with the University of Manitoba . The hospital 's primary research mandate is in cardiovascular studies , imaging ( especially MRI ) , neurodegenerative disorders , and nutraceuticals . The hospital also participates in clinical trials of research discoveries .
= = Location = =
St. Boniface General Hospital is located between the Red and Assiniboine Rivers in the St. Boniface neighbourhood of Winnipeg , which is home to a large proportion of Manitoba 's Francophone population . It lies across the river from downtown and The Forks . The hospital has a parking structure and three parking lots . It also has an ambulance bay .
= = History = =
St. Boniface Hospital was established by the Grey Nuns in 1871 , the first hospital west of Quebec . At that time , it was a small facility with four beds . An operating room was added in 1894 . The Grey Nuns opened a school of nursing in 1897 and used the hospital to teach patient care . By the early 1900s , the hospital was treating approximately 2 @,@ 500 patients per year . An isolation hospital and nurse 's residence was added in 1900 . Due to overcrowding , a new addition was built in 1905 , effectively doubling the patient capacity of the hospital . It was awarded provisional approval by the American College of Surgeons ( ACS ) in 1944 , later becoming the office of the Manitoba Chapter of the ACS . As of 2003 , the hospital has 554 beds and 78 bassinets .
The hospital order was incorporated in 1960 under the name St. Boniface General Hospital , giving it the right to invest and borrow money , own property , and collect fees for services . St. Boniface Hospital , along with the Royal Victoria Hospital , Montreal , opened the first hospice programs in Canada in 1975 . The Hospital Research Centre opened in 1987 , becoming the first Canadian free @-@ standing medical research facility . During the 1997 Red River Flood , the hospital had to be evacuated , and has since created a disaster plan to cope any future evacuations or closures .
The Institute for stained glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at St Boniface Hospital .
= = Funding = =
Basic medical care is a benefit provided to all Canadians through Canada 's publicly funded health system . However , significant additional funding is required for medical research , improvements in patient services , and the clinical programs found at St. Boniface Hospital . The hospital ended the 2008 fiscal year with a C $ 900 @,@ 000 deficit . The St. Boniface Hospital & Research Foundation , founded in 1971 , is the primary fundraising organization for St. Boniface Hospital and the Research Centre . By the end of 2006 , the Foundation had raised over C $ 100 million for patient care and research .
= = Research = =
The St. Boniface Hospital Research Centre is the hospital 's main research facility . It comprises three separate units : the G. Campbell MacLean Building , the Dr. Andrei Sakharov MRI Centre , and the I. H. Asper Clinical Research Institute , which are operated with research grants , industry contracts , fundraising , and funding from the University of Manitoba . The centre opened in 1987 . Its primary research mandate addresses three main areas : cardiovascular sciences , magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) and spectroscopy , and degenerative disorders associated with aging . In addition , the Centre undertakes research in anesthesia , epidemiology , family medicine , infectious diseases , nephrology , nursing , nutraceuticals , pharmaceuticals , sleep disorders , and surgery .
= = = Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences = = =
St. Boniface Hospital 's Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences researches heart disease at the cellular and molecular levels . It also hosts the Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology , the journal Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry , the International Academy of Cardiovascular Sciences , and its journal Experimental & Clinical Cardiology . The Institute was created as the Division of Cardiovascular Sciences in 1987 by Dr. Naranjan Dhalla . Its researchers have been published in such academic journals as the New England Journal of Medicine and Cardiovascular Research .
= = = Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders = = =
The Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders ( DND ) was established in 1999 . The DND is a neurodegenerative research team working to identify causes and treatments for disorders like Alzheimer ’ s , strokes , traumatic brain injury , and central nervous system degeneration , to study the effect of diabetes on neurodegeneration , and to conduct sleep studies . As of 2011 , the principal investigators collectively have over 150 journal publications .
= = = Canadian Centre for Agri @-@ Food Research in Health and Medicine = = =
The Canadian Centre for Agri @-@ food Research in Health and Medicine ( CCARM ) investigates nutraceuticals and health food in partnership with Agriculture and Agri @-@ food Canada . CCARM ’ s mandate is to research natural health products and give the results to the scientific community and the general public . The results of their research have been published in numerous academic journals , including the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition and the Journal of Biological Chemistry .
= = = MRI centre = = =
The Dr. Andrei Sakharov Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( MRI ) Facility , the first of its kind in Manitoba , has three MRI scanners . The facility allows radiologists to diagnose abnormalities of the brain , spinal cord , internal organs and joints . St. Boniface Hospital Research Centre is a recognized leader in the MRI field and has one of the largest MRI research facilities in Canada . An MRI was first installed at St. Boniface in 1990 ; this MRI was eventually replaced by a more modern version , which is primarily used for clinical purposes . The other two MRIs are research @-@ oriented : they are an interventional scanner and a head @-@ only functional unit . The clinical scanner enables the Centre to do echo @-@ planar imaging , producing images at video rates ; the interventional MRI gives physicians access to the patient during imaging , which supports research into robotics @-@ guided laser surgery . Research carried out at the centre has been published in the Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging .
= = = Clinical research = = =
The I. H. Asper Clinical Research Institute facilitates clinical trials of the discoveries made at the Research Centre . The Institute is the third research facility in Canada to conduct tests on new drugs and medical devices . The I. H. Asper Clinical Research Institute was opened in 2004 .
= = Education = =
St. Boniface Hospital is affiliated with the University of Manitoba 's education and research branches , providing internship and practicum positions for students . The hospital works with multiple University of Manitoba faculties , including medicine , nursing , pharmacy , social work , respiratory therapy , physiotherapy and occupational therapy , as well as with Red River College and Collège universitaire de Saint @-@ Boniface . St. Boniface Hospital also hosts the Winnipeg Critical Care Nursing Education Program .
= = Services = =
St. Boniface is one of Manitoba 's two tertiary care centres . Patients are usually referred to the hospital by their doctors or clinics for specialized care , but may also be admitted through the emergency department . The Medicine Program is the adult general admissions program . This program admits around 4 @,@ 000 patients per year , and treats around 40 @,@ 000 through outpatient clinics . Services include : internal medicine , endocrinology , rheumatology , respiratory medicine , gastroenterology , hematology , oncology , pathology and neurology . The outreach program also includes at @-@ home intravenous therapy and nutrition . The hospital has 14 operating rooms ; there is also a surgical intensive care unit available for recovery . The surgical department treats over 14 @,@ 000 patients per year . St. Boniface 's emergency department provides acute care for an average of over 100 patients per day . The emergency room has recently been renovated , and the department is currently working to reduce patient wait times .
The Family Medicine Program is designed to encourage disease prevention and health maintenance . It also includes a palliative care unit , the first nationally accredited palliative residency program in Canada . The Rehabilitation Program provides inpatient and outpatient physiotherapy . The Mental Health program provides psychological and counselling services to adult and adolescent patients . It also maintains an inpatient program , and provides stress counselling to hospital staff .
= = = Cardiac Sciences Program = = =
The Cardiac Sciences Program ( including the departments of Cardiac Surgery , Cardiology , Cardiac Anesthesiology and Critical Care ) is an integrated heart health unit designed to treat cardiac problems . The Bergen Cardiac Care Centre provides access to tertiary cardiology care and hosts cardiac operations and diagnostics , the only hospital in Manitoba to offer certain specialized services . It includes three cardiac angiography rooms , one pacemaker and cardiac defibrillator room , one room for procedures in electrophysiology , 17 recovery beds , cardiology clinics , echocardiography rooms , and office space .
= = = Diagnostic imaging = = =
St. Boniface is one of eight hospitals in Winnipeg providing diagnostic imaging services , and is part of the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority 's diagnostic imaging program . It provides : angiography , bone density imaging , CT scans , MRIs , mammography , nuclear medicine tests , ultrasounds and X @-@ rays . St. Boniface was the home of Manitoba 's first MRI scanner , and is one of the largest diagnostic MRI facilities in Western Canada .
= = = Laboratories = = =
The laboratories at the St. Boniface Hospital operate under the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority 's Laboratory Medicine Program ; St. Boniface is one of the two main referral sites in the WRHA for specialty tests . They run tests in biochemistry , hematology , immunology , microbiology , cytology and pathology for patients and doctors in Manitoba . They also provide some specialized testing facilities for educational institutions .
= = = Manitoba Renal Program = = =
St. Boniface Hospital provides acute and chronic hemodialysis as part of the Manitoba Renal Program . It also has a renal health clinic to assess patients with kidney problems .
= = = Woman & Child Program = = =
The Woman & Child Program cares for 11 @,@ 500 patients annually , providing gynecological and obstetrical services , outpatient pediatric care and women 's services . Over 5 @,@ 000 births per year occur at St. Boniface Hospital . The Labour and Delivery department includes services for high @-@ risk deliveries . The family care unit includes fifteen beds for obstetrical patients . The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit ( NICU ) cares for 600 premature or ill infants per year ; 10 % of the births at St. Boniface involve ill or premature babies .
= = Assessment = =
St. Boniface reports 80 % patient satisfaction with its services , according to internal inpatient surveys . Mortality rates for inpatients stand at around 2 @.@ 4 % . Unlike the United Kingdom and the United States , Canada does not publish national ratings of individual hospitals .
According to internal reviews , the hospital reduced average wait times for acute care surgical patients from 10 hours to 3 between October 2008 and February 2009 . As of 2009 , the hospital is trying to reduce wait times for emergency room patients . Wait times for scheduled diagnostic services range from 4 weeks for bone density tests to 20 weeks for a myocardial perfusion study . The median wait time for cardiac surgery is 26 days .
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= Huw Edwards ( conductor ) =
Huw Edwards is a Welsh conductor currently serving as music director of Olympia , Washington 's Olympia Symphony Orchestra and orchestra conductor at the University of Puget Sound . Edwards ' conducting career began at age seventeen when he became music director of the Maidstone Opera Company in England . He later attended the University of Surrey , where he conducted the college orchestra along with an ensemble that he formed himself . At age twenty @-@ three , he won a conducting competition which sent him to Southern Methodist University in Dallas , Texas . He then held a lecturer position at Northwestern University in Chicago , where he was also a doctoral candidate . Edwards was conductor and music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic from 1995 to 2002 followed by the Seattle Youth Symphony from 2002 to 2005 . He served as music director of the Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra from 2000 to 2012 and has been with the Olympia Symphony Orchestra since 2002 . In May 2012 Edwards accepted a position as orchestra conductor at the University of Puget Sound .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in South Wales , Edwards moved with his parents to England and sang in choirs as a child . He witnessed his first opera ( Giuseppe Verdi 's Un ballo in maschera ) at eleven years old when his parents took him to the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden . Seven years later , he was conducting Gilbert and Sullivan 's operetta H.M.S. Pinafore on that same podium . Edwards played violin and trumpet through grammar school and high school but abandoned performance for conducting .
Edwards has been conducting since age seventeen when he became music director of the Maidstone Opera Company in England , a position he held for six years . Edwards attended the University of Surrey , where he conducted the college orchestra along with an ensemble that he formed himself . He won a conducting competition in 1988 which sent him to Southern Methodist University in Dallas , Texas at twenty @-@ three years old . There he experienced " culture shock " , being " accustomed to the rolling hills of England and the cosmopolitan buzz of London " . He held a lecturer position at Northwestern University in Chicago , where he was also a doctoral candidate . Four years later he moved to the Pacific Northwest . Throughout his lifetime , Edwards has received instruction from Anshel Brusilow ( Dallas ) , chorus leader Simon Johnson ( London ) , Eduardo Mata , Barry Wordsworth , and Victor Yampolsky ( Northwestern University ) .
= = Career = =
Prior to joining the Portland Youth Philharmonic , Edwards had written extensively about music . He contributed to Stagebill in Chicago , Dallas , London and Washington , D.C. and wrote program notes for Daniel Barenboim , Yo @-@ Yo Ma and the Guarnari Quartet . He had also conducted opera and orchestras throughout Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , Japan , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Edwards has performed with the Annas Bay Opera , Dallas Symphony Orchestra , Eugene Symphony , Memphis Symphony Orchestra , Oregon Symphony , Rose City Chamber Orchestra , Vancouver Symphony Orchestra , Wisconsin Chamber Orchestra , and Yakima Symphony . He has been invited to speak at the American Symphony Orchestra League convention in Boston and assisted with the organisation 's " Meet for the Millennium " project .
= = = Portland Youth Philharmonic = = =
Edwards became conductor and music director of the Portland Youth Philharmonic ( PYP ) in 1995 , following Jacob Avshalomov 's forty @-@ year tenure to become the orchestra 's third conductor . He was selected unanimously by a twelve @-@ person committee from a field of more than one hundred candidates , and was officially handed the baton by Avshalomov at the season opening Riverside Classics concert on 30 August . After Avshalomov conducted the first half of the concert , Edwards completed PYP 's set with performances of works by Ludwig van Beethoven , Johannes Brahms , Franz Schubert , and Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . The program for the first subscription series concert , which received positive reception , included : Giuseppe Verdi 's Nabucco Overture , Ralph Vaughan Williams 's Serenade to Music , and Paul Hindemith 's Symphonic Metamorphosis on Themes of Carl Maria von Weber . In addition to the four season subscription concerts performed at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall , the 1995 – 1996 season included performances at the Newport Performing Arts Center in Newport and The Resort at the Mountain near Mount Hood , as well as in Eugene , Salem , and Newberg . In 1996 the first interactive Children 's Concert was broadcast live via satellite across Oregon . The collaboration between PYP and Multnomah Community TV continued beyond 1996 ; in 1998 concerts were streamed as far away as Tucson , Arizona , and a 1999 recording became a finalist in the national Hometown Video Festival .
Released on 27 March 1998 , Fountain of Youth became the orchestra 's sixth commercial recording on Compact Disc ( previous recordings were vinyl or cassette ) . The compilation album included works recorded at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall during seasons seventy @-@ three and seventy @-@ four . In January 1999 , Portland Parent published an article by Edwards titled " The Role of Classical Music in the Lives of Young People " , which discussed the benefits of classical music to child learning development . The 1998 – 1999 season included performances in Salem , Newberg , Welches , St. Helens , and Milwaukie and Longview , Washington in addition to the regular subscription series . On 10 February 1999 the orchestra opened a Portland Trail Blazers game at the Rose Garden performing The Star @-@ Spangled Banner .
During Edwards ' seven years with the orchestra , he and other PYP representatives established a peer mentor program which partnered orchestra musicians with low @-@ income students with little access to music education , and earned the ensemble its second ASCAP award for " Adventurous Programming and Commitment to Contemporary Music " . He made five recordings and led the orchestra on two tours : in April 1998 the Philharmonic represented the United States at the Banff International Festival of Youth Orchestras in Canada , and the orchestra toured Australia and New Zealand in 2000 . The tour included performances in Auckland , Brisbane , Canberra , Armidale , Newcastle , Sydney , and Melbourne . Edwards also recorded Gabriel Fauré 's Requiem at St. Mary 's Cathedral as a collaboration with Cantores in Ecclesia . Edwards left PYP in 2002 and was succeeded by Mei @-@ Ann Chen . Guest conductors during PYP 's 2007 – 2008 season included Ken Selden , director of orchestral studies at Portland State University , former Seattle Symphony conductor Alastair Willis , along with former PYP conductors Edwards and Chen .
= = = Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestra = = =
He became music director of the Seattle Youth Symphony at the start of its sixtieth season ( 2002 – 2003 ) , putting him in charge of 1 @,@ 000 young musicians participating in the symphony and its four preparatory orchestras as well as the organisation 's outreach programs and the Marrowstone Music Festival program . Edwards increased the Seattle orchestra 's repertoire by performing works by British composers of the 20th century and by premiering works by American composers such as John Mackey . One Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer contributor wrote that Edwards made a " fine choice " for the ensemble , noting that he " nurture [ d ] , coache [ d ] and encourage [ d ] his musicians " . Furthermore , she claimed that his program notes were a " model of clarity and fascinating detail " . Edwards remained music director of the Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestra until 2005 . He has stated the following about working with young musicians :
[ With young musicians ] You have to teach and explain more . You have to fire their imagination . With professionals , you look for clarity and consistency . With students , you have to motivate and explain , using different approaches . Their attention span can come and go . It is unpredictable . From first rehearsal to performance , they will come a long way . I am very big on team work , and I tell them they are part of a team and individual egos are less important .
= = = Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra , Olympia Symphony Orchestra = = =
Edwards began serving as music director of the Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra in 2000 . His year @-@ long audition process for the music director position with the Olympia Symphony Orchestra began during the 2002 – 2003 season . The season also marked his fifth with the Marrowstone Summer Music program , where he remained until 2005 . In 2010 , Edwards was one of four finalists for the conductor position with the Yakima Symphony Orchestra .
In April 2012 Edwards announced his resignation at the end of his twelfth season with the Portland Columbia Symphony Orchestra , citing exhaustion from the commutes between Olympia and Portland as the reason . He has been named Conductor Emeritus and Principal Guest Conductor and returned for the 2012 – 2013 season finale concert .
During the final performance of the Olympia Symphony Orchestra 's 2014 – 15 season it was announced that Edwards had signed a ten @-@ year contract extension as its conductor .
= = = University of Puget Sound = = =
In May 2012 , Edwards accepted the orchestra conductor position at the University of Puget Sound , a private liberal arts college located in Tacoma , Washington .
= = Interests = =
Dedicated to music education , Edwards enjoys conducting Beethoven for youth orchestras . He has admitted that he did not envision a career conducting youth orchestras but also that he " did not rule them out " . His favourite composition is Parsifal by Richard Wagner ; other favourites include unaccompanied choral music , cello suites by Bach , quartets by Beethoven and jazz , including Nat King Cole . Apart from music , Edwards likes the Chicago Bears , CrossFit , golf , kayaking , Masterpiece Theater , poetry , and Rhône wine along with the winemaking process . Edwards is an avid sports fan and fitness advocate ; he is a former rugby player , enjoys running and playing squash , and believes there are similarities between how music and sports affect the community . He was sometimes referred to as " coach " by musicians of the Portland Youth Philharmonic . Edwards has shared that he would want to work at a vineyard or winery , or be a sports radio host or travel correspondent for a publication if he were not a conductor .
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= The Forge ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" The Forge " is the seventh episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on November 19 , 2004 on UPN . Directed by Michael Grossman , the script was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , and formed the first part of a three @-@ episode arc which continued in " Awakening " and concluded in " Kir 'Shara " .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the crew investigates the bombing of the Earth embassy on Vulcan . The evidence lead them to suspect a group called the Syrrannites , and Captain Archer and Commander T 'Pol seek to cross an unforgiving Vulcan desert , known as " The Forge " , in order to find them . Meanwhile on the ship , the crew discover that the evidence was planted by elements linked to Vulcan High Command .
The episode picks up on several references from Star Trek : The Original Series and The Animated Series . Scenes were filmed in Simi Valley , California to represent the Vulcan Forge itself , which was augmented with additional CGI to represent the firestorm and a Vulcan animal called the sehlat . The ratings for " The Forge " saw a decrease from the previous two episodes .
= = Plot = =
Enterprise is ordered to Vulcan after 31 humans die in the bombing of the United Earth Embassy , including Vice @-@ Admiral Forrest , who is killed saving the life of Ambassador Soval . Captain Archer meets with the head of the Vulcan High Command , Administrator V 'Las , who concedes that the Syrrannites , a Vulcan faction , might have been responsible . This is possible since although they claim peaceful tenets , they follow a " corrupted " form of the teachings of the Vulcan philosopher and father of Vulcan logic , Surak . Further , initial video and DNA evidence lead to a Vulcan named T 'Pau , a known Syrrannite .
Koss arrives on board Enterprise to speak to his wife , T 'Pol . He gives her an IDIC pendant from her mother , who he explains is also a Syrrannite . The pendant projects a map showing a path across a desert on Vulcan called “ the Forge , ” which Archer believes will lead them to both T 'Pau and T 'Pol 's mother . T 'Pol and Archer leave the ship and begin to make the crossing , following the map . They soon encounter another traveller , calling himself Arev , who assists but remains distrustful of them . A sand @-@ fire storm kills Arev , but before he dies , he forcefully performs a mind @-@ meld with Archer to transfer his katra . After burying him , a focussed Archer leads T 'Pol directly to the concealed T 'Karath Sanctuary , where they are quickly captured .
Back on Enterprise , Doctor Phlox discovers that the DNA was planted . He and Commander Tucker then examine security scans near a checkpoint in the Embassy and single out a hooded man holding a suspicious package . Furthermore they notice that the guard at the checkpoint seems to already know who the bomber is . Unfortunately , the guard is in a coma from the blast , and Archer and T 'Pol are incommunicado . Even though it violates standard Vulcan ethics , Phlox and Tucker consider a mind @-@ meld , and Soval decides to perform it himself . To his surprise , he discovers that the suspect is Stel , a Vulcan investigator attached to V 'Las . Soval then resolves to inform the High Command .
= = Production = =
Production on the episode began on September 14 , 2004 and ran through to September 22 . The standing sets were used for the first three days of filming . Further sets were created to represent the Vulcan Embassy and portions of the Forge . The final two days were filmed on site in Simi Valley in southern California , which doubled as the main areas of the Forge . The property used in the valley was owned by mining company P.W. Gillibrand , which was nearby property owned by Vulcan Materials Company . Optical effects were added to represent the firestorm and the sehlat . The CGI sehlat was based on one which previously appeared in Star Trek : The Animated Series episode " Yesteryear " . Visual effects producer Dan Curry said that the team " looked at the animated series and it just looked nice and pleasant , so I did a couple of sketches to do a reinterpretation of it to make it look scary , but not be too radical a departure from the original " . Eden FX modelled the CGI under supervision by staff visual effects supervisor Art Codron . Additional care was taken to create the fur so that close @-@ ups could be used if required . The only physical portion of the sehlat to be created was a single paw . " Yesteryear " was set in the Vulcan city Shi 'Khar , which reappears in " The Forge " , and it is also the first mention of the area on Vulcan called the Forge . A further reference was made to " Vulcan 's Forge " in the Deep Space Nine episode " Change of Heart " .
" The Forge " and the following two episodes make reference to a time of savagery in Vulcan history known as the " Time of Awakening " . This had been previously mentioned in The Original Series episodes " Balance of Terror " , " All Our Yesterdays " and " The Savage Curtain " as well as The Next Generation episode " Gambit " . The story mentioned the Vulcan T 'Pau , who had previously appeared in The Original Series episode " Amok Time " presiding over the fight between Kirk and Spock , with the elder T 'Pau portrayed by Celia Lovsky . Michael Reilly Burke returns as Koss , having previously appeared in the role in the season four episode " Home " . Robert Foxworth appears as Administrator V 'Las , having previously appeared as Admiral Leyton in the Deep Space Nine episodes " Homefront " and " Paradise Lost " .
Husband and wife duo Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens had previously written a number of Star Trek related novels and books , including a series of collaborations with William Shatner and the novel Federation . They had also written several non @-@ fiction books on the behind the scenes productions of the Star Trek series such as Star Trek : Phase II - The Lost Series and Star Trek : The Next Generation - The Continuing Mission . " The Forge " was their first script together for a Star Trek series , but they had previously written scripts for other shows including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Lost World and Once a Thief . They joined the Enterprise writing team shortly before working on the story for this episode which formed the first part of a planned " Vulcan arc " . The arc was created to address the differences between Vulcans seen in the early seasons of Enterprise and those seen in Star Trek series set in later periods . Executive producer Manny Coto said that during the storyline " we will begin to see Vulcans approaching what they were in the later eras " . In Enterprise , Vulcans were more emotional and deceptive than they had been seen in earlier aired series . The storyline was one of several in the fourth season of Enterprise which Coto sought to connect the series to The Original Series . " The Forge " was director Michael Grossman 's second episode of Enterprise , having previously directed the third season episode " Hatchery " . He went on to direct the episode " Affliction " later in season four .
= = Reception and home media = =
" The Forge " received a 1 @.@ 9 / 3 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . This resulted in UPN placing last out of the major networks with NBC leading during the timeslot with a 6 @.@ 3 / 11 % rating for Dateline . Joan of Arcadia on CBS was close to NBC 's numbers with a rating of 6 @.@ 2 / 11 % . " The Forge " saw a decrease from the 2 @.@ 1 / 4 % share received by the previous two episodes " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " .
Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation approved of the episode with some reservations . She said that it " beautifully melds together threads from every Star Trek series in a way that 's deeply satisfying to this lifelong Trekker " , However , she was disappointed at the lack of anything for Hoshi Sato or Travis Mayweather to do , and the obviousness of the use of some green screens in some scenes . Jamahl Epsicokhan of the website " Jammer 's Reviews " described the episode as a " jam @-@ packed story that cares about the history of Star Trek " . He gave it a score of 3 @.@ 5 / 4 , saying that it was " an intriguing outing . It 's like a cross between Enterprise , The Original Series , and Deep Space Nine , all at once . " When later summarising the fourth season , he described " The Forge " as " easily Enterprise 's best episode of the season " .
The first home media release of " The Forge " was in the season three DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
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= Everything Has Changed =
" Everything Has Changed " is a song written and performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift and English singer @-@ songwriter Ed Sheeran , taken from Swift 's fourth studio album Red ( 2012 ) . Produced by Butch Walker , the track was released as the sixth single from the album on July 16 , 2013 . " Everything Has Changed " is a guitar ballad combining folk and pop genres about " wanting to get to know a new lover better " .
The single gained mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its composition . " Everything Has Changed " peaked at number 32 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top ten charts of countries including Belgium , Ireland and the United Kingdom . A music video for " Everything Has Changed " was released of Swift 's VEVO channel on June 6 , 2013 . Swift performed " Everything Has Changed " with Sheeran on Britain 's Got Talent on June 8 , 2013 . Swift also performed the track on her Red Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
It was reported that English singer @-@ songwriter Ed Sheeran would appear as a guest artist on American recording artist Taylor Swift 's then @-@ upcoming album Red . On October 18 , 2012 , " Everything Has Changed " by Swift featuring Sheeran was leaked online . The song was written by Swift and Sheeran in Swift 's backyard . " Everything Has Changed " is a guitar ballad , blending folk @-@ pop genres . Written in the key of G @-@ flat major , it has a moderate tempo of 84 beats per minute . The duo 's vocal range spans from G ♭ 3 to D ♭ 5 . Lyrically , the track talks about " wanting to get to know a new lover better " . Swift further explained the song 's theme , " Everything looks different to you because of this one person , because one new person came into your life . It ’ s really cool " .
= = Reception = =
" Everything Has Changed " received generally lukewarm reviews from music critics . A writer from Billboard gave the song a mixed review , criticizing its composition yet complimenting Sheeran 's appearance . Robert Cospey of Digital Spy gave the song a three stars out of five rating , praising the song 's musical style as " cutesy " but felt that " their exchanges leave us with a warm and fuzzy feeling that is all too rare these days " . Sian Rowe , a writer from NME provided " Everything Has Changed " a negative review , writing that the track is " disappointing in every way " .
In the United States , " Everything Has Changed " peaked at number 32 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ; it eventually charted at number eight on the Adult Pop Songs , number 11 on the Adult Contemporary and number 14 on the Mainstream Top 40 . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the single peaked at number 28 . " Everything Has Changed " was more commercially successful in several European territories , peaking at number five in Ireland , number seven in Sheeran 's native United Kingdom , and number eight in Belgium ( Flanders region ) . It was certified gold by the Recorded Music NZ , and Recording Industry Association of America , and double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association .
= = Music video = =
A music video for " Everything Has Changed " was released on Swift 's VEVO channel on YouTube on June 6 , 2013 . It was directed by Philip Andelman and filmed in Los Angeles and San Antonio . The video begins with two children who initially appear to be Swift and Sheeran when they were much younger , meeting each other on a bus to elementary school . Young Taylor is played by Ava Ames . Throughout the video , the two children have their " youthful play " including painting their faces with crayons , pretending to be a princess and knight , and dancing with each other in the empty school gym . At the end , Swift and Sheeran appear and we realize that they are actually two different parents , arriving at the school to pick up their kids and take each of the children back to their respective homes . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard labelled the video as " impossibly adorable " , while Ray Rahman from Entertainment Weekly compared the video 's synopsis to Forrest Gump , but " much more gentle than that " . To date , it has 186 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
On June 8 , 2013 , Swift and Sheeran performed " Everything Has Changed " together on season finale of the seventh series of Britain 's Got Talent . Swift also sang the song on her Red Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Everything Has Changed ( Remix ) [ feat . Ed Sheeran ] " – 4 : 06
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= 1909 Velasco hurricane =
The 1909 Velasco hurricane was an intense tropical cyclone that devastated areas of the Texas coast in July of the 1909 Atlantic hurricane season . The fourth tropical storm , second hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , it formed from an area of disturbed weather east of the Leeward Islands on July 13 , 1909 . Remaining weak for much of its early existence , the system began to intensify after nearing Jamaica . Curving towards the northwest , it reached hurricane strength on July 18 near the western tip of Cuba . Intensification stalled as it moved westwards across the Gulf of Mexico , but resumed as the hurricane approached the Texas coast . The storm intensified to a major hurricane on July 21 and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) prior to making landfall near Velasco , Texas . Once over land , the system began to quickly weaken , and dissipated near the Rio Grande on July 22 .
The hurricane caused 41 deaths and $ 2 million in damages , all of which were in Texas . Strong waves caused several offshore shipping incidents , and storm surge inundated areas of the Texas coast , though damage in Galveston was mostly mitigated by the Galveston Seawall . In Velasco , only eight buildings remained intact after the hurricane . Strong winds forced train closures and destroyed and downed various infrastructure . Heavy rains further inland peaked at 8 @.@ 5 in ( 220 mm ) in Hallettsville .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical depression was first noted at 1200 UTC on July 13 , northeast of Grenada in the Windward Islands , with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , though whether it had a closed circulation at the time remains unclear . Nonetheless , the system remained a weak tropical depression for much of its early existence as it moved to the west @-@ northwest through the eastern Caribbean Sea . Weather reports throughout the Caribbean during this time were sparse and according to José Partagás , a former meteorologist at the National Hurricane Center , the system still may have not formed a closed circulation . This meant that the low was not classifiable , though the lack of data also meant that there was no evidence to support this claim and the system was kept as a tropical depression in HURDAT , the Atlantic Hurricane Database . However , once the depression was located south of Jamaica , it began to slowly strengthen and curve more towards the northwest , reaching tropical storm intensity by 0000 UTC on July 17 . At the time , the system was expected to make landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported strong breezes associated with low barometric pressure . Despite predictions , the system curved from its initial west @-@ northwest movement and more towards the northwest , towards the central Gulf of Mexico . The tropical storm continued to intensify , attaining hurricane strength as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale at 1800 UTC on July 18 after skirting past the Guanahacabibes Peninsula .
Once in the Gulf of Mexico , intensification substantially lessened as the storm maintained its Category 1 intensity throughout July 19 and July 20 . The hurricane curved in the gulf back to a more westerly direction , while moving at about 10 mph ( 15 km / h ) . A minimum pressure reading of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) was reported offshore south of Louisiana by the ship S.S. Paraguay at 1800 UTC on July 20 . Strengthening resumed on July 21 as the hurricane tracked almost parallel to the Louisiana coastline towards Texas . Later that day , the storm attained its peak intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 3 major hurricane , with sustained winds of 115 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 959 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 32 inHg ) . The hurricane made landfall at this intensity almost directly over Velasco , Texas , with maximum wind speeds stretching 22 mi ( 35 km ) from the hurricane 's center . Over the following 24 hours , the system rapidly weakened over land and lost tropical charcatersitics near the Rio Grande during the afternoon of July 22 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As the hurricane approached Texas , the Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings for potentially affected areas beginning on July 18 . Ships and ports were also continuously notified on the oncoming storm , which helped to keep offshore shipping accidents to a minimum . Inland , as a precautionary measure , rail operations along the coast were halted for a duration of the storm 's passage .
At its landfall in Velasco , the hurricane caused a wide swath of damage along the Texas coast and areas further inland . Despite previously issued warnings , rough seas produced by the hurricane still caused several ship accidents . Strong waves forced several ships near Galveston to either become grounded or sunk . The derrick barge Miller and other craft were grounded along Galveston 's West Bay . A large dredge was swept into the Galveston Causeway , snapping telegraph cables that ran along the length of the causeway . The Miriam was sunken by a submerged log , while the schooner Ed Gibbs was broken into pieces near La Porte . The steamboat El Siglo ( The Century ) remained stranded offshore for twelve hours in winds estimated at 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Off of Mobile , Alabama , the high waves prevented ships from entering the Port of Mobile . Closer to the coast , the hurricane produced a storm surge of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in Galveston and Velasco . However , due to the Galveston Seawall , much of the potential storm surge @-@ related damage in Galveston was mitigated , though the seawall forced spray to rise 60 ft ( 18 m ) in the air . Areas outside the seawall on the Galveston beach , including two fishing piers and pavilions were destroyed . On Galveston 's Tarpon Pier , ten members of a fishing party perished after the pier collapsed , though six were rescued by the yacht Mayflower . In western areas of Galveston , where there was no seawall , inland areas were inundated under 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . However , Galveston 's primary streets were submerged to a lesser extent , under 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . In Velasco , the tide was reported to have been 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher than during the 1900 Galveston hurricane , which inundated the city under 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water . Areas of Sabine Pass were also inundated by the high waves , and the Southern Pacific Railroad was submerged in water .
In Velasco , where the hurricane made landfall , only eight buildings remained intact after the storm 's passage . Quintana , Columbus , and Columbia were also heavily affected , with all houses experiencing some form of severe damage . In Austin , homes were unroofed , and the storm was considered as the worst hurricane to affect Austin at the time . Heavy rains caused large amounts of driftwood to float down the Colorado River . In Austin , the driftwood struck the newly constructed Congress Avenue Bridge , carrying away 200 ft ( 61 m ) of trestle and resulting in $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages . Other cities also reported severely damaged homes and businesses . Galveston suffered minor damage , with reports of chimney damage and broken windows . Three sections of the Galveston Causeway were blown down by the strong winds . As a result , tug boats were forced to carry people and cargo to and from Galveston along West Bay . The Western Union Telegraph Company reportedly lost all direct communication with Galveston for a temporary period of time . Other telegraph companies in Dallas and Chicago also lost communications with the city . Property damage in Galveston was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 . Strong winds and gusts from the storm were reported as far inland as Eagle Pass . The winds uprooted trees and extensively damaged various crops , as well as downed power lines . In the Galveston Jetty , Rosenburg , and Brazoria , strong winds blew trains off of their tracks . Train stations and train depots along the coast also experienced considerable damage , with some depots being completely leveled . Maize fields which had been previously burned by wildfires caused by an ongoing drought in Kingsville were swept down , while cotton crops withstood the hurricane well . Oil dericks near Markham were blown down , and water wells were stripped of their machinery . In Alvin , barns and windmills were destroyed . Richmond also reported destroyed barns , as well as downed chimneys . Six prisoners escaped from the city 's local jail after windows were blown in . Rice mills were downed in Eagle Pass .
Damage was comparatively light in Louisiana . Heavy rains and storm surge inundated marshes , resulting in hundreds of reported cattle drownings . Cotton crops from Grand Chenier , Louisiana to Sabine Pass was destroyed by the rains and wind . Two deaths in Louisiana were reported in Cameron Parish , Louisiana .
Further inland , the hurricane produced heavy rainfall in many areas , peaking at 8 @.@ 5 in ( 220 mm ) in Hallettsville , Texas , with rainfall totals of at least 3 in ( 76 mm ) common in along the hurricane 's track . Boerne , Fredericksbrug , and Columbia all set monthly records for 24 ‑ hour rainfall totals on July 21 and 22 , with all three cities reporting totals of 5 in ( 130 mm ) or greater . While the heavy rains caused damage in areas , it provided beneficial drought relief in other regions .
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= The Last Theorem =
The Last Theorem is a 2008 science fiction novel by Arthur C. Clarke and Frederik Pohl . It was first published in the United Kingdom by HarperVoyager in July 2008 , and in the United States by Del Rey Books in August 2008 . The book is about a young Sri Lankan mathematician who finds a short proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem , while an alien invasion of Earth is in progress .
The novel began as Clarke 's , but when ill health and a psychological ( or possibly neurological ) form of writer 's block prevented him from making progress , he handed over his notes and the incomplete manuscript to Pohl , who , in close consultation with Clarke , completed the novel . Clarke reviewed the final manuscript in early March 2008 , just days before he died .
In general The Last Theorem was not well received by critics . Entertainment Weekly in their review of the novel said that " uneven pacing and tone mar an intriguing cautionary tale . " The Los Angeles Times wondered how stable the manuscript was when it was published , adding that it does nothing to " burnish the legacy of either of its authors . " The San Francisco Chronicle , however , described the novel as a " fitting valedictory for Clarke , [ ... ] and a reminder of Pohl 's great relevance to a genre he has championed for more than 70 years . "
= = Background = =
Science fiction Grand Masters , Sir Arthur C. Clarke and Frederik Pohl collaborated for the first time on The Last Theorem . The novel initially was Clarke 's , and he began working on it in early 2004 . But in 2006 , at the age of 88 , ill health brought on by complications from post @-@ polio syndrome , and writer 's block , impeded his progress , and he asked Pohl for help . Pohl explained : " Arthur said to me that he woke up one morning and didn 't know how to write any of the books he had contracted . The stories had just gone out of his head . " Clarke gave Pohl a 40 – 50 page manuscript plus roughly 50 pages of notes , and over the next two years , Pohl wrote the book . Pohl said that " Everything in the novel is something he either suggested or wrote or I discussed with him . " Some of Clarke 's notes were so obscure that even Clarke himself could not understand them . Pohl , only two years younger than Clarke , had health problems of his own : he could no longer type and wrote the book out in longhand , leaving it up to his wife to translate his " indecipherable scribbles " . Clarke reviewed and approved the final manuscript of The Last Theorem in early March 2008 , just days before he died . Pohl died five years later in September 2013 .
Some of the concepts that appear in The Last Theorem originally appeared in Clarke 's earlier works . The space elevator that is built in Sri Lanka originally featured in The Fountains of Paradise ( 1979 ) where it was also built in Sri Lanka ( then Ceylon ) . Because the elevator will work only on or near the equator , Clarke " moved " Ceylon south to the equator in The Fountains of Paradise , and the equator north to Sri Lanka in The Last Theorem . The solar powered space yacht race was first featured in a short story of Clarke 's , " The Wind from the Sun " ( 1964 ) , and the concept of a " mysterious Elder Race " deciding our fate , in this case the Grand Galactics , has appeared in several of Clarke 's previous novels , including Childhood 's End ( 1953 ) and the Space Odyssey Series ( 1968 – 1997 ) . Some of Pohl 's earlier themes also appear here , including his human @-@ machine hybrid which featured in Man Plus ( 1976 ) .
Clarke wrote over 30 science fiction novels and over 100 works of short fiction , winning both the Hugo and Nebula Awards several times . He moved to Sri Lanka ( then Ceylon ) in 1956 and remained there for the rest of his life . One of his greatest wishes was for peace in Sri Lanka . The Last Theorem is set in his adopted country , and Pohl said that tensions between the Sinhalese Sri Lankan government and the Tamil liberation army ( the Tamil Tigers ) were " major inspirations for the novel " .
Pohl 's writing career spans 70 years , and includes over 50 science fiction novels and numerous short stories . He also won both the Hugo and Nebula Awards several times . One of Pohl 's fascinations has been mathematics , in particular number theory . He would often spend his spare time " playing " with prime numbers , and even tried to write a formula for generating primes . But he did invent several mathematical parlour tricks , some of which are featured in The Last Theorem .
= = Plot summary = =
The Last Theorem is set in Sri Lanka in the early- to mid @-@ 21st century and follows the life of a mathematician , Ranjit Subramanian . While studying at Colombo University , he becomes obsessed with Fermat 's Last Theorem , a conjecture made by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 , for which he claimed to have conceived a proof that he never wrote down . The proof eluded mathematicians across the world for over 350 years , until in 1995 British mathematician Andrew Wiles published a 100 @-@ page proof of the theorem . But not everyone was " satisfied " with Wiles 's proof because it used twentieth century mathematical techniques not available in Fermat 's time .
In the novel 's back @-@ story , extraterrestrial sapients , the " Grand Galactics " , are alarmed when they detect the photon shock waves from nuclear bomb detonations on Earth . The Grand Galactics monitor and control the destinies of a number of high @-@ performance sapient races and order one of these races , the " Nine Limbeds " , to send " cease and desist " messages to Earth . When these messages have no effect , the Grand Galactics order another race , the " One Point Fives " , to launch an armada to Earth to exterminate the undesirable species .
Back on Earth , regional conflicts escalate and the United Nations struggles to contain them . In Sri Lanka , Ranjit unwittingly boards a cruise ship that is hijacked by pirates . When unknown security forces free the ship , Ranjit is arrested on suspicion of terrorism . For six months he is interrogated and tortured , but he cannot supply the information his captors want so he is locked up and " forgotten " for a further 18 months . During this period of incarceration , Ranjit dwells on Fermat 's Last Theorem and , after several months , solves it with a three @-@ page proof . Later Ranjit is rescued by a friend from University , Gamini Bandara , who will not reveal whom he is working for or where Ranjit was held captive .
Ranjit submits his proof for publication and achieves worldwide fame . He marries Myra de Soyza , an artificial intelligence specialist , and embarks on a speaking tour of the world . In the United States , he is briefly recruited by the CIA to work on cryptography . Gamini later reveals that he is working for Pax per Fidem ( Peace through Transparency ) , an undercover United Nations organization established to bring about world peace . To achieve this end , Pax per Fidem has developed " Silent Thunder " , a non @-@ lethal EMP nuclear superweapon that renders all electrical equipment in its path inoperable . Silent Thunder is deployed in North Korea and later in South America , and regional conflicts subside . Gamini invites Ranjit to join Pax per Fidem , but the authoritarian nature of Pax per Fidem and its " new world order " worry Ranjit and Myra , and Ranjit turns down the offer . He does , however , accept a position on the advisory board of an international consortium building a space elevator in Sri Lanka , chosen because of its position on the equator .
As the One Point Five fleet enters the Solar System , the Nine Limbeds orbit and observe Earth in cigar @-@ shaped craft , sparking numerous UFO sightings . A Grand Galactic member , who happens to be passing by , stops to observe the effects of Silent Thunder and returns to the Grand Galactic collective , who immediately suspend the One Point Fives 's destruct orders pending further investigation .
The space elevator is completed and , for the first time , people and materials can be lifted into Earth orbit without the need of rockets . Natasha , Ranjit and Myra 's daughter , competes in the first solar powered space yacht race from Earth- to Moon @-@ orbit . But soon after the start of the race , Natasha 's yacht malfunctions and she is abducted by the Nine Limbeds , who use a projection of her to interrogate prominent people on Earth , including Ranjit and Gamini , about Silent Thunder . Satisfied that Earth has " reformed " , Natasha is returned and the Nine Limbeds broadcast a message to Earth in which they announce that the Grand Galactics have decided not to sterilize Earth , and that the One Point Fives , with their Machine Stored navigators , cannot return home and will land and occupy unused areas of Earth .
The One Point Fives land in the desolate Qattara Depression in the Libyan Desert , which they find quite habitable compared to their ruined homeworld . The Americans send B52 bombers to attack the One Point Fives ' base , but the aliens electronically disable the aircraft , causing them to crash short of their target . When the US President demands reparations , the One Point Fives provide gold distilled from seawater by way of compensation . With the Grand Galactics absent , the aliens make decisions for themselves : the One Point Fives provide Earth with new forms of power and the Machine Stored reveal mind uploading technology . When Myra dies in a scuba diving accident , her mind is uploaded into cyberspace , with Ranjit joining her later .
After 13 @,@ 000 years the Grand Galactics finally return to Earth and are astounded to see how fast the planet has developed . They had always interfered with the evolution of sentient species they had discovered , believing they could not be trusted to evolve on their own . Impressed with Earth 's progress , the Grand Galactic relieve themselves of the burden of watching over intelligent life and hand the task over to Earth .
= = Characters = =
= = = Sri Lankans = = =
These characters come from three of Sri Lanka 's ethnic groups : the Sinhalese , the Tamils and the Portuguese Burghers .
Ranjit Subramanian ( Tamil ) – a mathematical prodigy and son of a Hindu priest ; he achieves worldwide fame after proving Fermat 's Last Theorem without recourse to methods not available to Fermat in his day
Myra Subramanian ( née de Soyza ) ( Burgher ) – an artificial intelligence and prosthetic specialist and wife of Ranjit
Natasha de Soyza Subramanian – solar wind yacht race contestant and daughter of Ranjit and Myra
Gamini Bandara ( Sinhalese ) – a United Nations undercover operative and freshman friend of Ranjit 's at Colombo University
= = = Aliens = = =
Grand Galactics – a sentient entity with the ability to subdivide itself into fragments , each capable of appearing " instantaneously " anywhere in the galaxy ; monitors other life and follows the principle of " Protect the harmless . Quarantine the dangerous . Destroy the malevolent – after storing a backup in a secure location "
Grand Galactic client ( subordinate ) races :
One Point Fives – a diminutive cat @-@ sized race who all but destroyed their world 20 light @-@ years from Earth and now wear shields and prostheses to protect themselves from their toxic environment , increasing their body size 1 @.@ 5 times ; they are the Grand Galactics 's " hit men " used to destroy recalcitrant planets
Nine Limbeds – a nine @-@ limbed race with good language skills ; used by the Grand Galactics to communicate with other races
Machine Stored – a " demonic " looking race whose neglect of their planet left it uninhabitable , forcing them to upload themselves into the memory of machines ; used by the Grand Galactics as ship navigators and to " backup " other races
= = Reception and analysis = =
In spite of the publicity The Last Theorem received , that it was Arthur C. Clarke 's " last novel " , and that it was written by two science fiction Grand Masters , in general it has not been well received by critics .
Entertainment Weekly in their review said that " uneven pacing and tone mar an intriguing cautionary tale . This collaboration , completed before Clarke 's death last March , would 've made a better solo project for either author . " The Washington Post said that " The Last Theorem reads like a dog @-@ eared album of favorite themes from yesteryear " , referring to Clarke and Pohl topics from the authors ' earlier works . Thomas M. Wagner at SF Reviews wrote that " The Last Theorem is a book I really resent not liking , because there 's so much about it that deserves to be liked . " He said that the first two @-@ thirds is " so good [ ... ] it almost , but doesn 't quite , make up for the nonsense that overtakes the whole affair at the climax . " Wagner felt that the meeting of " two disparate storytelling sensibilities " was " far less harmonious and compatible " than Clarke and Pohl may have imagined . Wagner summed up by saying that " The Last Theorem is not simply an uneven novel . It 's a deeply disjointed one , a book that introduces a host of wonderful ideas and sympathetic , believable characters , only to decide it doesn 't trust them to carry off the story in the end , ultimately falling back – disastrously – on dated and dubious formula . " Sheila Merritt at SciFi Dimensions said that while it should have been " a fine tribute and a fitting farewell to this master of science fiction " , it turned out to be an " easy book to put down . " She said that the plot " meanders in fits and starts " and that the book is too long for the story it tells . Ed Park of the Los Angeles Times enjoyed the first third of the book , but said that for the rest , its " winning and winking self @-@ consciousness evaporates . " He wondered how stable the manuscript was when it was published , and added that it does nothing to " burnish the legacy of either of its authors . "
A common criticism amongst many reviewers was that in spite of its title , no connection is made between Fermat 's Last Theorem and the alien invasion . Alex Kasman at Mathematical Fiction complained about errors in some of the author 's descriptions of the mathematical problems , and in particular their unfair treatment of Wiles 's proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem . Some reviewers felt that the characters had not been developed sufficiently . Michael Sims of The Washington Post said that " these characters are so thin you can see through them . " The aliens are depicted as cartoon @-@ like figures , and Ranjit does not appear to be affected by his lengthy incarceration , interrogation and torture . Some critics also felt that the book ended " somewhat precipitously " , that after the aliens arrived , the crisis was resolved too quickly , giving the impression " that there was at least a good , long chapter missing . "
Not all reviews , however , were negative . Nader Elhefnawy at Strange Horizons described the book as " an interesting experiment " . He said that Pohl deserves the credit for " capturing Clarke 's voice " , and that Clarke also deserves credit for doing something completely different . While he would not recommend the book to readers new to Clarke 's work , Elhefnawy said that fans would not regret reading the book . Mark Yon at SFF World said that while this is not one of Clarke 's best works , " it is still very good " . He said that even though it is a collaboration , the book is still recognisably Clarke , " with the same humour , the same enthusiasm , the great flashes of inspiration , the big ideas and the same curious positivism that underlines most of Sir Arthur ’ s work . [ ... ] There is a joy throughout here : a joy of learning , of opening up new opportunities and experiences , and a love of mathematics and science . " Michael Berry at the San Francisco Chronicle said that the novel does a " stellar job of conveying some of the intellectual fun that can be had by manipulating math . " He said that Sri Lanka , Clarke 's home for most of his life , is brought " vividly to life " , and that despite some minor flaws , The Last Theorem is a " fitting valedictory for Clarke , one of science fiction 's most acclaimed authors , and a reminder of Pohl 's great relevance to a genre he has championed for more than 70 years . "
= = Work cited = =
Clarke , Arthur C. ; Pohl , Frederik C. ( 2009 ) [ 2008 ] . The Last Theorem . London : Harper Voyager . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 729002 @-@ 4 .
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= John Day ( printer ) =
John Day ( or Daye ) ( c . 1522 – 23 July 1584 ) was an English Protestant printer . He specialised in printing and distributing Protestant literature and pamphlets , and produced many small @-@ format religious books , such as ABCs , sermons , and translations of psalms . He found fame , however , as the publisher of John Foxe 's Actes and Monuments , also known as the Book of Martyrs , the largest and most technologically accomplished book printed in sixteenth @-@ century England .
Day rose to the top of his profession during the reign of Edward VI ( 1547 – 1553 ) . At this time , restrictions on publishers were relaxed , and a wave of propaganda on behalf of the English Reformation was encouraged by the government of the Lord Protector , Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset . During the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary I , many Protestant printers fled to the continent , but Day stayed in England and continued to print Protestant literature . In 1554 , he was arrested and imprisoned , presumably for these illicit printing activities . Under Queen Elizabeth I , Day returned to his premises at Aldersgate in London , where he enjoyed the patronage of high @-@ ranking officials and nobles , including William Cecil , Robert Dudley , and Matthew Parker . With their support , he published the Book of Martyrs and was awarded monopolies for some of the most popular English books , such as The ABC with Little Catechism and The Whole Booke of Psalmes . Day , whose technical skill matched his business acumen , has been called " the master printer of the English Reformation " .
= = Early career = =
Day 's origins and the events of his early life remain obscure . Scholars have assumed that Day was born and raised in Dunwich , but there is no direct evidence that proves this claim . He may have been in London by 1540 , as his name is mentioned in a city deposition as being a former servant of the printer and physician Thomas Raynalde . In 1546 , he was probably one of twenty men who were granted the freedom of the city by redemption to work for the Stringers ' Company of London .
The next year , he began printing with a partner , William Seres ; the two based their operations at the parish of St Sepulchre in London . Day and Seres specialised in religious works , such as those by Robert Crowley , which were largely related to theological controversies of the time . The Protestant Reformation was advancing rapidly , and the laws against the publication of heretical works were being relaxed . In 1548 , ten of the twenty works that the two men published were devoted to criticizing the Catholic belief of transubstantiation . One of those publications , a satirical poem by Luke Shepherd titled Iohn Bon and Mast Person , almost landed Day in jail . Day and Seres also translated important works of Continental Protestantism for the English market , notably Herman von Wied 's A Simple and Religious Consultation in 1547 .
In 1549 , Day opened a new shop in Cheapside , and the next year , he and Seres were successful enough to amicably separate their businesses . Day set up his new home and printing establishment at Aldersgate in the parish of St Anne and St Agnes and transferred from the Stringers ' to the Stationers ' Company . Day found Aldersgate 's foreigner @-@ friendly attributes helpful in attracting skilled Dutch workers , whom he relied on throughout his career . He soon established himself as a quality printer , and in 1551 , he reprinted an elaborate edition of the Bible that he had previously produced with Seres . The next year , he secured a valuable patent to print the works of John Ponet and Thomas Beccon . This enraged one of his competitors , Reginald Wolfe , who already held a patent to print Ponet 's Catechism in Latin . Eventually , a compromise patent was issued which allowed Wolfe to continue printing the Catechism in Latin and Day to print the work in English . Day reaped more benefits from the deal than Wolfe : the English printings were used far more extensively than the Latin ones , and the ABC was eventually appended with Ponet 's Catechism .
With a reputation for Protestant godliness and connections to people like John Dudley , William Cecil , and Catherine Willoughby , a successful career seemed assured for Day . Unfortunately for Day , Queen Mary ascended the throne in 1553 and the entire religious climate of the country changed . For years , it was thought that at the accession of Mary , Day fled to the Continent to avoid persecution . However , typographical and other evidence has convinced scholars that Day set up a clandestine press in premises connected to William Cecil in Lincolnshire , and that he continued to print Protestant polemical works under the pseudonym Michael Wood . The " Michael Wood " pamphlets included Protestant writings by Lady Jane Grey , John Hooper , and Stephen Gardiner , and attacks on Mary and her advisors .
On 16 October 1554 , according to the diary of Henry Machyn , Day was caught and sent to the Tower of London for printing " naughty books " . In the Book of Martyrs , Foxe records statements made in prison to Day by the future martyr John Rogers , " spake being then in prison , to the Printer of this present booke , who then also was layd up for lyke cause of religion " . Perhaps because the flight of foreign Protestant workers under Mary was causing a shortage of printers , Day was released the next year and allowed to work again , but only as a jobbing printer . He reunited with Seres ( also recently released from prison ) to produce works of Catholicism for Catholic printer John Wayland , a far cry from the Protestant polemics he printed prior to imprisonment . He also served as the official printer of the City of London for two years .
= = Elizabethan period = =
With the death of Mary and the accession of Elizabeth I in 1558 , Day 's business blossomed once more . Day was already close to Cecil , who had now become one of the new Queen 's top advisors . Through Cecil , Day was awarded the valuable monopoly on printing ABCs . He also befriended Robert Dudley ( son of John Dudley ) , another of Elizabeth 's favorites . With the help of his connections , Day was able to obtain a lucrative patent to print William Cuningham 's Cosmographical Glasse . He produced the first edition in 1559 using a new italic font of the highest quality ( probably cut by François Guyot ) and a large number of impressive woodcuts . Day absorbed the high production costs himself , since he knew the work would solidify his reputation as a master printer . Day 's patent to print Cuningham — his first under Elizabeth — gave him exclusive rights to the work for life ; it also allowed him to retain a monopoly for seven years on any other original works that were not covered by other patents , were " compiled at Day 's expense " , and were " not repugnant to Holy Scripture or the law " . This stipulation would be an important source of income for the rest of his life .
Day took advantage of the monopoly clause , reestablishing his Edwardian patent for The ABC with Little Catechism . In 1559 , he obtained a patent for The Whole Booke of Psalmes , Collected into English Meter , a metrical psalter , compiled mostly by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins , that Day first published in 1562 . The Stationers ' Company guaranteed Day the right to print all " psalmes in metre with note " , in other words , psalms with music . Despite the fact that psalmes had usually been learned by rote , the business proved lucrative , reflecting a rise in musical literacy during the period . The Whole Booke of Psalmes became the period 's best @-@ selling book and the standard English psalter of its time . Day 's monopolies on these perennially popular works would be the basis of great wealth over the years and a good deal of conflict between him and his fellow stationers . In legal proceedings towards the end of Day 's life , it was estimated that these particular patents were worth between £ 200 and £ 500 per year .
= = = Actes and Monuments = = =
In 1563 , Day undertook the work for which he is best known , John Foxe 's Actes and Monuments ( also called The Book of Martyrs ) . Day and Foxe probably met through Cecil , and the two became close collaborators . Foxe was among those who seized on the advances in the printing trade as a tool for the spread of the Protestant Reformation . There is a tradition that Foxe , who revised and added material while the book was being set in type , actually lived at Day 's shop at Aldersgate during the production of the book ; he certainly received correspondence there and visited regularly . Day heavily invested time and money in the production of Foxe 's book , the largest publishing project undertaken in England to that time , and he took an active part in the compilation of the material . Day used changes in type sizes or fonts to distinguish Foxe 's editorial insertions from texts of his sources . The resulting lavish folio filled with woodcuts was an expensive luxury item , but it sold well and Day profited from his investment .
Day continued to take on challenging and difficult projects . He had already printed the first English book of church music in 1560 . In 1567 , Matthew Parker , the Archbishop of Canterbury , commissioned Day to print a collection of writings attributed to the tenth @-@ century Aelfric of Eynsham . For this work , Day , known for his fine and varied fonts , had the first @-@ ever font of Anglo @-@ Saxon type cut . The cost was borne by Parker , perhaps Day 's most important patron . The font may have been designed by François Guyot , a French type @-@ founder known to have worked for Day and lived in his household . Day used the same font to print Lambarde 's Archaionomia ( a collection of Anglo @-@ Saxon laws ) in 1568 . In 1570 , he printed Billingsley and Dee 's English Euclid , which included folding and movable diagrams — one of the first printed books ever to do so . In the same year , he printed Ascham 's Scholemaster .
Day and Foxe completed a second edition of the Book of Martyrs in 1570 . It was even larger than the first — a total of 2 @,@ 300 pages in two enormous folio volumes — and at one point , Day ran out of paper ( which he imported ) and had to paste smaller sheets together to make do . This edition received official recognition : William Cecil and the Privy Council directed the church to ensure that copies were available to parishioners , and in 1571 , the Convocation ordered that every cathedral church and the household of every senior member of the clergy should own a copy . The edition has been recorded as costing sixteen shillings , roughly equivalent to two months ' wages for a skilled London clothworker at the time .
= = = Final years = = =
By the late 1570s , there was open discontent among the less wealthy members of the Stationers ' Company about Day 's extensive patents . He was compelled to go to court against printers who pirated works to which he owned the rights . Among those brought to trial was Roger Ward , who admitted to pirating 10 @,@ 000 copies of ABC with Catechisms in a font which imitated Day 's . Day 's former apprentice and sub @-@ contractor John Wolfe admitted in court that he had pirated The Whole Booke of Psalmes but justified his actions on the grounds that Day 's monopolies were a restraint of trade . It was Wolfe who led a group of " poor printers " , as they called themselves , in a campaign against the patents in the late 1570s . As a result of an official investigation , Day was eventually obliged to concede certain titles to the Company for the benefit of the poorer printers , but he kept the titles he printed most .
In 1580 , Day became Master of the Stationers ' Company , and focused vigorously on defending the industry against piracy . His official powers included the right of " search and seizure " , which he did not hesitate to exercise on behalf of the trade or to further his own interests . In 1584 , he sent men to break into Wolfe 's premises and destroy any materials relating to suspected piracy . Four years before , he had even destroyed his son Richard 's printing equipment after Richard had printed the ABC and the Psalmes without his permission . Though Richard was technically co @-@ patentee of these titles , John Day pursued him into the courts and all but destroyed his printing career .
In 1582 , Day 's health began to deteriorate quickly . Though weakening , he raced to complete another edition of Actes and Monuments in 1583 , printing it on at least four presses . It was unusual for books of this size and ambition to go beyond one or two printings . Holinshed 's Chronicles , the only book of the time to rival the Book of Martyrs in scope and reputation , never went into a third edition .
Day died in 1584 at Walden in Essex . He married twice and fathered thirteen children in each marriage . Day 's printer 's device showed a sleeper awakening , with the motto " Arise for it is Day , " both a play on his name and an allusion to the new era of religious reform , in which he was a significant figure .
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= U.S. Route 1 in New Jersey =
U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) is a United States highway which parallels the East Coast of the United States , running from Key West , Florida in the south to Fort Kent , Maine at the Canadian border in the north . Of the entire length of the route , 66 @.@ 06 miles ( 106 @.@ 31 km ) of it runs through New Jersey . It enters the state from Pennsylvania on the Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in the state capital of Trenton , running through the city on the Trenton Freeway . From here , US 1 continues northeast as a surface divided highway through suburban areas continuing into Middlesex County and passing through New Brunswick and Edison . US 1 merges with US 9 in Woodbridge , and the two routes continue through northern New Jersey as US 1 / 9 to the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River in Fort Lee . At this point , the road continues into New York City along with I @-@ 95 .
The current alignment of US 1 between Trenton and New Brunswick was chartered as the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike in 1803 and struggled throughout its 100 @-@ year existence . In 1913 , the Lincoln Highway across the United States was created and connected Trenton to Newark within New Jersey . The Lincoln Highway was legislated as Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick in 1917 and as part of Route 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth , later extended to Jersey City . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , US 1 was designated to follow the Lincoln Highway between Trenton and Newark and the current alignment of US 1 / 9 Truck to Jersey City , where it continued to the Holland Tunnel . In 1927 , the Lincoln Highway portion of US 1 became Route 27 . The current alignment of US 1 between Trenton and Newark was legislated as Route 26 , Route S26 and Route 25 , while the current route north from Jersey City to the George Washington Bridge became Route 1 and Route 6 . In subsequent years , US 1 was moved onto its current routing between Trenton and the George Washington Bridge . The state highways running concurrent with US 1 were removed in 1953 , around the same time the route was moved to the Trenton Freeway within Trenton and the old alignment became US 1 Alternate , part of which is now US 1 Business . By 1969 , the Trenton Freeway was extended north to Whitehead Road in Lawrence Township , and that segment became Route 174 . When the Trenton Freeway was completed north to US 1 , the US 1 designation was shifted to the freeway , replacing Route 174 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mercer County = = =
U.S. Route 1 crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey on the Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge , which is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission . Once in Trenton , US 1 becomes the Trenton Freeway and is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation . US 1 meets Route 29 at a partial diamond interchange just north of the river . As the road heads through the downtown area with Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor running next to the route on the east side , it has a southbound exit and entrance with Warren Street that provides access to the New Jersey State House . It then comes to an interchange with the northern terminus of Route 129 as well as the western terminus of Route 33 near the Trenton Transit Center .
At this point , the Trenton Freeway turns onto a depressed alignment and comes to an interchange with Perry Street . The route turns northeast directly over the Delaware and Raritan Canal , which still flows underneath , and has an exit for Olden Avenue . The freeway has a northbound ramp for Mulberry Street before there is a northbound exit and southbound entrance from the median that provides access to US 1 Business and US 206 . Past this interchange , US 1 continues into Lawrence Township , where the surroundings become more wooded as the freeway has an exit for Whitehead Road . Along this stretch , the freeway closely parallels the canal , which emerges from under the freeway just north of Mulberry Street . The Trenton Freeway ends at the point US 1 Business merges back into US 1 .
Here , US 1 becomes a four @-@ lane divided surface road with jughandles called the Herbert Highway that is lined with suburban businesses . Continuing northeast , the first intersection along this road is with the eastern terminus of CR 546 ( Franklin Corner Road ) . After this intersection , the road crosses the Delaware & Raritan Canal again prior to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 295 . Past this point , US 1 widens to six lanes as it has an interchange providing access to the Quaker Bridge Mall to the east of the route . A short distance later , there is a cloverleaf interchange with CR 533 ( Quakerbridge Road ) . Upon crossing CR 533 , the road enters West Windsor Township . After an interchange with Meadow Road , US 1 continues past corporate parks prior to an interchange with Alexander Road . Following this interchange , the road comes to CR 571 ( also signed as CR 526 ) at the modified Penns Neck Circle , which US 1 runs straight through . Past this intersection , the road passes near farmland .
Studies are being conducted to implement the Central New Jersey Route 1 BRT , a bus rapid transit system utilizing the highway that would radiate from Princeton Junction .
= = = Middlesex County = = =
Upon crossing the Millstone River , US 1 enters Plainsboro Township , where it passes more business parks and comes to an interchange with Scudders Mill Road . Past Scudders Mill Road , the road runs to the west of the James Forrestal Campus of Princeton University before passing to the east of Forrestal Village . An interchange with College Road a short distance later provides access to both places . The route continues into South Brunswick Township , where it narrows to four lanes and runs through a mix of rural areas and development . US 1 briefly widens back to six lanes as it reaches an intersection with CR 522 . Past CR 522 , the surroundings of the four @-@ lane road become more forested , with a few commercial establishments . The road briefly forms the border between South Brunswick Township to the northwest and North Brunswick Township to the southeast before fully entering North Brunswick Township .
Here , the route widens to six lanes again and comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of Route 91 ( Jersey Avenue ) , where US 1 makes a turn to the east @-@ northeast . Immediately after this interchange , the route passes over Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor and comes to an exit for the south end of Route 26 ( Livingston Avenue ) . The road reaches the northern terminus of US 130 and the southern terminus of Route 171 ( Georges Road ) at an interchange . A short distance later , US 1 has access to Milltown Road through an interchange . The road passes by Rutgers University college farm before turning northeast and coming to a cloverleaf interchange with Ryders Lane . After this interchange , US 1 crosses into New Brunswick , where it has an interchange with Route 18 / CR 527 .
Upon crossing the Raritan River on the Donald and Morris Goodkind Bridges , US 1 enters Edison and continues north into developed suburban areas before turning northeast and meeting CR 514 ( Woodbridge Avenue ) at an interchange . A short distance later , the route crosses CR 529 ( Plainfield Avenue ) at an at @-@ grade intersection . Lined with businesses , the road continues to two close interchanges with CR 531 ( Main Street ) and I @-@ 287 . Past here , US 1 comes to an interchange with CR 501 ( Amboy Avenue ) . In this area , US 1 passes to the east of the Menlo Park Mall , with an interchange providing access . The route continues northeast into Woodbridge Township , where it comes to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway . Following this interchange , US 1 comes to the Woodbridge Center shopping mall on the east side of the road . US 1 crosses Green Street ( CR 604 ) prior to merging with US 9 .
= = = US 1 / 9 concurrency = = =
US 1 and US 9 become concurrent upon merging in Woodbridge Township and continue through developed areas , interchanging with Route 35 . Upon entering Union County , US 1 / 9 pass through Rahway and Linden , interchanging with I @-@ 278 in Linden . The road continues into urban Elizabeth , crossing Route 439 before turning into a freeway prior to meeting Route 81 near Newark Liberty International Airport . US 1 / 9 continue along the west end of the airport into Newark , Essex County , reaching the Newark Airport Interchange with I @-@ 78 , US 22 , and Route 21 .
From this interchange , the road continues northeast through industrial areas to an interchange with US 1 / 9 Truck that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) . US 1 / 9 continue onto the Pulaski Skyway , which carries the route over the Passaic River into Hudson County , crossing over Kearny and the Hackensack River before coming into Jersey City . Trucks are banned from the Pulaski Skyway and must use US 1 / 9 Truck to bypass it .
The Pulaski Skyway ends at the Tonnele Circle with US 1 / 9 Truck and Route 139 , and US 1 / 9 continue north along at @-@ grade Tonnelle Avenue toward North Bergen , where the road intersects Route 3 and Route 495 . Crossing into Bergen County , Broad Avenue carries US 1 / 9 through Fairview and Ridgefield before heading into Palisades Park . Here , the two routes join US 46 , and the combined road heads north into Fort Lee . US 1 / 9 / 46 come to an interchange with I @-@ 95 , US 9W , and Route 4 , where it joins I @-@ 95 to head east to the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River . At this point , US 46 ends and I @-@ 95 and US 1 / 9 continue into Manhattan , New York City on the Trans @-@ Manhattan Expressway .
= = History = =
What is now US 1 between Trenton and New Brunswick was originally chartered as the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike in 1803 . Throughout its history , the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike faced stiff competition from canals such as the Delaware & Raritan Canal and railroads such as the Camden and Amboy Railroad . In the later part of the 19th century , the turnpike company folded and the Pennsylvania Railroad took over ownership of the turnpike . When the charter for the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike expired in 1903 , it became a public road . When the first numbered highways were legislated in New Jersey in 1916 , the present day US 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth was to become a part of Route 1 , a route that was to connect Trenton and Elizabeth . Between Trenton and New Brunswick , this route was to follow present @-@ day Route 33 and US 130 . In 1922 , an extension of Route 1 was legislated to continue north from Elizabeth to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City .
When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , the routing of US 1 in New Jersey was to follow the Lincoln Highway from the Lower Trenton Bridge in Trenton to Newark , which was Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick and Route 1 north of there . From Newark , the route followed present @-@ day US 1 / 9 Truck east toward Jersey City , where it was to head to the Holland Tunnel . The Lincoln Highway the first transcontinental highway in the United States created in 1913 to link New York City to San Francisco . Route 13 had been legislated along the Trenton to New Brunswick portion in 1917 .
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the alignment of US 1 between Trenton and Newark became Route 27 , while the proposed Route 1 Extension became part of Route 25 . In addition , Route 26 was designated along the former Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike , while the current US 1 between Route 26 and US 130 became Route S26 . North of current US 130 , present @-@ day US 1 to Newark also became a part of Route 25 . The current US 1 / 9 between the Tonnele Circle and the George Washington Bridge meanwhile became parts of Route 1 and Route 6 . The Route 1 Extension , now designated Route 25 , was complete in 1928 with the exception of the Pulaski Skyway . This road was considered the first superhighway in the United States . After the Pulaski Skyway opened in 1932 , US 1 along with US 9 was rerouted to use it . By the 1930s , US 1 was routed to use Route 26 , Route S26 , and Route 25 between Trenton and Newark instead of Route 27 . US 1 and US 9 were routed to use the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River instead of the Holland Tunnel by the 1940s , following Route 1 and US 46 / Route 6 between the Tonnele Circle and the George Washington Bridge .
The Trenton Freeway , a freeway through the city of Trenton , was first planned in 1950 to provide a bypass of Trenton and a connection to the new Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge . This freeway opened in December 1952 and became part of both US 1 and Route 26 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering that followed a month later , all the state highways running concurrent with US 1 were removed . In addition , US 1 / 9 Truck was designated as a bypass of the Pulaski Skyway ( replacing Route 25T ) and US 1 / 9 Business ( now Route 139 ) was designated on the former Route 25 between the Tonnele Circle and the Holland Tunnel . Also , after the US 1 designation was moved to the Trenton Freeway , the former route through Trenton would become US 1 Alternate .
During the development of the Interstate Highway System , New Jersey and Pennsylvania considered having I @-@ 95 cross over the Trenton – Morrisville Toll Bridge , and continue north on the existing US 1 . The project was opposed due to inadequate highway standards ( lack of shoulder ramps , and only two lanes in each direction ) . During this time , both states sought alternate routes for the proposed I @-@ 95 . In 1960 , New Jersey and Pennsylvania decided to designate the Scudder Falls Bridge as I @-@ 95 . By 1969 , an extension of the Trenton Freeway from the current left @-@ hand exit to US 1 Business / US 206 to Whitehead Road was completed and received the Route 174 designation .
In 1967 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation recommended an extension of the Trenton Freeway from Whitehead Road to the traffic light at Bakers Basin Road and Franklin Corner Road . Once the extension was completed by the 1980s , the route number was then changed from Route 174 to US 1 . The former alignment of US 1 along surface streets in Trenton was renumbered to US 1 Business , while the US 1 Alternate was dropped .
There had been plans to create a west – east spur of the New Jersey Turnpike called Route 92 . It was to begin just north of the intersection of Ridge Road and U.S. Route 1 in South Brunswick and terminate at the mainline of the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) at Exit 8A in Monroe Township . This proposal was cancelled on December 1 , 2006 , after the New Jersey Turnpike Authority decided to use funds to widen the mainline turnpike instead .
By the 1990s , many traffic lights along the segment of US 1 in West Windsor and Plainsboro were removed and replaced with exit ramps and overpasses . As a result , the traffic lights at Scudders Mill Road , Plainsboro Road , Alexander Road , and Meadow Road were eliminated . This was followed by building ramps to replace the traffic light at US 130 and US 1 located North Brunswick Township , completed in 2003 . An environmental impact study has been conducted by Rutgers University ’ s Transportation Policy Institute and Center for Negotiation and Conflict Resolution to improve US 1 through the Penns Neck area . This project would eliminate the Penns Neck Circle where US 1 meets Washington Road ( CR 571 ) and move US 1 onto a new freeway alignment in the area . In addition , CR 571 is planned to be realigned to intersect US 1 further to the north . In 2009 , the segment of US 1 between I @-@ 287 in Edison and the Garden State Parkway in Woodbridge was rebuilt to include new ramps at several intersections and removed access to a couple of roads in a $ 53 @.@ 9 million project that was intended to alleviate traffic and make this section safer .
In 2013 , the road was one of three that tied for the # 1 ranking on the Tri @-@ State Transportation Campaign 's list of the top ten most dangerous roads for pedestrians in New Jersey , New York and Connecticut . The route , along with U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 322 in Atlantic County and U.S. Route 130 ( Burlington Pike ) in Burlington County , were so ranked due to the nine pedestrian deaths that occurred on each of those roads from 2009 to 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
There are two remaining bannered spurs of US 1 in the state of New Jersey :
U.S. Route 1 Business in Trenton
U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Truck in Jersey City
The following state highway was also formerly designated as a bannered spur of US 1 :
Route 139 in Jersey City was formerly U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Business .
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= Romerike Tunnel =
The Romerike Tunnel ( Norwegian : Romeriksporten ) is a 14 @.@ 580 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 060 mi ) railway tunnel in Norway between Oslo and Lillestrøm . It is the longest railway tunnel in Norway and forms the first section of the Gardermoen Line . It is double track and electrified , permitting speeds of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) .
Construction started in 1994 , with plans to open with the rest of the Gardermoen Line and Oslo Airport , Gardermoen on 8 October 1998 . Due to serious leakage from Lutvann and several other lakes , it did not open until 22 August 1999 . The leaks increased the cost of the tunnel from NOK 0 @.@ 5 billion to NOK 1 @.@ 8 billion . The main contractor was Scandinavian Rock Group . The tunnel was originally owned by NSB Gardermobanen but is now owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The tunnel allows long @-@ distance , regional and Flytoget Airport Express Trains to bypass the old Hoved Line , reducing journey times between Oslo and Lillestrøm from 29 to 12 minutes .
= = Background = =
The tunnel was constructed as part of the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line which runs from Oslo to Eidsvoll via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The tunnel makes up most of the 18 @-@ kilometre ( 11 mi ) section between Oslo Central Station and Lillestrøm Station and was built to bypass the meandering Trunk Line which dates from 1854 . Despite the older line being double track , capacity had reached its limit due to a combination of some trains making many stops and others none until Lillestrøm . The Romerike Tunnel would also be straighter and allow higher through speeds , decreasing travel time from 29 to 12 minutes . The decision to build the Gardermoen Line and Romerike Tunnel was taken by the Norwegian Parliament on 8 October 1992 , with the opening planned for six years later on 8 October 1998 .
An alternative airport site to Gardermoen was proposed at Hurum , south @-@ west of Oslo . Had Hurum been chosen , the Gardermoen Line would not have been necessary for the airport express train , but the planning documents recommended that construction still proceed to ease traffic congestion north of Oslo . The tunnel is used by all trains on the Gardermoen Line , including the Flytoget airport express , and the regional and express trains which continue via the Dovre Line . Local trains on the Hoved Line and Kongsvinger Line to the north also use the tunnel . Use of the Hoved Line is limited to freight trains and commuter trains which make stops along the route .
= = Construction = =
Construction started in August 1994 , after a tender had been won by Scandinavian Rock Group ( SRG ) , a collaboration between Målselv Anlegg , Nor Entreprenør and Peab . The original contract price was NOK 541 million . An average of 388 man @-@ years were expended during construction , and the work involved the removal of 1 @.@ 62 million tonnes of rock . There were three excavation points ( headings ) , located at Bryn , Starveien on the Oslo – Lørenskog border , and at Stalsberg , outside Lillestrøm .
The tunnel is 14 @.@ 580 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 060 mi ) long with a 105 m2 ( 1 @,@ 130 sq ft ) cross @-@ section , making it the longest tunnel in Norway when it opened , and the second longest since the opening of the Lærdal road tunnel . It allows speeds of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) , with a slope of 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 % slanting upwards towards Lillestrøm . This provides a natural updraft in the direction of Lillestrøm , but a horizontal ventilation system was needed to work in the opposite direction . This is supplemented with vertical ventilation shafts at Bryn and Starveien . The tunnel is between 6 metres ( 20 ft ) and 120 metres ( 390 ft ) below ground , being at its deepest in the vicinity of Bryn . Trains using the tunnel must be capable of a minimum speed of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) . The tunnel has overhead wires with 15 kV AC railway electrification ( 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz ) .
= = = Leakages = = =
The tunnel needed to pass under Østmarka , a recreational area east of Oslo . The geology of this area is unstable , and was not ideal for tunnel boring . Pressure for its completion to coincide with the opening of the new airport resulted in tunnel excavation proceeding at maximum speed , without adequate measures to exclude water , which resulted in leaks . Houses above the route of the tunnel in Hellerud were damaged and the water levels of many lakes in Østmarka were reduced , including lakes Lutvann and Nordre Puttjern .
After the damage was discovered on 3 February 1997 , legal actions were initiated by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate requiring remedial measures to halt the leakage . At its worst , the rate of leakage into the tunnel was 3 @,@ 000 litres ( 660 imp gal ; 790 US gal ) of water per minute . The Rhoca @-@ Gil proprietary sealant process was used to stop the leaks . On investigation , Rhoca @-@ Gil was revealed to contain a toxic substance called acrylamide , which caused health problems for the tunnel workers . The removal of Rhoca @-@ Gil and its replacement with concrete resulted in additional delays . In addition , an extensive permanent pumping system was installed to restore and maintain lake levels in Østmarka .
Curing the leaks and cleaning up the contamination delayed the tunnel 's completion by a year , and it was finally opened on 22 August 1999 . The entire process was further complicated by conflicts between NSB Gardermobanen and the Scandinavian Rock Group . Retrospective surveys showed a lack of control and reporting procedures during the incidents , which should have been addressed in 1995 , but were never taken seriously . Compensation was paid for approximately 60 houses which were damaged as a result of tunnel construction . An evaluation by the Ministry of Transport and Communications showed that NOK 500 million was spent fixing the leaks , but the report claimed that this was to a large extent a waste of money , resulting from inefficient engineering procedures . The same report criticized the planning and organization of the construction of the entire railway . In total the extraordinary additional costs for the tunnel totaled NOK 1 @.@ 3 billion .
= = = Delay = = =
When the new airport opened on 8 October 1998 the Flytoget airport express trains started operating immediately , as did the Gardermoen Line from Lillestrøm to the airport and onwards to Eidsvoll . Because the tunnel was not finished , trains were required to use the old Trunk Line from Oslo Central Station to Lillestrøm . After this diversion the express trains switched to the completed section of the new Gardermoen Line between Lillestrøm and Oslo Airport . Regular operations using the Romerike Tunnel started on 22 August 1999 .
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= Slow ( Kylie Minogue song ) =
" Slow " is a song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue for her ninth studio album Body Language ( 2003 ) . It was released as the lead single from the album by Parlophone on 3 November 2003 . The song was written by Minogue , Dan Carey , Emilíana Torrini , and produced by Carey , Torrini , and Sunnyroads . " Slow " is a synthpop song in which Minogue invites a man to " slow down " and dance with her .
Upon its release , " Slow " was acclaimed by music critics , many of whom praised Minogue 's sensual and seductive vocals . At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony , the song received a nomination in the category of " Best Dance Recording " . Commercially , the song was a success and peaked at number one on the charts of countries like Australia , Denmark , Spain and the United Kingdom . The song also reached number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs in the United States . In Australia , the song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units .
An accompanying music video for the song was shot in Barcelona , Spain , and features Minogue singing the song while sunbathing next to the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool . For additional promotion , Minogue performed the song on a number of television shows . Since its release , the song has been performed by Minogue on all of her concert tours till date , with the exception of the Anti Tour . In 2012 , Minogue named " Slow " as her favourite song from her music career .
= = Background and composition = =
" Slow " was written by Kylie Minogue , Dan Carey , and Emilíana Torrini , and produced by Carey , Torrini , and Sunnyroads . In 2009 , Torrini explained how she was approached for writing the song , saying " It was like I had just accidentally walked into the line of fire with , " Hey ! You There ! It was all quite surreal . I still think Kylie 's people were trying to call Jamelia , and they just got the wrong number . It 'd be much more funny if that is how it actually happened " . Musically , the song is an eighties @-@ inspired synthpop track . It utilises a very simple and " minimalist " style of production and was described as an " electro @-@ pop / disco fusion with percolating crackle @-@ and @-@ pop beats and sugary vocal overdubs " by Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine . Additionally , it contains elements of electroclash and club music . Through the lyrics of the song , Minogue urges a man , whom she meets at a club , to " slow down " and dance with her . According to Minogue , the lyrics of the song are about " how time and space have a different meaning when you meet someone " . She further said that she " loved the way the song had this push @-@ pull effect ; the musical and lyrical combination gives you a sense of that " .
In late 2012 , " Slow " was re @-@ recorded by Minogue for inclusion in her orchestral compilation album The Abbey Road Sessions . On the album , Minogue reworked 16 of her past songs with an orchestra , which , according to Nick Levine from BBC Music , " re @-@ imagine them without the disco glitz and vocal effects " . " Slow " is approached with a more jazz and trip hop influenced take , with Minogue again delivering sultry and seductive vocals .
= = Release and artwork = =
" Slow " was released as the lead single from Minogue 's ninth studio album Body Language , by Parlophone , on 3 November 2003 . The cover art of the single , as well as other promotion shoots related to the album , show Minogue striking a pose in a black and white striped crop top , which reveals her midriff , and low @-@ cut pants . Her appearance is similar to that of French actress and singer Brigitte Bardot , who was regarded as the " first foreign @-@ language star ever to attain a level of international success comparable to America 's most popular homegrown talents " and one of the best known sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s , frequently cited as the " archetypal sex kitten " and " sex goddess " . Minogue described the promotion shoots as " the perfect mix of coquette , kitten and rock ' n ' roll " , and revealed that " We shot it on location in the South of France , so it was [ easy to ] channel the spirit of [ Brigitte ] Bardot . She 's a great iconic reference , particularly that period where she was working with Serge Gainsbourg " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Slow " was critically acclaimed by music critics . Ethan Brown from New York praised the production of the song and commented " Everything at the top of the pops should sound as good as Kylie Minogue 's " Slow " " . He further felt that most of the songs on Body Language " mimic its sound , [ though ] none of the other songs on Body Language come close to the achievement of " Slow " and concluded that " " Slow " should be a template for pop singers who fancy themselves aesthetes " . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters commented that the song was " one of the strongest singles " of Minogue ’ s career , praising her minimalistic approach on the song and its simple arrangement . The Spin magazine review of the song complimented Minogue 's vocals , saying that they will " bring all the boys to the yard " . Eric Seguy from Stylus Magazine favoured Minogue 's demanding vocals , saying that the listener " is open to Kylie ’ s demands , and willing to resort to any means necessary to impress her " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt that the song is one the " few of the tracks on Body Language approach ( ing ) the club @-@ thumping zeal of Fever " . Chris True from AllMusic picked the song as an album highlight of Body Language .
The Abbey Road Sessions ' version of the song also generated a favourable response . Tim Sendra from AllMusic enjoyed the " sultry trip @-@ hop take " on the song and picked it as a highlight on the album . Nick Levine from BBC Music felt that " Slow " received the " most startling makeover " on the album , and described it as a " slinky jazz shuffle , complete with vampish vocal performance " . Annie Zaleski from The A.V. Club appreciated the song 's graceful nature , calling it a " slinky come @-@ on " . Philip Matusavage from MusicOMH appreciated the song 's jazz influences , noting that it " suggests that Kylie and jazz could make for great things " . Jeff Katz from Idolator singled out the song as the " Most Surprising Reworking " on the album . Jude Rogers from The Quietus , however , felt that the song does not " respond well to this ( orchestral ) treatment " .
= = = Accolades and recognition = = =
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine included " Slow " on his list of " Top 10 Singles & Videos of 2004 " at number five , calling it " one of the hottest tracks of the year . " At the 2004 Ivor Novello Awards ceremony , " Slow " received a nomination in the categories " Best Contemporary Song " and " International Hit Of The Year " , but lost the awards to Amy Winehouse 's song " Stronger Than Me " and Dido 's song " White Flag " , respectively . At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony held in the year 2005 , " Slow " was nominated for " Best Dance Recording " , but lost to Britney Spears 's song " Toxic " . In order to celebrate Valentine 's Day on 14 February 2012 , UK copyright collection society and performance rights organisation PRS for Music compiled a list of the top ten " sexy songs " and placed " Slow " on the top of the list . In 2012 , Minogue picked " Slow " as her all @-@ time favourite song from her 25 years in music .
= = Commercial performance = =
In Minogue 's native country Australia , " Slow " entered and peaked at number one on the Australian Singles Chart , spending a total of 11 weeks on the chart . In this territory , the song was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units . In Austria , the song entered the Austrian Singles Chart at number 24 and peaked at number 20 , spending a total of 13 weeks on the chart . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , the song entered the Ultratop chart at number 15 and peaked at number nine , spending a total of 10 weeks on the chart . In Canada , the song peaked at number six on the Canadian Singles Chart . In Denmark , the song entered and peaked at number one on the Danish Singles Chart , spending a total of nine weeks on the chart . In France , the song entered and peaked at number 45 on the French Singles Chart , spending a total of 18 weeks on the chart . In Germany , the song peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart . In Italy , the song entered the Italian Singles Chart at number nine and peaked at number six , spending a total of eight weeks on the chart . In New Zealand , the song entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 10 and peaked at number nine , spending a total of six weeks on the chart . " Slow " also debuted at number one in Spain .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Minogue 's seventh number one single in the region . It earned her a record for being the female artist for spending the longest duration as a UK chart topper . As of today , it is her last single to reach number one in the country . The single remained in the top ten for two weeks and in the top hundred for fourteen weeks . In the United States , " Slow " peaked at numbers 91 and one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and Hot Dance Club Songs chart , respectively . It is Minogue 's last entry on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , to date .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Slow " was directed by Baillie Walsh and choreographed by Michael Rooney . The video was shot in Barcelona , Spain , and begins with a scene of a man diving into the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool and coming out of its edge , where a number of very lightly beachwear @-@ clad people are sunbathing . Minogue stands out in a series of different zoom central shots lying on a sky @-@ blue towel wearing a dark blue bodyhugging Balenciaga dress . The next scenes of the video capture her singing the song through different camera angles , particularly during the chorus when the camera angle shifts to a " bird 's eye " view and show Minogue amid beach models performing synchronised choreography to the dance beats . Used for promoting the song , the video premiered earlier than the song 's release date , on 21 October 2003 . Minogue talked about the video , saying :
" The video is set in Barcelona at the Olympic Diving site . I lie down for the whole video , which I thought was a very cunning plan . But then I ended up having to sing directly into the camera when the sun was right next it , so tears were streaming down my face ! Videos always have a painful moment . It 's either too hot or it 's too cold or there 's always something . That 's part of the fun , I guess "
A reviewer from District MTV commented that the video showed that " synchronised sun bathing is more fun than it sounds " . Ben Taylor from Swide Magazine included the video in his list of Minogue ’ s " Best Music Video Moments " .
= = Live performances = =
Minogue performed " Slow " on 6 November 2003 , at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Slow " has also been featured on all of Minogue 's concert tour setlists , with the exception of the Anti Tour . In 2003 , she performed the song on the one @-@ night only concert Money Can 't Buy , which was used to promote Body Language and was held at major entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo in London . In 2005 , she performed the song on her Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour . Minogue was unable to complete the tour as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , she resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 . In 2008 , she performed the song on the KylieX2008 tour , which was launched to promote her tenth studio album X. The show was split in five acts and " Slow " was featured on the fourth act entitled " Xposed " . In 2009 , she performed the song on the For You , For Me tour , which was her first concert tour in North America . In 2011 , she performed a jazz @-@ oriented version of the song on the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour , which was launched to promote her eleventh studio album Aphrodite . In 2012 , Minogue promoted The Abbey Road Sessions by performing on the BBC Proms in the Park at Hyde Park , London . During the event , she sang the orchestral version of " Slow " . In 2014 and 2015 , Minogue performed the song during her Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour respectly . The performances employed a laser lighting display and featured a " Matrix @-@ style " break @-@ dance routine .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Slow " .
CD single
" Slow " - 3 : 15
" Soul on Fire " - 3 : 32
Maxi single
" Slow " - 3 : 15
" Sweet Music " - 3 : 32
" Slow " ( Medicine 8 Remix ) - 6 : 57
" Slow " ( Video ) - 3 : 55
12 @-@ inch maxi single
" Slow " ( Extended Mix ) - 6 : 25
" Slow " ( Radio Slave Remix ) - 6 : 34
" Slow " ( Medicine 8 Remix ) - 6 : 57
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= State Shinto =
State Shintō ( 国家神道 , Kokka Shintō ) describes Imperial Japan 's ideological use of the native folk traditions of Shinto . The state strongly encouraged Shinto practices to emphasize the Emperor as a divine being . This was exercised through control of finances and training regimes for priests .
The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era , as government officials defined freedom of religion within the Meiji Constitution . Scholars believed that Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperor 's divine origins , not religious belief , and that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state . For the state , Shinto was seen as a non @-@ religious moral tradition and patriotic practice .
Early Meiji @-@ era attempts to unite Shinto and state failed , but this non @-@ religious concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy . Shrines were defined as patriotic , not religious , institutions , which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead . The state also integrated local shrines into political functions , occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment . With fewer shrines financed by the state , nearly 80 @,@ 000 closed or merged with neighbors . Many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives , regardless of funding . By 1940 , Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally " religious " Shinto ceremonies .
Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto . US military leaders introduced the term " State Shinto " to differentiate the state 's ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive . That decree established Shinto as a religion , and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state . Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions .
= = Origins of the term = =
Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices , court manners , and spirit @-@ worship which dates back to at least 600 AD . These beliefs were first unified as " Shinto " during the Meiji era ( 1868 @-@ 1912 ) , though the Chronicles of Japan ( 日本書紀 , Nihon Shoki ) referenced the term in the eighth century . Shinto has no set of doctrines or founder , but draws from a set of creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki .
The 1945 " Shinto Directive " of the United States General Headquarters introduced the " State Shinto " distinction as it began governing Japan after the second world war . The Shinto Directive , ( officially the " Abolition of Governmental Sponsorship , Support , Perpetuation , Control and Dissemination of State Shinto " ) defined State Shinto as " that branch of Shinto ( Kokka Shinto or Jinja Shinto ) which , by official acts of the Japanese government , has been differentiated from the religion of Sect Shinto ( Shuha Shinto or Kyoha Shinto ) and has been classified a non @-@ religious national cult . "
The " State Shinto " term was thus used to categorize , and abolish , Imperial Japanese practices that relied on Shinto to support nationalistic ideology . By refusing to ban Shinto practices outright , Japan 's post @-@ war constitution was thus able to preserve full Freedom of Religion .
= = Definitions = =
The definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term " Shinto , " which was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology . Though some scholars , such as Woodard and Holtom , and the Shinto Directive itself , use the terms " Shrine Shinto " and " State Shinto " interchangeably , most contemporary scholars use the term " Shrine Shinto " to refer to the majority of Shinto shrines which were outside of State Shinto influence , leaving " State Shinto " to refer to shrines and practices deliberately intended to reflect state ideology .
= = = Interpretations = = =
Most generally , State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into the national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868 . It is often described as any state @-@ supported , Shinto @-@ inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration , unity , and loyalty . State Shinto is also understood to refer to the state rituals and ideology of Emperor @-@ worship , which was not a traditional emphasis of Shinto — of the 124 Japanese emperors , only 20 have dedicated shrines .
" State Shinto " was not an official designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period . Instead , it was developed at the end of the war to describe the mixture of state support for non @-@ religious shrine activities and immersive ideological support for the Kokutai policy in education , including the training of all shrine priests . This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect a State Shinto position without the direct control of the state . The extent to which Emperor worship was supported by the population is unclear , though scholars such as Ashizu Uzuhiko , Sakamoto Koremaru , and Nitta Hitoshi argue that the government 's funding and control of Shrines was never adequate enough to justify a claim to the existence of a State Shinto . The extent of popular support for the actions categorized as " State Shinto " is the subject of debate .
Some contemporary Shinto authorities reject the concept of State Shinto , and seek to restore elements of the practice , such as naming time periods after the Emperor . This view often sees " State Shinto " purely as an invention of the United States ' " Shinto Directive . "
= = Shinto as political ideology = =
" Religious " practice , in its Western sense , was unknown in Japan prior to the Meiji restoration . " Religion " was understood to encompass a series of beliefs about faith and the afterlife , but also closely associated with Western power . The Meiji restoration had re @-@ established the Emperor , a " religious " figure , as the head of the Japanese state .
Religious freedom was initially a response to demands of Western governments . Japan had allowed Christian missionaries under pressure from Western governments , but viewed Christianity as a foreign threat . The state was challenged to establish a suprareligious interpretation of Shinto that incorporated , and promoted , the Emperor 's divine lineage . By establishing Shinto as a unique form of " suprareligious " cultural practice , it would be exempted from Meiji laws protecting freedom of religion .
The " State Shinto " ideology presented Shinto as something beyond religion , " a unity of government and teaching ... not a religion . " Rather than a religious practice , Shinto was understood as a form of education , which " consists of the traditions of the imperial house , beginning in the age of gods and continuing through history . "
Scholars , such as Sakamoto Koremaru , argue that the " State Shinto " system existed only between 1900 and 1945 , corresponding to the state 's creation of the Bureau of Shrines . That bureau distinguished Shinto from religions managed by the Bureau of Shrines and Temples , which became the Bureau of Religions . Separated through this state bureaucracy , Shinto was distinguished from Buddhist temples and Christian churches , which were formulated as religious . This marked the start of the state 's official designation of Shinto shrines as " suprareligious " or " non @-@ religious " .
State Shinto was thus not recognized as a " state religion " during the Meiji era . Instead , State Shinto is considered an appropriation of traditional Shinto through state financial support for ideologically aligned shrines .
= = Implementation of Shinto ideology = =
The Empire of Japan endeavored , through education initiatives and specific financial support for new shrines , to frame Shinto practice as a patriotic moral tradition . From the early Meiji era , the divine origin of the Emperor was the official position of the state , and taught in classrooms not as myth , but as historical fact . Shinto priests were hired to teach in public schools , and cultivated this teaching , alongside reverence for the Emperor and compulsory class trips to shrines . State Shinto practitioners also emphasized the ritual aspect as a traditional civic practice that did not explicitly call on faith to participate .
By balancing a " suprareligious " understanding of Shinto as the source of divinity for both Japan and the Emperor , the state was able to compel participation in rituals from Japanese subjects while claiming to respect their freedom of religion . The state was thus able to enshrine its place in civic society in ways religions could not . This included teaching its ideological strand of Shinto in public schools , including ceremonial recitations to the Emperor and rites involving the Emperor 's portrait .
In 1926 , the government organized the Shūkyō Seido Chōsakai ( 宗教制度調査会 ? , Religious System Investigative Committee ) and then the Jinja Seido Chōsakai ( 神社制度調査会 ? , Shrine System Investigative Committee ) , which further established the suprareligious " Shintogaku " ideology .
To protect this non @-@ religious distinction , practices which did not align with state functions were increasingly prohibited . This included preaching at shrines and conducting funerals . The use of the symbolic torii gate was restricted to government @-@ supported shrines . As religious rituals without state functions were restricted , practitioners were driven underground and frequently arrested . Alternative Shinto movements , such as Omotokyo , were hampered by the imprisonment of its priests in 1921 . The status of separation of so @-@ called " State Shinto " shrines changed in 1931 ; from that point , shrines were pressured to focus on the divinity of the Emperor Hirohito or shrine priests could face persecution .
Some intellectuals at the time , such as Yanagita Kunio , were critics of Imperial Japan 's argument at the time that Shinto was not religious . In 1936 , the Catholic Church 's Propaganda Fide agreed with the state definition , and announced that visits to shrines had " only a purely civil value " .
= = State control of shrines = =
Though the government 's ideological interest in Shinto is well @-@ known , there is debate over how much control the government had over local shrines , and for how long . Shrine finances were not purely state @-@ supported . Shinto priests , even when state @-@ supported , had tended to avoid preaching on ideological matters until the establishment of the Wartime Shrine board in 1940 .
In 1906 , the government issued a policy to limit its financial support to one shrine per village . This state supported shrines that followed its specific guidelines for funding , and encouraged unfunded shrines to become partners with the larger shrines . As a result of this initiative to consolidate Shinto beliefs into state @-@ approved practices , Japan 's 200 @,@ 000 shrines had been reduced to 120 @,@ 000 by 1914 , consolidating control to shrines favorable to the state interpretation of Shinto .
In 1910 , graduates of state @-@ run Shinto schools , such as Kokugakuin University and Kougakkan University , were implicitly allowed to become public school teachers . A greater number of better @-@ trained priests with educations at state @-@ supported schools , combined with a rising patriotic fervor , is believed by some to have seeded an environment in which grassroots Emperor worship was possible , even without financial support for local shrines .
In 1913 , official rules for Shrine priests — Kankokuheisha ika jinja shinshoku hömu kisoku ( 官国幣社以下神社神 職奉務規則 ) — specifically called upon " a duty to observe festivals conforming to the rituals of the state . " Some shrines did adopt State Shinto practice independent of financial support from the government . Several Shrine Associations advocated for support of " State Shinto " directives independently , including the Shrine Administration Organization , the Shrine Priest Collaboration Organization , and the Shrine Priest Training Organization .
In 1940 , the state created the wartime shrine board , which expanded control over state shrines and expanded the state 's role . Up to that point , individual priests had been limited in their political roles , delegated to certain rituals and shrine upkeep , and rarely encouraged Emperor worship , or other aspects of state ideology , independently . No shrine priest , or member of the Wartime Shrine board , had previously sought public office , which some scholars , such as Sakamoto , suggest is evidence of the state 's use of Shinto to its own ends , rather than the Shinto priest 's attempt to achieve political power .
= = Ideological origins = =
Scholar Katsurajima Nobuhiro suggests the " suprareligious " frame on State Shinto practices drew upon the state 's previous failures to consolidate religious Shinto for state purposes .
Kokugaku ( " National Learning " ) was an early attempt to develop ideological interpretations of Shinto , many of which would later form the basis of " State Shinto " ideology . Kokugaku was an Edo @-@ period educational philosophy which sought a " pure " form of Japanese Shinto , stripped of foreign influences — particularly Buddhism .
In the Meiji era , scholar Hirata Atsutane advocated for a return to " National Learning " as a way to eliminate the influence of Buddhism and distill a nativist form of Shinto . From 1870 to 1884 , Atsutane , along with priests and scholars , lead a " Great Promulgation Campaign " advocating a fusion of nationalism and Shinto through worship of the Emperor . There had been no previous tradition of absolute obedience to the Emperor in Shinto . This initiative failed to attract public support , and intellectuals dismissed the idea . Author Fukuzawa Yukichi dismissed the campaign at the time as an " insignificant movement . "
Despite its failure , Atsutane 's nativist interpretation of Shinto would encourage a later scholar , Okuni Takamasa . Takamasa advocated control and standardization of Shinto practice through a governmental " Department of Divinity . " These activists urged leaders to consolidate diverse , localized Shinto practices into a standardized national practice , which they argued would unify Japan in support of the Emperor .
The state responded by establishing the Department of Divinity ( " jingikan " ) in 1869 . This government bureaucracy encouraged the segregation of Kami spirits from Buddhist ones , and emphasized the divine lineage of the Emperor from the Sun Goddess , Amaterasu . This action sought to reverse what had been a blending of Buddhist and Shinto practices in Japan . That department was unsuccessful , and demoted to a Ministry . In 1872 , policy for Shrines and other religions was taken over by the Ministry of Education . The Ministry intended to standardize rituals across shrines , and saw some small success , but fell short of its original intent .
= = = National Teaching = = =
In calling for the return of the Department of Divinity in 1874 , a group of Shinto priests issued a collective statement calling Shinto a " National Teaching . " That statement advocated for understanding Shinto as distinct from religions . Shinto , they argued , was a preservation of the traditions of the Imperial house and therefore represented the purest form of Japanese state rites . These scholars wrote ,
National Teaching is teaching the codes of national government to the people without error . Japan is called the divine land because it is ruled by the heavenly deities descendants , who consolidate the work of the deities . The Way of such consolidation and rule by divine descendants is called Shinto .
Signatories of the statement included Shinto leaders , practitioners and scholars such as Tanaka Yoritsune , chief priest of Ise shrine ; Motoori Toyokai , head of Kanda shrine ; and Hirayama Seisai , head of a major tutelary shrine in Tokyo . Nonetheless , this concept of Shinto as a " National Learning " failed to take hold in most popular conceptions of Shinto .
= = = Great Promulgation Campaign = = =
The Bureau of Shinto Affairs attempted to standardize the training of priests in 1875 . This created a division between state actors and local priests , who disagreed over the content of that standardized training . This debate concerned which kami , or spirits , to include in rituals — particularly , whether state kami should be included . This debate marked the rise of the Ise sect , which was open to a stronger state presence in Shinto , and the Izumo sect , which was not . The Izumo sect advocated for recognition of the god Ōkuninushi as an equal to Amaterasu , which had theological consequences for emperor @-@ worship . This debate , the " enshrinement debate , " posed a serious ideological threat to the Meiji era government .
A result of the enshrinement debate was that the Ministry of the Interior concentrated on distinctions of " religion " and " doctrine " , stating that " Shinto rituals ( shinsai ) are performed by the state whereas religious doctrines ( kyōhō ) are to be followed by individuals and families . " Through this logic , Shinto rituals were a civic responsibility which all Japanese subjects were expected to participate in , whereas " religious " Shinto was a matter of personal faith and subject to freedom of religion . This debate marked an early failure in crafting of a unified national Shinto practice , and led to a sharp decline in both state grants to Shinto shrines and to the appointment of Shinto priests to government positions . The Ministry of Home Affairs took responsibility for shrines in 1877 , and began to separate Shinto religious practices from indoctrination . In 1887 , the Ministry stopped financial support for most shrines , aside from select Imperial shrines tied to state functions .
= = = Yasukuni Shrine = = =
In 1879 , Yasukuni Shrine was built to enshrine the war dead . The emperor visited and performed rites for the war dead at Yasukuni , the highest possible honor in Shinto . Around this time , the state began to assign shrines with meanings rooted in patriotic nationalism ; including a network of shrines dedicated to soldiers killed in battle . These assignments had no connection to the history of these local shrines , which led to resentment .
In contemporary times , the shrine has become a controversial symbol for Japanese nationalists . While many citizens of various political persuasions visit the site to honor relatives killed in battle , whose kami ( spirit ) are said to be enshrined there , so too are the kami of several class @-@ A war criminals . These criminals were enshrined in a secret ceremony in 1978 , which has raised the ire of Japanese pacifists and the international community .
No Emperor has visited the shrine since , and visits by prime ministers and government officials to the shrine have been the subject of lawsuits and media controversy .
= = In occupied territories = =
As the Japanese extended their territorial holdings , shrines were constructed with the purpose of hosting Japanese kami in occupied lands . This practice began with a shrine in Taiwan in 1900 . Major shrines built across Asia included Karafuto Shrine in Sakhalin in 1910 and Chosen Shrine , Korea , in 1919 ; these shrines were designated just under Ise Shrine in national importance . Other shrines included Shonan Shrine in Singapore , San 'a Shrine in Hainan Island ( China ) , Akatsuki Shrine in Saigon , and Hokoku Shrine in Java .
The Japanese built almost 400 shrines in occupied Korea , and worship was mandatory for Koreans . A statement from the head of the Home Office in Korea wrote about the shrines in a directive : " ... they have an existence totally distinct from religion , and worship at the shrines is an act of patriotism and loyalty , the basic moral virtues of our nation . "
= = Post @-@ war = =
On 1 January 1946 , Emperor Shōwa issued a statement , sometimes referred to as the Humanity Declaration , in which he quoted the Five Charter Oath of Emperor Meiji , announced that he was not an Akitsumikami ( a divinity in human form ) and that Japan was not built on myths . The U.S. General Headquarters quickly defined and banned practices it identified as " State Shinto " , but because the U.S. saw freedom of religion as a crucial aspect of post @-@ war Japan it did not place a full ban on Japanese religious ceremonies involving the Emperor . General Douglas MacArthur and the State Department sought to maintain the authority of the Emperor to avoid " lasting resentment " among the Japanese people during the occupation and reconstruction of Japan .
The Shinto Directive stated it was established to " free the Japanese people from direct or indirect compulsion to believe or profess to believe in a religion or cult officially designated by the state " and " prevent a recurrence of the perversion of Shinto theory and beliefs into militaristic and ultranationalistic propaganda " .
Today , while the Imperial House continues to perform Shinto rituals as " private ceremonies " , participation and belief are no longer compelled from Japanese citizens , nor funded by the state .
Other aspects of the government 's " suprareligious " enforcement of Shinto practices , such as school trips to Shinto shrines , were forbidden . Many innovations of Meiji @-@ era Shinto are present in contemporary Shinto , such as a belief among priests that Shinto is a non @-@ religious cultural practice that encourages national unity .
= = = Controversies = = =
Controversy has emerged during the funerals and weddings of members of the Japanese Imperial Family , as they present a merging of Shinto and state functions . The Japanese treasury does not pay for these events , which preserves the distinction between state and shrine functions .
The Association of Shinto Shrines is politically active in encouraging support for the Emperor , including campaigns such as distributing amulets from Ise Shrine . Ise shrine was one of the most important shrines in State Shinto , symbolizing Amaterasu 's presence and connection to the Emperor . In contrast , the Meiji @-@ era Yasakuni shrine is frequently the target of State Shinto controversies , likely owing to its enshrinement of Japanese soldiers killed in warfare .
Conservative politicians and nationalist interest groups continue to advocate for returning the Emperor to a central political and religious position , which they believe will restore a national sense of unity .
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= Messers Run =
Messers Run is a tributary of Catawissa Creek in Schuylkill County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long and flows through Kline Township and East Union Township . The only named tributary of the stream is Negro Hollow , but it has two unnamed tributaries . The creek has some alkalinity , but is slightly acidic . The main rock formations in the watershed of it are the Mauch Chunk Formation and the Pottsville Formation . The main soils in the watershed are the Leck Kill soil and the Hazleton soil .
The watershed of Messers Run has an area of 5 @.@ 98 square miles ( 15 @.@ 5 km2 ) . There are two reservoirs on the stream . It is difficult to access the stream as most of it is several hundred meters from any road . The creek is a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery and Class A Wild Trout Waters in some places . There are many species of fish inhabiting the creek , including brook , brown trout , and others . The creek has been surveyed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission .
= = Course = =
Messers Run is approximately 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long . It begins near Interstate 81 on a mountain known as Spring Mountain in Kline Township . It flows southwest for several tenths of a mile before entering a valley and turning west @-@ southwest . After approximately a mile , the stream passes through the Lofty Reservoir . It exits the Lofty Reservoir via the reservoir 's southwestern edge and continues west and slightly south . After more than a mile , it turns west and slightly north , receiving an unnamed tributary several tenths of a mile downstream . The stream then continues west , receiving another unnamed tributary after several tenths of a mile . A few tenths of a mile later , it exits Kline Township and enters East Union Township . In East Union Township , the stream turns northwest and receives the tributary Negro Hollow . It then turns northeast for a few hundred feet and passes near the Blue Head Reservoir . The stream then turns northwest and flows for slightly less than a mile until it reaches its confluence with Catawissa Creek . Messers Run joins Catawissa Creek 33 @.@ 90 miles ( 54 @.@ 56 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Messers Run has three tributaries , only one of which is named . The named tributary is known as Negro Hollow and it flows through Delano Township , Kline Township , and East Union Township . The unnamed tributaries are known as " Trib 27610 To Messers Run " and " Trib 27609 To Messers Run " . The former is entirely in Kline Township , while the latter flows through Delano Township and Kline Township .
= = Hydrology = =
Messers Run is infertile and acidic upstream of the Lofty Reservoir . The stream has the potential to be affected by acid precipitation in this part of it . The stream also has these attributes from the Lofty Reservoir downstream to the Blue Head Reservoir and from the Blue Head Reservoir downstream to the mouth .
The pH of Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir is 6 @.@ 3 . The total concentration of alkalinity in this part of the stream is 3 milligrams per liter . These values are similar to those measured in a similar area during a 1990 survey of the stream . The concentration of water hardness in this part of the stream is 47 milligrams per liter . A 1997 report noted that this value was very high considering the concentration of alkalinity .
The pH of Messers Run between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 6 @.@ 6 . The concentration of alkalinity in this portion of the stream is 4 milligrams per liter and the total water hardness is 18 milligrams per liter . The pH of the stream below the Blue Head Reservoir is 6 @.@ 6 . The concentration of alkalinity in this part of the stream is 5 milligrams per liter and the water hardness is 13 milligrams per liter .
The air temperature in the vicinity of Messers Run 3 @.@ 94 miles ( 6 @.@ 34 km ) upstream of its mouth was measured to be 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) at 3 : 40 P.M. on July 23 , 1997 . The water temperature at that time and location was 15 @.@ 1 ° C ( 59 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The air temperature near the stream 1 @.@ 85 miles ( 2 @.@ 98 km ) upstream of its mouth was measured to be 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) at 2 : 55 P.M. on July 22 , 1997 and the water temperature was measured to be 16 @.@ 8 ° C ( 62 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The air temperature in the vicinity of the stream was measured to be 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) at 4 : 20 P.M. on July 23 , 1997 at a point 0 @.@ 50 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) upstream of its mouth . The water temperature at this time and location was measured to be 16 @.@ 5 ° C ( 61 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
The specific conductivity of the waters of Messers Run 3 @.@ 94 miles ( 6 @.@ 34 km ) upstream of its mouth is 223 micromhos . The specific conductivity of the stream 's waters 1 @.@ 85 miles ( 2 @.@ 98 km ) upstream of its mouth is 71 micromhos and the specific conductivity 0 @.@ 50 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) upstream of its mouth is 45 micromhos .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Messers Run is 1 @,@ 053 feet ( 321 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the stream 's source is just under 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 490 m ) above sea level .
Most of the watershed of Messers Run is on rock of the Mauch Chunk Formation . This rock formation consists of siltstone , sandstone , grayish @-@ red shale , and conglomerate . However , areas that are on the Pottsville Formation are scattered throughout the watershed , mainly along its southern and northern edges . This rock formation is especially common in the sub @-@ watershed of Negro Hollow and near the upper reaches of " Trib 27609 To Messers Run " . The Pottsville Formation contains claystone , limestone , conglomerate , shale , and gray sandstone .
The main soils in the watershed of Messers Run are the Leck Kill soil and the Hazleton soil . The Leck Kill soil occurs in the northwestern part of the watershed ( in its lower reaches ) . The Hazleton soil is found throughout the rest of the watershed .
Messers Run is flanked by areas prone to flooding during a 100 year flood from the mouth of Negro Hollow upstream to its headwaters . Negro Hollow and its unnamed tributaries are also surrounded by areas prone to flooding during a 100 @-@ year flood for much of their length . Both of the unnamed tributaries of Messers Run are surrounded by such areas for the majority of their length .
Messers Run has a width of 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) upstream of the Lofty Reservoir . The gradient of the stream at this location is 194 feet per mile ( 36 @.@ 7 m / km ) . Its width between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) . The gradient of the stream at this location is 106 feet per mile ( 20 @.@ 0 m / km ) . Its width below the Blue Head Reservoir is 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . The gradient of the stream at this location is 84 feet per mile ( 16 @.@ 0 m / km ) .
A mountain known as Spring Mountain is at the headwaters of Messers Run . A mountain known as Locust Mountain is also found in the watershed .
= = Watershed and history = =
The watershed of Messers Run has an area of 5 @.@ 98 square miles ( 15 @.@ 5 km2 ) . The stream passes through the United States Geological Survey quadrangles of Conyngham and Delano . Much of the watershed is in Kline Township . However , significant areas in the western part of the watershed are in East union Township , Delano Township , and Mahanoy Township . Interstate 81 passes through the watershed in its easternmost part .
A reservoir known as the Lofty Reservoir is situated on Messers Run . It is owned by the Pennsylvania Game Commission and is used as a supply of drinking water . Additionally , the Blue Head Reservoir is in the watershed .
There is some agricultural land in the lower reaches of the watershed of Messers Run . A large part of the watershed is on land that is part of a Nature Conservancy Priority Forest Hub . The stream flows through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 308 for most of its length . There are 1 @,@ 070 acres ( 432 ha ) of forested land in Pennsylvania State Game Lands number 308 . The watershed of the stream is almost entirely on forested land .
Between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir , Messers Run is mostly accessible by State Game Lands roads , which are only open seasonally . It is also difficult to access the stream upstream of the Lofty Reservoir or downstream of the Blue Head Reservoir . No part of Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir is within 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 500 m ) of a road . 18 percent of the stream 's length between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is within 330 feet ( 100 m ) of a road , 95 percent is within 980 feet ( 300 m ) of a road , and 100 percent is within 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 500 m ) of one . 16 percent of the its length between the Blue Head Reservoir and the mouth is within 330 feet ( 100 m ) of a road , 23 percent is within 980 feet ( 300 m ) of a road , and 31 percent is within 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 500 m ) of one .
In 1990 , the population density of the watershed of Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir was 140 people per square mile ( 54 people per square kilometer ) . The population density of the watershed between the Lofty and Blue Head Reservoirs was 80 people per square mile ( 31 people per square kilometer ) . The population density of the watershed downstream of the Blue Head Reservoir was 52 people per square mile ( 20 people per square kilometer ) .
The Mahanoy Water Company sought permission to construct a dam on Messers Run as early as 1913 . The stream was used as a water supply as early as the early 1900s . Messers Run was surveyed once by the environmental services branch of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission . This survey was carried out by Young in November 1990 .
= = Biology = =
Messers Run is considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery , as is its tributary Negro Hollow . Both Messers Run ( from Lofty Reservoir downstream to Blue Head Reservoir ) and Negro Hollow ( between its headwaters and its mouth ) are also considered by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission to be Class A Wild Trout Waters . A 1997 report advised against stocking Messers Run .
Seven species of fish inhabit Messers Run . These include a highly substantial population of brook trout . Upstream of the Lofty Reservoir , there are two species of fish inhabiting the stream : brook trout , blacknose dace . The 1990 survey observed these two species as well as white suckers and pumpkinseeds . Three species of fish inhabit the stream between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir . These species are brook trout , brown trout , and blacknose dace . Six species of fish inhabit the stream below the Blue Head Reservoir : brook trout , blacknose dace , tessellated darters , brown trout , white suckers , and sculpins . However , only the first three species were observed during the 1990 survey of the stream .
The biomass of wild brook trout in Messers Run upstream of the Lofty Reservoir is estimated to be 26 pounds per acre ( 29 kg / ha ) , including 54 @.@ 1 pounds ( 24 @.@ 55 kg ) per hectare of brook trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 3 @.@ 97 pounds per acre ( 4 @.@ 45 kg / ha ) of brook trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . These trout range from 0 @.@ 98 to 8 @.@ 82 inches ( 25 to 224 mm ) in length .
The biomass of wild brook trout in the stream between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 34 @.@ 25 pounds per acre ( 38 @.@ 39 kg / ha ) , including 20 @.@ 40 pounds per acre ( 22 @.@ 87 kg / ha ) of brook trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 13 @.@ 85 pounds per acre ( 15 @.@ 52 kg / ha ) of brook trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . These trout range from 0 @.@ 98 to 10 @.@ 79 inches ( 25 to 274 mm ) in length . The biomass of wild brown trout in this part of the stream is 0 @.@ 080 pounds per acre ( 0 @.@ 09 kg / ha ) , of which all is from brown trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . These trout range from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 9 inches ( 50 to 74 mm ) in length . The total biomass of wild trout between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir is 34 @.@ 33 pounds per acre ( 38 @.@ 48 kg / ha ) .
The biomass of brook trout in the stream below the Blue Head Reservoir is 13 @.@ 18 pounds per acre ( 14 @.@ 77 kg / ha ) , including 8 @.@ 32 pounds per acre ( 9 @.@ 33 kg / ha ) of brook trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 4 @.@ 85 pounds per acre ( 5 @.@ 44 kg / ha ) of brook trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . The biomass of brown trout in this part of the stream is 2 @.@ 44 pounds per acre ( 2 @.@ 73 kg / ha ) , including 0 @.@ 42 pounds per acre ( 0 @.@ 47 kg / ha ) of brown trout less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 2 @.@ 02 pounds per acre ( 2 @.@ 26 kg / ha ) of brown trout more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . The brook trout in this part of the stream range from 2 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 8 inches ( 50 to 224 mm ) in length and the brown trout range from 2 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 8 inches ( 50 to 274 mm ) in length .
Upstream of the Lofty Reservoir , there are 484 brook trout per mile ( 300 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 13 per mile ( 8 per kilometer ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . There are 728 per acre ( 1800 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 20 per acre ( 50 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . Between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir , there are 1848 brook trout per mile ( 1146 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 110 per mile ( 68 per kilometer ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 16 brown trout per mile ( 10 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , and none that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . This section of the stream has 1406 brook trout per acre ( 3474 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 84 per acre ( 207 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . It has 12 brown trout per acre ( 30 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and none that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . Between the Blue Head Reservoir and the stream 's mouth , there are 1153 brook trout per mile ( 715 per kilometer ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 65 per mile ( 40 per kilometer ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , 118 brown trout per kilometer ( 73 per mile ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long , and 9 that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . This section of the stream has 579 brook trout per acre ( 1430 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 32 per acre ( 80 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long . It has 59 brown trout per acre ( 147 per hectare ) that are less than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long and 8 per acre ( 21 per hectare ) that are more than 6 @.@ 9 inches ( 175 mm ) long .
Brook trout and sculpins are present in the tributary Negro Hollow . The biomass of brook trout in this tributary is 49 @.@ 76 pounds per acre ( 55 @.@ 77 kg / ha ) .
= = Recreation = =
A 1997 report stated that Messers Run was a poor site for angling upstream of the Lofty Reservoir . The same report stated that the stream was an excellent site for angling between the Lofty Reservoir and the Blue Head Reservoir . Additionally , the Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 308 are in the stream 's watershed . These state game lands contain 432 hectares of forested land .
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= The Rocky Horror Picture Show =
The Rocky Horror Picture Show is a 1975 British @-@ American musical horror comedy film directed by Jim Sharman . The screenplay was written by Sharman and Richard O 'Brien based on the 1973 musical stage production The Rocky Horror Show , music , book and lyrics by O 'Brien . The production is a parody tribute to the science fiction and horror B movies of the 1930s through early 1970s . The film stars Tim Curry , Susan Sarandon and Barry Bostwick along with cast members from the original Royal Court Theatre , Roxy Theatre and Belasco Theatre productions .
The story centres on a young engaged couple whose car breaks down in the rain near a castle where they seek a telephone to call for help . The castle is occupied by strangers in elaborate costumes celebrating an annual convention . They discover the head of the house is Frank N. Furter , an apparent mad scientist who actually is an alien transvestite who creates a living muscle man in his laboratory . The couple is seduced separately by the mad scientist and eventually released by the servants who take control .
The film was shot in the United Kingdom at Bray Studios and on location at an old country estate named Oakley Court , best known for its earlier use by Hammer Film Productions . A number of props and set pieces were reused from the Hammer horror films . Although the movie is both a parody and tribute to many of the kitsch science fiction and horror films , costume designer Sue Blane conducted no research for her designs . Blane stated that costumes from the film have directly impacted the development of punk music fashion trends such as ripped fishnets and dyed hair .
Although largely critically panned on initial release , it soon became known as a midnight movie when audiences began participating with the film at the Waverly Theater in New York City in 1976 . Audience members returned to the cinemas frequently and talked back to the screen and began dressing as the characters , spawning similar performance groups across the United States . At almost the same time , fans in costume at the King 's Court Theater in Pittsburgh began performing alongside the film . This " shadow cast " mimed the actions on screen above and behind them , while lip @-@ syncing their character 's lines . Still in limited release four decades after its premiere , it is the longest @-@ running theatrical release in film history . Today , the film has a large international following . It was selected for preservation in the US National Film Registry by the Library of Congress in 2005 .
The film 's creative team also produced Shock Treatment in 1981 , a standalone feature using the characters of Brad and Janet and featuring some of the same cast . This second film was produced as a musical stage production for a 2015 premier on the London stage . A modern @-@ day reimagining of the film , directed by Kenny Ortega and tentatively titled The Rocky Horror Picture Show Event , is set to air on television in the fall of 2016 . The special will feature an ensemble cast starring Laverne Cox as Dr. Frank N. Furter , Ryan McCartan and Victoria Justice as Brad and Janet , and Tim Curry as The Criminologist .
= = Plot = =
A criminologist narrates the tale of the newly engaged couple Brad Majors and Janet Weiss who find themselves lost and with a flat tire on a cold and rainy late November evening , somewhere near Denton , Ohio . Seeking a telephone , the couple walk to a nearby castle where they discover a group of strange and outlandish people who are holding an Annual Transylvanian Convention . They are soon swept into the world of Dr. Frank N. Furter , a self @-@ proclaimed " sweet transvestite from Transsexual , Transylvania " . The ensemble of convention attendees also includes servants Riff Raff , his sister Magenta , and a groupie named Columbia .
In his lab , Frank claims to have discovered the " secret to life itself " . His creation , Rocky , is brought to life . The ensuing celebration is soon interrupted by Eddie ( an ex @-@ delivery boy , both Frank and Columbia 's ex @-@ lover , as well as partial brain donor to Rocky ) who rides out of a deep freeze on a motorcycle . In a jealous rage , Frank corners him and kills him with an ice axe . He then departs with Rocky to a bridal suite .
Brad and Janet are shown to separate bedrooms where each is visited and seduced by Frank , who poses as Brad ( when visiting Janet ) and then as Janet ( when visiting Brad ) . Janet , upset and emotional , wanders off to look for Brad , who she discovers , via a television monitor , is in bed with Frank . She then discovers Rocky , cowering in his birth tank , hiding from Riff Raff , who has been tormenting him . While tending to his wounds , Janet becomes intimate with Rocky , as Magenta and Columbia watch from their bedroom monitor .
After discovering that his creation is missing , Frank returns to the lab with Brad and Riff Raff , where Frank learns that an intruder has entered the building . Brad and Janet 's old high school science teacher , Dr. Everett Scott , has come looking for his nephew , Eddie . Frank suspects that Dr. Scott investigates UFOs for the government . Upon learning of Brad and Janet 's connection to Dr. Scott , Frank suspects them of working for him . Frank , Dr. Scott , Brad , and Riff Raff then discover Janet and Rocky together under the sheets in Rocky 's birth tank , upsetting Frank and Brad . Magenta interrupts the reunion by sounding a massive gong and stating that dinner is prepared .
Rocky and the guests share an uncomfortable dinner , which they soon realize has been prepared from Eddie 's mutilated remains . Janet runs screaming into Rocky 's arms and is slapped and chased through the halls of the castle by a jealous Frank . Janet , Brad , Dr. Scott , Rocky and Columbia all meet in Frank 's lab , where Frank captures them with the Medusa Transducer , transforming them into nude statues . After dressing them in cabaret costume , Frank " unfreezes " them , from which they spontaneously perform a live cabaret floor show with Frank as the leader .
Riff Raff and Magenta interrupt the performance , revealing themselves and Frank to be aliens from the planet Transsexual in the galaxy of Transylvania . They stage a coup and announce a plan to return to their homeworld . In the process , they kill Columbia , Rocky and Frank , who has " failed his mission " . They release Brad , Janet and Dr. Scott , then depart by lifting off in the castle itself . The survivors are then left crawling in the dirt , and the narrator concludes that the human race is equivalent to insects crawling on the planet 's surface .
= = Cast = =
Tim Curry as Dr. Frank N. Furter , a scientist
Susan Sarandon as Janet Weiss , a heroine
Barry Bostwick as Brad Majors , a hero
Richard O 'Brien as Riff Raff , a handyman
Patricia Quinn as Magenta , a domestic
Nell Campbell as Columbia , a groupie
Jonathan Adams as Dr. Everett V. Scott , a rival scientist
Peter Hinwood as Rocky Horror , a creation
Meat Loaf as Eddie , an ex @-@ delivery boy
Charles Gray as The Criminologist , an expert
Jeremy Newson as Ralph Hapschatt
Hilary Labow as Betty Hapschatt ( née Munroe )
= = Production = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Richard O 'Brien was living as an unemployed actor in London during the early 1970s . He wrote most of The Rocky Horror Show during one winter just to occupy himself . Since his youth , O 'Brien had loved science fiction and B horror movies . He wanted to combine elements of the unintentional humour of B horror movies , portentous dialogue of schlock @-@ horror , Steve Reeves muscle flicks and fifties rock and roll into his musical .
O 'Brien showed a portion of the unfinished script to Australian director Jim Sharman , who decided to direct it at the small experimental space Upstairs at the Royal Court Theatre , Sloane Square , Chelsea , London , which was used as a project space for new work . O 'Brien had appeared briefly in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Jesus Christ Superstar , directed by Sharman and the two also worked together in Sam Shepard 's The Unseen Hand . Sharman would bring in production designer Brian Thomson . The original creative team was then rounded out by costume designer Sue Blane and musical director Richard Hartley , and stage producer Michael White was also brought in to produce . As the musical went into rehearsal , the working title , They Came from Denton High , was changed just before previews at the suggestion of Sharman to The Rocky Horror Show .
Having premiered in the small sixty @-@ seat Royal Court Theatre , it quickly moved to larger venues in London , transferring to the 230 @-@ seat Chelsea Classic Cinema on Kings Road on 14 August 1973 , before finding a quasi @-@ permanent home at the 500 @-@ seat King 's Road Theatre from 3 November 1973 , running for six years . The musical made its U.S. debut in Los Angeles in 1974 before being played in New York City as well as other cities . Producer and Ode Records owner Lou Adler attended the London production in the winter of 1973 , escorted by friend Britt Ekland . He immediately decided to purchase the U.S. theatrical rights . His production would be staged at his Roxy Theatre in L.A. In 1975 , The Rocky Horror Show premiered on Broadway at the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Belasco Theatre .
= = = Filming and locations = = =
The film was shot at Bray Studios , and Oakley Court , a country house near Maidenhead , Berkshire , England and Elstree Studios for post production , from 21 October to 19 December 1974 . Oakley Court , built in 1857 in the Victorian Gothic style , is known for a number of Hammer films . Much of the location shooting took place there , although at the time the manor was not in good condition . Fox insisted on casting the two characters of Brad and Janet with American actors , Barry Bostwick and Susan Sarandon . Filming took place during autumn , which made conditions worse , and during filming , Sarandon fell ill with pneumonia . Filming of the laboratory scene and the title character 's creation occurred on 30 October 1974 .
The film is both a parody and tribute to many of the science fiction and horror movies from the 1930s up to the 1970s . The film production retains many aspects from the stage version such as production design and music , but adds new scenes not featured in the original stage play . The film 's plot , setting , and style echo those of the Hammer Horror films , which had their own instantly recognizable style ( just as Universal Studios ' horror films did ) . The originally proposed opening sequence was to contain clips of various films mentioned in the lyrics , as well as the first few sequences shot in black and white , but this was deemed too expensive , and scrapped .
= = = Costumes , make @-@ up and props = = =
In the stage productions , actors generally did their own make @-@ up ; however , for the film , the producers chose Pierre La Roche , who had previously been a make @-@ up artist for Mick Jagger , to redesign the make @-@ up for each character . Production stills were taken by rock photographer Mick Rock , who has published a number of books from his work . In Rocky Horror ; From Concept to Cult , designer Sue Blane discusses the Rocky Horror costumes ' influence on punk music style . " [ It was a ] big part of the build @-@ up [ to punk ] . " She states that ripped fishnet stockings , glitter and coloured hair were directly attributable to Rocky Horror .
Some of the costumes from the film had been originally used in the stage production . Props and set pieces were reused from old Hammer horror productions and others . The tank and dummy used for Rocky 's birth originally appeared in The Revenge of Frankenstein ( 1958 ) . These references to earlier productions , in addition to cutting costs , enhanced the cult status of the film .
Costume designer Sue Blane was not keen on working for the film until she became aware that Curry , an old friend , was committed to the project . Curry and Blane had worked together in Glasgow 's Citizens Theatre in a production of The Maids , where Curry had worn a woman 's corset in the production . Blane arranged it with the theatre to loan her the corset from the other production for Rocky Horror . Blane admits that she did not conduct research for her designing and had never seen a science fiction film , and is acutely aware that her costumes for Brad and Janet may have been generalizations .
" When I designed Rocky , I never looked at any science fiction movies or comic books . One just automatically knows what spacesuits look like , the same way one intuitively knows how Americans dress . I had never been to the United States , but I had this fixed idea of how people looked there . Americans wore polyester so their clothes wouldn 't crease , and their trousers were a bit too short . Since they 're very keen on sports , white socks and white T @-@ shirts played an integral part in their wardrobe . Of course , since doing Rocky I have been to the United States and admit it was a bit of a generalization , but my ideas worked perfectly for Brad and Janet . "
The budget for the film 's costumes was $ 1 @,@ 600 , far more than the stage production budget , but having to double up on costumes for filming was expensive . For filming , corsets for the finale had to be doubled for the pool scene , with one version drying while the other was worn on set . While many of the costumes are exact replicas from the stage productions , other costumes were new to filming , such as Columbia 's gold sequined swallow @-@ tail coat and top hat and Magenta 's maid 's uniform .
Blane was amazed by the recreation and understanding of her designs by fans . When she first heard that people were dressing up , she thought it would be tacky , but she was surprised to see the depth to which the fans went to recreate her designs . Rocky Horror fan Mina Credeur , who designs costumes and performed as Columbia for Houston ’ s performance group , states that " the best part is when everyone leaves with a big smile on their face " , noting that there 's " such a kitschiness and campiness that it seems to be winking at you " . The film still plays at many theatre locations , and Rocky Horror costumes are often made for Halloween , although many require much time and effort to make .
= = = Title sequence = = =
The film starts with the screen fading to black and over @-@ sized , disembodied female lips appear overdubbed with a male voice , establishing the androgynous theme to be repeated as the film unfolds . The opening scene and song , " Science Fiction / Double Feature " , consists of the lips of Patricia Quinn ( who appears in the film later as the character Magenta ) , but has the vocals of actor and Rocky Horror creator , Richard O 'Brien ( who appears as Magenta 's brother Riff Raff ) . The lyrics reference science fiction and horror films of the past and list several film titles from the 1930s to the 1970s , including The Day the Earth Stood Still , Flash Gordon , The Invisible Man , King Kong , It Came from Outer Space , Doctor X , Forbidden Planet , Tarantula , The Day of the Triffids , Curse of the Demon and When Worlds Collide . The disembodied lips are featured on posters and other merchandise for the film , with the tagline " A Different Set of Jaws " , a spoof of the poster for the film Jaws , which was also produced in 1975 .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack was released in 1975 by Ode Records and produced by Richard Hartley . The album peaked at # 49 on the Billboard 200 in 1978 . It reached No. 40 on the Australian albums chart and No. 11 on the New Zealand albums chart . The album is described as the " definitive version of the [ Rocky Horror ] score . "
= = Release = =
The film opened in the United Kingdom at Rialto Theater in London 14 August 1975 and in the United States on 26 September , premiering at the UA Westwood in Los Angeles , California . It did well at that location , but not elsewhere . Prior to the midnight screenings ' success , the film was withdrawn from its eight opening cities due to very small audiences , and its planned New York City opening on Halloween night was cancelled . Fox re @-@ released the film around college campuses on a double @-@ bill with another rock music film parody , Brian De Palma 's Phantom of the Paradise , but again it drew small audiences .
With Pink Flamingos ( 1972 ) and Reefer Madness ( 1936 ) making money in midnight showings nationwide , a Fox executive , Tim Deegan , was able to talk distributors into midnight screenings , starting in New York City on April Fools ' Day of 1976 . The cult following started shortly after the film began its midnight run at the Waverly Theater in New York City.Rocky Horror was not only found in the larger cities but throughout the United States where many attendees would get in free if they arrived in costume . The western division of the film 's release included The U.A. Cinema in Fresno and Merced , The Cinema J in Sacramento , California and the Covell in Modesto . In New Orleans , an early organized performance group was active with the release there as well as in such cities as Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and Chicago ( at the Biograph Theater ) . Before long nearly every screening of the film was accompanied by a live fan cast .
The film is considered to be the longest @-@ running release in film history . It has never been pulled by 20th Century Fox from its original 1975 release , and it continues to play in cinemas .
= = = Home media = = =
A Super 8 version of selected scenes of the film was made available . In 1983 , Ode Records released " The Rocky Horror Picture Show , Audience Par @-@ Tic @-@ I @-@ Pation Album " , recorded at the 8th Street Playhouse . The recording consisted of the film 's audio and the standardized call @-@ backs from the audience .
A home video release was made available in 1987 in the UK . In the US , the film ( including documentary footage and extras ) was released on VHS in 1990 , retailing for $ 89 @.@ 95 and had its US broadcast premiere on the Fox Broadcasting Company , including audience participation edited into the film , on October 25 , 1993 .
The film was released on DVD in 2000 for the film 's 25th anniversary . A 35th Anniversary edition Blu @-@ ray was released in the US on October 19 , 2010 . The disc includes a newly created 7 @.@ 1 surround sound mix , the original theatrical mono sound mix , and a 4K / 2K image transfer from the original camera negative . In addition , new content featuring karaoke and a fan performance were included .
= = Reception and reaction = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Roger Ebert noted that when first released , The Rocky Horror Picture Show was " ignored by pretty much everyone , including the future fanatics who would eventually count the hundreds of times they 'd seen it " . He considered it more a " long @-@ running social phenomenon " than a movie , rating it 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . Bill Henkin noted that Variety thought that the " campy hijinks " of the film seemed labored , and also mentioned that the San Francisco Chronicle 's John Wasserman , who had liked the stage play in London , found the film " lacking both charm and dramatic impact " . Newsweek called the film " tasteless , plotless and pointless " in 1978 .
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 80 % based on 41 reviews . A number of contemporary critics find it compelling and enjoyable because of its offbeat and bizarre qualities ; the BBC summarized : " for those willing to experiment with something a little bit different , a little bit outré , The Rocky Horror Picture Show has a lot to offer " . The New York Times called it a " low @-@ budget freak show / cult classic / cultural institution " and considered the songs featured in the film to be " catchy " . Geoff Andrew of Time Out noted that the " string of hummable songs gives it momentum , Gray 's admirably straight @-@ faced narrator holds it together , and a run on black lingerie takes care of almost everything else " , rating it 4 out of 5 stars . Dave Kehr of Chicago Reader on the other hand considered the wit to be " too weak to sustain a film " , and thought that the " songs all sound the same " .
In 2005 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
= = = Cult phenomenon = = =
= = = = New York City origins = = = =
The Rocky Horror Picture Show helped shape conditions of cult film 's transition from art @-@ house to grind @-@ house style . The film developed a cult following in 1976 at the Waverly Theatre in New York , which developed into a standardized ritual . According to J. Hoberman , author of Midnight Movies , it was after five months into the film 's midnight run when lines began to be shouted by the audience . Louis Farese Jr . , a normally quiet teacher who , upon seeing the character Janet place a newspaper over her head to protect herself from rain yelled , " Buy an umbrella you cheap bitch " . Originally Louis and along with the other Rocky Horror pioneers Amy Lazarus , Theresa Krakauskas and Bill O 'Brian who all sat in the balcony , did this to entertain each other . Each week trying to come up with something new to make each other laugh . This quickly caught on with other theater goers and thus began this self @-@ proclaimed " counter point dialogue " became standard practice and was repeated nearly verbatim at each screening . Performance groups became a staple at Rocky Horror screenings due in large part to the prominent New York City fan cast , and fans are credited with the talk back lines . The cast was originally run by former schoolteacher and stand @-@ up comic , Sal Piro and friend Dori Hartley . Dori was one of several performers in a flexible , rotating cast to portray the character of Frank N. Furter , shadowing the film above . The performances of the audience was scripted and actively discouraged improvising , being conformist in a similar way to the repressed characters .
On Halloween in 1976 , people attended in costume and talked back to the screen , and by mid @-@ 1978 , Rocky Horror was playing in over 50 locations on Fridays and Saturdays at midnight . Newsletters were published by local performance groups , and fans gathered for Rocky Horror conventions . By the end of 1979 , there were twice @-@ weekly showings at over 230 theatres . The National Fan Club was established in 1977 and later merged with the International Fan Club . The fan publication The Transylvanian printed a number of issues , and a semi @-@ regular poster magazine was published as well as an official magazine .
= = = = Los Angeles , Hollywood = = = =
The Los Angeles area performance groups originated in 1977 at the Fox Theatre , where Michael Wolfson won a look @-@ alike contest as Frank N. Furter , and won another at the Tiffany Theater on Sunset Boulevard . Wolfson 's group eventually performed in all of the LA area theaters screening Rocky Horror , including the Balboa Theater in Balboa , The Cove at Hermosa Beach and The Sands in Glendale . He was invited to perform at the Sombrero Playhouse in Phoenix , Arizona .
At the Tiffany Theatre , the audience performance cast had the theater 's full cooperation ; the local performers entered early and without charge . The fan playing Frank for this theatre was a transgender performer , D. Garret Gafford , who was out of work in 1978 and trying to raise enough funds for a sex change operation while spending the weekends performing at the Tiffany .
= = = = San Francisco = = = =
In San Francisco , Rocky Horror moved from one location to the Strand Theatre located near the Tenderloin on Market Street . The performance group there would act out and perform almost the entire film , unlike the New York cast at that time . The Strand cast was put together from former members of the Berkeley group , disbanded due to less than enthusiastic management . Their Frank N. Furter was portrayed by Marni Scofidio , who , in 1979 , attracted many of the older groups from Berkeley . Other members included Mishell Erickson and her twin sister Denise Erickson who portrayed Columbia and Magenta , Kathy Dolan playing Janet and Linda Woods as Riff Raff . The Strand group had performed at two large science fiction conventions in Los Angeles and San Francisco . They were offered a spot at The Mabuhay , a local punk club , and even performed for children 's television of Argentina .
= = = = Fan following = = = =
Rocky Horror is one of the last few western rites left that pertain to the carnivalesque . Annual Rocky Horror conventions are held in varying locations lasting days . Tucson , Arizona has been host a number of times , including 1999 with “ El Fishnet Fiesta ” , and “ Queens of the Desert ” held in 2006 . To the fans , Rocky Horror is ritualistic and comparable to a religious event , with a compulsive , repeated cycle of going home and coming back to see the film each weekend . The audience call backs are similar to responses in church during a mass . Many theatre troupes exist across the United States that produce shadow @-@ cast performances where the actors play each part in the film in full costume and props , and the movie plays on the big screen in a movie theatre . These showings are typically once a week or once a month on a Saturday at midnight .
The film has a global following and remains popular well into the 21st century . Sub cultures such as Rocky Horror have also found a place on the internet . Audience participation scripts for many cities are available to download on the Internet . The internet has a number of Rocky Horror fan run websites with various quizzes and information specializing in different content allowing fans to participate at a unique level .
= = Sequels = =
In 1981 , Sharman reunited with O 'Brien to do Shock Treatment , a stand @-@ alone feature that was not a direct sequel to the original film . This film reunites characters Brad and Janet and was originally conceived and written to depict the characters filmed in normal settings until the production changed to work around a Screen Actor 's Guild strike . The eventual production would now entail the full film being shot entirely within a sound stage and purposely blending that into the story line . Shock Treatment has a cult following but not nearly as strong as the first film , and was a commercial failure in no small part due to the principal cast of Curry , Sarandon and Bostwick not returning .
Ten years later , O 'Brien wrote another script intended as a direct sequel to the cult classic entitled Revenge of the Old Queen . Producer Michael White had hoped to begin work on the production and described the script as being " in the same style as the other one . It has reflections of the past in it . " Although the script has not been published , bootleg copies can be read on the Internet . The script is currently owned by Fox , which produced the two original films . Most individuals associated with the project , including O 'Brien , agree that the film will probably never be made , owing to the failure of Shock Treatment and the aging of the cast .
In 2014 , it was announced that O 'Brien would produce Shock Treatment for the theatrical stage . The production will premiere at the King ’ s Head theatre in Islington , London in the United Kingdom in the spring of 2015 .
= = Remake = =
On 10 April 2015 , it was announced that the Fox Broadcasting Company would air a modern @-@ day reimagining of the film , tentatively titled The Rocky Horror Picture Show Event . On 22 October 2015 , it was announced that the role of Dr. Frank N. Furter will be played by actress Laverne Cox . Ryan McCartan and Victoria Justice will play the roles of Brad and Janet , alongside Reeve Carney as Riff Raff and singer / model Staz Nair as Rocky . Adam Lambert will portray Eddie . Tim Curry , who portrayed Dr. Frank N. Furter in the film , will portray The Criminologist . On 1 February 2016 , it was announced that Broadway veteran Annaleigh Ashford will portray Columbia . On 5 February 2016 , Ben Vereen joined the cast as Dr. Everett von Scott .
Kenny Ortega , best known for the High School Musical franchise and Michael Jackson 's This Is It , will direct , choreograph and executive @-@ produce ; Lou Adler , who was an executive producer on the original film , will have the same role on the new film , which is set to air on Fox in the fall of 2016 .
= = Cultural impact = =
The Rocky Horror Picture Show has been featured in a number of other feature films and television series over the years . Episodes of The Venture Bros. Glee , The Drew Carey Show , That ' 70s Show and American Dad ! spotlight Rocky Horror , as well as films like Vice Squad , Halloween II and The Perks of Being a Wallflower . The 1980 film Fame featured the audience reciting their callback lines to the screen and dancing the Time Warp , the dance from the stage show and film , which has become a common novelty dance at parties .
" The Rocky Horror Glee Show " aired on October 26 , 2010 as part of the second season of the TV series Glee , which recreated several scenes from the film , including the opening credits , and featured Barry Bostwick and Meat Loaf in cameo roles .
" Bisexuality , The Rocky Horror Picture Show , and Me " , by Elizabeth Reba Weise , is a piece in Bi Any Other Name : Bisexual People Speak Out ( 1991 ) , an anthology edited by Loraine Hutchins and Lani Ka 'ahumanu which is one of the seminal books in the history of the modern bisexual rights movement .
Rocky Horror remains a cultural phenomenon in both the U.S. and U.K. Cult film participants are often people on the fringe of society that find connection and community at the screenings although the film attracts fans of differing backgrounds all over the world .
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= TWA Flight 159 =
Trans World Airlines ( TWA ) Flight 159 was a regularly scheduled passenger flight from New York to Los Angeles , California , with a stopover in Cincinnati / Northern Kentucky International Airport , Kentucky , that crashed after an aborted takeoff from Cincinnati on 6 November 1967 . The Boeing 707 attempted to abort takeoff when the copilot became concerned that the aircraft had collided with a disabled DC @-@ 9 on the runway . The aircraft overran the runway , struck an embankment and caught fire . One passenger died as a result of the accident .
The NTSB concluded that the crash occurred due to the TWA flight crew 's inability to successfully abort takeoff due to the speed of the aircraft , and that a runway overrun was unavoidable at the 707 's speed . The disabled DC @-@ 9 , a Delta Air Lines flight which had reported that it had cleared the runway when in fact it had not , was a contributing factor in the crash . The NTSB recommended that the FAA establish and publicize standards of safe clearance from runway edges for both aircraft and ground vehicles which also take into account the exhaust fumes of jet engines . The Board also recommended a reevaluation of training manuals and aircraft procedures in regards to abort procedures .
= = Aircraft and flight crew = =
The aircraft was a Boeing 707 which had accumulated 26 @,@ 319 airframe hours since its first flight in 1959 . It was piloted by Captain Volney D. Matheny , 45 , who had 18 @,@ 753 hours of pilot time . The copilot was First Officer Ronald G. Reichardt , 26 , with 1 @,@ 629 total piloting hours , and the flight engineer was Robert D. Barron , 39 , who had accumulated 11 @,@ 182 hours as a flight engineer . The stewardesses were Janan Perkins , 21 , Roswitha Neal , 25 , Kathleen Fankhouser , 21 , and Sara Muir , 25 .
= = Flight history and crash = =
Flight 159 was a New York @-@ Los Angeles flight with an intermediate stop at Greater Cincinnati Airport . The flight operated from New York to Cincinnati without incident .
At 18 : 38 Eastern Standard Time , Flight 159 was approaching Cincinnati 's runway 27L for takeoff , and was instructed by the tower controller to " taxi into position and hold " short of the runway . As Flight 159 approached Runway 27L , another flight , Delta Air Lines Flight 379 ( DAL 379 ) , a DC @-@ 9 , was coming in to land on the same runway . After landing , DAL 379 received permission to turn 180 ° to reach an intersection they had apssed , but the DC @-@ 9 was unable to complete the turn and ran off the paved runway . While most of the aircraft was stuck in the mud well away from the runway , the tail was only approximately 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) from the edge of the runway . The rearmost exterior light on DAL 379 was 45 feet ( 14 m ) from the edge of the runway , which might have caused DAL 379 to appear at a distance to be farther from the runway than it actually was .
At 18 : 39 , while DAL 379 was in the process of clearing the runway , Flight 159 was cleared for takeoff . Before Flight 159 began moving , the tower controller observed that DAL 379 had stopped moving , and called DAL 379 to confirm they were clear of the runway . The captain of the Delta DC @-@ 9 replied , " Yeah , we 're in the dirt though . " The tower controller then advised TWA that DAL 379 was clear of the runway , and that Flight 159 was cleared for takeoff . With the first officer operating the controls , Flight 159 then began its takeoff roll down runway 27L .
Neither pilot aboard Flight 159 initially saw how close DAL 379 was to the runway . As Flight 159 sped down the runway , the captain observed that the DC @-@ 9 was " off the runway " by only " five , six , seven feet or something of that nature . " As the Boeing 707 passed the Delta plane , the pilots heard a loud bang which coincided with a movement of the flight controls and a yawing motion of the aircraft . Thinking he had hit the DC @-@ 9 , Flight 159 's first officer attempted to abort the takeoff , and both pilots attempted to use their aircraft 's thrust reversers , brakes , and spoilers to stop the aircraft .
The aircraft overran the end of the runway , went over the edge of a hill , and became airborne for 67 feet ( 20 m ) . It then struck the ground again , shearing off the main landing gear and displacing the nosewheel rearward . The Boeing 707 slid down an embankment and came to rest 421 feet ( 128 m ) from the end of the runway . The fuselage ruptured , and the structure of one wing failed during the crash . The right side wing of the plane caught fire as it left the runway . All 29 passengers and 7 crew members escaped the aircraft , with two passengers requiring hospitalization . One of the hospitalized passengers died as a result of their injuries four days after the accident . The 707 was damaged beyond repair and regarded as a complete write off after the fire damaged right wing and broken fuselage .
= = Aftermath = =
The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) investigated the accident . Although the tail of the Delta DC @-@ 9 was several feet from the runway , the NTSB determined that DAL 379 's engines were still operating at idle when Flight 159 attempted to take off , and DAL 379 's idling jet engines were directing hot jet exhaust over the runway . The NTSB determined that neither Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) regulations nor the Terminal Air Traffic Control Procedures Manual defined the phrase " clear of the runway , " and found that the pilots of each plane and the air traffic controller each had their own slightly different definition of the term . The NTSB concluded that DAL 379 was not actually " clear of the runway " because its jet exhaust continued to pose a hazard to aircraft attempting to use runway 27L .
The jet blast from DAL 379 caused a compressor stall in Flight 159 's number four engine . The compressor stall caused a loud noise heard by the pilots , and the jet blast caused a movement of the Boeing 707 's flight controls during the takeoff . The 707 did not make contact with the DC @-@ 9 , but the noise and movement convinced the first officer that a collision had occurred . The NTSB concluded that the first officer 's decision to abort was reasonable under the circumstances .
TWA company manuals indicated that aborting a takeoff at high speeds is dangerous , and should only be attempted if an actual engine failure occurs before V1 speed . " V1 " speed is the maximum speed at which the takeoff can be safely aborted ; after V1 speed is exceeded , the plane must take off to avoid overrunning the runway . The captain of Flight 159 failed to announce that Flight 159 had achieved V1 speed , and the first officer believed the plane was at or near V1 ( rather than having substantially exceeded V1 ) when he aborted the takeoff . On a Boeing 707 , the V1 speed is 132 knots ( 244 km / h ; 152 mph ) ; Flight 159 achieved a peak speed of 145 knots ( 269 km / h ; 167 mph ) . However , the NTSB determined that V1 was not relevant to this incident because it is only intended to advise pilots on whether they can abort after engine failure , and the first officer believed that his aircraft had been physically damaged and might not be capable of flight . As a result , the NTSB found the first officer 's decision to abort was reasonable , but criticized the pilots for failing to execute the abort rapidly . One NTSB board member , Francis H. McAdams , wrote in a separate minority report that he would have concluded that an abort was both reasonable and necessary under the circumstances , despite the fact that the aircraft had exceeded V1 and was certain to overrun the runway .
The majority opinion presented by the NTSB accident report determined that the cause of the accident was the TWA flight crew 's inability to successfully abort takeoff procedures due to an excess of speed . The NTSB recommended revisions and expansions to airline abort procedures and new FAA regulations defining runway clearance and procedures , taking into account jet engine exhaust . In his minority report , Mr. McAdams ' said that he would have found the probable cause of the accident to be the Delta crew 's failure to adequately advise the tower of the proximity to the runway , and the tower 's failure to request additional and precise information prior to clearing TWA 159 for takeoff .
The family of the deceased passenger received a $ 105 @,@ 000 settlement from Delta Air Lines in civil court . TWA also sued Delta for the loss of the Boeing 707 aircraft , and reached a settlement of $ 2 @,@ 216 @,@ 000 .
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= 1994 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1994 Atlantic hurricane season produced seven named tropical cyclones and three hurricanes , a total below the Atlantic hurricane season average . It officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates which conventionally limit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . The first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Alberto , developed on June 30 , while the last storm , Hurricane Gordon , dissipated on November 21 . The season was unusual in that it produced no major hurricanes , which are those of Category 3 status or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . The most intense hurricane , Hurricane Florence , peaked as a Category 2 storm with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . Aside from Chris , Florence , and Gordon , none of the storms exceeded tropical storm intensity .
Tropical Storm Alberto produced significant rainfall and flooding in the Southeastern United States , damaging or destroying over 18 @,@ 000 homes . In August , Tropical Storm Beryl produced heavy rainfall in Florida , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , with moderate to heavy rainfall throughout several other states . Beryl caused numerous injuries , many of which occurred from a tornado associated with the tropical storm . Tropical Storm Debby killed nine people in the Caribbean in September . Hurricane Gordon was the most significant storm of the season , causing damage from Costa Rica to North Carolina among its six landfalls . Extreme flooding and mudslides from Gordon caused approximately 1 @,@ 122 fatalities in Haiti . In addition , a nor 'easter in December may have had tropical characteristics , though due to the uncertainty , it was not classified as a tropical system .
= = Seasonal forecasts and activity = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University . A normal season , as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , has six to fourteen named storms , with four to eight of those reaching hurricane strength , and one to three major hurricanes . The 1994 forecast predicted that a total of 10 storms would form , of which six of the storms would reach hurricane status . The forecast also projected that three of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane status .
In terms of tropical cyclone activity , the season was below average , with only seven named storms , three hurricanes , and no major hurricanes . It was one of only five Atlantic hurricane seasons without major hurricanes , the others being the 1968 , 1972 , 1986 and 2013 seasons , although records before 1944 are incomplete . No storms of hurricane intensity formed within the months of September and October for the first time since reliable records began in the 1940s . The season did not produce any major hurricanes , storms of Category 3 status , the first such occurrence since 1986 . The low seasonal activity is attributed to the presence of El Niño , which is a global coupled ocean @-@ atmosphere phenomenon . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when the majority of tropical cyclones tend to form in the Atlantic Ocean .
The season 's activity was reflected in a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 32 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alberto = = =
The first storm of the season formed on June 30 near the western tip of Cuba . Initially tracking westward , the depression turned towards the north , though it remained poorly defined . Early on July 2 , the depression organized into Tropical Storm Alberto . Alberto peaked as a tropical storm with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , and made landfall near Destin , Florida on July 3 . The storm quickly weakened to a tropical depression over Alabama as it continued to the northeast , but retained a well @-@ organized circulation . High pressures built to its north and east , causing the remnant tropical depression to stall over northwestern Georgia . It began a westward drift and dissipated over central Alabama on July 7 .
Alberto triggered some of the worst flooding ever observed across portions of Georgia , Alabama , and Florida . As a result of the storm 's slow motion , 27 inches ( 690 mm ) of rain fell in some locations . Due to flash flooding , 33 deaths were reported , primarily in Georgia . Over 18 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , and in excess of 1 @,@ 000 roads sustained damage . About 900 @,@ 000 acres ( 360 @,@ 000 ha ) of crops were affected by the storm , and 218 dams failed . Total damage from the storm amounted to $ 750 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 2 billion 2016 USD ) . The flooding from Alberto was considered the worst natural disaster in Georgia 's history .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
The origins of the depression were from a broad upper @-@ level trough that extended northeastward from The Bahamas . An area of convection developed near the Bahamas , spawning a low @-@ pressure area on July 19 . The next day , the system organized into Tropical Depression Two , after confirmation from the Hurricane Hunters . Upon developing , the depression was poorly organized , with most of the thunderstorms located south of the center . On July 20 , the circulation became better organized as the convection increased ; however , the depression moved ashore near Georgetown , South Carolina at 1400 UTC without intensifying beyond winds of 35 miles per hour ( 55 km / h ) . As it moved inland , it turned to the north , dissipating on July 21 near Charlotte , North Carolina . The remnant low continued northeastward across the northeastern United States , becoming unidentifiable on July 22 while entering Nova Scotia .
The depression was never forecast to attain tropical storm status . Officials issued flash flood watches for portions of the southeastern United States . Tropical Depression Two dropped light rainfall throughout the Southeastern United States , the Mid @-@ Atlantic , and parts of New England . It was the first tropical system to make landfall in South Carolina since Hurricane Hugo . Rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 84 in ( 173 @.@ 7 mm ) in Hamlet , North Carolina . There were no reports of damage or casualties associated with Tropical Depression Two .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
After a slow start to the season , Tropical Storm Beryl formed as a tropical depression on August 14 in the Gulf of Mexico . The center moved slowly and erratically in response to an approaching trough , and after moving towards the north , the storm made landfall near Panama City , Florida as a tropical storm . The weakening storm accelerated towards the north @-@ northeast , and the system was identifiable as a low @-@ pressure system as far north as Connecticut .
Tropical Storm Beryl produced heavy rainfall in Florida , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , with moderate to heavy rainfall throughout several other states . Several rivers from Florida to New York approached or exceeded flood stage . Although no fatalities were directly related to Beryl , several injuries were reported , including 37 due to an associated tornado . Property damage was estimated at $ 73 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 117 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Chris = = =
Hurricane Chris originated from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 11 and tracked westward . The associated disturbance organized and was declared a tropical depression on August 16 , while Tropical Storm Beryl was over land . The depression intensified into a tropical storm on August 17 , and the next day it acquired hurricane intensity . Chris maintained hurricane strength for two days , before increased wind shear caused the cyclone to weaken . The storm remained away from land , passing to the east of Bermuda on August 21 , before it merged with an extratropical baroclinic zone to the southeast of Newfoundland .
Hurricane Chris dropped 2 @.@ 83 inches ( 72 mm ) of rain on Bermuda , though no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Five = = =
A tropical wave that was first noted on August 17 tracked westward and reached the Caribbean on August 26 . The wave moved across the Yucatán Peninsula , and developed into a tropical depression on August 29 in the Bay of Campeche . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the system remained below tropical storm status , and made landfall near Tampico on August 31 .
Mexico was affected by rainfall from Tropical Depression Five , which peaked at 16 @.@ 18 inches ( 411 mm ) , while associated moisture from the depression affected San Antonio , Texas .
= = = Tropical Storm Debby = = =
A tropical depression developed from another tropical wave on September 9 . Surface observations and ship reports suggested that it developed into Tropical Storm Debby on September 10 , despite poor organization evidenced by satellite imagery . Peaking with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , the storm moved westward through the Leeward Islands and encountered wind shear which limited the storm 's intensity and organization . Wind shear caused the system to deteriorate , and the circulation degenerated into a tropical wave on September 11 .
Tropical Storm Debby killed four people and injured 24 on St. Lucia . Heavy rainfall caused flooding and mudslides , which washed away hillside shacks , eight bridges , and parts of roads . Flood waters were chest @-@ high in some locations , and the storm 's winds damaged banana plantations . Mudslides caused by the storm blocked roads , and water supply was disrupted . On Martinique , one person drowned and some towns were flooded . Downed trees made roads impassable , and up to 20 @,@ 000 people on the island lost power . Three deaths occurred in the Dominican Republic , and a fisherman drowned off of Puerto Rico . Throughout the areas affected by Debby , it is estimated that hundreds of people were homeless .
= = = Tropical Storm Ernesto = = =
A tropical wave exited Africa on September 18 with an area of organized deep convection . The wave was in a series of strong waves that exited Africa later than the climatological peak of the season . Dvorak classifications began on September 21 , and later that day the system developed into Tropical Depression Seven about 500 miles ( 806 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . Wind shear was marginally favorable for development , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Ernesto on September 22 . The next morning , the storm attained its peak intensity , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 997 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) .
After peaking , Ernesto entered an area of increasing wind shear and stronger upper @-@ tropospheric flow , resulting in a steady weakening trend . After most of the convection diminished over the center , the storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 24 . Subsequently , it decelerated and turned to a west @-@ northwest drift . The last public advisory was issued on Tropical Depression Ernesto at 2100 UTC September 25 , although it did not dissipate until early the next day , about 450 miles ( 725 km ) west of Cape Verde . The remnants continued generally westward , occasionally redeveloping deep convection but never regenerating into a tropical cyclone . The remnants were no longer identifiable as of September 29 .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
The eighth depression of the season formed with little convection on September 19 in the southwestern Caribbean . The area of convection lasted for several days moving from northwestern direction to the northeastern . The wave was estimated to have strengthened into Tropical Depression Eight on September 24 near the coast of Honduras . An Air Force aircraft found the depression with a poorly organized circulation and a pressure of 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The depression moved west at 7 to 10 mph ( 11 to 16 km / h ) on September 25 . Just before landfall in Belize on September 25 , Eight hit its peak intensity of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . The depression made landfall in Mexico and dissipated the next day over Guatemala . Reports show that the remnants of Eight became Tropical Depression Ten . The storm dropped heavy precipitation in and around Belize .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine = = =
Tropical Depression Nine started out as a well @-@ defined cloud circulation that moved off the coast of Africa on September 26 . The circulation was upgraded to the ninth depression of the 1994 season , 174 miles ( 280 km ) southeast of Cape Verde the next day at 1200 UTC when banding cloud patterns became evident on satellite imagery . The depression moved toward the north @-@ northwest at 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) or less , reaching peak intensity early on September 28 , around 0600 UTC , but the LLCC became exposed and the depression lost much of its deep convection later that day . The NHC declared Nine dissipated early on September 29 , near Sal in the Cape Verde Islands .
= = = Tropical Depression Ten = = =
The remnants of Tropical Depression Eight persisted over the northwestern Caribbean in late September . Convection increased and organized after a tropical wave reached the area . A circulation soon developed within the low @-@ pressure area . It was estimated that Tropical Depression Ten formed on September 29 at 0600 UTC . A reconnaissance aircraft did not indicate a closed circulation due to the proximity with Cuba , which caused difficulties with satellite intensity estimates . The system was relatively disorganized , potentially moving ashore in western Cuba near Cabo San Antonio . The tropical depression entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 30 as it turned to the northwest . On September 30 at 0600 UTC , the tropical depression attained its peak intensity , winds had reached 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and the minimum central pressure had dropped down to 1004 mbar . The depression was soon becoming absorbed by a larger non @-@ tropical system in the southern Gulf of Mexico . By 1800 UTC on September 30 , Tropical Depression Ten had been completely absorbed by the non @-@ tropical system . Initial predictions from the National Hurricane Center estimated that the depression would rapidly develop into a tropical storm . The depression dropped heavy rainfall in Cuba , reaching 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in a 24 hour period in Giron . Rainfall from the tropical depression in the Florida Keys was around 5 inches ( 130 mm ) . The remnants of the depression dropped heavy rains in Florida , causing $ 5 million in damage ( 1994 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
After a quiet October , the month of November began with the formation of a subtropical depression on November 2 . The storm intensified into a subtropical storm shortly thereafter before weakening to a depression the next day . The subtropical system transitioned into a tropical cyclone about 875 miles ( 1 @,@ 408 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda , and the depression quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Florence . Florence rapidly intensified and was upgraded to a hurricane on November 4 . The intensification ceased shortly after it started and minor fluctuations in intensity took place over the following three days . Florence was subsequently upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane . A large extratropical system located to the north absorbed the storm on November 8 .
= = = Hurricane Gordon = = =
Hurricane Gordon was the final storm of the season . The system formed near Panama in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 9 . Strengthening into a tropical storm , Gordon wound its way north into the Greater Antilles . Despite warm waters , persistent wind shear prevented significant strengthening . Executing a slow turn to the north and then the northwest , Gordon made two more landfalls , on eastern Jamaica and eastern Cuba . As Tropical Storm Gordon made its fourth landfall crossing the Florida Keys , it interacted with a cyclone in the upper troposphere and a series of cyclonic lows which lent the storm some sub @-@ tropical characteristics . After a few days as an unusual hybrid of a tropical and a subtropical system in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm re @-@ claimed its tropical storm status and it made another landfall across the Florida peninsula and continued into the Atlantic Ocean . In the Atlantic , Gordon rapidly strengthened to a Category 1 hurricane . Gordon 's characteristic briefly approached North Carolina , but ultimately the storm headed south , weakening into a minor tropical storm before making its sixth and final landfall on Florida 's east coast . Overall , the storm made six separate landfalls .
Hurricane Gordon caused heavy damage and 1 @,@ 122 fatalities in Haiti ; the storm 's effects extended from Costa Rica to North Carolina in the United States . Over Hispaniola , the persistent southerly flow to the east of the storm , combined with the steep upslope motion of the land , generated prolonged rainfall which triggered disastrous flooding and mudslides . The extreme flooding led to an estimated 1 @,@ 122 fatalities in Haiti , although some reports indicate that up to 2 @,@ 000 people died . Six deaths were also reported in Costa Rica . Elsewhere , five fatalities were reported in the Dominican Republic , two in Jamaica , and two in Cuba . In Florida , the storm caused eight fatalities and 43 injuries . In Volusia County , 1 @,@ 236 buildings reported flood damage . In the state , damage totaled $ 400 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 639 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Other storms = = =
A weak and broad frontal low absorbed the remnants of Tropical Depression Ten in the central Gulf of Mexico . The Hydrometeorological Prediction Center identified the system as a subtropical storm on October 1 . The subtropical storm moved across Florida and the Southeastern United States on October 2 and 3 ; when it reached the Atlantic Coast , it became an extratropical frontal wave . However , the National Hurricane Center does not confirm the existence of the subtropical cyclone .
In addition to the seven named storms , a nor 'easter formed in late December . As it entered the warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean , it began to rapidly intensify , exhibiting signs of tropical development , including the formation of an eye . It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24 , and after moving northward , it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve . However , due to the uncertain nature of the storm , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damage , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 1994 USD .
= = Storm names = =
During the season the following names were used for tropical storms , that formed within the north Atlantic Ocean . This was the same list of names that had been used during the 1988 season except for Gordon and Joyce , which replaced Gilbert and Joan . After the season there were no names retired from this list of names and it was subsequently reused during the 2000 season .
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= M @-@ 85 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 85 , also known as Fort Street or Fort Road for its entire length , is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . The highway serves several Downriver suburbs of Detroit , as well as neighborhoods in the city itself . From its southern terminus at exit 28 on Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) to its second interchange with exit 43 on I @-@ 75 in southwest Detroit , M @-@ 85 is part of the Lake Erie Circle Tour . In between , it serves mostly residential areas running parallel to a pair of rail lines ; the highway carries between 5 @,@ 000 and 43 @,@ 000 vehicles per day on average . Once in the city of Detroit , Fort Street runs parallel to I @-@ 75 for several miles before they separate near the Ambassador Bridge . The northern end of M @-@ 85 is at the intersection with Griswold Street in downtown Detroit , one block away from Campus Martius Park .
Two previous unrelated highways bore the M @-@ 85 designation . The first was in Montcalm County and the second near Caro . These uses were retired in the 1930s and the 1940s , respectively . The current M @-@ 85 was created in 1956 after the construction of the Detroit @-@ Toledo Freeway ; the original northern end was at an intersection with US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) in downtown . The northern end was truncated in the late 1960s to the northern junction with I @-@ 75 . The highway was then extended back into downtown Detroit in the first year of the 21st century .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 85 starts a directional interchange with I @-@ 75 in near Rockwood ; traffic to or from southbound I @-@ 75 must use Gibraltar Road instead . M @-@ 85 runs north from this interchange to Gibraltar Road as a full freeway ; north of that intersection the highway becomes a boulevard . There are many businesses directly adjacent to Fort Street in the Downriver area with residential subdivisions on either side of them . The trunkline parallels lines of the Norfolk Southern and Canadian National railways . In this area , M @-@ 85 is also running parallel to , but inland from , the southern part of the Detroit River . The highway runs northeasterly through Gibraltar to Trenton , where it turns due north . Fort Street forms the boundary between Riverview and Trenton in the area near the Riverview Landing Shopping Center ; north of here , Riverview extends along both sides of the road . At Pennsylvania Road , Fort Street crosses into the city of Southgate and curves to the northeast . The highway returns to a due northerly course near Memorial Park and continues along the Southgate – Wyandotte city line . This area is mainly residential neighborhoods that extend in street grids on either side of the Fort Street boulevard .
The highway crosses the South Branch of the Ecorse River and enters the city of Lincoln Park . Through this Detroit suburb , Fort Street angles slightly northeasterly before turning sharply to the northeast at Champaign Road . M @-@ 85 's new direction keeps it parallel to the Detroit River about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away . When the trunkline crosses the North Branch of the Ecorse River , M @-@ 85 enters the city of Detroit near Outer Drive . Fort Street runs parallel to I @-@ 75 through the Boynton – Oakwood Heights neighborhoods of the city . North of the intersection with Schaefer Highway , M @-@ 85 meets an interchange with I @-@ 75 and passes under the freeway , crossing to its northwest side . At this interchange , the LECT designation is transferred from M @-@ 85 to I @-@ 75 . Fort Street continues running between an industrial area and I @-@ 75 . In this area , the highway crosses more rail lines belonging to Norfolk Southern and Conrail before crossing the River Rouge and turning east @-@ northeast . Fort Street continues through the Delray neighborhood and crosses under I @-@ 75 again ; there is no interchange at this location . These two highways continue in parallel to the north of Fort Wayne and the Detroit Harbor Terminals / Boblo Island Detroit Dock Building ; M @-@ 85 intersects Grand Boulevard and passes under the approaches for the Ambassador Bridge ; I @-@ 75 turns inland near the bridge 's toll plaza north of Fort Street . M @-@ 85 continues along the river into the Corktown neighborhood .
As M @-@ 85 approaches downtown , it crosses over the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel . Several blocks later , the highway passes over M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) without an interchange near Joe Louis Arena . Fort Street continues carrying the M @-@ 85 designation as far east as the intersection with Griswold Street ; this intersection is also the location of the Chase Tower and the Cadillac Tower one block west of Cadillac Square .
M @-@ 85 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 85 were the 42 @,@ 786 vehicles daily in Wyandotte ; the lowest count was 5 @,@ 976 vehicles per day at the southern terminus . All of M @-@ 85 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . Between the two I @-@ 75 interchanges , M @-@ 85 is the closest state trunkline to Lake Erie and the Detroit River , making it a part of the Lake Erie Circle Tour ( LECT ) .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
In 1919 , the first version of M @-@ 85 ran from then M @-@ 66 east to M @-@ 43 at Stanton in Montcalm County . This highway was later extended in 1929 from Stanton north to Edmore . By the end of 1930 , this designation was removed when M @-@ 57 was extended through the area . A new M @-@ 85 was then designated between Mayville and Caro . This second designation was supplanted by an extended and rerouted M @-@ 24 in late 1941 or early 1942 .
= = = Current designation = = =
When the Detroit – Toledo Freeway opened in 1956 , several local roads were given the M @-@ 85 designation between the new freeway in Woodhaven into downtown Detroit to end at US 25 / M @-@ 17 . The northern end was truncated in 1968 to the interchange with I @-@ 75 in Detroit when that freeway was completed in the area . In the 1980s , the Great Lakes Circle Tours were created by the state of Michigan in consultation with neighboring states and the province of Ontario ; after the tours were created in 1986 , M @-@ 85 was added to the LECT .
At the end of 2000 , MDOT proposed several highway transfers in Detroit . Some of these involved transferring city streets in the Campus Martius Park area under the department 's jurisdiction to city control ; another part of the proposal involved MDOT assuming control over a section of Fort Street from the then northern terminus of M @-@ 85 to the then southern terminus of M @-@ 3 at Clark Street . When these transfers were completed the following year , M @-@ 3 was severed into two discontinuous segments by the Campus Martius changes , and the southern segment between Clark and Griswold streets was added to an extended M @-@ 85 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Wayne County .
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= German nationalism in Austria =
German nationalism ( German : Deutschnationalismus ) is a political ideology and historical current in Austrian politics . It arose in the 19th century as a nationalist movement amongst the German @-@ speaking population of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . It favours close ties with Germany , which it views as the nation @-@ state for all ethnic Germans , and the possibility of the incorporation of Austria into a Greater Germany .
Over the course of Austrian history , from the Austrian Empire , to Austria @-@ Hungary , and the First and the Second Austrian Republics , several political parties and groups have expressed pan @-@ German nationalist sentiment . National liberal and pan @-@ Germanist parties have been termed the " Third Camp " ( German : Drittes Lager ) of Austrian politics , as they have traditionally been ranked behind mainstream Catholic conservatives and socialists . The Freedom Party of Austria , a far @-@ right political party with representation in the Austrian parliament , has pan @-@ Germanist roots . After the Second World War , both pan @-@ Germanism and the idea of political union with Germany were discredited by their association with Nazism , and by the rising tide of a civic Austrian national identity .
= = During the imperial period = =
Within the context of rising ethnic nationalism during the 19th century in the territories of the multi @-@ ethnic Austrian Empire , the " German National Movement " ( German : Deutschnationale Bewegung ) sought the creation of a Greater Germany , along with the implementation of anti @-@ semitic and anti @-@ clerical policies , in an attempt to entrench the German ethnic identity . Starting with the revolutions of 1848 , many ethnic groups under imperial rule , including the Czechs , Italians , Croats , Slovenes , and Poles , amongst others , demanded political , economic , and cultural equality . Traditionally , the German @-@ speaking population of the Empire enjoyed societal privileges dating back to the reign of Empress Maria Theresa , and that of her son , Joseph II . German was considered the lingua franca of the Empire , and Empire 's elite consisted primarily of German @-@ speakers . The struggle between the many ethnic groups of the Empire and German @-@ speakers defined the social and political landscape of the Empire from the 1870s , after the Compromise of 1867 , which granted renewed sovereignty to the Kingdom of Hungary , until the dissolution of the Empire after the First World War . After the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Königgrätz of 1866 , and the unification of the what was known as " Lesser Germany " under Prussian stewardship in 1871 , German @-@ speakers in the Empire felt that they had been excluded from the German nation @-@ state , whilst other ethnicities within the Empire were tearing at its fabric . Conflict between Germans and Czechs grew particularly tense in 1879 , when minister @-@ president Viscount Taaffe did not include the German @-@ Liberal Party ( German : Deutschliberale Partei ) in the government of Cisleithania . This party was considered the main representative of the German @-@ speaking middle class , and as such , the German National Movement went on to accuse the Party of not fighting for the rights of German @-@ speakers within the Empire . The " German School League " ( German : Deutscher Schulverein ) was formed in 1880 to protect German @-@ language schools in parts of the Empire where German speakers were a minority . It promoted the establishment of German @-@ language schools in communities where public funding was used for non @-@ German schools .
A consortium of German nationalist groups and intellectuals published the Linz Program in 1882 , which demanded the recognition of German predominance in the Empire , along with the complete Germanisation of the Empire . This manifesto was signed by the radical German nationalist Georg von Schönerer , Vienna 's populist , pro @-@ Catholic , and royalist mayor Karl Lueger , and the Jewish social democrat Victor Adler . The diverse signatories of the Linz manifesto split ideologically after Schönerer revised it to add an " Aryan paragraph " in 1885 .
Schönerer founded the " German National Society " , and later , in 1891 , the " Pan @-@ German Society " . He demanded the annexation of all German @-@ speaking territories of Austria @-@ Hungary to the Prussian @-@ led German Empire and rejected any form of Austrian pan @-@ ethnic identity . His radical racist German nationalism was especially popular amongst the well @-@ educated intelligentsia : professors , grammar school teachers , and students . School administrations tried to counteract these sentiments by encouraging civic pride , along with a " cult of personality " around the Emperor , but these efforts were largely unsuccessful . Vienna mayor Karl Lueger even tried to dismiss all " Schönerians " from city school administrations , but this too failed . National @-@ minded students rather identified with the Prussian @-@ led German Empire than with the multiethnic Dual Monarchy . Many idolised the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck , victor in the Battle of Königgrätz . Members of the pan @-@ German movement wore blue cornflowers , known to be the favourite flower of German Emperor William I , in their buttonholes , along with cockades in the German national colours ( black , red , and yellow ) . Both symbols were temporarily banned in Austrian schools . By contrast with the German National Society , the " German Club " accepted the Habsburg dynasty , and the sovereignty of Austria . The majority of German nationalists and liberals adhered to this more moderate ideology .
German nationalists protested vehemently against minister @-@ president Kasimir Count Badeni 's language decree of 1897 , which made German and Czech co @-@ official languages in Bohemia and required new government officials to be fluent in both languages . This meant in practice that the civil service would almost exclusively hire Czechs , because most educated Czechs knew German , but not the other way around . The support of ultramontane Catholic politicians and clergy for this reform triggered the launch of the " Away from Rome " ( German : Los @-@ von @-@ Rom ) movement , which was initiated by supporters of Schönerer and called on " German " Christians to leave the Roman Catholic Church .
From the 1880s , the pan @-@ Germanist movement was fragmented into several splinter parties and factions . The most radical was the German Workers ' Party , formed in 1903 , which later transformed into the Austrian wing of the Nazi Party . Other pan @-@ Germanist parties that contested elections during the first decade of the 20th century include the German People 's Party and the German Radical Party . A broad coalition of all ethnic German national and liberal political parties known as the Deutscher Nationalverband ( lit . German National Association ) was formed to contest the 1911 election to the Cisleithanian Imperial Council . It went on to gain the most seats in lower house of the Council , the House of Deputies ( German : Abgeordnetenhaus ) , replacing the previously dominant Christian Social Party . Despite this victory , the German National Association was always a very loose coalition with little unity amongst its ranks , and collapsed in 1917 at the height of First World War . It disintegrated into seventeen scattered German liberal and national parties . This disintegration , combined with dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary at the end of the First World War , led to the total fragmentation of pan @-@ Germanist movement .
= = Dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary ( 1918 – 1919 ) = =
After the end of the First World War , which saw the collapse of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , German @-@ speaking parts of the former Empire established a new republic under the name " German Austria " ( German : Deutsch @-@ Österreich ) . The republic was proclaimed on the principle of self @-@ determination , which had been enshrined within American president Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . A provisional national assembly was convened on 11 November , at which the Republic of German Austria was proclaimed . The assembly drafted a constitution that stated that " German Austria is a democratic republic " ( Article 1 ) and " German Austria is a component of the German Republic " ( Article 2 ) . This phrase referenced the establishment of the Weimar Republic in the former lands of the German Empire , and intended to unite German @-@ speaking Austrians with the German nation @-@ state , completing the Greater Germany plan . Plebiscites held in Tyrol and Salzburg yielded majorities of 98 % and 99 % respectively in favour of unification with Germany .
Despite this , the victors of the First World War , who drafted the treaties of Versailles and Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , strictly forbid any attempt by German Austria to unify with Germany . They also gave some lands that had been claimed by German Austria to newly formed nation @-@ states . An example of this was the giving of the provinces of German Bohemia and the Sudetenland to the Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . These lands , having German @-@ speaking majorities , were prevented from being within their own nation @-@ state . Instead , they were trapped in the nation @-@ states of other ethnicities . This grievance would play a fundamental part in the rise of pan @-@ Germanism during the Interwar period . Karl Renner , a member of the Social Democratic Workers ' Party , served as chancellor of German Austria . Renner himself was a proponent of the idea of " Greater Germany " , and penned the unofficial anthem Deutschösterreich , du herrliches Land ( " German Austria , you wonderful country " ) . Renner was born in southern Moravia , which was one of the lands claimed by German Austria , but instead given to the Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . Despite his background , however , he signed the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain on 10 September 1919 , which established the Allied @-@ drawn borders of the new Austrian republic , and formally forbid any attempt to unify the German @-@ speaking lands of the former Austria @-@ Hungary with Germany . The name " German Austria " was changed to " Austria " , removing any hint of pan @-@ Germanist sentiment from the name of the state . Nevertheless , the Social Democrats would not forget their pan @-@ Germanist roots . To them , the Weimar Republic was regarded with " exaggerated sympathy " , whilst the Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic was viewed with " exaggerated suspicion " .
= = During the First Republic and Austrofascist period ( 1919 – 1938 ) = =
During the First Austrian Republic , pan @-@ Germanists were represented by the Greater German People 's Party and the agrarian Landbund . Although initially influential , these two groups soon lost most of their voters to the Christian Social Party and the Social Democratic Party . Both the Christian Socials and the Social Democrats accepted that unification between Austria and Germany was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain . A conflict would develop , however , between those who supported an Austrian national identity , such as the Christian Socials , and those rooted in German nationalism , such as the Social Democrats .
One of the foundational problems of the First Republic was that those who had supported the concept of a democratic republic from the German Austria period onward , such as the Social Democrats , did not consider themselves " Austrian " , but instead were German nationalists . Those who supported an Austrian national identity , an Austria without the word " German " attached , were conservative and largely undemocratic in persuasion : former Imperial bureaucrats , army officers , priests , aristocrats , and affiliated with the Christian Social Party . In the words of historian A. J. P. Taylor , " The democrats were not ' Austrian ' ; the ' Austrians ' were not democrats . " These two groups , the German nationalist democrats , and the Austrian nationalist conservatives , would squabble throughout the first decade of the First Republic . Ultimately , the Austrian nationalist faction would overthrow the democratic republic in 1934 and establish a regime rooted in " Austrofascism " under the protection of Fascist Italy .
While most of right @-@ wing Heimwehren paramilitary groups active during the First Republic were rooted in Austrian nationalism , and either affiliated with the conservative Christian Socials , or inspired by Italian Fascism , there was also a German nationalist faction . This faction was most notable within the Styrian Heimatschutz ( " homeland protection " ) . Its leader , Walter Pfrimer , attempted a putsch against a Christian Social government in September 1931 . The putsch was directly modelled on the Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome , but failed almost instantly due to lack of support from other Heimwehr groups . Pfrimer subsequently founded the " German Heimatschutz " , which would later merge into the Nazi Party .
The idea of an Anschluss , that is , annexation of Austria to Germany in an attempt to create a Greater Germany , was one of the principle ideas of the Austrian branch of the National Socialist ( Nazi ) Party . Nazism can be seen as descended from the radical branches of the pan @-@ Germanist movement . In 1933 , the Nazis and the Greater German People 's Party formed a joint working @-@ group , and eventually merged . During the period while the Nazi Party and its symbols were banned in Austria , from 1933 to 1938 , Austrian Nazis resumed the earlier pan @-@ Germanist tradition of wearing a blue cornflower in their buttonhole .
The Nazis firmly fought the austrofascist regime of chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss , and orchestrated his assassination . They continued this battle against his successor , Kurt Schuschnigg . Austrofacism was strongly supported by Benito Mussolini , leader of Fascist Italy . Mussolini 's support for an independent Austria can be seen in a discussion he had with Prince Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg , an important Austrian nationalist and Heimwehr leader . He said that " an Anschluss with Germany must never be permitted ... Austria is necessary to the maintenance of Europe ... the day that Austria falls and is swallowed up by Germany will mark the beginning of European chaos . " The austrofascist party , Fatherland Front , would echo the sentiments of Mussolini , and continue to struggle for an independent Austria . Nazis in both Germany and Austria intended that the German Reich would quickly annex Austria , the homeland of its leader , Adolf Hitler . They attempted to bribe many low @-@ ranking Heimwehr leaders , and also attempted to bring Starhemberg into their fold , in effect merging the Heimwehr with the Nazi Freikorps . Gregor Strasser , a prominent Nazi figure , was charged with this effort . When Starhemberg , a fervent believer in an independent Austria , rejected his merger proposal , Strasser said " Don 't talk to me about Austria . There is no Austria ... there was once a living corpse which called itself Austria ... that this Austria collapsed in 1918 was a blessing ... particularly for the German people , who were thereby given the chance to create a Greater Germany . "
After this , tensions between the Nazis and austrofascists worsened , culminating in the July Putsch of 1934 , when Nazis attempted to overthrow the government . Whilst they managed to assassinate chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss , the putsch was quickly crushed by the police , army , and Heimwehren . In the aftermath of the putsch , conflict between the Social Democrats and the ruling austrofascists led to the Austrian Civil War later in the year . After their defeat , the Social Democratic Party was outlawed entirely . This , in tandem with a continued a campaign of violence and propaganda by the Nazis , destabilised the austrofascist regime , and rallied many to support the idea of Anschluss . The Nazi campaign was ultimately successful , and Hitler would go on to annex Austria in 1938 with the Anschluss . The historical aim of the pan @-@ Germanist movement in Austria was achieved . The pan @-@ Germanists were then fully absorbed into the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) .
= = During the Second Republic ( since 1945 ) = =
After the end of the Second World War , when Austria was re @-@ established as an independent state , the German nationalist movement was discredited because of its links to the former Nazi regime . The dominant parties of the new republic were the Christian conservative Austrian People 's Party and the Socialist Party . Both promoted Austrian independence , and considered the idea of a " Greater Germany " an anachronism . All former members of the Nazi party were banned from any political activity , and disenfranchised . The pan @-@ Germanist and liberal " Third Camp " was later revived in the form of the Federation of Independents ( German : Verband der Unabhängigen ) , which fought De @-@ Nazification laws imposed by the Allies , and represented the interests of former Nazis , Wehrmacht , and SS soldiers . In 1956 , the Federation was transformed into the Freedom Party of Austria . In the 1950s and 1960s , the German nationalist movement , represented by the Freedom Party and its affiliated organisations , was very active in universities , where the Burschenschaften , a type of student fraternity , helped spread German nationalist and liberal views . Inside the Freedom Party , the liberal wing grew to overtake the pan @-@ Germanist wing , and Austrian patriotism was gradually incorporated into the party 's ideology . During Norbert Steger 's party leadership during 1980 – 1986 , and the Freedom Party 's participation in a coalition government with the Social Democrats , the pan @-@ Germanist faction was weakened further .
By contrast , Jörg Haider 's assumption of party leadership in 1986 was considered a triumph by the German nationalist faction . However , Haider 's right @-@ wing populism did not stress pan @-@ Germanist traditions , as doing so would have cost votes . In 1987 , only six percent of Austrian citizens identified themselves as " Germans " . While Haider had branded Austrian national identity as an ideological construct , going so far to refer to it as a " monstrosity " ( German : Mißgeburt ) in 1988 , he launched the " Austria First " petition in 1993 , and claimed two years later that the Freedom Party was a " classical Austrian patriotic party " , expressly renouncing his earlier " monstrosity " statement . The influence of German nationalism was still present , however , and could be seen in hostile actions against Slavic minorities in Austria , such as in conflicts over bilingual road sign with the Carinthian Slovenes , along with hostility to immigration and European integration . Traditional Greater German ideas have therefore been replaced by a German @-@ Austrian concept ( i.e. only considering Austrians of German origin and tongue as " real " Austrians ) . This may be summarised as an " amalgamation of traditional German nationalism with Austrian patriotism " .
Presently , the pan @-@ Germanist wing is only a minor faction within the Freedom Party . In 2008 , fewer than seventeen percent of the Freedom Party 's voters questioned the existence of a unique Austrian national identity . German nationalists , including Andreas Mölzer and Martin Graf , now refer to themselves as " cultural Germans " ( Kulturdeutsche ) , and stress the importance of their identity as ethnic Germans , in contrast to the distinct Austrian national identity . In 2006 , FPÖ members of parliament reaffirmed the party 's root in the pan @-@ Germanist tradition , at least symbolically , by wearing blue cornflowers in their buttonholes , along with ribbons in Austria 's national colours ( red and white ) , during the initial meeting of the National Council . This caused controversy , as the media interpreted the flower as a former Nazi symbol .
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= 2010 Food City 500 =
The 2010 Food City 500 was held on March 21 , 2010 at Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol , Tennessee as the fifth race of the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season . This race marked the last appearance of the rear wing on the Car of Tomorrow , with the spoiler returning the following race .
This race also was the first of three in Carl Edwards ' probation following his altercation with Brad Keselowski at the previous race at Atlanta Motor Speedway , in which Keselowski went airborne , subsequently crashing on his side door . The race had 39 lead changes among 13 different leaders and 10 cautions .
The race attendance of 138 @,@ 000 marked the end of a long streak of sellout seats at the track , which has a capacity of 158 @,@ 000 . The race had been a sellout since 1982 . Draconian regulations kept intact since the 1970s along with rising ticket prices and unexciting restrictor plate races at Talladega and Daytona helped to contribute to the empty seats at NASCAR races in addition to declining TV ratings .
= = Race report = =
= = = Practices and qualifying = = =
In the first practice , the fastest were Joey Logano , Matt Kenseth , Mark Martin , Jimmie Johnson , and Kasey Kahne ; the practice also had three red flags because Kyle Busch , Bobby Labonte , and Jimmie Johnson spun on the frontstretch . During qualifying , Joey Logano won his first Sprint Cup Series pole position while Kurt Busch , Dave Blaney , Jimmie Johnson , and Jeff Gordon rounded out the top @-@ five . There were only two drivers who failed to qualify : Mike Bliss and Max Papis . In the second practice , the fastest were Jimmie Johnson , Juan Pablo Montoya , Jeff Gordon , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , and Joey Logano . During final practice , the fastest were Jimmie Johnson , Juan Pablo Montoya , Matt Kenseth , Jamie McMurray , and Joey Logano .
= = = Race summary = = =
For pre @-@ race concerts , the musical group 4TROOPS , a military band , and Lee Greenwood performed for the fans . Afterward , 4TROOPS performed the National Anthem , and Rev. Mike Rife , of Vansant Church of Christ , gave the Invocation . Steve Austin gave the command " Gentlemen , start your engines ! " . Before the race , Terry Cook moved to the back of the field because he missed driver introductions . For the first time in his young career , Joey Logano led the field for the green flag . Immediately after the start , Kurt Busch passed him for the lead . On lap 6 , Jimmie Johnson passed Busch for the lead . While Logano fell back , Johnson continued to lead until lap 30 ; Busch passed him in heavy traffic . Busch kept the lead until lap 40 , at the first caution . The caution came out when Dave Blaney had a flat tire . Brad Keselowski stayed out while other drivers came in to change tires and add gasoline which resulted him getting the lead . On lap 46 , the green flag came out again . Keselowski kept the lead until lap 53 when Jimmie Johnson passed him . Five laps later , the second caution came out because Clint Bowyer slammed into the wall from a blown engine . Few drivers went to change tires and add gasoline on this caution ; Johnson led the field to the green flag on lap 62 . Johnson kept the lead until lap 99 when Busch passed him in traffic . After Kurt Busch led for seventeen laps , the third caution came out because Denny Hamlin hit the wall in turn two . Most drivers went to pit road to change their tires , but Busch was first off pit road and led them to the green flag on lap 123 . Busch 's lead would not continue for long as Greg Biffle passed him on lap 124 . Three laps later , the fourth caution came out because of rain . With the few rain drops at the track , NASCAR decided to keep the cars on the track to help make sure the track would stay dry . After a sixteen lap caution period , the race resumed on lap 143 with Biffle as the leader . On lap 158 , Jimmie Johnson attempted to get the lead but Biffle remained the leader . On lap 191 he was passed by Juan Pablo Montoya for the lead , but four laps later Biffle retook it .
Nine laps later , on lap 204 , Biffle was still the leader , but the fifth caution flag came out because Kasey Kahne hit the wall . On lap 210 the green flag came out with Juan Pablo Montoya the leader . After some switching positions on lap 223 Kurt Busch took the lead . Soon after the lead change , there was a green flag run until lap 263 when the sixth yellow came out because Kyle Busch slammed the outside wall . The race resumed on lap 271 with Kurt Busch the leader .
At lap 300 , the top three drivers were Kurt Busch , Mark Martin , and Jimmie Johnson . Then on lap 323 the seventh caution flag waved because Regan Smith had tire troubles . Kurt Busch won the race out of pit road to lead the field to the green flag on lap 331 . Ten laps later , on lap 342 , the eighth caution came out because of a large wreck . The wreck started with Mark Martin and Greg Biffle colliding ; thirteen more cars were involved . On lap 358 , the green flag came out with Kurt Busch the leader . By lap 370 , the top three positions were occupied by Kurt Busch , Jimmie Johnson , and Jamie McMurray . Rain brought out the ninth caution twenty laps later .
On lap 411 , the green flag came back out with Brad Keselowski the leader ; Kurt Busch passed him three laps later . By lap 433 , Jimmie Johnson caught Kurt Busch . Johnson tried to pass Busch on lap 444 , but did not get the lead . During the longest green flag run of the race , Joey Logano hit the turn two wall on lap 479 ; there was no caution . Three laps later , the tenth caution came out because of debris on the track . During pit stops , Greg Biffle beat everyone out of pit road to lead the field to the green flag on lap 490 . Busch and Johnson were fifth and sixth . On lap 492 , Tony Stewart took the lead from Biffle ; Johnson passed him on the outside a lap later . Jimmie Johnson kept the lead to earn his first career win at Bristol . It was his fiftieth win in his Sprint Cup Series career , and his third win of 2010 .
= = Race results = =
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= Operation Fustian =
Operation Fustian was an airborne forces operation undertaken during the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 in the Second World War . The operation was carried out by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury 's 1st Parachute Brigade , part of the British 1st Airborne Division . Their objective was the Primosole Bridge across the Simeto River . The intention was for the brigade , with glider @-@ borne forces in support , to land on both sides of the river . They would then capture the bridge and secure the surrounding area until relieved by the advance of British XIII Corps , which had landed on the south eastern coast three days previously . Because the bridge was the only crossing on the river and would give the British Eighth Army access to the Catania plain , its capture was expected to speed the advance and lead to the defeat of the Axis forces in Sicily .
Many of the aircraft carrying the paratroopers from North Africa were shot down or were damaged and turned back by friendly fire and enemy action . Evasive action taken by the pilots scattered the brigade over a large area and only the equivalent of two companies of troops were landed in the correct locations . Despite this and the defence by German and Italian forces , the British paratroops captured the bridge , repulsed attacks and held out against increasing odds until nightfall . The relief force led by the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , under Major @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman , which was short of transport , were still 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away when they halted for the night . By this time , with casualties mounting and supplies running short , the parachute brigade commander , Gerald Lathbury , had relinquished control of the bridge to the Germans . The following day the British units joined forces and the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry , with tank support , attempted to recapture the bridge . The bridge was not finally secured until three days after the start of the operation , when another battalion of the Durham Light Infantry , led by the paratroopers , established a bridgehead on the north bank of the river .
The capture of Primosole Bridge did not lead to the expected rapid advance , as by this time the Germans had gathered their forces and established a defensive line . It was not until early the following month that the Eighth Army captured Catania . By this time the 1st Parachute Brigade had been withdrawn to Malta and took no further part in the conquest of Sicily . Lessons were learned from the operation and were put into practice in Allied airborne operations .
= = Background = =
After the Axis powers were defeated in North Africa , the Allied armies ' next logical objective was to cross the Mediterranean , landing in either the south of France , the Balkans , Sicily or Italy . The objective chosen was Sicily , with the landing scheduled for 10 July 1943 . The Allied 15th Army Group was commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander . It consisted of the United States Seventh Army , commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton , which would land in the west between Licata and Scoglitti , and the veteran British Eighth Army , commanded by the experienced General Bernard Montgomery , which would land in the south east between Cape Passero and Syracuse .
In addition to the seaborne landings , there were also airborne landings during the invasion . The US 82nd Airborne Division would land in support of the Seventh Army , while the British 1st Airborne Division conducted brigade @-@ sized landings along the eastern coast to support the Eighth Army .
The first British airborne landing was Operation Ladbroke , which was carried out by the 1st Airlanding Brigade during the night of 9 – 10 July . Their objective was to seize and hold the Ponte Grande bridge just outside Syracuse . The second British airborne mission , Operation Glutton , was to have been undertaken by the 2nd Parachute Brigade on the night of 10 – 11 July , aiming to capture a bridge beside Augusta . However circumstances changed and the second operation was cancelled .
The third British airborne mission planned was Operation Fustian , to be carried out by the 1st Parachute Brigade , and scheduled for the night of 13 – 14 July . The 1st Parachute Brigade 's objective was the Primosole bridge , crossing the Simeto River , south of Catania . The bridge was a vital objective , as it was the only crossing point over the Simeto . Its capture would give the Eighth Army access to the Catania plain , to enable them to continue their advance northwards ; its destruction would seriously hamper the advance . Once the parachute brigade had captured the bridge , they would then have to defend it until relieved by units of the Eighth Army advancing from the landing beaches .
= = = British forces = = =
The 1st Parachute Brigade was commanded by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury and comprised the 1st Parachute Battalion , the 2nd Parachute Battalion , the 3rd Parachute Battalion , the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , the 1st ( Parachute ) Squadron , Royal Engineers and the 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery , Royal Artillery . The airlanding anti @-@ tank battery were equipped with the 1st Para Brigade 's only anti @-@ tank guns , the British 6 pounder . Despite the formation being a parachute brigade , the only way to transport the anti @-@ tank guns and the jeeps required to pull them when they had landed , was by glider . Transporting artillery by air was something new to the British or any other army , and this would be the first time that any artillery guns had ever been flown into combat .
The 1st Parachute Brigade was an experienced formation , initially under command of the 1st Airborne Division before being detached from the division to fight in North Africa . The brigade had taken part in the landings in Algeria in November 1942 and the subsequent Battle of Tunisia , during which each of the brigade 's three parachute battalions had taken part in their own battalion @-@ sized parachute landings . It was during this campaign that the 1st Parachute Brigade had been given their nickname the Red Devils by the Germans . A British parachute battalion had an establishment of 556 men in three rifle companies . Each of the companies were divided into a small headquarters and three platoons . The platoons had three sections ; each section had a Bren machine gun and a 2 @-@ inch mortar as well as the men 's own personal weapons . The only heavy weapons in the parachute battalion were in the 3 @-@ inch Mortar platoon and the Vickers machine gun platoon which were part of the battalion headquarters .
It was decided that the brigade 's paratroops would land on four separate drop zones and that the gliders would land at two landing zones . The paratroops of the 1st Parachute Battalion were divided into two groups , one of which would land at ' Drop zone One ' to the north of the river , and the second at ' Drop zone Two ' to the south of it . Once they had landed the two groups would head for their assembly points , before conducting an assault on the bridge from both sides simultaneously . The 2nd Parachute Battalion were to be landed south of the bridge on ' Drop zone Three ' , in the area between the Gornalunga Canal and the main highway . The 2nd Battalion then had to assault and occupy three small hills , which had been given the codenames ' Johnny I ' , ' Johnny II ' and ' Johnny III ' . The hills were believed to be occupied by an Italian force of around platoon strength . Once the battalion had secured the three hills , they were to dig in and prepare to defend the hills against an attack from the south . The 3rd Parachute Battalion would land at ' Drop zone Four ' , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) north of the bridge . Their objective was to secure the ground in this area , defending against any counterattack from the direction of Catania . The brigade 's glider force had two landing areas , ' Landing zone Seven ' north of the river and ' Landing zone Eight ' south of the river . Owing to the complexity of the landing plan and the short time between inception and execution , the pathfinders belonging to the 21st Independent Parachute Company , Army Air Corps , would be deployed to mark the correct drop zones . This was the first occasion this had been done in British airborne operations . The pathfinder company had special marker lights and Rebecca and Eureka beacons that the transport aircraft and gliders would be able to identify and home in on .
The senior officers of the 1st Airborne Division had estimated that there would be around 450 casualties during the capture of the bridge , of which 25 per cent would be killed or missing , and the other 75 per cent wounded . It was appreciated that by themselves the three battalions ' medical officers and staff would be unable to cope with the expected numbers of casualties , so one section from the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , consisting of one doctor and 16 other ranks , would be attached to each of the parachute battalions . The remainder of the field ambulance , comprising the headquarters with two surgical teams , would be co @-@ located with the brigade and establish their main dressing station in farm buildings to the south of the bridge .
After problems with the first two airborne operations in Sicily , the Royal Air Force advisor assigned to the 1st Airborne Division suggested that the American C @-@ 47 pilots adopt the Royal Air Force bomber stream formation . This entailed the aircraft flying in pairs one behind the other with one minute between each aircraft , instead of flying in their normal ' V ' formation . The suggestion was dismissed by the American pilots , who were mostly pre @-@ war airline pilots , not least because their training had not included any instruction in night time navigation and the inexperienced crews relied heavily on following the aircraft in front .
Unconnected with Operation Fustian , but being conducted at the same time , No. 3 Commando would carry out a separate operation 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the south of the Simeto River . The commando unit were to carry out an amphibious landing from the sea , then assault and capture the Malati Bridge over the Leonardo River .
The relieving force for both the commandos and paratroopers would be from British XIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey . The corps consisted of the 5th Infantry Division , 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division and the 4th Armoured Brigade . The armoured brigade , with three tank regiments , was equipped with the American built Sherman tank . Early on 13 July the commander of the 50th Division , Major @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman , was called to General Montgomery 's Eighth Army headquarters . Here he was informed about the two missions by the British Commandos and the 1st Parachute Brigade , and the requirement for the bridges to be captured intact . Montgomery 's intention was for the 50th Division to lead the Eighth Army 's advance and relieve the commandos and the paratroopers . To assist Kirkman in the task , Montgomery placed the 4th Armoured Brigade under his command . Montgomery was insistent that he wanted the infantry division to relieve the parachute brigade early on 14 July , which would require the division to advance around 25 miles ( 40 km ) in 24 hours . The 50th Division had landed on 10 July and by this time had been fighting for three days non @-@ stop . With the daily temperature most of the time reaching 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) , many of the men in the division were physically exhausted and suffering from heat exhaustion . The division 's situation was not improved by a grave error of judgement by Montgomery . During the planning for the invasion , he had overestimated the strength of the German and Italian resistance to the Allied landings . The British Eighth Army consisted mainly of infantry , tanks and heavy weapons but were light on any form of mechanical transport , so any advance by the 50th Division would have to be conducted on foot .
= = = Axis forces = = =
The Italian Army force in the area of Primosole Bridge came from the 213 Coastal Division commanded by General Carlo Gotti . Coastal divisions were second line divisions , usually formed from men in their forties and fifties , and were intended to perform labour or other second line duties . Recruited from the local population , their officers were mostly men who had retired but had then been called up again . Their morale was low , not least because of their second rate equipment and weapons . It had been intended to improve their armaments with equipment seized from the recently disbanded Vichy French army , but when the arms arrived in Sicily , many of them had been made unusable , and some had the wrong type of ammunition or no ammunition at all .
The Italians were supported by German paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Division , who were ordered to move to Sicily from France , and if necessary were to parachute in on 9 July . The 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion commanded by Major Werner Schmidt had landed at Catania during an Allied air raid early on 13 July . Their aircraft and anti @-@ tank guns were destroyed during the raid , so the battalion left on foot for Primosole Bridge . When Schmidt informed the divisional commander of his intentions , he was warned to expect a sea or airborne landing that night . If the Allies landed to the rear of the division , Schmidt 's battalion had to hold Primosole Bridge so that the division could escape . Forewarned in this way , the machine gun battalion started to dig in and prepare a defence around 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) to the south of the bridge once they arrived , well located to deal with any parachute or glider landing in that area .
= = = Primosole Bridge = = =
The Primosole Bridge is built from steel girders . It has a span of 400 feet ( 120 m ) , and is raised 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the Simeto River . The land to the north of the bridge is mainly olive and almond groves in tree @-@ lined fields . Immediately to the south of the bridge is the Gornalunga canal , and beyond that three prominent hills . The road crossing the bridge is Highway 114 , running from Lentini 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the south to Cantini 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the north . To assist the Italians defending the bridge , four pillbox bunkers had been constructed , two on the north bank and two on the south bank .
= = Fustian = =
At 19 : 30 on 12 July 1943 , the first aircraft carrying the 1 @,@ 856 men of the 1st Parachute Brigade took off from North Africa . The aircraft used consisted of 105 Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrains belonging to the 51st Troop Carrier Wing , 51 each from the 60th and the 62d Troop Carrier Groups , while the 64th Troop Carrier Group supplied the other three . No. 38 Wing Royal Air Force supplied eleven Armstrong Whitworth Albemarles . Following behind the parachute force were the glider towing aircraft . These aircraft , again supplied by No. 38 Wing , comprised 12 Albemarles and seven Handley Page Halifaxes , towing 11 Horsa gliders and eight Waco gliders . The gliders were used to carry 77 men , mostly from the anti @-@ tank battery , ten 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns and 18 jeeps .
The aircraft 's flight path took them around the south eastern corner of Malta and up the eastern coast of Sicily . The route was measured to ensure that the first planes arrived over the drop zones at 22 : 20 . When the planes arrived off Sicily , they were supposed to stay 10 miles ( 16 km ) offshore until reaching the Simeto River , when they would head inland for the drop zones . Somehow , 33 aircraft strayed off course and approached an Allied convoy . The naval gunners had been warned to expect an air raid , and opened fire on the American and British aircraft . Two of the planes , trying to avoid the unexpected anti @-@ aircraft fire , collided and crashed into the sea . Another two were shot down , and nine were so badly shot up , with wounded crew and passengers , that they were forced to turn back towards their airfields in North Africa .
Those aircraft that did reach the Sicilian coast were engaged by Axis anti @-@ aircraft guns , which shot down 37 of them . Another ten were damaged and were forced to abort their mission . Some of the inexperienced pilots now refused to go any further , and on his aircraft Lieutenant Colonel Alastair Pearson , commanding officer of the 1st Parachute Battalion , realising his plane was flying round in circles , had to threaten to shoot the crew to make them continue . The anti @-@ aircraft fire and the evasive action taken by the pilots had dispersed the aircraft formations , and the parachute drop was scattered over a large area . The violent evasive manoeuvring left some of the paratroopers in heaps on the aircraft floor , and they were unable to jump when ordered . When safely back out to sea , some of the pilots refused to try again , considering the risk too great . Of the surviving aircraft which carried on with the mission , only 39 managed to drop their paratroops within .5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of the correct drop zone . The furthest off course were some groups from the 3rd Parachute Battalion and Royal Engineers who landed 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the south of the bridge , while another four aircraft landed their paratroops on the slopes of Mount Etna 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the north .
Those men of the 1st Parachute Brigade that landed on the southern drop zone were well within range of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion . In the darkness , the Germans initially thought that the paratroopers were their own reinforcements landing , but they soon realised their mistake and opened fire . Some of those who escaped the machine gun fire were rounded up on the drop zone , and about 100 of them became prisoners of war as soon as they had touched ground . In the confusion of the landing , 50 men of the 1st Parachute Battalion had assembled , assaulted and managed to capture the bridge before the 50 Italian defenders could destroy it with the attached demolition charges . The Italians were taken prisoner , just as a second group of 40 paratroopers led by Brigadier Lathbury arrived at the bridge . Lathbury organised the safe removal of the demolition charges and set up a defensive perimeter . More paratroopers continued to gather at the bridge , and soon they numbered around 120 men , who dug in to the north and south .
The Brigade Headquarters and the field ambulance main dressing station were established to the south of the bridge , where the brigade 's casualties started arriving for treatment . Away from the main dressing station , the medics on the 2nd Battalion drop zone had 29 wounded as a result of the parachute drop , and there were 15 wounded on drop zone one from the 1st Battalion .
The first glider casualties had occurred on take off , when two aircraft towing Waco gliders crashed . While on route , one of the gliders was released early by its towing aircraft , and crashed into the sea . When they did arrive over Sicily , the element of surprise was gone , and four gliders were shot down by the coastal anti @-@ aircraft batteries . By the time the gliders arrived at their landing zones , two hours had lapsed since the parachute landings had started . One glider pilot later commented that they did not need the pathfinders , as the tracer and lights from explosions were brighter than any of the landing markers . Of the surviving glider force , only four gliders managed to land relatively unscathed , all the others being caught by the Fallschirmjäger machine gun fire and destroyed on their approach . The four intact gliders had been carrying three of the anti @-@ tank guns , which were now included in the bridge 's defences . Including the men from the gliders , the 1st Parachute Brigade had 295 men at the bridge . Shortage of manpower was not their only problem ; their only support weapons were the anti @-@ tank guns , two 3 @-@ inch mortars and a Vickers machine gun .
= = = Daybreak = = =
By 04 : 30 on 14 July , the 1st Parachute Battalion was in control of Primosole Bridge , but the Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion were well dug in to the south . Beyond them , 140 men of the 2nd Parachute Battalion had occupied the three small hills , and taken 500 Italian prisoners . In numbers , both battalions had little more than company strength . The 3rd Parachute Battalion had suffered the worst in the scattered parachute drop , and only a few of their men had arrived at the bridge . With no command structure , they were attached to the 1st Parachute Battalion to help defend the bridge . To the north , the Italian 372nd Coastal Battalion and the Blackshirt Arditi Battalion had been informed of the parachute landings . Many of the 372nd Battalion had disappeared , while the Blackshirts mounted the first of a number of attacks on the British positions . Without the support of any heavy weapons , they were easily fought off .
Also at dawn the first attack by the Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion to the south began , when they opened fire with their machine guns and mortars . Their first assault was against the 2nd Parachute Battalion 's positions , and was unsuccessful . However , their next assault , later in the morning , succeeded in capturing Johnny II , the second of the small hills . Lieutenant Colonel John Frost , in command of the 2nd Parachute Battalion , immediately counterattacked , but his men were repulsed after sustaining a number of casualties . At 09 : 00 a forward observation officer attached to the 2nd Parachute Battalion managed to make radio contact with the British cruiser HMS Newfoundland , which then used its 6 @-@ inch guns to target the Fallschirmjäger positions . The naval gunfire had the desired effect , causing the Germans some casualties and keeping them under cover . From then on , German resistance from the south was restricted to harassing machine gun fire . A grass fire they started did force the 2nd Parachute Battalion to abandon Johnny I , and the remnants of the battalion now concentrated on Johnny III .
To the north of the bridge , a German battle group of 350 men , including the 1st Company , 1st Fallschirmjäger Signal Battalion , an anti @-@ aircraft battery and some anti @-@ tank guns , was gathered under the command of Captain Franz Strangenberg . Strangenberg was in position to launch his first assault on the bridge at 14 : 00 . This first attack was driven off by the British paratroopers . For his second attempt Strangenberg brought up three 88 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns in support . This assault was more successful , taking some prisoners , and almost succeeded in reaching the bridge . It also secured a position for the 88s to engage the two pillboxes on the north bank . By 17 : 00 the men of the 1st Parachute Battalion were almost out of ammunition , and were forced to withdraw to the southern side of the bridge . The German 88s were moved forward again , and this time demolished the pillboxes on the south side . Running short of supplies and with his casualties mounting , Brigadier Lathbury made the decision to relinquish control of the bridge to the Germans , and the parachute brigade moved back 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . Of the 295 men who had been at the bridge , 115 had become casualties . The 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance main dressing station could not be moved or evacuated , and remained behind in no man 's land .
An Italian officer entered the station , and informed the medical staff they were now prisoners of war . But since they were treating casualties from both sides , they were allowed to remain and continue operating . Treatment of the wounded continued all day , and by 22 : 00 the surgeons had carried out 21 surgical operations and were looking after 62 British and 29 German or Italian patients . At 18 : 30 , in the darkness , Lathbury led the remainder of his men to join the 2nd Parachute Battalion .
By dawn , the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division had only managed to advance 10 miles ( 16 km ) , and were still 8 miles ( 13 km ) from No. 3 Commando at the Melati bridge and 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Primosole Bridge . It was not until 17 : 00 that the 5th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment , part of the 69th Infantry Brigade , eventually reached Malati Bridge , although by now the commandos had been forced to withdraw . The bridge was quickly captured ; the commandos had dismantled the demolition charges so that it could not be demolished . With their first objective secured , the British infantry continued their advance on foot towards the parachute brigade . The tanks and small amount of motor transport belonging to the 4th Armoured Brigade had been held up even further back . They had been stopped in Carlentini by a destroyed bridge , and the 4th Armoured Brigade did not start moving again until after 19 : 00 .
The 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division eventually reached Lentini , about half way from their start point to Primosole Bridge , in the afternoon . Here the streets were blocked by debris , covered by snipers and machine gunners left as a rearguard by the retreating Germans . By nightfall only one of the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division 's infantry battalions , the 6th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry , of 151st Infantry Brigade , with some tanks in support , had reached a position 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Johnny II . Despite their orders to advance at all speed , they halted for the night .
= = = Recapture of the bridge = = =
After the parachute brigade withdrew , the Axis forces gathered at the bridge . They now comprised the Italian 372nd Coastal Battalion and the Blackshirt Arditi Battalion , with the German 1st Fallschirmjäger Machine Gun Battalion and Captain Stangenberg 's Battle group . The German High Command was aware of the importance of holding the bridge , and overnight they dispatched reinforcements who arrived by parachute . These came from the 1st Fallschirmjäger Division , and consisted of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Engineer Battalion , the 1st Battalion , 4th Fallschirmjäger Regiment and a battalion of the 1st Fallschirmjäger Artillery Regiment . The Fallschirmjäger engineers started to form a defensive line to the north of the bridge , and a smaller one on the southern bank .
Early on 15 July , the 1st Parachute Brigade heard tank fire to the south of their position . Brigadier Lathbury sent out a patrol to investigate , which located the tanks and infantry of XIII Corps that had halted just south of them the previous night . The 1st Parachute Brigade and 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division now moved forward together . The main dressing station , which had continued to operate after being captured , was liberated by the 2nd Parachute Battalion . In an attempt to recapture Primosole Bridge the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry , supported by the 44th Royal Tank Regiment , carried out a number of assaults . At one stage they managed to cross the bridge , but three Sherman tanks accompanying them were knocked out by the German 88s , and with no armoured support the infantry were forced to withdraw . However , an error in communication caused the Fallschirmjäger Engineer Battalion to withdraw to the north bank of the river , and this allowed the Durhams to establish a position at the southern end of the bridge . At the main dressing station the surgeons had operated on another 14 wounded by the time ambulances arrived from XIII Corps at 17 : 00 to evacuate the wounded . At 18 : 00 the Main Dressing Station was closed and the men moved to Johnny I. During the time the main dressing station had been active , the surgeons had completed 31 operations , and the medics had treated 109 wounded .
The Germans were aware that the British paratroopers had dismantled the explosive charges attached to Primosole Bridge , and now attempted to destroy it by driving trucks laden with explosives onto it . This was unsuccessful .
During the night the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry continued trying to capture the bridge . Their attacks also provided a distraction for the Germans while Lieutenant Colonel Pearson of the 1st Parachute Battalion led two companies of the 8th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry across the Simeto River using a small ford to establish another bridgehead on the northern bank . During the day 's battle both the British and Germans suffered heavy casualties , but the bridge was eventually retaken by the British infantry .
Leaving the British Eighth Army to continue their advance , at 07 : 00 16 July the 1st Parachute Brigade were transported in trucks to Syracuse , where they embarked on a LST . Here they remained overnight , sitting through a two @-@ hour air raid , and sailed for Valletta at 12 : 00 on 17 July . In Operation Fustian they had suffered around 141 dead , and 168 missing or wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
The recapture of Primosole Bridge did not result in the rapid advance over the Catania plain envisioned by Montgomery . The by now exhausted 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division was holding a position based on the bridge . The 5th Infantry Division took over the lead , but after a number of attacks could not make any further progress . Its 13th Infantry Brigade had to establish another bridgehead across the Simeto , but the Germans had brought in more troops and prepared defensive positions , and after hard fighting it was not until 5 August 1943 that the Eighth Army entered the city of Catania itself . Further hard fighting followed , and they entered Messina just after the United States Seventh Army on 17 August 1943 .
After an enquiry into the problems with the airborne missions in Sicily , the British Army and Royal Air Force submitted some recommendations . Aircrew had to be trained in parachute and glider operations , and pathfinders landing before the main force had to have enough time to set out their beacons . The landing plan was simplified , with complete brigades landing on one drop zone , instead of the smaller battalion landing areas used in Sicily . Gliders were no longer released at night while still over water , and their landing zones would be large enough to accommodate the aircraft with room to spare . Following the friendly fire incident over the convoy , more training was given to ships ' crews in aircraft recognition , and Allied aircraft were painted with three large white stripes on their wings . Training for pilots belonging to the Glider Pilot Regiment was increased , and improvements to the gliders were implemented , including better inter @-@ aircraft communication .
For transporting paratroops , to avoid relying solely on American aircraft and pilots , No. 38 Wing Royal Air Force was expanded , becoming No. 38 Group with its Halifax squadrons , now supported by four squadrons of Albemarles and four squadrons of Stirlings . To provide another method of delivering jeeps and artillery guns by air , the air force started experiments on parachuting them into combat , carrying the jeeps and guns in the aircraft 's large bomb bays . A second Royal Air Force transport group , No. 46 Group , was formed , and was equipped solely with Dakotas , instead of the mixture of aircraft in No. 38 Group . After these changes , the Royal Air Force groups could supply 88 Albermarles , 88 Stirlings , 36 Halifaxes and 150 Dakotas , a total of 362 planes , in addition to aircraft held as reserves .
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= Operation Barras =
Operation Barras was a British Army operation that took place in Sierra Leone on 10 September 2000 . The operation aimed to release five British soldiers of the Royal Irish Regiment who had been held by a militia group known as the " West Side Boys " . The soldiers were part of a patrol that was returning from a visit to Jordanian peacekeepers attached to the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ( UNAMSIL ) at Masiaka on 25 August 2000 when they turned off the main road and down a track towards the village of Magbeni . There the patrol was overwhelmed by a large number of heavily armed rebels , taken prisoner , and transported to Gberi Bana on the opposite side of Rokel Creek .
The British Army negotiated the release of six of the eleven men on the patrol , but were not able to gain the freedom of their Sierra Leone Army liaison officer and the other men before the West Side Boys ' demands became increasingly unrealistic . Negotiators concluded that these were delaying tactics rather than an effort to resolve the crisis ; by 9 September , the soldiers had been held for over a fortnight . Fearing that the soldiers would be killed or moved to a location from which it would be more difficult to extract them , the British government authorised an assault on the West Side Boys ' base , to take place at dawn the following day , 10 September .
The ground operation was conducted by D Squadron , 22 Regiment Special Air Service — who assaulted Gberi Bana in a bid to extract the Royal Irish — and elements of 1st Battalion , Parachute Regiment ( 1 PARA ) , who launched a diversionary assault on Magbeni . The operation freed the five soldiers as well as twenty @-@ one Sierra Leonean civilians who had been held prisoner by the West Side Boys . At least twenty @-@ five West Side Boys were killed in the assault , as was one British soldier , while eighteen West Side Boys — including the gang 's leader , Foday Kallay — were taken prisoner and later transferred to the custody of the Sierra Leone Police . Many West Side Boys fled the area during the assault , and over 300 surrendered to UNAMSIL forces within a fortnight .
The operation restored confidence in the British forces operating in Sierra Leone , which had been undermined by the capture of the Royal Irish patrol . After the operation , the British government increased its support of UNAMSIL and its efforts to bring the Sierra Leone Civil War to an end , both politically , through the United Nations Security Council , and through the provision of staff officers to support UNAMSIL . The successful use of 1 PARA in Operation Barras influenced the creation of the Special Forces Support Group — a permanent unit , initially built around 1 PARA , whose role is to act as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations .
= = Background = =
Sierra Leone is a former British colony in West Africa , close to the equator , with an area of 71 @,@ 740 square kilometres ( 27 @,@ 700 square miles ) — similar in size to South Carolina or Scotland . In 2000 , the country had been consumed by a civil war since 1991 . The West Side Boys were a militia group who had been involved in the civil war . They were initially loyal to the Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) , the rebel army opposing the government . They later fought for the government , against the RUF , and were involved in at least one operation directed by British officers in exchange for weapons and medical supplies . But the West Side Boys refused to integrate into the reconstituted Sierra Leone Army and began operating as bandits from the abandoned villages of Magbeni and Gberi Bana , on opposite sides of Rokel Creek .
British forces were deployed to Sierra Leone in May 2000 , initially for a non @-@ combatant evacuation operation under the codename Operation Palliser , in which they were tasked with evacuating foreign nationals — particularly those from the United Kingdom , other Commonwealth countries , and others for whom the British government had accepted consular responsibility . As part of the mission , British forces secured Sierra Leone 's main airport , Lungi . Having secured Freetown and Lungi , and evacuated the foreign nationals who wished to leave , the initial forces left and were replaced by a " Short Term Training Team " ( STTT ) , whose mission was to train and rebuild the Sierra Leone Army . The STTT was initially formed from a detachment from 2nd Battalion , The Royal Anglian Regiment , who were replaced in July 2000 by 1st Battalion , The Royal Irish Regiment ( 1 R IRISH ) .
The Special Air Service ( SAS ) is a corps of the British Army and part of the United Kingdom 's special forces . It consists of three regiments , of which two are drawn from the Territorial Army and one regular regiment — 22 Regiment , which was involved in Operation Barras . The SAS was formed by Colonel David Stirling in Africa in 1941 , at the height of the Second World War . Its original role was to penetrate enemy lines and strike at airfields and supply lines deep in enemy territory , first in North Africa and later around the Mediterranean and in occupied Europe . Stirling established the principle of using small teams — having realised that small , well @-@ trained teams could sometimes prove much more effective than a unit of hundreds of soldiers . The SAS first entered the public eye after Operation Nimrod , the operation to end the Iranian Embassy siege in 1980 .
The 1st Battalion , Parachute Regiment ( 1 PARA ) is part of the British Army 's infantry and , as in the SAS , applicants must undergo an additional level of scrutiny in order to be accepted . Unlike in the SAS , new recruits to the army can apply to join the Parachute Regiment directly from the Infantry Training Centre at Catterick in Yorkshire ( in the case of soldiers ) or the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst ( for officers ) . The regiment , whose personnel are commonly known as " paras " , specialises in parachute and other types of airborne insertion , and has close ties to the SAS , providing more of its personnel than any other regiment .
= = Capture of the Royal Irish patrol = =
On 25 August 2000 , a patrol from 1 R IRISH left their base in Waterloo to visit Jordanian peacekeepers attached to the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ( UNAMSIL ) and based at Masiaka . Over lunch , they were informed that the West Side Boys had begun to disarm , despite their initial reluctance , and the company commander — Major Alan Marshall — decided to take the patrol to investigate en route back to their base . The patrol turned off the main road onto a dirt track that led to the village of Magbeni , where the West Side Boys were based . As they approached the base , they were surrounded by a large group of West Side Boys , who used an anti @-@ aircraft gun mounted on a Bedford truck to block the patrol 's route . Marshall dismounted his vehicle , then resisted an attempt to grab his rifle and was beaten . He and the rest of the patrol were then forced into canoes at the bank of Rokel Creak and transported to Gberi Bana , a village on the other side of the river , just upstream from the point of the initial confrontation .
British forces in Sierra Leone were operating on the authority of the Sierra Leone government , but President Ahmad Kabbah allowed British forces to negotiate for the soldiers ' release themselves , as his government lacked the requisite expertise . The negotiations were led by Lieutenant Colonel Simon Fordham , commanding officer of 1 R IRISH , who was assisted by a small team which included hostage negotiators from the Metropolitan Police . The West Side Boys would not allow negotiators any closer to the village of Magbeni than the end of the track from the main road , so Fordham met there with the self @-@ styled " Brigadier " Foday Kallay , the gang 's leader , to negotiate for the soldiers ' release . On 29 August , Fordham demanded proof that the captive soldiers were still alive , and Kallay brought with him to that day 's meeting the two officers from the group — Marshall , the company commander , and Captain Flaherty , the regimental signals officer . During the meeting , Flaherty shook hands with Fordham and covertly passed him a sketch map of Gberi Bana which detailed the layout of the village and the building in which the soldiers were being held .
Two days later , on 31 August , five of the eleven hostages were released in exchange for a satellite telephone and medical supplies . The West Side Boys had originally decided to release the married men , but changed their minds at the last minute and released the three rangers and two of the corporals . The West Side Boys told the British negotiators that the officers and other NCOs would not be released until the gang 's remaining demands were met . The released soldiers were flown for debriefing to RFA Sir Percivale , of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary , off the coast .
After the release of the soldiers , the West Side Boys ' spokesman , the self @-@ styled " Colonel Cambodia " , used the satellite telephone to contact the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) for a lengthy interview in which they outlined a series of demands , including a re @-@ negotiation of the Lomé Peace Accord and the release of prisoners held by the Sierra Leone authorities . " Colonel Cambodia " quickly depleted the batteries in the telephone , but his call to the BBC enabled specialists from the Royal Corps of Signals to determine the exact position of the telephone .
= = Deterioration = =
The West Side Boys were unstable , possibly due to prolonged use of cannabis and cocaine , and their behaviour during the crisis was erratic . After their release , the five soldiers described an incident in which Kallay , dissatisfied with their explanation , conducted a mock execution in which he threatened to shoot the soldiers unless they told him why they had entered the West Side Boys ' territory . The gang 's drug habits also posed a problem for the British negotiators as the cannabis caused them to forget previous discussions and the cocaine made them distrustful .
During the negotiations , the relatives of several of the West Side Boys were brought to the gang 's camp to ask them to release the British soldiers . The gang responded that they had nothing against the soldiers , but that holding them had brought attention to their demands — which now included immunity from prosecution , safe passage to the UK to take up university courses , and guaranteed acceptance to the re @-@ formed Sierra Leone Army .
= = = Military planning = = =
Around the time that the five soldiers were released , two negotiators from the SAS joined Fordham 's negotiating team . One of them joined Fordham in several meetings with the West Side Boys , posing as a Royal Irish major in order to provide reconnaissance and gather intelligence in case an assault was required . At approximately the same time Lieutenant Jon Carty , RN , the medical officer on board HMS Argyll — which was operating off the coast — was brought ashore to assess the soldiers , should they be freed , or to provide immediate care in the event of an assault resulting in casualties . Argyll also served as a temporary base for two Army Air Corps Lynx attack helicopters which had been flown to Sierra Leone to support any direct action .
As planning for a potential military operation to release the captive soldiers progressed , it became clear that , given the number of West Side Boys and their separation between two locations ( Gberi Bana as well as the village of Magbeni ; see below ) , the operation could not be conducted by special forces alone . Thus , the headquarters of 1st Battalion , 1 PARA , was ordered to assemble an enhanced company group , which would support special forces if such an operation was launched . The battalion 's commanding officer selected A Company , led by Major Matthew Lowe , which had been on exercise in Jamaica at the time of the initial British deployment to Sierra Leone . Several members of A Company were new recruits who had only completed basic training two weeks prior . Lowe decided that replacing them with more experienced soldiers would risk undermining the cohesion and morale of the company , but several specialist units from elsewhere in 1 PARA were attached to A Company to bring the company group up to the required strength , including a signals group , snipers , heavy machine gun sections , and a mortar section . The additional firepower was included to maximise the options available to the planners , given that the West Side Boys had a numerical advantage and that additional resources would not be immediately available should the operation run into difficulties .
On 31 August , the company group was ordered to move to South Cerney in Gloucestershire , under the cover story that they were conducting a " readiness to move " exercise . It was only at this point , and after all mobile telephones had been confiscated to ensure operational security , that the entire company was briefed on the operation that was being planned . With the operation becoming more likely to be launched , Lowe and his planning group flew to Dakar , Senegal , on 3 September to continue planning and to study intelligence gathered from SAS patrols operating near the West Side Boys ' camp . The British government feared that deployment of forces to Sierra Leone might precipitate an adverse reaction by the West Side Boys against the captive soldiers . They calculated that it would take 14 hours to launch an assault from the United Kingdom should it be required in an emergency , so the remainder of the company group was also moved to Dakar in order to reduce the response time . In order to further reduce the response time , political authority to launch the assault in an emergency was delegated to the British High Commissioner in Freetown , Alan Jones , while the military decision was delegated to Brigadier David Richards , commander of British forces in Sierra Leone . Two days later , a pair of SAS observation teams ( one on each side of Rokel Creek ) were inserted near the villages by assault boats manned by the Special Boat Service ( SBS ) — the Royal Navy 's special forces unit . They began monitoring the West Side Boys ' movements and gathering intelligence , such as details of weapons , as well as identifying viable landing sites for helicopters .
With the progression of the plans , the enhanced A Company was tasked with planning for an assault on the village of Magbeni , to the south of Rokel Creek , while the SAS would aim to release the captive Royal Irish soldiers by assaulting Gberi Bana , on the north bank . The Magbeni assault had several purposes : to neutralise weapons in the village which could disrupt the SAS operation , to distract the West Side Boys in Magbeni and prevent them from crossing Rokel Creek to interfere with the operation in Gberi Bana , to defeat the West Side Boys and destroy their military capabilities , and to recover the Royal Irish patrol 's vehicles .
Several methods of insertion were considered , both for the paras and the special forces personnel , including an overland approach using four @-@ wheel drive vehicles , and a water @-@ borne insertion using the same method by which the SAS observation teams had arrived at their position . The planning group decided that the overland approach would not allow troops to enter the village undetected , largely due to the West Side Boys ' roadblocks on the road into the village , and that insertion from Rokel Creek was not feasible for large numbers of troops due to the sandbanks and powerful currents in the river . Thus , it was decided that the insertions would be made from three Chinook helicopters of the Joint Special Forces Aviation Wing ( JSFAW ) , which had been in Sierra Leone since the beginning of Operation Palliser .
= = = Deployment to Sierra Leone = = =
By 5 September , the British media was openly speculating on the possibility that an operation would be launched to free the remaining soldiers , having picked up on 1 PARA 's heightened readiness . The following day , the media was reporting that British forces had arrived in Sierra Leone " as a contingency " . The British special forces kept a low profile , as was traditional , and the media interest surrounding 1 PARA allowed D Squadron , 22 SAS to enter Sierra Leone unnoticed .
The enhanced A Company group — approximately 130 troops in total — arrived in the country in several groups and joined the SAS , who had already established a base in Hastings , a village 30 miles ( 50 kilometres ) south of Freetown , where several of the paras recognised former colleagues among the troopers from D Squadron . At Hastings , the paras focused on live firing exercises and rehearsed various scenarios in a scale replica of Magbeni which had been constructed at the camp . As well as learning the layout of the village and refining battle technique , the rehearsals allowed the soldiers to acclimatise to the tropical heat , and led commanders to the decision that the paras would go into battle with minimal equipment to reduce the risk of heat exhaustion — excluding weapons and ammunition , they would carry only water and field dressings . Some officers feared that the weight of body armour would increase the risk of heat exhaustion , but commanders hoped that the cooler temperatures of the early morning ( when the operation was planned to be launched ) would mitigate the effects of the weight , and decided to order its use .
A day after the arrival of the paras , Director Special Forces ( DSF ) , Brigadier John Holmes , arrived in Freetown with a headquarters staff which included the commanding officer of 22 SAS and the officer commanding D Squadron , as well as three personnel from the Royal Air Force 's Tactical Communications Wing . Holmes based himself at Seaview House , the British military headquarters in Freetown , near the British High Commission . From there , his staff established contact with the SAS observation teams on either side of Rokel Creek and with COBRA , the British government 's emergency committee in London . The DSF , who usually attends COBRA meetings during crises which may require the use of special forces , was represented by his chief of staff and by Lieutenant Colonel Tim Collins , operations officer at Headquarters Special Forces .
= = The operation = =
= = = Decision to launch = = =
On 9 September , " Colonel Cambodia " stated that the remaining six members of the Royal Irish patrol , who had now been held for over a fortnight , would only be released after a new government was formed in Sierra Leone . The negotiators concluded that the West Side Boys ' increasingly unrealistic demands were stalling tactics rather than a serious attempt to conclude the crisis . At around the same time , the SAS teams near the West Side Boys ' base reported that they had seen no sign of the captive soldiers during the four days they had been in position . There were also concerns that the West Side Boys might move further inland , and either kill the soldiers or move them to a location from which it would be more difficult for British forces to extract them . The combination of these factors led COBRA to order an assault .
The operation was to commence at first light the next day , 10 September . The intervening time was spent securing the political and legal basis for the raid . Final approval was gained from Sierra Leonean President Ahmad Kabbah , and British Prime Minister Tony Blair , while the Army Legal Corps secured approval from the Sierra Leonean Police . Fordham , who had been leading the negotiations , telephoned the West Side Boys and was able to establish that the captive soldiers were alive , and the final orders were issued in the evening of 9 September .
The two villages were to be assaulted simultaneously — Gberi Bana , where the Royal Irish were held , by the SAS and Magbeni by the paras . In addition to the remaining Royal Irish soldiers , the SAS were also tasked with extracting Lieutenant Musa Bangura — the patrol 's SLA liaison , whose extraction was given the same priority as that of the Royal Irish — and a group of Sierra Leonean civilians who were being held by the West Side Boys .
= = = Assault = = =
The task force left Hastings — approximately 15 minutes ' flying time from the West Side Boys ' camp — at approximately 06 : 15 . Downstream from the villages — approximately 15 minutes ' flying time , just out of the West Side Boys ' visual and hearing range , the helicopters went into a holding pattern to allow the SAS observation teams time to get into position to prevent the West Side Boys from attacking any of the captives before the extraction teams were on the ground . Once the observation teams were in position , the helicopters proceeded up the line of Rokel Creek , the Chinooks flying low enough that the downdraft tore off the corrugated iron roofs of several huts in the villages , including the roof of the building in which the Royal Irish were being held . As the helicopters approached , the SAS observation team at Gberi Bana engaged West Side Boys in the vicinity of the captives to prevent any gang members from attempting to kill them before the area was secured . Upon their arrival , the attack helicopters strafed the villages to make the landing zones as safe as possible for the Chinooks and destroy the heavy weapons that had been identified by the SAS observation teams .
= = = = Gberi Bana = = = =
After the first sweep by the attack helicopters , two Chinooks carried the SAS to Gberi Bana . The troopers fast @-@ roped into the village and immediately came under fire from the West Side Boys . Early on in the confrontation , the British operation sustained its first casualty — a round entered Trooper Bradley Tinnion 's flank , leaving him seriously injured . He was dragged back to the helicopter and flown to the medical team aboard RFA Sir Percivale , dying despite intensive resuscitation attempts on board . The SAS proceeded to clear the village , engaging those West Side Boys who offered resistance and capturing those who surrendered , including Foday Kallay .
The SAS located the captive British soldiers from the latter 's shouts of " British Army , British Army ! " , though Bangura had been held separately and proved more difficult to locate . He was found in a squalid open pit , which had been used by the West Side Boys as a lavatory , and had been starved and beaten during his captivity , and thus had to be carried to the helicopter . Less than 20 minutes after the arrival of the SAS , the remaining members of the Royal Irish patrol , including Bangura , had been evacuated from the area .
As the SAS operation concluded , the Chinooks ferried prisoners and bodies from Gberi Bana to the Jordanian battalion of UNAMSIL . From there , the bodies would be identified and buried , and those prisoners identified as West Side Boys would be handed over to the Sierra Leonean Police . Operation Barras also freed 22 Sierra Leonean civilians who had been held captive by the West Side Boys — the men were used as servants and put through crude military training by the West Side Boys , possibly with the intention of forcing them to fight in the future , while the women were used as sex slaves . Planners had been concerned that West Side Boys might try to conceal themselves among the civilians and so the civilians were also restrained and taken to the Jordanian peacekeepers ' base to be identified . A 23rd civilian was caught in the crossfire and killed during the assault .
= = = = Magbeni = = = =
The third Chinook carried half of the enhanced A Company group from 1 PARA to Magbeni . The helicopter hovered low above the landing zone that had been identified by the second SAS observation team and the paras jumped from the rear ramp . The observation team had warned that the ground was wet but had been unable to determine the depth of the water , so the paras were surprised to find themselves jumping into a chest @-@ deep swamp . The majority of the first group immediately waded through the swamp to get to the nearby tree line and from there to the village , but a small party tasked with securing the landing zone had to wait in the swamp for the Chinook to pick up the remaining members of the company group and return to insert them at the landing zone .
The returning Chinook , carrying the remainder of the A Company group including second @-@ in @-@ command ( 2IC ) Captain Danny Matthews , came under fire from a heavy machine gun in Magbeni , which was promptly strafed by one of the Army Air Corps Lynx helicopters until it ceased firing . The soldiers in Matthews ' helicopter exited and joined the first half of the company group on the ground . As the company group moved forward , an explosion — possibly a mortar fired by the British fire support group — injured seven men , including company commander Major Matthew Lowe , one of the platoon commanders , a signaller , and two of Lowe 's headquarters staff . Another signaller radioed in a casualty report , and one of the Chinooks en route to Gberi Bana to extract the Royal Irish ( who had just been freed by the SAS ) landed on the track through the village . The casualties were loaded onto the helicopter , which then picked up the Royal Irish and flew to RFA Sir Percivale where all 13 men were assessed by medics .
The operation continued under the leadership of Matthews , the company 2IC , who had taken command almost immediately after the company commander was wounded . Under his command , each of the platoons assaulted a different cluster of buildings to which they had been assigned during training on the replica village at Hastings . The West Side Boys ' ammunition store was found and secured and , once the rest of the buildings had been cleared , the paras took up defensive positions to block any potential counter @-@ attack and patrols went into the immediate jungle in search of any West Side Boys hiding in the bushes . The village was completely secure by 08 : 00 and the paras secured the approaches with Claymore mines and mortars positioned to prevent a counter @-@ attack , while a detachment destroyed the remaining vehicles and heavy weapons including the Bedford lorry which had blocked the Royal Irish patrol . The paras also recovered the Royal Irish patrol 's Land Rovers , which were slung under the Chinooks and removed . The last British soldiers left the area at approximately 14 : 00 .
= = = = Conclusion of the assault = = = =
The remaining members of the captured patrol were flown to RFA Sir Percivale . Fordham visited the men shortly after the operation and stated " they looked remarkably well considering the ordeal they had been through " and described them as being " physically and mentally exhausted " . After medical checks , the soldiers , who had been held for 17 days , were allowed to telephone their families and then rejoined their battalion in Freetown . The paras were flown to RFA Argus , where they spent the night before being flown back to the United Kingdom the next day . D Squadron , 22 SAS also left Sierra Leone the day after the operation , along with Director Special Forces and his headquarters staff .
= = Aftermath = =
One British soldier , Tinnion , was killed in the operation . Another twelve soldiers were injured , one seriously . The British Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) did not officially acknowledge the involvement of special forces , issuing a press release which made no mention of the SAS , but when it was made public that Brad Tinnion was a Lance Bombardier originally from 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery , it became clear to experts that Tinnion had been serving with special forces . Operation Barras was Tinnion 's first operational deployment as an SAS trooper .
Also confirmed to have died in the operation were 25 West Side Boys , but the gang 's resistance was stronger than had been expected and there was speculation that more bodies lay undiscovered in the jungle . Several other West Side Boys were captured , while others fled into the jungle . Many of those who fled later surrendered to Jordanian peacekeepers . The Jordanians had received 30 by the end of the day , and 371 — including 57 children — had surrendered within a fortnight of Operation Barras , to which Julius Spencer , Sierra Leone 's Minister for Information , declared that the West Side boys were " finished as a military threat " . Some of those who surrendered went on to volunteer for the new Sierra Leone Army and those who were accepted went into the British @-@ run training programme . Kallay , the gang 's leader , recorded a message for broadcast on Sierra Leonean radio urging the remaining West Side Boys to surrender to UNAMSIL . He also identified the bodies of West Side Boys killed in Magbeni and Gberi Bana , which were subsequently buried in a mass grave .
The morning of the operation , General Sir Charles Guthrie , Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of the British Armed Forces — was coincidentally due to appear on Breakfast with Frost , a Sunday morning political television programme hosted by Sir David Frost . The first public knowledge of Operation Barras came from Guthrie 's interview with Frost , which took place while the operation was still concluding . Guthrie told Frost " [ W ] e didn 't want to have to assault , because it 's a very difficult operation , there are big risks in it but we have done it [ ... ] because our negotiations were getting nowhere . The hostages had been there for three weeks , they [ the West Side Boys ] were threatening to kill them , or they were threatening to move them to other parts of Sierra Leone and once they 'd done that we 'd never be able to recover [ the soldiers ] with ease , which I hope we 've done this morning " . The MoD issued a press release with more details later in the day .
Several decorations were awarded to the personnel who took part in Operation Barras , including two Conspicuous Gallantry Crosses , five Military Crosses ( one of which was awarded to Matthews , who took command of the operation in Magbeni after the officer commanding was injured ) , and five Distinguished Flying Crosses . Holmes ( Director Special Forces ) was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his part in the operation . Tinnion received a posthumous Mention in Despatches .
Marshall was later transferred to another regiment at his own request , while two of the soldiers on the patrol subsequently left the army and another two transferred to " Home Service " units ( those based permanently in Northern Ireland ) .
= = Long @-@ term impact = =
The capture of the Royal Irish patrol had undermined the confidence of the Sierra Leonean population in the British operation , which they hoped would help to bring an end to the country 's civil war , and embarrassed the British government , which had been critical of similar previous incidents involving UNAMSIL personnel . Operation Barras restored confidence in the British forces , prompting military historian William Fowler to call the operation " a necessarily spectacular endorsement of the rule of law and the elected government of Sierra Leone " .
The British media struck a celebratory note at the success of Operation Barras , but some suggested that Marshall had erred in diverting the patrol off the main road to visit the West Side Boys . Both Marshall and Bangura — the patrol 's Sierra Leone Army liaison — were adamant that the patrol had been asked by the Jordanian peacekeepers serving with UNAMSIL to , in Bangura 's words , " take a closer look " . However , the commander of UNAMSIL — General Mohamed Garba of Nigeria — initially denied that the Royal Irish had met the Jordanians and both UNAMSIL HQ and the Jordanian commanding officer denied that the patrol were asked to investigate the West Side Boys ' camp . An investigation into the capture of the patrol was launched by Land Command and a senior officer was despatched to Freetown to debrief the members of the patrol . The report was critical of Marshall , stating that he " made an error of professional judgement in diverting from a planned and authorised journey to make an unauthorised visit to the village of Magbeni . "
The risks of Operation Barras were acknowledged by the MoD and by officers involved in the planning and the assault . It was described by an SAS soldier as " not a clinical , black balaclava , Princes Gate type operation . It was a very grubby , green operation with lots of potential for things to go wrong " . Richard Connaughton observed in the journal Small Wars & Insurgencies that the operation showed that Tony Blair 's government was not averse to the possibility of casualties where they felt the cause was just . Geoff Hoon , British Secretary of State for Defence , summed up the effect of the operation at a press conference , stating that " [ Operation Barras ] sends a number of powerful messages . Firstly , it is a yet further demonstration of the refusal of successive British governments to do deals with terrorists and hostage takers . Secondly , we hope the West Side Group [ sic ] and other rebel units in Sierra Leone will now [ ... ] accept the rule of law and the authority of the democratically elected government of Sierra Leone . Thirdly , we hope all those who may in future consider taking similar actions against UK armed forces will think carefully about the possible consequences and realise there is nothing to be gained by such action " . Andrew M. Dorman of King 's College London suggested that the fate of the wider British operation in Sierra Leone depended heavily on the success or failure of Operation Barras and that , had the British forces been defeated , the United Kingdom would have been forced to withdraw all its forces from Sierra Leone . Dorman also suggests that a defeat would have " raised questions " regarding Tony Blair 's policy of using armed force for humanitarian intervention .
The success of Operation Barras was a factor in the decision to form the Special Forces Support Group ( SFSG ) , a permanent unit whose role is to act as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations . The SFSG was formed in 2006 from an infantry battalion — originally 1 PARA , which was the first battalion to serve in the role — with supporting elements from the Royal Marines and Royal Air Force Regiment . The SFSG went on to support special forces operations in Afghanistan and Iraq .
The capture of the Royal Irish patrol and the effectiveness of the operation to free them prompted the British government to increase its support of UNAMSIL , both politically and through the provision of staff officers to assist UNAMSIL 's operational headquarters ( though not with a significant contribution of peacekeepers , despite considerable lobbying ) . The British also applied political pressure through the United Nations Security Council on the Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) — the second main party to the civil war after the government — and on Sierra Leone 's neighbour Liberia , which had provided support to the RUF . The new approach , combined with a larger and more powerful UNAMSIL , hastened the demobilisation of the RUF and thus the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War .
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= History of decompression research and development =
Decompression in the context of diving derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the diver during the ascent at the end of a dive or hyperbaric exposure and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during this reduction in pressure .
When a diver descends in the water column the ambient pressure rises . Breathing gas is supplied at the same pressure as the surrounding water , and some of this gas dissolves into the diver 's blood and other tissues . Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver 's lungs , ( see : " Saturation diving " ) , or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state , and start diffusing out again . Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high when compared to the ambient pressure . These bubbles , and products of injury caused by the bubbles , can cause damage to tissues known as decompression sickness or the bends . The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver , and the long @-@ term goal is to also avoid complications due to sub @-@ clinical decompression injury .
The symptoms of decompression sickness are known to be caused by damage resulting from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage . The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested . Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed , tested , and used , and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable . Decompression remains a procedure with some risk , but this has been reduced and is generally considered to be acceptable for dives within the well @-@ tested range of commercial , military and recreational diving .
The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle , who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump . In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation , but in later experiments , signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed . Later , when technological advances allowed the use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress , miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease , the bends , and decompression sickness . Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles , and that recompression could relieve the symptoms , further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression , and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict low @-@ risk decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness .
= = Timeline = =
1660 – Sir Robert Boyle conducted an experiment on a bird in an air pump . This predated actual intentional investigations into decompression , but the experiment was effectively a rapid decompression and caused the death of the bird by asphyxiation .
1670 – Sir Robert Boyle performed an experiment with a viper in a vacuum . A bubble was observed in its eye and it displayed signs of extreme discomfort . This was the first recorded description of decompression sickness .
1841 – Jacques Triger documented the first cases of decompression sickness in humans when two miners involved in pressurised caisson work developed symptoms .
1847 – The effectiveness of recompression for the treatment of decompression sickness ( DCS ) in caisson workers was described by B. Pol and T.J. Watelle .
1857 – Felix Hoppe @-@ Seyler repeated Boyle 's experiments and suggested that sudden death in compressed air workers was caused by bubble formation , and recommended recompression therapy .
1868 – Alfred Le Roy de Méricourt described decompression sickness as an occupational illness of sponge divers .
1873 – Dr. Andrew Smith first used the terms " caisson disease " and " compressed air illness " , describing 110 cases of decompression sickness as the physician in charge during construction of the Brooklyn Bridge . The nickname " the bends " was used after workers emerging from pressurized construction on the Brooklyn Bridge adopted a posture similar to fashionable ladies of the period " the Grecian Bend " .
1878 – Paul Bert determined that decompression sickness is caused by nitrogen gas bubbles released from tissues and blood during or after decompression , and showed the advantages of breathing oxygen after developing decompression sickness .
1897 – N. Zuntz proposed a perfusion @-@ based tissue model .
1906 – V. Schrotter suggested a uniform decompression of 20 minutes per atmosphere of pressure . J.S. Haldane was commissioned by the British Admiralty to study decompression sickness .
1908 – John Scott Haldane prepared the first recognised decompression table for the British Admiralty . This table was based on experiments performed on goats using an end point of symptomatic DCS .
1912 – Chief Gunner George D. Stillson of the United States Navy created a program to test and refine Haldane 's tables . This program ultimately led to the first publication of the United States Navy Diving Manual and the establishment of a Navy Diving School in Newport , Rhode Island . Diver training programs were later cut at the end of World War I.
1912 – Leonard Erskine Hill proposed continuous uniform decompression
1927 – Naval School , Diving and Salvage was re @-@ established at the Washington Navy Yard . At that time the United States moved their Navy Experimental Diving Unit ( NEDU ) to the same naval yard . In the following years , the Experimental Diving Unit developed the US Navy Air Decompression Tables which became the accepted world standard for diving with compressed air .
1930 's – J.A. Hawkins , C.W. Schilling and R.A. Hansen conducted extensive experimental dives to determine allowable supersaturation ratios for different tissue compartments for Haldanean model .
1935 – Albert R. Behnke et al. experimented with oxygen for recompression therapy .
1937 – US Navy 1937 tables developed by O.D. Yarborough were published .
1941 – Altitude decompression sickness was treated with hyperbaric oxygen for the first time .
1956 – US Navy Decompression Tables ( 1956 ) were published .
1960 – F.C. Golding et al. split the classification of DCS into Type 1 and 2 .
1965 – LeMessurier and Hills published their paper , A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques , which suggested that decompression by conventional models results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re @-@ dissolving at the decompression stops which is slower than off @-@ gassing while still in solution . This indicates the importance of minimizing bubble phase for efficient gas elimination .
1965 – French Navy GERS ( Groupe d 'Etudes et Recherches Sous @-@ marines ) 1965 table was published .
1965 – M.W. Goodman and Robert D. Workman introduced recompression tables utilizing oxygen to accelerate elimination of inert gas
1972 – Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory ( RNPL ) published tables based on Hempleman 's tissue slab diffusion model .
1973 – Isobaric counterdiffusion was first described by D.J. Graves , J. Idicula , Christian Lambertson , and J.A. Quinn in subjects who breathed one inert gas mixture while being surrounded by another .
1973 – French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail 1974 ( MT74 ) were published .
1976 – M.P. Spencer showed that the sensitivity of decompression testing is increased by the use of ultrasonic methods which can detect mobile venous bubbles before symptoms of DCS emerge .
1981 – Huggins model and tables using Spencer 's formula for no @-@ decompression limits were published .
1981 – D.E. Yount described the Varied Permeability Model .
1982 – Paul K Weathersby , Louis D Homer and Edward T Flynn introduced survival analysis into the study of decompression sickness .
1983 – ED . Thalmann published the E @-@ L model for constant PO2 nitrox and heliox closed circuit rebreathers .
1983 / 4 – Albert A. Bühlmann published Decompression – Decompression sickness . Bühlmann recognized the problems associated with altitude diving and proposed a method which calculated maximum nitrogen loading in the tissues at a particular ambient pressure .
1984 – DCIEM ( Defence and Civil Institution of Environmental Medicine , Canada ) released No @-@ Decompression and Decompression Tables based on Kidd / Stubbs serial compartment model and extensive ultrasonic testing .
1984 – Edward D. Thalmann published U.S. Navy Exponential @-@ Linear algorithm and tables for constant PO2 Nitrox closed circuit rebreather ( CCR ) applications .
1985 – Thalmann extended use of the E @-@ L model for constant PO2 heliox closed circuit rebreathers .
1985 – Bruce Bassett published recreational decompression tables based on U.S. Navy Tables .
1986 – Swiss Sport Diving Tables based on Bühlmann 's model were published .
1986 – D. E. Yount and D. C. Hoffman proposed a bubble model , which was to become the core of the Varying Permeability Model ( VPM ) .
1988 – BSAC ' 88 tables were published .
1990 – DCIEM sport diving tables released .
1990 – French Navy – Marine Nationale 90 ( MN90 ) decompression tables published .
1992 – French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 ( MT92 ) published .
1999 – National Association of Underwater Instructors ( NAUI ) published Trimix and Nitrox tables based on Bruce Wienke 's RGBM model .
2000 - The core VPM algorithm was finalized .
2001 – NAUI published recreational air tables based on the RGBM model .
2003 – V @-@ Planner with VPM @-@ B model by Erik Baker was released as a revision to work from the DecoList ( 1999 ) participants : Eric Maiken , D.E. Yount and others .
2007 – Wayne Gerth & David J. Doolette published VVal 18 and VVal 18M parameter sets for tables and programs based on the Thalmann E @-@ L algorithm , and produced an internally compatible set of decompression tables for open circuit and CCR on air and Nitrox , including in water air / oxygen decompression and surface decompression on oxygen .
2007 – Saul Goldman proposed an Interconnected Compartment Model ( 3 compartment series / parallel model ) using a single risk bearing active tissue compartment and two non @-@ risk bearing peripheral compartments which indirectly affect the risk of the central compartment . This model predicts initially fast gas washout which slows with time .
2008 – US Navy Diving Manual Revision 6 published , which includes a version of the 2007 tables by Gerth & Doolette .
= = Haldanean ( perfusion limited , dissolved phase ) models = =
Early decompression theory generally assumed that inert gas bubble formation in the tissues could be avoided during decompression , and the aim of the decompression tables and algorithms was to prevent bubble formation while minimising decompression time . Most dissolved phase models are perfusion limited , and differ mainly by the number of compartments , the range of half @-@ times , and supersaturation tolerances assumed . These models are commonly referred to as Haldanean .
= = = Haldane 's theory and tables = = =
John Scott Haldane was commissioned by the Royal Navy to develop a safe decompression procedure . The current method was a slow linear decompression , and Haldane was concerned that this was ineffective due to additional nitrogen buildup in the slow early stages of the ascent .
Haldane 's hypothesis was that a diver could ascend immediately to a depth where the supersaturation reaches but does not exceed the critical supersaturation level , at which depth the pressure gradient for off @-@ gassing is maximized and the decompression is most efficient . The diver would remain at this depth until saturation had reduced sufficiently for him to ascend another 10 feet , to the new depth of critical supersaturation , where the process would be repeated until it was safe for the diver to reach the surface . Haldane assumed a constant critical ratio of dissolved nitrogen pressure to ambient pressure which was invariant with depth .
A large number of decompression experiments were done using goats , which were compressed for three hours to assumed saturation , rapidly decompressed to surface pressure , and examined for symptoms of decompression sickness . Goats which had been compressed to 2 @.@ 25 bar absolute or less showed no signs of DCS after rapid decompression to the surface . Goats compressed to 6 bar and rapidly decompressed to 2 @.@ 6 bar ( pressure ratio 2 @.@ 3 to 1 ) also showed no signs of DCS . Haldane and his co @-@ workers concluded that a decompression from saturation with a pressure ratio of 2 to 1 was unlikely to produce symptoms .
= = = = Haldane 's model = = = =
The decompression model formulated from these findings made the following assumptions .
Living tissues become saturated at different rates in different parts of the body . Saturation time varies from a few minutes to several hours
The rate of saturation follows a logarithmic curve and is approximately complete in 3 hours in goats , and 5 hours in humans .
The desaturation process follows the same pressure / time function as saturation ( symmetrical ) , provided no bubbles have formed
The slow tissues are most important in avoiding bubble formation
A pressure ratio of 2 to 1 during decompression will not produce decompression symptoms
A supersaturation of dissolved Nitrogen that exceeds twice ambient atmospheric pressure is unsafe
Efficient decompression from high pressures should start by rapidly halving the absolute pressure , followed by a slower ascent to ensure that the partial pressure in the tissues does not at any stage exceed about twice the ambient pressure .
The different tissues were designated as tissue groups with different half @-@ times , and saturation was assumed after four half @-@ times ( 93 @.@ 75 % )
Five tissue compartments were chosen , with half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 and 75 minutes .
Depth intervals of 10 ft were chosen for decompression stops .
= = = = Decompression tables = = = =
This model was used to compute a set of tables . The method comprises choosing a depth and time exposure , and calculation the nitrogen partial pressure in each of the tissue compartments at the end of that exposure .
The depth of the first stop is found from the tissue compartment with the highest partial pressure , and the depth of first decompression stop is the standard stop depth where this partial pressure is nearest without exceeding the critical pressure ratio .
The time at each stop is the time required to reduce partial pressure in all compartments to a level safe for the next stop , 10 ft shallower .
The controlling compartment for the first stop is usually the fastest tissue , but this generally changes during the ascent , and slower tissues usually control the shallower stop times . The longer the bottom time and closer to saturation of the slower tissues , the slower the tissue controlling the final stops will be .
Chamber tests and open water dives with two divers were made in 1906 . The divers were successfully decompressed from each exposure . The tables were adopted by the Royal Navy in 1908 . The Haldane tables of 1906 are considered to be the first true set of decompression tables , and the basic concept of parallel tissue compartments with half @-@ times and critical supersaturation limits are still in use in several later decompression models , algorithms , tables and decompression computers .
= = = U.S. Navy decompression tables = = =
US Navy decompression tables have gone through a lot of development over the years . They have mostly been based on parallel multi @-@ compartment exponential models . The number of compartments has varied , and the allowable supersaturation in the various compartments during ascent has undergone major development based on experimental work and records of decompression sickness incidents .
= = = = C & R tables ( 1915 ) = = = =
The first decompression tables produced for the U.S. Navy were developed by the Bureau of Construction and Repair in 1915 and were consequently known as the C & R tables . They were derived from a Haldanean model , with oxygen decompression to depths up to 300 ft on air , and were successfully used to depths of slightly over 300 ft
= = = = Hawkins Schilling and Hansen ( 1930s ) = = = =
Submarine escape training led US Navy personnel to believe that Haldane 's allowable supersaturation ratios for fast tissues were unnecessarily conservative , as calculated values indicated that supersaturation in trainees exceeded Haldane 's limits , but they did not develop DCS . A large number ( 2143 ) of experimental dives were conducted over 3 years to derive allowable supersaturation ratios for a Haldanian 5 compartment model with compartment half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 and 70 minutes . Values for critical supersaturation derived from this experimental work were different for each tissue compartment . Values for slow tissues ( 75 and 40 @-@ minute ) were close to Haldane 's findings , but considerably higher values were found for the fast tissues . These values were so high that the researchers concluded that the 5- and 10 @-@ minute tissues were not relevant to the development of DCS . Based on these conclusions , a set of tables was computed which omitted the 5- and 10 @-@ minute tissues .
= = = = Yarbrough ( 1937 tables ) = = = =
Yarbrough 's 1937 tables were based on a Haldanean 3 compartment model with compartment half @-@ times of 20 , 40 and 70 minutes . Ascent rate was chosen to be 25 ft per minute , which was a convenient rate to pull up a diver in standard dress .
= = = = 1956 tables = = = =
Van der Aue worked on procedures for surface decompression and oxygen use in the early 1950s and during his research found problems with the 1937 tables for long dive times . He also found that the fast tissues which had been dropped in the 1930s would control decompression in some cases , so he re @-@ introduced the fast compartments to the model , and added an extra slower compartment to better model long @-@ duration dives .
Assumptions of the 1956 model :
Six parallel tissue compartments with exponential uptake and elimination of gas with compartment half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 , 80 and 120 minutes .
Symmetrical uptake and elimination half @-@ times ( same half @-@ time for each compartment for uptake and elimination )
Supersaturation ratios decrease linearly with increased ambient pressure , ( M @-@ values ) and are different for each compartment .
Each tissue compartment is assumed to fully saturate / desaturate in 6 half @-@ times . This means desaturation of the slowest ( 120 min ) compartment takes 12 hours – hence the 12 @-@ hour surface interval before a dive is not considered repetitive with these tables .
Ascent rate was chosen at 60 fsw / min as a compromise between the practical requirements for military scuba and surface supplied diving operations .
Repetitive diving was accommodated in the tables using the slowest compartment to control surface off @-@ gassing .
A minimum surface interval of 10 minutes was found necessary to ensure that the 120 @-@ minute compartment would have controlling effect for repetitive dives .
= = = = U.S. Navy exceptional exposure tables = = = =
The U.S. Navy 1956 tables were soon found to be problematic for dives deeper than 100 fsw for longer than 2 to 4 hours .
US Navy exceptional exposure tables use an 8 compartment Haldanean model developed by Workman , with half @-@ times of 5 , 10 , 20 , 40 , 80 , 120 , 160 and 240 minutes , and are not compatible with the rest of the US Navy Air tables for repetitive diving , although for convenience they have been appended to the standard US Navy Air tables . The tables warn that no repetitive diving is permitted following an exceptional exposure dive , and although the 240 @-@ minute tissue would only desaturate completely in 24 hours , there is no restriction to assuming an unsaturated diver after 12 hours .
= = = Reformatting of the U.S. Navy 1956 tables by recreational diving community = = =
Some of the earliest modifications to the U.S. Navy tables involved changes to their layout by the recreational diving community . These include :
Nu @-@ Way repetitive dive tables
Dacor " No calculation dive tables "
NAUI tables ( original version )
= = = Modified U.S. Navy 1956 tables = = =
Decompression theory is not an exact science . Decompression models approximate a physiological process that is incompletely understood , and rather complex , by simple mathematical models , in the hope of producing a useful procedure with acceptably low risk of injury to the user . New information allows theories and models to be modified to provide more reliable results , and the availability of faster and more powerful computer processors at low cost has made more exhaustive numerical methods more practicable , and the computation of relatively far more complex models is now quite possible , even in real time .
Several factors have encouraged researchers to modify existing tables and develop new models :
Doppler bubble detection allows models to use bubble formation as an endpoint rather than symptomatic DCS .
The use of safety stops has been shown by Dr Andrew Pilmanis of the Catalina Marine Science Centre to greatly reduce bubble formation in divers .
Many decompression models use a slower ascent rate than the 60 fpm ( 18 m / min ) of the 1956 US Navy tables ( The 2008 US Navy tables have reduced ascent rate to 30 fpm ( 9 m / min ) ) .
Multiple repetitive dives . The US Navy tables were designed for a single repetitive dive , and there were concerns about the safety of extending their use to multiple repetitive dives . As an attempt to address this issue , some tables were modified to reduce the allowable bottom time for repetitive dives .
Longer nitrogen retention . The addition of longer half @-@ time compartments allows the accumulation of residual nitrogen over longer periods to be accounted for .
= = = = Jeppesen tables = = = =
Jeppesen made the simplest modification to the U.S. Navy tables by drawing a new line to reduce no @-@ stop limits on an otherwise unchanged table . Divers were recommended to remain within the modified no @-@ stop limit . If one of the new time limits was not listed on the U.S. Navy table , the next shorter table entry was to be selected .
= = = = Bassett tables = = = =
These tables were based on the 1956 US Navy tables and the no @-@ decompression limits recommended by Bruce Bassett .
Changes were also made to the table rules and decompression requirements :
Ascent rate of 10 m per minute .
A safety stop of 3 to 5 minutes at 3 to 5 metres is recommended where possible for all dives deeper than 9 m .
Total dive time is used to calculate repetitive group .
= = = = NAUI tables = = = =
The first NAUI tables were based on reformatted but otherwise unmodified US Navy 1956 tables and issued in the early 1980s .
The next version was a NAUI modification of the US Navy 1956 tables using the following modifications , and released a few years later .
No decompression limits have been reduced . In most cases this results in the repetitive group shifting one letter down , but for 50fsw it shifted 2 letters , and for 40 fsw , by three letters .
A precautionary decompression stop ( safety stop ) of 3 minutes at 15 fsw is recommended after all dives , but the time spent at the safety stop is not included in the time used to calculate repetitive group .
A surface interval of at least one hour between repetitive dives is recommended .
Repetitive dive depths are limited to 100 fsw
A repetitive dive is defined as occurring within 24 hours of the previous dive ( this allows for the slowest tissues to equilibriate with atmospheric partial pressures )
All required decompression is done at a stop depth of 15 fsw
NAUI adapted the 1995 DCIEM Sports Table for use in all NAUI courses and these were used until they were replaced by RGBM based tables in 2002 . ( The NAUI recreational air tables based on RGBM model are copyrighted 2001 )
NAUI RGBM Trimix and Nitrox tables copyrighted 1999 have also been released .
= = = = Pandora tables = = = =
These tables were designed for use on the excavation of the wreck of the Pandora
Table values at 30 fsw ( feet of seawater ) and deeper were shortened by 1 to 4 minutes , putting divers into higher repetitive groups sooner .
Repetitive group selection tables for repetitive dives were modified . The first repetitive dive uses the same repetitive group selection as the U.S. Navy tables but subsequent dives use more conservative tables which place the diver in a higher repetitive group than the Navy tables would for the same profile . This tendency is continued for the third and fourth repetitive dives .
Safety stops at 3 msw ( metres of seawater ) ( 10 fsw ) are required for repetitive dives ; 3 minutes is required after the second dive , 6 minutes after the third and 9 minutes after the fourth dive .
Maximum ascent rate was specified as 10 msw / min . ( 35 fsw / min . ) .
= = = = Huggins model and tables = = = =
In 1981 Karl Huggins modified the US Navy 6 compartment model using M values derived to follow the Spencer no @-@ decompression limits . The tables are exclusively for no @-@ decompression diving and are presented in the same format as the US Navy tables .
A major difference from the US Navy tables is that the repetitive group designators represent nitrogen levels in all tissues , unlike the USN table which represent only the 120 @-@ minute compartment . The Huggins repetitive group indicates a percentage of the M0 for the most saturated tissue , and this is intended to make the tables more applicable to multilevel diving procedures .
The Huggins tables have not been officially tested , but are more conservative than the 1956 US Navy tables . They have been calculated from limits which would theoretically produce venous bubbles 10 to 20 % of the time .
= = = = PADI Recreational Dive Planner = = = =
The PADI tables known as the PADI Recreational Dive Planner ( RDP ) were developed by Raymond Rogers and tested by DSAT ( Diving Science And Technology , an affiliate of PADI Inc . ) . The M values were derived from Spencer 's no @-@ stop limits and the repetitive group designators were based on a 60 @-@ minute tissue compartment . This combination resulted in more conservative first dives , but less conservative repetitive dives .
The RDP tables were developed for no @-@ stop diving , but recommend a safety stop at 15 fsw for 3 minutes . Emergency decompression for dives which inadvertently exceed the no @-@ stop limit is specified .
The RDP tables are available in two formats :
A regular table
" The Wheel " , Which is a circular slide @-@ rule type calculator , and allows depths to be read to 5 fsw intervals , and times to the nearest minute .
The RDP was tested for single day multi @-@ level dives and multi @-@ day dives with multiple dives per day . There were no incidences of symptomatic DCS during testing .
= = = Bühlmann tables = = =
Professor A.A. Bühlmann of the Laboratory of Hyperbaric medicine of the Medical Clinic of the University of Zurich developed the Swiss tables , more often referred to as Bühlmann tables , in the early 1960s . The model is Haldanian , with 16 tissue compartments with half @-@ times from 2 @.@ 65 minutes to 635 minutes , each with linearly varying supersaturation limits depending on the tissue and the ambient pressure , and is based on absolute pressures , which simplifies application to altitude diving .
The full set of Swiss Tables consists of tables for four altitude ranges : 0 to 700 m , 701 to 1500 m , 1501 to 2500 m and 2501 to 3500 m . Ascent rate was chosen as 10 m per minute .
No stop limits and decompression schedules tend to be more conservative than the US Navy air tables .
The Swiss tables use the 80 minute tissue compartment for control of repetitive dive calculations , which tends to be less conservative than the US Navy tables for this application .
= = = Modified Bühlmann tables = = =
= = = = Swiss sport diving tables = = = =
In 1986 the Bühlmann model was used to generate dive tables for recreational divers . One set was for altitudes from 0 to 700m above sea level ( 0 to 2300 ft . ) and other for altitudes from 701 to 2 @,@ 500 m ( 2 @,@ 300 to 8 @,@ 202 ft ) . The repetitive group designators are based on the 80 @-@ minute compartment .
= = = = Bühlmann / Hahn tables ( German ) = = = =
The German tables were developed by Dr. Max Hahn using a derivative of the Bühlmann ZH @-@ L16 model using half @-@ times ranging from 2 @.@ 65 to 635 minutes . Three sets were published for altitude ranges 0 – 200 m , 201 – 700 m , and 701 @-@ 1 @,@ 200 m . The repetitive group designators are based on the 80 @-@ minute compartment .
Safety factors were added to the depths in the table to take into account depth gauge errors . The depths used for calculations were 2 @.@ 4 % greater than the depths listed in the two lower altitude tables , and 3 % + 1 msw greater than the depths listed in the highest altitude table .
= = = French Navy – Marine Nationale 90 ( MN90 ) decompression tables = = =
The mathematical model used for the development of the MN 90 tables is Haldanian , and was also used for the GERS ( Groupe d 'Etudes et Recherches Sous @-@ marines ) 1965 table .
Haldane 's assumptions about the limiting factors for ascent are :
gas exchange in decompression is symmetrical with compression
the role of bubbles in the modification of blood @-@ tissue exchange is neglected ,
normal decompression does not produce bubbles : DCS occurs when bubbles appear ,
bubbles appear in a compartment where the ratio of the dissolved gas pressure and ambient hydrostatic pressure reaches a critical value , characterizing the maximum tolerable pressure compartment .
Specific assumptions and conditions for use of the MN90 model and tables are as follows :
For Scuba dives using air as the breathing gas at sea level , with the diver initially saturated at atmospheric pressure
12 parallel tissue compartments with half @-@ times from 5 to 120 minutes , each with its own critical ratio
The ascent rate used is 15 to 17 metres per minute to the first stop , which is the same as used in the GERS 1965 tables . From the first stop to the surface this is reduced to 6 m / min
The reference population with respect to physiology is based on 1095 medically fit divers from the French Navy in 1988 :
weight 74 kg plus or minus 8 kg ,
height 175 @.@ 9 plus or minus 5 @.@ 7 cm ,
age 32 @.@ 3 plus or minus 6 @.@ 1 years .
Only the 120 @-@ minute tissue is used for calculation of residual nitrogen for repetitive dives . Letter groups are used to indicate the residual gas content of the 120 @-@ minute tissue . Letter groups are modified according to surface interval . A residual nitrogen time is found from the repetitive group and the repetitive dive depth which is to be added to the planned bottom time .
Decompression stops are at 3 m intervals
The tables have been validated by experimental dives and modified where necessary .
The maximum permitted depth for use of air is 60 m . The data for the decompression depths of 62 m and 65 m are included in the table in case of accidentally exceeding the depth limit of 60 m .
Only one repetitive dive is allowed as there is no validation data for multiple repetitive dives
Altitude corrections are available
The tables can be used for Nitrox by calculating equivalent air depth
Oxygen may be used to accelerate decompression in @-@ water at depths not exceeding 6 m
An unusual feature of these tables is a table for reduction of residual nitrogen by breathing pure oxygen on the surface between dives .
= = Non @-@ Haldanean dissolved phase models = =
= = = Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory model = = =
In the early 1950s , Hempleman developed a diffusion limited model for gas transfer from the capillaries into the tissues ( Haldanian model is a perfusion model ) . The basis for this model is radial diffusion from a capillary into the surrounding tissue , but by assuming closely packed capillaries in a plane the model was developed into a " tissue slab " equivalent to one @-@ dimensional linear bulk diffusion in two directions into the tissues from a central surface .
The 1972 RNPL tables were based on a modified Hempleman tissue slab model and are more conservative than the US Navy tables .
A version of the RNPL tables was used by the British Sub @-@ Aqua Club ( BSAC ) until the production of the BSAC ' 88 tables in 1988 .
= = = DCIEM model and tables = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the Canadian Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine developed the Kidd / Stubbs serial decompression model . This differs from Haldanian models which are parallel models and assume that all compartments are exposed to ambient partial pressures and no gas interchange occurs between compartments . A serial model assumes that the diffusion takes place through a series of compartments , and only one is exposed to the ambient partial pressures and is in effect a compartmentalised version of the Hempelman bulk diffusion slab model .
The Kidd / Stubbs model has four serial compartments , each with a half time of approximately 21 minutes . Allowable surfacing supersaturation ratios for the initial two compartments are taken as 1 @.@ 92 and 1 @.@ 73 , while the gas concentration in the last two compartments is not considered in the computation .
DCIEM has continuously evaluated and modified the model over the years . A revised set of tables was released in 1984 , based on thousands of Doppler evaluated dives . The DCIEM 1983 decompression model is a decompression calculation model rather than a physiological model . Modifications were made to the model to get it to fit observed data , as the original model had several observed shortcomings , while retaining the basic model structure so that it could be applied to existing hardware with minimal modifications .
= = Mixed phase models ( dissolved and bubble phases ) = =
= = = Thermodynamic model = = =
LeMessurier and Hills published a paper in 1965 on A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques which suggests that decompression by conventional models results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re @-@ dissolving at the decompression stops , which is slower than elimination while still in solution , thus indicating the importance of minimising bubble phase for efficient gas elimination .
= = = Tables du Ministère du Travail = = =
= = = = Tables du Ministère du Travail 1974 ( MT74 ) = = = =
The first French official ( civilian ) air decompression tables were published in 1974 by the Ministère du Travail
= = = = Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 ( MT92 ) = = = =
In 1982 , the French government funded a research project for the evaluation of the MT74 tables using computer analysis of the dive report database , which indicated that the MT74 tables had limitations for severe exposures . The government then supported a second project to develop and validate new tables . A complete set of air tables , with options of pure oxygen breathing at 6 m ( surface supplied ) , at 12 m ( wet bell ) , surface decompression , split level diving , repetitive diving , etc. was developed in 1983 . This early model already implemented the concept of continuous compartment half @-@ times . For the safe ascent criteria , the Arterial Bubble model was not derived mathematically , but an approximation was defined empirically by fitting mathematical expressions to selected exposures from the Comex database . At the time , the best fit was obtained by the expression now called AB Model @-@ 1 , which was used to compute a set of decompression tables that was evaluated offshore on selected Comex worksites . In 1986 , after some minor adjustments , the tables were included in the Comex diving manuals and used as standard procedures . In 1992 , the tables were included in the new French diving regulations under the name of Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 or MT92 tables
= = = = The arterial bubble decompression model = = = =
The arterial bubble assumption is that the filtering capacity of the lung has a threshold radius of the size of a red blood cell and that sufficiently small decompression bubbles can pass to the arterial side , especially during the initial phase of ascent . Later in the ascent , bubbles grow to a larger size and remain trapped in the lung . This may explain why conventional Doppler measurements have not detected any bubbles in the arterial circulation .
The arterial bubble assumption can introduce variability in the decompression outcome through the lung function . The first variable is individual susceptibility . The filtering capacity of the lung may be assumed to vary between individuals , and for a given individual , from day to day , and may account for the inter @-@ personal and intra @-@ persona variability which have been observed in DCS susceptibility . Basically , a good diver is a good bubble filter . This is a justification for divers who seek top physical fitness for severe decompression exposures .
The second variable is related to dive conditions and speculates an influence of CO2 on the lung filter . Raised levels of CO2 could decrease the lungs ' filtration capacity and allow bubbles to pass to the arterial side of the circulation . Thus , diving situations associated with CO2 retention and hypercapnia would be associated with a higher risk of Type II DCS . This could explain why the following situations , which are all related to high levels of CO2 , have been identified as contributing factors to DCS :
anxiety and stress ,
exhaustion or hyperventilation due to intense activity ,
cold ,
high work of breathimg .
The arterial bubble assumption is also consistent with the accidental production of arterial bubbles . One scenario considers a shunt at the heart or lung level that passes bubbles from the venous to the arterial side . A patent foramen ovale ( PFO ) is thought to only open in certain conditions . A PFO conveniently explains neurological accidents after recreational air diving without any procedure violation , but it does not explain vestibular hits in deep diving . Vestibular symptoms can appear very early in the decompression , long before the massive bubble production required to overload the system .
A second scenario considers pressure increases during decompression that reduce bubble diameters . This can allow bubbles trapped in the lung during a normal decompression to suddenly pass through the capillaries and become responsible for Type II DCS symptoms . This could explain the difference in outcomes of in @-@ water decompression versus surface decompression . Data collected in the North Sea have shown that if the overall incidence rate of the two diving methods is about the same , that surface decompression tends to produce ten times more type II DCS than in @-@ water decompression . It is assumed that when the diver ascends to the surface , bubbles are produced that are trapped by the lung capillaries , and on recompression of the diver in the deck chamber , these bubbles are reduced in diameter and pass to the arterial side , later causing neurological symptoms . The same scenario was proposed for type II DCS recorded after sawtooth diving profiles or multiple repetitive dives .
The arterial bubble assumption also provides an explanation for the criticality of the initial ascent phase . Bubbles associated with symptoms are not necessarily generated on site . There is a growth process at the beginning of the ascent that may last for several cycles until the bubbles have reached a critical size when they are either filtered in the lung or stopped at the tissue level . It is postulated that the production of a shower of small arterial bubbles during the first minutes of the initial ascent is a precursor for DCS symptoms .
An attempt was made to turn this scenario into a decompression model .
The arterial bubble model assumptions
A Diver breathes a compressed gas mixture that contains inert gas which dissolves in the various tissues during the pressure exposure . When the ascent is initiated , the inert gas is off @-@ loaded as soon as a suitable gradient is created .
Bubbles are normally produced in the vascular bed and transported by the venous system to heart , then to the lungs .
The lungs work as a filter and trap the bubbles in the capillaries which have a smaller diameter . Gas transfer into the alveoli eliminates the bubbles .
The critical issue is the filtering capacity of the lung system . Small bubbles may pass through the lungs into the systemic circulation .
At the level of the aortic arch , the distribution of blood likely to carry bubbles to neurological tissue such as the brain or the spinal cord .
The brain is a fast tissue and might be in supersaturated state in the early phase of decompression . It acts as a gas reservoir and feeds any local bubble which will grow . The bubble may just proceed through the capillaries to the venous side for another cycle , but may be trapped and will then grow in place , causing local restriction of the blood supply and finally ischemia . This may develop into central neurological symptoms .
Similarly , arterial bubbles may reach the spinal cord and grow on site from local gas and produce spinal neurological symptoms .
Much later in the decompression , bubbles may reach a significant size and exert a local deformation , particularly in stiffer tissues such as tendons and ligaments , that excites nerve terminations and produces pain .
Derivation of the Arterial Bubble Model
A model based on the Arterial Bubble assumption ( Arterial Bubble model version 2 , or AB Model 2 ) was developed for the calculation of decompression tables . This gas phase model uses an equation which can be compared to a classic " M @-@ value " associated with a corrective factor that reduces the permitted gradient for small values of the compartment time constant .
The consequence is the introduction of deeper stops than a classic dissolved phase decompression model .
The rationalization of the arterial bubble assumption considers two situations :
In the initial phase of decompression , the critical event is assumed to be the arrival of an arterial bubble in a de @-@ saturating neurological tissue . The bubble exchanges gas with the surrounding tissue and the blood . If the bubble does not exceed a critical radius , it will eventually leave the site without growing , otherwise it will block the blood circulation and cause ischemia . The critical parameter is bubble radius . This criterion is used to prevent type II neurological symptoms . The strategy for a safe rate of ascent at this stage is to balance gas exchange .
In the later phase of decompression , the critical event is assumed to be the presence of a large bubble that has taken up a large quantity of dissolved gas from the adjacent tissue in a joint . If the bubble reaches a critical volume , it will have a mechanical effect on the nerve endings causing pain in a tendon . The bubble volume is the critical parameter . This criterion is used to prevent type I pain @-@ only symptoms . The strategy for a safe ascent at this stage is to prevent any gas phase from growing beyond a critical volume .
The critical volume concept was developed by Hennessy and Hempleman who formulated a simple mathematical condition linking the dissolved gas and the safe ascent pressure :
Ptissue ≤ a × Pambient + b
Where Ptissue represents the dissolved gas tension , Pambient , the ambient pressure and a and b two coefficients . This linear relationship between dissolved gas and ambient pressure has the same mathematical form as an M value , which suggests that all the Haldanean models using M @-@ values ( including the US Navy tables previous to those based on the E @-@ L model , the Bühlmann tables and all the French Navy tables ) , may be considered expressions of the critical volume criterion , though their authors may have argued for other interpretations .
= = = U.S. Navy E @-@ L algorithm and the 2008 tables = = =
The use of simple symmetrical exponential gas kinetics models has shown up the need for a model that would give slower tissue washout . In the early 1980s the US Navy Experimental Diving Unit developed an algorithm using a decompression model with exponential gas absorption as in the usual Haldanian model , but a slower linear release during ascent . The effect of adding linear kinetics to the exponential model is to lengthen the duration of risk accumulation for a given compartment time constant
The model was originally developed for programming decompression computers for constant oxygen partial pressure closed circuit rebreathers . Initial experimental diving using an exponential @-@ exponential algorithm resulted in an unacceptable incidence of DCS , so a change was made to a model using the linear release model , with a reduction in DCS incidence . The same principles were applied to developing an algorithm and tables for a constant oxygen partial pressure model for heliox diving
The linear component is active when the tissue pressure exceeds ambient pressure by a given amount specific to the tissue compartment . When the tissue pressure drops below this cross @-@ over criterion the tissue is modelled by exponential kinetics . During gas uptake , tissue pressure never exceeds ambient , so it is always modelled by exponential kinetics . This results in a model with the desired asymmetrical characteristics of slower washout than uptake . The linear / exponential transition is smooth . Choice of cross @-@ over pressure determines the slope of the linear region as equal to the slope of the exponential region at the cross @-@ over point .
During the development of these algorithms and tables , it was recognized that a successful algorithm could be used to replace the existing collection of incompatible tables for various air and Nitrox diving modes currently in the U.S. Navy Diving Manual with a set of mutually compatible decompression tables based on a single model , which was proposed by Gerth and Doolette in 2007 . This has been done in Revision 6 of the US Navy Diving Manual published in 2008 , though some changes were made .
An independent implementation of the EL @-@ Real Time Algorithm was developed by Cochran Consulting , Inc. for the diver @-@ carried Navy Dive Computer under the guidance of E. D. Thalmann .
= = = = Physiological interpretation = = = =
Computer testing of a theoretical bubble growth model reported by Ball , Himm , Homer and Thalmann produced results which led to the interpretation of the three compartments used in the probabilistic LE model , with fast ( 1 @.@ 5 min ) , intermediate ( 51 min ) and slow ( 488 min ) time constants , of which only the intermediate compartment uses the linear kinetics modification during decompression , as possibly not representing distinct anatomically identifiable tissues , but three different kinetic processes which relate to different elements of DCS risk .
They conclude that bubble evolution may not be sufficient to explain all aspects of DCS risk , and the relationship between gas phase dynamics and tissue injury requires further investigation .
= = = BSAC ' 88 Tables = = =
The BSAC ' 88 Tables are published in the form of a booklet of four table sets giving no calculation repetitive diving solutions from sea level to 3000 metres altitude .
These tables were developed by Tom Hennessy to replace the RNPL / BSAC tables when the Club wanted a set of tables which could approach the versatility of a dive computer .
Very little information on the theoretical model and algorithm for the BSAC 1988 tables appears to be available . What is known , is that the tables were developed specifically for recreational diving for the British Sub @-@ Aqua Club by Dr Tom Hennessy and were released in 1988 .
Also in 1988 , a chapter titled Modelling Human Exposure to Altered Pressure Environments , by T.R. Hennessy was published in Environmental Ergonomics , discussing the shortcomings of several decompression models and the associated experimental validation procedures . In this work Hennessy proposes an alternative combined perfusion / diffusion model . The number of compartments discussed ranges from 4 in model " A " , ( perfusion limited aqueous tissue , perfusion limited lipid tissue , diffusion limited aqueous tissue and diffusion limited lipid tissue ) to 2 in model " B " ( where the assumption is made that if there is intravascular undissolved gas ( bubbles ) , the perfusion limited compartments would become diffusion limited ) .
Hennessy concludes that if the undissolved and dissolved gas content of a tissue cannot be independently measured either directly or indirectly then the safe maximum limits relative to the ambient pressure cannot be accurately determined through decompression trials and it will not be possible to systematically develop a comprehensive biophysical model for gas exchange . He proposes a best fit double compartment model for dissolved gas and a single compartment model for undissolved gas as these are the simplest models consistent with available data .
The parameters used in the design of these tables include :
Bubbles are assumed to form after every decompression .
These bubbles affect gas uptake and release on repetitive dives , resulting in a faster saturation on repetitive dives due to a combination of redissolved nitrogen from the bubbles , residual dissolved nitrogen , plus the nitrogen uptake due to the repeated exposure .
Bubbles do not redissolve immediately on recompression , and rates of gas uptake will alter from initial dive to repetitive dives , so repetitive dives must be handled differently in the mathematical model to predict safe decompression .
Rates of gas elimination are considered to be asymmetric to uptake , and the model becomes more conservative as the number of dives , depth and duration increases .
The BSAC ' 88 Tables use a series of seven tables , labelled A to G , to take into account the variation in ingassing and outgassing rates assumed for sequential dives .
Depth increments of 3 m are used .
In a significant departure from conventional practice , the tables are not based on a bottom time defined as time of leaving the surface to time leaving the bottom , but on time to reach a depth of 6 m during the ascent .
Ascent rate to 6m is restricted to a maximum of 15 m per minute .
Ascent from 6 m to the surface must take 1 minute .
Decompression stops are done at 9 m and 6 m , and at the surface , as surface interval is considered a decompression period .
No stops are scheduled at 3 m , as it is considered too difficult to maintain a consistent depth in waves .
The initial dive uses table A , and the diver is allocated a Surfacing Code based on depth and time of the dive . After a surface interval of at least 15 minutes the diver can select a new Current Tissue Code which models the residual nitrogen load , and uses this code to select the repetitive dive table .
The BSAC ' 88 tables are presented in a format which does not require any calculation by the user .
= = = Varying Permeability Model = = =
This decompression model was developed by D.E. Yount and others at the University of Hawaii to model laboratory observations of bubble formation and growth in both inanimate and in vivo systems exposed to pressure variations . It presumes that microscopic bubble nuclei always exist in aqueous media , including living tissues . These bubble nuclei are spherical gas phases that are small enough to remain in suspension yet strong enough to resist collapse , their stability being provided by an elastic surface layer consisting of surface @-@ active molecules with variable gas permeability . These skins resist the effect of surface tension , as surface tension tends to collapse a small bubble by raising internal pressure above ambient so that the partial pressure gradient favours diffusion out of the bubble in inverse proportion to the radius of the surface .
Any nuclei larger than a specific " critical " size , will grow during decompression . The VPM aims to limit the cumulative volume of these growing bubbles during and after decompression to a tolerable level by limiting the pressure difference between the gas in the bubbles and the ambient pressure . In effect , this is equivalent to limiting the supersaturation , but instead of using an arbitrary linear fit to experimental data , the physics of bubble growth is used to model the acceptable supersaturation for any given pressure exposure history .
Growth in size and number of gas bubbles is computed based on factors representing pressure balances in the bubbles , physical properties of the " skins " and the surrounding environment . If the total volume of gas in the bubbles is predicted to be less than a " critical volume " , then the diver is assumed to be within the safe limits of the model .
The bubble model is superposed on a multiple parallel tissue compartment model . Ingassing is assumed to follow the classic Haldanean model .
= = = = Bubble population distribution = = = =
Bubble size vs number has an exponential distribution
= = = = Bubble nucleation = = = =
Gas bubbles with a radius greater than 1 micron should float to the surface of a standing liquid , whereas smaller ones should dissolve rapidly due to surface tension . The Tiny Bubble Group has been able to resolve this apparent paradox by developing and experimentally verifying a new model for stable gas nuclei .
According to the varying @-@ permeability model , gas bubble nuclei are simply stable microbubbles . The stability of these microbubbles is due to elastic skins or membranes consisting of surface @-@ active molecules . These skins are normally permeable to gas , and collapse is prevented by their compression strength . These skins can become stiff and effectively impermeable to gas when they are subjected to large compressions , typically exceeding 8 atm , at which stage the pressure inside increases during further compression as predicted by Boyle 's law .
Essentially , there are three parameters in the VP model : the compression strength of the skin ; the initial radius ; and the onset pressure for impermeability .
= = = = Ordering hypothesis = = = =
The ordering hypothesis states that nuclei are neither created nor destroyed by the pressure schedule , and initial ordering according to size is preserved .
It follows from the ordering hypothesis that each bubble count is determined by the properties and behavior of that one " critical " nucleus which is right at the bubble formation threshold . All nuclei that are larger than the critical nucleus will form bubbles , and all nuclei that are smaller will not . Furthermore , a family of pressure schedules which yields the same bubble count N is characterized by the same critical nucleus and hence by the same critical radius , the same crumbling compression , and the same onset of impermeability .
= = = = Development of decompression model = = = =
The original assumption was that bubble number is directly proportional to decompression stress . This approach worked well for long exposures , but not when the exposure time varied considerably .
A better model was obtained by allowing more bubbles to form on the shorter dives than on the longer dives . The constant bubble number assumption was replaced by a " dynamic @-@ critical @-@ volume hypothesis " . As in earlier applications of the critical @-@ volume criterion , it was assumed that whenever the total volume of gas phase accumulated exceeds a critical value , signs or symptoms of DCS will appear . In the special case of long exposures the two models are equivalent .
The " dynamic " aspect of this hypothesis is that gas is continuously entering and leaving the gas phase .
The accumulated volume is calculated as a function of time by integrating over the product of the bubble number and the degree of supersaturation , and subtracting the free gas that is being dissipated continuously by the lung .
Gas uptake and elimination are assumed to be exponential , as in conventional Haldanean models .
As a first approximation only the inert gasses are taken into account . For oxygen partial pressures above 2 @.@ 4 bar , the quantity of oxygen dissolved in the arterial blood exceeds the amount that the body can use , and the hemoglobin is saturated with oxygen in both the veins and the arteries . If more oxygen is added , the partial pressure of oxygen in the venous blood rises .
= = = = Comparison of VPM profiles with other models = = = =
Comparisons of VPM profiles with USN decompression schedules for extreme exposure dives consistently produce similar total ascent times , but significantly deeper first decompression stops .
= = = Reduced Gradient Bubble Model = = =
The RGBM developed by Dr Bruce Wienke at Los Alamos National Laboratory is a hybrid model which modifies a Haldanian model with factors to take some account of bubble mechanics to model gas phase production during decompression . The bubble factor modifies the M @-@ values of the Haldanian model , making it more conservative .
Features of the modifying factor ξ include :
ξ starts on the first dive of a repetitive series with the maximum value of one , so it will make the model more conservative or unchanged .
ξ decreases for repetitive dives .
ξ decreases as exposure time increases .
ξ increases with increased surface interval .
ξ modifies fast compartments more than slow compartments .
ξ decreases with the depth of a dive segment
ξ has more effect on repetitive dives which are deeper than previous dives in the series .
The effect is to reduce no @-@ stop dive time or increase decompression requirements for repetitive dive in the following categories :
Following a short surface interval .
Following a long dive .
Following a deep dive .
Which are deeper than previous dives .
The model has been used to some extent in some Suunto dive computers , and in the HydroSpace Explorer computer , where it is a user selected option for computation formula , with a choice of additional conservatism factors .
The complete RGBM treats coupled perfusion @-@ diffusion transport as a two @-@ stage process , with perfusion providing a boundary condition for gas penetration of the tissues by diffusion . Either process can dominate the exchange depending on time and rate coefficients .
Simplified implementations which require less computational power are available for use in personal decompression computers . These are dominated by perfusion . The inherent biological unsaturation of tissues is considered in the calculations .
The model assumes that bubble nuclei are always present in a specific size distribution , and that a certain number are induced to grow by compression and decompression . An iterative computation is used to model ascent to limit the combined volume of the gas phase . Gas mixtures of helium , nitrogen , and oxygen contain bubble distributions of different sizes , but the same phase volume limit is used .
The model postulates bubble nuclei with aqueous and / or lipid skin structure , in a number and size distribution quantified by an equation @-@ of @-@ state . Like the VPM , RGBM assumes the size distribution is exponentially decreasing in size . Unlike the varying permeability model , bubble seeds are assumed permeable to gas transfer across skin boundaries under all pressures .
The size of nuclei which will grow during decompression is inversely proportional to the supersaturation gradient .
At higher pressures , skin tension of the bubble nuclei reduces gas diffusion to a slower rate . The model assumes that bubble skins are stabilized by surfactants over calculable times scales , which results in variable persistence of the bubble nuclei in the tissues .
= = Modifications to models and algorithms for diluent gases other than nitrogen = =
Decompression models and algorithms developed for binary mixtures of nitrogen and oxygen can not be used for gases containing significant amounts of other diluent gases without modification to take into account the different solubilities and diffusion constants of the alternative or added diluents . It is also highly desirable to test any such modifications , to make sure the schedules produced by them are acceptably safe .
= = = Alternative diluent gases = = =
Helium is by far the most important of the alternative diluents used to date .
Hydrogen
Neon
Combinations of these gases , particularly the trinary mixtures of helium , nitrogen and oxygen known generically as Trimix .
= = = Decompression models which have been adapted to include alternative and multiple diluents = = =
Bühlmann algorithm
VPM algorithm
RGBM algorithm
= = Commercial diving tables = =
To a large extent commercial offshore diving uses heliox tables that have been developed by the major commercial diving enterprises such as Comex , Oceaneering International ( OI ) Alpha tables , American Oilfield Diving ( AOD ) Company gas tables , though modifications of the US Navy Partial pressure tables are also used . In 2006 the unmodified US Navy tables ( Revision 5 ) were considered to result in an unacceptably high rate of decompression sickness for commercial applications .
" Cx70 " heliox tables were developed and used by Comex between 1970 and 1982 . The tables were available in two versions . One was designed for surface @-@ supplied diving and limited to 75 m . The diver breathed heliox as the bottom mix and 100 % oxygen at the 6 m stop . The other was designed for closed bell bounce diving and allowed for exposures up to 120 minutes , and depths to 120 m . The diver breathed heliox in the water and in the bell , air after transfer into the deck decompression chamber , and finally oxygen on built in breathing system ( BIBS ) from 12 m to the surface . These tables produced a relatively high incidence of decompression sickness .
The French Tables du Ministère du Travail 1974 ( MT74 ) and Tables du Ministère du Travail 1992 ( MT92 ) were developed specifically for commercial diving .
Norwegian Diving and Treatment Tables , ISBN 82 @-@ 992411 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 , referenced in NORSOK Standard U100 2 @.@ 24 for manned underwater operations , are available in Norwegian , Danish and English text and are approved for commercial diving .
= = = Other reading = = =
Brubakk , A. O. ; Neuman , T. S. ( 2003 ) . Bennett and Elliott 's physiology and medicine of diving ( 5th Revised ed . ) . United States : Saunders . ISBN 0 @-@ 7020 @-@ 2571 @-@ 2 .
Hamilton , Robert W ; Thalmann , Edward D ( 2003 ) . " 10 @.@ 2 : Decompression Practice " . In Brubakk , Alf O ; Neuman , Tom S. Bennett and Elliott 's physiology and medicine of diving ( 5th Revised ed . ) . United States : Saunders. pp. 455 – 500 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7020 @-@ 2571 @-@ 2 . OCLC 51607923 .
Elliott , David ( 4 December 1998 ) . " Decompression theory in 30 minutes " . SPUMS Journal ( South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society ) 28 ( 4 ) : 206 – 214 . Retrieved 4 March 2016 .
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= Veratalpa =
Veratalpa lugdunensiana is a fossil mammal from the Miocene of France . Known from a single astragalus ( a footbone ) , the species was assigned to its own genus , Veratalpa , by Florentino Ameghino in 1905 . He placed it in Talpidae , the family of the moles , but in 1974 , John Howard Hutchison argued that the astragalus was not talpid and more likely came from a rodent . The astragalus is about 4 @.@ 5 mm long , broad for a talpid , and has the head oriented farther from the axis of the foot than in talpids .
= = Taxonomy = =
Argentine naturalist Florentino Ameghino described Veratalpa in an overview of the astragali from the middle Miocene of Vieux Collonges in France . The astragalus is a bone of the foot that is part of the ankle joint . He listed several species of the family Talpidae ( moles and related species ) from Vieux Collonges , including " espèce C " ( " species C " ) , which he named as a new genus and species , Veratalpa lugdunensiana , in a footnote . In a 1906 review of Ameghino 's paper , Édouard Louis Trouessart affirmed that Veratalpa probably represented a new genus of mole , but noted that the specific name lugdunensiana would have been more correctly written " lugdunensis " . According to Trouessart , the suffix -ana is appropriate for names that reference persons , but not for those that refer to places , such as this name , which is derived from Lugdunum ( the Latin name for Lyon ) .
In a 1974 review of Miocene European talpids , John Howard Hutchison wrote that the astragalus of Veratalpa lacked any features that would ally it with talpids and commented that it was most likely a rodent . In their 1997 Classification of Mammals , Malcolm McKenna and Susan Bell listed Veratalpa as a member of Placentalia of uncertain affinities .
= = Description = =
The astragalus of Veratalpa is the largest among those from Vieux Collonges that Ameghino assigned to Talpidae . Although at 4 @.@ 5 mm it is about as long as his " species A " , it is broader , and Hutchison noted the broadness as one of the characters that argue against classification of Veratalpa in Talpidae . Like living moles , it has a broad , flat , and short head , but it forms a noticeably small angle with the body — in actual moles , the head is more axially oriented ( i.e. , towards the central axis of the foot ) . The surface of the head that contacts the navicula is less rounded than in moles . The body is low and nearly square and has a diameter of about 3 mm . The trochlea — a surface on the body of the bone that articulates with the tibia ( lower leg bone ) — is not large and pulley @-@ like , as in talpids . There is a small perforation on the lower side of the body . This perforation is larger in Ameghino 's other supposed talpids , and Trouessart suggested on the basis of this feature that the internal parts of the toes were reduced in Veratalpa .
= = Distribution = =
Veratalpa is known only from the locality of Vieux Collonges near Lyon in southeastern France ; Ameghino knew this locality as " Mont @-@ Ceindre " . This rich fissure filling locality has yielded thousands of fossils and is currently dated to the early @-@ middle Miocene boundary , around 17 million years ago ( MN 4 / 5 in the MN zonation ) . As Veratalpa is known from a single astragalus , Ameghino considered it to be rare . He distinguished six talpid species among the astragali , but according to Hutchison only Ameghino 's species F ( which was assigned to Talpidae with a query ) is really a talpid .
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= SMS Arminius =
SMS Arminius was an ironclad warship of the Prussian Navy , later the Imperial German Navy . The ship was designed by the British Royal Navy Captain Cowper Coles and built by the Samuda Brothers shipyard in Cubitt Town , London as a speculative effort ; Prussia purchased the ship during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark , though the vessel was not delivered until after the war . The ship was armed with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns in a pair of revolving gun turrets amidships . She was named for Arminius , the victor of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest .
Arminius served as a coastal defense ship for the first six years of her service with the Prussian Navy . She saw extensive service in the Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars during the process of German unification . The vessel was the primary challenge to the French blockade of German ports during the latter conflict . After the wars , Arminius was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and used in a variety of secondary roles , including as a training ship for engine @-@ room crews and as a tender for the school ship Blücher . The ship was eventually sold in 1901 and broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The warship that came to be SMS Arminius was designed by Captain Cowper Coles , a British Royal Navy officer and advocate of turret @-@ armed ironclad warships . Arminius was nearly identical to the Danish ironclad Rolf Krake , also designed by Captain Coles . The vessel was constructed with transverse frames and constructed with an iron hull , which contained eight watertight compartments . The ship was 61 @.@ 60 meters ( 202 @.@ 1 ft ) long at the waterline and 63 @.@ 21 m ( 207 @.@ 4 ft ) long overall . The ship had a beam of 10 @.@ 9 m ( 36 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 32 m ( 14 @.@ 2 ft ) forward and 4 @.@ 55 m ( 14 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . She was designed to displace 1 @,@ 653 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 627 long tons ; 1 @,@ 822 short tons ) but at combat load , Arminius displaced up to 1 @,@ 829 t ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 016 short tons ) .
The ship 's crew consisted of ten officers and 122 enlisted men . She carried a number of smaller boats , including two pinnaces , two cutters , and one dinghy . Arminius was not a particularly successful design ; she suffered from severe , fast rolling , especially in heavier seas . She also shipped a great deal of water over the bow and was unbalanced in steering . The ship turned rapidly to starboard but was sluggish in turning to port . Indeed , the ship was required to have the rudder at 15 degrees to port in order to remain on a straight course . It was also impossible to control the ship with only sail power .
The ship was powered by a single two @-@ cylinder single expansion engine built by J. Penn & Sons , Greenwich . The engine drove a single two @-@ bladed screw that was 3 @.@ 96 m ( 13 @.@ 0 ft ) in diameter . Four transverse trunk boilers , each of which had four fireboxes apiece , supplied steam to the engine . The boilers were also built by J Penn & Sons , Greenwich , and were arranged in a single boiler room . Limited electrical power was provided by a single generator , which supplied 1 @.@ 9 kilowatts at 55 volts . The ship was equipped with a schooner rig with a surface area of 540 square meters . The propulsion system was rated at 1 @,@ 200 indicated horsepower ( 890 kW ) and a top speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , though on trials , Arminius reached 1 @,@ 440 ihp ( 1 @,@ 070 kW ) and 11 @.@ 2 kn ( 20 @.@ 7 km / h ; 12 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship carried 171 t ( 168 long tons ; 188 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a range of 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at a cruising speed of 8 kn ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As built , Arminius was equipped with a main battery of four rifled , bronze 72 @-@ pounder cannon , but after delivery to the Prussian Navy , they were replaced with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 19 guns . These guns were supplied with a total of 332 rounds , and could elevate to 12 degrees . At maximum elevation , the guns could engage targets out to 2 @,@ 800 m ( 9 @,@ 200 ft ) . After 1881 , four machine guns were installed , along with a single 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tube mounted in the bow above the waterline .
Arminius 's armor consisted of wrought iron backed with teak plating . The conning tower was protected by 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron on 229 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) of teak . The armored belt ranged in thickness from 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of iron on the bow and stern to 114 mm amidships , the entire length of which was backed by 229 m of teak . The two turrets were armored with 114 mm of iron on 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) of timber .
= = Service history = =
She was built by the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London as a speculative project , possibly to sell to the Confederate Navy . The ship was laid down in 1863 and launched on 20 August 1864 . Prussia instead purchased the ship on 20 August 1864 , and commissioned her on 22 April 1865 as SMS Arminius . Delivery was delayed by the British government ; the British were sympathetic to Denmark , which was then engaged in a war with Prussia and Austria . The British therefore prevented the ship from being delivered until after the war was concluded . The cost of the ship , which amounted to some 1 @,@ 887 @,@ 000 gold marks , was paid in part by public donations . Arminius served as a harbor defense ship for six years , through 1871 . Along with the ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert , Arminius was the first armored warship acquired by the Prussian Navy .
At the outbreak of the Austro @-@ Prussian War in mid @-@ 1866 , Arminius was mobilized along with Prinz Adalbert , the only other Prussian ironclad . The ships were initially based in Kiel , but in the opening days of the war , Arminius raced to Hamburg via the Skagerrak and the Kattegat , a distance of some 940 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 740 km ; 1 @,@ 080 mi ) , in 100 hours , an impressive feat for an early ironclad warship . Without a naval threat from Austria , the Prussian navy therefore concentrated its effort against the Kingdom of Hanover . For the remainder of the conflict , Arminius operated out of Geestemünde , under the command of Reinhold Werner , and the mere appearance of Arminius caused several Hanoverian coastal batteries to surrender . On 15 June , Arminius and a pair of gunboats , Tiger and Cyclops , covered the crossing of the Elbe river by General Edwin von Manteuffel and some 13 @,@ 500 soldiers to attack the city of Hanover . By the end of the month , the Prussian army had decisively defeated the Austrians at Königgrätz and ended the war . On 3 October 1866 , the ship raced the US Navy 's monitor USS Miantonomoh in Kiel ; Arminius was two knots faster than the American vessel . In 1870 , the ship had her sailing rig removed .
At the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 , the Prussian Navy concentrated Arminius and the armored frigates Kronprinz , Friedrich Carl , and König Wilhelm in the North Sea naval base Wilhelmshaven . Arminius was stationed in Kiel at the outbreak of war , but managed to break through the French blockade by hugging the Swedish coast , which her shallow draft permitted . Her passage through Swedish territorial waters also protected the ship from French attack . Despite the great French naval superiority , the French had conducted insufficient pre @-@ war planning for an assault on the Prussian naval installations , and concluded that it would only be possible with Danish assistance , which was not forthcoming . The four ships , under the command of Vice Admiral Jachmann , made an offensive sortie in early August 1870 out to the Dogger Bank , though they encountered no French warships . The three armored frigates thereafter suffered from chronic engine trouble , which left Arminius alone to conduct operations .
Captain Otto Livonius commanded the ship during the war . In the course of the war , she sortied from the port over forty times ; these also failed to result in major combat , though she occasionally traded shots with the blockading French warships . For the majority of the war , Arminius was stationed in the mouth of the Elbe along with the ironclad ram Prinz Adalbert and three small gunboats . The three armored frigates remained off the island of Wangerooge . On 11 September , the three frigates were again ready for action ; they joined Arminius for another major operation , though it too did not encounter French opposition . The French Navy had by this time returned to France .
After being removed from front @-@ line service in 1872 , she was used as a training vessel for naval engineers . The ship was decommissioned in 1875 and placed in reserve . Her ram bow allowed her to be used as an ice @-@ breaker in Kiel in the 1880s . In 1882 , she was used as a tender for the cadet training vessel Blücher . The ship was rebuilt in 1888 ; during the refit the propulsion system was overhauled and replaced with German @-@ built equipment and two searchlights were installed . The ship was ultimately stricken from the naval register on 2 March 1901 and sold to shipbreakers for 72 @,@ 000 gold marks . Arminius was broken up for scrap the following year .
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= Tabitha and Napoleon D 'umo =
Tabitha A. D 'umo ( née Cortopassi ; born September 11 , 1973 ) and Napoleon Buddy D 'umo ( born October 17 , 1968 ) , known together as Nappytabs , are Emmy Award @-@ winning married choreographers who are often credited with developing lyrical hip @-@ hop . They are best known for their choreography on the television show So You Think You Can Dance and for being supervising choreographers and executive producers of America 's Best Dance Crew . Since being with the former , their choreography has received both praise and criticism . They own Nappytabs urban dancewear and have been working in the dance industry since 1996 .
Tabitha and Napoleon grew up on opposite coasts of the United States and met in the early 1990s as students at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas . They began their dance career together while still in college by choreographing industrial musicals for large corporations with the hip @-@ hop dance company Culture Shock . After moving to Los Angeles in 1999 , they started teaching hip @-@ hop classes at the Edge Performing Arts Center in North Hollywood . They took additional jobs choreographing for professional sports dance teams and back @-@ up dancing for musical artists . In 2003 , they joined the faculty of Monsters of Hip Hop dance convention .
Their work was introduced to mainstream audiences in 2008 when they became supervising choreographers on America 's Best Dance Crew and resident choreographers on So You Think You Can Dance . It was on the later show that their lyrical hip @-@ hop choreography style gained exposure . The pair 's career progressed to providing creative direction for tours and live events , where they worked with Christina Aguilera , Ricky Martin , Celine Dion , and Jennifer Lopez . They continued to develop their dancewear line by breaking out of its previously online @-@ only presence and opening a physical store location in 2010 .
From television and concerts , their move into theater occurred gradually . In 2010 , they directed the JabbaWockeeZ 's MÜS.I.C. stage show and began to work with Cirque du Soleil ; they choreographed Viva Elvis and were contributing choreographers for Michael Jackson : The Immortal World Tour . In 2012 , they continued to establish themselves in television as choreographers for Madonna 's Super Bowl halftime performance . They also choreographed several music videos including two for K @-@ pop artists TVXQ and BoA . Aside from their choreography , creative direction , and dancewear line , Tabitha and Napoleon continue to teach hip @-@ hop classes at dance studios and on the convention circuit . They have also been involved with charity work for organizations that support the arts .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1968 – 1996 : Early life and education = = =
Napoleon was born October 17 , 1968 . While growing up as one of three children in Victorville , California , he learned b @-@ boying , locking , and popping by traveling to Los Angeles and frequenting the b @-@ boy scene ; he was eventually cast as an extra in the movie Breakin ' 2 : Electric Boogaloo in 1984 . After Napoleon graduated from Apple Valley High School , he joined the army and worked as a surgeon 's assistant while stationed in Germany . Once discharged , he attended the University of Nevada , Las Vegas ( UNLV ) where he majored in molecular biology and started taking jazz and modern dance classes .
Tabitha was born September 11 , 1973 , and grew up as an only child in Galloway Township , New Jersey . Her mother enrolled her in jazz dance classes when she was young . Since there were no hip @-@ hop classes , Tabitha learned by watching music videos and participating in her school 's cheer and dance teams . She cites Michael Jackson , Janet Jackson , and Paula Abdul as influences . While cheerleading at Absegami High School , Tabitha earned " All @-@ American " status at an NCA camp and got the opportunity to perform in the Aloha Bowl in Hawaii . After Tabitha graduated , she moved to Nevada in 1991 to attend UNLV where she majored in communications and started taking formal hip @-@ hop dance classes . It was there at a party that she met Napoleon .
While hanging out with her cheerleading and dance team friends , Tabitha invited Napoleon and his body building friends to come to a casual practice session and do stunt work with them . Napoleon and his friends eventually attended a formal practice session on campus , and the coach was so impressed with their work that they all received full scholarships to join the team . Tabitha and Napoleon started dating in 1994 , but their professional partnership and dance career did not start until 1996 when they began teaching hip @-@ hop classes together at the Las Vegas Athletic Club . Since the beginning of their career , they have always worked together including their first choreography job and the first dance class they taught .
= = = 1996 – 2007 : Early career , dancewear , and creative directing = = =
While Tabitha and Napoleon were still in college , they were accepted into the dance company Culture Shock where they met members of the JabbaWockeeZ before the JabbaWockeeZ became a crew . In addition to going to school and being a part of Culture Shock , they both maintained part @-@ time jobs . Together they worked at Bunker Dance Center in Las Vegas teaching hip @-@ hop classes . Separately Napoleon worked as a personal trainer and Tabitha worked at the Rio Hotel and Casino . While dancing with Culture Shock , Tabitha created demo reels of the company to send to event organizers who were having conventions in Las Vegas . Tabitha and Napoleon used this method to book choreography jobs and it was during this time that they honed their lyrical hip @-@ hop style . Through Culture Shock , they were hired to choreograph several industrial musicals for casinos and corporations such as Nike , Levi , Redken , Matrix Hair , and MAC . They eventually worked their way up from company dancers to become the artistic directors . As their college graduation was approaching — although Tabitha was planning to take a job in public relations and Napoleon was planning to attend medical school — they both decided to change their plans and pursue a career in the dance industry .
Tabitha and Napoleon were married April 19 , 1998 . In 1999 , they moved to Los Angeles to expand their opportunities . Upon arriving in L.A. , they taught hip @-@ hop classes at the Edge Performing Arts Center .
They found extra work as back @-@ up dancers for Beyoncé , Toni Braxton , Missy Elliott , Monica , Timbaland , Sisqó , and Destiny 's Child whom they both went on tour with in 2002 . Their move from dancing into choreography occurred gradually . Jobs included choreographing performances for NFL and NBA dance teams including the Dallas Cowboys , Denver Broncos , Chicago Bulls , and Orlando Magic . In November 2002 , they made the cover of Dance Spirit magazine . They were profiled with seven other choreographers and interviewed about what it takes to make it as a dancer in Los Angeles . In 2003 , Napoleon started teaching classes with Monsters of Hip Hop dance convention . Tabitha joined him later and they are still permanent faculty members to this day .
In 2005 , Tabitha and Napoleon started Nappytabs dancewear . They cite the lack of appropriate dancewear for the hip @-@ hop dance community as inspiration for the company . Early in its production , Tabitha sewed the clothes herself . The Nappytabs logo began as a yin and yang like symbol with an " n " and a " t " overlapping in the middle . The word itself — Nappytabs — is a combination of Napoleon ( Nappy ) and Tabitha 's ( Tab ) nicknames . Contrary to popular belief , the name ' Nappytabs ' started as their clothing line first . They did not call themselves Nappytabs , and the word being a nickname to refer to both of them did not start until they became choreographers on So You Think You Can Dance .
Tabitha and Napoleon began creative directing stage shows and concerts in the mid @-@ 2000s . In 2006 , they served as assistant directors for Christina Aguilera ’ s Back to Basics Tour . In 2007 , they were also assistant directors for Ricky Martin ’ s Black and White Tour . Both tours were directed by Jamie King who is known primarily for his work with Madonna .
Tabitha was the host / instructor of an exercise DVD by Prevention Fitness Systems titled Drop it with Dance . The video is split into six 10 @-@ minute routines that gradually increase in difficulty ; movements from all six routines are combined in the finale " Showtime " segment . She also appeared in Rock Your Body , another dance fitness DVD hosted by Jamie King .
= = = 2008 – 2009 : Dance shows and mainstream exposure = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon became supervising choreographers for the inaugural season of America 's Best Dance Crew in 2008 . They were responsible for choreographing group routines , coming up with dance challenges , and assisting the crews as needed with polishing their performances . Also in 2008 , they took on hosting duties for Rock the Reception . On the show , they created wedding dances for engaged couples and their wedding party to perform at the reception . The participants were real life couples with no dance experience . In addition to America 's Best Dance Crew and Rock the Reception , they joined the choreography and judging team on the fourth season of So You Think You Can Dance . It was on this show that their lyrical hip @-@ hop choreography style gained mainstream exposure .
Lyrical hip @-@ hop is a fluid and more interpretive version of standard hip @-@ hop often danced to downtempo rap music or R & B music . The term itself was coined by choreographer and producer Adam Shankman in reference to a routine choreographed by Tabitha and Napoleon to Leona Lewis ' song " Bleeding Love " . " Bleeding Love " was nominated for a 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography . After the season ended , Tabitha and Napoleon directed the 2008 So You Think You Can Dance Tour . They continued creative directing several other concerts throughout the remainder of the year .
They teamed up with Jamie King again and served as assistant directors for Celine Dion 's Taking Chances Tour . They directed Monsters of Hip Hop : The Show and America 's Best Dance Crew Live which featured dance crews JabbaWockeeZ , Super Cr3w , Fanny Pak , ASIID , and Breaksk8 . OMG ! gave the concert a positive review stating that the five crews represented a good mix of styles and that the concert brought the best parts of the show to the stage .
In January 2009 , the Nappytabs dancewear website launched which began the start of online clothing sales . Their dancewear website is designed and maintained by Ryan Cyphert 's 3nine Design media company . Cyphert is also a professional dancer and a colleague of Tabitha and Napoleon ; they have all taught at Shock the Intensive dance convention . When Tabitha and Napoleon joined So You Think You Can Dance , dancers on the show , as well as on America 's Best Dance Crew and Dancing With the Stars , were already wearing their clothing line during rehearsals . Some of the sponsors were not happy about it and wanted to cover the Nappytabs logo on the clothing . In response to this , judge and executive producer Nigel Lythgoe decided to start calling Tabitha and Napoleon " Nappytabs " during the show so that viewers who looked them up on Google would find their store 's website .
In April 2009 , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed two couples ' routines and a group routine for the second season of So You Think You Can Dance Australia . The " Arab Money " hip @-@ hop routine that they choreographed received positive reviews from the judges but their " Dead and Gone " lyrical hip @-@ hop routine , which was performed later on the same episode , received the most praise . Bonnie Lythgoe called it the " top routine of the night " . Jason Coleman added " the choreography [ was ] absolutely spectacular " and Matt Lee said it was " ... probably the best routine in the series . " While in Australia , Tabitha and Napoleon were judges at the 2009 Australian Hip Hop Championships in Sydney .
Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed several television specials later in the year . In September , they choreographed the opening dance sequence on the season seven premiere of The Ellen DeGeneres Show . The routine featured both DeGeneres and the top ten dancers from season five of So You Think You Can Dance . At the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , they choreographed a routine honoring dance that featured Karina Smirnoff and Maksim Chmerkovskiy from Dancing With The Stars ; Katee Shean , Mark Kanemura , and Joshua Allen from So You Think You Can Dance ; and four members of Quest Crew — the winners of season three of America 's Best Dance Crew . They finished the year with choreography for Carrie Underwood 's All @-@ Star Holiday Special and Jennifer Lopez ' performances at the American Music Awards and Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest .
= = = 2010 – 2011 : Stage productions and brand expansion = = =
In 2010 , Tabitha and Napoleon returned to So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) for season seven and started to work with four different productions of Cirque du Soleil . In February , they provided choreography for Cirque du Soleil 's Viva Elvis show at the Aria hotel in Las Vegas . They also choreographed a Viva Elvis guest appearance on Dancing with the Stars . On SYTYCD , they choreographed routines for the contestants as well as one guest performance for the cast of Cirque du Soleil 's Beatles Love . They worked with Love again at the NHL awards and with their sister Cirque productions Kà , for a guest performance on America 's Got Talent , and Mystère , for a guest performance on Lopez Tonight . After SYTYCD ended , they appeared as guest choreographers on the Ukrainian version of the show called Everybody Can Dance ! / Танцюють всі ! .
Aside from choreography , Tabitha and Napoleon continued to develop and expand their dancewear line . In May , they opened the Nappytabs store and dance studio in the North Hollywood Arts District . Although they design their own clothing , they commissioned some print and t @-@ shirt designs from Alex Lodermeier who has also designed for Propr , a clothing line owned by Ben Harper , David Arquette , and David Bedwell . Through Nappytabs , they also started to sponsor The Pulse on Tour dance convention and the Industry Voice online newsletter . Their clothing appears in independent R & B singer John Gillette 's music video " All Bad " . Tabitha was a featured dancer in the video and Napoleon made a cameo appearance at the end .
Also in May , the JabbaWockeeZ ' MÜS.I.C. ( pronounced MUSE @-@ i @-@ see ) stage show , which Tabitha and Napoleon directed , opened at the MGM Grand Las Vegas hotel . MÜS.I.C. was the first hip @-@ hop dance stage show on the Las Vegas Strip . The show was 90 minutes long involving dancing , comedy , and magic . In October , MÜS.I.C. moved to the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino . At the Monte Carlo premiere , the JabbaWockeeZ brought Tabitha on stage for a cameo appearance .
In February 2011 , Tabitha and Napoleon made their music video directorial debut with the song " All These Boys " by Jasmine Villegas . Unlike John Gillette 's " All Bad " they did not dance or appear in the video , but they did serve as the choreographers . In the Spring , they returned to working in television with two projects . At the invitation of Nigel Lythgoe , they joined the production crew on the tenth season of American Idol as staging and creative directors . They also choreographed the Howie Mandel @-@ produced television show Mobbed which premiered after American Idol on March 31 , 2011 . The pilot episode was actually shot in September 2010 , but after drawing 10 @.@ 8 million views it was picked up as a series .
In April 2011 , they started work on the film Make Your Move starring Derek Hough from Dancing With the Stars and K @-@ pop singer BoA Kwon . Their relationship with BoA extended past the production of the film when they choreographed the music video for her song " Only One " — the title track from her seventh studio album . SeoulBeats.com called Tabitha and Napoleon 's involvement " beyond perfect " and acknowledged that using lyrical hip @-@ hop suited the song 's tempo and BoA 's movement . Due to scheduling conflicts with the production of Make Your Move , Tabitha and Napoleon did not return to America 's Best Dance Crew as supervising choreographers for season six . When filming was complete , they did return to Cirque du Soleil as two of ten choreographers for Michael Jackson : The Immortal World Tour . Like other stage shows they 've worked on in the past , this one was also directed by Jamie King . In the midst of all their professional accomplishments during the year , Christmas 2011 brought personal changes as Napoleon announced on their Twitter page that Tabitha was pregnant .
= = = 2012 – present : Music videos and K @-@ pop = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon spent the beginning of 2012 apart . While Tabitha was choreographing Madonna 's halftime performance for Super Bowl XLVI , Napoleon was shooting more scenes for COBU 3D and scouting for the seventh season of America 's Best Dance Crew . Although they never returned to America 's Best Dance Crew as supervising choreographers , Napoleon continued to serve as a talent scout — an extra role he had on the show since its inception . After the Super Bowl , Tabitha worked with Madonna again . She choreographed her music video " Girl Gone Wild " which featured all @-@ male Ukrainian dance troupe Kazaky . On August 10 , 2012 , she gave birth to son , London Riley D 'umo . During the last months of the year , Tabitha and Napoleon continued to work with K @-@ pop artists . They choreographed the music videos " Humanoids " by TVXQ and " I Got A Boy " by Girls ' Generation . TVXQ , Girls ' Generation , and BoA are all signed to S. M. Entertainment .
In May 2013 — two years after the premiere of MÜS.I.C. — the JabbaWockeeZ debuted a new stage show at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino called PRiSM , a backronym for Painting Reality in a Spectrum of Movement . Like their previous show , this one was also directed by Tabitha and Napoleon . The previous month , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed the music video " Puttin ' on the Ritz " by Herb Alpert , a jazz musician and co @-@ founder of A & M Records . On June 25 , 2013 , they recreated the video on SYTYCD as the opening routine for season ten 's Top 20 performance episode . Yahoo ! Music called the performance " absolutely epic " . Like the video , it was also shot in one take and several people made cameo appearances including Sean Cheesman , Travis Wall , Chris Scott , Nigel Lythgoe , Mary Murphy , Jason Gilkison , Herb Alpert , Lani Hall , and Tabitha and Napoleon themselves .
In February 2014 , Tabitha and Napoleon teamed up with TVXQ again to choreograph their music video " Spellbound " — the title track from their seventh album . Just like Alpert 's " Puttin ' on the Ritz " , this video was shot in one take , and just like BoA 's " Only One " , SeoulBeats.com gave it a positive review : " With two people in the group , there is not much of an opportunity to play around with different formations . However , Nappytabs tends to utilize this formation for TVXQ – rotating the members in the foreground and background , instead of always keeping the two in the centre . And this works especially well with the one @-@ shot style , since it allows room for the duo to work the entire space on set , on and off @-@ camera . " Billboard.com also gave the video a positive review : " The duo makes a strong case for 2014 's best choreography in the [ Spellbound ] video . " Tabitha and Napoleon also choreographed Super Junior @-@ M 's music video " Swing " — the title track from their third EP .
In the Spring , Tabitha and Napoleon were judges at the hip @-@ hop competition World of Dance Los Angeles . In the Summer , they directed Derek and Julianne Hough 's Move Live on Tour and Jennifer Lopez 's A.K.A. promotional tour . In the later part of the year , they directed and choreographed the music video for " Harlem Hopscotch " , the first single from Maya Angelou 's posthumous poetry album Caged Bird Songs . The video premiered December 23 , 2014 , on Oprah.com and features cameo appearances by ballroom dancer Derek Hough and actress Zendaya . Tabitha and Napoleon also choreographed Ed Sheeran 's music video for the single " Thinking Out Loud " . As of October 2015 , it had amassed over 750 million views .
In 2015 , Tabitha and Napoleon continued to work on music videos . They choreographed BoA 's " Kiss My Lips " and EXO 's " Call Me Baby " . Afterward , they choreographed Mariah Carey 's Number 1 's residency at Ceasar 's Palace hotel and executive produced the eighth season of America 's Best Dance Crew . Toward the end of the year , they sponsored the Dance Teacher Summit through their clothing line and appeared as judges on Every Single Step , a show Dance Spirit magazine called the " Project Runway for choreographers " .
In 2016 , Tabitha and Napoleon directed Jennifer Lopez 's Las Vegas residency All I Have .
= = Choreography style = =
= = = Artistry = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon 's choreography is primarily hip @-@ hop ; however , it varies across genres depending on what project they 're working on . For example , on America 's Best Dance Crew the group routines they choreographed have all been hip @-@ hop . However , on So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) they choreographed a few jazz routines and on Cirque du Soleil 's Viva Elvis their work incorporated acro . In general , their choreography emphasizes big visuals , which they attribute to their cheerleading past , and is " ... largely centered on storytelling and physical comedy . " Inspiration for lifts is taken from lucha libre , adagio , and swing dance . The style they are most known for is lyrical hip @-@ hop .
= = = Lyrical hip @-@ hop = = =
Lyrical dance is a studio @-@ based dance style that uses a combination of classical dance techniques from jazz and ballet to tell a story through movement . With jazz and ballet , technique alone can provide a good performance but in lyrical dance expressing emotion is emphasized just as much as technique . Hip @-@ hop is an urban dance style that is characterized as hard @-@ hitting involving isolations — moving certain body parts independently from others — and musicality , the body 's sensitivity to changes in music . Hip @-@ hop can incorporate movement from its substyles locking , breaking , popping , and boogaloo to add a different movement quality but conveying emotion does not have to be present as the dance is more about bravado and personal enjoyment . Lyrical hip @-@ hop is a fluid and more interpretive version of standard hip @-@ hop . It combines the nuances of lyrical dance with the vocabulary and foundational movements found in hip @-@ hop . According to Dance Spirit magazine , what differentiates lyrical hip @-@ hop from standard hip @-@ hop is that dancers interpret the beat differently . In lyrical hip @-@ hop there are still isolations , gliding , and body waves just like in standard hip @-@ hop . However , the movements are smoother and more fluid rather than hard @-@ hitting and , like lyrical dance , emphasis is placed on storytelling and conveying emotion through the choreography .
Lyrical hip @-@ hop first gained mainstream exposure , and its name , in 2008 on season four of SYTYCD . The term itself is credited to Adam Shankman , a choreographer and judge on the program , who made a comment in reference to a routine choreographed by Tabitha and Napoleon D 'umo to Leona Lewis ' song " Bleeding Love " . Due to Shankman 's comment and their subsequent work on seasons four through seven , Tabitha and Napoleon are credited with developing this style .
Some hip @-@ hop purists feel the interpretive and softer approach means lyrical hip @-@ hop is not hip @-@ hop at all . From a purist perspective , dancing to the lyrics would make the choreography linear and too technical . This is because dancing to the words would take precedence over dancing to the beat . Traditionally in hip @-@ hop , dancing to the beat is essential ; lyrics can accent the movement , but the beat is the guiding force for the dancing . Other hip @-@ hop dancers , such as choreographer Shane Sparks , believe that lyrical hip @-@ hop is hip @-@ hop but not different enough for it to have a separate label or be in its own subgenre .
= = = Teaching = = =
Although Tabitha and Napoleon have a solid career in choreography and creative direction , they spend a significant amount of time teaching classes at dance studios and conventions . They have stated that teaching helps their choreography because it keeps them current on new hip @-@ hop social dances ( party dances ) . They are faculty members at Monsters of Hip Hop dance convention . In the past they have taught at Shock the Intensive , the Edge Performing Arts Center , Millennium Dance Complex , Hip Hop International , Dance Blitz , Seattle Theater Group , Coastal Dance Rage , the Dance Teacher Web Conference and Expo , Teen Dance Company of the Bay Area , JUMP , Xtreme Dance Force , ProDance , Triple Threat Dance , Project 818 , Boogiezone , iHollywood , the So You Think You Can Dance Experience , DANCE ! The Convention , the Hollywood Summer Tour , Velocity , Radix , The Zoo , and VIP Dance Events .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = JabbaWockeeZ = = =
The JabbaWockeeZ performed the show MÜS.I.C. from May 2010 to September 2012 . Over the course of their two @-@ year run , the show received mixed reviews . For their second show PRiSM they signed a six @-@ year deal which included building a new 830 @-@ seat theater in a space that used to house a motion @-@ simulator ride . Upon opening , PRiSM was met with positive reviews . Tabitha and Napoleon directed both shows .
= = = = MÜS.I.C. = = = =
The first run of MÜS.I.C. was held at the MGM Grand Las Vegas hotel and casino . Las Vegas Weekly wrote that MÜS.I.C. had " game @-@ changing potential " because it was the first time hip @-@ hop dance had headlined a show on the Las Vegas Strip . In contrast , the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal ( LVRJ ) criticized the show for being repetitious and for having a bare stage for the first 20 minutes . LVRJ also criticized the use of masks as not appealing to a casual viewer because it inhibited the dancers ' personality : " Even if a generational split is in play here , it would be tough to hear the creators argue that the show would suffer if , after 20 minutes or so -- gasp ! -- makeup or clown @-@ face replaced the masks to expand the original concept . " In October 2010 , the show moved to the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino . Changes to the original show included a bigger stage , a new set , and added dance routines . CraveOnline.com called the new show " amazing " and Zap2It.com described it as " a vibrant , frenetic and multi @-@ genre extravaganza of visuals , sound and movement . "
In April 2012 , the Jabbawockeez began running two MÜS.I.C. shows in tandem . Some members stayed with the flagship show in Las Vegas while the others took the show on limited residencies elsewhere . Their first residency outside Las Vegas was in Australia at the Jupiters Hotel and Casino in Gold Coast , Queensland . Gold Coast Magazine gave the show a good review describing it as " magical ... it truly does stir an emotional response through your soul and the combination of dance and drama make it appealing to all ages . " After leaving Jupiters , the Jabbawockeez took up a second month @-@ long residency in August 2012 at Harrah 's Resort Atlantic City casino in New Jersey . Philly.com gave it a lukewarm review : " The problem is that as good as Jabbawockeez is at what [ they do ] , the novelty wears off about a third @-@ way through the show ... the bulk of the performance pretty much offers little more than variations on a theme . As such , Jabbawockeez would have much more impact as a featured act in a variety show than it has on its own . " The members that stayed in Las Vegas temporarily moved into an 800 @-@ seat tent outside the Monte Carlo to continue their show . VegasChatter.com reviewed the tent show and called it " an entertaining , fun , and interactive performance show . " They performed in the tent from June 2012 through September 2012 with the understanding they would take up residence in the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in the Spring of 2013 .
= = = = PRiSM = = = =
The JabbaWockeeZ second stage show PRiSM opened at the Luxor Las Vegas on May 31 , 2013 . The show 's original title was Nonsense ( a nod to the crew 's name ) because , at the time , they lacked a cohesive theme . However , it was Napoleon 's idea to change the title to PRiSM since there were seven crew members and when light goes into a prism , seven colors emerge ( the Luxor hotel is in the shape of a triangular prism ) . From that point on , unity and color became the themes of the show .
PRiSM received positive reviews . Las Vegas Weekly wrote " Those who deride the art of pantomime or breakdancing need to check this show out . It will change your mind . " Las Vegas Sun ( LVS ) described the show as " a mix of great choreography , interesting storylines and special effects reminiscent of Electric Daisy Carnival ... " . LVS also wrote " It ’ s great to see a different kind of headliner — in content and ethnic makeup — thriving on the Strip . " Vegas Kool stated that the new theater " ... is laid out [ so ] everyone has a great view of the stage . " Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal ( LVRJ ) directly addressed Tabitha and Napoleon 's involvement in " ... turning the Jabbawockeez brand into an oddly endearing mix of mime , modern dance and physical theater . "
Several reviewers noted that overall PRiSM is better than MÜS.I.C. LVRJ wrote " ... it all seems to hang together better this time , with a seamless flow and unifying themes of brotherhood and diversity . " Dance Track Magazine wrote " Not only does the show have a much more intimate feel than previous Jabbawockeez shows , but PRiSM also includes increased audience participation , intensified humor and a storyline that is dramatic and flows through the entire performance . " IGoShows.com had the same observation : " ... the [ previous ] shows were plagued by lost opportunities , undeveloped ideas , and repetition . They seem to have corrected these shortcomings . ' Prism ' is better in almost every way over its predecessors . The show has a cohesiveness that it never had before , good follow @-@ through on ideas , and far more intriguing staging . The choreography is strong , varied , and doesn ’ t suffer the repetition that had invaded it previously . "
= = = So You Think You Can Dance = = =
Most criticism of Tabitha and Napoleon 's choreography has come as a result of their work on So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) . Over the course of their involvement with the show , they have received mixed reviews . At worst , their choreography has been criticized as " softie hip @-@ hop ( more like ' hip @-@ pop ' ) " . At best , it has been described as " amazing " and " bring [ ing ] out the best in their dancers ... " .
= = = = Seasons four , five , and six = = = =
Lyrical hip @-@ hop gained exposure and popularity during Tabitha and Napoleon 's first season with SYTYCD ( season four ) . On the first performance episode , contestants Katee Shean and Joshua Allen performed a D 'umo choreographed lyrical hip @-@ hop piece to the song " No Air " by Jordin Sparks . This routine received positive reviews and was later chosen as a " Judges ' Favorite " by judge and executive producer Nigel Lythgoe to be performed again during the finale . BuddyTV.com wrote that the routine deserved an Emmy nomination . Although Tabitha and Napoleon were not nominated for " No Air " , they were nominated for " Bleeding Love " , another lyrical hip @-@ hop routine performed by Mark Kanemura and Chelsie Hightower which the San Francisco Gate called a " great drama from hip @-@ hop choreographers Tabitha and Napoleon D 'Umo , danced with chemistry and theatrical flair . " This routine was picked as a " Judges ' Favorite " by choreographer and judge Christopher " Lil ' C " Toler . In June 2010 , TVSquad.com named " No Air " and " Bleeding Love " two of the ten best routines from all seasons of SYTYCD . A third Tabitha and Napoleon lyrical hip @-@ hop routine choreographed to Alicia Keys ' song " Like You 'll Never See Me Again " did not receive as much critical praise or attention as " Bleeding Love " or " No Air " ; however , Nigel Lythgoe confessed when giving feedback on the dance that season four was the first time he had been emotionally affected by hip @-@ hop routines .
Seasons five and six brought less praise for Tabitha and Napoleon . During season five 's Top 8 performance episode , Lythgoe commented after a hip @-@ hop routine choreographed by Shane Sparks " It 's wonderful to have Shane Sparks back this season . He brings something else ... I 've been a little disappointed with our hip @-@ hop this year . " Out of the ten hip @-@ hop routines ( both couples and group routines ) choreographed on season five previous to Lythgoe 's comment , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed seven . The most significant criticism came during season six in response to " People are Strange " — a routine about how aliens would attempt to dance hip @-@ hop . None of the judges liked the routine . Lythgoe said the routine placed concept ( theme ) over substance ( dancing ) . All the judges felt that the dance was weird and that the choreography was more to blame for the dancers ' performance than the dancing itself . Of the routine " Give it to me Right " that Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed on a later season six episode about two fraternizing office employees , TVSquad.com wrote that many parts were awkward and that the dance only became enjoyable once the dancers " stopped cavorting around the desk and got out on the floor . " In contrast to the mediocre to bad reviews , two other routines they choreographed were picked as " Judges ' Favorite " during the season six finale : " Beggin ' " ( chosen by Lil ' C ) and " I Can Transform Ya " ( chosen by Mary Murphy ) .
= = = = Seasons seven and eight = = = =
Tabitha and Napoleon received their best reviews on SYTYCD during season seven after a performance they choreographed to the song " Outta Your Mind " by Lil Jon . Creators.com called the routine " brilliantly imaginative . " Pioneer Local called it " powerful ... It 's been so long since [ Tabitha and Napoleon ] have had a showstopping hip @-@ hop number on SYTYCD . Not since Season 4 when they had Katee , Joshua , tWitch , Mark and Chelsie have they pulled out hip @-@ hop this good . " The routine was performed by ballet dancer Alex Wong and " All @-@ Star " hip @-@ hop dancer Stephen " tWitch " Boss from season four . The concept is about a psychologist ( tWitch ) who teaches a dancer ( Alex ) to let go of his technique and inhibitions and just dance . After the performance , tWitch and Alex received a standing ovation from the crowd and all three judges — Nigel Lythgoe , Mia Michaels , and Adam Shankman . Host Cat Deeley commented " I have never , never , in ' So You Think You Can Dance ' history , heard a roar from a crowd like this - ever . " Lythgoe called the concept " brilliant ... This is about a ballet dancer doing the most incredible hip @-@ hop ... If this routine and you are not up for an Emmy with Napoleon and Tabitha next year , I don 't know why not . It 's probably one of the funnest , best hip @-@ hop routines we 've ever had on this show . " In slight disagreement , the Wall Street Journal noted that " Outta Your Mind " may in fact be nominated for an Emmy , but it is unlikely to win because past winners have all been lyrical , very emotional routines .
On a later episode , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed a lyrical hip @-@ hop routine to Alicia Keys debut single " Fallin ' . " Of the dance , judge Mia Michaels stated " That to me felt more real than any contemporary piece , honestly , because it came from such a raw raw space and place . That was absolutely unbelievable , and it was like watching a dance film . " Lythgoe stated that the dance reminded him of " Bleeding Love " and " No Air " from season four and added " Somehow Napoleon and Tabitha have this ability ... to put emotion into hip @-@ hop routines and it really is a real talent . "
The positive reviews continued through the rest of the season . Of Tabitha and Napoleon 's " Scars " routine about angry clowns , Lythgoe called the piece " stunning " and Michaels described it as " hip @-@ hop theater " . After the episode aired , Dance Spirit magazine wrote " Tabitha and Napoleon are on FIRE this season ! " The Los Angeles Times echoed this comment stating that season seven had been " Nappytabs ' best season " . On the Top 3 performance episode , after their " Power " routine danced by eventual champion Lauren Froderman and " All @-@ Star " tWitch , Michaels commented " Nappytabs what a season you have had , my God . It 's been like home run after home run after home run ... " . Shankman echoed this comment on the finale by calling Tabitha and Napoleon " the MVPs of the season " . Four of their routines — " Fallin ' " , " Scars " , " Battle for the Beat " , and " My Chick Bad " — were chosen as " Judges ' Favorite " during the season seven finale broadcast . Due to an injury sustained by Alex Wong , " Outta Your Mind " was not picked as a judge 's favorite . Instead , it was performed by tWitch and special guest Ellen DeGeneres as a tribute to Alex just before Lauren Froderman was declared the winner of season seven .
Season eight brought back mixed feedback . Early in the season , Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed a lyrical hip @-@ hop routine " Coming Home " about a veteran coming back to his wife after returning from his deployment . The routine generated positive while emotional responses causing both guest judge Debbie Reynolds and resident judge Mary Murphy to cry while giving feedback . The Star Ledger placed " Coming Home " at number three in its list of the top five routines performed during season eight . Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed another lyrical hip @-@ hop routine " I Got You " on the Top 16 performance episode . Celebuzz.com called the routine " dramatic and breathtaking " . The dance generated positive reviews from the judges causing them to spontaneously kiss one another in response to a kiss that was choreographed into the dance . On the Top 8 performance episode , Lady Gaga appeared as a guest judge in which three hip @-@ hop routines were performed . Although Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed two of them , she criticized their work while giving feedback on all three . She indirectly criticized them after a lyrical hip @-@ hop piece choreographed by Marty Kudelka in which she referred to the dance style as " dated " . Of the two routines they did choreograph , she criticized their use of props in both of them . A flower was used in the first routine " Take a Bow " about a cheating boyfriend asking for forgiveness . Several props including trash cans , rags , and brooms were used in the second routine " Bad Boys for Life " about waste management workers . Aside from disliking the props , she described their hip @-@ hop choreography for " Bad Boys for Life " as " contrived " . On the finale , " Coming Home " was not picked as a " Judges Favorite " but two other routines they choreographed , " I Got You " and " Break Ya Neck " , were chosen instead by judges Nigel Lythgoe and Lil ' C respectively .
= = = Make Your Move = = =
Make Your Move was released in South Korea on April 17 and the United States on April 18 . With the exception of a make @-@ out scene the choreography was generally praised among critics . The Washington Post stated " Although the bit of bedroom footwork was more laugh @-@ inducing than anything , some of the dancing really is spectacular . Scenes from the competing clubs include impressive choreography and gravity @-@ defying moves . " KPopStarz.com wrote " The dance teams and performances are enough to dominate the scenes , and definitely deserve a look . They bring forth the unique charm of watching a dance movie . " RogerEbert.com stated " ' Make Your Move ' rests on the success of its various dance sequences , not its plot . And the dancing here is exciting , innovative , and specific . Each ' number ' has a story behind it , a motivation , a different look and feel ... I could have lived without the choreographed ( literally ) foreplay scene , as they dance their way to the bed , but there are other dance sequences between the two where their chemistry vibrates off the screen . " The Hollywood Reporter said " The Romeo and Juliet @-@ inspired plotline basically serves as a framing device allowing the opportunity for a plethora of exuberant dance sequences that particularly show off Hough 's considerable talent . "
= = Awards and recognition = =
Primetime Emmy Awards
Tabitha and Napoleon have won two Emmys from a total of four nominations . At the 2013 Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony , they joined the other six choreography nominees and created a routine honoring dance that was performed just before the Outstanding Choreography award was presented . 2013 was the first year the Outstanding Choreography award was presented at the Primetime Emmys telecast rather than at the Creative Arts Emmys ceremony which takes place a week prior .
MTV Video Music Awards
Dancers ' Choice Awards
The Carnival Choreographer 's Ball
World of Dance
Entertainment Weekly
In 2011 , Entertainment Weekly compiled a list of the " 25 Best Performances Ever " on So You Think You Can Dance . Tabitha and Napoleon choreographed four routines on the list .
= = Charity work = =
Tabitha and Napoleon have donated money and their time to different non @-@ profit organizations . In 2009 , they made an appearance at the Life Changing Lives Gala , the proceeds of which benefited the Wounded Warrior Project , the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation , and the Boys & Girls Clubs . At the event , dancers Katie Shean and Joshua Allen from season four of So You Think You Can Dance performed the D 'umo choreographed " No Air " lyrical hip @-@ hop routine about a soldier telling his girlfriend he is being deployed .
In the wake of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Tabitha and Napoleon held a week @-@ long fundraiser from online sales of their dancewear line . The money raised was donated to Artists for Peace and Justice who in turn gave 100 % of their donations toward humanitarian relief efforts . For a separate fundraiser , they donated Nappytabs merchandise for a silent auction held by the organization Art4Life to benefit the American Cancer Society .
In 2012 , they taught classes at " The JabbaWockeez Experience " held at the Alexis Park Resort in Las Vegas . The event raised money for the Monsters on the Move Foundation which grants scholarships to aspiring dancers .
In 2013 , they worked with the Jabbawockeez again on a music video to the song " Celebrate " by Empire of the Sun and Tommy Trash . The music video also featured Les Twins , 8 Flavahz , and Harry Shum , Jr. and was used to raise money for a Coke ( RED ) campaign to decrease the number of HIV @-@ infected newborns and raise awareness about AIDS . For Veterans Day 2013 , they choreographed a military themed performance for the Homeward Bound Telethon that aired live on the Military Channel . The purpose of the telethon was to raise money for veterans who suffer from traumatic brain injury and PTSD .
Tabitha and Napoleon are on the board of directors of the Dizzy Feet Foundation and the advisory board of The Young Choreographers Festival .
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= Joseph Szigeti =
Joseph Szigeti ( Hungarian : Szigeti József , [ ˈjoːʒɛf ˈsiɡɛti ] ; 5 September 1892 – 19 February 1973 ) was a Hungarian violinist .
Born into a musical family , he spent his early childhood in a small town in Transylvania . He quickly proved himself to be a child prodigy on the violin , and moved to Budapest with his father to study with the renowned pedagogue Jenő Hubay . After completing his studies with Hubay in his early teens , Szigeti began his international concert career . His performances at that time were primarily limited to salon @-@ style recitals and the more overtly virtuosic repertoire ; however , after making the acquaintance of pianist Ferruccio Busoni , he began to develop a much more thoughtful and intellectual approach to music that eventually earned him the nickname " The Scholarly Virtuoso " .
Following a bout of tuberculosis that required a stay in a sanatorium in Switzerland , Szigeti settled in Geneva , where he became Professor of Violin at the local conservatory in 1917 . It was in Geneva that he met his future wife , Wanda Ostrowska , and at roughly the same time he became friends with the composer Béla Bartók . Both relationships were to be lifelong .
From the 1920s until 1960 , Szigeti performed regularly around the world and recorded extensively . He also distinguished himself as a strong advocate of new music , and was the dedicatee of many new works by contemporary composers . Among the more notable pieces written for him are Ernest Bloch 's Violin Concerto , Bartók 's Rhapsody No. 1 , and Eugène Ysaÿe 's Solo Sonata No. 1 . After retiring from the concert stage in 1960 , he worked at teaching and writing until his death in 1973 , at the age of 80 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Szigeti was born Joseph " Jóska " Singer to a Jewish family in Budapest , Austria @-@ Hungary . His mother died when he was three years old , and soon thereafter the boy was sent to live with his grandparents in the little Carpathian town of Máramaros @-@ Sziget ( hence the name Szigeti ) . He grew up surrounded by music , as the town band was composed almost entirely of his uncles . After a few informal lessons on the cimbalom from his aunt , he received his first lessons on the violin from his Uncle Bernat at the age of six .
Szigeti quickly showed a talent for the violin . Several years later , his father took him to Budapest to receive proper training at the conservatory . After a brief stint with an inadequate teacher , Szigeti auditioned at the Franz Liszt Academy of Music and was admitted directly into the class of Jenő Hubay , without the usual delays and formalities .
Hubay , who had been a student of Joseph Joachim in Berlin , had by that time established himself as one of the preeminent teachers in Europe and a fountainhead of the Hungarian violin tradition . Szigeti joined such violinists as Franz von Vecsey , Emil Telmányi , Jelly d 'Arányi and Stefi Geyer in Hubay ’ s studio .
In those days , Europe produced a great many child prodigies , inspired by the phenomenal success of the young Czech virtuoso Jan Kubelík and formed by rigorous teaching and enthusiastic parents . The Hubay studio was no exception ; Szigeti and his fellow wunderkinder performed extensively in special recitals and salon concerts during their study at the Liszt Academy .
In 1905 , at the age of thirteen , Szigeti made his Berlin debut playing Bach 's Chaconne in D minor , Ernst 's Concerto in F @-@ sharp minor , and Paganini 's Witches Dance . Despite the formidable program , the event received mention only by a photograph in the Sunday supplement of the Berliner Tageblatt captioned : " A Musical Prodigy : Josef Szigeti " .
Szigeti spent the next few months with a summer theater company in a small Hungarian resort town , playing mini @-@ recitals in between acts of folk operetta . In that same vein , the next year he played at a circus in Frankfurt , where he appeared under the pseudonym " Jóska Szulagi " . Also in 1906 , Hubay took Szigeti to play for Joseph Joachim in Berlin . Joachim was impressed , and suggested that Szigeti should finish his studies with him . Szigeti declined the offer , both out of loyalty to Hubay and a perceived aloofness and lack of rapport between Joachim and his students .
= = = Broadening horizons = = =
Soon after the meeting with Joachim , Szigeti embarked on a major concert tour of England . Midway through the tour , in Surrey , he met a music @-@ loving couple who effectively adopted him , extending an invitation to stay with them for an indefinite length of time .
Throughout England , he gave many successful concerts , including the premiere of the first work dedicated to him : Hamilton Harty 's Violin Concerto . Also during this time , Szigeti toured with an all @-@ star ensemble including legendary singer Dame Nellie Melba and pianists Ferruccio Busoni and Wilhelm Backhaus . Philippe Gaubert , a famous French flutist of the day , as well as the young singer John McCormack , were also part of these tours .
The most significant of the new contacts was Busoni . The great pianist and composer became Szigeti 's mentor during these formative years , and the two would remain close friends until Busoni 's death in 1924 . By Szigeti 's own admission , before meeting Busoni his life was characterized by a certain laziness and indifference brought on by the then @-@ typical life of a young prodigy violinist . He had grown accustomed to playing crowd @-@ pleasing salon miniatures and dazzling virtuosic encores without much thought . He knew little of the works of the great masters ; he could play them , but not fully understand them . As Szigeti put it , Busoni — particularly through their careful study of Bach 's Chaconne — " shook me once and for all out of my adolescent complacency " .
= = = Illness and new beginnings = = =
In 1913 , Szigeti was diagnosed with tuberculosis and was sent to a sanatorium in Davos , Switzerland to recover , interrupting his concert career . During his stay at the sanatorium , he became re @-@ acquainted with the composer Béla Bartók , who was recovering from pneumonia . The two had known each other only in passing during their conservatory days , but now they began a friendship that would last until Bartók ’ s death in 1945 .
In 1917 , having by then made a full recovery , at age 25 Szigeti was appointed Professor of Violin at the Geneva Conservatory of Music . Szigeti said that this job , although generally satisfying , was often frustrating due to the mediocre quality of many of his students . The years teaching in Geneva provided an opportunity for Szigeti to deepen his understanding of music as an art , along with other aspects such as chamber music , orchestral performance , music theory and composition . Also during that time , Szigeti met and fell in love with Wanda Ostrowska , a young woman of Russian parentage who had been stranded in Geneva by the Russian Revolution of 1917 . They married in 1919 .
= = = American debut = = =
In 1925 , Szigeti met Leopold Stokowski and played the Bach Chaconne in D minor for him . Less than two weeks later , Szigeti received a telegram from Stokowski ’ s manager in Philadelphia inviting him to perform with the Philadelphia Orchestra later that year : it was his American debut . Szigeti had never played with an American orchestra before , nor heard one , and later he wrote of suffering stage fright . He was taken aback by the American concert scene , and the way that its publicity and popularity driven agents and managers determined much of what was heard in American concert halls . He believed they were not interested in works by the great masters , but preferred the popular light salon pieces he had left behind in his prodigy days . ( To the end of his life , Szigeti loved to quote one memorable , cigar @-@ chewing impresario who told him , with regard to Beethoven 's Kreutzer Sonata , " Well , let me tell you , Mister Dzigedy — and I know what I ’ m talking about — your Krewtzer Sonata bores the pants off my audiences ! " )
= = = Maturity = = =
By 1930 , Szigeti was established as a major international concert violinist . He performed extensively in Europe , the United States and Asia , and made the acquaintance of many of the era ’ s leading instrumentalists , conductors and composers .
In 1939 , to escape the war and Nazi persecution of the Jews , Szigeti emigrated with his wife to the United States , where they settled in California . ( A year later , Bartók also fled to America , and just two days after his arrival , he and Szigeti played a sonata recital at the Library of Congress in Washington , D.C. )
During the 1930s , 1940s and into the 1950s , Szigeti recorded extensively , leaving a significant legacy . Notable recordings include the above @-@ mentioned Library of Congress sonata recital ; the studio recording of Bartók 's Contrasts with Benny Goodman on clarinet and the composer at the piano ; the violin concertos of Beethoven , Brahms , Mendelssohn , Prokofiev ( No. 1 ) and Bloch under the batons of such conductors as Bruno Walter , Hamilton Harty and Sir Thomas Beecham ; and various works by J.S. Bach , Busoni , Corelli , Handel and Mozart . One of his last recordings was of the Six Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin by Bach ; although his technique had deteriorated noticeably by that time , the recording is prized for Szigeti 's insight and depth of interpretation .
In 1950 , Szigeti was detained at Ellis Island upon returning from a European concert tour and was held for several days , officially " temporarily excluded " from the country . The reasons for his detention remain unclear . The following year , he became a naturalized American citizen .
= = = Later years = = =
During the 1950s , Szigeti began to develop arthritis in his hands and his playing deteriorated . Despite his weakened technical mastery , his intellect and musical expression were still strong , and he continued to draw large audiences to his concerts . In Naples , Italy , in November 1956 , just after the Soviets crushed the Hungarian uprising , as soon as he walked onto the stage the audience burst into wild applause and shouts of Viva l ’ Ungheria ! ( Italian for " Long live Hungary ! " ) , delaying the concert for nearly fifteen minutes .
In 1960 Szigeti officially retired from performing , and returned to Switzerland with his wife . There he devoted himself primarily to teaching , although he still traveled regularly to judge international violin competitions . Top @-@ class students from all over Europe and the United States came to study under him . One of these students was Arnold Steinhardt , who spent the summer of 1962 with Szigeti . He came to the conclusion that " Joseph Szigeti was a template for the musician I would like to become : inquisitive , innovative , sensitive , feeling , informed " .
Toward the end of his life , Szigeti suffered from frail health . He was put on strict diets and had several stays in hospital , but his friends asserted that this did nothing to dampen his characteristic cheerfulness . He died in Lucerne , Switzerland on February 19 , 1973 , at the age of 80 . The New York Times ran a front @-@ page obituary that ended with this 1966 quote from violinist Yehudi Menuhin :
We must be humbly grateful that the breed of cultured and chivalrous violin virtuosos , aristocrats as human beings and as musicians , has survived into our hostile age in the person of Joseph Szigeti .
= = Family life = =
In 1918 , while teaching in Geneva , Szigeti met and fell in love with Wanda Ostrowska . She was born in Russia and had been stranded by the Russian Revolution of 1917 with her sister at a finishing school in Geneva . In 1919 , Szigeti and Ostrowska decided to get married , but due to the turbulent political situation in Europe , many unexpected bureaucratic obstacles were thrown up in their path . The first problem was the impossibility of contacting Ostrowska 's family , and the couple were forced to go ahead without parental consent , with the permission only of Ostrowska 's sister and the headmistress of the finishing school . Further bureaucratic entanglements threatened the young couple 's hopes , but eventually the officials responsible granted them a dispensation to marry . Szigeti recalls in his memoirs the words of Consul General Baron de Montlong at the critical moment :
Let us not , if we can avoid it , fall victim to the dead letter of the law . I don 't want to postpone the happiness of these two youngsters if we can help it . All laws have been twisted and tortured out of semblance of law , what with war and revolutions . For once let 's twist and turn one for a good cause , yes ?
Just before the birth of their only child , daughter Irene , Szigeti found himself stuck in Berlin during the Kapp Putsch of 1920 , unable to return to Geneva . The entire city had been paralyzed by a general strike , and the trains were not running . His scheduled concert could not go on as planned , but he was forced to stay in Berlin for " interminable days " while the Putsch ran its course . Szigeti writes : " ... the impossibility of communicating by phone or wire with my wife--whose condition I pictured with the somewhat lurid pessimism usual to young prospective fathers--was certainly a greater torment to me than all the other discomforts put together " .
By 1940 , the outbreak of World War II forced the Szigetis to leave Europe for the United States . ( Irene remained in Switzerland , having married pianist Nikita Magaloff earlier that year . ) They settled in California , where Wanda , always fond of nature , was delighted to be able to raise her own garden . In a letter to a friend , Szigeti describes their California life :
Wanda is happy , doing wonders with her gardening , chicken and rabbit raising , preserve and pâté de foie making . She doesn 't budge from our place , doesn 't want to come back to New York even for a visit , which I , for one , can well understand ! Two dogs , an aviary full of exotic birds , tomatoes , grapes , strawberries , asparagus , artichokes , lovely flowers ( camellias too ! ) , right in our own little world .
Szigeti narrowly escaped being killed in the plane crash that claimed the life of movie star Carole Lombard in January 1942 . Szigeti , who was on his way to Los Angeles for a concert , was forced to give up his seat on TWA Flight 3 at a refueling stop in Albuquerque , NM to allow the plane to take on 15 soldiers who , it being wartime , had priority . The plane , off course at night and with wartime blackout conditions in effect , crashed into a mountain cliff after take off from an intermediate stop in Las Vegas , killing everyone on board .
In 1960 , the couple returned to Europe and settled near Lake Geneva in Switzerland , close to the home of their daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law . They remained there for the rest of their lives . Wanda died in 1971 , predeceasing her husband by two years .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critics = = =
Writing in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Boris Schwarz commented :
Szigeti 's performing technique was not always flawless and his tone lacked sensuous beauty , although it acquired a spiritual quality in moments of inspiration ... Szigeti held the bow in an old @-@ fashioned way , with the elbow close to the body , and produced much emphatic power , but not without extraneous sounds . Minor reservations , however , were swept aside by the force of his musical personality .
This comment illustrates well the general nature of Szigeti 's reception by both critics and fellow musicians : while his musical insights , intellect , and depth of interpretation were almost universally lauded , the purely technical aspect of his playing was awarded a more mixed reaction . His tone in particular seems to have been occasionally uneven from performance to performance . A 1926 recital review in The New York Times , for example , laments that
... his performance was stiff and dry in its observance of letter and its absence of spirit ... Mr. Szigeti was not only inclined to dryness of tone and angularity of phrase , but there were also passages of poor intonation .
In contrast , a review from the previous year in the same journal remarked after a performance of the Beethoven concerto that
Mr. Szigeti has a rather small but beautiful tone , elegance , finish . He played with a quiet sincerity which grew upon the audience , though not with the virility and sweep that other violinists find ... it is clear that Mr. Szigeti is a player to command esteem and respect for his musicianship , for the genuineness of his interpretations , and his artistic style .
= = = Musicians = = =
Among his fellow musicians , Szigeti was widely admired and respected . Violinist Nathan Milstein wrote that
Szigeti ... was an incredibly cultured musician . Actually his talent grew out of his culture ... I always admired him , and he was respected by musicians ... in his late years , he finally got the appreciation he deserved from the general public as well .
In his memoirs , published in 2004 , cellist János Starker asserts that
Szigeti was one of the giants among the violinists I had heard from childhood on , and my admiration for him is undiminished up to this day .
Starker then describes a recital he attended late in Szigeti 's career , illustrating both the extent to which Szigeti was suffering from arthritis and his ability to still communicate his musical ideas effectively :
" He invited me to his recital in Town Hall ... the first few minutes were excruciating : as I saw later , his fingers had deteriorated to the point that he had almost no flesh on them . But once he loosened up a bit he produced heart @-@ rending beauty .
Violinist Yehudi Menuhin comments at length about Szigeti in his own memoirs , remarking as many others did on Szigeti 's intellectual approach to music , but in a somewhat more critical fashion :
Apart from Enesco , he was the most cultivated violinist I have ever known but while Enesco was a force of nature , Szigeti , slender , small , anxious , was a beautifully fashioned piece of porcelain , a priceless Sèvres vase . Curiously for a Hungarian , from whom one expects wild , energetic , spontaneous qualities , Szigeti travelled even farther up a one @-@ way road of deliberate intellectualism . A young accompanist who worked with Szigeti told me that two hours concentration wouldn 't get them beyond the first three bars of a sonata--so much analysis and ratiocination went into his practice ... A similar persnicketiness marked his adjudication . Shortly before he died in 1973 , he was a member of our jury at the City of London Carl Flesch Concours ... I was struck not only by the sharpness of his intellect but also by what seemed to me the perversity of his opinions . Some particular aspect of a competitor 's playing would hold his attention , and he would take violent issue with it , to the exclusion of everything else . For him a violinist was made or broken , a prize awarded or withheld , on details that to me scarcely mattered .
Nevertheless , Menuhin too referred to Szigeti as " a violinist whom I much admired and a man of whom I was very fond " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = The writer = = =
During his time in America , Szigeti took to writing ; his memoirs , With Strings Attached : Reminiscences and Reflections were published in 1947 . The New York Times reviewed it favorably : although in their description the book was " constructed along utterly anarchistic lines , with each episode and anecdote left pretty much on its own " , they asserted that " It also has the flavor of life in it , and it is marked by an exhilarating revolt against the custom of arranging catastrophes and triumphs under neat chapter headings " .
In 1969 , he published his treatise on violin playing , Szigeti on the Violin . In it Szigeti presents his opinions about the then @-@ current state of violin playing and the various challenges and issues facing musicians in the modern world , as well as a detailed examination of violin technique as he understood it .
A recurring theme in the first part is the changing nature of violinist ’ s lives during Szigeti ’ s later years . In his youth , concert artists relied primarily on recitals to establish themselves and attract critical attention and acclaim ; by the time of Szigeti ’ s writings , the recital had been eclipsed in importance by the competition . Szigeti was dismayed by this trend , especially since he considered the fast @-@ paced and intense preparation necessary for high @-@ level competitions to be " … incompatible with the slow maturing either of the performing artist or of the repertoire . " Szigeti believed that such accelerated development of a musician led to performances that " lack ( ed ) the stamp of authenticity , the mark of a personal view evolved through trial and error . " In a similar vein , he was skeptical of the effects produced by the recording industry on the culture of music @-@ making . In Szigeti ’ s opinion , the allure of the recording contract and the instant " success " that it implied led many young artists to record works before they were musically ready , and thus contributed to the problem of artificially fast development and resulting musical immaturity .
Szigeti also offers a lengthy and detailed explanation of his approach to violin technique . He believed that a violinist should be concerned primarily with musical goals , rather than simply choosing either the easiest or most impressively virtuosic way to play a certain passage . He was particularly concerned with tone color : he advised that " The player should cultivate a seismograph @-@ like sensitivity to brusque changes of tone colour caused by fingerings based on expediency and comfort rather than the composer ’ s manifest or probable intentions . " Other topics prominently discussed include the most effective position of a violinist 's left hand , the violin works of Béla Bartók , a cautionary list of widely accepted misprints and editorial inaccuracies in the standard repertoire , and most notably , the vital importance of J.S. Bach 's Six Sonatas and Partitas for any violinist 's technical and artistic development .
= = = New music = = =
Szigeti was an avid champion of new music , and frequently planned his recitals to include new or little @-@ known works alongside the classics . Many composers wrote new works for him , notably Béla Bartók , Ernest Bloch , and Eugène Ysaÿe , along with lesser @-@ known composers such as David Diamond and Hamilton Harty .
The reason for Szigeti 's appeal to composers was articulated by Bloch upon completion of his Violin Concerto : the concerto 's premiere would have to be delayed a full year for Szigeti to be the soloist , and Bloch agreed , saying that
Modern composers realize that when Szigeti plays their music , their inmost fancy , their slightest intentions become fully realized , and their music is not exploited for the glorification of the artist and his technique , but that artist and technique become the humble servant of the music .
Szigeti was also the dedicatee of the first of Eugène Ysaÿe 's Six Sonatas for Solo Violin ; in fact , Ysaÿe 's inspiration to compose the sonatas came from hearing Szigeti 's performances of J.S. Bach 's Six Sonatas and Partitas , to which they are intended as a modern counterpart .
Perhaps Szigeti 's most fruitful musical partnership was with his friend Béla Bartók . The first piece Bartók dedicated to him was the First Rhapsody for violin and orchestra ( or piano ) of 1928 ; the rhapsody , based on both Romanian and Hungarian folk tunes , was one of a pair of violin rhapsodies written in 1928 ( the other being dedicated to Zoltán Székely . ) In 1938 , Szigeti and clarinetist Benny Goodman teamed up to commission a trio from Bartók : originally intended to be a short work just long enough to fill both sides of a 78 rpm record , the piece soon expanded beyond its modest intent and became the three @-@ movement Contrasts for piano , violin and clarinet . In 1944 , by which time Szigeti and Bartók had both fled to the United States to escape the war in Europe , Bartók 's health was failing and he had sunk into depression . He was in dire need of money , but felt no inspiration to compose and was convinced that his works would never sell to an American audience . Szigeti came to his friend 's aid by securing donations from the American Society of Composers and Publishers to pay for Bartók 's medical treatment , and then , together with conductor and compatriot Fritz Reiner , persuaded Serge Koussevitzky to commission from Bartók what eventually became his much @-@ beloved Concerto for Orchestra . The work 's success brought Bartók some measure of financial security and provided him with a much @-@ needed emotional boost .
As well as performing new works dedicated to him , Szigeti also championed the music of other contemporary composers , notably Sergei Prokofiev and Igor Stravinsky . He was among the first violinists to make Prokofiev 's First Violin Concerto a standard part of his repertoire , and frequently performed and recorded works of Stravinsky ( including the Duo Concertante , recorded with the composer at the piano in 1945 . ) The Berg Violin Concerto he even recorded twice , under the baton of Dimitri Mitropoulos .
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= Ionian Islands under Venetian rule =
The Ionian Islands were a maritime and overseas possession of the Republic of Venice from the mid @-@ 14th century until the late 18th century . The conquest of the islands took place gradually . The first to be acquired was Cythera and the neighboring islet of Anticythera , indirectly in 1238 and directly after 1363 . In 1386 , Corfu voluntarily became part of Venice 's colonies . Following a century , Venice captured Zante in 1485 , Cephalonia in 1500 and Ithaca in 1503 . The conquest was completed in 1718 with the capture of Lefkada . Each of the islands remained part of the Venetian Stato da Màr until Napoleon Bonaparte dissolved the Republic of Venice in 1797 . The Ionian Islands are situated in the Ionian Sea , off the west coast of Greece . Cythera , the southernmost , is just off the southern tip of the Peloponnese and Corfu , the northernmost , is located at the entrance of the Adriatic Sea . In modern Greek , the period of Venetian rule over Greek territory is known as Venetokratia or Enetokratia ( Modern Greek : Βενετοκρατία or Ενετοκρατία ) and literally means " rule of the Venetians " . It is believed that the Venetian period on the Ionian Islands was agreeable , especially compared with the coinciding Turkish rule over other parts of present @-@ day Greece .
The governor of the Ionian Islands during the Venetian period was the Provveditore generale da Mar , who resided on Corfu . Additionally , each island 's authorities were divided into the Venetian and the domestic authorities . The economy of the islands was based on exporting local goods , primarily raisins , olive oil and wine , whereas Venetian lira , the currency of Venice , was also the currency of the islands . Some features of the culture of Venice were incorporated in the culture of the Ionian Islands , thus influencing to this day local music , cuisine and language . The Italian language , for instance , which was introduced on the islands as the official language and was adopted by the upper class , is still popular today throughout the islands .
= = Relations between Venice and Byzantium = =
Venice was founded in 421 after the destruction of nearby communities by the Huns and the Lombards . In the shifting Italian borders of the following centuries , Venice benefited from remaining under the control of the Roman Empire - increasingly as the furtherest Northwestern outpost of the now Constantinople centered power . During Justinian I 's reconquest of Italy from the Visigoths , Venice was an increasingly important stronghold for the Empire 's Exarchate of Ravenna . The political centre of the exarchate , and the most senior military officials of the Empire , were situated in Ravenna . The subordinate military officials who were their representatives in the Venetian lagoons were called tribunes , and only in about AD 697 were the lagoons made a separate military command under a dux ( doge ) . Notwithstanding the election of the first Doge , vassalic evidence such as honours and orders received by the doge from the Emperor implies that Venice was considered part of the Byzantine Empire even after the capture of Ravenna by the Lombards . Despite the Pax Nicephori ( 803 ) , which recognised Venice as Byzantine territory , the influence of the Eastern Roman Emperor slowly faded away . By 814 Venice functioned as a fully independent republic . Even so , Venice became a partner of the Empire and trading privileges were granted to it by the Emperors via treaties , such as the Byzantine – Venetian Treaty of 1082 .
The Fourth Crusade ( 1202 – 1204 ) was initially intended to invade Muslim @-@ controlled areas ; instead , the Crusaders attacked the capital of the Byzantine Empire , Constantinople , resulting in the temporary dissolution of the empire and the sack of its capital . As Venice was one of the participants in the Crusade its relations with the Byzantine Empire were strained during this period . Moreover , by styling himself " Lord of one @-@ quarter and one @-@ eighth of the whole Empire of Romania " after the Crusade , the Doge of Venice at that time , Enrico Dandolo ( who had masterminded the attack and personally led the final assault ) contributed to the deterioration of the relations between the two states . Efforts to improve relations , for example through the Nicaean – Venetian Treaty of 1219 , proved unsuccessful . A period of friendly relations only followed the Sicilian Vespers in 1282 , when Venice , foreseeing the fall of Charles , the French King of Sicily , began forming closer relations with Byzantium . Venice had been bound by an alliance with Charles against Byzantium in 1281 .
= = Appellation = =
The Islands were referred to , both individually and collectively , by various names . After Venice captured Cephalonia on 24 December 1500 , the administration of the defense of all the islands was delegated to an official seated in Corfu . This official was being referred to as " the General Provveditore of the Three Islands " ( Provveditore Generale delle Tre Isole ) and resided at the fortress of Angelokastro from 1387 to the end of the 16th century . The Three Islands refer to Corfu , Zante and Cephalonia . The Venetian equivalent for " Ionian Islands " is Ixołe Jonie , the Italian being Isole Ionie and the Greek Ιόνια Νησιά in Modern Greek and Ἰόνιοι Νῆσοι in Katharevousa .
Below are the seven principal islands from north to south , including their Greek and Italian names in parentheses :
Corfu ( Kerkyra ; Corfù )
Paxos ( Paxi ; Passo )
Lefkada ( Leucas ; Santa Maura or Lèucade )
Cephalonia ( Kefal ( l ) onia or Kefal ( l ) inia ; Cefalonia )
Ithaca ( Ithaki or Thiaki ; Itaca , Val di Compare or Piccola Cefalonia )
Zante ( Zakynthos ; Zante or Zacinto )
Cythera ( Kythira ; Cerigo )
Cythera and Lefkada were additionally called Çuha Adası or Çuka Adası and Ayamavra respectively by the Ottomans .
= = History = =
= = = Roman and Byzantine period = = =
During the Roman Empire , the Ionian Islands were variously part of the provinces of Achaea and Epirus vetus . These would form , with the exception of Cythera , the Byzantine theme of Cephallenia in the late 8th century . From the late 11th century , the Ionian Islands became a battleground in the Byzantine – Norman Wars . The island of Corfu was held by the Normans in 1081 – 1085 and 1147 – 1149 , while the Venetians unsuccessfully besieged it in 1122 – 1123 . The island of Cephalonia was also unsuccessfully besieged in 1085 , but was plundered in 1099 by the Pisans and in 1126 by the Venetians . Finally , Corfu and the rest of the theme , except for Lefkada , were captured by the Normans under William II of Sicily in 1185 . Although Corfu was recovered by the Byzantines by 1191 , the other islands henceforth remained lost to Byzantium , and formed a County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos under William 's Greek admiral Margaritus of Brindisi .
= = = The Frankokratia = = =
Following the Fourth Crusade and the signature of the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae , Corfu came under Venetian rule . In 1207 though , doge Pietro Ziani ceded the island as a feudum to ten Venetian nobles , provided that they demonstrate loyalty and devotion and that they pay taxes . Corfu passed in the hands of the Despotate of Epirus around 1214 , and was captured in 1257 by Manfred of Sicily , who put his admiral Philippe Chinard there in charge of his eastern possessions . Nonetheless , with the defeat of Manfred at Benevento and the signature of the Treaty of Viterbo on 27 May 1267 , Corfu became a possession of the Angevin Kingdom of Naples . Meanwhile , the rest of the islands continued to form part of the County palatine , which throughout its existence was governed by three families : the Orsini family , the House of Anjou and the Tocco family . The rule of the family of Tocco lasted for 122 years , up until 1479 , when Ottomans captured Cephalonia , Zante , Lefkada and Ithaca .
= = = The Venetian conquest = = =
On 13 February 1386 Corfu became once more a Venetian possession and this time Venetian rule would last until the end of the Republic . This was accomplished voluntary by the people of Corfu . On 10 May , the Corfiotes appointed five ambassadors to submit to the Venetian senate . The Ottomans made several attempts to capture Corfu , the first of which was in 1537 . This attack led Venice to an alliance with the Pope and Emperor Charles V. , known as the Holy League , against the Ottoman Empire . Another major unsuccessful Ottoman attack was that of July 1716 .
After the partition of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 , Cythera fell into Venetian hands in 1238 through the marriage of Marco Venier with the daughter of the Greek lord of the island . Cythera and Anticythera constituted part of the Stato da Mar for the first time in 1363 followed by an interruption of a three @-@ year Turkish rule , between 1715 and 1718 . With the Treaty of Passarowitz Cythera and Anticythera passed to the Venetian Republic and remained under its control until its fall , in 1797 .
The Turkish rule in the three islands of Cephalonia , Zante and Ithaca was short @-@ lived . In 1481 , two years after the beginning of the Turkish rule , Antonio Tocco invaded and briefly occupied Cephalonia and Zante but he was soon driven out by the Venetians . Zante was officially recovered by the Venetians in 1485 . Then , Cephalonia , after sixteen years of Turkish occupation ( 1484 – 1500 ) , became part of the Stato da Mar on 24 December 1500 , with the Siege of the Castle of St. George . Finally , Ithaca , following the fate of Cephalonia , was conquered by Venice in 1503 .
Lefkada , part of the Despotate of Epirus since the latter 's foundation in 1205 , was incorporated by Leonardo I Tocco into the County of Cephalonia in 1362 . The Despotate of Epirus was one of the three Byzantine Empires in exile created after the Fourth Crusade in 1204 . Following the fate of the other central Ionian Islands , it was captured by the Turks in 1479 and then by the Venetians in 1502 . However , Venetian rule did not last , as Lefkada was given back to the Ottoman Empire one year later . Turkish rule over Lefkada lasted for over 200 years , from 1479 to 1684 , when Francesco Morosini attacked and subdued the island during the Morean War . Lefkada , however , did not become officially Venetian until 1718 , with the signature of the Treaty of Passarowitz .
= = = Dissolution of the Republic and aftermath = = =
Napoleon Bonaparte declared war against Venice on 3 May 1797 . The signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio , on 17 October 1797 , marked the dissolution of the Republic of Venice and the sharing of its territories between France and Austria . The lands of the Terraferma up to the River Adige , the city itself and the possessions of the Balkan peninsula of Istria and Dalmatia were yielded to Austria . The Ionian Islands , part of Venetian maritime territories , were ceded to France . Napoleon organized the islands into three departments : Corcyre , Ithaque , and Mer @-@ Égée . The first included the islands of Corfu and Paxos , as well as the former Venetian settlements of Butrint and Parga situated in Epirus . The second department was formed by the islands of Cephalonia , Ithaca and Lefkada and the cities of Preveza and Vonitsa , whereas Zante and Cerigo were part of the third department . The French rule , however , did not last as Russia allied with the Ottoman Empire in September 1798 and in 1799 a Russo @-@ Ottoman naval expedition captured the islands . With the signing of a treaty between Russia and the Porte on 21 March 1800 , an independent island republic under the protection of both the empires was established . The name of the new state was agreed to be the " Septinsular Republic " and included all the territories of the three former French departments except for the continental possessions of Parga , Preveza , Vonitsa and Butrint . With the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 , the seven islands were given back to France by Russia . In October 1809 , Great Britain took possession of all the islands with the exception of Corfu and Paxos , which was only surrendered in 1814 . In 1815 , the Ionian Islands became a British protectorate under the name United States of the Ionian Islands .
= = Administration = =
The civil and military governor of the Ionian Islands was the Provveditore generale da Mar , who lived on Corfu and had the supreme command of the armed Venetian fleet . In the early days of Venetian rule , he was elected only in case of need and on several occasions in peacetime , the Provveditore generale da Mar was appointed as Provveditore generale delle tre Isole , " Provveditore generale of the three Islands " .
Authorities in the islands were divided into two types : the Venetian ones , occupied by Venetians and represented the sovereign state and its political and military power over the Islands , and the domestic authorities , which were appointed by the Communal Council ( Consiglio della Comunità ) . The Venetians were appointed by the Great Council of Venice . There were three officials constituting the reggimento ( " regime " ) of each island . The head of the reggimento had the title of Provveditore in all the islands except for Corfu , where he was called Bailo . The title could only be held by a nobleman . The subordinate Venetian officials were the consiglieri , two on each island , who performed administrative and judicial functions along with the Provveditore of each island . The Provveditore ' s responsibilities also included security from hostile raids , taxation , religious and other issues .
In Corfu the Venetian officials included a Bailo , a Provveditore and a Capitano , two Consiglieri , a Capitano della cittadella and a Castellano della fortezza . In Cephalonia and Zante there were only one Provveditore and two Consiglieri . When Lefkada was incorporated a Provveditore ordinario and a Provveditore straordinario became the representatives of Venice on the island , although , in 1595 , another provveditore was appointed to the Fortress of Asso . In Cythera the reggimento included both a Provveditore and a castellano . The domestic authorities comprised both a Consiglio Maggiore and a Consiglio Minore composed of members of the local aristocracy .
There were ten fortresses throughout the islands , with one on each island serving as its capital . On Corfu , however , there were three fortresses ; two in the town of Corfu and the Angelokastro . On Cephalonia there were two , the castle of St. George or the Fortress of Cephalonia ( Città di Cefalonia ) and the Fortress of Asso ( Fortezza d 'Asso ) in the northern part .
= = Economy = =
The Ionian economy during the Venetian period was largely based on exporting local products . The most important of the agricultural products of Corfu was olive oil . On the islands of Cephallonia and Zante the main exports were raisins , olive oil and wine . One of the most significant exports was olive oil . Groves of olive trees were planted throughout the islands during the Venetian period as olive oil was important to Venice 's economy . Although the production of it was successful , the Republic only allowed exportation to Venice . Statistics for the years 1766 @-@ 1770 indicate 1 @,@ 905 @,@ 917 olive trees on Corfu , 113 @,@ 161 on Zante , 38 @,@ 516 on Cephalonia , 44 @,@ 146 on Lefkada and 31 @,@ 884 on Cythera .
Nevertheless , raisin exports were the most important export of the islands during the Venetian rule . By the early 18th century Zante , Cephalonia , and part of Ithaca had become a major centre of the currant trade . Because of the fierce competition in the raisin trade between Venice and the United Kingdom , Venice prohibited the free export of raisins from the islands . Another measure was the nuova imposta , a heavy export tax for foreign ships .
The currency of the islands during Venetian rule was the Venetian lira , as in Venice . There was a special issue for the Islands ; the observe side of it has the complete or shertened inscription CORFU / CEFALONIA / ZANTE in three lines . The reserve depicts the winged and haloed lion of Saint Marc in a front view , holding the book of the Gospel in his fore @-@ paws . The Ionian Islands formed part of the Venetian maritime trade route to the Orient .
= = Demographics = =
When the central Ionian Islands were captured by Venice their population was very low and Ithaca was completely uninhabited . To address this problem , a small colonisation to the islands took place . Catholic Italians from Terraferma and Orthodox Greeks from the Stato da Mar were transferred to the islands as part of the colonisation . Τhe population eventually increased : in 1765 @-@ 1766 it had reached 111 @,@ 439 ; in 1780 , the population was 150 @,@ 908 . Fourteen years later , there were 155 @,@ 770 inhabitants throughout the islands .
These are some figures concerning the population of each island during the Venetian period :
= = = Language and education = = =
During the Venetian period all public acts were drawn up in the Venetian language , the official language of the Government . Greek remained spoken by the peasantry whereas Venetian was adopted by the upper class and it was generally preferred within the towns . Thus , the Venetian language became , if not the common language of the Ionians , at least the prestige one . The Venetians did little in the area of education , mainly due to the fact that schooling was not a responsibility of the state at that time in Europe but a private matter . Some authors believe that this was done intentionally by Venice , as part of its colonial policy . People belonging to the upper classes were more likely to be educated and to have studied in an Italian university , usually that of Padua . Modelled after the academies operating at that time in Venice , the first literary academy , Accademia degli Assicurati , was founded in Corfu in 1656 by individuals . It had as an emblem two rocks beneath a winged lion , with an inscription His Semper hovering in the air .
= = = Religion = = =
Venetians , being Catholics , retained the privileges enjoyed by the Latin bishopric of the islands under the Count Palatine Dynasties . The Catholics were not numerous , and during the Venetian period , they were mainly concentrated in Corfu and Cephalonia . Most of them were descendants of Italian settlers but there were some conversions by Greeks to Catholicism . According to the law , Greek Orthodox priests and monks had to accept the Catholics as their superiors , though the Venetians placed the interests of the Republic ahead of those of the Papacy . Mixed marriages between Catholic and Orthodox Christians were allowed . These two were the main factors in the decline of Roman Catholicism in the Islands .
Jews were also a native religious group to the Islands during the Venetian period . They were even fewer in number than the Catholics ; in 1797 the number of Jews in Corfu appears to have been only two thousand . Jewish presence in Corfu can be traced since the times of the Principality of Taranto . In Cephalonia , there is evidence of Jewish habitation in the old capital , the Castle of St. George , since the early 17th century . When the capital of the island was transferred to Argostoli the Jews resettled there .
= = = Social structure = = =
The social structure of the islands followed that of Venice . The whole population was divided into three classes : the nobles ( nobili ) , the bourgeoisie ( citadini ) and the common people ( populari ) .
= = Legacy = =
Throughout Venice 's old possessions , but above all in the Ionian islands , the memory of the Republic is deeply rooted in the population , who recall it with a shade of nostalgia even after so much time and so many events . Because of the long Venetian period , the manners and traditions of the inhabitants of the Ionian Islands are a mixture of Greek and Italian . The Venetian influence is illustrated in all aspects of culture and everyday life . In 1800 the Septinsular Republic was established ; its flag design was based on the flag of the Republic of Venice . In addition , Italian was the co @-@ official language of both the Septinsular Republic and the United States of the Ionian Islands . Because of its status , Italian was also taught at schools along with Greek and English ( Ionian Islands were a protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1815 until 1864 ) . In the First Year of the secondary education , for instance , Greek was taught four times a week , Italian three times and English twice . In the Greek Census of 1907 , 4 @,@ 675 people from the Ionian Islands stated Catholicism as their denomination , about 1 @.@ 8 % of the total population ( 254 @,@ 494 ) , while 2 @,@ 541 ( 1 % ) Ionians stated Italian as their mother tongue , making it the second language by number of speakers . The Italian language remains popular on the islands . The Hellenic Union of Eptanisians , a civil non @-@ profit company working for the promotion of the Heptanesian Culture , objected to the decision of the Ministry to abolish the teaching of Italian in schools , saying that " especially for the Ionian Islands the selection of the Italian language has become a tradition for their schools , but also a necessary language because of the many tourists from Italy and other relations e.g. cultural , commercial , etc . , of the islands with the country " and they propose " respect for the choice of the children and recognition of their right to learn the language they want and especially the Italian as it 's the language with the greatest preference on the Ionian Islands " .
These cultural remnants of the Venetian period were the pretext of Mussolini 's desire to incorporate the Ionian Islands into the Kingdom of Italy . Even before the outbreak of World War II and the Greek @-@ Italian War , Mussolini had expressed his wish to annex the Ionian Islands as part of his wider plans for an Italian Empire centered around the Mediterranean Sea . On 15 October , in a meeting in the Palazzo Venezia , he made the final decision to invade Greece . His initial goal was the occupation of Corfu , Zante and Cephalonia . After the fall of Greece , in early April 1941 , the invaders divided its lands into three occupation zones ; the Italians occupied much of the country , including the Ionians . Mussolini informed General Carlo Geloso that the Ionian Islands would form a separate Italian province through a de facto annexation , but the Germans would not approve it . The Italian authorities nevertheless continued to prepare the ground for the annexation . Finally , on 22 April 1941 , after discussions between the German and Italian rulers , German führer Adolf Hitler agreed that Italy could proceed with a de facto annexation of the islands . From then on , until the end of the war , the islands passed through a phase of Italianization in all areas , from their administration to their economy .
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= Elk =
The elk , or wapiti ( Cervus canadensis ) , is one of the largest species within the deer family , Cervidae , in the world , and one of the largest land mammals in North America and Eastern Asia . This animal should not be confused with the larger moose ( Alces alces ) to which the name " elk " applies in the British Isles and Eurasia . Apart from the moose , the only other member of the deer family to rival the elk in size is the south Asian sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) .
Elk range in forest and forest @-@ edge habitat , feeding on grasses , plants , leaves , and bark . Male elk have large antlers which are shed each year . Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the rut , including posturing , antler wrestling ( sparring ) , and bugling , a loud series of vocalizations that establishes dominance over other males and attracts females .
Although they are native to North America and eastern Asia , they have adapted well to countries in which they have been introduced , including Argentina , Australia and New Zealand . Their great adaptability may threaten endemic species and ecosystems into which they have been introduced .
Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases , some of which can be transmitted to livestock . Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations , largely by vaccination , have had mixed success .
Some cultures revere the elk as a spiritual force . In parts of Asia , antlers and their velvet are used in traditional medicines . Elk are hunted as a game species . The meat is leaner and higher in protein than beef or chicken .
It was long believed to be a subspecies of the European red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) , but evidence from a number of mitochondrial DNA genetic studies beginning in 1998 show that the two are distinct species . Key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus are the former 's wider rump patch and paler @-@ hued antlers .
= = Naming and etymology = =
Early European explorers in North America , who were familiar with the smaller red deer of Europe , thought that the larger North American animal resembled a moose , and consequently gave it the name elk , which is the common European name for moose . The word elk is related to the Latin alces , Old Norse elgr , Scandinavian elg / älg and German Elch , all of which refer to the animal known in North America as the moose .
The name wapiti is from the Shawnee and Cree word waapiti , meaning " white rump " . This name is used in particular for the Asian subspecies ( Altai wapiti , Tian Shan wapiti , Manchurian wapiti and Alashan wapiti ) , because in Eurasia the name elk continues to be used for the moose .
Asian subspecies are sometimes referred to as the maral , but this name applies primarily to the Caspian red deer ( Cervus elaphus maral ) , a subspecies of red deer . There is a subspecies of elk in Mongolia called the Altai wapiti ( Cervus canadensis sibiricus ) , also known as the Altai maral . ( The name " Siberian elk " is used for Alces alces ssp. cameloides . )
= = Taxonomy = =
Members of the genus Cervus ( and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk ) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago , during the Oligocene in Eurasia , but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene . The extinct Irish elk ( Megaloceros ) was not a member of the genus Cervus , but rather the largest member of the wider deer family ( Cervidae ) known from the fossil record .
Until recently , red deer and elk were considered to be one species , Cervus elaphus . However , mitochondrial DNA studies , conducted on hundreds of samples in 2004 from red deer and elk subspecies as well as other species of the Cervus deer family , strongly indicate that elk , or wapiti , should be a distinct species , namely Cervus canadensis . The previous classification had over a dozen subspecies under the C. elaphus species designation ; DNA evidence concludes that elk are more closely related to Thorold 's deer and even sika deer than they are to the red deer . Though elk and red deer can produce fertile offspring in captivity , geographic isolation between the species in the wild and differences in mating behaviors indicate that reproduction between them outside a controlled environment would be unlikely . However , the two species have freely inter @-@ bred in New Zealand 's Fiordland National Park , where the cross @-@ bred animals have all but removed the pure elk blood from the area .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are numerous subspecies of elk described , with six from North America and four from Asia , although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species ( adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior ) . Populations vary as to antler shape and size , body size , coloration and mating behavior . DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers , mane and rump patch development are based on " climatic @-@ related lifestyle factors " . Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times , four remain , including the Roosevelt ( C. canadensis roosevelti ) , tule ( C. canadensis nannodes ) , Manitoban ( C. canadensis manitobensis ) and Rocky Mountain ( C. canadensis nelsoni ) . The eastern elk ( C. canadensis canadensis ) and Merriam 's elk ( C. canadensis merriami ) subspecies have been extinct for at least a century .
Four subspecies described in Asia include the Altai wapiti ( C. canadensis sibiricus ) and the Tianshan wapiti ( C. canadensis songaricus ) . Two distinct subspecies found in China and Korea are the Manchurian wapiti ( C. canadensis xanthopygus ) and the Alashan wapitis ( C. canadensis alashanicus ) . The Manchurian wapiti is darker and more reddish in coloration than the other populations . The Alashan wapiti of north central China is the smallest of all subspecies , has the lightest coloration and is the least studied . Biologist Valerius Geist , who has written on the world 's various deer species , holds that there are only three subspecies of elk . Geist recognizes the Manchurian and Alashan wapiti but places all other elk into C. canadensis canadensis , claiming that classification of the four surviving North American groups as subspecies is driven , at least partly , for political purposes to secure individualized conservation and protective measures for each of the surviving populations .
Recent DNA studies suggest that there are no more than three or four subspecies of elk . All American forms seem to belong to one subspecies ( Cervus canadensis canadensis ) . Even the Siberian elk ( Cervus canadensis sibiricus ) are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies , too . However the Manchurian wapiti ( Cervus canadensis xanthopygus ) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms , but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti . The Chinese forms MacNeill 's deer , Kansu red deer , and Tibetan red deer belong also to the wapitis and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies . These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species , namely the Central Asian red deer ( Cervus wallichi ) , which also includes the Kashmir stag .
Northern and American group
Roosevelt elk ( C. c. roosevelti )
Tule elk ( C. c. nannodes )
Manitoban elk ( C. c. manitobensis )
Rocky Mountain elk ( C. c. nelsoni )
Eastern elk ( C. c. canadensis ; extinct )
Merriam 's elk ( C. c. merriami ; extinct )
Altai wapiti ( C. c. sibiricus )
Tian Shan wapiti ( C. c. songaricus )
Eastern group
Manchurian wapiti ( C. c. xanthopygus )
Alashan wapiti ( C. c. alashanicus )
Southern group ( Central Asian red deer )
MacNeill 's deer ( C. c. macneilli )
Kansu red deer ( C. c. kansuensis )
Tibetan red deer ( C. c. wallichii )
Kashmir stag ( C. c. hanglu )
= = Biology = =
= = = Anatomy = = =
The elk is a large animal of the ungulate order Artiodactyla , possessing an even number of toes on each foot , similar to those of camels , goats and cattle . It is a ruminant species , with a four @-@ chambered stomach , and feeds on grasses , plants , leaves and bark . During the summer , elk eat almost constantly , consuming between 4 and 7 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 8 and 15 @.@ 4 lb ) of vegetation daily . In North America , males are called bulls , and females are called cows . In Asia , stag and hind , respectively , are sometimes used instead .
Elk are more than twice as heavy as mule deer and have a more reddish hue to their hair coloring , as well as large , buff colored rump patches and smaller tails . Moose are larger and darker than elk ; bulls have distinctively different antlers . Elk gather in herds , while moose are solitary . Elk cows average 225 to 241 kg ( 496 to 531 lb ) , stand 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) at the shoulder , and are 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) from nose to tail . Bulls are some 40 % larger than cows at maturity , weighing an average of 320 to 331 kg ( 705 to 730 lb ) , standing 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) at the shoulder and averaging 2 @.@ 45 m ( 8 @.@ 0 ft ) in length . The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk ( C. c. roosevelti ) , found west of the Cascade Range in the U.S. states of California , Oregon and Washington , and in the Canadian province of British Columbia . Roosevelt elk have been reintroduced into Alaska , where the largest males are estimated to weigh up to 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) . More typically , male Roosevelt elks weigh around 300 to 544 kg ( 661 to 1 @,@ 199 lb ) , while females weigh 260 to 285 kg ( 573 to 628 lb ) . The smallest @-@ bodied race is the tule elk ( C. c. nannodes ) , which weighs from 170 to 250 kg ( 370 to 550 lb ) in both sexes .
Only the males have antlers , which start growing in the spring and are shed each winter . The largest antlers may be 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long and weigh 18 kilograms ( 40 lb ) . Antlers are made of bone which can grow at a rate of 2 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) per day . While actively growing , the antlers are covered with and protected by a soft layer of highly vascularised skin known as velvet . The velvet is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed . Bull elk may have eight or more tines on each antler ; however , the number of tines has little to do with the age or maturity of a particular animal . The Siberian and North American elk carry the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti have the smallest . The formation and retention of antlers is testosterone @-@ driven . After the breeding season in late fall , the level of pheromones released during estrus declines in the environment and the testosterone levels of males drop as a consequence . This drop in testosterone leads to the shedding of antlers , usually in the early winter .
During the fall , elk grow a thicker coat of hair , which helps to insulate them during the winter . Males , females and calves of Siberian and North American elk all grow thin neck manes ; female and young Manchurian and Alaskan wapitis do not . By early summer , the heavy winter coat has been shed , and elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies . All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails . They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats , with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish , darker coat in the summer . Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests . Most have lighter yellow @-@ brown to orange @-@ brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head , neck , and legs during the summer . Forest @-@ adapted Manchurian and Alaskan wapitis have darker reddish @-@ brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months . Calves are born spotted , as is common with many deer species , and they lose their spots by the end of summer . Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older . This characteristic has also been observed in the forest @-@ adapted European red deer .
= = = Behavior = = =
Adult elk usually stay in single @-@ sex groups for most of the year . During the mating period known as the rut , mature bulls compete for the attentions of the cow elk and will try to defend females in their harem . Rival bulls challenge opponents by bellowing and by paralleling each other , walking back and forth . This allows potential combatants to assess the other 's antlers , body size and fighting prowess . If neither bull backs down , they engage in antler wrestling , and bulls sometimes sustain serious injuries . Bulls also dig holes in the ground , in which they urinate and roll their body . A male elk 's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis . The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows .
Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut , from August into early winter . A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators . Only mature bulls have large harems and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age . Bulls between two and four years and over 11 years of age rarely have harems , and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems . Young and old bulls that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than do bulls in their prime . A bull with a harem rarely feeds and he may lose up to 20 percent of his body weight . Bulls that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period or have the strength to survive the rigors of the oncoming winter .
Bulls have a loud vocalization consisting of screams known as bugling , which can be heard for miles . Bugling is often associated with an adaptation to open environments such as parklands , meadows , and savannas , where sound can travel great distances . Females are attracted to the males that bugle more often and have the loudest call . Bugling is most common early and late in the day and is one of the most distinctive sounds in nature , akin to the howl of the gray wolf .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two , and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts . By the autumn of their second year , females can produce one and , very rarely , two offspring , although reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kilograms ( 440 lb ) . The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kilograms ( 33 and 35 lb ) . When the females are near to giving birth , they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd , and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators . Calves are born spotted , as is common with many deer species , and they lose their spots by the end of summer . Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older . After two weeks , calves are able to join the herd , and are fully weaned at two months of age . Elk calves are as large as an adult white @-@ tailed deer by the time they are six months old . The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost a year , leaving about the time that the next season 's offspring are produced . The gestation period is the same for all subspecies .
Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild . In some subspecies that suffer less predation , they may live an average of 15 years in the wild .
= = = Predators and defensive tactics = = =
Wolf and coyote packs and the solitary cougar are the most likely predators , although brown and black bears also prey on elk . Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves , though they can sometimes take a winter @-@ weakened adult . In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem which includes Yellowstone National Park , bears are the most significant predators of calves . Major predators in Asia include the wolf , dhole , brown bear , Siberian tiger , Amur leopard , and snow leopard . Eurasian lynx and wild boar sometimes prey on Asian elk calves . Historically , tigers in the Lake Baikal region fed on Manchurian wapiti , and continue to do so in the Amur region .
Male elk retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less likely to group with other males when they have antlers . Antlers provide a means of defense , as does a strong front @-@ leg kick , which is performed by either sex if provoked . Once the antlers have been shed , bulls tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to work cooperatively at fending off predators . Herds tend to employ one or more scouts while the remaining members eat and rest .
After the rut , females form large herds of up to 50 individuals . Newborn calves are kept close by a series of vocalizations ; larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours . When approached by predators , the largest and most robust females may make a stand , using their front legs to kick at their attackers . Guttural grunts and posturing effectively deter all but the most determined predators .
= = = Migration = = =
As is true for many species of deer , especially those in mountainous regions , elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring , following the retreating snows , and the opposite direction in the fall . Hunting pressure also impacts migration and movements . During the winter , they favor wooded areas and sheltered valleys for protection from the wind and availability of tree bark to eat . Roosevelt elk are generally non @-@ migratory due to less seasonal variability of food sources .
The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herd numbers over 200 @,@ 000 individuals and during the spring and fall , they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S. Elk in the southern regions of Yellowstone National Park and in the surrounding National Forests migrate south towards the town of Jackson , Wyoming , where they winter for up to six months on the National Elk Refuge . Conservationists there ensure the herd is well fed during the harsh winters . Many of the elk that reside in the northern sections of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem migrate to lower altitudes in Montana , mainly to the north and west .
= = = Diet = = =
Elk are ruminants and therefore have four @-@ chambered stomachs . Unlike white @-@ tailed deer and moose which are primarily browsers , elk have a similarity to cattle as they are primarily grazers , but like other deer , they also browse . Elk have a tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings , seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest . Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season , with native grasses being a year @-@ round supplement , tree bark being consumed in winter and forbs and tree sprouts during the summer . Elk consume an average of 9 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 20 lb ) of various vegetation daily . Particularly fond of aspen sprouts which rise in the spring , elk have had some impact on aspen groves which have been declining in some regions where elk exist .
Range and wildlife managers conduct surveys of elk pellet groups to monitor populations and resource use .
= = = Parasites and disease = = =
At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk . Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk . Parelaphostrongylus tenuis ( brainworm or meningeal worm ) is a parasitic nematode known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species , leading to death . The definitive host is the white @-@ tailed deer , in which it normally has no ill effects . Snails and slugs , the intermediate hosts , can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing . The liver fluke Fascioloides magna and the nematode Dictyocaulus viviparus are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk . Since infection by either of these parasites can be lethal to some commercial livestock species , their presence in elk herds is of some concern .
Chronic wasting disease , transmitted by a misfolded protein known as a prion , affects the brain tissue in elk , and has been detected throughout their range in North America . First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer , the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions . Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss , increased watering needs , disorientation and listlessness , and at an advanced stage the disease leads to death . The disease is similar to but not the same as mad cow disease , and no risks to humans have been documented , nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle . In 2002 , South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease .
The Gram @-@ negative bacterial disease brucellosis occasionally affects elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the only place in the U.S. where the disease is still known to exist . In domesticated cattle , brucellosis causes infertility , abortions and reduced milk production . It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever , producing flu @-@ like symptoms which may last for years . Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals , elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho . Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd management measures , which are expected to be successful .
A recent necropsy study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites ( 21 cases , primarily Eimeria sp. and Ostertagia sp . ) or bacterial infections ( 12 cases , mostly pneumonia ) .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Modern subspecies are descended from elk that once inhabited Beringia , a steppe region between Asia and North America that connected the two continents during the Pleistocene . Beringia provided a migratory route for numerous mammal species , including brown bear , camel , horse , caribou , and moose , as well as humans . As the Pleistocene came to an end , ocean levels began to rise ; elk migrated southwards into Asia and North America . In North America they adapted to almost all ecosystems except for tundra , true deserts , and the gulf coast of the U.S. The elk of southern Siberia and central Asia were once more widespread but today are restricted to the mountain ranges west of Lake Baikal including the Sayan and Altai Mountains of Mongolia and the Tianshan region that borders Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , and China 's Xinjiang Province . The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America .
Throughout their range , they live in forest and in forest edge habitat , similar to other deer species . In mountainous regions , they often dwell at higher elevations in summer , migrating down slope for winter . The highly adaptable elk also inhabit semi @-@ deserts in North America , such as the Great Basin . Manchurian and Alashan wapiti are primarily forest dwellers and their smaller antler size is a likely adaptation to a forest environment .
= = = Introductions = = =
The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies has been reintroduced by hunter @-@ conservation organizations in the Appalachian region of the eastern U.S. , where the now extinct eastern elk once lived After elk were reintroduced in the states of Kentucky , North Carolina and Tennessee , they migrated into the neighboring states of Virginia and West Virginia , and have established permanent populations there . Elk have also been reintroduced to a number of other states , including Pennsylvania , Michigan , Wisconsin , and Etolin and Afognak Islands in Alaska . As of 1989 , population figures for the Rocky Mountain subspecies were 782 @,@ 500 , and estimated numbers for all North American subspecies exceeded 1 million . Prior to the European colonization of North America , there were an estimated 10 million elk on the continent .
Outside their native habitat , elk and other deer species , especially white tails , were introduced in areas that previously had few if any large native ungulates . Brought to these countries for hunting and ranching for meat , hides and antler velvet , they have proven highly adaptable and have often had an adverse impact on local ecosystems . Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina in the early 20th century . There they are now considered an invasive species , encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean huemul and other herbivores . This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world 's 100 worst invaders . Both elk and red deer have also been introduced into Australia .
The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century , and current populations are primarily European red deer , with only 15 percent being elk . There is significant hybridization of elk with the more numerous red deer to the extent that pure elk may no longer exist in the wild in New Zealand . These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species , as they consume more palatable species which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk . The long @-@ term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found , and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them . As in Chile and Argentina , the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species .
= = Cultural references = =
Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples . Pictograms and petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago by the Anasazi of the southwestern U.S. More recent Native American tribes , including the Kootenai , Cree , Blackfeet , Ojibwa and Pawnee , produced blankets and robes from elk hides . The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota , and played a spiritual role in their society . At birth , Lakota males were given an elk 's tooth to promote a long life since that was seen as the last part of dead elk to rot away . The elk was seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their " courting coats " as a sign of sexual prowess . The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk , not the physical one , was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength , sexual prowess and courage .
Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler @-@ less female elk , which have been interpreted as symbolizing rebirth and sustenance . By the beginning of the Bronze Age , the elk is depicted less frequently in rock art , coinciding with a cultural transformation away from hunting .
The Rocky Mountain elk is the official state animal for Utah . An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state seal and flag of Michigan . The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks ( B.P.O.E. ) chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity . A representation of the majestic head of the male , with its spreading antlers , was adopted as the first badge of the Order ; and is still the most conspicuous element of its copyrighted fraternal emblem . A prized possession of many members of the B.P.O.E. are jewel encrusted , gold mounted elk teeth – which are actually ivory .
= = Commercial uses = =
Although breakdown figures for each game species are not available in the 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact .
Elk are held in captivity , or farmed , for hunting , meat production and velvet collection . In what is known as a canned hunt , a hunter pays a fee for an essentially guaranteed chance to shoot an elk in an escape @-@ proof range . While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale , some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores . The meat has a taste somewhere between beef and venison and is higher in protein and lower in fat and cholesterol than beef , pork , and chicken . Elk meat is also a good source of iron , phosphorus and zinc .
A male elk can produce 10 to 11 kilograms ( 22 to 24 lb ) of antler velvet annually and on ranches in the United States , Canada and New Zealand , this velvet is collected and sold to markets in East Asia , where it is used in medicine . Velvet is also considered by some cultures to be an aphrodisiac . However , consuming velvet from elk in North America may be risky since velvet from animals infected with chronic wasting disease may contain prions that could result in a human getting variant Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob disease .
Antlers are also used in artwork , furniture and other novelty items . All Asian subspecies , along with other deer , have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by Han Chinese , Turkic peoples , Tungusic peoples , Mongolians , and Koreans . Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand .
Elk hides have been used for thousands of years for tepee covering , blankets , clothing and footwear . Modern uses are more decorative , but elk skin shoes , gloves and belts are not uncommon .
Since 1967 , the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter . The antlers are then auctioned with 80 % of the proceeds returned to the refuge . In 2010 , 2 @,@ 520 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 560 lb ) of antlers were auctioned , bringing in over $ 46 @,@ 000 .
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= Indian National Congress campaign for Indian general election , 2014 =
The Indian National Congress ( INC ) is one of the two major political parties in India . The prominent members of the party are the president Sonia Gandhi , vice @-@ president Rahul Gandhi , former prime minister Manmohan Singh and Priyanka Gandhi . INC took part in the elections alongside other members of the United Progressive Alliance . On the fourth anniversary of the second United Progressive Alliance government , the INC announced that its campaign for the election would be led by incumbent prime minister Manmohan Singh , party chairperson Sonia Gandhi , and general secretary Rahul Gandhi .
Burson @-@ Marsteller , JWT and Dentsu were contracted to provide an image makeover to the party and Rahul Gandhi . In its election manifesto , INC promised " Right to Health " , " Right to homestead " , " Right to social security " and " Right to pension " . During the elections , Congress leaders criticised the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) and its prime ministerial candidate Narendra Modi for being involved in low level politics . They accused Modi of favouring businessmen . The party campaigned throughout India , but suffered its worst ever defeat , winning only 44 seats over 543 constituencies ; the BJP won the election and was able to form a government with a majority for the first time since the victory of Rajiv Gandhi in 1984 . After the results were announced both Sonia and Rahul Gandhi offered to resign from their posts in the party but the Congress Working Committee rejected their resignations and criticised the government 's communication strategy for the party 's defeat .
= = Background = =
As the 15th Lok Sabha was due to complete its constitutional term on 31 May 2014 , a general election was called by the Election Commission for the constitution of the 16th Lok Sabha . The election was held in nine phases from 7 April to 12 May 2014 . The Congress party had won the previous two elections in 2004 and 2009 , and so was campaigning to win the election for the third consecutive time . The result of this election were declared on 16 May , before the 15th Lok Sabha completed its constitutional mandate on 31 May 2014 .
Rahul Gandhi was appointed to head a six @-@ member committee to formulate and implement alliances , the party manifesto , and general publicity for the election . On 19 January 2013 , Rahul Gandhi was appointed the vice @-@ president of the Indian National Congress at the Jaipur Declaration of Congress . The resolution to make Rahul the vice @-@ president was moved by A. K. Antony and was unanimously adopted by the Congress Working Committee . Rahul had earlier been the party 's general secretary , the chief of Indian Youth Congress , and National Students Union of India . The party decided not to announce a prime ministerial candidate . The members of the party 's pre @-@ poll alliance committee were M. Veerappa Moily , A. K. Antony , Jitender Singh , and Suresh Pachauri . Ambika Soni , Digvijaya Singh , Jyotiraditya Scindia and Manish Tewari formed the party 's publicity group for the elections .
= = Candidates = =
The United Progressive Alliance ( of which INC is the biggest member ) fielded 541 candidates for the Lok Sabha elections ; 465 belonged to INC and the rest were fielded by the other members of the UPA .
= = Manifesto = =
INC formed a Manifesto Committee in 2013 to prepare its manifesto . The members of the committee were :
The party released its 2014 Lok Sabha election manifesto on 26 March 2014 at the party office in Delhi . In the manifesto the party promised a " Right to Health " , a " Right to homestead " , a " Right to social security " , a " Right to dignity and humane working conditions " , a " Right to entrepreneurship " and a " Right to pension " and highlighted its achievements in bringing in a " Right to Information " , MNREGA and the Food Security Bill . INC said that it would provide jobs to 100 million people in India , take all necessary measures to increase the country 's GDP to 8 % within 100 days of coming to power and provide inclusive growth to India . A.K. Antony said that it was the " lengthiest Manifesto so far that took five months to prepare " and that the " 2014 manifesto must reflect the aspirations of the Indian people and this manifesto must bring out a new vision . " While presenting the manifesto , Rahul Gandhi said " it truly reflects the voice of the people " and maintained that the party has delivered on 90 % of the promises made in the previous election . Manmohan Singh said that the party had pulled 140 million people out of poverty . INC promised to waive all export taxes , return the country to a high rate of economic growth and enact all remaining anti @-@ corruption bills .
The opposition parties accused INC of not learning from mistakes and making the same promises it had in the previous two manifestos . BJP 's Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi accused INC of shirking responsibility for its failure . Brinda Karat of the Communist Party of India blamed Congress for repeatedly making the same promises and called it a " cruel joke " . Aam Admi Party member Ashutosh said that Congress " cannot gain the support which it has already lost " .
On 5 April , the INC mocked BJP for not releasing its manifesto , after BJP released a " charge sheet " against INC . BJP 's manifesto was released on 7 April , the day when the first phase of the elections began , citing " logistical reasons " for the delay .
= = Campaigning = =
The Congress party had established an election committee for all election related decision , campaigning and co @-@ ordination . The members of the committee were :
INC created an Election control room , headed by Randeep Surjewala , to keep track of all the events and information related to campaigning . The war room was located at 15 , Rakabganj Road and kept track of 160 Lok Sabha constituencies where the party needed to boost its preparations . The Congress party initiated its election campaign in January 2014 . It gave extra focus to the new middle class of India which was above the poverty line but not enough rich to be in middle class . This new economic class comprises 700 million people out of the country 's total population of 1 @.@ 2 billion . This class includes railway coolies , servants , rickshaw @-@ pullers , labourers , fishermen , guards and other people who earn their living by doing minor chores .
The party created a social media platform called Khidki.com. It was designed under the supervision of national spokesperson Sandeep Dikshit with the motive of promoting the party during the elections . It was inaugurated by Rahul Gandhi during a media conclave in July 2013 . While addressing a rally in Uttarakhand on 23 February , Gandhi promised that after forming the government , INC will provide free healthcare facilitates . He accused BJP of practising " politics of blood " . On 15 March , he interacted with party workers , block , district and Pradesh Congress Committee presidents on Google Hangout for the first one hour and then with general public afterwards . This step was seen by media as a measure to counter Narendra Modi 's " Chai pe Charcha " where he interacted with people on Internet while sipping tea . The party began its campaign in Uttar Pradesh on 23 March 2014 in Pratapgarh by organising a rally which was addressed by Rahul Gandhi , Madhusudan Mistry , Pramod Tiwari and other senior party leaders . On 29 March , Rahul Gandhi shared stage with Imran Masood 's wife in Saharanpur a few hours after he was arrested for making libelous remarks on Modi . Rahul Gandhi addressed rallies in several places including Delhi , Haryana , Bardoli , Gujarat and Rajasthan . He also addressed rallies in north @-@ eastern states of India including Kohima ( Nagaland ) , Tezpur and Dibrugarh in Assam and Itanagar in Arunachal Pradesh .
INC 's president Sonia Gandhi did rallies in Telangana , Tamil Nadu , and Delhi as part of the party 's election campaigning . Manmohan Singh accused BJP of dividing the country , while addressing a rally in Uttar Pradesh . He also addressed a rally in Kerala . In Assam he criticised BJP for " always playing a destructive role " and " running a person centric campaign " . He added that BJP was making promises which it could not fulfill . Singh was the party 's star campaigner in Maharashtra along with Sonia and Rahul Gandhi , Ghulam Nabi Azad , Jyotiraditya Scindia , Ashok Chavan and Mohan Prakash . Sonia Gandhi also campaigned in Amethi , the constituency of Rahul Gandhi on 19 April . After she suffered an asthma attack while campaigning , her three rallies scheduled for 20 April were cancelled .
Priyanka Gandhi , while campaigned in Rae Bareli on 24 April , accused Narendra Modi of favouring businessmen by allocating land to their companies at very low prices and defended her husband Robert Vadra over the accusations of corruptions . While addressing a rally in Amethi on 5 May , Modi responded by criticising Priyanka for saying that BJP was involved in low level politics . He also added that former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi had humiliated a former chief minister of a state at an airport . Priyanka Gandhi called Modi 's statement an insult to his " martyr father " and criticised BJP for involving in low level politics . INC 's senior leaders felt that Priyanka 's attacks on Modi had energised the party workers . Priyanka also said that it is not 56 @-@ inch chest but big heart , moral strength that are necessary to run the nation . She further said that Modi wanted power for himself and alleged that books defaming her family members were being dropped at night in the places where her public meetings were scheduled to take place . Agitated by the allegations BJP launched a CD and booklet titled Damadshree accusing Bhupinder Singh Hooda and Ashok Gahlot of helping Vadra in acquiring land in violation of the regulations . Priyanka Gandhi criticised this move of the BJP and compared it to " panicky rats " . She also took a pun on Modi 's remarks on Rahul Gandhi in which he called him Shehzada ( prince ) and Namuna ( specimen ) , by calling Modi 's behaviour childish .
On 10 May , the last day of campaigning Rahul Gandhi did a roadshow in Varanasi , the constituency from where the prime ministerial candidate of the Bharatiya Janata Party , Narendra Modi was contesting in the elections . Gandhi was accompanied by Raj Babbar , Nagma , Madhusudan Mistry and the party 's candidate for the constituency Ajay Rai . He alleged that Modi was responsible for tapping the phone of a woman architect in Gujarat and had ordered police officials to spy on her . He also accused Modi for favouring Adani Group by giving them land worth ₹ 400 billion ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 billion ) at a petty cost of Rs . 1 per square metre and promoted his party by telling people about the benefits of scholarships programs initiated by the government and MNREGA . During the roadshow family members of Bharat Ratna laureate Bismillah Khan played shehnai . The family members had refused to be the proposers when Narendra Modi filed his nomination in Varanasi .
= = Advertisement = =
In January 2014 Congress party released ₹ 700 crore ( US $ 100 million ) for advertisement . During the same month a half @-@ page advertisement titled Main Nahi Hum ( Not me , but We ) featuring Rahul Gandhi and nine people from different communities was launched for newspapers . It had a slogan — Har Hath Shakti , Har Hath Tarakki ( power in every hand , progress to everyone ) . The advertisement also mocked Narendra Modi 's Gujarat model of development and spotted a punch line — " No hand has a magic wand that can be waved to achieve progress " . US @-@ based Burson @-@ Marsteller , JWT and Dentsu India , a Japanese publicity agency were given contracts to provide an image makeover for the party and its vice @-@ president Rahul Gandhi . The primary focus of the advertising was to portray " Rahul Gandhi as a young , vibrant leader who will deliver on the aspirations of the common Indian . "
An advertisement " Face of the Congress – Kattar Sooch Nahi , Yuva Josh " was aired through TV , Radio , hoardings , newspapers etc . It featured Hasiba B Amin , who is the Congress party 's students ' Wing National Student Union of India 's state president from Goa . In it , she talked about the party and its approach towards youngsters of the nation and also highlights party 's anti @-@ corruption stand . Several commercials ran on televisions as part of " Bharat Nirman " campaign which is in turn a ₹ 100 crore ( US $ 15 million ) initiative of Information and Broadcasting Ministry . They talked about the development work undertaken by the UPA government . After the " Face of the Congress " ad was launched news about Hasiba 's involvement in a ₹ 300 crore ( US $ 45 million ) scam and her jail term were disclosed and shared on social media . She denied such allegations and said that " I couldn 't imagine that people could stoop so low " . After the ad was launched on YouTube , a mock ad was released on YouTube titled " Har Haath Lollipop " as a lampooning by the opposition parties .
Senior leaders of the party blamed Dentsu for its defeat in the elections . They also said that Dentsu had charged too much for its services .
= = Fundraising = =
Political parties in India use the money donated by willing people and organisations to campaign for elections . The Congress party received donations from General Electoral Trust , Torrent Power Ltd , the Bharti Electoral Trust , Asianet V Holding Pvt. Ltd , the Electoral Trust and ITC Ltd. to name a few . Before the commencement of elections the Cabinet of India revised the limit of election expenditure by a candidate for Parliamentary Constituencies to ₹ 7 million ( US $ 100 @,@ 000 ) in bigger states and to ₹ 5 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 80 @,@ 000 ) in smaller states and all union territories except Delhi . This revision of the ceiling on election expenditure was attributed to the increase in the number of electors and polling stations as well as the increase in the cost inflation index .
= = Controversies = =
During the election campaigning the party 's candidate from Saharanpur , Imran Masood while addressing a rally allegedly said that he would " chop down Narendra Modi into pieces " . He was arrested on 29 March , for deliberately outraging religious feelings . He filed a bail plea in Saharanpur district court , but his plea was dismissed and he was sent to a 14 @-@ day judicial custody . Madhusudan Mistry , the party 's candidate from Vadodra was arrested by the police on 3 April along with 33 other party workers for vandalising Modi 's poster in the city . He accused the Vadodara Municipal Corporation for favouring BJP in allotting spots for putting posters . He and the other 33 party workers were released on the same day after filling personal bonds worth ₹ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 74 ) each .
Former prime ministerial adviser Sanjaya Baru published a book titled The Accidental Prime Minister : The Making and Unmaking of Manmohan Singh in which he criticised Singh for not being " fully in charge of his government in having to compete with the dynastic INC leader , Sonia Gandhi , for influence within his own cabinet . " Singh 's office retorted in saying it is " smacks of fiction and coloured views of a former adviser . " After Baru said " it is no secret that Sonia Gandhi was the super prime minister , " Priyanka Vadra replied " I think Manmohan Singh ji is the super PM . " The opposition targeted Sonia Gandhi on the basis of this book .
= = Result = =
The Indian National Congress won 44 seats out of the 543 constituencies in the election . This was the worst defeat that Congress had suffered in its history . The Bharatiya Janata Party under the leadership of its prime ministerial candidate won 282 seats and emerged as the single largest party to form the majority government , the first time in India since the government formed by Rajiv Gandhi in 1984 . After the results were announced both Sonia and Rahul Gandhi took the responsibility for the defeat and offered their resignation at a meeting of party members in Delhi but the party 's working committee unanimously rejected their resignation . Manmohan Singh took the responsibility for the " shortcomings that existed at the government level . " while the members of the committee said that the defeat was a collective responsibility and passed a resolution criticising the communication strategy of the government for the defeat .
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= 2010 Asian Games =
The 2010 Asian Games , also known as the XVI Asiad , was a multi @-@ sport event celebrated in Guangzhou , China from November 12 to 27 , 2010 . Guangzhou was the second Chinese city to host the Games , after Beijing in 1990 . A total of 9 @,@ 704 athletes from 45 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) competed in 476 events from 42 sports and disciplines ( 28 Olympic sports and 14 non @-@ Olympic sports ) , making it the largest event in the history of the Games . Due to reductions in the number of sports to be contested for the 2014 Asian Games , these Games marked the final time that six non @-@ Olympic events would be held during the Asian Games .
The Games were co @-@ hosted by Dongguan , Foshan and Shanwei , the three neighbouring cities . A total of 53 venues were used to host the events including 11 constructed for use at the Games . The design concept of the official logo of these Asian Games was based on the legend about the Guangzhou , featured a stylised calligraphic " Stone Statue of Five Goats in Yuexiu Hill " , a symbol of the host city .
The opening and closing ceremonies were held along the Pearl River in Haixinsha Island , and was the first time in history that the opening ceremony for a major sports event was not held inside a stadium . The final medal tally was led by China , followed by South Korea and third place Japan . China set a new Games record with 199 gold medals . Three World and 103 Asian records were broken . In addition , the badminton men 's singles gold medalist Lin Dan was voted as most valuable player ( MVP ) . The President of Olympic Council of Asia Sheikh Ahmed Al @-@ Fahad Al @-@ Ahmed Al @-@ Sabah hailed the Games as " outstanding " and " one of the best ever " .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Bid = = =
The Olympic Council of Asia ( OCA ) selected Guangzhou to host the 2010 Games at their 23rd general assembly session in Doha , Qatar , site of the 2006 Asian Games , on July 1 , 2004 . Seoul and Amman dropped out before their bids were officially selected by the OCA , leaving only two candidate cities — Guangzhou and Kuala Lumpur . Seoul withdrew after considering the short span of time between 2002 and 2010 , as South Korea hosted the 2002 Games in Busan . Evaluation committee of the OCA , headed by the then vice @-@ president of the association Celso Dayrit inspected both the final bidders . Kuala Lumpur was forced to withdraw its bid after the declaration of the Malaysian Government on April 15 , 2004 that it wouldn 't support the Olympic Council of Malaysia with a Kuala Lumpur bid , due to the high cost of hosting the Games , leaving Guangzhou as the sole bidder .
= = = Marketing = = =
The official emblem of the Games was unveiled at Sun Yat @-@ sen Memorial Hall on November 26 , 2006 . It is a stylized representation of Guangzhou 's " Statue of the Five Goats " ( 五羊雕像 ) fused with a running track . The goat , in Chinese tradition , is a blessing and brings people luck while the host city Guangzhou is known as the " City of Goats " . The orange and yellow emblem also resembles a flame .
The mascots of the Games were the five sporty rams . They were unveiled on April 28 , 2008 at the Guangzhou Baiyun International Convention and Exhibition Center . The five rams , including four small with one large , were named – A Xiang ( 祥 ) , A He ( 和 ) , A Ru ( 如 ) , A Yi ( 意 ) and Le Yangyang ( 樂洋洋 ) . The Chinese character " yang , " or " goat , " is an auspicious symbol because , when read together , the Chinese names of the five rams are a message of blessing , literally meaning " harmony , blessings , success and happiness " ( 祥和如意樂洋洋 ) .
The official theme song was released on September 30 , 2010 , and is called " Reunion " ( in Chinese , " Chongfeng " [ 重逢 ] ) . It was composed by Wu Liqun , with lyrics written by Xu Rongkai , while the English version was translated by Chen Ning Yang , a Chinese @-@ American physicist , and his wife , Weng Fan . The song was also performed by Sun Nan and Bella Yao ( 姚贝娜 ) . Sun Nan then performed it again with Mao Amin for a music video .
= = = Financing = = =
On March 11 , 2005 , Lin Shusen , then party secretary of the Guangzhou Municipal Committee of the Communist Party of China ( CPC ) said the Games " will not cost more than ￥ 2 billion " , in stark contrast to an earlier report , which had claimed that the cost could exceed ￥ 200 billion .
In March 2009 , the director of the marketing department of the Games , Fang Da ’ er , claimed that the Games were short of funds , due to lack of sponsorship and the global financial crisis . An informal estimate put the Games ' expenditure at about US $ 420 million and revenue at US $ 450 million .
On October 13 , 2010 , Wan Qingliang , mayor of Guangzhou at the time , officially revealed in a press conference that the total cost of staging the Asian Games and Asian Para Games is about ￥ 122 @.@ 6 billion ( $ 18 @.@ 37 billion ) , with ￥ 109 billion spent on the city 's infrastructure , ￥ 6 @.@ 3 billion on the venues and some ￥ 7 @.@ 3 billion spent on Games ' operation .
The full spending details would be released before 2013 , according to the city 's finance chief Zhang Jieming .
= = = Venues = = =
A total of 53 competition venues and 17 training venues were used for the Games , with four venues located outside of Guangzhou . Events took place at 42 pre @-@ existing venues ; eleven competition venues and one training venues were constructed for the Games , while the rest were renovated . Other venues included the Asian Games Town , which consists of the Athletes ' Village , Technical Officials ' Village , Media Village , Main Media Center and International Broadcast Center . Organisers revealed that the total investment was over ￥ 15 billion .
On April 19 , 2009 , organisers chose Haixinsha Island , along with the Pearl River , as the venue for the opening and closing ceremonies , the only venue which was not for competition purposes .
= = = Transport = = =
Guangzhou 's public transportation infrastructure was expanded significantly as a part of the preparation for the Games . Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport had been upgraded , in contracted to Crisplant ( former FKI Logistex ) , to support massive volume of passengers . A new Wuhan – Guangzhou High @-@ Speed Railway was opened on December 26 , 2009 , shorten the travel time between two destinations .
In order to ease the traffic congestion and air pollution , the government ordered 40 percent reduction of vehicles and offered 1 @,@ 000 buses during the Games and Para Games . The government also had a free @-@ ride offer for public transportation during the month of Games , but cancelled one week prior to the Games due to overwhelming response from the citizens . Instead , government offered ￥ 150 ( $ 21 ) cash subsidies to each household with permanent residence for commuting purposes .
= = Torch relay = =
Two torch designs were short @-@ listed in September 2009 for the 2010 Asian Games . A design named " The Tide " was chosen over one named " Exploit " by the organizers as the torch of the Games . " The Tide " weighs 98 g and is 70 cm long , and is tall and straight in shape , while dynamic in terms of image .
The torch relay route was unveiled on March 4 , 2010 . Due to financial reasons it remained within the confines of Guangdong province and was planned to travel across 21 major cities of the province . The flame of the torch was lit at the Great Wall of China on October 9 , 2010 , and traveled around the Temple of Heaven in Beijing . As originally scheduled 21 cities were present in the list of relay , with 2 @,@ 010 torchbearers expected to carry it from October 12 to November 12 , 2010 ; however , two more cities — Changchun and Haiyang , the host of 2007 Asian Winter Games and 2012 Asian Beach Games respectively , were also later added to the route for a single day on October 15 , 2010 , increasing the number of torchbearers to 2 @,@ 068 people .
= = Calendar = =
In the following calendar for the 2010 Asian Games , each blue box represents an event competition , such as a qualification round , on that day . The yellow boxes represent days during which medal @-@ awarding finals for a sport were held . Each bullet in these boxes is an event final , the number of bullets per box representing the number of finals that were contested on that day . On the left the calendar lists each sport with events held during the Games , and at the right how many gold medals were won in that sport . There is a key at the top of the calendar to aid the reader .
= = Games = =
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
The opening ceremony officially began on November 12 , 2010 at 20 : 00 local time . For the first time in history , the ceremony was not held inside a stadium ; instead , it was held along the Pearl River on Haixinsha Island . The ceremony was directed by Chen Weiya , assistant director of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , and featured a cast of about 6 @,@ 000 performers . It was attended by the Chinese Premier , Wen Jiabao , President of Pakistan Asif Ali Zardari , Prime Minister of Thailand Abhisit Vejjajiva , Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong Henry Tang , as well as President of the Olympic Council of Asia ( OCA ) , Ahmed Al @-@ Fahad Al @-@ Ahmed Al @-@ Sabah and President of International Olympic Committee Jacques Rogge . The ceremony lasted for three hours , and together with the closing ceremony costed about ￥ 380 million ( $ 53 million ) .
Athletes were paraded by boats along the Pearl River . The ceremony featured the water @-@ themed arts show and culture of Guangzhou . The last torchbearer , diver He Chong lit up the cauldron , after igniting the traditional Chinese firecrackers whose flare shot up to the top of the tower where the cauldron was held .
The ceremony was regarded as successful by IOC President Jacques Rogge who described it as " absolutely fantastic " , and said that " Guangzhou has the ability to host the Olympics " . OCA director general Husain Al @-@ Musallam praised the Games saying that it was unique , fantastic and " just better than the Beijing Olympics " .
= = = Sports = = =
Compared to the 28 sports and 302 events in the Olympic Games , the 2010 Asian Games featured 42 sports and 476 events throughout the 16 days of the competition , with added disciplines in some events . This version of the Asian Games comprised more sports and events than the last one , as 39 sports and 424 events were in the calendar of 2006 Asian Games . 28 and 5 gold medalists emerged during the opening and final day respectively , while a total of 48 gold medalists were awarded on November 26 , 2010 , the most in single day . Twenty20 version of the cricket was one of the début sports , while dancesport , dragon boat , weiqi and roller sport were unique in the Games . Bodybuilding was dropped due to judging controversy in the 2006 Games .
= = = Closing ceremony = = =
The closing ceremony began on November 27 , 2010 at 20 : 06 local time in front of 35 @,@ 000 spectators . The show began with the theme " Leave Your Song Here " , which included music and dance from China , India , Indonesia , Lebanon , Japan , Kazakhstan and Mongolia . The ceremony featured songs from different cultures – Indian " Saajan ji Ghar Aaye " and " Aao re Jhumo re " , Indonesian " Sing Sing So " and Japanese " Sakura " . Various artists from Taiwan , Hong Kong and mainland China performed " Triumphant Return " ( 凯旋 ) , among them were Alan Tam , Leo Ku and Hacken Lee .
The ceremony also included an eight @-@ minute segment from Incheon with singer and actor Rain performing the segment . The Mayor of Incheon Song Young @-@ gil received the Games flag for 2014 Games .
The closing ceremony ended with the song " Everyone " ( 每一个人 ) and " Cheer for Asia " ( 为亚细亚喝彩 ) .
= = = Medal table = = =
China led the medal table for the eighth consecutive time with a new record for the most number of gold medals ( at 199 gold medals ) won in a single Games . This bettered their previous record of 183 gold medals won by China at Beijing in 1990 . Macau , and Bangladesh won their first Asian Games gold medal from wushu and cricket , respectively . Some 35 NOCs ( except Kuwait who competed under the Olympic flag ) won at least a single medal with 27 NOCs winning at least a single gold medal , thus leaving nine NOCs failing to win any medal at the Games .
The top ten ranked NOCs at these Games are listed below . The host nation , China , is highlighted .
= = Participating nations = =
All 45 members of the Olympic Council of Asia that existed as of 2010 participated in the 2010 Asian Games . All National Olympic Committees were ordered to submit their entries before September 30 , 2010 . Organizers allowed each NOC to submit additional entries and injury replacements after the deadline . After the final registration deadline , some 9 @,@ 704 athletes , as well as some 4 @,@ 750 team officials , took part in the Games , an increase of 184 athletes from the previous Asian Games in Doha . According to the Games ' official website , Kuwaiti athletes participated the Games under the Olympic flag because the Kuwait Olympic Committee was suspended due to political interference in January 2010 .
Below is a list of all the participating NOCs ; the number of competitors per delegation is indicated in brackets .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Sports = = =
Cricket was among the five début sports in the Games . India , despite its historical record , decided not to send its cricket team to the Games . According to the Board of Control for Cricket in India , the decision was due to other international commitments . However , its main rivals , Pakistan and Sri Lanka , confirmed their participation .
In ten @-@ pin bowling , the Asian Bowling Federation decided to compete the Games behind closed doors , this resulted in protests from many delegates .
On November 17 , Yang Shu @-@ chun of Chinese Taipei , was abruptly disqualified with 12 seconds left in the first round of the taekwondo competition , while leading her opponent 9 – 0 . She was accused of having installed illegal sensors on the heel of her socks . The event quickly turned into an international incident , with officials , politicians and public opinion from Chinese Taipei , China and South Korea trading accusations of manipulation and fraud .
About 1 @,@ 400 random doping tests were carried out during the Games . Two athletes tested positive ; judoka Shokir Muminov on November 19 , 2010 and Greco @-@ Roman wrestler Jakhongir Muminov on November 24 , 2010 , both from Uzbekistan , tested positive for methylhexanamine . On January 24 , 2011 , the OCA announced another two doping failures , Qatari 's Ahmed Dheeb who tested positive for exogenous testosterone metabolites and Palestinian Awajna Abdalnasser who tested positive for 19 @-@ Norandrosterone .
= = = Languages = = =
In July 2010 , the citizens of Guangzhou opposed the proposal suggested by the city committee of the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference ( CPPCC ) to use Mandarin more in television news programmes , rather than Guangzhou 's main language , Cantonese . The debates eventually led to a series of public protests .
In late October 2010 , in order to protest the government over the language policy in Tibetan area , the Tibetan Youth Congress ( TYC ) used the games as a channel to voice their concern .
= = = Environment = = =
Like the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing , Guangzhou also attempted to raise the air quality of the city . The authority had pledged ￥ 600 million to fight the problem , and had ordered around 32 chemical plants to stop production by the end of 2009 . A report shown on July 13 , 2010 indicates that the air quality was rated at 95 @.@ 07 % in 2009 , an increase of 12 @.@ 01 % since 2004 ; this improvement eventually cost authorities ￥ 24 billion . Later action from organisers to curb the pollution included decreasing the movement of vehicles up to 40 percent and banning barbecue stalls in 11 cities .
Between 2005 and 2008 about 150 Guolang villagers survived by growing tomatoes , beans and cabbages while fighting the government for fairer compensation after their homes were flattened for Asian games infrastructure . The Panyu government set aside a date to listen to petitioners complaint on October 18 , 2010 .
Prior to the opening of the games , Conghua reported 429 cases of Norovirus outbreak . The government officials stressed that the people recovered before November 12 .
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= Pneumothorax =
A pneumothorax ( pneumo- + thorax ; plural pneumothoraces ) is an abnormal collection of air or gas in the pleural space that causes an uncoupling of the lung from the chest wall . Like pleural effusion ( liquid buildup in that space ) , pneumothorax may interfere with normal breathing . It is often called collapsed lung , although that term may also refer to atelectasis . One or both lungs may be affected .
A primary pneumothorax is one that occurs spontaneously without an apparent cause and in the absence of significant lung disease , while a secondary pneumothorax occurs in the presence of existing lung pathology . Pneumothoraces can be caused by physical trauma to the chest ( including blast injury ) , or as a complication of medical or surgical intervention ; in this case it is referred to as a traumatic pneumothorax . In a minority of cases of both spontaneous or traumatic pneumothorax , the amount of air in the chest increases markedly when a one @-@ way valve is formed by an area of damaged tissue , leading to a tension pneumothorax . This condition is a medical emergency that can cause steadily worsening oxygen shortage and low blood pressure . Unless reversed by effective treatment , these sequelae can progress and cause death .
Symptoms typically include chest pain and shortness of breath . Diagnosis of a pneumothorax by physical examination alone can be difficult or inconclusive ( particularly in smaller pneumothoraces ) , so a chest radiograph or computed tomography ( CT ) scan is usually used to confirm its presence .
Small spontaneous pneumothoraces typically resolve without treatment and require only monitoring . This approach may be most appropriate in subjects who have no significant underlying lung disease . In larger pneumothoraces , or when there are marked symptoms , the air may be extracted with a syringe or a chest tube connected to a one @-@ way valve system . Occasionally , surgical interventions may be required when tube drainage is unsuccessful , or as a preventive measure , if there have been repeated episodes . The surgical treatments usually involve pleurodesis ( in which the layers of pleura are induced to stick together ) or pleurectomy ( the surgical removal of pleural membranes ) .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
A primary spontaneous pneumothorax ( PSP ) tends to occur in a young adult without underlying lung problems , and usually causes limited symptoms . Chest pain and sometimes mild breathlessness are the usual predominant presenting features . People who are affected by PSPs are often unaware of potential danger and may wait several days before seeking medical attention . PSPs more commonly occur during changes in atmospheric pressure , explaining to some extent why episodes of pneumothorax may happen in clusters . It is rare for PSPs to cause tension pneumothoraces .
Secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces ( SSPs ) , by definition , occur in individuals with significant underlying lung disease . Symptoms in SSPs tend to be more severe than in PSPs , as the unaffected lungs are generally unable to replace the loss of function in the affected lungs . Hypoxemia ( decreased blood @-@ oxygen levels ) is usually present and may be observed as cyanosis ( blue discoloration of the lips and skin ) . Hypercapnia ( accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood ) is sometimes encountered ; this may cause confusion and - if very severe - may result in comas . The sudden onset of breathlessness in someone with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) , cystic fibrosis , or other serious lung diseases should therefore prompt investigations to identify the possibility of a pneumothorax .
Traumatic pneumothorax most commonly occurs when the chest wall is pierced , such as when a stab wound or gunshot wound allows air to enter the pleural space , or because some other mechanical injury to the lung compromises the integrity of the involved structures . Traumatic pneumothoraces have been found to occur in up to half of all cases of chest trauma , with only rib fractures being more common in this group . The pneumothorax can be occult ( not readily apparent ) in half of these cases , but may enlarge - particularly if mechanical ventilation is required . They are also encountered in patients already receiving mechanical ventilation for some other reason .
Upon physical examination , breath sounds ( heard with a stethoscope ) may be diminished on the affected side , partly because air in the pleural space dampens the transmission of sound . Measures of the conduction of vocal vibrations to the surface of the chest may be altered . Percussion of the chest may be perceived as hyperresonant ( like a booming drum ) , and vocal resonance and tactile fremitus can both be noticeably decreased . Importantly , the volume of the pneumothorax can show limited correlation with the intensity of the symptoms experienced by the victim , and physical signs may not be apparent if the pneumothorax is relatively small .
= = = Tension pneumothorax = = =
Although multiple definitions exist , a tension pneumothorax is generally considered to be present when a pneumothorax ( primary spontaneous , secondary spontaneous , or traumatic ) leads to significant impairment of respiration and / or blood circulation . Tension pneumothorax tends to occur in clinical situations such as ventilation , resuscitation , trauma , or in patients with lung disease . The most common findings in people with tension pneumothorax are chest pain and respiratory distress , often with an increased heart rate ( tachycardia ) and rapid breathing ( tachypnea ) in the initial stages . Other findings may include quieter breath sounds on one side of the chest , low oxygen levels and blood pressure , and displacement of the trachea away from the affected side . Rarely , there may be cyanosis ( bluish discoloration of the skin due to low oxygen levels ) , altered level of consciousness , a hyperresonant percussion note on examination of the affected side with reduced expansion and decreased movement , pain in the epigastrium ( upper abdomen ) , displacement of the apex beat ( heart impulse ) , and resonant sound when tapping the sternum . This is a medical emergency and may require immediate treatment without further investigations ( see below ) .
Tension pneumothorax may also occur in someone who is receiving mechanical ventilation , in which case it may be difficult to spot as the person is typically receiving sedation ; it is often noted because of a sudden deterioration in condition . Recent studies have shown that the development of tension features may not always be as rapid as previously thought . Deviation of the trachea to one side and the presence of raised jugular venous pressure ( distended neck veins ) are not reliable as clinical signs .
= = Cause = =
= = = Primary spontaneous = = =
Spontaneous pneumothoraces are divided into two types : primary , which occurs in the absence of known lung disease , and secondary , which occurs in someone with underlying lung disease . The cause of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is unknown , but established risk factors include male sex , smoking , and a family history of pneumothorax . The various suspected underlying mechanisms are discussed below .
= = = Secondary spontaneous = = =
Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the setting of a variety of lung diseases . The most common is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) , which accounts for approximately 70 % of cases . Known lung diseases that may significantly increase the risk for pneumothorax are
In children , additional causes include measles , echinococcosis , inhalation of a foreign body , and certain congenital malformations ( congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation and congenital lobar emphysema ) .
11 @.@ 5 % of people with a spontaneous pneumothorax have a family member who has previously experienced a pneumothorax . The hereditary conditions — Marfan syndrome , homocystinuria , Ehlers – Danlos syndrome , alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency ( which leads to emphysema ) , and Birt – Hogg – Dubé syndrome — have all been linked to familial pneumothorax . Generally , these conditions cause other signs and symptoms as well , and pneumothorax is not usually the primary finding . Birt – Hogg – Dubé syndrome is caused by mutations in the FLCN gene ( located at chromosome 17p11.2 ) , which encodes a protein named folliculin . FLCN mutations and lung lesions have also been identified in familial cases of pneumothorax where other features of Birt – Hogg – Dubé syndrome are absent . In addition to the genetic associations , the HLA haplotype A2B40 is also a genetic predisposition to PSP .
= = = Traumatic = = =
A traumatic pneumothorax may result from either blunt trauma or penetrating injury to the chest wall . The most common mechanism is due to the penetration of sharp bony points at a new rib fracture , which damages lung tissue . Traumatic pneumothorax may also be observed in those exposed to blasts , even though there is no apparent injury to the chest .
Medical procedures , such as the insertion of a central venous catheter into one of the chest veins or the taking of biopsy samples from lung tissue , may lead to pneumothorax . The administration of positive pressure ventilation , either mechanical ventilation or non @-@ invasive ventilation , can result in barotrauma ( pressure @-@ related injury ) leading to a pneumothorax .
Divers who breathe from an underwater apparatus are supplied with breathing gas at ambient pressure , which results in their lungs containing gas at higher than atmospheric pressure . Divers breathing compressed air ( such as when scuba diving ) may suffer a pneumothorax as a result of barotrauma from ascending just 1 metre ( 3 ft ) while breath @-@ holding with their lungs fully inflated . An additional problem in these cases is that those with other features of decompression sickness are typically treated in a diving chamber with hyperbaric therapy ; this can lead to a small pneumothorax rapidly enlarging and causing features of tension .
= = Mechanism = =
The thoracic cavity is the space inside the chest that contains the lungs , heart , and numerous major blood vessels . On each side of the cavity , a pleural membrane covers the surface of lung ( visceral pleura ) and also lines the inside of the chest wall ( parietal pleura ) . Normally , the two layers are separated by a small amount of lubricating serous fluid . The lungs are fully inflated within the cavity because the pressure inside the airways is higher than the pressure inside the pleural space . Despite the low pressure in the pleural space , air does not enter it because there are no natural connections to an air @-@ containing passage , and the pressure of gases in the bloodstream is too low for them to be forced into the pleural space . Therefore , a pneumothorax can only develop if air is allowed to enter , through damage to the chest wall or damage to the lung itself , or occasionally because microorganisms in the pleural space produce gas .
Chest @-@ wall defects are usually evident in cases of injury to the chest wall , such as stab or bullet wounds ( " open pneumothorax " ) . In secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces , vulnerabilities in the lung tissue are caused by a variety of disease processes , particularly by rupturing of bullae ( large air @-@ containing lesions ) in cases of severe emphysema . Areas of necrosis ( tissue death ) may precipitate episodes of pneumothorax , although the exact mechanism is unclear . Primary spontaneous pneumothorax has for many years been thought to be caused by " blebs " ( small air @-@ filled lesions just under the pleural surface ) , which were presumed to be more common in those classically at risk of pneumothorax ( tall males ) due to mechanical factors . In PSP , blebs can be found in 77 % of cases , compared to 6 % in the general population without a history of PSP . As these healthy subjects do not all develop a pneumothorax later , the hypothesis may not be sufficient to explain all episodes ; furthermore , pneumothorax may recur even after surgical treatment of blebs . It has therefore been suggested that PSP may also be caused by areas of disruption ( porosity ) in the pleural layer , which are prone to rupture . Smoking may additionally lead to inflammation and obstruction of small airways , which account for the markedly increased risk of PSPs in smokers . Once air has stopped entering the pleural cavity , it is gradually reabsorbed .
Tension pneumothorax occurs when the opening that allows air to enter the pleural space functions as a one @-@ way valve , allowing more air to enter with every breath but none to escape . The body compensates by increasing the respiratory rate and tidal volume ( size of each breath ) , worsening the problem . Unless corrected , hypoxia ( decreased oxygen levels ) and respiratory arrest eventually follow .
= = Diagnosis = =
The symptoms of pneumothorax can be vague and inconclusive , especially in those with a small PSP ; confirmation with medical imaging is usually required . In contrast , tension pneumothorax is a medical emergency and may be treated before imaging - especially if there is severe hypoxia , very low blood pressure , or an impaired level of consciousness . In tension pneumothorax , X @-@ rays are sometimes required if there is doubt about the anatomical location of the pneumothorax .
= = = Chest X @-@ ray = = =
Traditionally a plain radiograph of the chest , ideally with the X @-@ ray beams being projected from the back ( posteroanterior , or " PA " ) , has been the most appropriate first investigation . These are usually performed during maximal inspiration ( holding one 's breath ) ; no added information is gathered by obtaining a chest X @-@ ray in expiration ( after exhaling ) . If the PA X @-@ ray does not show a pneumothorax but there is a strong suspicion of one , lateral X @-@ rays ( with beams projecting from the side ) may be performed , but this is not routine practice . It is not unusual for the mediastinum ( the structure between the lungs that contains the heart , great blood vessels and large airways ) to be shifted away from the affected lung due to the pressure differences . This is not equivalent to a tension pneumothorax , which is determined mainly by the constellation of symptoms , hypoxia , and shock .
The size of the pneumothorax ( i.e. the volume of air in the pleural space ) can be determined with a reasonable degree of accuracy by measuring the distance between the chest wall and the lung . This is relevant to treatment , as smaller pneumothoraces may be managed differently . An air rim of 2 cm means that the pneumothorax occupies about 50 % of the hemithorax . British professional guidelines have traditionally stated that the measurement should be performed at the level of the hilum ( where blood vessels and airways enter the lung ) with 2 cm as the cutoff , while American guidelines state that the measurement should be done at the apex ( top ) of the lung with 3 cm differentiating between a " small " and a " large " pneumothorax . The latter method may overestimate the size of a pneumothorax if it is located mainly at the apex , which is a common occurrence . The various methods correlate poorly , but are the best easily available ways of estimating pneumothorax size . CT scanning ( see below ) can provide a more accurate determination of the size of the pneumothorax , but its routine use in this setting is not recommended .
Not all pneumothoraces are uniform ; some only form a pocket of air in a particular place in the chest . Small amounts of fluid may be noted on the chest X @-@ ray ( hydropneumothorax ) ; this may be blood ( hemopneumothorax ) . In some cases , the only significant abnormality may be the " deep sulcus sign " , in which the normally small space between the chest wall and the diaphragm appears enlarged due to the abnormal presence of fluid .
= = = Computed tomography = = =
Computed tomography ( CT , or " CAT scan " ) is not necessary for the diagnosis of pneumothorax , but it can be useful in particular situations . In some lung diseases , especially emphysema , it is possible for abnormal lung areas such as bullae ( large air @-@ filled sacs ) to have the same appearance as a pneumothorax on chest X @-@ ray , and it may not be safe to apply any treatment before the distinction is made and before the exact location and size of the pneumothorax is determined . In trauma , where it may not be possible to perform an upright film , chest radiography may miss up to a third of pneumothoraces , while CT remains very sensitive .
A further use of CT is in the identification of underlying lung lesions . In presumed primary pneumothorax , it may help to identify blebs or cystic lesions ( in anticipation of treatment , see below ) , and in secondary pneumothorax it can help to identify most of the causes listed above .
= = = Ultrasound = = =
Ultrasound is commonly used in the evaluation of people who have sustained physical trauma , for example with the FAST protocol . Ultrasound may be more sensitive than chest X @-@ rays in the identification of pneumothorax after blunt trauma to the chest . Ultrasound may also provide a rapid diagnosis in other emergency situations , and allow the quantification of the size of the pneumothorax . Several particular features on ultrasonography of the chest can be used to confirm or exclude the diagnosis .
= = Management = =
The treatment of pneumothorax depends on a number of factors , and may vary from discharge with early follow @-@ up to immediate needle decompression or insertion of a chest tube . Treatment is determined by the severity of symptoms and indicators of acute illness , the presence of underlying lung disease , the estimated size of the pneumothorax on X @-@ ray , and - in some instances - on the personal preference of the person involved .
In traumatic pneumothorax , chest tubes are usually inserted . If mechanical ventilation is required , the risk of tension pneumothorax is greatly increased and the insertion of a chest tube is mandatory . Any open chest wound should be covered with an airtight seal , as it carries a high risk of leading to tension pneumothorax . Ideally , a dressing called the " Asherman seal " should be utilized , as it appears to be more effective than a standard " three @-@ sided " dressing . The Asherman seal is a specially designed device that adheres to the chest wall and , through a valve @-@ like mechanism , allows air to escape but not to enter the chest .
Tension pneumothorax is usually treated with urgent needle decompression . This may be required before transport to the hospital , and can be performed by an emergency medical technician or other trained professional . The needle or cannula is left in place until a chest tube can be inserted . If tension pneumothorax leads to cardiac arrest , needle decompression is performed as part of resuscitation as it may restore cardiac output .
= = = Conservative = = =
Small spontaneous pneumothoraces do not always require treatment , as they are unlikely to proceed to respiratory failure or tension pneumothorax , and generally resolve spontaneously . This approach is most appropriate if the estimated size of the pneumothorax is small ( defined as < 50 % of the volume of the hemithorax ) , there is no breathlessness , and there is no underlying lung disease . It may be appropriate to treat a larger PSP conservatively if the symptoms are limited . Admission to hospital is often not required , as long as clear instructions are given to return to hospital if there are worsening symptoms . Further investigations may be performed as an outpatient , at which time X @-@ rays are repeated to confirm improvement , and advice given with regard to preventing recurrence ( see below ) . Estimated rates of resorption are between 1 @.@ 25 % and 2 @.@ 2 % the volume of the cavity per day . This would mean that even a complete pneumothorax would spontaneously resolve over a period of about 6 weeks . There ; however , is no high quality evidence comparing conservative to non conservative management .
Secondary pneumothoraces are only treated conservatively if the size is very small ( 1 cm or less air rim ) and there are limited symptoms . Admission to the hospital is usually recommended . Oxygen given at a high flow rate may accelerate resorption as much as fourfold .
= = = Aspiration = = =
In a large PSP ( > 50 % ) , or in a PSP associated with breathlessness , some professional guidelines recommend that reducing the size by aspiration is equally effective as the insertion of a chest tube . This involves the administration of local anesthetic and inserting a needle connected to a three @-@ way tap ; up to 2 @.@ 5 liters of air ( in adults ) are removed . If there has been significant reduction in the size of the pneumothorax on subsequent X @-@ ray , the remainder of the treatment can be conservative . This approach has been shown to be effective in over 50 % of cases . Compared to tube drainage , first @-@ line aspiration in PSP reduces the number of people requiring hospital admission significantly , without increasing the risk of complications .
Aspiration may also be considered in secondary pneumothorax of moderate size ( air rim 1 – 2 cm ) without breathlessness , with the difference that ongoing observation in hospital is required even after a successful procedure . American professional guidelines state that all large pneumothoraces - even those due to PSP - should be treated with a chest tube . Moderately sized iatrogenic traumatic pneumothoraces ( due to medical procedures ) may initially be treated with aspiration .
= = = Chest tube = = =
A chest tube ( or intercostal drain ) is the most definitive initial treatment of a pneumothorax . These are typically inserted in an area under the axilla ( armpit ) called the " safe triangle " , where damage to internal organs can be avoided ; this is delineated by a horizontal line at the level of the nipple and two muscles of the chest wall ( latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major ) . Local anesthetic is applied . Two types of tubes may be used . In spontaneous pneumothorax , small @-@ bore ( smaller than 14 F , 4 @.@ 7 mm diameter ) tubes may be inserted by the Seldinger technique , and larger tubes do not have an advantage . In traumatic pneumothorax , larger tubes ( 28 F , 9 @.@ 3 mm ) are used .
Chest tubes are required in PSPs that have not responded to needle aspiration , in large SSPs ( > 50 % ) , and in cases of tension pneumothorax . They are connected to a one @-@ way valve system that allows air to escape , but not to re @-@ enter , the chest . This may include a bottle with water that functions like a water seal , or a Heimlich valve . They are not normally connected to a negative pressure circuit , as this would result in rapid re @-@ expansion of the lung and a risk of pulmonary edema ( " re @-@ expansion pulmonary edema " ) . The tube is left in place until no air is seen to escape from it for a period of time , and X @-@ rays confirm re @-@ expansion of the lung .
If after 2 – 4 days there is still evidence of an air leak , various options are available . Negative pressure suction ( at low pressures of – 10 to – 20 cmH2O ) at a high flow rate may be attempted , particularly in PSP ; it is thought that this may accelerate the healing of the leak . Failing this , surgery may be required , especially in SSP .
Chest tubes are used first @-@ line when pneumothorax occurs in people with AIDS , usually due to underlying pneumocystis pneumonia ( PCP ) , as this condition is associated with prolonged air leakage . Bilateral pneumothorax ( pneumothorax on both sides ) is relatively common in people with pneumocystis pneumonia , and surgery is often required .
It is possible for a patient with a chest tube to be managed in an ambulatory care setting by using a Heimlich valve , although research to demonstrate the equivalence to hospitalization has been of limited quality .
= = = Pleurodesis and surgery = = =
Pleurodesis is a procedure that permanently eliminates the pleural space and attaches the lung to the chest wall . No long @-@ term study ( 20 years or more ) has been performed on its consequences . Good results in the short term are achieved with a thoracotomy ( surgical opening of the chest ) with identification of any source of air leakage and stapling of blebs followed by pleurectomy ( stripping of the pleural lining ) of the outer pleural layer and pleural abrasion ( scraping of the pleura ) of the inner layer . During the healing process , the lung adheres to the chest wall , effectively obliterating the pleural space . Recurrence rates are approximately 1 % . Post @-@ thoracotomy pain is relatively common .
A less invasive approach is thoracoscopy , usually in the form of a procedure called video @-@ assisted thoracoscopic surgery ( VATS ) . The results from VATS @-@ based pleural abrasion are slightly worse than those achieved using thoracotomy in the short term , but produce smaller scars in the skin . Compared to open thoracotomy , VATS offers a shorter in @-@ hospital stays , less need for postoperative pain control , and a reduced risk of lung problems after surgery . VATS may also be used to achieve chemical pleurodesis ; this involves insufflation of talc , which activates an inflammatory reaction that causes the lung to adhere to the chest wall .
If a chest tube is already in place , various agents may be instilled through the tube to achieve chemical pleurodesis , such as talc , tetracycline , minocycline or doxycycline . Results of chemical pleurodesis tend to be worse than when using surgical approaches , but talc pleurodesis has been found to have few negative long @-@ term consequences in younger people .
= = = Aftercare = = =
If pneumothorax occurs in a smoker , this is considered an opportunity to emphasize the markedly increased risk of recurrence in those who continue to smoke , and the many benefits of smoking cessation . It may be advisable for someone to remain off work for up to a week after a spontaneous pneumothorax . If the person normally performs heavy manual labor , several weeks may be required . Those who have undergone pleurodesis may need two to three weeks off work to recover .
Air travel is discouraged for up to seven days after complete resolution of a pneumothorax if recurrence does not occur . Underwater diving is considered unsafe after an episode of pneumothorax unless a preventative procedure has been performed . Professional guidelines suggest that pleurectomy be performed on both lungs and that lung function tests and CT scan normalize before diving is resumed . Aircraft pilots may also require assessment for surgery .
= = Prevention = =
A preventative procedure ( thoracotomy or thoracoscopy with pleurodesis ) may be recommended after an episode of pneumothorax , with the intention to prevent recurrence . Evidence on the most effective treatment is still conflicting in some areas , and there is variation between treatments available in Europe and the US . Not all episodes of pneumothorax require such interventions ; the decision depends largely on estimation of the risk of recurrence . These procedures are often recommended after the occurrence of a second pneumothorax . Surgery may need to be considered if someone has experienced pneumothorax on both sides ( " bilateral " ) , sequential episodes that involve both sides , or if an episode was associated with pregnancy .
= = Epidemiology = =
The annual age @-@ adjusted incidence rate ( AAIR ) of PSP is thought to be three to six times as high in males as in females . Fishman cites AAIR 's of 7 @.@ 4 and 1 @.@ 2 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years in males and females , respectively . Significantly above @-@ average height is also associated with increased risk of PSP — in people who are at least 76 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 meters ) tall , the AAIR is about 200 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years . Slim build also seems to increase the risk of PSP .
The risk of contracting a first spontaneous pneumothorax is elevated among male and female smokers by factors of approximately 22 and 9 , respectively , compared to matched non @-@ smokers of the same sex . Individuals who smoke at higher intensity are at higher risk , with a " greater @-@ than @-@ linear " effect ; men who smoke 10 cigarettes per day have an approximate 20 @-@ fold increased risk over comparable non @-@ smokers , while smokers consuming 20 cigarettes per day show an estimated 100 @-@ fold increase in risk .
In secondary spontaneous pneumothorax , the estimated annual AAIR is 6 @.@ 3 and 2 @.@ 0 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years for males and females , respectively , with the risk of recurrence depending on the presence and severity of any underlying lung disease . Once a second episode has occurred , there is a high likelihood of subsequent further episodes . The incidence in children has not been well studied , but is estimated to be between 5 and 10 cases per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years .
Death from pneumothorax is very uncommon ( except in tension pneumothoraces ) . British statistics show an annual mortality rate of 1 @.@ 26 and 0 @.@ 62 deaths per million person @-@ years in men and women , respectively . A significantly increased risk of death is seen in older victims and in those with secondary pneumothoraces .
= = History = =
An early description of traumatic pneumothorax secondary to rib fractures appears in Imperial Surgery by Turkish surgeon Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu ( 1385 – 1468 ) , which also recommends a method of simple aspiration .
Pneumothorax was described in 1803 by Jean Marc Gaspard Itard , a student of René Laennec , who provided an extensive description of the clinical picture in 1819 . While Itard and Laennec recognized that some cases were not due to tuberculosis ( then the most common cause ) , the concept of spontaneous pneumothorax in the absence of tuberculosis ( primary pneumothorax ) was reintroduced by the Danish physician Hans Kjærgaard in 1932 . In 1941 , the surgeons Tyson and Crandall introduced pleural abrasion for the treatment of pneumothorax .
Prior to the advent of anti @-@ tuberculous medications , iatrogenic pneumothoraces were intentionally given to people with tuberculosis in an effort to collapse a lobe , or entire lung , around a cavitating lesion . This was known as " resting the lung " . It was introduced by the Italian surgeon Carlo Forlanini in 1888 , and publicized by the American surgeon John Benjamin Murphy in the early 20th century ( after discovering the same procedure independently ) . Murphy used the ( then ) recently discovered X @-@ ray technology to create pneumothoraces of the correct size .
= = Other animals = =
Non @-@ human animals may experience both spontaneous and traumatic pneumothorax . Spontaneous pneumothorax is , as in humans , classified as primary or secondary , while traumatic pneumothorax is divided into open and closed ( with or without chest wall damage ) . The diagnosis may be apparent to the veterinary physician because the animal exhibits difficulty breathing in , or has shallow breathing . Pneumothoraces may arise from lung lesions ( such as bullae ) or from trauma to the chest wall . In horses , traumatic pneumothorax may involve both hemithoraces , as the mediastinum is incomplete and there is a direct connection between the two halves of the chest . Tension pneumothorax — the presence of which may be suspected due to rapidly deteriorating heart function , absent lung sounds throughout the thorax , and a barrel @-@ shaped chest — is treated with an incision in the animal 's chest to relieve the pressure , followed by insertion of a chest tube .
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= Gunpowder Plot =
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , in earlier centuries often called the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason , was a failed assassination attempt against King James I of England and VI of Scotland by a group of provincial English Catholics led by Robert Catesby .
The plan was to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of England 's Parliament on 5 November 1605 , as the prelude to a popular revolt in the Midlands during which James 's nine @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Princess Elizabeth , was to be installed as the Catholic head of state . Catesby may have embarked on the scheme after hopes of securing greater religious tolerance under King James had faded , leaving many English Catholics disappointed . His fellow plotters were John Wright , Thomas Wintour , Thomas Percy , Guy Fawkes , Robert Keyes , Thomas Bates , Robert Wintour , Christopher Wright , John Grant , Ambrose Rookwood , Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham . Fawkes , who had 10 years of military experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in suppression of the Dutch Revolt , was given charge of the explosives .
The plot was revealed to the authorities in an anonymous letter sent to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , on 26 October 1605 . During a search of the House of Lords at about midnight on 4 November 1605 , Fawkes was discovered guarding 36 barrels of gunpowder — enough to reduce the House of Lords to rubble — and arrested . Most of the conspirators fled from London as they learned of the plot 's discovery , trying to enlist support along the way . Several made a stand against the pursuing Sheriff of Worcester and his men at Holbeche House ; in the ensuing battle , Catesby was one of those shot and killed . At their trial on 27 January 1606 , eight of the survivors , including Fawkes , were convicted and sentenced to be hanged , drawn and quartered .
Details of the assassination attempt were allegedly known by the principal Jesuit of England , Father Henry Garnet . Although he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death , doubt has been cast on how much he really knew of the plot . As its existence was revealed to him through confession , Garnet was prevented from informing the authorities by the absolute confidentiality of the confessional . Although anti @-@ Catholic legislation was introduced soon after the plot 's discovery , many important and loyal Catholics retained high office during King James I 's reign . The thwarting of the Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for many years afterwards by special sermons and other public events such as the ringing of church bells , which have evolved into the Bonfire Night of today .
= = Background = =
= = = Religion in England = = =
Between 1533 and 1540 , the Tudor King Henry VIII took control of the English Church from Rome , the start of several decades of religious tension in England . English Catholics struggled in a society dominated by the newly separate and increasingly Protestant Church of England . Henry 's daughter , Elizabeth I , responded to the growing religious divide by introducing the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , which required anyone appointed to a public or church office to swear allegiance to the monarch as head of the Church and state . The penalties for refusal were severe ; fines were imposed for recusancy , and repeat offenders risked imprisonment and execution . Catholicism became marginalised , but despite the threat of torture or execution , priests continued to practise their faith in secret .
= = = Succession = = =
Queen Elizabeth , unmarried and childless , steadfastly refused to name an heir . Many Catholics believed that her Catholic cousin , Mary , Queen of Scots , was the legitimate heir to the English throne , but she had been executed for treason in 1587 . The English Secretary of State , Robert Cecil , negotiated secretly with Mary 's son , James VI of Scotland , who had a strong claim to the English throne as Elizabeth 's first cousin twice removed . In the months before Elizabeth 's death on 24 March 1603 , Cecil prepared the way for James to succeed her .
Some exiled Catholics favoured Philip II of Spain 's daughter , Infanta Isabella , as Elizabeth 's successor . More moderate Catholics looked to James 's and Elizabeth 's cousin Arbella Stuart , a woman thought to have Catholic sympathies . As Elizabeth 's health deteriorated , the government detained those they considered to be the " principal papists " , and the Privy Council grew so worried that Stuart was moved closer to London to prevent her from being kidnapped by papists .
Despite competing claims to the English throne , the transition of power following Elizabeth 's death went smoothly . James 's succession was announced by a proclamation from Cecil on 24 March , which was generally celebrated . Leading papists , rather than causing trouble as anticipated , reacted to the news by offering their enthusiastic support for the new monarch . Jesuit priests , whose presence in England was punishable by death , also demonstrated their support for James , who was widely believed to embody " the natural order of things " . James ordered a ceasefire in the conflict with Spain , and even though the two countries were still technically at war , King Philip III sent his envoy , Don Juan de Tassis , to congratulate James on his accession .
For decades , the English had lived under a monarch who refused to provide an heir , but James arrived with a family and a future line of succession . His wife , Anne of Denmark , was the daughter of a king . Their eldest child , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry , was considered a handsome and confident boy , and their two younger children , Princess Elizabeth and Prince Charles , were proof that James was able to provide heirs to continue the Protestant monarchy .
= = = Early reign of James I = = =
James 's attitude towards Catholics was more moderate than that of his predecessor , perhaps even tolerant . He promised that he would not " persecute any that will be quiet and give an outward obedience to the law " , and believed that exile was a better solution than capital punishment : " I would be glad to have both their heads and their bodies separated from this whole island and transported beyond seas . " Some Catholics believed that the martyrdom of James 's mother , Mary , Queen of Scots , would encourage James to convert to the Catholic faith , and the Catholic houses of Europe may also have shared that hope . James received an envoy from the Habsburg Archduke Albert of the Southern Netherlands , ruler of the remaining Catholic territories after over 30 years of war in the Dutch Revolt by English @-@ supported Protestant rebels . For the Catholic expatriates engaged in that struggle , the restoration by force of a Catholic monarchy was an intriguing possibility , but following the failed Spanish invasion of England in 1588 the papacy had taken a longer @-@ term view on the return of a Catholic monarch to the English throne .
During the late 16th century , Catholics made several assassination attempts against Protestant rulers in Europe and in England , including plans to poison Elizabeth I. The Jesuit Juan de Mariana 's 1598 On Kings and the Education of Kings explicitly justified the assassination of the French king Henry III — who had been stabbed to death by a Catholic fanatic in 1589 — and until the 1620s , some English Catholics believed that regicide was justifiable to remove tyrants from power . Much of the " rather nervous " James I 's political writing was " concerned with the threat of Catholic assassination and refutation of the [ Catholic ] argument that ' faith did not need to be kept with heretics ' " .
= = = Early plots = = =
In the absence of any sign that James would move to end the persecution of Catholics , as some had hoped for , several members of the clergy ( including two anti @-@ Jesuit priests ) decided to take matters into their own hands . In what became known as the Bye Plot , the priests William Watson and William Clark planned to kidnap James and hold him in the Tower of London until he agreed to be more tolerant towards Catholics . Cecil received news of the plot from several sources , including the Archpriest George Blackwell , who instructed his priests to have no part in any such schemes . At about the same time , Lord Cobham , Lord Grey de Wilton , Griffin Markham and Walter Raleigh hatched what became known as the Main Plot , which involved removing James and his family and supplanting them with Arbella Stuart . Amongst others , they approached Henry IV of France for funding , but were unsuccessful . All those involved in both plots were arrested in July and tried in autumn 1603 ; Sir George Brooke was executed , but James , keen not to have too bloody a start to his reign , reprieved Cobham , Grey , and Markham while they were at the scaffold . Raleigh , who had watched while his colleagues sweated , and who was due to be executed a few days later , was also pardoned . Stuart denied any knowledge of the Main Plot . The two priests , condemned by the pope , and " very bloodily handled " , were executed .
The Catholic community responded to news of these plots with shock . That the Bye Plot had been revealed by Catholics was instrumental in saving them from further persecution , and James was grateful enough to allow pardons for those recusants who sued for them , as well as postponing payment of their fines for a year .
On 19 February 1604 , shortly after he discovered that his wife , Queen Anne , had been sent a rosary from the pope via one of James 's spies , Sir Anthony Standen , James denounced the Catholic Church . Three days later , he ordered all Jesuits and all other Catholic priests to leave the country , and reimposed the collection of fines for recusancy . James changed his focus from the anxieties of English Catholics to the establishment of an Anglo @-@ Scottish union . He also appointed Scottish nobles such as George Home to his court , which proved unpopular with the Parliament of England . Some Members of Parliament made it clear that in their view , the " effluxion of people from the Northern parts " was unwelcome , and compared them to " plants which are transported from barren ground into a more fertile one " . Even more discontent resulted when the King allowed his Scottish nobles to collect the recusancy fines . There were 5 @,@ 560 convicted of recusancy in 1605 , of whom 112 were landowners . The very few Catholics of great wealth who refused to attend services at their parish church were fined £ 20 per month . Those of more moderate means had to pay two @-@ thirds of their annual rental income ; middle class recusants were fined one shilling a week , although the collection of all these fines was " haphazard and negligent " . When James came to power , almost £ 5 @,@ 000 a year ( equivalent to over £ 10 million in 2008 ) was being raised by these fines .
On 19 March , the King gave his opening speech to his first English Parliament in which he spoke of his desire to secure peace , but only by " profession of the true religion " . He also spoke of a Christian union and reiterated his desire to avoid religious persecution . For the Catholics , the King 's speech made it clear that they were not to " increase their number and strength in this Kingdom " , that " they might be in hope to erect their Religion again " . To Father John Gerard , these words were almost certainly responsible for the heightened levels of persecution the members of his faith now suffered , and for the priest Oswald Tesimond they were a rebuttal of the early claims that the King had made , upon which the papists had built their hopes . A week after James 's speech , Lord Sheffield informed the king of over 900 recusants brought before the Assizes in Normanby , and on 24 April a Bill was introduced in Parliament which threatened to outlaw all English followers of the Catholic Church .
= = Plot = =
The conspirators ' principal aim was to kill King James , but many other important targets would also be present at the State Opening , including the monarch 's nearest relatives and members of the Privy Council . The senior judges of the English legal system , most of the Protestant aristocracy , and the bishops of the Church of England would all have attended in their capacity as members of the House of Lords , along with the members of the House of Commons . Another important objective was the kidnapping of the King 's daughter , third in the line of succession , Princess Elizabeth . Housed at Coombe Abbey near Coventry , the Princess lived only ten miles north of Warwick — convenient for the plotters , most of whom lived in the Midlands . Once the King and his Parliament were dead , the plotters intended to install Elizabeth on the English throne as a titular Queen . The fate of Princes Henry and Charles would be improvised ; their role in state ceremonies was , as yet , uncertain . The plotters planned to use Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland , as Elizabeth 's Protector , but most likely never informed him of this .
= = = Initial recruitment = = =
Robert Catesby ( 1573 – 1605 ) , a man of " ancient , historic and distinguished lineage " , was the inspiration behind the plot . He was described by contemporaries as " a good @-@ looking man , about six feet tall , athletic and a good swordsman " . Along with several other conspirators , he took part in the Earl of Essex 's rebellion in 1601 , during which he was wounded and captured . Queen Elizabeth allowed him to escape with his life after fining him 4 @,@ 000 marks ( equivalent to more than £ 6 million in 2008 ) , after which he sold his estate in Chastleton . In 1603 Catesby helped to organise a mission to the new king of Spain , Philip III , urging Philip to launch an invasion attempt on England , which they assured him would be well supported , particularly by the English Catholics . Thomas Wintour ( 1571 – 1606 ) was chosen as the emissary , but the Spanish king , although sympathetic to the plight of Catholics in England , was intent on making peace with James . Wintour had also attempted to convince the Spanish envoy Don Juan de Tassis that " 3 @,@ 000 Catholics " were ready and waiting to support such an invasion . Concern was voiced by Pope Clement VIII that using violence to achieve a restoration of Catholic power in England would result in the destruction of those that remained .
According to contemporary accounts , in February 1604 Catesby invited Thomas Wintour to his house in Lambeth , where they discussed Catesby 's plan to re @-@ establish Catholicism in England by blowing up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament . Wintour was known as a competent scholar , able to speak several languages , and he had fought with the English army in the Netherlands . His uncle , Francis Ingleby , had been executed for being a Catholic priest in 1586 , and Wintour later converted to Catholicism . Also present at the meeting was John Wright , a devout Catholic said to be one of the best swordsmen of his day , and a man who had taken part with Catesby in the Earl of Essex 's rebellion three years earlier . Despite his reservations over the possible repercussions should the attempt fail , Wintour agreed to join the conspiracy , perhaps persuaded by Catesby 's rhetoric : " Let us give the attempt and where it faileth , pass no further . "
Wintour travelled to Flanders to enquire about Spanish support . While there he sought out Guy Fawkes ( 1570 – 1606 ) , a committed Catholic who had served as a soldier in the Southern Netherlands under the command of William Stanley , and who in 1603 was recommended for a captaincy . Accompanied by John Wright 's brother Christopher , Fawkes had also been a member of the 1603 delegation to the Spanish court pleading for an invasion of England . Wintour told Fawkes that " some good frends of his wished his company in Ingland " , and that certain gentlemen " were uppon a resolution to doe some whatt in Ingland if the pece with Spain healped us nott " . The two men returned to England late in April 1604 , telling Catesby that Spanish support was unlikely . Thomas Percy , Catesby 's friend and John Wright 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , was introduced to the plot several weeks later . Percy had found employment with his kinsman the Earl of Northumberland , and by 1596 was his agent for the family 's northern estates . About 1600 – 1601 he served with his patron in the Low Countries . At some point during Northumberland 's command in the Low Countries , Percy became his agent in his communications with James . Percy was reputedly a " serious " character who had converted to the Catholic faith . His early years were , according to a Catholic source , marked by a tendency to rely on " his sword and personal courage " . Northumberland , although not a Catholic himself , planned to build a strong relationship with James in order to better the prospects of English Catholics , and to reduce the family disgrace caused by his separation from his wife Martha Wright , a favourite of Elizabeth . Thomas Percy 's meetings with James seemed to go well . Percy returned with promises of support for the Catholics , and Northumberland believed that James would go so far as to allow Mass in private houses , so as not to cause public offence . Percy , keen to improve his standing , went further , claiming that the future King would guarantee the safety of English Catholics .
= = = Initial planning = = =
The first meeting between the five conspirators took place on 20 May 1604 , probably at the Duck and Drake Inn , just off the Strand , Thomas Wintour 's usual residence when staying in London . Catesby , Thomas Wintour , and John Wright were in attendance , joined by Guy Fawkes and Thomas Percy . Alone in a private room , the five plotters swore an oath of secrecy on a prayer book . By coincidence , and ignorant of the plot , Father John Gerard ( a friend of Catesby 's ) was celebrating Mass in another room , and the five men subsequently received the Eucharist .
= = = Further recruitment = = =
Following their oath , the plotters left London and returned to their homes . The adjournment of Parliament gave them , they thought , until February 1605 to finalise their plans . On 9 June , Percy 's patron , the Earl of Northumberland , appointed him to the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms , a mounted troop of 50 bodyguards to the King . This role gave Percy reason to seek a base in London , and a small property near the Prince 's Chamber owned by Henry Ferrers , a tenant of John Whynniard , was chosen . Percy arranged for the use of the house through Northumberland 's agents , Dudley Carleton and John Hippisley . Fawkes , using the pseudonym " John Johnson " , took charge of the building , posing as Percy 's servant . The building was occupied by Scottish commissioners appointed by the King to consider his plans for the unification of England and Scotland , so the plotters hired Catesby 's lodgings in Lambeth , on the opposite bank of the Thames , from where their stored gunpowder and other supplies could be conveniently rowed across each night . Meanwhile , King James continued with his policies against the Catholics , and Parliament pushed through anti @-@ Catholic legislation , until its adjournment on 7 July .
The conspirators returned to London in October 1604 , when Robert Keyes , a " desperate man , ruined and indebted " was admitted to the group . His responsibility was to take charge of Catesby 's house in Lambeth , where the gunpowder and other supplies were to be stored . Keyes 's family had notable connections ; his wife 's employer was the Catholic Lord Mordaunt . Tall , with a red beard , he was seen as trustworthy and , like Fawkes , capable of looking after himself . In December Catesby recruited his servant , Thomas Bates , into the plot , after the latter accidentally became aware of it .
It was announced on 24 December that the re @-@ opening of Parliament would be delayed . Concern over the plague meant that rather than sitting in February , as the plotters had originally planned for , Parliament would not sit again until 3 October 1605 . The contemporaneous account of the prosecution claimed that during this delay the conspirators were digging a tunnel beneath Parliament . This may have been a government fabrication , as no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution , and no trace of one has ever been found . The account of a tunnel comes directly from Thomas Wintour 's confession , and Guy Fawkes did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation . Logistically , digging a tunnel would have proved extremely difficult , especially as none of the conspirators had any experience of mining . If the story is true , by 6 December the Scottish commissioners had finished their work , and the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords . They ceased their efforts when , during tunnelling , they heard a noise from above . The noise turned out to be the then @-@ tenant 's widow , who was clearing out the undercroft directly beneath the House of Lords — the room where the plotters eventually stored the gunpowder .
By the time the plotters reconvened at the start of the old style new year on Lady Day , 25 March , three more had been admitted to their ranks ; Robert Wintour , John Grant , and Christopher Wright . The additions of Wintour and Wright were obvious choices . Along with a small fortune , Robert Wintour inherited Huddington Court ( a known refuge for priests ) near Worcester , and was reputedly a generous and well @-@ liked man . A devout Catholic , he married Gertrude Talbot , who was from a family of recusants . Christopher Wright ( 1568 – 1605 ) , John 's brother , had also taken part in the Earl of Essex 's revolt and had moved his family to Twigmore in Lincolnshire , then known as something of a haven for priests . John Grant was married to Wintour 's sister , Dorothy , and was lord of the manor of Norbrook near Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Reputed to be an intelligent , thoughtful man , he sheltered Catholics at his home at Snitterfield , and was another who had been involved in the Essex revolt of 1601 .
= = = Undercroft = = =
In addition , 25 March was the day on which the plotters purchased the lease to the undercroft they had supposedly tunnelled near to , owned by John Whynniard . The Palace of Westminster in the early 17th century was a warren of buildings clustered around the medieval chambers , chapels , and halls of the former royal palace that housed both Parliament and the various royal law courts . The old palace was easily accessible ; merchants , lawyers , and others , lived and worked in the lodgings , shops , and taverns within its precincts . Whynniard 's building was along a right @-@ angle to the House of Lords , alongside a passageway called Parliament Place , which itself led to Parliament Stairs and the River Thames . Undercrofts were common features at the time , used to house a variety of materials including food and firewood . Whynniard 's undercroft , on the ground floor , was directly beneath the first @-@ floor House of Lords , and may once have been part of the palace 's medieval kitchen . Unused and filthy , its location was ideal for what the group planned to do .
In the second week of June Catesby met in London the principal Jesuit in England , Father Henry Garnet , and asked him about the morality of entering into an undertaking which might involve the destruction of the innocent , together with the guilty . Garnet answered that such actions could often be excused , but according to his own account later admonished Catesby during a second meeting in July in Essex , showing him a letter from the pope which forbade rebellion . Soon after , the Jesuit priest Oswald Tesimond told Garnet he had taken Catesby 's confession , in the course of which he had learnt of the plot . Garnet and Catesby met for a third time on 24 July 1605 , at the house of the wealthy catholic Anne Vaux in Enfield Chase . Garnet decided that Tesimond 's account had been given under the seal of the confessional , and that canon law therefore forbade him to repeat what he had heard . Without acknowledging that he was aware of the precise nature of the plot , Garnet attempted to dissuade Catesby from his course , to no avail . Garnet wrote to a colleague in Rome , Claudio Acquaviva , expressing his concerns about open rebellion in England . He also told Acquaviva that " there is a risk that some private endeavour may commit treason or use force against the King " , and urged the pope to issue a public brief against the use of force .
According to Fawkes , 20 barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first , followed by 16 more on 20 July . The supply of gunpowder was theoretically controlled by the government , but it was easily obtained from illicit sources . On 28 July , the ever @-@ present threat of the plague again delayed the opening of Parliament , this time until Tuesday 5 November . Fawkes left the country for a short time . The King , meanwhile , spent much of the summer away from the city , hunting . He stayed wherever was convenient , including on occasion at the houses of prominent Catholics . Garnet , convinced that the threat of an uprising had receded , travelled the country on a pilgrimage .
It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England , but he was back in London by late August , when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed . More gunpowder was brought into the room , along with firewood to conceal it . The final three conspirators were recruited in late 1605 . At Michaelmas , Catesby persuaded the staunchly Catholic Ambrose Rookwood to rent Clopton House near Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Rookwood was a young man with recusant connections , whose stable of horses at Coldham Hall in Stanningfield , Suffolk was an important factor in his enlistment . His parents , Robert Rookwood and Dorothea Drury , were wealthy landowners , and had educated their son at a Jesuit school near Calais . Everard Digby was a young man who was generally well liked , and lived at Gayhurst House in Buckinghamshire . He had been knighted by the King in April 1603 , and was converted to Catholicism by Gerard . Digby and his wife , Mary Mulshaw , had accompanied the priest on his pilgrimage , and the two men were reportedly close friends . Digby was asked by Catesby to rent Coughton Court near Alcester . Digby also promised £ 1 @,@ 500 after Percy failed to pay the rent due for the properties he had taken in Westminster . Finally , on 14 October Catesby invited Francis Tresham into the conspiracy . Tresham was the son of the Catholic Thomas Tresham , and a cousin to Robert Catesby — the two had been raised together . He was also the heir to his father 's large fortune , which had been depleted by recusant fines , expensive tastes , and by Francis and Catesby 's involvement in the Essex revolt .
Catesby and Tresham met at the home of Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and cousin , Lord Stourton . In his confession , Tresham claimed that he had asked Catesby if the plot would damn their souls , to which Catesby had replied it would not , and that the plight of England 's Catholics required that it be done . Catesby also apparently asked for £ 2 @,@ 000 , and the use of Rushton Hall in Northamptonshire . Tresham declined both offers ( although he did give £ 100 to Thomas Wintour ) , and told his interrogators that he had moved his family from Rushton to London in advance of the plot ; hardly the actions of a guilty man , he claimed .
= = = Monteagle letter = = =
The details of the plot were finalised in October , in a series of taverns across London and Daventry . Fawkes would be left to light the fuse and then escape across the Thames , while simultaneously a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth . Fawkes would leave for the continent , to explain events in England to the European Catholic powers .
The wives of those involved and Anne Vaux ( a friend of Garnet who often shielded priests at her home ) became increasingly concerned by what they suspected was about to happen . Several of the conspirators expressed worries about the safety of fellow Catholics who would be present in Parliament on the day of the planned explosion . Percy was concerned for his patron , Northumberland , and the young Earl of Arundel 's name was brought up ; Catesby suggested that a minor wound might keep him from the chamber on that day . The Lords Vaux , Montague , Monteagle , and Stourton were also mentioned . Keyes suggested warning Lord Mordaunt , his wife 's employer , to derision from Catesby .
On Saturday 26 October , Monteagle ( Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) received an anonymous letter while at his house in Hoxton . Having broken the seal , he handed the letter to a servant who read it aloud :
My Lord , out of the love I bear to some of your friends , I have a care of your preservation . Therefore I would advise you , as you tender your life , to devise some excuse to shift your attendance at this parliament ; for God and man hath concurred to punish the wickedness of this time . And think not slightly of this advertisement , but retire yourself into your country where you may expect the event in safety . For though there be no appearance of any stir , yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow this Parliament ; and yet they shall not see who hurts them . This counsel is not to be condemned because it may do you good and can do you no harm ; for the danger is passed as soon as you have burnt the letter . And I hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it , to whose holy protection I commend you .
Uncertain of the letter 's meaning , Monteagle promptly rode to Whitehall and handed it to Cecil ( then Earl of Salisbury ) . Salisbury informed the Earl of Worcester , considered to have recusant sympathies , and the suspected papist Henry Howard , 1st Earl of Northampton , but kept news of the plot from the King , who was busy hunting in Cambridgeshire and not expected back for several days . Monteagle 's servant , Thomas Ward , had family connections with the Wright brothers , and sent a message to Catesby about the betrayal . Catesby , who had been due to go hunting with the King , suspected that Tresham was responsible for the letter , and with Thomas Wintour confronted the recently recruited conspirator . Tresham managed to convince the pair that he had not written the letter , but urged them to abandon the plot . Salisbury was already aware of certain stirrings before he received the letter , but did not yet know the exact nature of the plot , or who exactly was involved . He therefore elected to wait , to see how events unfolded .
= = = Discovery = = =
The letter was shown to the King on Friday 1 November following his arrival back in London . Upon reading it , James immediately seized upon the word " blow " and felt that it hinted at " some strategem of fire and powder " , perhaps an explosion exceeding in violence the one that killed his father , Lord Darnley , at Kirk o ' Field in 1567 . Keen not to seem too intriguing , and wanting to allow the King to take the credit for unveiling the conspiracy , Salisbury feigned ignorance . The following day members of the Privy Council visited the King at the Palace of Whitehall and informed him that , based on the information that Salisbury had given them a week earlier , on Monday the Lord Chamberlain Thomas Howard , 1st Earl of Suffolk would undertake a search of the Houses of Parliament , " both above and below " . On Sunday 3 November Percy , Catesby and Wintour had a final meeting , where Percy told his colleagues that they should " abide the uttermost triall " , and reminded them of their ship waiting at anchor on the Thames . By 4 November Digby was ensconced with a " hunting party " at Dunchurch , ready to abduct Princess Elizabeth . The same day , Percy visited the Earl of Northumberland — who was uninvolved in the conspiracy — to see if he could discern what rumours surrounded the letter to Monteagle . Percy returned to London and assured Wintour , John Wright , and Robert Keyes that they had nothing to be concerned about , and returned to his lodgings on Gray 's Inn Road . That same evening Catesby , likely accompanied by John Wright and Bates , set off for the Midlands . Fawkes visited Keyes , and was given a pocket watch left by Percy , to time the fuse , and an hour later Rookwood received several engraved swords from a local cutler .
Although two accounts of the number of searches and their timing exist , according to the King 's version , the first search of the buildings in and around Parliament was made on Monday 4 November — as the plotters were busy making their final preparations — by Suffolk , Monteagle , and John Whynniard . They found a large pile of firewood in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords , accompanied by what they presumed to be a serving man ( Fawkes ) , who told them that the firewood belonged to his master , Thomas Percy . They left to report their findings , at which time Fawkes also left the building . The mention of Percy 's name aroused further suspicion as he was already known to the authorities as a Catholic agitator . The King insisted that a more thorough search be undertaken . Late that night , the search party , headed by Thomas Knyvet , returned to the undercroft . They again found Fawkes , dressed in a cloak and hat , and wearing boots and spurs . He was arrested , whereupon he gave his name as John Johnson . He was carrying a lantern now held in the Ashmolean Museum , Oxford , and a search of his person revealed a pocket watch , several slow matches and touchwood . The barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of faggots and coal . Fawkes was taken to the King early on the morning of 5 November .
= = = Flight = = =
As news of " John Johnson 's " arrest spread among the plotters still in London , most fled northwest , along Watling Street . Christopher Wright and Thomas Percy left together . Rookwood left soon after , and managed to cover 30 miles in two hours on one horse . He overtook Keyes , who had set off earlier , then Wright and Percy at Little Brickhill , before catching Catesby , John Wright , and Bates on the same road . Reunited , the group continued northwest to Dunchurch , using horses provided by Digby . Keyes went to Mordaunt 's house at Drayton . Meanwhile , Thomas Wintour stayed in London , and even went to Westminster to see what was happening . When he realised the plot had been uncovered , he took his horse and made for his sister 's house at Norbrook , before continuing to Huddington Court .
The group of six conspirators stopped at Ashby St Ledgers at about 6 pm , where they met Robert Wintour and updated him on their situation . They then continued on to Dunchurch , and met with Digby . Catesby convinced him that despite the plot 's failure , an armed struggle was still a real possibility . He announced to Digby 's " hunting party " that the King and Salisbury were dead , before the fugitives moved west to Warwick .
In London , news of the plot was spreading , and the authorities set extra guards on the city gates , closed the ports , and protected the house of the Spanish Ambassador , which was surrounded by an angry mob . An arrest warrant was issued against Thomas Percy , and his patron , the Earl of Northumberland , was placed under house arrest . In " John Johnson 's " initial interrogation he revealed nothing other than the name of his mother , and that he was from Yorkshire . A letter to Guy Fawkes was discovered on his person , but he claimed that name was one of his aliases . Far from denying his intentions , " Johnson " stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and Parliament . Nevertheless , he maintained his composure and insisted that he had acted alone . His unwillingness to yield so impressed the King that he described him as possessing " a Roman resolution " .
= = = Investigation = = =
On 6 November , the Lord Chief Justice , Sir John Popham ( a man with a deep @-@ seated hatred of Catholics ) questioned Rookwood 's servants . By the evening he had learnt the names of several of those involved in the conspiracy : Catesby , Rookwood , Keyes , Wynter [ sic ] , John and Christopher Wright , and Grant . " Johnson " meanwhile persisted with his story , and along with the gunpowder he was found with , was moved to the Tower of London , where the King had decided that " Johnson " would be tortured . The use of torture was forbidden , except by royal prerogative or a body such as the Privy Council or Star Chamber . In a letter of 6 November James wrote : " The gentler tortours [ tortures ] are to be first used unto him , et sic per gradus ad ima tenditur [ and thus by steps extended to greater ones ] , and so God speed your good work . " " Johnson " may have been placed in manacles and hung from the wall , but he was almost certainly subjected to the horrors of the rack . On 7 November his resolve was broken ; he confessed late that day , and again over the following two days .
= = = Last stand = = =
On 6 November , with Fawkes maintaining his silence , the fugitives raided Warwick Castle for supplies and continued to Norbrook to collect weapons . From there they continued their journey to Huddington . Bates left the group and travelled to Coughton Court to deliver a letter from Catesby , to Father Garnet and the other priests , informing them of what had transpired , and asking for their help in raising an army . Garnet replied by begging Catesby and his followers to stop their " wicked actions " , before himself fleeing . Several priests set out for Warwick , worried about the fate of their colleagues . They were caught , and then imprisoned in London . Catesby and the others arrived at Huddington early in the afternoon , and were met by Thomas Wintour . They received practically no support or sympathy from those they met , including family members , who were terrified at the prospect of being associated with treason . They continued on to Holbeche House on the border of Staffordshire , the home of Stephen Littleton , a member of their ever @-@ decreasing band of followers . Tired and desperate , they spread out some of the now @-@ soaked gunpowder in front of the fire , to dry out . Although gunpowder does not explode unless physically contained , a spark from the fire landed on the powder and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby , Rookwood , Grant , and a man named Morgan ( a member of the hunting party ) .
Thomas Wintour and Littleton , on their way from Huddington to Holbeche House , were told by a messenger that Catesby had died . At that point , Littleton left , but Thomas arrived at the house to find Catesby alive , albeit scorched . John Grant was not so lucky , and had been blinded by the fire . Digby , Robert Wintour , John Wintour , and Thomas Bates , had all left . Of the plotters , only the singed figures of Catesby and Grant , and the Wright brothers , Rookwood , and Percy , remained . The fugitives resolved to stay in the house and wait for the arrival of the King 's men .
Richard Walsh ( Sheriff of Worcestershire ) and his company of 200 men besieged Holbeche House on the morning of 8 November . Thomas Wintour was hit in the shoulder while crossing the courtyard . John Wright was shot , followed by his brother , and then Rookwood . Catesby and Percy were reportedly killed by a single lucky shot . The attackers rushed the property , and stripped the dead or dying defenders of their clothing . Grant , Morgan , Rookwood , and Wintour were arrested .
= = Reaction = =
Bates and Keyes were captured shortly after Holbeche House was taken . Digby , who had intended to give himself up , was caught by a small group of pursuers . Tresham was arrested on 12 November , and taken to the Tower three days later . Montague , Mordaunt , and Stourton ( Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) were also imprisoned in the Tower . The Earl of Northumberland joined them on 27 November . Meanwhile the government used the revelation of the plot to accelerate its persecution of Catholics . The home of Anne Vaux at Enfield Chase was searched , revealing the presence of trap doors and hidden passages . A terrified servant then revealed that Garnet , who had often stayed at the house , had recently given a Mass there . Father John Gerard was secreted at the home of Elizabeth Vaux , in Harrowden . Elizabeth was taken to London for interrogation . There she was resolute ; she had never been aware that Gerard was a priest , she had presumed he was a " Catholic gentleman " , and she did not know of his whereabouts . The homes of the conspirators were searched , and looted ; Mary Digby 's household was ransacked , and she was made destitute . Some time before the end of November , Garnet moved to Hindlip Hall near Worcester , the home of the Habingtons , where he wrote a letter to the Privy Council protesting his innocence .
The foiling of the Gunpowder Plot initiated a wave of national relief at the delivery of the King and his sons , and inspired in the ensuing parliament a mood of loyalty and goodwill , which Salisbury astutely exploited to extract higher subsidies for the King than any ( bar one ) granted in Elizabeth 's reign . Walter Raleigh , who was languishing in the Tower owing to his involvement in the Main Plot , and whose wife was a first cousin of Lady Catesby , declared he had had no knowledge of the conspiracy . The Bishop of Rochester gave a sermon at St. Paul 's Cross , in which he condemned the plot . In his speech to both Houses on 9 November , James expounded on two emerging preoccupations of his monarchy : the divine right of kings and the Catholic question . He insisted that the plot had been the work of only a few Catholics , not of the English Catholics as a whole , and he reminded the assembly to rejoice at his survival , since kings were divinely appointed and he owed his escape to a miracle . Salisbury wrote to his English ambassadors abroad , informing them of what had occurred , and also reminding them that the King bore no ill will to his Catholic neighbours . The foreign powers largely distanced themselves from the plotters , calling them atheists and Protestant heretics .
= = = Interrogations = = =
Sir Edward Coke ( pronounced " Cook " ) was in charge of the interrogations . Over a period of about ten weeks , in the Lieutenant 's Lodgings at the Tower of London ( now known as the Queen 's House ) he questioned those who had been implicated in the plot . For the first round of interrogations , no real proof exists that these people were tortured , although on several occasions Salisbury certainly suggested that they should be . Coke later revealed that the threat of torture was in most cases enough to elicit a confession from those caught up in the aftermath of the plot .
Only two confessions were printed in full : Fawkes 's confession of 8 November , and Wintour 's of 23 November . Having been involved in the conspiracy from the start ( unlike Fawkes ) , Wintour was able to give extremely valuable information to the Privy Council . The handwriting on his testimony is almost certainly that of the man himself , but his signature was markedly different . Wintour had previously only ever signed his name as such , but his confession is signed " Winter " , and since he had been shot in the shoulder , the steady hand used to write the signature may indicate some measure of government interference — or it may indicate that writing a shorter version of his name was less painful . Wintour 's testimony makes no mention of his brother , Robert . Both were published in the so @-@ called King 's Book , a hastily written official account of the conspiracy published in late November 1605 .
Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland , was in a difficult position . His midday dinner with Thomas Percy on 4 November was damning evidence against him , and after Thomas Percy 's death there was nobody who could either implicate him or clear him . The Privy Council suspected that Northumberland would have been Princess Elizabeth 's protector had the plot succeeded , but there was insufficient evidence to convict him . Northumberland remained in the Tower and on 27 June 1606 was finally charged with contempt . He was stripped of all public offices , fined £ 30 @,@ 000 ( about £ 5 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) , and kept in the Tower until June 1621 . The Lords Mordaunt and Stourton were tried in the Star Chamber . They were condemned to imprisonment in the Tower , where they remained until 1608 , when they were transferred to the Fleet Prison . Both were also given significant fines .
Several other people not involved in the conspiracy , but known or related to the conspirators , were also questioned . Northumberland 's brothers , Sir Allen and Sir Josceline , were arrested . Anthony @-@ Maria Browne , 2nd Viscount Montagu had employed Fawkes at an early age , and had also met Catesby on 29 October , and was therefore of interest ; he was released several months later . Agnes Wenman was from a Catholic family , and related to Elizabeth Vaux . She was examined twice but the charges against her were eventually dropped . Percy 's secretary and later the controller of Northumberland 's household , Dudley Carleton , had leased the vault where the gunpowder was stored , and consequently he was imprisoned in the Tower . Salisbury believed his story , and authorised his release .
= = = Jesuits = = =
Thomas Bates confessed on 4 December , providing much of the information that Salisbury needed to link the Catholic clergy to the plot . Bates had been present at most of the conspirators ' meetings , and under interrogation he implicated Father Tesimond in the plot . On 13 January 1606 he described how he had visited Garnet and Tesimond on 7 November to inform Garnet of the plot 's failure . Bates also told his interrogators of his ride with Tesimond to Huddington , before the priest left him to head for the Habingtons at Hindlip Hall , and of a meeting between Garnet , Gerard , and Tesimond in October 1605 . At about the same time in December , Tresham 's health began to deteriorate . He was visited regularly by his wife , a nurse , and his servant William Vavasour , who documented his strangury . Before he died Tresham had also told of Garnet 's involvement with the 1603 mission to Spain , but in his last hours he retracted some of these statements . Nowhere in his confession did he mention the Monteagle letter . He died early on the morning of 23 December , and was buried in the Tower . Nevertheless he was attainted along with the other plotters , his head was set on a pike either at Northampton or London Bridge , and his estates confiscated .
On 15 January a proclamation named Father Garnet , Father Gerard , and Father Greenway ( Tesimond ) as wanted men . Tesimond and Gerard managed to escape the country and live out their days in freedom ; Garnet was not so lucky . Several days earlier , on 9 January , Robert Wintour and Stephen Littleton were captured . Their hiding place at Hagley , the home of Humphrey Littleton ( brother of MP John Littleton , imprisoned for treason in 1601 for his part in the Essex revolt ) was betrayed by a cook , who grew suspicious of the amount of food sent up for his master 's consumption . Humphrey denied the presence of the two fugitives , but another servant led the authorities to their hiding place . On 20 January the local Justice and his retainers arrived at Thomas Habington 's home , Hindlip Hall , to arrest the Jesuits . Despite Thomas Habington 's protests , the men spent the next four days searching the house . On 24 January , starving , two priests left their hiding places and were discovered . Humphrey Littleton , who had escaped from the authorities at Hagley , got as far as Prestwood in Staffordshire before he was captured . He was imprisoned , and then condemned to death at Worcester . On 26 January , in exchange for his life , he told the authorities where they could find Father Garnet . Worn down by hiding for so long , Garnet , accompanied by another priest , emerged from his priest hole the next day .
= = = Trials = = =
By coincidence , on the same day that Garnet was found , the surviving conspirators were arraigned in Westminster Hall . Seven of the prisoners were taken from the Tower to the Star Chamber by barge . Bates , who was considered lower class , was brought from the Gatehouse Prison . Some of the prisoners were reportedly despondent , but others were nonchalant , even smoking tobacco . The King and his family , hidden from view , were among the many who watched the trial . The Lords Commissioners present were the Earls of Suffolk , Worcester , Northampton , Devonshire , and Salisbury . Sir John Popham was Lord Chief Justice , Sir Thomas Fleming was Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer , and two Justices , Sir Thomas Walmsley and Sir Peter Warburton , sat as Justices of the Common Pleas . The list of traitors ' names was read aloud , beginning with those of the priests : Garnet , Tesimond , and Gerard .
The first to speak was the Speaker of the House of Commons ( later Master of the Rolls ) , Sir Edward Philips , who described the intent behind the plot in lurid detail . He was followed by the Attorney @-@ General Sir Edward Coke , who began with a long speech — the content of which was heavily influenced by Salisbury — that included a denial that the King had ever made any promises to the Catholics . Monteagle 's part in the discovery of the plot was welcomed , and denunciations of the 1603 mission to Spain featured strongly . Fawkes 's protestations that Gerard knew nothing of the plot were omitted from Coke 's speech . The foreign powers , when mentioned , were accorded due respect , but the priests were accursed , their behaviour analysed and criticised wherever possible . There was little doubt , according to Coke , that the plot had been invented by the Jesuits . Garnet 's meeting with Catesby , at which the former was said to have absolved the latter of any blame in the plot , was proof enough that the Jesuits were central to the conspiracy ; according to Coke the Gunpowder Plot would always be known as the Jesuit Treason . Coke spoke with feeling of the probable fate of the Queen and the rest of the King 's family , and of the innocents who would have been caught up in the explosion .
Each of the condemned , said Coke , would be drawn backwards to his death , by a horse , his head near the ground . He was to be " put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both " . His genitals would be cut off and burnt before his eyes , and his bowels and heart then removed . Then he would be decapitated , and the dismembered parts of his body displayed so that they might become " prey for the fowls of the air " . Confessions and declarations from the prisoners were then read aloud , and finally the prisoners were allowed to speak . Rookwood claimed that he had been drawn into the plot by Catesby , " whom he loved above any worldy man " . Thomas Wintour begged to be hanged for himself and his brother , so that his brother might be spared . Fawkes explained his not guilty plea as ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment . Keyes appeared to accept his fate , Bates and Robert Wintour begged for mercy , and Grant explained his involvement as " a conspiracy intended but never effected " . Only Digby , tried on a separate indictment , pleaded guilty , insisting that the King had reneged upon promises of toleration for Catholics , and that affection for Catesby and love of the Catholic cause mitigated his actions . He sought death by the axe and begged mercy from the King for his young family . His defence was in vain ; his arguments were rebuked by Coke and Northumberland , and along with his seven co @-@ conspirators , he was found guilty by the jury of high treason . Digby shouted " If I may but hear any of your lordships say , you forgive me , I shall go more cheerfully to the gallows . " The response was short : " God forgive you , and we do . "
Garnet may have been questioned on as many as 23 occasions . His response to the threat of the rack was " Minare ista pueris [ Threats are only for boys ] " , and he denied having encouraged Catholics to pray for the success of the " Catholic Cause " . His interrogators resorted to the forgery of correspondence between Garnet and other Catholics , but to no avail . His jailers then allowed him to talk with another priest in a neighbouring cell , with eavesdroppers listening to every word . Eventually Garnet let slip a crucial piece of information , that there was only one man who could testify that he had any knowledge of the plot . Under torture Garnet admitted that he had heard of the plot from fellow Jesuit Oswald Tesimond , who had learnt of it in confession from Catesby . Garnet was charged with high treason and tried in the Guildhall on 28 March , in a trial lasting from 8 am until 7 pm . According to Coke , Garnet instigated the plot : " [ Garnet ] hath many gifts and endowments of nature , by art learned , a good linguist and , by profession , a Jesuit and a Superior as indeed he is Superior to all his predecessors in devilish treason , a Doctor of Dissimulation , Deposing of Princes , Disposing of Kingdoms , Daunting and deterring of subjects , and Destruction . " Garnet refuted all the charges against him , and explained the Catholic position on such matters , but he was nevertheless found guilty and sentenced to death .
= = = Executions = = =
Although Catesby and Percy escaped the executioner , their bodies were exhumed and decapitated , and their heads exhibited on spikes outside the House of Lords . On a cold 30 January , Everard Digby , Robert Wintour , John Grant , and Thomas Bates , were tied to hurdles — wooden panels — and dragged through the crowded streets of London to St Paul 's Churchyard . Digby , the first to mount the scaffold , asked the spectators for forgiveness , and refused the attentions of a Protestant clergyman . He was stripped of his clothing , and wearing only a shirt , climbed the ladder to place his head through the noose . He was quickly cut down , and while still fully conscious was castrated , disembowelled , and then quartered , along with the three other prisoners . The following day , Thomas Wintour , Ambrose Rookwood , Robert Keyes , and Guy Fawkes were hanged , drawn and quartered , opposite the building they had planned to blow up , in the Old Palace Yard at Westminster . Keyes did not wait for the hangman 's command and jumped from the gallows , but he survived the drop and was led to the quartering block . Although weakened by his torture , Fawkes managed to jump from the gallows and break his neck , thus avoiding the agony of the gruesome latter part of his execution .
Steven Littleton was executed at Stafford . His cousin Humphrey , despite his cooperation with the authorities , met his end at Red Hill near Worcester . Henry Garnet 's execution took place on 3 May 1606 .
= = Aftermath = =
Greater freedom for Roman Catholics to worship as they chose seemed unlikely in 1604 , but the discovery of such a wide @-@ ranging conspiracy , the capture of those involved , and the subsequent trials , led Parliament to consider introducing new anti @-@ Catholic legislation . In the summer of 1606 , laws against recusancy were strengthened ; the Popish Recusants Act returned England to the Elizabethan system of fines and restrictions , introduced a sacramental test , and an Oath of Allegiance , requiring Catholics to abjure as a " heresy " the doctrine that " princes excommunicated by the Pope could be deposed or assassinated " . Catholic Emancipation took another 200 years , but many important and loyal Catholics retained high office during King James I 's reign . Although there was no " golden time " of " toleration " of Catholics , which Father Garnet had hoped for , James 's reign was nevertheless a period of relative leniency for Catholics , and few were subject to prosecution .
The playwright William Shakespeare had already used the family history of Northumberland 's family in his Henry IV series of plays , and the events of the Gunpowder Plot seem to have featured alongside the earlier Gowrie conspiracy in Macbeth , written some time between 1603 and 1607 . Interest in the demonic was heightened by the Gunpowder Plot . The King had become engaged in the great debate about other @-@ worldly powers in writing his Daemonology in 1597 , before he became King of England as well as Scotland . Inversions seen in such lines as " fair is foul and foul is fair " are used frequently , and another possible reference to the plot relates to the use of equivocation ; Garnett 's A Treatise of Equivocation was found on one of the plotters . Another writer influenced by the plot was John Milton , who in 1626 wrote what one commentator has called a " critically vexing poem " , In Quintum Novembris . Reflecting " partisan public sentiment on an English @-@ Protestant national holiday " , in the published editions of 1645 and 1673 the poem is preceded by five epigrams on the subject of the Gunpowder Plot , apparently written by Milton in preparation for the larger work . The plot may also have influenced his later work , Paradise Lost .
The Gunpowder Plot was commemorated for years by special sermons and other public acts , such as the ringing of church bells . It added to an increasingly full calendar of Protestant celebrations that contributed to the national and religious life of 17th @-@ century England , and has evolved into the Bonfire Night of today . In What If the Gunpowder Plot Had Succeeded ? historian Ronald Hutton considered the events which might have followed a successful implementation of the plot , and the destruction of the House of Lords and all those within it . He concluded that a severe backlash against suspected Catholics would have followed , and that without foreign assistance a successful rebellion would have been unlikely ; despite differing religious convictions , most Englishmen were loyal to the institution of the monarchy . England might have become a more " Puritan absolute monarchy " , as " existed in Sweden , Denmark , Saxony , and Prussia in the seventeenth century " , rather than following the path of parliamentary and civil reform that it did .
= = = Accusations of state conspiracy = = =
Many at the time felt that Salisbury had been involved in the plot to gain favour with the King and enact more stridently anti @-@ Catholic legislation . Such conspiracy theories alleged that Salisbury had either actually invented the plot or allowed it to continue when his agents had already infiltrated it , for the purposes of propaganda . The Popish Plot of 1678 sparked renewed interest in the Gunpowder Plot , resulting in a book by Thomas Barlow , Bishop of Lincoln , which refuted " a bold and groundless surmise that all this was a contrivance of Secretary Cecil " .
In 1897 Father John Gerard of Stonyhurst College , namesake of John Gerard ( who , following the plot 's discovery , had evaded capture ) , wrote an account called What was the Gunpowder Plot ? , alleging Salisbury 's culpability . This prompted a refutation later that year by Samuel Gardiner , who argued that Gerard had gone too far in trying to " wipe away the reproach " which the plot had exacted on generations of English Catholics . Gardiner portrayed Salisbury as guilty of nothing more than opportunism . Subsequent attempts to prove Salisbury 's involvement , such as Francis Edwards 's 1969 work Guy Fawkes : the real story of the gunpowder plot ? , have similarly foundered on the lack of any clear evidence .
The cellars under the Houses of Parliament continued to be leased out to private individuals until 1678 , when news of the Popish Plot broke . It was then considered prudent to search the cellars on the day before each State Opening of Parliament , a ritual that survives to this day .
= = = Bonfire Night = = =
In January 1606 , during the first sitting of Parliament since the plot , the Observance of 5th November Act 1605 was passed , making services and sermons commemorating the event an annual feature of English life ; the act remained in force until 1859 . The tradition of marking the day with the ringing of church bells and bonfires started soon after the Plot 's discovery , and fireworks were included in some of the earliest celebrations . In Britain , the 5th of November is variously called Bonfire Night , Fireworks Night , or Guy Fawkes Night .
It remains the custom in Britain , on or around 5 November , to let off fireworks . Traditionally , in the weeks running up to the 5th , children made " guys " — effigies supposedly of Fawkes — usually made from old clothes stuffed with newspaper , and fitted with a grotesque mask , to be burnt on the 5 November bonfire . These guys were exhibited in the street to collect money for fireworks , although this custom has become less common . The word guy thus came in the 19th century to mean an oddly dressed person , and hence in the 20th and 21st centuries to mean any male person .
November the 5th firework displays and bonfire parties are common throughout Britain , in major public displays and in private gardens . In some areas , particularly in Sussex , there are extensive processions , large bonfires and firework displays organised by local bonfire societies , the most elaborate of which take place in Lewes .
According to the biographer Esther Forbes , the Guy Fawkes Day celebration in the pre @-@ revolutionary American colonies was a very popular holiday . In Boston , the revelry took on anti @-@ authoritarian overtones , and often became so dangerous that many would not venture out of their homes .
= = = Reconstructing the explosion = = =
In the 2005 ITV programme The Gunpowder Plot : Exploding The Legend , a full @-@ size replica of the House of Lords was built and destroyed with barrels of gunpowder . The experiment was conducted on the Advantica Spadeadam test site , and demonstrated that the explosion , if the gunpowder was in good order , would have killed all those in the building . The power of the explosion was such that the 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep concrete walls ( replicating how archives suggest the walls of the old House of Lords were constructed ) were reduced to rubble . Measuring devices placed in the chamber to calculate the force of the blast were themselves destroyed by the explosion ; the skull of the dummy representing King James , which had been placed on a throne inside the chamber surrounded by courtiers , peers and bishops , was found a considerable distance from the site . According to the findings of the programme , no one within 330 feet ( 100 m ) of the blast could have survived , and all of the stained glass windows in Westminster Abbey would have been shattered , as would all of the windows in the vicinity of the Palace . The explosion would have been seen from miles away , and heard from further away still . Even if only half of the gunpowder had gone off , everyone in the House of Lords and its environs would have been killed instantly .
The programme also disproved claims that some deterioration in the quality of the gunpowder would have prevented the explosion . A portion of deliberately deteriorated gunpowder , of such low quality as to make it unusable in firearms , when placed in a heap and ignited , still managed to create a large explosion . The impact of even deteriorated gunpowder would have been magnified by its containment in wooden barrels , compensating for the quality of the contents . The compression would have created a cannon effect , with the powder first blowing up from the top of the barrel before , a millisecond later , blowing out . Calculations showed that Fawkes , who was skilled in the use of gunpowder , had deployed double the amount needed .
Some of the gunpowder guarded by Fawkes may have survived . In March 2002 workers cataloguing archives of diarist John Evelyn at the British Library found a box containing a number of gunpowder samples , including a compressed bar with a note in Evelyn 's handwriting stating that it had belonged to Guy Fawkes . A further note , written in the 19th century , confirmed this provenance , although in 1952 the document acquired a new comment : " but there was none left ! "
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= Paul Stephenson ( civil rights campaigner ) =
Paul Stephenson OBE ( born 6 May 1937 in Rochford , Essex ) , is a community worker , activist and long @-@ time campaigner for civil rights for the British African @-@ Caribbean community in Bristol , England .
As a young social worker , in 1963 Stephenson led a boycott of the Bristol Omnibus Company , protesting against its refusal to employ Black or Asian drivers or conductors . After a 60 @-@ day boycott supported by thousands of Bristolians , the company revoked its colour bar in August . In 1964 Stephenson achieved national fame when he refused to leave a public house until he was served , resulting in a trial on a charge of failing to leave a licensed premises . His campaigns were instrumental in paving the way for the first Race Relations Act , in 1965 . Stephenson is a Freeman of the City of Bristol and was awarded an OBE in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Stephenson was born in 1937 to a West African father and a British mother . His maternal grandmother Edie Johnson was a well known actress in the 1920s . He received his secondary education at Forest Gate Secondary School in London , where he was the only black child in the school . Service in the Royal Air Force followed from 1953 to 1960 . Stephenson gained a Diploma in Youth and Community Work from University College Birmingham in 1962 and then moved to Bristol to work as a youth officer for Bristol City Council .
= = Bus boycott = =
In January 1955 the Passenger group , that is the section representing those working in Passenger Transport , of the local branch of the Transport and General Workers Union had passed a resolution that " coloured workers should not be employed as bus crews " by the Bristol Omnibus Company . The Bristol Evening Post ran a series of articles in 1961 exposing this colour bar . The union publicly denied the bar , but the company general manager , Ian Petey , did admit it . He attempted to justify the company policy by stating in a meeting with the city 's Joint Transport Committee that he " had ' factual evidence ' that the introduction of coloured crews in other cities downgraded the job , causing existing ( white ) staff to go elsewhere . "
Several members of the city 's West Indian community set up an organisation , the West Indian Development Council , to fight discrimination of this sort , aided by Paul Stephenson who was the city 's first black youth officer . In 1963 Stephenson established that the bus company was indeed operating a colour bar and inspired by the example of Rosa Parks ' refusal to move off a " whites only " bus seat in Montgomery , Alabama , leading to the Montgomery Bus Boycott , a Bristol bus boycott was organised .
As an articulate and university educated person , Stephenson became spokesman for the boycott , which soon attracted nationwide media interest and the campaign grew to receive support from Bristolians of all colours , Tony Benn , MP for Bristol East , and Harold Wilson , leader of the Labour opposition . After 60 days , on 28 August 1963 , the bus company capitulated and in September Raghbir Singh became Bristol 's first non @-@ white bus conductor .
In August 2014 FirstBus unveiled a plaque inside Bristol Bus Station commemorating the bus boycott .
= = Further career = =
In the following year Stephenson achieved national prominence when he refused to leave a public house without being served . He was charged with failing to leave a licensed premises and was tried in a magistrate 's court . The case was dismissed and the barman was dismissed by his employers .
Following this , Stephenson left Bristol to work in Coventry as a Senior Community Relations Officer . In 1972 he went to London to work for the Commission for Racial Equality . While in London he worked with boxer Muhammad Ali setting up the Muhammad Ali Sports Development Association in Brixton , and also set up the Cleo Laine Schools ’ Music Awards from 1977 to 1982 with Cleo Laine and John Dankworth . In 1975 he was appointed to the Sports Council and campaigned prominently against sporting contacts with apartheid South Africa . Stephenson became honorary president of Bristol 's West Indian Parents ' Association in 1979 and in 1981 was appointed to the Press Council .
On his return to live in Bristol in 1992 , he helped set up the Bristol Black Archives Partnership ( BBAP ) , which " protects and promotes the history of African @-@ Caribbean people in Bristol . " It was initiated when he placed his own personal archives with Bristol Record Office for safekeeping .
= = Awards and honours = =
In 1988 Stephenson received the Bristol City Council Community Award for Achievement and Services Rendered to the Black Community and the West Indian Community Publishers Award . Further awards include the Bristol West African and Caribbean Council Community Achievers ' Award ( 1996 ) , and the city council 's One Person Can Make a Difference Award ( 2006 ) . In 2007 Stephenson was granted the Freedom of the City of Bristol , being the first person of Black origin to be so honoured . The citation stated : " Paul Stephenson has devoted his life to improving race relations and encouraging community involvement and is a founder member of the Bristol Black Archives Project which has contributed greatly to an understanding of the history of the City and has helped to build closer relations between all the communities of Bristol . "
In 2009 he was given an OBE " for his services to equal opportunities and to community relations in Bristol " . He received honorary degrees from the University of the West of England ( Master of Education ) in November 2009 , " in recognition of his substantial contribution to pioneering work in race relations and the extension of opportunity to socially excluded young people " , and the University of Bristol ( Doctor of Law ) in July 2014 " for his dedication to fighting for equality and civil rights across Bristol and around the world for over 60 years " .
= = Archives and personal papers = =
Photographs , newspaper cuttings , letters and other miscellaneous items relating to Paul Stephenson and the 40th anniversary commemorations of the Bristol Bus Boycott campaign are held by Bristol Record Office ( Ref . 42840 ) ( online catalogue ) .
The Bristol Black Archives Partnership collections are held at Bristol Record Office ( A Guide to African @-@ Caribbean Sources at Bristol Record Office , multiple collections noted )
= = Work cited = =
Dresser , Madge , Black and White on the Buses , Bristol : Bristol Broadsides , 1986 . ISBN 0 @-@ 906944 @-@ 30 @-@ 9 .
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= 2010 – 11 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team =
The 2010 – 11 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team represented Harvard University in the Ivy League athletic conference during the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The team played its home games in Cambridge , Massachusetts at the Lavietes Pavilion , which has a capacity of 2 @,@ 195 . The team was led by fourth @-@ year head coach Tommy Amaker . By earning a share of the 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season title , the team became the first men 's basketball Ivy League champion in school history . This was the 100th season for Harvard basketball .
After the annual 14 @-@ game double round robin schedule , Harvard and Princeton tied as co @-@ champion , resulting in a one @-@ game playoff to determine the league 's automatic bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . After losing , the team earned an at @-@ large bid to the 2011 National Invitation Tournament , where they lost in the first round . It was the school 's first appearance in the National Invitation Tournament .
The seniorless team was captained by Keith Wright and Oliver McNally . Wright , a junior , was a unanimous All @-@ Ivy first team selection and named Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . Sophomores Kyle Casey and Brandyn Curry were named All @-@ Ivy second team and sophomore Christian Webster was an honorable mention . The team established a new school record for single @-@ season wins , a record for conference game wins and by going undefeated at home set a record for home wins .
= = Preseason = =
The team was coming off a 2009 – 10 season during which it set a school record for wins ( 21 ) , non @-@ conference wins ( 11 ) , home wins ( 11 ) , and road / neutral wins ( 10 ) . However , the team lost its star Jeremy Lin to the National Basketball Association . The team entered the season not having participated in the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament since the 1946 Tournament . It also entered the season as the only member school not to have won at least one Ivy League men 's basketball championship since the league was formed during the 1956 – 57 season . Of the 34 men 's and women 's sports in which Harvard competes , this was the only sport that they had never won a championship . They had only finished in second three times in the past and only one of those was outright .
Most preseason publications predicted Princeton would finish in first place and Harvard would finish in second place , although the Sporting News projected that Cornell would finish in first followed by Princeton and Harvard . Breaking a three @-@ year streak by Cornell , the Ivy League media poll selected Princeton as the top team with twelve first place votes , Harvard second with four first place votes and Cornell third with one first place vote . It was the first Princeton team to be the preseason selection since the 2004 – 05 Princeton team .
= = Season = =
During the season , the team lost to its only ranked opponent , # 4 Connecticut ( December 22 ) , but defeated power conference opponents Boston College ( January 5 ) of the Atlantic Coast Conference and Colorado ( November 28 ) of the Big 12 Conference . The Colorado victory was the team 's first ever against a Big 12 opponent . In addition to defeating Boston College , the team defeated other cross @-@ town rivals Boston University ( December 11 ) and MIT ( December 31 ) . The team also lost to Amaker 's former team ( as a coach ) , Michigan ( December 4 ) . The Harvard gameplan involved fast breaks initiated by its defensive and an inside @-@ outside game . Although Harvard never appeared in the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings , for a few weeks ( January 24 , January 31 and February 21 and March 7 ) during the season they received a vote in the AP Poll .
As the season wound down , there was much ado in the press about a possible Harvard Ivy League championship . The most recent Harvard team to be in contention for a championship entering the final weekend was the 1984 team . On March 5 , Harvard clinched a share of the league championship for the first time since the Ivy League was formed . By defeating Princeton at home on March 5 and earning a split of the season series , they clinched at least a share of the 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season Championship with a 12 – 2 conference record . Princeton fell to 11 – 2 with one conference game remaining to force a one @-@ game playoff for the conferences automatic bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Harvard finished the season a perfect 14 – 0 at home , which surpassed the prior season 's record of eleven home wins . Harvard will enter the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season with a 17 @-@ game home streak ( 10th longest in the country ) . Harvard 's 12 conference game wins was also a school record . On March 7 , Harvard received a vote in both the AP Poll and the Coaches ' Poll . It was the first time in program history that they received votes in the Coaches ' Poll .
= = Postseason = =
On March 8 , Princeton defeated Penn to force a one @-@ game playoff at the Payne Whitney Gymnasium at Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut . Princeton won the playoff by a 63 – 62 margin . However , many thought Harvard had a chance to make the tournament in spite of the loss as an at @-@ large team . Four of Harvard 's regular season losses were to postseason contenders , and Cornell represented the conference well the year before . Entering selection Sunday ( March 13 ) , Harvard ranked 35th in the Ratings Percentage Index ( RPI ) . However , Harvard was not selected . Unfortunately , neither of Harvard 's quality wins ( against Colorado and Boston College ) helped them because both teams were left out of the NCAA tournament and relegated to number one seed status in the NIT tournament . It was the Ivy League 's first NIT invitation since the 2003 when Brown participated . As a regular season champion not invited to the NCAA tournament , they were an at @-@ large selection for the 2011 National Invitation Tournament , where they were seeded # 6 . On March 15 , Harvard was defeated by Oklahoma State by a 71 – 54 margin in the first round . The final record of 23 – 7 established a school record for number of wins , surpassing the prior season 's total of 21 . Harvard finished the season ranked 40th nationally by the Collegiate Basketball News RPI , CollegeRPI.com RPI and NCAA RPI . The team finished second in the nation in free throw percentage ( 80 @.@ 8 % ) , led by Oliver McNally who was 2nd as an individual with a 92 @.@ 6 % and Christian Webster who was 12th with an 89 @.@ 4 % . Harvard had no seniors on the team and was expected to be a contender again the following season .
= = Schedule = =
= = Honors = =
= = = In season = = =
Each week the Ivy League selects a player of the week and a rookie of the week .
= = = Postseason honors = = =
Keith Wright was an Associated Press honorable mention All @-@ American , a CollegeInsider.com Lou Henson All @-@ American and a National Association of Basketball Coaches First Team All @-@ District selection . The Ivy League selected its postseason awards on March 9.Player of the Year : Keith Wright , Harvard ( Jr . , F , Suffolk , VA ) All @-@ Ivy League ( ALL CAPS : Unanimous )
First Team All @-@ Ivy : KEITH WRIGHT , Harvard ( Jr . , F , Suffolk , VA )
Second Team All @-@ Ivy : Kyle Casey , Harvard ( So . , F , Medway , MA ) ; Brandyn Curry , Harvard ( So . , G , Huntersville , NC )
Honorable Mention : Christian Webster , Harvard ( So . , G , Washington , DC )
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= Slovenian presidential election , 2007 =
The 2007 Slovenian presidential election was held in order to elect the successor to the second President of Slovenia Janez Drnovšek for a five @-@ year term . France Cukjati , the President of the National Assembly , called the election on 20 June 2007 .
Seven candidates competed in the election 's first round on 21 October 2007 ; three entered the race as independent candidates , the other four were supported by political parties . Several political events , as well as tension between the Government and the political opposition , overshadowed the campaign . The front runner Lojze Peterle , supported by the governing conservative coalition , won the first round with far fewer votes than predicted by opinion polls . In the second round , held on 11 November 2007 , Peterle faced the runner @-@ up , the left @-@ wing candidate Danilo Türk . Türk won the second round in a landslide , with 68 @.@ 03 % of the vote .
In a referendum called by the National Council , and held on the same day as the second round of the presidential election , the electorate voted to overturn a law providing for the nationalization of citizens ' share in the major national insurance company . Nearly three quarters of the votes were cast against the law . After both election and referendum results were announced , the Prime Minister Janez Janša announced that he might resign , following what he perceived to be a heavy defeat for the Government . The Government later won a vote of confidence in the National Assembly .
= = Background = =
The role of the president of Slovenia is mainly ceremonial . One of the president 's duties is to nominate the Prime Minister , after consulting with political groups represented in the National Assembly . The president also proposes candidates for various state offices , as well as judicial appointments to the Constitutional and Supreme Court , which must be approved by the National Assembly . In rare circumstances , the president possesses the power to pass laws and dissolve the National Assembly . The President is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces . Unlike the majority of the government , which is chosen by the National Assembly and elected through proportional representation , the president is directly elected by the majority of Slovenian voters .
The previous presidential election in 2002 brought major changes to Slovenian politics . The former president Milan Kučan , in office since the first free elections held in the Republic of Slovenia in April 1990 ( before the country 's independence from Yugoslavia ) , was forbidden by the constitution from running for President again , and announced his retirement from active politics . Prime Minister Janez Drnovšek of the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia stood for the office , comfortably winning the runoff against conservative candidate Barbara Brezigar .
The 2004 legislative election brought further changes and a political swing to the right . Janez Janša , the leader of a right @-@ wing coalition , formed the new government . In Slovenia , this was the first time after 1992 that the President and the Prime Minister had represented opposing political factions for more than a few months . Between 2002 and 2004 , the relationship between President Drnovšek and Janez Janša , then leader of the opposition , were considered more than good and in the first year of cohabitation , no major problems arose .
In the beginning of his term , Drnovšek , who was ill with cancer , stayed out of public view . When he reemerged in late 2005 he had changed his lifestyle : he became a vegan , moved out of the capital into the countryside , and withdrew from party politics completely , ending his already frozen membership in the Liberal Democracy . Drnovšek 's new approach to politics prompted one political commentator to nickname him " Slovenia 's Gandhi " .
The relationship between Drnovšek and the government quickly became tense . Disagreements began with Drnovšek 's initiatives in foreign politics , aimed at solving major foreign conflicts , including those in Darfur and Kosovo . Initially , these initiatives were not openly opposed by the Prime Minister , but were criticized by the foreign minister Dimitrij Rupel , Drnovšek 's former collaborator and close political ally until 2004 . The disagreements moved to issues of domestic politics in October 2006 , when Drnovšek publicly criticised the treatment of the Romani family Strojans . The neighborhood had forced the Strojans to relocate , which in turn subjected them to police supervision and limitation of movement . The disagreements however escalated when the parliamentary majority repeatedly rejected President 's candidates for the Governor of the Bank of Slovenia , beginning with the rejection of incumbent Mitja Gaspari . The friction continued over the appointment of other state official nominees , including Constitutional Court judges . Although the President 's political support suffered after his personal transformation , the polls nevertheless showed public backing of the President against an increasingly unpopular Government . The tension reached its height in May 2007 , when the newly appointed director of the Slovenian Secret Service Matjaž Šinkovec unclassified several documents from the period before 2004 , revealing , among other , that Drnovšek had used secret funds for personal purposes between 2002 and 2004 . The President reacted with a harsh criticism of the government 's policies , accusing the ruling coalition of abusing its power for personal delegitimation and labeled the Prime Minister as " the leader of the negative guys " . After years of speculation about his health and intentions , Janez Drnovšek announced in February 2007 that he would not run for president again .
= = Candidates = =
= = = Requirements for candidacy = = =
Under Slovenian Election Law , candidates for president require support of either :
10 members of the National Assembly ,
one or more political parties and either 3 members of the National Assembly or 3 @,@ 000 voters ,
or 5 @,@ 000 voters .
Each political party can support only one candidate . In the election , the president is elected with a majority of the vote . If no candidate receives more than half of votes , the top two candidates meet in the second round of election .
= = = Leading candidates = = =
The first official candidate was Lojze Peterle , a conservative member of the European parliament and first democratically elected Prime Minister of Slovenia ( 1990 – 1992 ) , who announced his candidacy in November 2006 . He was endorsed by the three government center @-@ right parties , New Slovenia ( NSi ) , Slovenian Democratic Party ( SDS ) , and Slovenian People 's Party ( SLS ) .
Drnovšek 's announcement that he would not run for president again led to expectations that the Social Democrats ( SD ) would nominate their leader Borut Pahor and indeed Pahor confirmed that he was ready to run for the office . The Social Democrats had become the most popular party in opinion polls and were considered the likely winners at the next general election in 2008 ; opinion polls indicated that Pahor would easily win the presidential election . However , after months of mixed signals , Pahor finally announced that he would instead concentrate on the general election and would not run for the mostly ceremonial office of the president .
The Social Democrats then nominated Danilo Türk , a former Slovenian ambassador and high official in the United Nations , who at the time was a professor at the University of Ljubljana 's Faculty of Law . Türk 's candidacy was also endorsed by Zares and the pensioners ' party DeSUS . Türk also gained support from Active Slovenia ( AS ) and the Party of Ecological Movements ( SEG ) , two parties not represented in the National Assembly .
Liberal Democracy of Slovenia ( LDS ) , which had earlier discussed the candidacy with Danilo Türk , subsequently nominated Mitja Gaspari , the former Governor of the Bank of Slovenia . Gaspari had earlier had discussions with the Social Democrats about the candidacy .
The Slovenian National Party ( SNS ) nominated its leader , Zmago Jelinčič . Jelinčič had already run for the office at the 2002 election , finishing third with 8 @.@ 51 % of the votes .
Peterle , Türk and Gaspari all decided to enter the election as independent candidates and all managed to collect enough nominating votes with Peterle reaching the required number within the first 4 hours of the nominating process . Jelinčič was supported by his fellow party members . Early polls indicated that Peterle , who had been campaigning for months and had cultivated the image of a " man of the people " , would win the election in a runoff against Türk or possibly Gaspari .
= = = Other candidates = = =
Other candidates , none of whom were expected to win a significant share of votes , were Darko Krajnc of the formerly parliamentarian Youth Party of Slovenia , the disabled rights activist Elena Pečarič , and Monika Piberl , supported by the Women 's Voice of Slovenia party . Pečarič was supported by non @-@ aligned Majda Širca , independent Slavko Gaber and Roberto Battelli , representative of the Italian minority in Slovenia . Krajnc and Piberl were supported by non @-@ parliamentary political parties so they only needed to collect 3 @,@ 000 support votes .
Several other candidates publicly announced their intention to run for the office . Jože Andrejaš , Jožef Horvat , Matej Sedmak , Marjan Beranič , Marko Kožar and Pavel Premrl failed to gather sufficient public support or later decided to withdraw from the race . Artur Štern , after leading a spoof campaign , announced that he was in fact performing a hidden camera experiment . The footage was used by Franci Kek and Vojko Anzeljc in a film Gola resnica , airing in early 2009 and addressing objectivity of media , problems with election legislation and reactions from Slovenes .
= = First round campaign = =
The official election campaign began in late September 2007 . The campaigns of the three front runners were based mostly on the personal appeal of the candidates , with few concrete statements about political issues . Zmago Jelinčič led an aggressive campaign , focusing on denouncing the three front runners , the Government , the ethnic and religious minorities , the Roman Catholic Church , and demanding an aggressive policy towards neighbouring Croatia .
The candidates appeared in televised debates during which they discussed various topics . One of them were the rules governing the voting of non @-@ resident nationals , which had been changed by the National Electoral Commission during the campaign . Before the campaign , non @-@ resident nationals who wanted to cast their votes as absentee ballots had been obliged to request voting materials , but the Commission had introduced a new system in which such materials were sent to all non @-@ residents entered in the electoral register , whether they had asked for them or not . Opposition parties , representing the left @-@ wing of Slovenian politics , disliked this move because the record of voters ' addresses was not always reliable , and also because the rules had been changed after the campaign had already started . They particularly opposed the change because voters from abroad seemed to favor right @-@ wing parties , so that in the event of a very close ballot , votes from non @-@ residents could tip the scale in favour of Peterle .
Other events overshadowed the campaign . During the summer , journalists Matej Šurc and Blaž Zgaga launched a Petition Against Censorship and Political Pressures on Journalists in Slovenia , alleging government interference with journalism . The petition was signed by hundreds of Slovenian journalists from the mainstream media . It was sent to the heads of state , prime ministers and parliamentary speakers of all EU member states during the campaign . Following the petition , the International Press Institute ( IPI ) sent a fact @-@ finding mission to Ljubljana in November , to discuss the claims made in the petition with members of the Slovenian media . The contents of the mission 's report remain confidential , but IPI called for the establishment of an independent commission to investigate the claims further .
Another event which attracted much debate was the Supreme Court 's annulment of the 1946 war crimes conviction of Gregorij Rožman . Rožman was the Catholic bishop of Ljubljana who had been found guilty of war crimes and treason during World War II as a result of his collaboration with Italian and German occupation forces . Several attempts during the 1990s to review the trial had failed . This had led to Janša 's government changing the law , enabling the religious communities to request a review of trials of their deceased members , something which had previously been reserved only for close relatives . After the Archdiocese of Ljubljana initiated the review , the Supreme Court annulled the 1946 trial on procedural grounds , effectively rehabilitating Rožman , a decision that caused much controversy . This proved harmful for Peterle 's campaign , as he was closely associated with the Catholic Church . When asked about the Rožman case in a TV debate , Peterle confined himself to remarking that he was a supporter of the rule of law , that the war had divided the nation and that Rožman had played some part in that .
The last opinion polls published before the first round predicted a runoff between Peterle , who would win 40 % , and either Türk or Gaspari . The latter were each predicted to receive 20 – 25 % ; most polls predicted a substantially larger share for Türk .
= = First round result and reactions = =
The first round , held on 21 October , brought unexpected results . Contrary to predictions , Peterle won less than 29 % of the vote , with Türk and Gaspari finishing a close second and third , respectively . Jelinčič , who according to opinion polls was expected to win around 12 % of the vote , actually won almost 20 % , finishing first in two of Slovenia 's eight electoral units . Prime Minister Janez Janša blamed Peterle 's poor showing on certain topics that were brought up during the campaign by " hidden centres of power " . This was a reference to the journalists ' petition , the timing of the Supreme Court 's decision on the Rožman case and misinterpretation of Janša 's and Minister of Economy Andrej Vizjak 's remarks on reasons for Slovenia 's high inflation in 2007 .
= = Runoff campaign = =
Following the unexpected results of the first round , new opinion polls showed major changes , giving Türk a large lead over Peterle . Liberal Democracy of Slovenia , which supported Gaspari in the first round , announced it would support Türk in the second .
After the surprise gains of the flamboyant Jelinčič in the first round , the campaigns of both candidates opted for more concrete political statements in public campaigning and debates . Peterle replaced the head of his campaign , and concentrated on questioning Türk 's role in the 1991 secession from Yugoslavia . Peterle alleged that at the time when he , as Prime Minister , struggled for Slovenia 's independence , Türk continued to act as an official representative of Yugoslavia in international institutions . The campaign was backed by the Prime Minister Janša and the Foreign Minister Dimitrij Rupel who went so far as to confirm Peterle 's claims on the Foreign Ministry 's official website . Türk denied the allegations , pointing to his opinion piece in the International Herald Tribune advocating international recognition of Slovenia , and the fact that it was Rupel himself who in 1992 appointed Türk as the Ambassador to the UN and praised him for his service to the country . Peterle 's new strategy appeared to backfire , and the polls before the runoff predicted that Türk would win between 63 % and over 70 % of the vote .
= = Runoff result and reactions = =
The runoff was held on 11 November 2007 . Exit poll results published at the closing of the vote predicted a victory for Türk , with 69 % of the vote . " I 'm very happy with the results as they appear now . I want to be a president who is uniting people . I believe that conditions here are such that people have a strong desire for something new , " Türk told reporters .
Peterle conceded immediately . In his first statements , Peterle said his defeat was a vote against the ruling Janša government , and that he had expected a better result . He added , however , that he would have regretted it if he had not decided to run for the office . By midnight , unofficial results from the Electoral Commission gave Türk a lead of 68 % vs. 32 % . Türk won in all eight electoral units , with Peterle narrowly winning in only four of 88 electoral districts . Together with the second round of the election , a referendum on a law providing for the nationalization of citizens ' share in the major national insurance company was held as well . Nearly three quarters of the votes were cast against the law .
The ballots from abroad that were considered potentially contentious before the election proved to have very little effect on the result . While Peterle received more votes from abroad than Türk , both the total number of votes and the difference was smaller than expected ( 3693 for Peterle and 3040 for Türk ) .
Two days after the election , Prime Minister Janša announced that he might resign following what was perceived as a heavy defeat for the Government : " We will analyze the situation further , but all possibilities are open , including a resignation of the Government . " He said that " it is particularly worrying that a lot of energy was invested in blackening the Government abroad " , claiming his opponents portrayed Slovenia " as Belarus " or some other authoritarian country . The opposition parties said that talk of resignation just weeks before Slovenia took over European Union presidency was irresponsible and unwise , but the Prime Minister called a vote of confidence for 19 November 2007 . The Government won the confidence vote , but support for the ruling SDS subsequently reached an all @-@ time low , with only 18 % of voters intending to vote for it in the fall 2008 election .
Reactions to Türk 's victory from international media were positive . The Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung described him as " more or less the ideal man for the job " . The media focused on the landslide victory that was perceived to be a severe defeat for Janša ’ s centre @-@ right coalition . Since the EU presidency was closing , Türk 's diplomatic background was put forward . " Slovenia is your solid , faithful and credible partner . Rely on us , and we 'll be a good president of the European Union next year , " Türk said . Türk was also expected to maintain Slovenia 's alliance with the United States even though he was highly critical of the war in Iraq , as Al Jazeera reported .
On 22 December , Türk was sworn in as the President of the Republic of Slovenia . In his inaugural address , he thanked his predecessor Janez Drnovšek for his contribution to success and respect of Slovenia . Later , he also stated that he would work closely with Janša 's government during Slovenia 's six @-@ month EU presidency .
= = Detailed result = =
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= Dirty Diana =
" Dirty Diana " is a song by American singer Michael Jackson . It is the ninth track on Jackson 's seventh studio album , Bad . The song was released by Epic Records on April 18 , 1988 as the fifth single from the album . It presents a harder rock sound similar to " Beat It " from Thriller and a solo guitar played by Steve Stevens . " Dirty Diana " was written and co @-@ produced by Jackson , and produced by Quincy Jones . The songs lyrics pertain to groupies . " Dirty Diana " has a moderate tempo and is played in the key of Bb major .
" Dirty Diana " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics , with some criticizing the lyrics , while others found the song better than " Thriller 's forgettables . " The song was a commercial success worldwide in 1988 , charting at number one on the United States Billboard Hot 100 . The song also charted within the top ten in multiple countries , including the United Kingdom , France , Italy , and New Zealand . " Dirty Diana " was the fifth and final Hot 100 number one single from Bad . In 2009 , after Jackson 's death in June , the song re @-@ entered charts , mainly due to digital download sales . A music video for " Dirty Diana " was filmed in front of a live audience and released in 1988 .
= = Background = =
" Dirty Diana " was written by Michael Jackson . It was produced by Quincy Jones and Michael Jackson . It appeared on Jackson 's seventh studio album , Bad . The song was released by Epic Records on April 18 , 1988 as the fifth single from Bad . After " Beat It " , " Dirty Diana " was the second hard rock song of his solo career , with lyrics about a persistent groupie . Jackson hired Billy Idol 's guitarist Steve Stevens to back him on the track . Initial reports at the time suggested the song was a poke at his close friend Diana Ross , however it was later denied . In fact , Ross started using the song as an overture at her concerts shortly before appearing on stage . In an interview from the special edition of Bad , Jones later confirmed that the song 's lyrics were about groupies . Jackson also confirmed same during an interview with Barbara Walters , adding that it was not about Diana , Princess of Wales , though he was told personally by the Princess that it was her favorite among his songs .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Dirty Diana " is a pop rock , hard rock and heavy metal song similar to " Beat It " . TriniTrent of The Lava Lizard , when talking about Michael and Janet Jackson 's " Scream " , evokes " Dirty Diana " along with Jackson 's " pop / rock musical direction " he has previously experimented with . John Tatlock of The Quietus regards the song as an attempt to recreate " the pop @-@ rock alchemy of ' Beat It ' " In his Bad review , Los Angeles Times ' Richard Cromelin describes " Dirty Diana " as a hard rock song , writing , " ' Dirty Diana ' is trying to be this year 's ' Beat It ' — a hard @-@ rock song about a tenacious groupie that 's sent into orbit by a Steve Stevens guitar solo . " AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine also considers " Dirty Diana " a hard rock song , observing on the album that it " meant that he moved deeper into hard rock , deeper into schmaltzy adult contemporary , deeper into hard dance — essentially taking each portion of Thriller to an extreme " and qualifying the track as the " misogynistic ' Dirty Diana ' . "
Jon Pareles , a writer for The New York Times , viewed " Dirty Diana " as a song about a " groupie who latches onto the narrator , mixes the sexual fears of ' Billie Jean ' with the hard @-@ rock lead guitar of ' Beat It ' . " In his Bad review , Thom Duffy , music critic for the Orlando Sentinel , describes " Dirty Diana " as a heavy metal ballad , saying that " Dirty Diana , a tale of a maliciously seductive fan , finds Jackson doing credible heavy @-@ metal rock wailing , " which , the critic said , was " accompanied by a solo from Steve Stevens , the guitarist from Billy Idol 's band . " The Philadelphia Inquirer also described " Dirty Diana " as a heavy metal ballad . The newspaper said , " Plus , to tap the rock crowd ( in the style of the ' Thriller ' crossover smash ' Beat It ' with Eddie Van Halen ) , Michael cut a heavy metal @-@ tinged ' Dirty Diana ' featuring Billy Idol 's guitar sizzler Stevie Stevens . " " Dirty Diana " is written in common time and moves at a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . Jackson 's vocals are sung on a range of Bb3 to G5 . The instrumentation consists of guitar and piano and is played in the key of Bb major .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Dirty Diana " received mixed reviews by contemporary music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine felt that " Dirty Diana " and " Man in the Mirror " were " showcasing Jackson at his worst " on Bad . Music critic Robert Christgau viewed " Dirty Diana " as " misogynistic as any piece of metal suck @-@ my @-@ cock . " Jon Pareles described " Dirty Diana " as ' reducing ' Jackson to a " terrified whimper " while John Tatlock considered " Dirty Diana " as a " confused lumbering slog of a song , " thinking that " Jackson was never convincing in this kind of role , a boy @-@ child trying to write a song about the kind of woman he never meets in the kind of places he 's certainly never been to . " Davitt Sigerson of Rolling Stone gave the song a more positive review , though calling it a " filler , " she still commented that the song , along with " Speed Demon " is what makes Bad " richer , sexier , better than Thriller 's forgettables . " Sigerson noted that " Dirty Diana " was a " substantial recording " because of its " insubstantial melody . " Jennifer Clay of Yahoo ! Music commented that while Jackson 's edgier image was a " little hard to swallow , " the image , musically , worked on the songs " Bad " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " , but was not " to the degree of Thriller . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Dirty Diana " , similar to Bad 's previous singles , charted within the top twenty and top ten worldwide . It peaked at number one on the United States Billboard Hot 100 on July 2 , 1988 , after nine weeks on the chart . " Dirty Diana " was the album 's fifth consecutive single to peak at number one on the Hot 100 . Internationally , " Dirty Diana " charted within the top thirty positions on several music charts . It charted within the top five in the Netherlands , Germany , and New Zealand , peaking at number two , three and five respectively . It entered the United Kingdom charts on July 16 , 1988 at number fourteen and the following week went to number four , where it stayed for two weeks .
" Dirty Diana " peaked at number three in Ireland , number seven in Austria and number nine in France . It peaked at number thirty in Australia . Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music experienced a surge in popularity . In July 2009 , " Dirty Diana " saw a strong chart surge , mainly due to digital download sales . The song charted at number eighteen on the French Digital Singles Chart on July 4 , 2009 . On July 12 , the song peaked at number 13 on the Swiss Singles Chart . " Dirty Diana " re @-@ entered the United Kingdom charts on July 4 , 2009 at number fifty and the following week peaked at number twenty @-@ six .
= = Music video = =
The five @-@ minute music video for the song was directed by Joe Pytka . It won the " Number One Video In The World " at the second World Music Awards held on April 14 , 1989 . It is featured on the DVD albums Number Ones , Michael Jackson 's Vision , and the Target version DVD of Bad 25 . The woman who appears in the video is model Lisa Dean , chosen over hundreds .
= = = Live performance video = = =
A second seven @-@ minute long accompanying video of a live performance ( which should not be confused with the actual music video ) was filmed in early 1988 in front of a live audience during Jackson 's show in Madison Square Garden ( Steve Stevens playing guitar ) . The video starts with the screen saying " Pepsi Presents Michael Jackson Tour 1988 " in front of a white background for forty seconds . After showing a black screen , Jackson can be seen from a distance performing in front of an audience with the only source of light being blue lights . During Jackson 's performance he is dressed in a white button down shirt , black pants and has metal and leather belts on his pants while singing and dancing . In between Jackson 's performance from a distance , there are clips of him performing up @-@ close while singing into a microphone , as well as clips of his guitarist Jennifer Batten performing behind him . Jackson then begins dancing and singing to the woman before walking down a cat @-@ walk and dancing near guitarist Steve Stevens . Jackson 's performance is then shown from a distance again and the video ends with Jackson finishing his performance and the lights turning blue .
= = Live performances = =
" Dirty Diana " was performed during Jackson 's Bad World Tour concert series from 1987 to 1989 , but only in the second leg , as the 10th song in the setlist . According to Jackson in an interview with Barbara Walters , " Dirty Diana " was scheduled for a live 1988 performance at Wembley Stadium during the Bad World Tour ; however , Jackson felt the song would be an insult to Diana , Princess of Wales , who was in attendance , so he had it removed . After Diana informed him the song was actually one of her personal favorites , Jackson re @-@ added the song to the set list . This performance can be seen on the DVD Michael Jackson : Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 . This Is It concert series choreographer , Kenny Ortega , stated in an interview that " Dirty Diana " was going to be performed by Jackson for the concerts from 2009 to 2010 . Ortega said that Jackson had planned to rehearse the song before he died . The set up for the song would include an expert pole dancer who would lure Jackson onto a giant steel bed on which she performed acrobatic feats .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= Demobilisation of the Australian military after World War II =
The demobilisation of the Australian military after World War II involved discharging almost 600 @,@ 000 men and women from the military , supporting their transition to civilian life and reducing the three armed services to peacetime strengths . Planning for the demobilisation process began in 1942 and thousands of servicemen and women were discharged in the last years of the war in response to shortages of labour in the domestic war economy . The general demobilisation of the military began in October 1945 and was completed in February 1947 . The demobilisation process was largely successful , though some military personnel stationed in the South West Pacific complained that their repatriation to Australia was too slow .
The disposal of surplus military equipment took place at the same time as the size of the services was being reduced . The disposal process was managed to limit its economic impact . Most equipment was transferred to other government agencies , sold or destroyed by the end of 1949 .
= = Planning = =
Planning for the demobilisation of the Australian military began at the end of 1942 when the Department of Post @-@ War Reconstruction was formed . The department was involved with drawing up plans for determining veterans ' entitlements and the assistance which would be provided to discharged personnel to help them settle into civilian life . This included planning the delivery of training , housing and ensuring that jobs were available . An important consideration was to ensure that civilian employment opportunities were created at an appropriate rate as the size of the military was reduced . In order to achieve this , it was decided to continue many wartime economic regulations such as price controls in order to limit inflation and direct resources to where the Australian Government believed they were most needed .
The Australian War Cabinet approved the Department of Post @-@ War Reconstruction 's proposed principles to govern demobilisation on 12 June 1944 . The key element of these principles was that the order in which personnel would be demobilised was to be based on a points system , with service men and women being allocated points on the basis of their period of service , age , marital status and employment or training prospects . An extensive demobilisation plan was then developed by an inter @-@ service committee following further consultation with trade unions , employers and returned servicemen . This plan was accepted as the basis for planning by the War Cabinet on 6 March 1945 . The rate at which personnel were to be discharged was set at 3 @,@ 000 a day for six days a week and was to be capable of being increased in the event of an emergency .
The final demobilisation plan assigned differing scales of points for service men and women . Service men were allocated two points for each year of age based on their age at enlistment and a further two points for each month of service if they did not have dependent children or three points if they did . Service women received three points for each year of age at enlistment and a point for each month of service . Women with children were given priority for demobilisation , followed by those who had married before the end of the war . Service women who married after the war could ask for an early discharge on compassionate grounds . Men were also eligible for early discharge on compassionate or health grounds , if they had skills which were important to the Australian economy or had been accepted into a full @-@ time training course .
Limited demobilisation began during the final years of the war . In order to meet the needs of the war economy 20 @,@ 000 soldiers were released from the Australian Army in October 1943 . Further reductions took place in August 1944 when another 30 @,@ 000 soldiers and 15 @,@ 000 personnel from the Royal Australian Air Force were discharged . In mid @-@ 1945 the Government implemented a policy in which service men and women who had completed five years of service , including at least two years outside Australia , could volunteer for discharge .
= = Post @-@ war demobilisation = =
The demobilisation plan was put into action on 16 August 1945 , the day after Japan surrendered . At this time the military had a strength of 598 @,@ 300 men and women . Of these , 310 @,@ 600 were in Australia , 224 @,@ 000 were serving in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) and 20 @,@ 100 were in Britain and other parts of the world . The only personnel to be discharged during August and September were former prisoners of war and those with a long period of service , however , as general demobilisation did not begin until 1 October 1945 . During the intervening months dispersal centres were established in each state and territory 's capital city . These centres were to provide information on employment , land settlement , housing , training , loans , tools for trades and other benefits for service personnel as their discharges were processed . Lieutenant @-@ General Stanley Savige was appointed the Coordinator of Demobilisation and Dispersal in September .
Former prisoners of war were given a high priority for repatriation back to Australia and discharge . Planning for the recovery of prisoners of the Japanese , most of whom had been held in harsh conditions , had begun in 1944 and the 2nd and 3rd Australian Prisoner of War Reception Groups were established at Singapore and Manila respectively in August 1945 . By the end of September most of the prisoners recovered from Singapore , Java and Sumatra had been returned to Australia along with about half of those recovered from the Bangkok area . Transport shortages delayed the repatriation of Australian prisoners from Formosa , Japan and Korea , but almost all were on their way home by mid @-@ September .
In line with a plan approved by the Australian Government in September 1945 , general demobilisation was conducted in four stages . The first stage ran from October 1945 to January 1946 and involved the discharge of 249 @,@ 159 personnel , which was higher than the targets of 10 @,@ 000 members of the Royal Australian Navy , 135 @,@ 000 soldiers and 55 @,@ 000 airmen specified in the demobilisation plan . In the second stage 193 @,@ 461 personnel left the military between February and 30 June 1946 , though this was slightly lower than the target of 200 @,@ 000 . The third stage ran from 1 July to 31 December by which time the services were reduced to 78 @,@ 000 personnel , which was considered the strength necessary for the military 's post @-@ war tasks . Of the remaining servicemen , those who did not wish to volunteer for continuing service in the military were released in the fourth stage which began on 1 January 1947 . At the end of this process the military 's strength had fallen 60 @,@ 000 personnel . Where possible , service men and women were placed on leave and allowed to return home while awaiting discharge .
The demobilisation of the military included disbanding the female branches of the three services . The Women 's Royal Australian Naval Service , Australian Women 's Army Service and Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force had been formed during 1941 and 1942 to enable women to serve in the military but were disbanded during 1947 , with military service being again restricted to men . Demobilised service women were provided with similar assistance to male members of the military , but were placed under pressure to return to traditional family roles .
The return of Australian personnel from the SWPA was delayed by shipping shortages and the need to maintain a force in the area for garrison duties . The military provided these personnel with training courses to prepare them for civilian life . Refresher courses in basic subjects such as maths and English were run first before vocational training began . The teachers and instructors for these courses were service personnel selected on the basis of their civilian occupations . In addition , sport competitions were conducted to keep the men busy .
Many men in the SWPA believed that the demobilisation process was too slow . On 10 December 1945 4 @,@ 500 men at Morotai in the Netherlands East Indies staged a protest march demanding that shipping be made available to return them to Australia . Soldiers at Bougainville also complained about having to remain on the island after the war had ended , and Prime Minister Ben Chifley 's plane was sabotaged in an apparent protest during his visit on 27 December 1945 . Minister for Defence Frank Forde was largely blamed for the slowness with which military personnel were being demobilised . As a result , he lost his seat at the 1946 election , though the Labor Party itself comfortably retained office .
Despite the dissatisfaction of the men in the SWPA , the demobilisation and repatriation process generally proceeded smoothly . Most men had been returned to Australia by January 1946 and 80 percent were demobilised by the middle of the year . Before leaving the military service men and women attended either a dispersal centre or naval depot where they were provided with a medical examination , interviewed by a rehabilitation officer and provided with information about the benefits they were eligible for . The Manpower Directorate was then responsible for placing discharged personnel in employment as well as providing them with identity documentation and ration entitlements . Training courses were made available to veterans , and by 1951 94 @,@ 000 had completed university , technical or rural training courses and 39 @,@ 000 were still in training . A further 135 @,@ 000 began training but withdrew before completing their course .
Demobilisation also included establishing arrangements for the medical care of ex @-@ service personnel . After the war responsibility for medical treatment was gradually transferred from the services to the Repatriation Commission . The Army 's hospitals were also transferred to the Commission , meeting its immediate need for facilities . It proved necessary to build new hospitals for the treatment of tuberculosis and mental disorders , however as the specialised Army hospitals established for the treatment of these conditions were respectively unsatisfactory and had to be returned to the Government of New South Wales . The Department of Social Services was responsible for providing assistance to veterans with a disability not caused by their military service , and this led to the foundation of the Commonwealth Rehabilitation Service in 1955 .
= = Disposal of military equipment = =
The disposal of military equipment and materials was also a key priority after the end of the war . Equipment with civilian uses such as motor vehicles , clothing and housing were urgently needed to counter shortages in the civilian economy . The timing of equipment release had to be carefully planned , however , to avoid harming employment by creating surpluses of manufactured goods . Planning for the disposal of equipment began in 1943 and the Commonwealth Disposals Commission was established to oversee the sale or destruction of equipment on September 1944 . Before the commission was established the Government decided that ex @-@ military equipment would be offered to other government agencies before being made available to the public , that sales to the public were to be made on a ' as is , where is ' basis and be processed through existing trade channels or public auction at ' fair market prices ' and that payment was to be required in cash . Some special priorities were also established ; farmers were to be given priority for motor vehicles , machine tools were to be allocated to ex @-@ servicemen and training colleges and special consideration was to be given to the needs of the Red Cross and other overseas and domestic charitable associations .
Preparations for the disposal of equipment began in the second half of 1944 when the War Cabinet directed the military to survey all stocks and indicate any surpluses . General Thomas Blamey , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army , hindered these preparations as he believed they were premature and that the Army 's stocks needed to be maintained until Japan was defeated . This position was opposed by the acting Minister for the Army , and the RAAF and RAN made some attempts to identify their surpluses , but was successful in delaying the Disposal Commission 's work until July 1945 . As a result , relatively little military equipment was sold between September 1944 and June 1945 .
After the war ended the Disposals Commission rapidly disposed of large stocks of military equipment . Consumer goods and raw materials which could be used immediately by manufacturers were the first items to be sold and sales of motor vehicles grew rapidly . Ex @-@ military vehicles made an important contribution to meeting transport shortages in rural areas , though there was some dissatisfaction with the priority given to the agricultural sector and the way in which the vehicles were sold . The Disposal Commission 's sales were also important in meeting shortages of clothing , housing , industrial and construction equipment and tractors . Most of the military 's stocks of food were donated to the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration or sold for export .
The disposal of military equipment , particularly outside of Australia , presented a challenge to the Disposals Commission . At the end of the war inadequate preparations were made for the storage of equipment in New Guinea , and many stores were stolen by soldiers , native New Guineans and ' salvage pirates ' or damaged by the tropical conditions . Sales of stocks in these areas were completed at the end of 1946 , often at very low prices , but much equipment was stolen . Specialised military equipment also proved difficult to dispose of given its unsuitability for civilian purposes . Bombs and other explosives were destroyed after any scrap metal was recovered and large numbers of combat aircraft had to be scrapped due to a worldwide glut . Training aircraft and other aeronautical equipment were sold to the public and other government agencies , however , and demand for tanks and Universal Carriers which could be converted to tractors was greater than expected .
The Disposals Commission 's activities peaked during 1946 and 1947 . Sales generally went smoothly and in accordance with the principles set by the Government and did not significantly disrupt normal commerce . While the Commission generally operated efficiently , some mistakes occurred such as clothing and scrap metal being sold well beneath their market value . The volume of sales dropped rapidly after 1947 and the Disposals Commission was disbanded in July 1949 . By this time the commission had sold £ 135 @,@ 189 @,@ 000 worth of equipment .
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= Cold Feet =
Cold Feet is a British comedy @-@ drama television series produced by Granada Television for the ITV network . The series was created and principally written by Mike Bullen as a follow @-@ up to his award @-@ winning 1997 Comedy Premiere of the same name . The storyline follows three couples experiencing the ups @-@ and @-@ downs of romance . Adam Williams and Rachel Bradley ( James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale ) are a new couple who go through dating , marriage and the birth of a child . Pete and Jenny Gifford ( John Thomson and Fay Ripley ) are a married couple with a newborn son ; they experience parenthood , adultery , separation and eventually divorce when Jenny leaves for a job in New York . Pete starts a new relationship with Jo Ellison ( Kimberley Joseph ) . Karen and David Marsden ( Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst ) live an upper @-@ middle @-@ class lifestyle , employing a nanny for their son and holding dinner parties with friends . Their marriage disintegrates after each has an affair .
The original series was executive @-@ produced by Bullen with Granada 's head of comedy Andy Harries , and produced by Christine Langan , Spencer Campbell and Emma Benson . 32 episodes were broadcast over the original five series from 15 November 1998 to 16 March 2003 . A reboot of the original series with some of the original cast is planned for 2016 . The series is set in Greater Manchester and was primarily filmed there for all five years . Filming occasionally went overseas to locations such as Belfast , Paris and Sydney . To distinguish the look of the series from regular sitcoms , all episodes were shot on film stock and were overseen by directors with little television experience , creating a visual style more akin to advertisements ; Jon Jones was nominated for a British Academy Television Craft Award for his work on the third series .
The show was a critical and ratings success for ITV , which has struggled to recapture Cold Feet 's kind of audience since the series ended . Critics analysed the depiction of social issues , the use of popular music , and the relevance of the series to contemporary audiences when compared to the big @-@ budget BBC costume dramas Vanity Fair ( 1998 ) and The Way We Live Now ( 2001 ) . Mike Bullen 's style of writing has served as inspiration to British screenwriters Danny Brocklehurst and Sanjeev Kohli . The series was a regular nominee at the British Comedy Awards — at which it won four out of five " Best TV Comedy Drama " nominations — the National Television Awards , and television societies worldwide . It has been broadcast in over 34 countries and has been remade for local audiences in the United States and European countries . The series also spawned merchandise , including soundtracks , DVDs and spin @-@ off books .
= = Background = =
Series creator Mike Bullen 's working relationship with Granada Television began in 1994 when his agent sold his first screenplay , a one @-@ off comedy @-@ drama called The Perfect Match , to the company 's head of comedy Andy Harries . Harries had been looking for television scripts that would reflect the lives of people from his generation — people in their 30s who were under @-@ represented on television . The Perfect Match , about a man who proposes to his girlfriend at the FA Cup Final and has to deal with constant media attention afterwards , was made and then broadcast in 1995 . Harries asked Bullen to pitch more ideas for television to The Perfect Match 's assistant producer Christine Langan . As a fan of American television such as Thirtysomething , Frasier and Hill Street Blues , Bullen pitched Cold Feet , a traditional " boy @-@ meets @-@ girl , boy @-@ loses @-@ girl , boy @-@ wins @-@ girl @-@ back " story told from both sides of the relationship but using elements of fantasy and flashback to distort events to fit a character 's point of view . The initial pitch centred on Adam Williams and Rachel Bradley ( James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale ) , which Harries believed would diminish the storytelling potential if the ITV Network Centre commissioned a full series after the pilot , so Bullen " tacked on " plots for two other couples — Adam and Rachel 's respective friends Pete and Jenny Gifford ( John Thomson and Fay Ripley ) and David and Karen Marsden ( Robert Bathurst and Hermione Norris ) .
The pilot was directed by Father Ted 's Declan Lowney over 12 days in 1996 on location around Greater Manchester . The programme was one of four one @-@ off Comedy Premieres made by Granada for ITV . Cold Feet was eventually broadcast on 30 March 1997 . It received only 3 @.@ 5 million viewers and little critical attention . As ITV 's comedy portfolio was so thin , Cold Feet was submitted as the network 's comedy entry at the Montreux Television Festival in May 1997 . There it won the Silver Rose for Humour and the Rose d 'Or , the highest accolade of the festival . ITV scheduled a repeat broadcast a few days afterwards but did not commission a series . Not until David Liddiment 's appointment as director of programming at ITV in August 1997 was a six episode series ordered .
= = Series synopses = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
The first series begins nine months after the pilot episode . After Pete and Jenny 's baby is born in Episode 1 , the couple have a hard time getting any sleep . Pete has to cope with the death of his father in Episode 4 . Adam and Rachel decide to rent a house together . He is horrified to discover in Episode 2 that she is married to another man . While he is staying with Pete and Jenny , Rachel has sex with her visiting husband ( Lennie James ) — who leaves soon after — and is pregnant by Episode 6 . Just as hers and Adam 's relationship is recovering , she tells him that he might not be the father , and that she is moving to London until the birth . Karen and David have recently hired Ramona as a nanny to their young son Josh . At her publishing job , Karen edits the novel of a renowned author ( Denis Lawson ) , whom she becomes attracted to . She plans to sleep with him on a book tour but is humiliated when she finds out he is not attracted to her . David tries to sleep with Ramona to get back at Karen , which causes friction between the couple . They seek guidance counselling to repair their marriage .
= = = Series 2 = = =
Six months after the last series , Rachel returns from London and tells Adam that she aborted the baby , and their relationship seems over for good . They both start seeing other people — he one of Pete 's colleagues ( Rosie Cavaliero ) and she a man much younger than her ( Hugh Dancy ) — but reconcile after Adam is diagnosed and treated for testicular cancer in Episode 5 . David is made redundant at work and decides to be a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad for Josh . After some interference from Karen , he takes a new job . Their relationship improves from the first series ; they spend their wedding anniversary in Paris and Karen announces in Episode 6 that she is pregnant . Pete and Jenny 's marriage deteriorates when she reveals she had a crush on Adam . Pete later sleeps with a co @-@ worker — with whom Adam was also briefly involved — and Jenny tells him to move out of the house . They decide to give their marriage another chance when Adam 's cancer puts things into perspective . In Episode 6 , all three couples see in the new millennium on a trip to Lindisfarne , where Pete and Jenny 's relationship worsens again as the others ' improve .
= = = Series 3 = = =
Half a year after the Lindisfarne trip , Pete and Jenny have separated . He moves from house to house , eventually finding a houseshare with a gay landlord . He has a brief fling with Ramona , which is followed by some dates with a teacher ( Pooky Quesnel ) . Jenny begins a relationship with a dotcom millionaire ( Ben Miles ) , who decorates her house with flowers and takes her on a trip to New York . The fling ends when Jenny realises he does not love her . She and Pete reconcile after briefly considering a divorce . David and Karen bring home their newborn twins , and Karen 's ex @-@ pat mother ( Mel Martin ) moves in for a couple of episodes . Karen is reunited with an old boyfriend ( Richard Dillane ) , who is in Manchester for a photography exhibition . Karen is rivalled by Jenny , who has returned to working to pay the bills while Pete is living elsewhere . David takes a sudden interest in politics after meeting local residents ' activist Jessica ( Yasmin Bannerman ) . He starts an affair with her but she dumps him after being offended by his insensitivity when he tries to end it . Karen finds out about the affair in Episode 8 but is adamant that she and David will stay together for the children . Adam and Rachel decide to have children but are distraught to discover that she is infertile from complications with her abortion . They decide to get married instead but Adam is briefly tempted when he reunites with a long @-@ lost love ( Victoria Smurfit ) on his stag weekend to Belfast .
= = = Series 4 = = =
Jenny and Pete await the birth of their second child but after a miscarriage , Jenny rethinks her current lifestyle . In Episode 2 she decides to take a job in New York , and leaves with little Adam . Pete is unhappy for a time but begins a relationship with Jo Ellison , a friend of Rachel 's . The relationship goes well until Jo has to return to Australia after her visa expires . Pete follows her and declares his love and they get married in Episode 8 . Karen and David are sleeping in separate beds until she decides he should move out . He moves into Pete 's spare bedroom and starts seeing a therapist ( Michael Troughton ) . Karen develops alcoholism and decides to seek therapy too . She and David reconcile and he moves back in . Soon , she starts an affair with a publisher , Mark ( Sean Pertwee ) , which is revealed to David in Episode 8 . Having had enough of the lies , he leaves Karen . Adam and Rachel decide to adopt a child and begin going through the procedures . They are pleased when they later discover that Rachel is pregnant but are distraught when their social worker tells them that the adoption cannot proceed . In Australia for Pete and Jo 's wedding , Rachel goes into premature labour and gives birth to a boy .
= = = Series 5 = = =
Three months after the birth of their baby , Adam is made redundant . He gets a new job , but then he and Rachel are told that after the death of their landlord they will be evicted from their house . As they search for a new place to live , Adam 's estranged father , Bill ( Ian McElhinney ) , arrives . Bill and Adam patch up their relationship and he offers Adam and Rachel the money to buy their own house . On the way to the auction , Rachel is killed in a car crash , leaving Adam devastated . Her ashes are scattered in the final episode . Karen and David are going through an amicable divorce but when she starts seeing Mark again and David starts seeing his new lawyer Robyn ( Lucy Robinson ) , it escalates , as they begin using each other 's adultery and her alcoholism as a basis for custody of the children . Karen stops seeing Mark and the divorce cools down . Both re @-@ evaluate their lives after Rachel 's death ; David develops his relationship with Robyn and Karen plans a trip with Ramona . Pete and Jo 's marriage deteriorates when she sleeps with a co @-@ worker ( Richard Armitage ) on a work weekend away . Jenny returns from New York in Episode 4 and moves back in with Pete after he asks Jo for a divorce .
= = = Series 6 = = =
It was announced in November 2015 that a sixth series of Cold Feet was in pre @-@ production and would be shown during 2016 . The character Rachel will not be returning . Helen Baxendale " I was really touched he ’ d ( writer : Mike Bullen ) written Rachel into it , but I felt it wasn ’ t right for me , Rachel or the new series .
= = Cast and characters = =
Cold Feet began its first series with the six main cast members — James Nesbitt , Helen Baxendale , John Thomson , Fay Ripley , Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst — who had appeared in the pilot . Thomson 's character Pete Gifford was written specifically for him after his performance in The Perfect Match made a positive impression on Christine Langan . Norris originally auditioned for the part of Rachel but was cast as Karen because the role suited her social class . Nesbitt got an audition through a mutual friend of pilot director Declan Lowney , and read the part in his natural accent because he was keen to play a Northern Irish character in a contemporary drama unconnected to The Troubles . Baxendale was best known for her role in Cardiac Arrest and was hesitant to star as Rachel because she did not believe she could perform comedy . Bathurst was known to Langan for his starring role in Joking Apart . Ripley thought she would be auditioning for the part of Rachel , and had to put on an accent for her role as natural Mancunian Jenny . When the fourth series was commissioned , Ripley announced that she was leaving the show to broaden her career options . Kimberley Joseph was cast as Jo Ellison , a replacement character who remained on screen until Cold Feet 's conclusion . Bullen makes numerous Hitchcock @-@ esque cameo appearances ; he plays a neighbour and a husband in the first series and a workman in the third .
Despite all receiving equal billing in the credits , the original principal cast members were paid different salaries in the first few years ; Baxendale and Nesbitt were the most well @-@ known , so received more than Ripley , Thomson , Norris and Bathurst , who were comparatively less well @-@ known to audiences . Prompted by the continued success of the show , Andy Harries reviewed the salaries in 2000 and decided to pay all six actors the same amount . The amount was not publicly disclosed but was believed to be £ 20 @,@ 000 per episode , plus repeat broadcast royalties . Another pay deal for the fourth series in 2001 increased the salaries of the cast to £ 50 @,@ 000 . For the final series in 2003 , they each received £ 75 @,@ 000 an episode .
= = = Main characters = = =
The six core characters were devised to be " regular people , not distinguished by their careers or by crime " and were based on people from Mike Bullen 's life .
Adam Williams is a serial womaniser who lives a carefree lifestyle until he settles down with Rachel — though he is still tempted by the next @-@ door neighbour and women in fast cars . Bullen based Adam 's womanising personality on how he saw himself during his twenties . He is diagnosed and treated for testicular cancer during the second series , a storyline developed by Bullen to directly contrast Adam 's Lothario characterisation . Adam marries Rachel in Series 3 and their son , Matthew , is born in Series 4 . In Series 5 , Adam 's estranged father Bill Williams arrives in Manchester . Adam moves to patch up the relationship after Bill comes out as a bisexual . After Rachel 's death , Adam and Matthew leave their old house to see Bill . Adam 's backstory was inconsistent ; the first series established that Adam and Pete had known each other since their childhood when they attended the same school in Manchester . To justify Adam 's accent , his Northern Irish origins were developed in Series 3 and it was explained on screen that he spent his school holidays there . His background is reinforced when his father is introduced in Series 5 . Bullen admitted that Adam 's biography was never fully planned but conceded that Cold Feet was " full of gaffes " .
Rachel Bradley is an advertising executive . After being with Adam for nine months , she admits to him that she is married but promises to ask her estranged husband for a divorce . Unknown to Adam , while her husband is in Manchester , she has sex with him and later finds out she is pregnant . Unable to cope with not knowing who the father is , she terminates the pregnancy . The abortion causes her to become infertile . She marries Adam at the end of Series 3 and has a surprise conception in Series 4 , which leads to the birth of her child . She is killed in a car crash in Series 5 . Helen Baxendale became pregnant during Series 4 , which meant the plot of Rachel being infertile had to be abandoned and the rest of the series re @-@ written . Baxendale found the character limiting and hard to play when she was just " the woman that Adam saw through rose @-@ tinted glasses " . She found that , as the series progressed , Bullen learned how to write for the character , giving her a clearer idea of how to play her . She found the death of Rachel " unfair " and believed the character was being punished for terminating her pregnancy .
Pete Gifford is Jenny 's husband and has been Adam 's best friend since childhood . Bullen based Pete on his own childhood friend , with whom he went through university . Pete is often deliberately insensitive towards Adam , which Thomson attributes to Pete thinking Adam is jealous of his achievements . In Series 2 , Pete has an affair with co @-@ worker Amy . It upsets his marriage to Jenny and by Series 3 they are separated . At the beginning of Series 4 , they are back together and expecting a second child . After Jenny miscarries , she leaves Pete and takes little Adam with her . Pete has a rebound relationship with Jo , and marries her at the end of Series 4 . They break up at the end of Series 5 .
Jenny Gifford is Pete 's wife . She spends much of the first series raising their baby . In Series 2 , she develops a brief crush on Adam . She throws Pete out of the house when she finds out about his affair with Amy but they try to repair the marriage after Adam 's cancer treatment . When she and Pete separate in Series 3 , she asserts her independence in a series of short @-@ lived secretarial jobs , and by dating millionaire Robert Brown . She and Pete briefly consider a divorce but get back together after Robert dumps her . In Series 4 , the couple are expecting a second child . Jenny miscarries and re @-@ evaluates her life in Manchester . She is offered a job in New York by the head of the company she works for and decides to divorce Pete and leave for America with their son . She returns for Rachel 's funeral in Series 5 and moves back in with Pete . Ripley said of her character , " Jenny 's very ballsy and speaks her mind , but she 's more sensitive than people give her credit for . She 's seen as very hard but I don 't think she is — it 's just that she won 't show her vulnerability to everyone . "
David Marsden is a management consultant and the husband of Karen . The Marsdens were the least @-@ developed characters when the pilot was produced ; Robert Bathurst noted that David was " set up as a post @-@ Thatcherite boo @-@ boy to represent all that is evil about materialism " . He was concerned that the only character note in the script related to David 's high salary and that , to make more than a brief cameo appearance in the series , the character needed to be significantly developed . David is made redundant in Series 2 and Karen arranges for him to take a new , better @-@ paid job . In Episode 3 , the couple celebrate their wedding anniversary in Paris . The episode originally had a downbeat ending scripted but was changed on the advice of Andy Harries and the editor of the episode . David and Karen both then have affairs ; David with local residents ' campaigner Jessica in Series 3 , and Karen with publisher Mark in Series 4 . The affairs lead to the end of their marriage , which was discussed to great lengths by the production staff . David starts a relationship with his solicitor , Robyn Duff , in Series 5 and divorces Karen .
Karen Marsden is a publishing editor and the wife of David . Of Karen , Norris said " [ S ] he 's the strength behind the marriage . David thinks he wears the trousers and she is prepared to think that to an extent . So she manages to massage his ego and then does her own thing anyway . " Karen becomes an alcoholic in Series 4 and seeks therapy to control her urges . After trying to put David 's affair with Jessica behind them , Karen starts an affair with publisher Mark . She breaks up with him via email while in Australia but he flies down and reveals their relationship to David . She briefly gets back together with Mark during her divorce from David in Series 5 but ends the relationship again when he wants nothing to do with her children . After Rachel 's death , Karen sees a grief counsellor . Norris and Bullen changed Karen 's personality significantly between the pilot and the series ; Norris altered the character 's accent to be less " posh " and Bullen wrote her to be more sympathetic . Bullen found it difficult to write situations for Karen that took place outside the character 's house . Eventually , he wrote a storyline for her in Series 2 where she rebels against her upper @-@ middle @-@ class lifestyle by smoking cannabis at a dinner party . Norris was disappointed that the plot of Karen and David 's divorce could not be developed further in Series 5 , as the majority of screen time was given to Adam and Rachel .
Jo Ellison is introduced as a co @-@ worker at Rachel 's advertising agency in Series 4 . After Jenny leaves England and Jo is evicted from her flat , she moves into Pete 's spare room . The two fall in love and marry in Australia in Episode 8 . In Series 5 , Pete suspects that Jo may have married him as a visa scam to stay in Britain . Their relationship is damaged and Jo sleeps with a colleague on a work weekend away . Pete asks her for a divorce when he finds out . Jo was devised when Bullen and Harries wanted Pete to fall in love with an Australian woman so they could film the Series 4 finale in Sydney . Kimberley Joseph was based in Los Angeles and had been out of work for 18 months before getting an audition with Spencer Campbell . Two weeks later she had moved to Manchester and was doing read @-@ throughs with the rest of the cast . Joseph thought Bullen had envisioned the character as a coarse " big fat truck @-@ driving lesbian type " before he met her . Thomson thought Pete 's lust for Jo was a rebound from Jenny and that , while Jo genuinely liked Pete , she did not actually love him , which Pete suspects when he reads Jo 's emails in Series 5 , Episode 2 .
= = = Supporting characters = = =
Significant supporting roles in the series are played by Jacey Salles ( Ramona Ramirez , Series 1 – 5 ) , Rosie Cavaliero ( Amy , Series 2 ) , Ben Miles ( Robert Brown , Series 3 ) , Yasmin Bannerman ( Jessica Barnes , Series 3 ) , Sean Pertwee ( Mark Cubitt , Series 4 – 5 ) , Richard Armitage ( Lee , Series 5 ) and Lucy Robinson ( Robyn Duff , Series 5 ) .
Salles is introduced as Ramona Ramirez in Series 1 , Episode 1 . Jacey Salles expected to play the Marsdens ' Spanish nanny for just two episodes , believing that the characters would regularly replace their son 's carer . She subsequently appeared in 27 episodes . Salles , half @-@ Spanish herself , auditioned for the role after appearing in the Granada film The Misadventures of Margaret — executive @-@ produced by Andy Harries . The character was developed to be the complete opposite of the typically English Karen and David . David finds her continental personality annoying but Karen enjoys it . Ramona 's role in Series 2 developed beyond just child @-@ caring — in Episode 2 , she bribes David for £ 30 to cook dinner for his former boss . By Series 3 , she has a major storyline where she dates Pete . In Series 4 , she gets caught up in Karen and David 's deteriorating marriage and briefly quits to work for their neighbours , and to work part @-@ time at a strip club . In Series 5 , she dates Lee , a fitness instructor who is the catalyst of Pete and Jo 's break @-@ up when he sleeps with Jo .
Doreen Keogh is introduced in Series 1 , Episode 4 as Pete 's mother Audrey Gifford . She makes a cameo appearance in Series 3 , Episode 1 , and reappears in Series 4 , Episode 4 and Series 5 , Episode 1 . The character 's recurrence was based on the good chemistry between Keogh and Thomson .
Yasmin Bannerman played local residents ' campaigner Jessica in Series 3 . Bannerman and Bathurst did not know that Jessica and David would have a full @-@ blown affair after their kiss in Episode 3 , as David was seen as too much of a " jittery type " . The character appears in five episodes . Bathurst was more impressed with the storylines that came out of the affair , rather than the affair itself : " It was the deception , the guilt and the recrimination rather than the actual affair , which was neither interesting nor remarkable " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Mike Bullen has sole writing credit on 26 episodes of the series ; four episodes of Series 3 were written by David Nicholls , and Bullen co @-@ wrote one episode of Series 4 and 5 with Mark Chappell and Matt Greenhalgh respectively . Bullen usually wrote ten pages of script per day , whatever the quality of his writing . His own third draft was usually submitted to the producers as the " first " draft . As he was still an inexperienced writer by the time production of the first series began in January 1998 , Bullen was aided by Christine Langan , who pitched in as a script editor . Storylines were planned in advance — the producers knew that they wanted to split up Adam and Rachel at the end of Series 1 — but the later scripts were written once filming on earlier episodes had already begun . The number of people on the development team varied ; the third series ' comprised Bullen , Langan , Harries , producer Spencer Campbell , script editor Camilla Campbell , ITV 's controller of comedy , and a team of five writers .
Many storylines were based on life experiences of the production team ; Bullen and his wife Lisa had their first child in late 1997 , which made Bullen identify with the Pete character , whose son is born in the first episode . Bullen incorporated his experiences of the first few months of parenthood into the Pete and Jenny storyline . Adam 's testicular cancer storyline in Series 2 , Episode 5 was influenced by a similar condition that afflicted Harries , and was supplemented by the newspaper columns written by terminal cancer sufferer John Diamond . If a storyline was not drawn from real life experiences , it was researched by communicating with experts ; Bullen consulted the relationship support charity Relate for the scenes of Karen and David 's marriage guidance session in Series 1 , Episode 5 , and consulted Dr Sammy Lee for information about Rachel 's intracytoplasmic sperm injection in Series 3 . When it was decided to have Rachel 's abortion lead to her developing Asherman 's syndrome in Series 3 , the British Pregnancy Advisory Service ( BPAS ) were contacted . BPAS strongly recommended that the plot be developed in a different direction , on the basis that infertility from what would appear to have been a routine abortion would be an " improbable link " , though the producers proceeded with their original story anyway .
By the time pre @-@ production on the third series began , Bullen had grown tired of writing the series single @-@ handedly and believed all the stories that could be told had been told . ITV were keen to increase the number of episodes per series to 20 but Granada refused , though did agree to add two more , bringing the total to eight . A writing team of five was assembled , overseen by Bullen . Four of the scriptwriters were deemed not good enough and they parted company with Granada . David Nicholls remained and scripted four of the eight @-@ third series episodes ; Bullen wrote the other four and his interest in the series was revived .
At the conclusion of the third series , Bullen announced that he did not want to write a fifth series , and that the fourth would be the last . Series 4 , Episode 8 was produced as the final episode but the cast and crew realised that they would like to make one final series for proper closure . Bullen agreed to write the final episodes on the condition that there would be just four , and that he could kill off a character . Matt Greenhalgh co @-@ wrote Series 5 , Episode 3 with Bullen , specifically the scenes depicting Rachel 's death . Greenhalgh worked on the script at the same time as he was writing his BBC Three series Burn It , also set in Manchester . In a 2007 interview , he said that he was not a fan of Cold Feet — decrying the depiction of Manchester in the series — and that killing off Rachel was " a privilege " .
= = = Filming = = =
All episodes of Cold Feet were shot on film stock on locations in and around Greater Manchester . Sets were designed by Chris Truelove to reflect the characters ; Karen and David 's home was designed as a spacious detached house intended to be located in Bowdon , while Pete and Jenny and Adam and Rachel had smaller middle @-@ class abodes intended to be located in Didsbury . All exteriors of the characters ' houses were shot on location . Christine Langan was keen to avoid a generic sitcom style of filming , citing the formulae of such programmes as " tired and dreary " and lacking emotional depth . To achieve this goal , she and Harries recruited directors with little background in television . These included Nigel Cole , who came from an advertising background and was keen to use the two episodes of the first series he was allotted to " make his mark " and establish himself as a good television director . Other directors included Mark Mylod , Tom Hooper , Tom Vaughan , Pete Travis , Jon Jones , Ciaran Donnelly and Tim Sullivan .
For the first series , interior sets were built at the Blue Shed Studios in Salford . Three directors and three film crews were used to film the six 50 @-@ minute episodes over 14 weeks from March to May 1998 . Locations included an empty shop unit near Piccadilly station for the charity shop sex scene in Episode 3 and a Masonic Lodge for the gala dinner scenes in Episode 6 . In the second year , the sets were moved to the Spectrum Arena in Warrington , where filming ran from March to June . The series featured the first location shoots outside Manchester ; a short scene in Episode 2 featuring Bathurst was filmed over half a day in Blackpool ; Bathurst , Norris and a small production crew filmed scenes in Paris for Episode 3 ; exterior location scenes of the characters on holiday in Episode 6 were filmed on Lindisfarne , though the castle interiors were shot at Hoghton Tower . The second series also featured more visual effects ; in Episode 5 Adam dreams about being chased by a giant testicle ( which was computer @-@ generated ) and in Episode 6 a fireworks explosion was supervised by pyrotechnics experts . The testicle dream scene drew mixed reaction . The Mirror 's television critic Charlie Catchpole praised it but Robert Bathurst was critical : " I hated that sequence . I thought it was really unfunny . It was a lousy prop and awful graphics and there was too much of it — it would have been much better if it was like a Monty Python foot come smacking down like that and get it over with . You couldn 't keep up that surprise and hilarity for all the minutes it was on the screen . " By the third series , Cold Feet 's sets were permanently located on a Granada warehouse stage and were left intact between series . This meant the basic sets could be used on other Granada programmes , such as The Grimleys and My Beautiful Son . After the final episode was filmed in 2002 , the sets were dismantled and taken to a landfill .
In Series 3 , Cold Feet shot outside England for the first time for Episode 5 . A storyline featuring Adam 's stag weekend was originally scripted to take place first in Blackpool and then in Dublin . James Nesbitt suggested that it should be filmed in Belfast and Portrush , near where he grew up . He , Andy Harries and producer Spencer Campbell scouted the locations in April 2000 before filming went ahead later that year . Local businesspeople were so eager to promote the area that they waived any fees Granada would have given them for allowing filming , meaning the location manager only spent £ 20 , considerably less than the £ 3 @,@ 000 a typical shoot of that length would have cost . This location shoot inspired the producers to film even further away from Manchester ; in November 2000 , Bullen and Harries spoke at the Screen Producers Association of Australia conference , where they decided to base the fourth series finale in Sydney . The episode was written to be a " normal episode " of Cold Feet that just had a different background . The main cast — except for Helen Baxendale who was pregnant — the producers and Ciaran Donnelly shot for 18 days in October 2001 in locations that included Hyde Park , Kirribilli , Double Bay and the northern beaches . Budget problems meant an overseas location could not be secured for Series 5 , so scenes in the final episode were shot in Portmeirion , Wales .
Screen time was divided up equally between the couples over the course of an episode , though occasionally some scenes would run longer ; in Series 4 , Episode 3 , the scenes of Karen clubbing went on for ten uninterrupted minutes . These scenes were also a rarity for location filming ; usually filming in public places was done on a Sunday during closing hours but the clubbing scenes in this episode were filmed during opening hours at the Music Box in Manchester . A hand @-@ held camera was used to enhance the frenetic pace .
= = = Music = = =
Incidental music for the series was composed by Mark Russell . He also composed a theme tune , which was used as an alternative to Space 's " Female of the Species " . Christine Langan heard " Female of the Species " on The Chart Show while the pilot was being produced and decided to make it the theme song . She remained involved in choosing popular music used on the show for the three series she worked on it . " Female of the Species " was used as a closing theme throughout the first series . For the second series , it was replaced by Morcheeba 's " Let Me See " , except for the last episode when John Lennon 's " Love " was used . The Mirror 's Charlie Catchpole described the diagetic popular music in the school reunion scenes of Series 2 , Episode 4 — " Don 't You Want Me " ( The Human League ) , " Relax " ( Frankie Goes to Hollywood ) , " Temptation " ( Heaven 17 ) , " True " ( Spandau Ballet ) , " Do You Really Want to Hurt Me " ( Culture Club ) and " Tainted Love " ( Soft Cell ) — as " [ catching ] the changing mood with devastating precision " . Catchpole 's positive comments about the music led to a previously shelved soundtrack album being released .
= = Broadcast = =
The ITV Network Centre originally scheduled the first series to be broadcast in the 10 pm timeslot on Sunday nights . This went against the wishes of Andy Harries , who wanted it broadcast at 9 pm in the so @-@ called " ironing slot " — generally used for programmes that an audience does not have to concentrate on . David Liddiment compromised by allowing the show to start at 9 @.@ 30 pm Harries was able to get the second series moved to 9 pm , which annoyed advertisers . The third series remained in the same timeslot but , like other series on the network , suffered from ITV 's late decision to add a third advert break to hour @-@ long shows . Episode 8 , featuring Adam and Rachel 's wedding , was broadcast on Boxing Day — the first time the show was aired on a Tuesday . The eighth episode of Series 4 and all four episodes of Series 5 were extended to fill a 90 @-@ minute timeslot .
The series was repeated when ITV launched digital channel ITV3 , then marketed towards over @-@ 35 viewers . In the United States , Cold Feet was first broadcast on the cable network Bravo . Bravo bought the pilot and first three series for $ 1 million . The pilot was broadcast as a " sneak peek " before the regular series run began . From 2005 the series was broadcast by BBC America . When broadcast on SABC 3 in South Africa , the series is retitled Life , Love and Everything Else . Worldwide , it has been broadcast in over 34 countries .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Critical response to the first episode was not favourable ; in The Independent , Nicholas Barber called it the most depressing TV programme he had ever seen . He wrote of the six main characters , " Are we supposed to care about these people ? The theory , I think , is that we should relate to them , because their lives are as prosaic as our own , and because Cold Feet is a portrait of urban life as it really is in the Nineties . This is another way of saying the writer hasn 't bothered with research or imagination . " He criticised the conclusion of Episode 1 but praised the other five , which he had seen on preview tapes . On The Late Review , Germaine Greer and Tony Parsons singled out Nesbitt 's acting ; Greer called him " especially awful " and Parsons wished that he had plunged to his death from the scissor lift Adam appears on at the beginning of the episode . General reaction improved as the first year went on . At the conclusion of the first series , Andrew Billen compared it with Vanity Fair in the Evening Standard and was pleased that it offered a televisual outlet for the " forgotten " twentysomethings . Paul Hoggart for The Times wrote positively of the writing , directing , acting , and editing and looked forward to how Rachel 's pregnancy plot would be resolved in the second series .
Other critics hailed it as " the British answer to Thirtysomething " ; in 1998 , Meg Carter wrote in The Independent , " More than 10 years on , Granada Television has finally produced a modern show that mines the rich seam of a generation that is as confused as it is liberated by increased choice and freedom , and that caters for an audience which has not , traditionally , watched very much ITV . " Mark Lawson compared it to the American sitcom Friends , a series that is also based around three men and three women , and featured Helen Baxendale in a guest role . In a 2003 interview with Bullen on BBC Radio 4 's Front Row , Lawson asked whether Friends had influenced Cold Feet . Bullen explained that the connection was made by media as " a useful shorthand " , that he was irritated by the characters in Friends and " would liked to have taken a baseball bat to them " .
In 2001 , Andrew Billen compared the contemporary cultural relevance of the series to The Way We Live Now , as a follow @-@ up to his comparison of the first series with Vanity Fair : " In previous years we have seen the anguish caused by infidelity , impotence and infertility . This season the characters face the hazards thrown up by miscarriage , alcoholism and a late @-@ flowering career . Sustaining relationships looks as hard as ever . Yet there is nothing each protagonist wants more than old @-@ fashioned domestic bliss . " The review resonated with other critics ; in The Scotsman , Linda Watson @-@ Brown wrote an overall positive review of the series in general — dismissing the spate of " anti @-@ Cold Feet " reviews — but criticised " the ease with which problems are resolved and morality used to slap the viewer in the face " . The final episode set in Australia polarised critics ; in a column focusing on Chewin ' the Fat , Scotsman critic Aidan Smith accused the big @-@ budget episode " which somehow managed to squeeze the Harbour Bridge into every shot " of being the point the series jumped the shark , and Times columnist Caitlin Moran complimented it , but was concerned that the series ' original main characters — Adam and Rachel — were being sidelined by everyone including Mike Bullen .
When the fifth series began in 2003 , critics welcomed its end . Paul Hoggart wrote in The Times that the flashback and fantasy scenes were becoming so overused on television that their use in Cold Feet was less surprising than it was in 1998 . In Scotland on Sunday , Helen Stewart lamented the loss of Fay Ripley and Jenny 's replacement by " the bland but international crossover @-@ friendly Jo , [ ... ] who is sufficiently pointless to be dismissed even by her fellow characters as ' not as good as Jenny ' . " Stewart also criticised Hermione Norris 's acting and Karen for being a " spoon @-@ faced moaner " . A brief article on the MediaGuardian website described a " revisionist backlash " as critics ' negative opinions of the series clashed with the positive reaction that greeted it in 1998 .
= = = Depiction of social issues = = =
Cold Feet 's cast and crew were frequently praised for their depiction of real @-@ life social issues on the series . When Cold Feet began , Christine Langan stated , " The real challenge was to overcome the traditional view that many of the issues we cover — jealousy , guilt , money , sexual problems , parental death — are ordinary issues , hardy perennials and , as such , not interesting enough for drama . " The fourth episode of the first series was controversial due to its depiction of the characters freely discussing their sex lives ; in the left @-@ wing New Statesman , Andrew Billen praised it as a homage to La Ronde and , despite the sex @-@ talk , being " intricately constructed as a farce " . The right @-@ wing tabloid Daily Mail 's critic wrote that the episode " veered a little too close last night towards the category of ' adult entertainment ' , with all its connotations of sleaze and smut " and " we found ourselves immersed in their sex lives on a level of embarrassing intimacy which most people would share only with their doctor " . A complaint was made by a viewer to the Independent Television Commission — the commercial television regulator — about the depiction of sex , but it was not upheld .
A scene in Series 2 , Episode 4 showing Karen smoking a joint at a dinner party was controversial with censors at the writing stage ; all scripts were required to be sent to Granada 's Compliance department to ensure they maintained the ITC 's code of conduct . The department would not allow Karen 's drug use to be portrayed without some cost to her , so suggested that Karen and Adam could be arrested while rolling joints at the school reunion . Bullen thought the idea was " ludicrous " so added a scene where David berates Ramona for her drug use . Despite the measures taken , four people complained to the ITC about the glamorisation of drugs . The ITC dismissed the complaints . The scenes of Jo and Audrey smoking cannabis in Series 5 , Episode 1 drew seven complaints to the ITC by people who thought it would give children the wrong impression of drugs . The ITC dismissed the complaints on the basis that the episode was broadcast after the watershed . Mark Lawson was unappreciative of the scene , writing that the drugs plot was a " forced jollity " compared to the other humorous scenes in the episode .
In Series 3 , Adam and Rachel seek intracytoplasmic sperm injection ( ICSI ) when they have trouble conceiving a child naturally . The characters take out bank loans of thousands of pounds to pay for the treatment , which is unsuccessful each time . The producers devised this storyline because IVF was a major contemporary issue and wrote the treatment as a failure because it was representative of the odds of conception in real life .
Rachel 's problem with conception is soon diagnosed as being due to " partial Asherman 's syndrome " , a storyline that runs through Series 3 and 4 . The plot was analysed on an episode of BBC Radio 4 's Woman 's Hour . Ann Furedi of BPAS , which had supplied information to the writing team during the research stages , stated that there had not been a recorded case of Asherman 's syndrome in the United Kingdom since the second world war . Further to that , she stated that the consensus among medical groups was that there was no real direct link between abortions and infertility ; rather an untreated infection could increase the chances of fertility problems if it interfered with an abortion . Christine Geraghty countered that the factual accuracy of the storyline depended on how the producers wanted to portray the issue to viewers . Her opinion was backed up by an ITV statement , which said that " stories for Cold Feet are not just chosen in order to make people aware of the issues involved ; they 're also chosen for their dramatic potential and relevance to modern living " . Woman 's Hour presenter Jenni Murray developed the discussion in an article for The Guardian ; she mentioned that no impression was given that Rachel had suffered an incorrectly performed operation or had had to travel to eastern Europe for it , and that it was improbable that Rachel managed to conceive a child after all .
= = = Influence on television = = =
In a 2007 feature for The Guardian 's G2 supplement , screenwriter Danny Brocklehurst discussed the impact the series has had on British television , including inspiration for one of his programmes , Talk to Me . He opined that until Cold Feet there had not been a significant television series depicting " the wants and needs of ordinary young adults " since Thirtysomething concluded in 1991 . Brocklehurst developed Talk to Me in the same manner as Bullen developed Cold Feet , namely by basing its characters on his own experiences and friends . Both Brocklehurst and Mark Lawson have discussed similar " copycat " series , including Hearts and Bones , Metropolis , Couples and Wonderful You . Brocklehurst noted that these series " lacked [ Cold Feet 's ] warmth and believability " adding that they were " unrealistic and cynical " .
" Cold Feet proved that you didn 't have to have a high concept to make compelling , heartwarming , sometimes profound drama . And , while the show dealt with issues such adoption , alcoholism and testicular cancer , it was always at its most successful when bouncing playfully between the three couples , neatly exposing the differences between men and women . "
— Danny Brocklehurst , 2007
Over four years after Cold Feet ended , ITV executives were still looking for a series that could comfortably replace it . On his appointment as chairman of ITV plc in 2007 , Michael Grade announced that he wanted the ITV network to be broadcasting long @-@ running series like Cold Feet to attract the younger , upmarket viewing demographic .
In 2008 , BBC One broadcast Mutual Friends , a six @-@ part television series written by Anil Gupta , which was compared to Cold Feet . While the BBC wanted the series to match the success of Cold Feet , producer Rob Bullock stressed that " Cold Feet is about a different period of life . It 's about people in their early thirties . Mutual Friends moves things on — what 's happening to our characters as they approach 40 is very different . Why do so many lives fall apart at 40 ? Because things haven 't worked out how we hoped and we 've had to turn to Plan B. The drama is all about the crisis caused by things not turning out as the characters planned . " Later in 2008 , ITV commissioned Married Single Other , a comedy drama executive @-@ produced by Andy Harries and directed by Declan Lowney , about three contemporary couples living in Leeds .
Granada Entertainment USA , the American arm of Granada Productions , tendered the series format to American networks and cable channels from late 1997 . The format was sold to NBC , which commissioned 13 x 60 @-@ minute episodes in May 1999 for the fall season , to be produced in association with Kerry Ehrin Productions . The US series starred David Sutcliffe as Adam Williams and Jean Louisa Kelly as Shelley Sullivan ( the Rachel role ) . Low ratings lead to the series being cancelled after four episodes . In 2003 the format was sold to Italian network Mediaset for a 2004 broadcast . In 2008 , Polish broadcaster TVN secured the rights to a remake from Granada International . This version , entitled Usta , usta , is set in Warsaw . The thirteen @-@ episode series began filming in May 2009 and was broadcast from 6 March 2010 . An adaptation entitled Přešlapy has also been developed for television audiences in the Czech Republic . The creators intend the show to run for three series of 13 episodes and tell a story over seven years . The first series was broadcast from September 2009 .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
During and after its original run , Cold Feet won over 20 major awards . For its first year , Cold Feet received three British Comedy Award nominations ; the series won in the Best TV Comedy Drama category and Nesbitt and Ripley were respectively nominated for Best TV Comedy Actor and Best TV Comedy Actress . The series also won the Royal Television Society Programme Award for Situation Comedy & Comedy Drama , and the Broadcasting Press Guild Award for Best Entertainment . For the second series , it received four British Academy Television Award ( BAFTA ) nominations — Best Drama Series , Best Original Television Music , Best Graphic Design , and Best Editing ( Fiction / Entertainment ) . At the Television and Radio Industries Club Awards it won TV Comedy Programme of the Year , and a second Best TV Comedy Drama award at the British Comedy Awards . The awards for the television industry magazine Broadcast presented it with the Drama : Series or Serial award . In year three , Fay Ripley became the only actor to receive a BAFTA nomination for their work on the series ; she was nominated for Best Actress . At the BAFTA Craft awards , David Nicholls was nominated in the New Writer ( Fiction ) category , and Jon Jones was nominated in the New Director ( Fiction ) category . It lost out on four British Comedy Award nominations ( Nesbitt and Thomson for Best TV Comedy Actor , Norris for Best TV Comedy Actress , and the third series for Best TV Comedy Drama ) but won the People 's Choice Award ( a viewer poll ) . The series also scored an International Emmy Award drama nomination . Series 4 won the BAFTA for Best Drama Series and the National Television Award for Most Popular Comedy Programme . At the British Comedy Awards 2003 , Series 5 won Best TV Comedy Drama and Mike Bullen was named Writer of the Year .
= = Merchandise = =
Four non @-@ fiction tie @-@ in books have been released by Granada Media , an imprint of André Deutsch Publishing . 2000 saw the release of Cold Feet : The Best Bits ( ISBN 0 @-@ 233 @-@ 99924 @-@ 8 ) and Cold Feet : A Man 's / Woman 's Guide to Life ( ISBN 0 @-@ 233 @-@ 99732 @-@ 6 ) . The Best Bits , compiled by Geoff Tibballs , features script extracts and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes information from directors , producers and actors in the first two series . A Man 's / Woman 's Guide to Life , compiled by Jonathan Rice , is in a " flip @-@ book " -style format , and is presented as if written by the characters . It features backstories for the characters , drawn from Bullen 's scripts for the first two series . The Little Book of Cold Feet : Life Rules ( ISBN 0 @-@ 233 @-@ 05088 @-@ 4 ) , a book of quotes from the series , was compiled by Rice and released in 2003 . The same year , The Complete Cold Feet Companion ( ISBN 0 @-@ 233 @-@ 00999 @-@ X ) by Rupert Smith , featuring interviews with the actors and production staff , was released . The book sold 961 copies in the first week of publication , making tenth position on the hardback non @-@ fiction chart .
Five soundtracks have been released , featuring music from the series . Global TV released Cold Feet : The Official Soundtrack on two CDs in 1999 . The soundtrack had been shelved before release but was put back on the schedule when Mirror journalist Charlie Catchpole wrote a column that desired for it to be released . Global followed the first OST with More Cold Feet in 2000 . In 2001 , UMTV released the two @-@ disc soundtrack Cold Feet , followed by The Very Best of Cold Feet in 2003 . EMI Gold released Cold Feet in 2006 . Cheatwell Games issued a licensed board game in 2001 .
All series have been released on DVD in the United Kingdom and Australia , by Video Collection International and Universal respectively . Series 1 – 3 have been released in the United States by Acorn Media . A collection of all five series was released in the United Kingdom in 2003 . A version exclusive to Play.com had a bonus disc that contained the retrospective documentary Cold Feet : The Final Call , new interviews with John Thomson , Andy Harries and Spencer Campbell , and a locations featurette presented by Thomson . This 11 @-@ disc version had a general release when Granada Ventures re @-@ released all five series in new packaging in 2006 . All DVD and VHS releases of Series 5 have been edited from the original four episodes into six episodes of various lengths .
The pilot and first series was made available as streaming media on ITV plc 's revamped itv.com website from 2007 to 2009 . All episodes have been available from ITV 's iTunes Store since 2008 .
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= M @-@ 31 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 31 was a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula in the US state of Michigan . It generally ran north from Port Huron along the Lake Huron shoreline through The Thumb region before turning inland . The highway crossed The Thumb and then ran along the Saginaw Bay shoreline before running inland again , terminating at Saginaw . It was one of the original state highways signposted in 1919 , but it was renumbered as other highways in 1926 , decommissioning the designation in the process .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 31 started at M @-@ 21 in Port Huron and ran northward along the Lake Huron shoreline . Along the way , it intersected the western terminus of M @-@ 46 before reaching Harbor Beach . In town , the original M @-@ 27 merged in from the north , and M @-@ 27 / M @-@ 31 ran concurrently westward , turning inland . The two highways separated north of Ruth as M @-@ 27 turned southward . M @-@ 31 continued across The Thumb through Bad Axe , where it ran concurrently with M @-@ 19 in town . The highway carried on westward through Elkton and Pigeon to Bay Port . Once there , the trunkline turned southwesterly to follow along part of the Saginaw Bay . The road passed through Sebewaing to Unionville before turning back inland . Running southward to Akron , the highway turned alternately westward and southward to Fairgrove . M @-@ 31 next ran west along Bradleyville Road to a connection with M @-@ 81 ; the two highways ran concurrently south through Gilford before M @-@ 31 separated and turned back westward through Reese to Saginaw . The northern terminus in downtown Saginaw was at an intersection with what was then M @-@ 10 .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , M @-@ 31 was one of the original trunklines , originally running northward from Port Huron to Harbor Beach and then westward to Saginaw . When the U.S. Highway System was approved on November 11 , 1926 , M @-@ 31 was decommissioned in favor of alternate numbers . From Port Huron north to Harbor Beach , M @-@ 29 was extended as a replacement . The segment west to Bay Port was renumbered M @-@ 83 while from Bad Axe west it was also additionally part of M @-@ 29 to Unionville . The remainder was numbered M @-@ 84 from Unionville to Reese , and M @-@ 81 from Reese to Saginaw .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Tropical Storm Isidore ( 1984 ) =
Tropical Storm Isidore was the 15th tropical cyclone and 9th named storm of the 1984 Atlantic hurricane season . Isidore formed as a tropical depression on September 25 , while situated off the southeastern Bahamas . The depression headed west , and was upgraded to a tropical storm in the central Bahamas the next day . It made landfall near Jupiter , Florida , and retaining tropical storm strength , Isidore curved to the northeast , emerging over water near Jacksonville , Florida . Isidore continued northeast until it was absorbed by a frontal system on October 1 . Though damage was generally light , the storm affected several regions from the Bahamas to the U.S. East Coast . One death was reported in Florida , and total damage is estimated at $ 1 million ( 1984 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The storm system that would become Isidore originated in a nearly stationary frontal boundary situated near the Bahamas . On September 24 , a ship reported winds of about 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) in association with the disturbance . However , satellite imagery indicated that convection was just beginning to organize . Satellite imagery and Air Force reconnaissance reports documented the formation of a tropical depression early on September 25 ; a special statement was later issued by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) confirming the existence of the depression , and tropical cyclone advisories were initiated at 12 pm EDT . The depression moved west @-@ northwest while tracking through the Bahamas . As it did so , it moved across Cat Island and passed near several others . The cyclone attained tropical storm status on September 26 , receiving the name " Isidore " .
While located near the northern tip of Andros Island , Isidore reached its peak intensity . The barometric pressure fell to 999 mb , with sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm continued moving northwest , though it failed to strengthen significantly over the Florida Current . The cyclone made landfall near Jupiter , Florida with sustained winds of about 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and subsequently moved inland . Previously , a large high pressure area over the eastern United States had prevented the cyclone from moving northward . The high moved away , allowing for Isidore to curve to the northeast , emerging over water near Jacksonville , Florida . The storm continued towards the northeast , passing about 80 mi ( 130 km ) off of the Carolina coast . Isidore downgraded to a tropical depression on October 1 , and was absorbed in a frontal zone later that day . Isidore was one of many storms during the 1984 season that formed in relatively cool baroclinic environments .
= = Preparations = =
Due to its mild nature , Isidore was described as a " safety test " . Gale warnings were issued from as far south as Key West , Florida , to as far north as Virginia , including parts of Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina . A private meteorological service stated that Isidore was to intensify to hurricane status , leading to some confusion regarding preparations . Along the Treasure Coast of Florida , citrus farmers burned seedlings potentially infected with canker to prevent heavy rains from spreading the disease . Red Cross volunteers readied a shelter with supplies such as cots and sheets , though it remained unused . In Martin County , hundreds of firefighters were on standby . In Miami , rain from the storm led to the cancellation of horse races at the Calder Race Course . State parks in Monroe County were temporarily closed .
In Indian River , Martin , and St. Lucie counties , students were sent home early , and after @-@ school actives were canceled . The South Beach Jetty Park in Fort Pierce was closed . In southern portions of the state , residents prepared their boats for the storm , and 50 F @-@ 4 Phantom fighter jets were evacuated from the Homestead Air Force Base and moved to bases in South Carolina . Lumber yards , groceries stores , and hardware stores reported unusually high demand for emergency supplies , though certain smaller businesses closed early . Gasoline stations in the region " were doing bumper @-@ to @-@ bumper business " . Farther to the south , in the Florida Keys , an emergency operations center was opened in response to the storm .
= = Impact = =
In Nassau , Bahamas , Isidore produced flooding rains and gales . There , the storm forced the closure of schools and banks . Heavy precipitation fell throughout the island chain , but no serious damage was reported .
Winds from Isidore gusted to 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) in the St. Augustine , Florida area . Elsewhere , 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) winds were recorded . At Mayport , winds were sustained at 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) . In northern portions of the state , peak rainfall totals ranged from 5 to 7 in ( 130 to 180 mm ) , much of which was associated with an intense convective band to the north and east of the cyclone 's center . One tornado , ranked F1 on the Fujita scale , touched down near Savannah , Georgia . Power outages were mostly minor and scattered . Tides generally ran under 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal ; combined with high winds , the tides contributed to severe and widespread beach erosion along the eastern coast of central Florida , threatening structures at times . A large , $ 500 @,@ 000 beach restoration fill was washed away . Additionally , segments of State Road A1A were damaged . On Hutchinson Island , many eggs and nests of Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas , respectively , were destroyed . One man was electrocuted as a result of the storm near Orlando . Another man was injured while attempting to land his plane in high winds . Throughout the state , overall damage was generally insignificant .
The storm also dropped heavy precipitation along the coasts of Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , with sporadic showers in parts of Virginia . Offshore , swells of 12 to 15 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) extensively damaged a wooden ship , the Phoenix . The vessel " barely escaped destruction " , though a crew member suffered a cracked rib . Across its path , Isidore was estimated to have inflicted $ 1 million in damage .
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= Battle of Torvioll =
The Battle of Torvioll , also known as the Battle of Lower Dibra , was fought on 29 June 1444 on the Plain of Torvioll , in what is modern @-@ day Albania . Skanderbeg was an Ottoman Albanian captain who decided to go back to his native land and take the reins of a new Albanian rebellion . He , along with 300 other Albanians fighting at the Battle of Niš , deserted the Ottoman army to head towards Krujë , which fell quickly through a subversion . He then formed the League of Lezhë , a confederation of Albanian princes united in war against the Ottoman Empire . Murad II , realizing the threat , sent one of his most experienced captains , Ali Pasha , to crush the rebellion with a force of 25 @,@ 000 men .
Skanderbeg expected a reaction so he moved with 15 @,@ 000 of his own men to defeat Ali Pasha 's army . The two met in the Plain of Torvioll where they camped opposite of each other . The following day , 29 June , Ali came out of his camp and saw that Skanderbeg had positioned his forces at the bottom of a hill . Expecting a quick victory , Ali ordered all of his forces down the hill to attack and defeat Skanderbeg 's army . Skanderbeg expected such a maneuver and had prepared his own stratagem . Once the opposing forces were engaged and the necessary positioning was achieved , Skanderbeg ordered his forces hidden in the forests behind the Turkish army to strike their rear . The result was devastating for the Ottomans , whose entire army was routed and its commander nearly killed .
The victory lifted the morale of the Christian princes of Europe and was recognized as a great victory over the Muslim Ottoman Empire . On the Ottoman side , Murad realized the effect Skanderbeg 's rebellion would have on his realm and continued to take measures to defeat him , resulting in twenty @-@ five years of war .
= = Background = =
George Kastrioti Skanderbeg , the son of the powerful prince John Kastrioti , had been a vassal of the Ottoman Empire as a sipahi , or cavalry commander . After his participation in the Ottoman loss at the Battle of Niš , Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army and rushed to Albania alongside 300 other Albanians . By forging a letter from Murad II to the Governor of Krujë , he became lord of the city in November 1443 . Hungarian captain John Hunyadi 's continued operations against Sultan Murad II gave Skanderbeg time to prepare an alliance of the Albanian nobles . Skanderbeg invited all of Albania 's nobles to meet in the Venetian @-@ held town of Alessio ( Lezhë ) on 2 March 1444 . Alessio was chosen as the meeting point because the town had once been the capital of the Dukagjini family and to induce Venice to lend aid to the Albanian movement . Among the nobles that attended were George Arianiti , Paul Dukagjini , Andrea Thopia , Lekë Dushmani , Teodor Korona , Peter Spani , Lekë Zaharia , and Paul Stres Balsha . Here they formed the League of Lezhë , a confederation of all of the major Albanian princes in alliance against the Ottoman Empire . The chosen captain ( Albanian : Kryekapedan ) of this confederation was Skanderbeg . The League 's first military challenge came in the spring of 1444 , when Skanderbeg 's scouts reported that the Ottoman army was planning to invade Albania . Skanderbeg planned to move towards the anticipated entry point and prepared for an engagement .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Prelude = = =
Ali Pasha , one of Murad 's most favored commanders , left Üsküp ( Skopje ) in June 1444 with an army of 25 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 troops and headed in Albania 's direction . Having brought together an army of 15 @,@ 000 men ( 8 @,@ 000 cavalry and 7 @,@ 000 infantry ) from the League of Lezhë , Skanderbeg exhorted to his soldiers the importance of the upcoming campaign . Orders were given for the distribution of soldiers ' pay and for religious services to be held . Afterwards , Skanderbeg and his army headed towards the planned place of battle in Lower Dibra , which is thought to be the Plain of Shumbat , then called the Plain of Torvioll , north of Peshkopi . On the way there , he marched through the Black Drin valley and appeared at the expected Ottoman entry point . Skanderbeg had chosen the plain himself : it was 11 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 0 mi ) long and 4 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) wide , surrounded by hills and forests . After camping near Torvioll , Skanderbeg placed 3 @,@ 000 men under five commanders , Hamza Kastrioti , Muzaka of Angelina , Zecharia Gropa , Peter Emanueli , and John Musachi , in the surrounding forests with orders to attack the Ottoman wings and rear only after a given signal . While Skanderbeg was preparing his ambush , the Ottoman Turks under Ali Pasha arrived and encamped opposite his forces . The night before the battle , the Ottomans celebrated the coming day , whereas the Albanians extinguished all their campfires and those who were not on guard were directed to rest . Parties of Ottomans made approaches to the Albanian camp and provoked Skanderbeg 's soldiers , but they remained quiet . Skanderbeg sent out a scouting party to obtain information about the Ottoman army and ordered his cavalry to engage in small skirmishes .
= = = Albanian positioning = = =
On the morning of 29 June , Skanderbeg arranged his army for battle . Apart from the 3 @,@ 000 warriors hidden behind the Ottoman army , Skanderbeg left another reserve force of 3 @,@ 000 under the command of Vrana Konti . The Albanian army was positioned in a crescent shape curving inwards . They were divided into three groups , each composed of 3 @,@ 000 men . They were all placed at the bottom of a hill , with the intention of luring the Ottoman cavalry @-@ based army into a downhill charge . The Albanian left wing was commanded by Tanush Thopia with 1 @,@ 500 horsemen and an equal number of infantrymen . On the right wing , Skanderbeg placed Moisi Golemi in the same manner as Thopia . In front of the wings , foot archers were placed to lure the Ottomans in . In the center , there were 3 @,@ 000 men under the command of Skanderbeg and Ajdin Muzaka . One @-@ thousand horsemen were placed in front of the main division with orders to blunt the initial Turkish cavalry charge . An equal number of archers , trained to accompany the horses , was placed next to these horsemen . The main body of infantry , commanded by Ajdin Muzaka , was placed behind the archers .
= = = Battle = = =
After the army was marshaled , Skanderbeg would not permit the trumpets to give the signal for battle until he saw Ali Pasha advancing . After looking upon the Albanian army , the Pasha ordered his army to charge with one of the units ahead of the rest . The Albanian front line retreated ; Skanderbeg sent a body of horsemen to prevent the line from breaking and marshaled the retreating troops back to their places . Ali Pasha believed he had the Albanians trapped . The same situation occurred on the left wing and , when all were in their places , the army prepared for the main offensive . As it began , the wings were fiercely led on by Thopia and Golemi and pushed back the Ottoman wings . In the centre , Skanderbeg assaulted a selected battalion . When the proper signal was given , the 3 @,@ 000 horsemen hidden in the woods sprung out and charged into the Ottoman rear , causing large parts of their army to rout . The wings of the Albanian army turned towards the Ottoman centre 's flanks . Ajdin Muzaka , having charged the Turkish centre , was met by fierce resistance and the Turks continued to pour in fresh forces until Vrana Konti came in with his reserves and decided the battle . The Turkish army was surrounded . The Ottoman front ranks were annihilated except for 300 soldiers . Ali Pasha 's personal battalion fled although the commander nearly met his death .
= = Aftermath = =
Between 8 @,@ 000 to 22 @,@ 000 Turks died in the battle , while 2 @,@ 000 were captured . The Albanians were originally attributed to have lost as little as 120 men , but modern sources suggest a higher figure of 4 @,@ 000 Albanians dead and wounded . Skanderbeg remained quiet in his camp for the remainder of that day and the following night . Having addressed his troops , he directed his infantry to mount the captured horses . The spoils of the victory were abundant and even the wounded took part in the pillaging . Skanderbeg thereafter ordered a general retreat toward Krujë . Skanderbeg 's victory was praised through the rest of Europe . The European states thus began to consider a crusade to drive the Ottomans out of Europe . When Ali Pasha returned to Adrianople ( Edirne ) , he explained to the sultan that the loss should be attributed to his forces and the " fortunes of war " and not his generalship . The battle of Torvioll thus opened up the quarter @-@ century war between Skanderbeg 's Albania and the Ottoman Empire .
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= Hebrides =
The Hebrides ( / ˈhɛbrᵻdiːz / ; Scottish Gaelic : Innse Gall ; Old Norse : Suðreyjar ) comprise a widespread and diverse archipelago off the west coast of mainland Scotland . There are two main groups : the Inner and Outer Hebrides . These islands have a long history of occupation dating back to the Mesolithic , and the culture of the residents has been affected by the successive influences of Celtic , Norse , and English @-@ speaking peoples . This diversity is reflected in the names given to the islands , which are derived from the languages that have been spoken there in historic and perhaps prehistoric times .
Various artists have been inspired by their Hebridean experiences . Today the economy of the islands is dependent on crofting , fishing , tourism , the oil industry , and renewable energy . The Hebrides lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain , but seals are present around the coasts in internationally important numbers .
= = Geology , geography and climate = =
The Hebrides have a diverse geology ranging in age from Precambrian strata that are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe to Paleogene igneous intrusions .
The Hebrides can be divided into two main groups , separated from one another by the Minch to the north and the Sea of the Hebrides to the south . The Inner Hebrides lie closer to mainland Scotland and include Islay , Jura , Skye , Mull , Raasay , Staffa and the Small Isles . There are 36 inhabited islands in this group . The Outer Hebrides are a chain of more than 100 islands and small skerries located about 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) west of mainland Scotland . There are 15 inhabited islands in this archipelago . The main islands include Barra , Benbecula , Berneray , Harris , Lewis , North Uist , South Uist , and St Kilda . In total , the islands have an area of approximately 7 @,@ 200 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 800 sq mi ) and a population of 44 @,@ 759 .
A complication is that there are various descriptions of the scope of the Hebrides . The Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland describes the Inner Hebrides as lying " east of the Minch " , which would include any and all offshore islands . There are various islands that lie in the sea lochs such as Eilean Bàn and Eilean Donan that might not ordinarily be described as " Hebridean " , but no formal definitions exist .
In the past , the Outer Hebrides were often referred to as the Long Isle ( Scottish Gaelic : An t @-@ Eilean Fada ) . Today , they are also known as the Western Isles , although this phrase can also be used to refer to the Hebrides in general .
The Hebrides have a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude , due to the influence of the Gulf Stream . In the Outer Hebrides the average temperature for the year is 6 ° C ( 44 ° F ) in January and 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in summer . The average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 43 in ) and sunshine hours range from 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 200 per annum . The summer days are relatively long , and May to August is the driest period .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The Hebrides were settled during the Mesolithic era around 6500 BC or earlier , after the climatic conditions improved enough to sustain human settlement . Occupation at a site on Rùm is dated to 8590 ± 95 uncorrected radiocarbon years BP , which is amongst the oldest evidence of occupation in Scotland . There are many examples of structures from the Neolithic period , the finest example being the standing stones at Callanish , dating to the 3rd millennium BC . Cladh Hallan , a Bronze Age settlement on South Uist is the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found .
= = = Celtic era = = =
In 55 BC , the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that there was an island called Hyperborea ( which means " beyond the North Wind " ) , where a round temple stood from which the moon appeared only a little distance above the earth every 19 years . This may have been a reference to the stone circle at Callanish .
A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast of Scotland in or shortly before AD 83 . He stated it was a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands , but he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men . He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island .
The first written records of native life begin in the 6th century AD , when the founding of the kingdom of Dál Riata took place . This encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and County Antrim in Ireland . The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Dál Riata , and his founding of a monastery on Iona ensured that the kingdom would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain . However , Iona was far from unique . Lismore in the territory of the Cenél Loairn , was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency and many smaller sites , such as on Eigg , Hinba , and Tiree , are known from the annals .
North of Dál Riata , the Inner and Outer Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control , although the historical record is sparse . Hunter ( 2000 ) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century : " As for Shetland , Orkney , Skye and the Western Isles , their inhabitants , most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time , are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence . ”
= = = Norwegian control = = =
Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades , especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872 . In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose may have been the dominant figure of the mid 9th century , by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders . These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown , although in practice the latter 's control was fairly limited . Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway . The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney , the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year , directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various island petty kingdoms . By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control , although at a price . His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis " fire played high in the heaven " as " flame spouted from the houses " and that in the Uists " the king dyed his sword red in blood " .
The Hebrides were now part of the Kingdom of the Isles , whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway . This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156 , at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled , the Norse @-@ Celtic kinsman of the Manx royal house .
Following the ill @-@ fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway , the Outer Hebrides and the Isle of Man were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth . Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and place names , the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited . The best known find is the Lewis chessmen , which date from the mid 12th century .
= = = Scottish control = = =
As the Norse era drew to a close , the Norse @-@ speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic @-@ speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris , Clan Donald and MacNeil of Barra . This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles , based on Islay , were in theory these chiefs ' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control .
The Lords of the Isles ruled the Inner Hebrides as well as part of the Western Highlands as subjects of the King of Scots until John MacDonald , fourth Lord of the Isles , squandered the family 's powerful position . A rebellion by his nephew , Alexander of Lochalsh provoked an exasperated James IV to forfeit the family 's lands in 1493 .
In 1598 , King James VI authorised some " Gentleman Adventurers " from Fife to civilise the " most barbarous Isle of Lewis " . Initially successful , the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod , who based their forces on Bearasaigh in Loch Ròg . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result , but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony . By this time , Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail ( later the Earls of Seaforth ) , who pursued a more enlightened approach , investing in fishing in particular . The Seaforths ' royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms by Cromwell 's troops , who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway .
= = = Early British era = = =
With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707 , the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain , but the clans ' loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong . A considerable number of islesmen " came out " in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the " 15 " and again in the 1745 rising including Macleod of Dunvegan and MacLea of Lismore . The aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden , which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration , was widely felt . The British government 's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English @-@ speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them . This may have brought peace to the islands , but in the following century it came at a terrible price . In the wake of the rebellion , the clan system was broken up and islands of the Hebrides became a series of landed estates .
The early 19th century was a time of improvement and population growth . Roads and quays were built ; the slate industry became a significant employer on Easdale and surrounding islands ; and the construction of the Crinan and Caledonian canals and other engineering works such as Telford 's " Bridge across the Atlantic " improved transport and access . However , in the mid @-@ 19th century , the inhabitants of many parts of the Hebrides were devastated by the clearances , which destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms . The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands ' kelp industry that thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic . The " Battle of the Braes " involved a demonstration against lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices . This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission , which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands and disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters ' Act .
= = Modern economy = =
For those who remained , new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle , commercial fishing and tourism . Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago 's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th century and for much of the 20th century . Lengthy periods of continuous occupation notwithstanding , many of the smaller islands were abandoned .
There were however continuing gradual economic improvements , among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design and with the assistance of Highlands and Islands Enterprise many of the islands ' populations have begun to increase after decades of decline . The discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965 and the renewables sector have contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades . For example , the Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries .
= = Media and the arts = =
The Hebrides , also known as Fingal 's Cave , is a famous overture composed by Felix Mendelssohn while residing on these islands , while Granville Bantock composed the Hebridean Symphony . Contemporary musicians associated with the islands include Ian Anderson , Donovan and Runrig . The poet Sorley MacLean was born on Raasay , the setting for his best known poem , Hallaig .
The novelist Compton Mackenzie lived on Barra and George Orwell wrote 1984 whilst living on Jura . J.M. Barrie 's Marie Rose contains references to Harris inspired by a holiday visit to Amhuinnsuidhe Castle and he wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of Peter Pan whilst on Eilean Shona . Enya 's song " Ebudæ " from Shepherd Moons is named for the Hebrides ( see below ) . The 1973 British horror film The Wicker Man is set on the fictional Hebridean island of Summerisle . The experimental first @-@ person adventure video game Dear Esther takes place on an unnamed Hebridean island . The 2011 British romantic comedy " The Decoy Bride " is set on the fictional Hebrides island of Hegg .
= = = Language = = =
The residents of the Hebrides have spoken a variety of different languages during the long period of human occupation .
It is assumed that Pictish must once have predominated in the northern Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides . The Scottish Gaelic language arrived via Ireland due to the growing influence of the kingdom of Dál Riata from the 6th century onwards and became the dominant language of the southern Hebrides at that time . For a time , the military might of the Gall @-@ Ghàidhils meant that Old Norse was prevalent in the Hebrides and , north of Ardnamurchan , the place names that existed prior to the 9th century have been all but obliterated . The Old Norse name for the Hebrides during the Viking occupation was Suðreyjar , which means " Southern Isles " . It was given in contrast to the Norðreyjar , or the " Northern Isles " of Orkney and Shetland .
South of Ardnamurchan Gaelic place names are the most common and , after the 13th century , Gaelic became the main language of the entire Hebridean archipelago . The use of Scots and English became prominent in recent times but the Hebrides still contain the largest concentration of Scottish Gaelic speakers in Scotland . This is especially true of the Outer Hebrides , where the majority of people speak the language . The Scottish Gaelic college , Sabhal Mòr Ostaig , is based on Skye and Islay .
Ironically , given the status of the Western Isles as the last Gàidhlig @-@ speaking stronghold in Scotland , the Gaelic language name for the islands – Innse Gall – means " isles of the foreigners " which has roots in the time when they were under Norse colonisation .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest written references that have survived relating to the islands were made by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , where he states that there are 30 Hebudes , and makes a separate reference to Dumna , which Watson ( 1926 ) concludes is unequivocally the Outer Hebrides . Writing about 80 years later , in 140 @-@ 150 AD , Ptolemy , drawing on the earlier naval expeditions of Agricola , writes that there are five Ebudes ( possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides ) and Dumna . Later texts in classical Latin , by writers such as Solinus , use the forms Hebudes and Hæbudes .
The name Ebudes recorded by Ptolemy may be pre @-@ Celtic . Islay is Ptolemy 's Epidion , the use of the " p " hinting at a Brythonic or Pictish tribal name , Epidii , although the root is not Gaelic . Woolf ( 2012 ) has suggested that Ebudes may be " an Irish attempt to reproduce the word Epidii phonetically rather than by translating it " and that the tribe 's name may come from the root epos meaning " horse " . Watson ( 1926 ) also notes the possible relationship between Ebudes and the ancient Irish Ulaid tribal name Ibdaig and the personal name of a king Iubdán recorded in the Silva Gadelica .
The names of other individual islands reflect their complex linguistic history . The majority are Norse or Gaelic but the roots of several other Hebrides may have a pre @-@ Celtic origin . Adomnán , the 7th century abbot of Iona , records Colonsay as Colosus and Tiree as Ethica , both of which may be pre @-@ Celtic names . The etymology of Skye is complex and may also include a pre @-@ Celtic root . Lewis is Ljoðhús in Old Norse and although various suggestions have been made as to a Norse meaning ( such as " song house " ) the name is not of Gaelic origin and the Norse credentials are questionable .
The earliest comprehensive written list of Hebridean island names was undertaken by Donald Monro in 1549 , which in some cases also provides the earliest written form of the island name . The derivations of all of the inhabited islands of the Hebrides and some of the larger uninhabited ones are listed below .
= = = Outer Hebrides = = =
Lewis and Harris is the largest island in Scotland and the third largest in the British Isles , after Great Britain and Ireland . It incorporates Lewis in the north and Harris in the south , both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands , although they are joined by a land border . Remarkably , the island does not have a common name in either English or Gaelic and is referred to as " Lewis and Harris " , " Lewis with Harris " , " Harris with Lewis " etc . For this reason it is treated as two separate islands below . The derivation of Lewis may be pre @-@ Celtic ( see above ) and the origin of Harris is no less problematic . In the Ravenna Cosmography , Erimon may refer to Harris ( or possibly the Outer Hebrides as a whole ) . This word may derive from the Ancient Greek erimos meaning " desert " . The origin of Uist ( Old Norse : Ívist ) is similarly unclear .
= = = Inner Hebrides = = =
There are various examples of Inner Hebridean island names that were originally Gaelic but have become completely replaced . For example , Adomnán records Sainea , Elena , Ommon and Oideacha in the Inner Hebrides , which names must have passed out of usage in the Norse era and whose locations are not clear . One of the complexities is that an island may have had a Celtic name , that was replaced by a similar sounding Norse name , but then reverted to an essentially Gaelic name with a Norse " øy " or " ey " ending . See for example Rona below .
= = = Uninhabited islands = = =
The names of uninhabited islands follow the same general patterns as the inhabited islands . The following are the ten largest in the Hebrides and their outliers .
The etymology of St Kilda , a small archipelago west of the Outer Hebrides , and its main island Hirta is very complex . No saint is known by the name of Kilda and various theories have been proposed for the word 's origin , which dates from the late 16th century . Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) notes that the full name " St Kilda " first appears on a Dutch map dated 1666 , and that it may have been derived from Norse sunt kelda ( " sweet wellwater " ) or from a mistaken Dutch assumption that the spring Tobar Childa was dedicated to a saint . ( Tobar Childa is a tautological placename , consisting of the Gaelic and Norse words for well , i.e. " well well " ) . The origin of the Gaelic for " Hirta " , Hiort or Hirt , which long pre @-@ dates the use of " St Kilda " , is similarly open to interpretation . Watson ( 1926 ) offers the Old Irish hirt , a word meaning " death " , possibly relating to the dangerous seas . Maclean ( 1977 ) , drawing on an Icelandic saga describing an early 13th @-@ century voyage to Ireland that mentions a visit to the islands of Hirtir , speculates that the shape of Hirta resembles a stag , hirtir being " stags " in Norse .
The etymology of small islands may be no less complex . In relation to Dubh Artach , R. L. Stevenson believed that " black and dismal " was a translation of the name , noting that " as usual , in Gaelic , it is not the only one . "
= = Natural history = =
In some respects the Hebrides generally lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain , with for example only half the number of mammalian species the latter has . However these islands provide breeding grounds for many important seabird species including the world 's largest colony of northern gannets . Avian life includes the corncrake , red @-@ throated diver , rock dove , kittiwake , tystie , Atlantic puffin , goldeneye , golden eagle and white @-@ tailed sea eagle . The last named was re @-@ introduced to Rùm in 1975 and has successfully spread to various neighbouring islands , including Mull . There is a small population of red @-@ billed chough concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay .
Red deer are common on the hills and the grey seal and common seal are present around the coasts of Scotland in internationally important numbers , with colonies of the former found on Oronsay and the Treshnish Isles . The rich freshwater streams contain brown trout , Atlantic salmon and water shrew . Offshore , minke whales , Killer whales , basking sharks , porpoises and dolphins are among the sealife that can be seen .
Heather moor containing ling , bell heather , cross @-@ leaved heath , bog myrtle and fescues is abundant and there is a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including Alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal .
Loch Druidibeg on South Uist is a national nature reserve owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage . The reserve covers 1 @,@ 677 hectares across the whole range of local habitats . Over 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the reserve , some of which are nationally scarce . South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant slender naiad , which is a European Protected Species .
There has been considerable controversy over hedgehogs . The animals are not native to the Outer Hebrides having been introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests , but their spread has posed a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds . In 2003 , Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although these were halted in 2007 with trapped animals then being relocated to the mainland .
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= Cherokee Rose ( The Walking Dead ) =
" Cherokee Rose " is the fourth episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead , which aired on AMC in the United States on November 6 , 2011 . The episode was written by Evan Reilly and directed by Billy Gierhart . In the episode , the group of survivors move to the home of Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) . While the group contemplates on what to do , Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) continues to search for Sophia Peletier ( Madison Lintz ) .
Major themes in " Cherokee Rose " includes Daryl Dixon 's gradual change into a lighter character and the beginning of his close relationship with Carol Peletier and the developing romantic relationship between Maggie and Glenn . Principal photography for the episode commenced in Coweta County , Georgia , where filming locations were set up in an abandoned late nineteenth century Gothic revival home in Senoia , Georgia and in downtown Sharpsburg , Georgia .
During a sequence in the episode , the survivors pull a bloated zombie — commonly referred to by the group as a " walker " — out of a water well , ultimately leading to the walker splitting apart . Greg Melton , the series ' production designer , collaborated with KNB Efx Group in producing the scene . Filming for the sequence arose over an approximate period of two days .
" Cherokee Rose " was well received by television critics , who praised the episode 's storylines and character development . Upon initial airing , it garnered 6 @.@ 29 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Cherokee Rose " became the highest @-@ rated cable program of the day , as well as the second highest @-@ rated cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
Carl Grimes ( Chandler Riggs ) recovers from his operation to remove fragments of a bullet , which he had received earlier when encountering a deer . He asks his father Rick ( Andrew Lincoln ) if his friend Sophia Peletier ( Madison Lintz ) is alright . Since Sophia is still missing , Rick reluctantly lies to Carl and tells him that she is fine . Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) , Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) , Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) and Carol Peletier ( Melissa McBride ) move the vehicles and set up camp at the Greene home and are introduced to the Greene family . There , they lead a funeral procession for their ranch hand , Otis ( Pruitt Taylor Vince ) . Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) is asked to share Otis ' final moments ; Shane sticks to his lie that Otis had sacrificed his life to save Carl , while in reality Shane betrayed Otis .
Along with Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) and his daughter Maggie ( Lauren Cohan ) , the group organize Sophia 's search . Since Shane is still injured and Rick is too weak from blood loss , Daryl ventures out on his own . Daryl eventually finds an abandoned house , but does not locate Sophia . He finds a cherokee rose , which is a Native American sign in which the gods protected their children , and gives it to Carol .
Maggie directs Dale and Theodore " T @-@ Dog " Douglas ( IronE Singleton ) to a nearby freshwater well , only to find a bloated zombie — commonly referred by the group as a " walker " — inside . Shane , Maggie , Andrea , Lori Grimes ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) and Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) join the two ; the group concludes that shooting it might further contaminate the water . They then decide to use Glenn as live bait and harness the walker to a rope to drag it out of the well . After a slight mishap , Glenn manages to saddle the walker . The group manages to pull the walker to the top of the well , but it becomes stuck at the top . Attempting to pull the walker free causes the walker 's body to get ripped in half , with the lower body , fluid , and organs spilling back into the well , contaminating the water . T @-@ Dog then kills the walker with an axe .
Maggie and Glenn decide to venture to the local pharmacy to find more supplies . Before he leaves , Lori asks Glenn to search for something in the feminine hygiene section . At the pharmacy , Glenn discovers the item is a pregnancy test . When Maggie asks him what he 's looking for , he tries to make an excuse and accidentally grabs a box of condoms . Maggie then seduces and has sex with Glenn . Rick and Hershel tour the farmland , where Hershel reveals that the group has to leave once Carl fully recovers . Rick manages to convince Hershel for the group to stay for the meantime . However , there are rules they must follow . Rick pleads with Hershel to not force them to leave and to reconsider his request .
Later on , Rick is up in the room where Carl is recovering in bed . Once Carl wakes up , Rick admits that he lied to him about Sophia ; Carl reveals that his mother already told him the truth . Meanwhile , the pregnancy test reveals that Lori is pregnant .
= = Production = =
" Cherokee Rose " was written by Evan Reilly and directed by Billy Gierhart . Filming for the episode occurred in downtown Sharpsburg , Georgia on August 1 , 2011 . Preparation for filming initiated in July 2011 , when producers converted an empty building into a temporary drug store . Herb Bridges , who owned the building at the time , was first contacted by producers of the series ' in January 2011 , and again four months later in May . Bridges informed them that the space would be rented by a woman who would open a children 's store there ; however , she had not moved into the space yet . This episode contains a scene in which Daryl searches for Sophia in an abandoned home . Filming for the scene transpired at an abandoned late @-@ nineteenth century Gothic revival home in Senoia , Georgia . Gregory Melton , the series ' production designer , was the first crew member to locate the house . Melton took a picture of it with his cell phone , and sent the picture to creator Frank Darabont . Darabont reacted positively to the image , and later wrote it in the episode 's script .
This episode marked the climax of the relationship between Maggie Greene and Glenn , in which they engage in sexual intercourse at a pharmacy . Writer Robert Kirkman insisted that it was important to view the storyline in a different perspective , explaining , " I don 't think we wanted to turn that into some kind of steamy , pornographic sex romp . " " Cherokee Rose " marked a turning point in the character development of Daryl Dixon . It contains a monologue that references the cherokee rose and its association to the Trail of Tears . The scene was devised and written by Evan Rielly . " I was actually on set during the filming of that , " stated Kirkman . " Almost every actor in the cast showed up , because they absolutely loved that scene and they wanted to see Melissa and Norman ’ s portrayal of it as it unfolded . "
The episode contains a scene in which the survivors pull a bloated walker out of a well in order to prevent contamination of the water . Such attempts prove to be unsuccessful , as all of the water retention severs the walker in half . Greg Nicotero , the special effects director for The Walking Dead , collaborated with KNB Efx Group to produce the sequence . Nicotero received a phone call from staff members of the company two hours after leaving production offices . They devised and expressed plans of creating a scenario in which a walker falls into a well . Nicotero worked with KNB Efx Group in several other films in the past . " One of the things we 've noticed — looking at some morgue research and cadaver research — is that everything gets really swollen , " he articulated . " The liquid saturates the skin so much that it swells up , and the skin starts to split . That was one of the things that we really wanted to play up . " A costume was sculpted using a body and a head cast . It was composed of three layers ; a thin skin @-@ like substance covers the exterior of the suit , followed by a layer of silicone and a layer of foam in the costume 's center . A mask that was previously utilized in the action horror film Grindhouse ( 2007 ) was used as part of the costume . Nicotero inserted water balloons between the silicone and foam layering . He explained that as the performer begins to move , the liquid transfers from one side of the costume to another . Nicotero added : " If we made it out of foam latex , it would 've been stiff . But we used silicone that was heavily plasticized — which means that the silicone was really soft . " The suit weighed approximately sixty pounds .
Brian Hilliard , a member of the KNB Efx Group , was chosen by producers as the walker . Hilliard was favored in lieu of another actor , who fell ill shortly after being cast . In his interview with Entertainment Weekly , Greg Nicotero explained why he chose Hilliard for the part :
I needed somebody who could perform , and who also had a lot of endurance , because we were shooting in Atlanta at the end of July . Silicone doesn ’ t have cell structure , like foam does . It doesn ’ t breathe . So Brian was basically encased in a sixty @-@ pound wet @-@ suit . Every part of his body was covered . He had facial prosthetics , hands , full legs , feet . It was all glued down . It wasn ’ t like we could take him out between takes . He was in .
The sequence was shot over a period of two days . Principal photography on the first day commenced inside a well , which was built by Gregory Melton in approximately four weeks . It measured over forty feet in height , and the base of the well was located in a swimming pool . Nicotero stated that " [ they ] could open the door , put the zombie actor in there , then close the door . The camera would shoot down . " Atop of the well was a lip that measured a height of six feet . Despite putting slime and K @-@ Y Jelly on a board inside of the well , Nicotero and his production team found the particular sequence to be difficult to shoot . " On ' action ' , we pulled him out , and he slid up and over the lip , " Nicotero stated . " It was challenging to get all those pieces to come together on a television schedule . " By the time Hilliard was pulled out of the well , producers used a second suit equipped with prosthetic legs and prosthetic body . Various blood bags were inserted in the torso of the suit ; each were filled with viscous liquids in a variety of colors . Entrails were lastly added inside the suit , as Nicotero asserted that his team wanted " a gigantic explosion of gore . "
To induce the splitting of the costume , the series ' special effect coordinator Darrell Pritchett inserted squibs inside of the suit . Nicotero stated : " On ' action ' , my makeup effects crew pulled the upper body apart , and the physical effects crew squibbed all the bags . Then visual effects guys went in and added those few little tendrils of stretching , ripping intestines . " Because rubber constituted a large percentage of the suit , weights were added on to ensure that it would sink in the water . While recording commenced , approximately 12 – 15 gallons of liquid were poured into the well following the dropping of the prosthetic legs . Four takes were produced of that sequence .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Cherokee Rose " was originally broadcast on November 6 , 2011 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode garnered 6 @.@ 29 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It became the highest @-@ rated cable program of the day , obtaining significantly higher ratings than Hell on Wheels on AMC and the Real Housewives of Atlanta on Bravo . " Cherokee Rose " was the second highest @-@ rated cable program of the week , edging out television movie John Sandford 's Certain Prey by a considerable margin , but attained lower ratings than a match between the San Diego Chargers and the Kansas City Chiefs as part of the 2011 NFL season . The episode 's total viewership and ratings moderately increased from the previous episode , " Save the Last One " , which was viewed by 6 @.@ 095 million viewers and achieved a 3 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , " Cherokee Rose " received 893 @,@ 000 viewers , subsequently becoming the highest @-@ rated cable program on FX of the week dated November 13 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Cherokee Rose " attained favorable reviews from television critics . Zach Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + , and felt that it gave an accurate depiction of the characters . He opined : " I had a problem with the show 's tendency to wander into cul @-@ de @-@ sacs in the first season , mainly because so much of it felt redundant , the work of writers who had no real idea how to construct narrative television . But this season , I 'm starting to think they 're getting a handle on things , and " Cherokee Rose " is the sort of episode I 'd like to see more off [ sic ] as The Walking Dead continues . " Paste 's Josh Jackson asserted that the episode was superior to preceding installments , describing it as " simply a catch of breath . " Similarly , Josh Wigler of MTV evaluated that despite less violence than usual , the quality of " Cherokee Rose " improved from the previous episode . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall echoed analogous sentiments , and argued that while the show 's character still need more development , the development displayed in the episode was a " definite step in the right direction on that front . " Time journalist Nate Rawlings concluded that the episode contained many powerful scenes . Eric Goldman of IGN was critical of the episode , ultimately giving it a seven out of ten rating , signifying a " good " rating . Goldman felt that " Cherokee Rose " was a disappointment , citing that it lack any focus or direction . Henry Hanks , writing for CNN , said that the episode was the weakest of the season .
Critics commended the development of the relationship between Maggie Green and Glenn . Andrew Conrad of The Baltimore Sun stated that the storyline epitomized a " steamy romance " , while The Wall Street Journal 's Aaron Rutkoff called it " the funniest moment of the series . " Goldman opined that their sexual encounter felt genuine ; " He 's a nice guy , she seems like a cool gal , and it felt genuine when she noted she felt plenty lonely too and ready for some companionship . " Nick Venable of Cinema Blend asserted that the interactions between Maggie and Glenn was the highlight of the episode . " I 'm glad the writers are introducing this comic book plot point , as this show seriously needs a couple without closets full of skeletons . When Glenn accidentally grabs a box of condoms for Maggie to see , I chuckled heartily . The ensuing conversation also made me smile , which makes me wonder why humor is paid the least amount of attention on the show . " Jackson was surprised with the scene , and called it " unexpected " . Jen Chenay of The Washington Post compared Glenn to Little Mikey from the Life advertisements , and summated : " He has assumed this role without much choice in the matter , but he has done so with a certain quiet , occasionally petrified , baseball @-@ cap @-@ wearing dignity that makes him admirable . "
The water well sequence was critically acclaimed by critics . Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly described the scene as " hilarious " , and added , " I loved the horrific pointlessness of that entire plot , and it was yet more proof that makeup designer Greg Nicotero is the real star of [ The Walking Dead ] . I 'm not sure anything else TV can come up with this season will match the image of the bloated half @-@ zombie crawling across the ground with its water @-@ logged intestine hanging out . " Jackson , Rawlings , and the Houston Chronicle 's Pamela Mitchell felt that the sequence was one of the series ' most grotesque moments . Rawlings added : " Honestly , that right there is why many people watch The Walking Dead . " Wigler expressed that it was " very well done " , and noted that the walker was the " most vile , disgusting zombie that Greg Nicotero has ever created . "
The concluding sequence of " Cherokee Rose " was also well received by television critics . Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy admired the scene , and described it as " tense " . Halden opined that the scene was a reasonably solid storyline , and felt that it was the episode 's biggest foreshadowing event .
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= Minnesota =
Minnesota ( / ˌmɪnᵻˈsoʊtə / ; locally [ ˌmɪnəˈso ̞ ɾɐ ] ) is a state in the Midwestern United States . Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd state on May 11 , 1858 , created from the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory . The name comes from the Dakota word for " clear blue water " . Owing to its large number of lakes , the state is informally known as the " Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes " . Its official motto is L 'Étoile du Nord ( French : Star of the North ) . Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U.S. states ; nearly 60 percent of its residents live in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metropolitan area ( known as the " Twin Cities " ) , the center of transportation , business , industry , education , and government and home to an internationally known arts community . The remainder of the state consists of western prairies now given over to intensive agriculture ; deciduous forests in the southeast , now partially cleared , farmed and settled ; and the less populated North Woods , used for mining , forestry , and recreation .
Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout . Until European settlement , Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe / Anishinaabe . The French voyageurs and later English fur trappers were the earliest non @-@ native inhabitants . A large majority of the early territory and statehood settlers emigrated from the Eastern United States and Western Europe including Germany , Scandinavia , and Ireland . Eastern Europeans immigrated in the late 19th and early 20th century , with many first working in iron mines . In recent decades , immigration from Asia , Somalia , and Latin America has broadened the state 's historic demographic and cultural composition . Minnesota has America 's largest Somali population . Minnesota 's standard of living index is among the highest in the United States , and the state is also among the best @-@ educated and wealthiest in the nation .
= = Etymology = =
The word Minnesota comes from the Dakota name for the Minnesota River : Mnisota . The root mni ( also spelled mini or minne ) means " water " and " tō " ( " ta " ) means " blue " . Mnisota can be translated as clear blue water or clouded blue water depending on pronunciation . Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota . Many places in the state have similar names , such as Minnehaha Falls ( " laughing water " ( waterfall ) ) , Minneiska ( " white water " ) , Minneota ( " much water " ) , Minnetonka ( " big water " ) , Minnetrista ( " crooked water " ) , and Minneapolis , a combination of mni and polis , the Greek word for " city " .
= = Geography = =
Minnesota is the second northernmost U.S. state ( after Alaska ) . Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the only part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel . The state is part of the U.S. region known as the Upper Midwest and part of North America 's Great Lakes Region . It shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east . Iowa is to the south , North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west , and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba are to the north . With 86 @,@ 943 square miles ( 225 @,@ 180 km2 ) , or approximately 2 @.@ 25 percent of the United States , Minnesota is the 12th @-@ largest state .
= = = Geology = = =
Minnesota contains some of the oldest rocks found on earth , gneisses that are about 3 @.@ 6 billion years old ( 80 percent as old as the planet ) . About 2 @.@ 7 billion years ago , basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean ; the remains of this volcanic rock formed the Canadian Shield in northeast Minnesota . The roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota . Following a period of volcanism 1 @.@ 1 billion years ago , Minnesota 's geological activity has been more subdued , with no volcanism or mountain formation , but with repeated incursions of the sea , which left behind multiple strata of sedimentary rock .
In more recent times , massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its current terrain . The Wisconsin glaciation left 12 @,@ 000 years ago . These glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast , an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock . This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift . Much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet ( 15 m ) or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated . Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13 @,@ 000 years ago . Its bed created the fertile Red River valley , and its outflow , glacial River Warren , carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling . Minnesota is geologically quiet today ; it experiences earthquakes infrequently , and most of them are minor .
The state 's high point is Eagle Mountain at 2 @,@ 301 feet ( 701 m ) , which is only 13 miles ( 21 km ) away from the low of 601 feet ( 183 m ) at the shore of Lake Superior . Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation , much of the state is a gently rolling peneplain .
Two major drainage divides meet in the northeastern part of Minnesota in rural Hibbing , forming a triple watershed . Precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico , the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean , or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean .
The state 's nickname , the " Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes " , is apt , as there are 11 @,@ 842 Minnesota lakes over 10 acres ( 4 ha ) in size . The Minnesota portion of Lake Superior is the largest at 962 @,@ 700 acres ( 389 @,@ 600 ha ; 3 @,@ 896 km2 ) and deepest ( at 1 @,@ 290 ft ( 390 m ) ) body of water in the state . Minnesota has 6 @,@ 564 natural rivers and streams that cumulatively flow for 69 @,@ 000 miles ( 111 @,@ 000 km ) . The Mississippi River begins its journey from its headwaters at Lake Itasca and crosses the Iowa border 680 miles ( 1 @,@ 090 km ) downstream . It is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling , by the St. Croix River near Hastings , by the Chippewa River at Wabasha , and by many smaller streams . The Red River , in the bed of glacial Lake Agassiz , drains the northwest part of the state northward toward Canada 's Hudson Bay . Approximately 10 @.@ 6 million acres ( 4 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ha ; 43 @,@ 000 km2 ) of wetlands are contained within Minnesota 's borders , the most of any state except Alaska .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Minnesota has four ecological provinces : Prairie Parkland , in the southwestern and western parts of the state ; the Eastern Broadleaf Forest ( Big Woods ) in the southeast , extending in a narrowing strip to the northwestern part of the state , where it transitions into Tallgrass Aspen Parkland ; and the northern Laurentian Mixed Forest , a transitional forest between the northern boreal forest and the broadleaf forests to the south . These northern forests are a vast wilderness of pine and spruce trees mixed with patchy stands of birch and poplar .
Much of Minnesota 's northern forest underwent logging at some time , leaving only a few patches of old growth forest today in areas such as in the Chippewa National Forest and the Superior National Forest , where the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness has some 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 162 @,@ 000 ha ) of unlogged land . Although logging continues , regrowth and replanting keep about one third of the state forested . Nearly all of Minnesota 's prairies and oak savannas have been fragmented by farming , grazing , logging , and suburban development .
While loss of habitat has affected native animals such as the pine marten , elk , woodland caribou , and bison , others like whitetail deer and bobcat thrive . The state has the nation 's largest population of timber wolves outside Alaska , and supports healthy populations of black bears , moose , and gophers . Located on the Mississippi Flyway , Minnesota hosts migratory waterfowl such as geese and ducks , and game birds such as grouse , pheasants , and turkeys . It is home to birds of prey , including the largest number of breeding pairs of bald eagles in the lower 48 states as of 2007 , red @-@ tailed hawks , and snowy owls . The lakes teem with sport fish such as walleye , bass , muskellunge , and northern pike , and streams in the southeast and northeast are populated by brook , brown , and rainbow trout .
= = = Climate = = =
Minnesota experiences temperature extremes characteristic of its continental climate , with cold winters and hot summers . The record high and low span is 174 ° F ( 97 ° C ) , from − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) at Tower on February 2 , 1996 , to 114 ° F ( 46 ° C ) at Moorhead on July 6 , 1936 . Meteorological events include rain , snow , blizzards , thunderstorms , hail , derechos , tornadoes , and high @-@ velocity straight @-@ line winds . The growing season varies from 90 days per year in the Iron Range to 160 days in southeast Minnesota near the Mississippi River , and average temperatures range from 37 to 49 ° F ( 3 to 9 ° C ) . Average summer dew points range from about 58 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in the south to about 48 ° F ( 9 ° C ) in the north . Average annual precipitation ranges from 19 to 35 inches ( 48 to 89 cm ) , and droughts occur every 10 to 50 years .
= = = Protected lands = = =
Minnesota 's first state park , Itasca State Park , was established in 1891 , and is the source of the Mississippi River . Today Minnesota has 72 state parks and recreation areas , 58 state forests covering about four million acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km ² ) , and numerous state wildlife preserves , all managed by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources . There are 5 @.@ 5 million acres ( 22 @,@ 000 km2 ) in the Chippewa and Superior national forests . The Superior National Forest in the northeast contains the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness , which encompasses over a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) and a thousand lakes . To its west is Voyageurs National Park . The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area ( MNRRA ) , is a 72 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 116 km ) corridor along the Mississippi River through the Minneapolis – St. Paul Metropolitan Area connecting a variety of sites of historic , cultural , and geologic interest .
= = History = =
Before European settlement of North America , Minnesota was populated by the Dakota people . As Europeans settled the east coast , Native American movement away from them caused migration of the Anishinaabe and other Native Americans into the Minnesota area . The first Europeans in the area were French fur traders who arrived in the 17th century . Late that century , Anishinaabe , also known as Ojibwe Indians migrated westward to Minnesota , causing tensions with the Dakota people . Explorers such as Daniel Greysolon , Sieur du Lhut , Father Louis Hennepin , Jonathan Carver , Henry Schoolcraft , and Joseph Nicollet mapped out the state .
In 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802 . The portion of the state east of the Mississippi River became part of the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War , when the Second Treaty of Paris was signed . Land west of the Mississippi River was acquired with the Louisiana Purchase , although a portion of the Red River Valley was disputed until the Treaty of 1818 . In 1805 , Zebulon Pike bargained with Native Americans to acquire land at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers . The construction of Fort Snelling followed between 1819 and 1825 . Its soldiers built a grist mill and a sawmill at Saint Anthony Falls , the first of the water @-@ powered industries around which the city of Minneapolis later grew . Meanwhile , squatters , government officials , and tourists had settled near the fort . In 1839 , the army forced them to move downriver and they settled in the area that became St. Paul . Minnesota Territory was formed on March 3 , 1849 . The first territorial legislature ( held September 2 , 1849 ) was dominated by men from New England or of New England ancestry . Thousands of people had come to build farms and cut timber , and Minnesota became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11 , 1858 . The founding population was so overwhelmingly of New England origins that the state was dubbed " the New England of the West " .
Treaties between European settlers and the Dakota and Ojibwe gradually forced the natives off their lands and on to smaller reservations . In 1861 , residents of Mankato formed the Knights of the Forest , with a goal of eliminating all Indians from Minnesota . As conditions deteriorated for the Dakota , tensions rose , leading to the Dakota War of 1862 . The result of the six @-@ week war was the execution of 38 Dakota and the exile of most of the rest of the Dakota to the Crow Creek Reservation in Dakota Territory . As many as 800 white settlers died during the war .
Logging and farming were mainstays of Minnesota 's early economy . The sawmills at Saint Anthony Falls , and logging centers like Marine on St. Croix , Stillwater , and Winona , processed high volumes of lumber . These cities were situated on rivers that were ideal for transportation . Later , Saint Anthony Falls was tapped to provide power for flour mills . Innovations by Minneapolis millers led to the production of Minnesota " patent " flour , which commanded almost double the price of " bakers ' " or " clear " flour , which it replaced . By 1900 , Minnesota mills , led by Pillsbury , Northwestern and the Washburn @-@ Crosby Company ( a forerunner of General Mills ) , were grinding 14 @.@ 1 percent of the nation 's grain .
The state 's iron @-@ mining industry was established with the discovery of iron in the Vermilion Range and the Mesabi Range in the 1880s , and in the Cuyuna Range in the early 20th century . The ore was shipped by rail to Duluth and Two Harbors , then loaded onto ships and transported eastward over the Great Lakes .
Industrial development and the rise of manufacturing caused the population to shift gradually from rural areas to cities during the early 20th century . Nevertheless , farming remained prevalent . Minnesota 's economy was hard @-@ hit by the Great Depression , resulting in lower prices for farmers , layoffs among iron miners , and labor unrest . Compounding the adversity , western Minnesota and the Dakotas were hit by drought from 1931 to 1935 . New Deal programs provided some economic turnaround . The Civilian Conservation Corps and other programs around the state established some jobs for Indians on their reservations , and the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 provided the tribes with a mechanism of self @-@ government . This provided natives a greater voice within the state , and promoted more respect for tribal customs because religious ceremonies and native languages were no longer suppressed .
After World War II , industrial development quickened . New technology increased farm productivity through automation of feedlots for hogs and cattle , machine milking at dairy farms , and raising chickens in large buildings . Planting became more specialized with hybridization of corn and wheat , and the use of farm machinery such as tractors and combines became the norm . University of Minnesota professor Norman Borlaug contributed to these developments as part of the Green Revolution . Suburban development accelerated due to increased postwar housing demand and convenient transportation . Increased mobility , in turn , enabled more specialized jobs .
Minnesota became a center of technology after World War II . Engineering Research Associates was formed in 1946 to develop computers for the United States Navy . It later merged with Remington Rand , and then became Sperry Rand . William Norris left Sperry in 1957 to form Control Data Corporation ( CDC ) . Cray Research was formed when Seymour Cray left CDC to form his own company . Medical device maker Medtronic also started business in the Twin Cities in 1949 .
= = Cities and towns = =
Saint Paul , located in east @-@ central Minnesota along the banks of the Mississippi River , has been Minnesota 's capital city since 1849 , first as capital of the Territory of Minnesota , and then as state capital since 1858 .
Saint Paul is adjacent to Minnesota 's most populous city , Minneapolis ; they and their suburbs are known collectively as the Twin Cities metropolitan area , the 13th @-@ largest metropolitan area in the United States and home to about 60 percent of the state 's population . The remainder of the state is known as " Greater Minnesota " or " Outstate Minnesota " .
The state has 17 cities with populations above 50 @,@ 000 ( as of the 2010 census ) . In descending order of population , they are Minneapolis , Saint Paul , Rochester , Duluth , Bloomington , Brooklyn Park , Plymouth , Saint Cloud , Woodbury , Eagan , Maple Grove , Coon Rapids , Eden Prairie , Minnetonka , Burnsville , Apple Valley , Blaine and Lakeville . Of these only Rochester , Duluth , and Saint Cloud are outside the Twin Cities metropolitan area .
Minnesota 's population continues to grow , primarily in the urban centers . The populations of metropolitan Sherburne and Scott counties doubled between 1980 and 2000 , while 40 of the state 's 87 counties lost residents over the same period .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
From fewer than 6 @,@ 120 people in 1850 , Minnesota 's population grew to over 1 @.@ 7 million by 1900 . Each of the next six decades saw a 15 percent increase in population , reaching 3 @.@ 4 million in 1960 . Growth then slowed , rising 11 percent to 3 @.@ 8 million in 1970 , and an average of 9 percent over the next three decades to 4 @.@ 9 million in the 2000 Census . The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Minnesota was 5 @,@ 489 @,@ 594 on July 1 , 2015 , a 3 @.@ 5 percent increase since the 2010 United States Census . The rate of population change , and age and gender distributions , approximate the national average . Minnesota 's center of population is in Hennepin County .
= = = Race and ancestry = = =
The state 's estimated racial composition in the 2011 American Census Bureau estimate was :
White American : 86 @.@ 9 % ( Non @-@ Hispanic Whites 83 @.@ 1 % , White Hispanic 3 @.@ 8 % )
African American : 5 @.@ 4 %
American Indian and Alaska Native : 1 @.@ 1 %
Asian : 4 @.@ 0 %
Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 0 %
Other races : 2 @.@ 4 %
Multiracial : 1 @.@ 8 %
Hispanics or Latinos made up 6 @.@ 7 percent of the population .
In 2011 , non @-@ Hispanic whites were involved in 72 @.@ 3 percent of all the births . Minnesota 's growing minority groups , however , still form a smaller percentage of the population than in the nation as a whole .
The principal ancestries of Minnesota 's residents in 2010 were surveyed to be the following :
37 @.@ 9 % German
32 @.@ 1 % from the Nordic countries ; ( 16 @.@ 8 % Norwegian , 9 @.@ 5 % Swedish , 4 @.@ 7 % Finnish , Danish , Icelandic , Faroese and Karelian )
11 @.@ 7 % Irish
6 @.@ 3 % English
5 @.@ 1 % Polish
4 @.@ 2 % French
3 @.@ 7 % Italian
Ancestries claimed by less than 3 percent of the population include American , Czech , and Dutch , each between 2 and 3 percent ; Sub @-@ Saharan African and East African , Scottish , French Canadian , Scotch @-@ Irish and Mexican , each between 1 and 1 @.@ 9 percent ; and less than 1 percent each for Russian , Welsh , Bosnian , Croatian , Serbian , Swiss , Arab , Hungarian , Ukrainian , Greek , Slovak , Lithuanian , Portuguese , and West Indian .
= = = Religion = = =
The majority of Minnesotans are Protestants , including a significant Lutheran contingent , owing to the state 's largely Northern European ethnic makeup , but Roman Catholics ( of largely German , Irish , and Slavic descent ) make up the largest single Christian denomination . A 2010 survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life showed that 32 percent of Minnesotans were affiliated with Mainline Protestant traditions , 21 percent were Evangelical Protestants , 28 percent were Roman Catholic , 1 percent each were Jewish , Muslim , Buddhist , and Black Protestant , and smaller amounts were of other faiths , with 13 percent unaffiliated . According to the Association of Religion Data Archives , the denominations with the most adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church with 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 367 ; the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 737 @,@ 537 ; and the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod with 182 @,@ 439 . This is broadly consistent with the results of the 2001 American Religious Identification Survey , which also gives detailed percentages for many individual denominations . Although Christianity is dominant , Minnesota has a long history with non @-@ Christian faiths . Ashkenazi Jewish pioneers set up Saint Paul 's first synagogue in 1856 . Minnesota is home to over 30 mosques , mostly in the Twin Cities metro area . The Temple of ECK , the spiritual home of Eckankar , is based in Minnesota , and there are tens of thousands of Eckists in the state .
= = Economy = =
Once primarily a producer of raw materials , Minnesota 's economy has transformed to emphasize finished products and services . Perhaps the most significant characteristic of the economy is its diversity ; the relative outputs of its business sectors closely match the United States as a whole . The economy of Minnesota had a gross domestic product of $ 262 billion in 2008 . In 2008 , thirty @-@ three of the United States ' top 1 @,@ 000 publicly traded companies ( by revenue ) were headquartered in Minnesota , including Target , UnitedHealth Group , 3M , General Mills , U.S. Bancorp , Ameriprise , Hormel , Land O ' Lakes , SuperValu , Best Buy and Valspar . Private companies based in Minnesota include Cargill , the largest privately owned company in the United States , and Carlson Companies , the parent company of Radisson Hotels .
The per capita personal income in 2008 was $ 42 @,@ 772 , the tenth @-@ highest in the nation . The three @-@ year median household income from 2002 to 2004 was $ 55 @,@ 914 , ranking fifth in the U.S. and first among the 36 states not on the Atlantic coast .
As of January 2015 , the state 's unemployment rate was 3 @.@ 7 percent .
= = = Industry and commerce = = =
Minnesota 's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture . The city of Minneapolis grew around the flour mills powered by St. Anthony Falls . Although less than one percent of the population is now employed in the agricultural sector , it remains a major part of the state 's economy , ranking sixth in the nation in the value of products sold . The state is the U.S. ' s largest producer of sugar beets , sweet corn , and green peas for processing , and farm @-@ raised turkeys . Minnesota is also a large producer of corn and soybeans . Minnesota has the most food cooperatives per capita in the United States . Forestry remains strong , including logging , pulpwood processing and paper production , and forest products manufacturing . Minnesota was famous for its soft @-@ ore mines , which produced a significant portion of the world 's iron ore for over a century . Although the high @-@ grade ore is now depleted , taconite mining continues , using processes developed locally to save the industry . In 2004 , the state produced 75 percent of the country 's usable iron ore . The mining boom created the port of Duluth which continues to be important for shipping ore , coal , and agricultural products . The manufacturing sector now includes technology and biomedical firms in addition to the older food processors and heavy industry . The nation 's first indoor shopping mall was Edina 's Southdale Center and its largest is Bloomington 's Mall of America .
Minnesota is one of 42 U.S. states with its own lottery ; its games include Powerball , Mega Millions , Hot Lotto ( all three multi @-@ state ) , Northstar Cash and Gopher 5 .
= = = Energy use and production = = =
Minnesota produces ethanol fuel and is the first to mandate its use , a ten percent mix ( E10 ) . In 2005 there were more than 310 service stations supplying E85 fuel , comprising 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline . A two percent biodiesel blend has been required in diesel fuel since 2005 . As of December 2006 the state was the country 's fourth @-@ largest producer of wind power , with 895 megawatts installed and another 200 megawatts planned , much of it on the windy Buffalo Ridge in the southwest part of the state .
= = = State taxes = = =
Minnesota has a progressive income tax structure ; the four brackets of state income tax rates are 5 @.@ 35 , 7 @.@ 05 , 7 @.@ 85 and 9 @.@ 85 percent . As of 2008 , Minnesota was ranked 12th in the nation in per capita total state and local taxes . In 2008 , Minnesotans paid 10 @.@ 2 percent of their income in state and local taxes ; the U.S. average was 9 @.@ 7 percent . The state sales tax in Minnesota is 6 @.@ 875 percent , but there is no sales tax on clothing , prescription drug medications , some services , or food items for home consumption . The state legislature may allow municipalities to institute local sales taxes and special local taxes , such as the 0 @.@ 5 percent supplemental sales tax in Minneapolis . Excise taxes are levied on alcohol , tobacco , and motor fuel . The state imposes a use tax on items purchased elsewhere but used within Minnesota . Owners of real property in Minnesota pay property tax to their county , municipality , school district , and special taxing districts .
= = Culture = =
= = = Fine and performing arts = = =
Minnesota 's leading fine art museums include the Minneapolis Institute of Art , the Walker Art Center , the Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum , and the The Museum of Russian Art ( TMORA ) . All are located in Minneapolis . The Minnesota Orchestra and the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra are prominent full @-@ time professional musical ensembles that perform concerts and offer educational programs to the Twin Cities ' community . The world @-@ renowned Guthrie Theater moved into a new Minneapolis facility in 2006 , boasting three stages and overlooking the Mississippi River . Attendance at theatrical , musical , and comedy events in the area is strong . In the United States , the Twin Cities ' number of theater seats per capita ranks behind only New York City ; with some 2 @.@ 3 million theater tickets sold annually . The Minnesota Fringe Festival is an annual celebration of theatre , dance , improvisation , puppetry , kids ' shows , visual art , and musicals . The summer festival consists of over 800 performances over 11 days in Minneapolis , and is the largest non @-@ juried performing arts festival in the United States .
= = = Literature = = =
The rigors and rewards of pioneer life on the prairie are the subject of Giants in the Earth by Ole Rolvaag and the Little House series of children 's books by Laura Ingalls Wilder . Small @-@ town life is portrayed grimly by Sinclair Lewis in the novel Main Street , and more gently and affectionately by Garrison Keillor in his tales of Lake Wobegon . St. Paul native F. Scott Fitzgerald writes of the social insecurities and aspirations of the young city in stories such as Winter Dreams and The Ice Palace ( published in Flappers and Philosophers ) . Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's epic poem The Song of Hiawatha was inspired by Minnesota and names many of the state 's places and bodies of water .
= = = Entertainment = = =
Minnesota musicians include Bob Dylan , Eddie Cochran , The Andrews Sisters , The Castaways , The Trashmen , Prince , Soul Asylum , David Ellefson , Hüsker Dü , and The Replacements . Minnesotans helped shape the history of music through popular American culture : the Andrews Sisters ' " Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy " was an iconic tune of World War II , while the Trashmen 's " Surfin ' Bird " and Bob Dylan epitomize two sides of the 1960s . In the 1980s , influential hit radio groups and musicians included Prince , The Original 7ven , Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , The Jets , Lipps Inc . , and Information Society .
Minnesotans have also made significant contributions to comedy , theater , media , and film . The comic strip Peanuts was created by St. Paul native Charles M. Schulz . Garrison Keillor resurrected old @-@ style radio comedy with A Prairie Home Companion , which has aired since 1974 . The cult shows Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Let 's Bowl originated in the Twin Cities , and Lizz Winstead and Craig Kilborn helped create the increasingly influential Comedy Central program The Daily Show .
Joel and Ethan Coen , Terry Gilliam , Bill Pohlad , and Mike Todd contributed to the art of filmmaking as writers , directors , and producers . Actors from Minnesota include Loni Anderson , Richard Dean Anderson , James Arness , Jessica Biel , Rachael Leigh Cook , Julia Duffy , Mike Farrell , Judy Garland , Peter Graves , Josh Hartnett , Garrett Hedlund , Tippi Hedren , Jessica Lange , Kelly Lynch , E.G. Marshall , Chris Pratt , Jane Russell , Winona Ryder , Seann William Scott , Kevin Sorbo , Lea Thompson , Vince Vaughn , Jesse Ventura , and Steve Zahn .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Stereotypical traits of Minnesotans include " Minnesota nice " , Lutheranism , a strong sense of community and shared culture , and a distinctive brand of North Central American English sprinkled with Scandinavian expressions . Potlucks , usually with a variety of hotdishes , are popular small @-@ town church activities . A small segment of the Scandinavian population attend a traditional lutefisk dinner to celebrate Christmas . Many of these Scandinavian cultural characteristics and personality traits are satirized on the nationally @-@ syndicated public radio program A Prairie Home Companion . Life in Minnesota is depicted in movies such as Fargo , Grumpy Old Men , Grumpier Old Men , Juno , Drop Dead Gorgeous , Young Adult , A Serious Man , New in Town , and in famous television series like Little House on the Prairie , The Mary Tyler Moore Show , The Golden Girls , Coach , The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , and Fargo . Major movies that were shot on location in Minnesota include That Was Then ... This Is Now , Purple Rain , Airport , Beautiful Girls , North Country , Untamed Heart , Feeling Minnesota , Jingle All The Way , A Simple Plan and The Mighty Ducks films .
The Minnesota State Fair , advertised as The Great Minnesota Get @-@ Together , is an icon of state culture . In a state of 5 @.@ 4 million people , there were over 1 @.@ 8 million visitors to the fair in 2014 , setting a new attendance record . The fair covers the variety of Minnesotan life , including fine art , science , agriculture , food preparation , 4 @-@ H displays , music , the midway , and corporate merchandising . It is known for its displays of seed art , butter sculptures of dairy princesses , the birthing barn , and the " fattest pig " competition . One can also find dozens of varieties of food on a stick , such as Pronto Pups , cheese curds , and deep @-@ fried candy bars . On a smaller scale , many of these attractions are offered at numerous county fairs .
Other large annual festivals include the Saint Paul Winter Carnival , the Minnesota Renaissance Festival , Minneapolis ' Aquatennial and Mill City Music Festival , Moondance Jam in Walker , Sonshine Christian music festival in Willmar , the Judy Garland Festival in Grand Rapids , the Eelpout Festival on Leech Lake , and the WE Fest in Detroit Lakes .
= = Health = =
Minnesotans have low rates of premature death , infant mortality , cardiovascular disease , and occupational fatalities . They have long life expectancies , and high rates of health insurance and regular exercise . These and other measures have led two groups to rank Minnesota as the healthiest state in the nation ; however , in one of these rankings , Minnesota descended from first to sixth in the nation between 2005 and 2009 because of low levels of public health funding and the prevalence of binge drinking .
On October 1 , 2007 , Minnesota became the 17th state to enact the Freedom to Breathe Act , a statewide smoking ban in restaurants and bars .
Medical care in the state is provided by a comprehensive network of hospitals and clinics headed by two institutions with international reputations . The University of Minnesota Medical School is a high @-@ rated teaching institution that has made a number of breakthroughs in treatment , and its research activities contribute significantly to the state 's growing biotechnology industry . The Mayo Clinic , a world @-@ renowned hospital based in Rochester , was founded by William Worrall Mayo , an immigrant from England .
U.S. News and World Report 's 2014 – 2015 survey ranked 4 @,@ 743 hospitals in the United States in 16 specialized fields of care , and placed the Mayo Clinic in the top four in all fields except psychiatry , where it ranked seventh . The hospital ranked # 1 in eight fields and # 2 in three others . The Mayo Clinic and the University of Minnesota are partners in the Minnesota Partnership for Biotechnology and Medical Genomics , a state @-@ funded program that conducts research into cancer , Alzheimer 's disease , heart health , obesity , and other areas .
= = Education = =
One of the Minnesota Legislature 's first acts when it opened in 1858 was the creation of a normal school in Winona . Minnesota 's commitment to education has contributed to a literate and well @-@ educated populace . In 2009 , according to the U.S. Census Bureau , Minnesota had the second @-@ highest proportion of high school graduates , with 91 @.@ 5 % of people 25 and older holding a diploma , and the tenth @-@ highest proportion of people with bachelor 's degrees . In 2015 , Minneapolis was named the nation 's " Most Literate City " , while St. Paul placed fourth , according to a major annual survey . In a 2013 study conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics comparing the performance of eighth @-@ grade students internationally in math and science , Minnesota ranked eighth in the world and third in the United States , behind Massachusetts and Vermont . In 2014 , Minnesota students earned the tenth @-@ highest average composite score in the nation on the ACT exam . While Minnesota has chosen not to implement school vouchers , it is home to the first charter school .
The state supports a network of public universities and colleges , including 32 institutions in the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities System , and five major campuses of the University of Minnesota . It is also home to more than 20 private colleges and universities , six of which rank among the nation 's top 100 liberal arts colleges , according to U.S. News & World Report .
= = Transportation = =
Transportation in Minnesota is overseen by the Minnesota Department of Transportation ( MnDOT for short and used in the local news media ) . Principal transportation corridors radiate from the Minneapolis – St. Paul metropolitan area and Duluth . The major Interstate highways are Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) , I @-@ 90 , and I @-@ 94 , with I @-@ 35 and I @-@ 94 passing through the Minneapolis – St. Paul metropolitan area , and I @-@ 90 traveling east @-@ west along the southern edge of the state . In 2006 , a constitutional amendment was passed that required sales and use taxes on motor vehicles to fund transportation , with at least 40 percent dedicated to public transit . There are nearly two dozen rail corridors in Minnesota , most of which go through Minneapolis – St. Paul or Duluth . There is water transportation along the Mississippi River system and from the ports of Lake Superior .
Minnesota 's principal airport is Minneapolis – St. Paul International Airport ( MSP ) , a major passenger and freight hub for Delta Air Lines and Sun Country Airlines . Most other domestic carriers serve the airport . Large commercial jet service is provided at Duluth and Rochester , with scheduled commuter service to four smaller cities via Delta Connection carriers SkyWest Airlines , Compass Airlines , and Endeavor Air .
Amtrak 's daily Empire Builder ( Chicago – Seattle / Portland ) train runs through Minnesota , calling at the Saint Paul Union Depot and five other stations . Intercity bus providers include Jefferson Lines , Greyhound , and Megabus . Local public transit is provided by bus networks in the larger cities and by two rail services . The Northstar Line commuter rail service runs from Big Lake to the Target Field station in downtown Minneapolis . From there , light rail runs to Saint Paul Union Depot on the Green Line , and to the MSP airport and the Mall of America via the Blue Line .
= = Law and government = =
As with the federal government of the United States , power in Minnesota is divided into three branches : executive , legislative , and judicial .
= = = Executive = = =
The executive branch is headed by the governor . Governor Mark Dayton , DFL ( Democratic Farmer Labor ) , took office on January 3 , 2011 , to become the first DFL governor to hold the seat in two decades . The governor has a cabinet consisting of the leaders of various state government agencies , called commissioners . The other elected constitutional offices are secretary of state , attorney general , and state auditor .
= = = Legislature = = =
The Minnesota Legislature is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives . The state has sixty @-@ seven districts , each covering about sixty thousand people . Each district has one senator and two representatives ( each district being divided into A and B sections ) . Senators serve for four years and representatives for two years . In the November 2010 election , the Minnesota Republican Party gained twenty @-@ five house seats , giving them control of the House of Representatives by a 72 @-@ 62 margin . The 2010 election also saw Minnesota voters elect a Republican majority in the Senate for the first time since 1972 . In 2012 , the Democrats regained the House of Representatives by a margin of 73 @-@ 61 , picking up 11 seats ; the Democrats also regained the Minnesota Senate .
= = = Judiciary = = =
Minnesota 's court system has three levels . Most cases start in the district courts , which are courts of general jurisdiction . There are 279 district court judgeships in ten judicial districts . Appeals from the trial courts and challenges to certain governmental decisions are heard by the Minnesota Court of Appeals , consisting of nineteen judges who typically sit in three @-@ judge panels . The seven @-@ justice Minnesota Supreme Court hears all appeals from the tax court , the workers ' compensation court of appeals , first @-@ degree murder convictions , and discretionary appeals from the court of appeals ; it also has original jurisdiction over election disputes .
Two specialized courts within administrative agencies have been established : the workers ' compensation court of appeals , and the tax court , which deals with non @-@ criminal tax cases .
= = = Regional = = =
In addition to the city and county levels of government found in the United States , Minnesota has other entities that provide governmental oversight and planning . Some actions in the Twin Cities metropolitan area are coordinated by the Metropolitan Council , and many lakes and rivers are overseen by watershed districts and soil and water conservation districts .
= = = Federal = = =
Minnesota 's United States senators are Democrat Amy Klobuchar and Democrat Al Franken . The outcome of the 2008 U.S. Senate election in Minnesota was contested until June 30 the next year ; when the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled in favor of Franken , Republican Norm Coleman conceded defeat , and the vacant seat was filled by Franken . The state has eight congressional districts ; they are represented by Tim Walz ( 1st district ; DFL ) , John Kline ( 2nd ; R ) , Erik Paulsen ( 3rd ; R ) , Betty McCollum ( 4th ; DFL ) , Keith Ellison ( 5th ; DFL ) , Tom Emmer ( 6th ; R ) , Collin Peterson ( 7th ; DFL ) , and Rick Nolan ( 8th ; DFL ) .
Federal court cases are heard in the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota , which holds court in Minneapolis , St. Paul , Duluth , and Fergus Falls . Appeals are heard by the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals , which is based in St. Louis , Missouri and routinely also hears cases in St. Paul .
= = = Tribal = = =
The State of Minnesota was created by the US out of the homelands of the Dakota and Anishinaabe native peoples . Today the remaining native governments are divided into 11 semi @-@ autonomous reservations that negotiate with the US and the state on a peer nation @-@ to @-@ nation basis :
Four Dakota Mdewakanton communities :
Prairie Island Indian Community
Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community
Lower Sioux Indian Reservation
Upper Sioux Community - Pejuhutazizi Oyate
Seven Anishinaabe reservations :
Bois Forte Band of Chippewa
Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa
Grand Portage Band of Chippewa
Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe
Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe
White Earth Band of Ojibwe
Red Lake Band of Chippewa
The first six of the Anishinaabe bands compose the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe , the collective federally recognized tribal government of the Bois Forte , Fond du Lac , Grand Portage , Leech Lake , Mille Lacs , and White Earth reservations .
= = Politics = =
Minnesota is known for a politically active citizenry , and populism has been a longstanding force among the state 's political parties . Minnesota has a consistently high voter turnout ( due in part to its liberal voter registration laws ) with virtually no evidence of unlawful voting . In the 2008 U.S. presidential election , 78 @.@ 2 percent of eligible Minnesotans voted — the highest percentage of any U.S. state — versus the national average of 61 @.@ 2 percent . Previously unregistered voters can register on election day at their polls with evidence of residency .
Hubert Humphrey brought national attention to the state with his address at the 1948 Democratic National Convention . Minnesotans have consistently cast their Electoral College votes for Democratic presidential candidates since 1976 , longer than any other state . Minnesota is the only state in the nation that did not vote for Ronald Reagan in either of his presidential runs . Minnesota has gone to the Democratic Party in every presidential election since 1960 , with the exception of 1972 , when it was carried by Richard Nixon and the Republican Party .
Both the Democratic and Republican parties have major party status in Minnesota , but its state @-@ level " Democratic " party is actually a separate party , officially known as the Minnesota Democratic @-@ Farmer @-@ Labor Party ( DFL ) . Formed out of a 1944 alliance of the Minnesota Democratic and Farmer @-@ Labor parties , its distinction from the national Democratic Party , while still official , is now but a technicality .
The state has had active third party movements . The Reform Party , now the Independence Party , was able to elect former mayor of Brooklyn Park and professional wrestler Jesse Ventura to the governorship in 1998 . The Independence Party has received enough support to keep major party status . The Green Party , while no longer having major party status , has a large presence in municipal government , notably in Minneapolis and Duluth , where it competes directly with the DFL party for local offices . Official " Major party " status in Minnesota ( which grants state funding for elections ) is reserved to parties whose candidates receive five percent or more of the vote in any statewide election ( e.g. , Governor , Secretary of State , U.S. President ) .
The state 's U.S. Senate seats have generally been split since the early 1990s , and in the 108th and 109th Congresses , Minnesota 's congressional delegation was split , with four representatives and one senator from each party . In the 2006 midterm election , Democrats were elected to all state offices except for governor and lieutenant governor , where Republicans Tim Pawlenty and Carol Molnau narrowly won reelection . The DFL also posted double @-@ digit gains in both houses of the legislature , elected Amy Klobuchar to the U.S. Senate , and increased the party 's U.S. House caucus by one . Keith Ellison ( DFL ) was elected as the first African American U.S. Representative from Minnesota as well as the first Muslim elected to Congress nationwide . In 2008 DFLer and former comedian and radio talk show host Al Franken beat incumbent Republican Norm Coleman in the United States Senate race by 312 votes out of 3 million cast .
In the election of 2010 , Republicans took control of both chambers of the Minnesota legislature for the first time in 38 years , and with Mark Dayton 's election the Democratic @-@ Farmer @-@ Labor party took the governor 's office for the first time in 20 years . Two years later , the DFL regained control of both houses , and with Governor Dayton in office , the party has same @-@ party control of both the legislative and executive branches for the first time since 1990 . Two years later , the Republicans regained control of the Minnesota House in the 2014 election .
= = Media = =
The Twin Cities area is the fifteenth largest media market in the United States as ranked by Nielsen Media Research . The state 's other top markets are Fargo – Moorhead ( 118th nationally ) , Duluth – Superior ( 137th ) , Rochester – Mason City – Austin ( 152nd ) , and Mankato ( 200th ) .
Broadcast television in Minnesota and the Upper Midwest started on April 27 , 1948 , when KSTP @-@ TV began broadcasting . Hubbard Broadcasting , which owns KSTP , is now the only locally owned television company in Minnesota . There are currently 39 analog broadcast stations and 23 digital channels broadcast over Minnesota .
The four largest daily newspapers are the Star Tribune in Minneapolis , the Pioneer Press in Saint Paul , the Duluth News Tribune in Duluth and the Post @-@ Bulletin in Rochester . The Minnesota Daily is the largest student @-@ run newspaper in the U.S. Sites offering daily news on the Web include The UpTake , MinnPost , the Twin Cities Daily Planet , business news site Finance and Commerce ( web site ) and Washington D.C.-based Minnesota Independent . Weeklies including City Pages and monthly publications such as Minnesota Monthly are available .
Two of the largest public radio networks , Minnesota Public Radio ( MPR ) and Public Radio International ( PRI ) , are based in the state . MPR has the largest audience of any regional public radio network in the nation , broadcasting on 37 radio stations . PRI weekly provides more than 400 hours of programming to almost 800 affiliates . The state 's oldest radio station , KUOM @-@ AM , was launched in 1922 and is among the 10 – oldest radio stations in the United States . The University of Minnesota @-@ owned station is still on the air , and since 1993 broadcasts a college rock format .
= = Sports , recreation and tourism = =
Minnesota has a very active program of organized amateur and professional sports . Tourism has become an important industry , especially in the Lake region . In the North Country , what had been an industrial area focused on mining and timber has largely been transformed into a vacation destination . Popular interest in the environment and environmentalism , added to traditional interests in hunting and fishing , has attracted a large urban audience within driving range .
= = = Organized sports = = =
Minnesota has professional men 's teams in all major sports . The Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome was home to the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League through the 2013 season ; it has been torn down and U.S. Bank Stadium now stands in its place . The Dome also hosted the Minnesota Twins of Major League Baseball , winners of the 1987 and 1991 World Series , until 2010 , when they began playing at Target Field . The Minnesota Timberwolves of the National Basketball Association play in the Target Center .
The National Hockey League 's Minnesota Wild play in St. Paul 's Xcel Energy Center and reached 300 consecutive sold @-@ out games on January 16 , 2008 . Previously , the Minnesota North Stars competed in NHL from 1967 to 1993 , which played the 1981 and 1991 Stanley Cup Finals .
Minnesota also has minor @-@ league professional sports . NASL Minnesota United FC replaced the Minnesota Thunder in 2010 and plays at the National Sports Center in Blaine . They will eventually join Major League Soccer in 2017 or 2018 . The Minnesota Swarm play at the Xcel Energy Center and play in the NLL ( National Lacrosse League ) . Minor league baseball is represented both by major league @-@ sponsored teams and independent teams such as the St. Paul Saints , who play at CHS Field in St. Paul .
Professional women 's sports include the Minnesota Lynx of the Women 's National Basketball Association , winners of the 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 WNBA Championships , the Minnesota Lightning of the United Soccer Leagues W @-@ League , the Minnesota Vixen of the Independent Women 's Football League , the Minnesota Valkyrie of the Legends Football League , and the Minnesota Whitecaps of the National Women 's Hockey League .
The Twin Cities campus of the University of Minnesota is a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I school competing in the Big Ten Conference . Four additional schools in the state compete in NCAA Division I ice hockey : the University of Minnesota Duluth ; Minnesota State University , Mankato ; St. Cloud State University and Bemidji State University . There are nine NCAA Division II colleges in the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference , and nineteen NCAA Division III colleges in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference and Upper Midwest Athletic Conference .
The Hazeltine National Golf Club has hosted the U.S. Open , U.S. Women 's Open , U.S. Senior Open and PGA Championship . The course will also host the Ryder Cup in the fall of 2016 , when it will become one of two courses in the U.S. to host all major golf competitions .
Interlachen Country Club has hosted the U.S. Open , U.S. Women 's Open , and Solheim Cup .
Winter Olympic Games medallists from the state include twelve of the twenty members of the gold medal 1980 ice hockey team ( coached by Minnesota native Herb Brooks ) and the bronze medallist U.S. men 's curling team in the 2006 Winter Olympics . Swimmer Tom Malchow won an Olympic gold medal in the 2000 Summer games and a silver medal in 1996 .
Grandma 's Marathon is run every summer along the scenic North Shore of Lake Superior , and the Twin Cities Marathon winds around lakes and the Mississippi River during the peak of the fall color season . Farther north , Eveleth is the location of the United States Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = = Outdoor recreation = = =
Minnesotans participate in high levels of physical activity , and many of these activities are outdoors . The strong interest of Minnesotans in environmentalism has been attributed to the popularity of these pursuits .
In the warmer months , these activities often involve water . Weekend and longer trips to family cabins on Minnesota 's numerous lakes are a way of life for many residents . Activities include water sports such as water skiing , which originated in the state , boating , canoeing , and fishing . More than 36 percent of Minnesotans fish , second only to Alaska .
Fishing does not cease when the lakes freeze ; ice fishing has been around since the arrival of early Scandinavian immigrants . Minnesotans have learned to embrace their long , harsh winters in ice sports such as skating , hockey , curling , and broomball , and snow sports such as cross @-@ country skiing , alpine skiing , snowshoeing , and snowmobiling . Minnesota is the only U.S. state where bandy is played .
State and national forests and the seventy @-@ two state parks are used year @-@ round for hunting , camping , and hiking . There are almost 20 @,@ 000 miles ( 32 @,@ 000 km ) of snowmobile trails statewide . Minnesota has more miles of bike trails than any other state , and a growing network of hiking trails , including the 235 @-@ mile ( 378 km ) Superior Hiking Trail in the northeast . Many hiking and bike trails are used for cross @-@ country skiing during the winter .
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= Punk rock =
Punk rock ( or simply punk ) is a rock music genre that developed between 1974 and 1976 in the United States , United Kingdom , and Australia . Rooted in garage rock and other forms of what is now known as protopunk music , punk rock bands rejected perceived excesses of mainstream 1970s rock . Punk bands typically use short or fast @-@ paced songs , with hard @-@ edged melodies and singing styles , stripped @-@ down instrumentation , and often political , anti @-@ establishment lyrics . Punk embraces a DIY ethic ; many bands self @-@ produced recordings and distributed them through informal channels .
The term " punk " was first used in relation to rock music by some American critics in the early 1970s , to describe garage bands and their devotees . By late 1976 , bands such as Television and the Ramones in New York City , and the Sex Pistols , the Clash , and the Damned in London were recognized as the vanguard of a new musical movement . The following year saw punk rock spreading around the world , and it became a major cultural phenomenon in the United Kingdom . For the most part , punk took root in local scenes that tended to reject association with the mainstream . An associated punk subculture emerged , expressing youthful rebellion and characterized by distinctive styles of clothing and adornment ( ranging from deliberately offensive T @-@ shirts , leather jackets , spike bands and other studded or spiked jewelry to bondage and S & M clothes ) and a variety of anti @-@ authoritarian ideologies .
By the beginning of the 1980s , faster , more aggressive styles such as hardcore ( e.g. Dead Kennedys ) and street punk ( e.g. The Exploited ) had become the predominant mode of punk rock . Musicians identifying with or inspired by punk also pursued a broad range of other variations , giving rise to post @-@ punk and the alternative rock movement . At the end of the 20th century , punk rock had been adopted by the mainstream , as pop punk and punk rock bands such as Green Day , the Offspring and Blink @-@ 182 brought the genre widespread popularity .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Philosophy = = =
The first wave of punk rock was aggressively modern , distancing itself from the bombast and sentimentality of early 1970s rock . According to Ramones drummer Tommy Ramone , " In its initial form , a lot of [ 1960s ] stuff was innovative and exciting . Unfortunately , what happens is that people who could not hold a candle to the likes of Hendrix started noodling away . Soon you had endless solos that went nowhere . By 1973 , I knew that what was needed was some pure , stripped down , no bullshit rock ' n ' roll . " John Holmstrom , founding editor of Punk magazine , recalls feeling " punk rock had to come along because the rock scene had become so tame that [ acts ] like Billy Joel and Simon and Garfunkel were being called rock and roll , when to me and other fans , rock and roll meant this wild and rebellious music . " In critic Robert Christgau 's description , " It was also a subculture that scornfully rejected the political idealism and Californian flower @-@ power silliness of hippie myth . "
Technical accessibility and a DIY spirit are prized in punk rock . In the early days of punk rock , this ethic stood in marked contrast to what those in the scene regarded as the ostentatious musical effects and technological demands of many mainstream rock bands . Musical virtuosity was often looked on with suspicion . According to Holmstrom , punk rock was " rock and roll by people who didn 't have very much skills as musicians but still felt the need to express themselves through music " . In December 1976 , the English fanzine Sideburns published a now @-@ famous illustration of three chords , captioned " This is a chord , this is another , this is a third . Now form a band " . The title of a 1980 single by the New York punk band Stimulators , " Loud Fast Rules ! " inscribed a catchphrase for punk 's basic musical approach .
Some of British punk rock 's leading figures made a show of rejecting not only contemporary mainstream rock and the broader culture it was associated with , but their own most celebrated music predecessors : " No Elvis , Beatles or the Rolling Stones in 1977 " , declared the Clash song " 1977 " . The previous year , when the punk rock revolution began in Great Britain , was to be both a musical and a cultural " Year Zero " . Even as nostalgia was discarded , many in the scene adopted a nihilistic attitude summed up by the Sex Pistols slogan " No Future " ; in the later words of one observer , amid the unemployment and social unrest in 1977 , " punk 's nihilistic swagger was the most thrilling thing in England . " While " self @-@ imposed alienation " was common among " drunk punks " and " gutter punks " , there was always a tension between their nihilistic outlook and the " radical leftist utopianism " of bands such as Crass , who found positive , liberating meaning in the movement . As a Clash associate describes singer Joe Strummer 's outlook , " Punk rock is meant to be our freedom . We 're meant to be able to do what we want to do . "
The issue of authenticity is important in the punk subculture — the pejorative term " poseur " is applied to those who associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying values and philosophy . Scholar Daniel S. Traber argues that " attaining authenticity in the punk identity can be difficult " ; as the punk scene matured , he observes , eventually " everyone got called a poseur " .
= = = Musical and lyrical elements = = =
Punk rock bands often emulate the bare musical structures and arrangements of 1960s garage rock . Typical punk rock instrumentation includes one or two electric guitars , an electric bass , and a drum kit , along with vocals . Songs tend to be shorter than those of other popular genres . Most early punk rock songs retained a traditional rock ' n ' roll verse @-@ chorus form and 4 / 4 time signature . However , later bands have often broken from this format . In critic Steven Blush 's description , " The Sex Pistols were still rock 'n'roll ... like the craziest version of Chuck Berry . Hardcore was a radical departure from that . It wasn 't verse @-@ chorus rock . It dispelled any notion of what songwriting is supposed to be . It 's its own form . "
Punk rock vocals sometimes sound nasal , and lyrics are often shouted instead of sung in a conventional sense , particularly in hardcore styles . Shifts in pitch , volume , or intonational style are relatively infrequent . Complicated guitar solos are considered self @-@ indulgent and unnecessary , although basic guitar breaks are common . Guitar parts tend to include highly distorted power chords or barre chords , creating a characteristic sound described by Christgau as a " buzzsaw drone " . Some punk rock bands take a surf rock approach with a lighter , twangier guitar tone . Others , such as Robert Quine , lead guitarist of the Voidoids , have employed a wild , " gonzo " attack , a style that stretches back through the Velvet Underground to the 1950s recordings of Ike Turner . Bass guitar lines are often uncomplicated ; the quintessential approach is a relentless , repetitive " forced rhythm " , although some punk rock bass players — such as Mike Watt of the Minutemen and Firehose — emphasize more technical bass lines . Bassists often use a pick due to the rapid succession of notes , which makes fingerpicking impractical . Drums typically sound heavy and dry , and often have a minimal set @-@ up . Compared to other forms of rock , syncopation is much less the rule . Hardcore drumming tends to be especially fast . Production tends to be minimalistic , with tracks sometimes laid down on home tape recorders or simple four @-@ track portastudios . The typical objective is to have the recording sound unmanipulated and " real " , reflecting the commitment and " authenticity " of a live performance .
Punk rock lyrics are typically frank and confrontational ; compared to the lyrics of other popular music genres , they frequently comment on social and political issues . Trend @-@ setting songs such as the Clash 's " Career Opportunities " and Chelsea 's " Right to Work " deal with unemployment and the grim realities of urban life . Especially in early British punk , a central goal was to outrage and shock the mainstream . The Sex Pistols ' " Anarchy in the U.K. " and " God Save the Queen " openly disparaged the British political system and social mores . Anti @-@ sentimental depictions of relationships and sex are common , as in " Love Comes in Spurts " , written by Richard Hell and recorded by him with the Voidoids . Anomie , variously expressed in the poetic terms of Hell 's " Blank Generation " and the bluntness of the Ramones ' " Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue " , is a common theme . Identifying punk with such topics aligns with the view expressed by V. Vale , founder of San Francisco fanzine Search and Destroy : " Punk was a total cultural revolt . It was a hardcore confrontation with the black side of history and culture , right @-@ wing imagery , sexual taboos , a delving into it that had never been done before by any generation in such a thorough way " .
= = = Visual and other elements = = =
The classic punk rock look among male American musicians harkens back to the T @-@ shirt , motorcycle jacket , and jeans ensemble favored by American greasers of the 1950s associated with the rockabilly scene and by British rockers of the 1960s . The cover of the Ramones ' 1976 debut album , featuring a shot of the band by Punk photographer Roberta Bayley , set forth the basic elements of a style that was soon widely emulated by rock musicians both punk and nonpunk . Richard Hell 's more androgynous , ragamuffin look — and reputed invention of the safety @-@ pin aesthetic — was a major influence on Sex Pistols impresario Malcolm McLaren and , in turn , British punk style . ( John D Morton of Cleveland 's Electric Eels may have been the first rock musician to wear a safety @-@ pin @-@ covered jacket ) . McLaren 's partner , fashion designer Vivienne Westwood , credits Johnny Rotten as the first British punk to rip his shirt , and Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious as the first to use safety pins , although few of those following Punk could afford to buy McLaren and Westwood 's designs so famously worn by the Pistols , so they made their own , diversifying the ' look ' with various different styles based on these designs . Young women in punk demolished the typical female types in rock of either " coy sex kittens or wronged blues belters " in their fashion . Early female punk musicians displayed styles ranging from Siouxsie Sioux 's bondage gear to Patti Smith 's " straight @-@ from @-@ the @-@ gutter androgyny " . The former proved much more influential on female fan styles . Over time , tattoos , piercings , and metal @-@ studded and -spiked accessories became increasingly common elements of punk fashion among both musicians and fans , a " style of adornment calculated to disturb and outrage " . Among the other facets of the Punk Rock scene , a punks hair is an important way of showing their freedom of expression . The typical male punk haircut was originally short and choppy ; the Mohawk later emerged as a characteristic style . Along with the mohawk , long spikes have been associated with the punk rock genre .
The characteristic stage performance style of male punk musicians does not deviate significantly from the macho postures classically associated with rock music . Female punk musicians broke more clearly from earlier styles . Scholar John Strohm suggests that they did so by creating personas of a type conventionally seen as masculine : " They adopted a tough , unladylike pose that borrowed more from the macho swagger of sixties garage bands than from the calculated bad @-@ girl image of bands like the Runaways . " Scholar Dave Laing describes how bassist Gaye Advert adopted fashion elements associated with male musicians only to generate a stage persona readily consumed as " sexy " . Laing focuses on more innovative and challenging performance styles , seen in the various erotically destabilizing approaches of Siouxsie Sioux , the Slits ' Ari Up , and X @-@ Ray Spex ' Poly Styrene .
The lack of emphatic syncopation led punk dance to " deviant " forms . The characteristic style was originally the pogo . Sid Vicious , before he became the Sex Pistols ' bassist , is credited with initiating the pogo in Britain as an attendee at one of their concerts . Moshing ( Slam Dancing ) is typical at hardcore shows . The lack of conventional dance rhythms was a central factor in limiting punk 's mainstream commercial impact .
Breaking down the distance between performer and audience is central to the punk ethic . Fan participation at concerts is thus important ; during the movement 's first heyday , it was often provoked in an adversarial manner — apparently perverse , but appropriately " punk " . First @-@ wave British punk bands such as the Sex Pistols and the Damned insulted and otherwise goaded the audience into intense reactions . Laing has identified three primary forms of audience physical response to goading : can throwing , stage invasion , and spitting or " gobbing " . In the hardcore realm , stage invasion is often a prelude to stage diving . In addition to the numerous fans who have started or joined punk bands , audience members also become important participants via the scene 's many amateur periodicals — in England , according to Laing , punk " was the first musical genre to spawn fanzines in any significant numbers " .
= = Precursors = =
= = = 1960s progenitors = = =
In the early- to mid @-@ 1960s , garage rock bands , often recognized as punk rock 's progenitors , began springing up around North America . The Kingsmen , from Portland , Oregon , had a hit with their 1963 cover of " Louie , Louie , " considered by some as punk rock 's defining " ur @-@ text . " The iconic song was originally written and performed by Richard Berry as an ode to the lovelorn confessions of a drunken Jamaican sailor and displays Latin influences , with its " El Loco Cha @-@ Cha " riffs that were later pared down to a more simple and primitive rock arrangement in the Kingsmen 's version providing a stylistic model for countless garage rock bands to come . After the Beatles ' first appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show , and then with the subsequent string of other successful British acts , the garage band phenomenon gathered increased momentum . The minimalist sound of many garage rock combos was influenced by the harder @-@ edged wing of the British Invasion , exemplified by groups such as the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds . After 1967 , U.S. garage rock began to fall out of favor , but the raw sound and outsider attitude of groups , such as the Sonics , the Seeds , the Remains , the Standells , and the Shadows of Knight predicted the style of later bands such as MC5 and the Stooges . In the early 1970s , certain rock critics began to speak of the mid @-@ 1960s garage bands ( as well bands that they considered continuing in their line , such as MC5 and the Stooges ) as a genre that they called " punk rock . " However , since the advent of New York and London scenes of 1975 @-@ 1978 and the subculture that grew out of them , the term has become most commonly applied to music emerging after 1974 . Sixties garage bands are now typically described as garage rock , or , especially in the case of their immediate successors , proto @-@ punk .
From England in 1964 , largely under the grip of the mod youth movement and beat group explosion , came the Kinks ' hit singles , " You Really Got Me " and " All Day and All of the Night , " both influenced by " Louie , Louie " . They have been described as " predecessors of the whole three @-@ chord genre . " For instance , the Ramones ' 1978 ' I Don 't Want You , ' was largely Kink 's @-@ influenced . In 1965 , the Who progressed from their first single , " I Can 't Explain , " a virtual Kinks clone , to " My Generation " . Though it had little impact on the American charts , the Who 's mod anthem pre @-@ figured the kind of " cerebral mix of musical ferocity and rebellious posture " that would characterize much of the later British punk rock of the 1970s . John Reed describes the Clash 's emergence as a " tight ball of energy with both an image and rhetoric reminiscent of a young Pete Townshend — speed obsession , pop @-@ art clothing , art school ambition . " The Who and fellow mods the Small Faces were among the few rock elders acknowledged by the Sex Pistols .
The garage and beat phenomenon was not exclusive to North America and Great Briton . Various countries experienced grass @-@ roots rock movements which essentially served as counterparts to what was happening in the North America and Britain , several of which are sometimes retroactively referred to as Nederbeat ( Netherlands ) , Uruguayan Invasion ( Uruguay ) , or Group Sounds ( Japan ) , or in other cases as " beat " or " garage rock " . Australia and New Zealand had active beat / garage scenes , procuring a host of bands , such as the Missing Links whose brazenly primitivistic " Wild About You " would be covered a decade later by fellow compatriots , the Saints . There were numerous garage rock bands in India during the 1960s , perpetuating the style even into the early 1970s . Los Saicos out of Peru recoded 1965 's " Demolicion " , which is a notable early example of protopunk . AllMusic , writing about Los Saicos , noted that " The guitars sound like nothing so much as fountains of sparks , the drums have a tribal post @-@ surf throb , and the vocals are positively unhinged " and " These guys were a punk rock band , even if nobody outside Lima knew it at the time " . The garage and beat boom dissipated in the late 1960s , but a handful of maverick acts , carried its influence into the 1970s , seizing on its protopunk elements , but brandishing them with greater intensity .
= = = Late 1960s to mid 1970s = = =
In August 1969 , the Stooges , from Ann Arbor , premiered with a self @-@ titled album . According to critic Greil Marcus , the band , led by singer Iggy Pop , created " the sound of Chuck Berry 's Airmobile — after thieves stripped it for parts " . The album was produced by John Cale , a former member of New York 's experimental rock group the Velvet Underground . Having earned a " reputation as the first underground rock band , " the Velvet Underground inspired , directly or indirectly , many of those involved in the creation of punk rock .
In the early 1970s , the New York Dolls updated the original wildness of 1950 's rock ' n ' roll in a fashion that later became known as glam punk . The New York duo Suicide played spare , experimental music with a confrontational stage act inspired by that of the Stooges . At the Coventry club in the New York City borough of Queens , the Dictators used rock as a vehicle for wise @-@ ass attitude and humor . In Boston , the Modern Lovers , led by Velvet Underground devotee Jonathan Richman , gained attention with a minimalistic style . In 1974 , an updated garage rock scene began to coalesce around the newly opened Rathskeller club in Kenmore Square . Among the leading acts were the Real Kids , founded by former Modern Lover John Felice ; Willie Alexander and the Boom Boom Band , whose frontman had been a member of the Velvet Underground for a few months in 1971 ; and Mickey Clean and the Mezz . In 1974 , as well , the Detroit band Death — made up of three African @-@ American brothers — recorded " scorching blasts of feral ur @-@ punk , " but couldn 't arrange a release deal . In Ohio , a small but influential underground rock scene emerged , led by Devo in Akron and Kent and by Cleveland 's Electric Eels , Mirrors and Rocket from the Tombs . In 1975 , Rocket from the Tombs split into Pere Ubu and Frankenstein . The Electric Eels and Mirrors both broke up , and the Styrenes emerged from the fallout .
Britain 's Deviants , in the late 1960s , played in a range of psychedelic styles with a satiric , anarchic edge and a penchant for situationist @-@ style spectacle presaging the Sex Pistols by almost a decade . In 1970 , the act evolved into the Pink Fairies , which carried on in a similar vein . With his Ziggy Stardust persona , David Bowie made artifice and exaggeration central — elements , again , that were picked up by the Sex Pistols and certain other punk acts . The Doctors of Madness built on Bowie 's presentation concepts , while moving musically in the direction that would become identified with punk . Bands in London 's pub rock scene stripped the music back to its basics , playing hard , R & B @-@ influenced rock ' n ' roll . By 1974 , the scene 's top act , Dr. Feelgood , was paving the way for others such as the Stranglers and Cock Sparrer that would play a role in the punk explosion . Among the pub rock bands that formed that year was the 101ers , whose lead singer would soon adopt the name Joe Strummer .
Bands anticipating the forthcoming movement were appearing as far afield as Düsseldorf , West Germany , where " punk before punk " band NEU ! formed in 1971 , building on the Krautrock tradition of groups such as Can . In Japan , the anti @-@ establishment Zunō Keisatsu ( Brain Police ) mixed garage @-@ psych and folk . The combo regularly faced censorship challenges , their live act at least once including onstage masturbation . A new generation of Australian garage rock bands , inspired mainly by the Stooges and MC5 , was coming even closer to the sound that would soon be called " punk " : In Brisbane , the Saints also recalled the raw live sound of the British Pretty Things , who had made a notorious tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1975 .
= = = Etymology = = =
Between the late 16th and the 18th centuries , punk was a common , coarse synonym for prostitute ; William Shakespeare used it with that meaning in The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1602 ) and Measure for Measure ( 1623 ) . The term eventually came to describe " a young male hustler , a gangster , a hoodlum , or a ruffian " . As Legs McNeil explains , " On TV , if you watched cop shows , Kojak , Baretta , when the cops finally catch the mass murderer , they 'd say , ' you dirty Punk . ' It was what your teachers would call you . It meant that you were the lowest . " The first known use of the phrase punk rock appeared in the Chicago Tribune on March 22 , 1970 , attributed to Ed Sanders , cofounder of New York 's anarcho @-@ prankster band the Fugs . Sanders was quoted describing a solo album of his as " punk rock — redneck sentimentality " . In the December 1970 issue of Creem , Lester Bangs , mocking more mainstream rock musicians , ironically referred to Iggy Pop as " that Stooge punk " . Suicide 's Alan Vega credits this usage with inspiring his duo to bill its gigs as a " punk mass " for the next couple of years .
Dave Marsh was the first music critic to employ the term punk rock : In the May 1971 issue of Creem , he described ? and the Mysterians , one of the most popular 1960s garage rock acts , as giving a " landmark exposition of punk rock " . Later in 1971 , in his fanzine Who Put the Bomp , Greg Shaw wrote about " what I have chosen to call " punkrock " bands — white teenage hard rock of ' 64 – 66 ( Standells , Kingsmen , Shadows of Knight , etc . ) " . Robert Christgau writing for the Village Voice in October , 1971 refers to " mid @-@ 60s punk " as a historical period of rock @-@ and @-@ roll . Lester Bangs would use the term " punk rock " in several articles written in the early 1970s to refer to mid @-@ 1960s garage acts . In his June , 1971 piece in Creem , " Psychotic Reactions and Carburetor Dung , " he wrote , " then punk bands started cropping up who were writing their own songs but taking the Yardbirds ' sound and reducing it to this kind of goony fuzztone clatter . ... oh , it was beautiful , it was pure folklore , Old America , and sometimes I think those were the best days ever . " In several places in a 1971 article in Who Put the Bomp , Bangs refers to Britain 's the Troggs and bands of their ilk as " punk . " In June 1972 , the fanzine Flash included a " Punk Top Ten " of 1960s albums . By that December , the term was in circulation to the extent that The New Yorker 's Ellen Willis , contrasting her own tastes with those of Flash and fellow critic Nick Tosches , wrote , " Punk @-@ rock has become the favored term of endearment . " In the liner notes of the 1972 anthology LP , Nuggets , musician and rock journalist Lenny Kaye , later a member of the Patti Smith Group , used variations of the term in two places : first " punk rock , " in the essay liner notes , to describe the genre of 1960s garage bands , and then , later , " classic garage @-@ punk , " in the track @-@ by @-@ track notes , to describe a song recorded in 1966 by the Shadows of Knight . In the January 1973 Rolling Stone review of Nuggets , Greg Shaw commented " Punk rock at its best is the closest we came in the ' 60s to the original rockabilly spirit of Rock ' n Roll ... " In February 1973 , Terry Atkinson of the Los Angeles Times , reviewing the debut album by a hard rock band , Aerosmith , declared that it " achieves all that punk @-@ rock bands strive for but most miss . " Three months later , Billy Altman launched the short @-@ lived punk magazine , which pre @-@ dated the better @-@ known 1975 publication of the same name , but , unlike the later magazine , was largely devoted to discussion of 1960s garage and psychedelic acts .
In May 1974 , Los Angeles Times critic Robert Hilburn reviewed the second New York Dolls album , Too Much Too Soon . " I told ya the New York Dolls were the real thing , " he wrote , describing the album as " perhaps the best example of raw , thumb @-@ your @-@ nose @-@ at @-@ the @-@ world , punk rock since the Rolling Stones ' Exile on Main Street . " Bassist Jeff Jensen of Boston 's Real Kids reports of a show that year , " A reviewer for one of the free entertainment magazines of the time caught the act and gave us a great review , calling us a ' punk band . ' ... [ W ] e all sort of looked at each other and said , ' What 's punk ? ' "
By 1975 , punk was being used to describe acts as diverse as the Patti Smith Group , the Bay City Rollers , and Bruce Springsteen . As the scene at New York 's CBGB club attracted notice , a name was sought for the developing sound . Club owner Hilly Kristal called the movement " street rock " ; John Holmstrom credits Aquarian magazine with using punk " to describe what was going on at CBGBs " . Holmstrom , McNeil , and Ged Dunn 's magazine Punk , which debuted at the end of 1975 , was crucial in codifying the term . " It was pretty obvious that the word was getting very popular " , Holmstrom later remarked . " We figured we 'd take the name before anyone else claimed it . We wanted to get rid of the bullshit , strip it down to rock ' n ' roll . We wanted the fun and liveliness back . "
= = Early history = =
= = = North America = = =
= = = = New York City = = = =
The origins of New York 's punk rock scene can be traced back to such sources as late 1960s trash culture and an early 1970s underground rock movement centered on the Mercer Arts Center in Greenwich Village , where the New York Dolls performed . In early 1974 , a new scene began to develop around the CBGB club , also in lower Manhattan . At its core was Television , described by critic John Walker as " the ultimate garage band with pretensions " . Their influences ranged from the Velvet Underground to the staccato guitar work of Dr. Feelgood 's Wilko Johnson . The band 's bassist / singer , Richard Hell , created a look with cropped , ragged hair , ripped T @-@ shirts , and black leather jackets credited as the basis for punk rock visual style . In April 1974 , Patti Smith , a member of the Mercer Arts Center crowd and a friend of Hell 's , came to CBGB for the first time to see the band perform . A veteran of independent theater and performance poetry , Smith was developing an intellectual , feminist take on rock ' n ' roll . On June 5 , she recorded the single " Hey Joe " / " Piss Factory " , featuring Television guitarist Tom Verlaine ; released on her own Mer Records label , it heralded the scene 's do it yourself ( DIY ) ethic and has often been cited as the first punk rock record . By August , Smith and Television were gigging together at another downtown New York club , Max 's Kansas City .
Out in Forest Hills , Queens , several miles from lower Manhattan , the members of a newly formed band adopted a common surname . Drawing on sources ranging from the Stooges to the Beatles and the Beach Boys to Herman 's Hermits and 1960s girl groups , the Ramones condensed rock ' n ' roll to its primal level : " ' 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 ! ' bass @-@ player Dee Dee Ramone shouted at the start of every song , as if the group could barely master the rudiments of rhythm . " The band played its first gig at CBGB on August 16 , 1974 , on the same bill as another new act , Angel and the Snake , soon to be renamed Blondie . By the end of the year , the Ramones had performed seventy @-@ four shows , each about seventeen minutes long . " When I first saw the Ramones " , critic Mary Harron later remembered , " I couldn 't believe people were doing this . The dumb brattiness . " The Dictators , with a similar " playing dumb " concept , were recording their debut album . The Dictators ' Go Girl Crazy ! came out in March 1975 , mixing absurdist originals such as " Master Race Rock " and loud , straight @-@ faced covers of cheese pop like Sonny & Cher 's " I Got You Babe " .
That spring , Smith and Television shared a two @-@ month @-@ long weekend residency at CBGB that significantly raised the club 's profile . The Television sets included Richard Hell 's " Blank Generation " , which became the scene 's emblematic anthem . Soon after , Hell left Television and founded a band featuring a more stripped @-@ down sound , the Heartbreakers , with former New York Dolls Johnny Thunders and Jerry Nolan . The pairing of Hell and Thunders , in one critical assessment , " inject [ ed ] a poetic intelligence into mindless self @-@ destruction " . A July festival at CBGB featuring over thirty new groups brought the scene its first substantial media coverage . In August , Television — with Fred Smith , former Blondie bassist , replacing Hell — recorded a single , " Little Johnny Jewel " , for the tiny Ork label . In the words of John Walker , the record was " a turning point for the whole New York scene " if not quite for the punk rock sound itself — Hell 's departure had left the band " significantly reduced in fringe aggression " .
Other bands were becoming regulars at CBGB , such as Mink DeVille and Talking Heads , which moved down from Rhode Island . More closely associated with Max 's Kansas City were Suicide and the band led by Jayne County , another Mercer Arts Center alumna . The first album to come out of this downtown scene was released in November 1975 : Smith 's debut , Horses , produced by John Cale for the major Arista label . The inaugural issue of Punk appeared in December . The new magazine tied together earlier artists such as Velvet Underground lead singer Lou Reed , the Stooges , and the New York Dolls with the editors ' favorite band , the Dictators , and the array of new acts centered on CBGB and Max 's . That winter , Pere Ubu came in from Cleveland and played at both spots .
Early in 1976 , Hell left the Heartbreakers ; he soon formed a new group that would become known as the Voidoids , " one of the most harshly uncompromising bands " on the scene . That April , the Ramones ' debut album was released by Sire Records ; the first single was " Blitzkrieg Bop " , opening with the rally cry " Hey ! Ho ! Let 's go ! " According to a later description , " Like all cultural watersheds , Ramones was embraced by a discerning few and slagged off as a bad joke by the uncomprehending majority . " At the instigation of Ramones lead singer Joey Ramone , the members of Cleveland 's Frankenstein moved east to join the New York scene . Reconstituted as the Dead Boys , they played their first CBGB gig in late July . In August , Ork put out an EP recorded by Hell with his new band that included the first released version of " Blank Generation " .
Other New York venues apart from CBGB included the Lismar Lounge ( 41 First Avenue ) and Aztec Lounge ( 9th Street ) .
At this early stage , the term punk applied to the scene in general , not necessarily a particular stylistic approach as it would later — the early New York punk bands represented a broad variety of influences . Among them , the Ramones , the Heartbreakers , Richard Hell and the Voidoids , and the Dead Boys were establishing a distinct musical style . Even where they diverged most clearly , in lyrical approach — the Ramones ' apparent guilelessness at one extreme , Hell 's conscious craft at the other — there was an abrasive attitude in common . Their shared attributes of minimalism and speed , however , had not yet come to define punk rock .
= = = = Other U.S. cities = = = =
Chickasha , Oklahoma gave birth to avant garde , glam @-@ punk bands Victoria Vein and the Thunderpunks in 1974 and Debris ' in 1975 whose self @-@ released underground classic Static Disposal was released in 1976 . The album has been touted as an inspiration by numerous bands including Scream , Nurse With Wound , the Melvins and Sonic Youth . In 1975 , the Suicide Commandos formed in Minneapolis . They were one of the first U.S. bands outside of New York to play in the Ramones @-@ style harder @-@ louder @-@ faster mode that would define punk rock . Detroit 's Death self @-@ released one of their 1974 recordings , " Politicians in My Eyes " , in 1976 . As the punk movement expanded rapidly in the United Kingdom that year , a few bands with similar tastes and attitude appeared around the United States . The first West Coast punk scenes emerged in San Francisco , with the bands Crime and the Nuns , and Seattle , where the Telepaths , Meyce , and the Tupperwares played a groundbreaking show on May 1 . Rock critic Richard Meltzer cofounded VOM ( short for " vomit " ) in Los Angeles . Meanwhile , in Los Angeles , performer Alice Bag formed the punk music group The Bags in 1977 . Alice influenced the Hollywood punk scene by incorporating Mexican and Chicano musical culture into her music through canción ranchera — which translates to " country song " and is associated with mariachi ensembles — as well as estilo bravío , a wild style of performance often seen in punk . In Washington , D.C. , raucous roots @-@ rockers the Razz helped along a nascent punk scene featuring Overkill , the Slickee Boys , and the Look . Around the turn of the year , White Boy began giving notoriously crazed performances . In Boston , the scene at the Rathskeller — affectionately known as the Rat — was also turning toward punk , though the defining sound retained a distinct garage rock orientation . Among the city 's first new acts to be identified with punk rock was DMZ . In Bloomington , Indiana , the Gizmos played in a jokey , raunchy , Dictators @-@ inspired style later referred to as " frat punk " .
Like their garage rock predecessors , these local scenes were facilitated by enthusiastic impresarios who operated nightclubs or organized concerts in venues such as schools , garages , or warehouses , advertised via inexpensively printed flyers and fanzines . In some cases , punk 's do it yourself ethic reflected an aversion to commercial success , as well as a desire to maintain creative and financial autonomy . As Joe Harvard , a participant in the Boston scene , describes , it was often a simple necessity — the absence of a local recording industry and well @-@ distributed music magazines left little recourse but DIY .
= = = Australia = = =
At the same time , a similar music @-@ based subculture was beginning to take shape in various parts of Australia . A scene was developing around Radio Birdman and its main performance venue , the Oxford Tavern ( later the Oxford Funhouse ) , located in Sydney 's Darlinghurst suburb . In December 1975 , the group won the RAM ( Rock Australia Magazine ) / Levi 's Punk Band Thriller competition . By 1976 , the Saints were hiring Brisbane local halls to use as venues , or playing in " Club 76 " , their shared house in the inner suburb of Petrie Terrace . The band soon discovered that musicians were exploring similar paths in other parts of the world . Ed Kuepper , co @-@ founder of the Saints , later recalled :
One thing I remember having had a really depressing effect on me was the first Ramones album . When I heard it [ in 1976 ] , I mean it was a great record ... but I hated it because I knew we ’ d been doing this sort of stuff for years . There was even a chord progression on that album that we used ... and I thought , " Fuck . We ’ re going to be labeled as influenced by the Ramones " , when nothing could have been further from the truth .
On the other side of Australia , in Perth , germinal punk rock act the Cheap Nasties , featuring singer @-@ guitarist Kim Salmon , formed in August . In September 1976 , the Saints became the first punk rock band outside the U.S. to release a recording , the single " ( I 'm ) Stranded " . As with Patti Smith 's debut , the band self @-@ financed , packaged , and distributed the single . " ( I 'm ) Stranded " had limited impact at home , but the British music press recognized it as a groundbreaking record . At the insistence of their superiors in the UK , EMI Australia signed the Saints . Meanwhile , Radio Birdman came out with a self @-@ financed EP , Burn My Eye , in October . Trouser Press critic Ian McCaleb later described the record as the " archetype for the musical explosion that was about to occur " .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
By 1975 the movement was already well established in London and had been growing for a number of years , with non @-@ gigging and recording bands like The Flowers of Romance who went on to gain near mythical status . Inspired by music from The Velvet Underground , Iggy Pop and early David Bowie at one point the band featured Sid Vicious , Marco Pirroni and Viv Albertine , who later joined The Slits . Following a brief period unofficially managing the New York Dolls , Briton Malcolm McLaren returned to London in May 1975 , inspired by the new scene he had witnessed at CBGB . The Kings Road clothing store he co @-@ owned , recently renamed Sex , was building a reputation with its outrageous " anti @-@ fashion " . Among those who frequented the shop were members of a band called the Strand , which McLaren had also been managing . In August , the group was seeking a new lead singer . Another Sex habitué , Johnny Rotten , auditioned for and won the job . Adopting a new name , the group played its first gig as the Sex Pistols on November 6 , 1975 , at Saint Martin 's School of Art and soon attracted a small but ardent following . In February 1976 , the band received its first significant press coverage ; guitarist Steve Jones declared that the Sex Pistols were not so much into music as they were " chaos " . The band often provoked its crowds into near @-@ riots . Rotten announced to one audience , " Bet you don 't hate us as much as we hate you ! " McLaren envisioned the Sex Pistols as central players in a new youth movement , " hard and tough " . As described by critic Jon Savage , the band members " embodied an attitude into which McLaren fed a new set of references : late @-@ sixties radical politics , sexual fetish material , pop history , ... youth sociology " .
Bernard Rhodes , a sometime associate of McLaren and friend of the Sex Pistols , was similarly aiming to make stars of the band London SS . Early in 1976 , London SS broke up before ever performing publicly , spinning off two new bands : the Damned and the Clash , which was joined by Joe Strummer , former lead singer of the 101'ers . On June 4 , 1976 , the Sex Pistols played Manchester 's Lesser Free Trade Hall in what came to be regarded as one of the most influential rock shows ever . Among the approximately forty audience members were the two locals who organised the gig — they had formed Buzzcocks after seeing the Sex Pistols in February . Others in the small crowd went on to form Joy Division , the Fall , and — in the 1980s — the Smiths .
In July , the Ramones crossed the Atlantic for two London shows that helped spark the nascent UK punk scene and affected its musical style — " instantly nearly every band speeded up " . On July 4 , they played with the Flamin ' Groovies and the Stranglers before a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 at the Roundhouse . That same night , the Clash debuted , opening for the Sex Pistols in Sheffield . On July 5 , members of both bands attended a Ramones gig at Dingwalls club . The following night , the Damned performed their first show , as the Sex Pistols opening act in London . In critic Kurt Loder 's description , the Sex Pistols purveyed a " calculated , arty nihilism , [ while ] the Clash were unabashed idealists , proponents of a radical left @-@ wing social critique of a sort that reached back at least to ... Woody Guthrie in the 1940s " . The Damned built a reputation as " punk 's party boys " . This London scene 's first fanzine appeared a week later . Its title , Sniffin ' Glue , derived from a Ramones song . Its subtitle affirmed the connection with what was happening in New York : " + Other Rock ' n ' Roll Habits for Punks ! "
Another Sex Pistols gig in Manchester on July 20 , with a reorganized version of Buzzcocks debuting in support , gave further impetus to the scene there . In August , the self @-@ described " First European Punk Rock Festival " was held in Mont de Marsan in the southwest of France . Eddie and the Hot Rods , a London pub rock group , headlined . The Sex Pistols , originally scheduled to play , were dropped by the organizers who said the band had gone " too far " in demanding top billing and certain amenities ; the Clash backed out in solidarity . The only band from the new punk movement to appear was the Damned .
Over the next several months , many new punk rock bands formed , often directly inspired by the Sex Pistols . In London , women were near the center of the scene — among the initial wave of bands were the female @-@ fronted Siouxsie and the Banshees and X @-@ Ray Spex and the all @-@ female the Slits . There were female bassists Gaye Advert in the Adverts and Shanne Bradley in the Nipple Erectors . Other groups included Subway Sect , Eater , the Subversives , the aptly named London , and Chelsea , which soon spun off Generation X. Farther afield , Sham 69 began practicing in the southeastern town of Hersham . In Durham , there was Penetration , with lead singer Pauline Murray . On September 20 – 21 , the 100 Club Punk Festival in London featured the four primary British groups ( London 's big three and Buzzcocks ) , as well as Paris 's female @-@ fronted Stinky Toys , arguably the first punk rock band from a non @-@ Anglophone country . Siouxsie and the Banshees and Subway Sect debuted on the festival 's first night ; that same evening , Eater debuted in Manchester . On the festival 's second night , audience member Sid Vicious was arrested , charged with throwing a glass at the Damned that shattered and destroyed a girl 's eye . Press coverage of the incident fueled punk 's reputation as a social menace .
Some new bands , such as London 's Alternative TV , Edinburgh 's Rezillos , and Leamington 's the Shapes , identified with the scene even as they pursued more experimental music . Others of a comparatively traditional rock ' n ' roll bent were also swept up by the movement : the Vibrators , formed as a pub rock – style act in February 1976 , soon adopted a punk look and sound . A few even longer @-@ active bands including Surrey neo @-@ mods the Jam and pub rockers the Stranglers and Cock Sparrer also became associated with the punk rock scene . Alongside the musical roots shared with their American counterparts and the calculated confrontationalism of the early Who , the British punks also reflected the influence of glam rock and related bands such as Slade , T.Rex , and Roxy Music . One of the groups openly acknowledging that influence were the Undertones , from Derry in Northern Ireland .
In October , the Damned became the first UK punk rock band to release a single , the romance @-@ themed " New Rose " . The Vibrators followed the next month with " We Vibrate " and , backing long @-@ time rocker Chris Spedding , " Pogo Dancing " . The latter was hardly a punk song by any stretch , but it was perhaps the first song about punk rock . On 26 November , the Sex Pistols ' " Anarchy in the U.K. " came out — with its debut single the band succeeded in its goal of becoming a " national scandal " . Jamie Reid 's " anarchy flag " poster and his other design work for the Sex Pistols helped establish a distinctive punk visual aesthetic . On December 1 , an incident took place that sealed punk rock 's notorious reputation : On Thames Today , an early evening London TV show , Sex Pistols guitarist Steve Jones was goaded into a verbal altercation by the host , Bill Grundy . Jones called Grundy a " dirty fucker " on live television , triggering a media controversy . Two days later , the Sex Pistols , the Clash , the Damned , and the Heartbreakers set out on the Anarchy Tour , a series of gigs throughout the UK . Many of the shows were cancelled by venue owners in response to the media outrage following the Grundy confrontation .
= = Second wave = =
By 1977 , a second wave of the punk rock movement was breaking in the three countries where it had emerged , as well as in many other places . Bands from the same scenes often sounded very different from each other , reflecting the eclectic state of punk music during the era . While punk rock remained largely an underground phenomenon in North America , Australia , and the new spots where it was emerging , in the UK it briefly became a major sensation .
= = = North America = = =
The California punk scene was in full swing by early 1977 . In Los Angeles , there were the Weirdos , the Zeros , Black Randy and the Metrosquad , the Germs , X , the Dickies , Bags , and the relocated Tupperwares , now dubbed the Screamers . San Francisco 's second wave included the Avengers , Negative Trend , the Mutants , and the Sleepers. the Dils , from Carlsbad , moved between the two major cities . The Wipers formed in Portland , Oregon . In Seattle , there was the Lewd . Often sharing gigs with the Seattle punks were bands from across the Canadian border . A major scene developed in Vancouver , spearheaded by the Furies and Victoria 's all @-@ female Dee Dee and the Dishrags. the Skulls spun off into D.O.A. and the Subhumans . The K @-@ Tels ( later known as the Young Canadians ) and Pointed Sticks were among the area 's other leading punk acts .
In eastern Canada , the Toronto protopunk band Dishes had laid the groundwork for another sizable scene , and a September 1976 concert by the touring Ramones had catalyzed the movement . Early Ontario punk bands included the Diodes , the Viletones , Battered Wives , the Demics , Forgotten Rebels , Teenage Head , the Poles , and the Ugly . Along with the Dishrags , Toronto 's the Curse and B Girls were North America 's first all @-@ female punk acts . In July 1977 , the Viletones , Diodes , Curse , and Teenage Head headed down to New York City to play " Canada night " at CBGB .
By mid @-@ 1977 in downtown New York , punk rock was already ceding its cutting @-@ edge status to the anarchic sound of Teenage Jesus and the Jerks and Mars , spearheads of what became known as no wave , although several original punk bands continued to perform and new ones emerged on the scene . The Cramps , whose core members were from Sacramento , California by way of Akron , had debuted at CBGB in November 1976 , opening for the Dead Boys . They were soon playing regularly at Max 's Kansas City . The Misfits formed in nearby New Jersey . Still developing what would become their signature B movie – inspired style , later dubbed horror punk , they made their first appearance at CBGB in April 1977 .
Leave Home , the Ramones ' second album , had come out in January . The Dead Boys ' debut LP , Young , Loud and Snotty , was released at the end of August . October saw two more debut albums from the scene : Richard Hell and the Voidoids ' first full @-@ length , Blank Generation , and the Heartbreakers ' L.A.M.F. One track on the latter exemplified both the scene 's close @-@ knit character and the popularity of heroin within it : " Chinese Rocks " — the title refers to a strong form of the drug — was written by Dee Dee Ramone and Hell , both users , as were the Heartbreakers ' Thunders and Nolan . ( During the Heartbreakers ' 1976 and 1977 tours of Britain , Thunders played a central role in popularizing heroin among the punk crowd there , as well . ) The Ramones ' third album , Rocket to Russia , appeared in November 1977 .
The Ohio protopunk bands were joined by Cleveland 's the Pagans , Akron 's Bizarros and Rubber City Rebels , and Kent 's Human Switchboard . Bloomington , Indiana , had MX @-@ 80 Sound and Detroit had the Sillies . The Suburbs came together in the Twin Cities scene sparked by the Suicide Commandos . The Feederz formed in Arizona . Atlanta had the Fans . In North Carolina , there was Chapel Hill 's H @-@ Bombs and Raleigh 's Th ' Cigaretz . The Chicago scene began not with a band but with a group of DJs transforming a gay bar , La Mere Vipere , into what became known as America 's first punk dance club . The Crucified , Tutu and the Pirates and Silver Abuse were among the city 's first punk bands . In Boston , the scene at the Rat was joined by the Nervous Eaters , Thrills , and Human Sexual Response . In Washington , D.C. , the Controls played their first gig in spring 1977 , but the city 's second wave really broke the following year with acts such as Urban Verbs , Half Japanese , D 'Chumps , Rudements and Shirkers . By early 1978 , the D.C. jazz @-@ fusion group Mind Power had transformed into Bad Brains , one of the first bands to be identified with hardcore punk .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
The Sex Pistols ' live TV skirmish with Bill Grundy was the signal moment in British punk 's transformation into a major media phenomenon , even as some stores refused to stock the records and radio airplay was hard to come by . Press coverage of punk misbehavior grew intense : On January 4 , 1977 , The Evening News of London ran a front @-@ page story on how the Sex Pistols " vomited and spat their way to an Amsterdam flight " . In February 1977 , the first album by a British punk band appeared : Damned Damned Damned ( by the Damned ) reached number thirty @-@ six on the UK chart . The EP Spiral Scratch , self @-@ released by Manchester 's Buzzcocks , was a benchmark for both the DIY ethic and regionalism in the country 's punk movement . The Clash 's self @-@ titled debut album came out two months later and rose to number twelve ; the single " White Riot " entered the top forty . In May , the Sex Pistols achieved new heights of controversy ( and number two on the singles chart ) with " God Save the Queen " . The band had recently acquired a new bassist , Sid Vicious , who was seen as exemplifying the punk persona .
Scores of new punk groups formed around the United Kingdom , as far from London as Belfast 's Stiff Little Fingers and Dunfermline , Scotland 's the Skids . Though most survived only briefly , perhaps recording a small @-@ label single or two , others set off new trends . Crass , from Essex , merged a vehement , straight @-@ ahead punk rock style with a committed anarchist mission , and played a major role in the emerging anarcho @-@ punk movement . Sham 69 , London 's Menace , and the Angelic Upstarts from South Shields in the Northeast combined a similarly stripped @-@ down sound with populist lyrics , a style that became known as street punk . These expressly working @-@ class bands contrasted with others in the second wave that presaged the post @-@ punk phenomenon . Liverpool 's first punk group , Big in Japan , moved in a glam , theatrical direction . The band didn 't survive long , but it spun off several well @-@ known post @-@ punk acts . The songs of London 's Wire were characterized by sophisticated lyrics , minimalist arrangements , and extreme brevity . By the end of 1977 , according to music historian Clinton Heylin , they were " England 's arch @-@ exponents of New Musick , and the true heralds of what came next . "
Alongside thirteen original songs that would define classic punk rock , the Clash 's debut had included a cover of the recent Jamaican reggae hit " Police and Thieves " . Other first wave bands such as the Slits and new entrants to the scene like the Ruts and the Police interacted with the reggae and ska subcultures , incorporating their rhythms and production styles . The punk rock phenomenon helped spark a full @-@ fledged ska revival movement known as 2 Tone , centered on bands such as the Specials , the Beat , Madness , and the Selecter .
June 1977 saw the release of another charting punk album : the Vibrators ' Pure Mania . In July , the Sex Pistols ' third single , " Pretty Vacant " , reached number six and the Saints had a top @-@ forty hit with " This Perfect Day " . Recently arrived from Australia , the band was now considered insufficiently " cool " to qualify as punk by much of the British media , though they had been playing a similar brand of music for years . In August , the Adverts entered the top twenty with " Gary Gilmore 's Eyes " . As punk became a broad @-@ based national phenomenon in the summer of 1977 , punk musicians and fans were increasingly subject to violent assaults by Teddy boys , football yobbos , and others . A Ted @-@ aligned band recorded " The Punk Bashing Boogie " .
In September , Generation X and the Clash reached the top forty with , respectively , " Your Generation " and " Complete Control " . X @-@ Ray Spex ' " Oh Bondage Up Yours ! " didn 't chart , but it became a requisite item for punk fans . In October , the Sex Pistols hit number eight with " Holidays in the Sun " , followed by the release of their first and only " official " album , Never Mind the Bollocks , Here 's the Sex Pistols . Inspiring yet another round of controversy , it topped the British charts . In December , one of the first books about punk rock was published : The Boy Looked at Johnny , by Julie Burchill and Tony Parsons .
= = = Australia = = =
In February 1977 , EMI released the Saints debut album , ( I 'm ) Stranded , which the band recorded in two days . The Saints had relocated to Sydney ; in April , they and Radio Birdman united for a major gig at Paddington Town Hall . Last Words had also formed in the city . The following month , the Saints relocated again , to Great Britain . In June , Radio Birdman released the album Radios Appear on its own Trafalgar label .
The Victims became a short @-@ lived leader of the Perth scene , self @-@ releasing " Television Addict " . They were joined by the Scientists , Kim Salmon 's successor band to the Cheap Nasties . Among the other bands constituting Australia 's second wave were Johnny Dole & the Scabs , the Hellcats , and Psychosurgeons ( later known as the Lipstick Killers ) in Sydney ; The Leftovers , the Survivors , and Razar in Brisbane ; and La Femme , the Negatives , and the Babeez ( later known as the News ) in Melbourne . Melbourne 's art rock – influenced Boys Next Door featured singer Nick Cave , who would become one of the world 's best @-@ known post @-@ punk artists .
= = = Rest of the world = = =
Meanwhile , punk rock scenes were emerging around the globe . In France , les punks , a Parisian subculture of Lou Reed fans , had already been around for years . Following the lead of Stinky Toys , Métal Urbain played its first concert in December 1976 . In August 1977 , Asphalt Jungle played at the second Mont de Marsan punk festival . Stinky Toys ' debut single , " Boozy Creed " , came out in September . It was perhaps the first non @-@ English @-@ language punk rock record , though as music historian George Gimarc notes , the punk enunciation made that distinction somewhat moot . The following month , Métal Urbain 's first 45 , " Panik " , appeared . After the release of their minimalist punk debut , " Rien à dire " , Marie et les Garçons became involved in New York 's mutant disco scene . Asphalt Jungle 's " Deconnection " and Gasoline 's " Killer Man " also came out before the end of the year , and other French punk acts such as Oberkampf and Starshooter soon formed .
1977 also saw the debut album from Hamburg 's Big Balls and the Great White Idiot , arguably West Germany 's first punk band . Other early German punk acts included the Fred Banana Combo and Pack . Bands primarily inspired by British punk sparked what became known as the Neue Deutsche Welle ( NDW ) movement . Vanguard NDW acts such as the Nina Hagen Band and S.Y.P.H. featured strident vocals and an emphasis on provocation . Before turning in a mainstream direction in the 1980s , NDW attracted a politically conscious and diverse audience , including both participants of the left @-@ wing alternative scene and neo @-@ Nazi skinheads . These opposing factions were mutually attracted by a view of punk rock as " politically as well as musically ... ' against the system ' . "
Scandinavian punk was propelled early on by tour dates by bands such as the Clash and the Ramones ( both in Stockholm in May 1977 ) , and the Sex Pistols ' tour through Denmark , Sweden and Norway in July the same year . The band Briard jump @-@ started Finnish punk with its November 1977 single " I Really Hate Ya " / " I Want Ya Back " ; other early Finnish punk acts included Eppu Normaali and singer Pelle Miljoona . The first Swedish punk single was " Vårdad klädsel " / " Förbjudna ljud " released by Kriminella Gitarrer in February 1978 , which started an extensive Swedish punk scene featuring act such as Ebba Grön , KSMB , Rude Kids , Besökarna , Liket Lever , Garbochock , Attentat , and many others . Within a couple of years , hundreds of punk singles were released in Sweden .
In Japan , a punk movement developed around bands playing in an art / noise style such as Friction , and " psych punk " acts like Gaseneta and Kadotani Michio . In New Zealand , Auckland 's Scavengers and Suburban Reptiles were followed by the Enemy of Dunedin . I. Punk rock scenes also grew in other countries such as Belgium ( the Kids , Chainsaw ) , the Netherlands ( the Suzannes , the Ex ) , Spain ( La Banda Trapera Del Río , Kaka De Luxe ) , and Switzerland ( Nasal Boys , Kleenex ) .
Indonesia was a part of the largest punk movement in Southeast Asia , heavily influenced by Green Day , Rancid , and the Offspring . Young people created their own underground sub @-@ culture of punk , which over time developed into a style that was completely different to the original movement .
Punk emerged in South Africa as direct opposition to the conservative apartheid government and racial segregation enforcement of the time . Bands like Wild Youth and National Wake led the way in the late 1970s and early 1980s , followed by Powerage and Screaming Foetus from Durban and Toxik Sox in Johannesburg in the mid 1980s .
= = Schism and diversification = =
By 1979 , the hardcore punk movement was emerging in Southern California . A rivalry developed between adherents of the new sound and the older punk rock crowd . Hardcore , appealing to a younger , more suburban audience , was perceived by some as anti @-@ intellectual , overly violent , and musically limited . In Los Angeles , the opposing factions were often described as " Hollywood punks " and " beach punks " , referring to Hollywood 's central position in the original L.A. punk rock scene and to hardcore 's popularity in the shoreline communities of South Bay and Orange County .
As hardcore became the dominant punk rock style , many bands of the older California punk rock movement split up , although X went on to mainstream success and the Go @-@ Go 's , part of the Hollywood punk scene when they formed in 1978 , adopted a pop sound and became major stars . Across North America , many other first and second wave punk bands also dissolved , while younger musicians inspired by the movement explored new variations on punk . Some early punk bands transformed into hardcore acts . A few , most notably the Ramones , Richard Hell and the Voidoids , and Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers , continued to pursue the style they had helped create . Crossing the lines between " classic " punk , post @-@ punk , and hardcore , San Francisco 's Flipper was founded in 1979 by former members of Negative Trend and the Sleepers . They became " the reigning kings of American underground rock , for a few years " .
Radio Birdman broke up in June 1978 while touring the UK , where the early unity between bohemian , middle @-@ class punks ( many with art school backgrounds ) and working @-@ class punks had disintegrated . In contrast to North America , more of the bands from the original British punk movement remained active , sustaining extended careers even as their styles evolved and diverged . Meanwhile , the Oi ! and anarcho @-@ punk movements were emerging . Musically in the same aggressive vein as American hardcore , they addressed different constituencies with overlapping but distinct anti @-@ establishment messages . As described by Dave Laing , " The model for self @-@ proclaimed punk after 1978 derived from the Ramones via the eight @-@ to @-@ the @-@ bar rhythms most characteristic of the Vibrators and Clash . ... It became essential to sound one particular way to be recognized as a ' punk band ' now . " In February 1979 , former Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious died of a heroin overdose in New York . If the Sex Pistols ' breakup the previous year had marked the end of the original UK punk scene and its promise of cultural transformation , for many the death of Vicious signified that it had been doomed from the start .
By the turn of the decade , the punk rock movement had split deeply along cultural and musical lines , leaving a variety of derivative scenes and forms . On one side were new wave and post @-@ punk artists ; some adopted more accessible musical styles and gained broad popularity , while some turned in more experimental , less commercial directions . On the other side , hardcore punk , Oi ! , and anarcho @-@ punk bands became closely linked with underground cultures and spun off an array of subgenres . Somewhere in between , pop punk groups created blends like that of the ideal record , as defined by Mekons cofounder Kevin Lycett : " a cross between Abba and the Sex Pistols " . A range of other styles emerged , many of them fusions with long @-@ established genres . The Clash album London Calling , released in December 1979 , exemplified the breadth of classic punk 's legacy . Combining punk rock with reggae , ska , R & B , and rockabilly , it went on to be acclaimed as one of the best rock records ever . At the same time , as observed by Flipper singer Bruce Loose , the relatively restrictive hardcore scenes diminished the variety of music that could once be heard at many punk gigs . If early punk , like most rock scenes , was ultimately male @-@ oriented , the hardcore and Oi ! scenes were significantly more so , marked in part by the slam dancing and moshing with which they became identified .
= = = New wave = = =
In 1976 — first in London , then in the United States — " New Wave " was introduced as a complementary label for the formative scenes and groups also known as " punk " ; the two terms were essentially interchangeable . NME journalist Roy Carr is credited with proposing the term 's use ( adopted from the cinematic French New Wave of the 1960s ) in this context . Over time , " new wave " acquired a distinct meaning : Bands such as Blondie and Talking Heads from the CBGB scene ; the Cars , who emerged from the Rat in Boston ; the Go @-@ Go 's in Los Angeles ; and the Police in London that were broadening their instrumental palette , incorporating dance @-@ oriented rhythms , and working with more polished production were specifically designated " new wave " and no longer called " punk " . Dave Laing suggests that some punk @-@ identified British acts pursued the new wave label in order to avoid radio censorship and make themselves more palatable to concert bookers .
Bringing elements of punk rock music and fashion into more pop @-@ oriented , less " dangerous " styles , new wave artists became very popular on both sides of the Atlantic . New wave became a catch @-@ all term , encompassing disparate styles such as 2 Tone ska , the mod revival inspired by the Jam , the sophisticated pop @-@ rock of Elvis Costello and XTC , the New Romantic phenomenon typified by Ultravox , synthpop groups like Tubeway Army ( which had started out as a straight @-@ ahead punk band ) and Human League , and the sui generis subversions of Devo , who had gone " beyond punk before punk even properly existed " . New wave became a pop culture sensation with the debut of the cable television network MTV in 1981 , which put many new wave videos into regular rotation . However , the music was often derided at the time as being silly and disposable .
= = = Post @-@ punk = = =
During 1976 – 77 , in the midst of the original UK punk movement , bands emerged such as Manchester 's Joy Division , the Fall , and Magazine , Leeds ' Gang of Four , and London 's the Raincoats that became central post @-@ punk figures . Some bands classified as post @-@ punk , such as Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire , had been active well before the punk scene coalesced ; others , such as the Slits and Siouxsie and the Banshees , transitioned from punk rock into post @-@ punk . A few months after the Sex Pistols ' breakup , John Lydon ( no longer " Rotten " ) cofounded Public Image Ltd . Lora Logic , formerly of X @-@ Ray Spex , founded Essential Logic . Killing Joke formed in 1979 . These bands were often musically experimental , like certain new wave acts ; defining them as " post @-@ punk " was a sound that tended to be less pop and more dark and abrasive — sometimes verging on the atonal , as with Subway Sect and Wire — and an anti @-@ establishment posture directly related to punk 's . Post @-@ punk reflected a range of art rock influences from Captain Beefheart to David Bowie and Roxy Music to Krautrock and , once again , the Velvet Underground .
Post @-@ punk brought together a new fraternity of musicians , journalists , managers , and entrepreneurs ; the latter , notably Geoff Travis of Rough Trade and Tony Wilson of Factory , helped to develop the production and distribution infrastructure of the indie music scene that blossomed in the mid @-@ 1980s . Smoothing the edges of their style in the direction of new wave , several post @-@ punk bands such as New Order ( descended from Joy Division ) and the Cure. crossed over to a mainstream U.S. audience . Bauhaus was one of the formative gothic rock bands . Others , like Gang of Four , the Raincoats and Throbbing Gristle , who had little more than cult followings at the time , are seen in retrospect as significant influences on modern popular culture .
A number of U.S. artists were retrospectively defined as post @-@ punk ; Television 's debut album Marquee Moon , released in 1977 , is frequently cited as a seminal album in the field . The no wave movement that developed in New York in the late 1970s , with artists such as Lydia Lunch and James Chance , is often treated as the phenomenon 's U.S. parallel . The later work of Ohio protopunk pioneers Pere Ubu is also commonly described as post @-@ punk . One of the most influential American post @-@ punk bands was Boston 's Mission of Burma , who brought abrupt rhythmic shifts derived from hardcore into a highly experimental musical context . In 1980 , Australia 's Boys Next Door moved to London and changed their name to the Birthday Party , which evolved into Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds . Led by the Primitive Calculators , Melbourne 's Little Band scene would further explore the possibilities of post @-@ punk . Later alternative rock musicians found diverse inspiration among these post @-@ punk predecessors , as they did among their new wave contemporaries .
= = = Hardcore = = =
A distinctive style of punk , characterized by superfast , aggressive beats , screaming vocals , and often politically aware lyrics , began to emerge in 1978 among bands scattered around the United States and Canada . The first major scene of what came to be known as hardcore punk developed in Southern California in 1978 – 79 , initially around such punk bands as the Germs and Fear . The movement soon spread around North America and internationally . According to author Steven Blush , " Hardcore comes from the bleak suburbs of America . Parents moved their kids out of the cities to these horrible suburbs to save them from the ' reality ' of the cities and what they ended up with was this new breed of monster " .
Among the earliest hardcore bands , regarded as having made the first recordings in the style , were Southern California 's Middle Class and Black Flag . Bad Brains — all of whom were black , a rarity in punk of any era — launched the D.C. scene . Austin , Texas 's Big Boys , San Francisco 's Dead Kennedys , and Vancouver 's D.O.A. were among the other initial hardcore groups . They were soon joined by bands such as the Minutemen , Descendents , Circle Jerks , Adolescents , and T.S.O.L. in Southern California ; D.C. ' s Teen Idles , Minor Threat , and State of Alert ; and Austin 's MDC and the Dicks . By 1981 , hardcore was the dominant punk rock style not only in California , but much of the rest of North America as well . A New York hardcore scene grew , including the relocated Bad Brains , New Jersey 's Misfits and Adrenalin O.D. , and local acts such as the Nihilistics , the Mob , Reagan Youth , and Agnostic Front . Beastie Boys , who would become famous as a hip @-@ hop group , debuted that year as a hardcore band . They were followed by the Cro @-@ Mags , Murphy 's Law , and Leeway . By 1983 , St. Paul 's Hüsker Dü , Willful Neglect , Chicago 's Naked Raygun , Indianapolis 's Zero Boys , and D.C. ' s the Faith were taking the hardcore sound in experimental and ultimately more melodic directions . Hardcore would constitute the American punk rock standard throughout the decade . The lyrical content of hardcore songs is often critical of commercial culture and middle @-@ class values , as in Dead Kennedys ' celebrated " Holiday in Cambodia " ( 1980 ) .
Straight edge bands like Minor Threat , Boston 's SS Decontrol , and Reno , Nevada 's 7 Seconds rejected the self @-@ destructive lifestyles of many of their peers , and built a movement based on positivity and abstinence from cigarettes , alcohol , drugs , and casual sex .
Skate punk innovators also pointed in other directions : Big Boys helped establish funkcore , while Venice , California 's Suicidal Tendencies had a formative effect on the heavy metal – influenced crossover thrash style . Toward the middle of the decade , D.R.I. spawned the superfast thrashcore genre . Both developed in multiple locations . Sacramento 's Tales of Terror , which mixed psychedelic rock into their hardcore sound , were an early influence on the grunge genre . D.C. ' s Void was one of the first punk @-@ metal crossover acts and influenced thrash metal .
= = = Oi ! = = =
Following the lead of first @-@ wave British punk bands Cock Sparrer and Sham 69 , in the late 1970s second @-@ wave units like Cockney Rejects , Angelic Upstarts , the Exploited , Anti @-@ Establishment and the 4 @-@ Skins sought to realign punk rock with a working class , street @-@ level following . For that purpose , they believed , the music needed to stay " accessible and unpretentious " , in the words of music historian Simon Reynolds . Their style was originally called " real punk " or street punk ; Sounds journalist Garry Bushell is credited with labelling the genre Oi ! in 1980 . The name is partly derived from the Cockney Rejects ' habit of shouting " Oi ! Oi ! Oi ! " before each song , instead of the time @-@ honored " 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 ! "
The Oi ! movement was fueled by a sense that many participants in the early punk rock scene were , in the words of the Business guitarist Steve Kent , " trendy university people using long words , trying to be artistic ... and losing touch " . According to Bushell , " Punk was meant to be of the voice of the dole queue , and in reality most of them were not . But Oi was the reality of the punk mythology . In the places where [ these bands ] came from , it was harder and more aggressive and it produced just as much quality music . " Lester Bangs described Oi ! as " politicized football chants for unemployed louts " . One song in particular , the Exploited 's " Punks Not Dead " , spoke to an international constituency . It was adopted as an anthem by the groups of disaffected Mexican urban youth known in the 1980s as bandas ; one banda named itself PND , after the song 's initials .
Although most Oi ! bands in the initial wave were apolitical or left wing , many of them began to attract a white power skinhead following . Racist skinheads sometimes disrupted Oi ! concerts by shouting fascist slogans and starting fights , but some Oi ! bands were reluctant to endorse criticism of their fans from what they perceived as the " middle @-@ class establishment " . In the popular imagination , the movement thus became linked to the far right . Strength Thru Oi ! , an album compiled by Bushell and released in May 1981 , stirred controversy , especially when it was revealed that the belligerent figure on the cover was a neo @-@ Nazi jailed for racist violence ( Bushell claimed ignorance ) . On July 3 , a concert at Hamborough Tavern in Southall featuring the Business , the 4 @-@ Skins , and the Last Resort was firebombed by local Asian youths who believed that the event was a neo @-@ Nazi gathering . Following the Southall riot , press coverage increasingly associated Oi ! with the extreme right , and the movement soon began to lose momentum .
= = = Anarcho @-@ punk = = =
Anarcho @-@ punk developed alongside the Oi ! and American hardcore movements . Inspired by Crass , its Dial House commune , and its independent Crass Records label , a scene developed around British bands such as Subhumans , Flux of Pink Indians , Conflict , Poison Girls , and the Apostles that was concerned as much with anarchist and DIY principles as it was with music . The acts featured ranting vocals , discordant instrumental sounds , primitive production values , and lyrics filled with political and social content , often addressing issues such as class inequalities and military violence . Anarcho @-@ punk musicians and fans disdained the older punk scene from which theirs had evolved . In historian Tim Gosling 's description , they saw " safety pins and Mohicans as little more than ineffectual fashion posturing stimulated by the mainstream media and industry .... Whereas the Sex Pistols would proudly display bad manners and opportunism in their dealings with ' the establishment , ' the anarcho @-@ punks kept clear of ' the establishment ' altogether " .
The movement spun off several subgenres of a similar political bent . Discharge , founded back in 1977 , established D @-@ beat in the early 1980s . Other groups in the movement , led by Amebix and Antisect , developed the extreme style known as crust punk . Several of these bands rooted in anarcho @-@ punk such as the Varukers , Discharge , and Amebix , along with former Oi ! groups such as the Exploited and bands from father afield like Birmingham 's Charged GBH , became the leading figures in the UK 82 hardcore movement . The anarcho @-@ punk scene also spawned bands such as Napalm Death , Carcass , and Extreme Noise Terror that in the mid @-@ 1980s defined grindcore , incorporating extremely fast tempos and death metal – style guitarwork . Led by Dead Kennedys , a U.S. anarcho @-@ punk scene developed around such bands as Austin 's MDC and Southern California 's Another Destructive System .
= = = Pop punk = = =
With their love of the Beach Boys and late 1960s bubblegum pop , the Ramones paved the way to what became known as pop punk . In the late 1970s , UK bands such as Buzzcocks and the Undertones combined pop @-@ style tunes and lyrical themes with punk 's speed and chaotic edge . In the early 1980s , some of the leading bands in Southern California 's hardcore punk rock scene emphasized a more melodic approach than was typical of their peers . According to music journalist Ben Myers , Bad Religion " layered their pissed off , politicized sound with the smoothest of harmonies " ; Descendents " wrote almost surfy , Beach Boys – inspired songs about girls and food and being young ( ish ) " . Epitaph Records , founded by Brett Gurewitz of Bad Religion , was the base for many future pop punk bands . Bands that fused punk with light @-@ hearted pop melodies , such as the Queers and Screeching Weasel , began appearing around the country , in turn influencing bands like Green Day and the Offspring , who brought pop punk wide popularity and major record sales . Bands such as the Vandals and Guttermouth developed a style blending pop melodies with humorous and offensive lyrics . Eventually , the geographically large midwest U.S. punk scene , anchored largely in places like Chicago and Minneapolis , would spawn bands like Dillinger Four who would talk a catchy , hooky pop @-@ punk approach and reinfuse it with some of punk 's earlier grit and fury , creating a distinctive punk rock sound with a regional tag . This particular substrate still maintains an identity today . The mainstream pop punk of latter @-@ day bands such as Blink @-@ 182 is criticized by many punk rock devotees ; in critic Christine Di Bella 's words , " It 's punk taken to its most accessible point , a point where it barely reflects its lineage at all , except in the three @-@ chord song structures . "
= = = Other fusions and directions = = =
From 1977 on , punk rock crossed lines with many other popular music genres . Los Angeles punk rock bands laid the groundwork for a wide variety of styles : the Flesh Eaters with deathrock ; the Plugz with Chicano punk ; and Gun Club with punk blues . The Meteors , from South London , and the Cramps , who moved from New York to Los Angeles in 1980 , were innovators in the psychobilly fusion style . Milwaukee 's Violent Femmes jumpstarted the American folk punk scene , while the Pogues did the same on the other side of the Atlantic , influencing many Celtic punk bands . Hardcore punk was combined with hip hop , creating rapcore .
Other bands pointed punk rock toward future rock styles or its own foundations . New York 's Suicide , L.A. ' s the Screamers and Nervous Gender , Australia 's JAB , and Germany 's Deutsch Amerikanische Freundschaft were pioneers of electropunk . The Ex , from the Netherlands , were in the art punk vanguard . Chicago 's Big Black was a major influence on noise rock , math rock , and industrial rock . Garage punk bands from all over — such as Medway 's Thee Mighty Caesars , Chicago 's Dwarves , and Adelaide 's Exploding White Mice — pursued a version of punk rock that was close to its roots in 1960s garage rock . Seattle 's Mudhoney , one of the central bands in the development of grunge , has been described as " garage punk " .
= = Legacy and later developments = =
= = = Alternative rock = = =
The underground punk rock movement inspired countless bands that either evolved from a punk rock sound or brought its outsider spirit to very different kinds of music . The original punk explosion also had a long @-@ term effect on the music industry , spurring the growth of the independent sector . During the early 1980s , British bands like New Order and the Cure that straddled the lines of post @-@ punk and new wave developed both new musical styles and a distinctive industrial niche . Though commercially successful over an extended period , they maintained an underground @-@ style , subcultural identity . In the United States , bands such as Hüsker Dü and their Minneapolis protégés the Replacements bridged the gap between punk rock genres like hardcore and the more melodic , explorative realm of what was then called " college rock " .
A 1985 Rolling Stone feature on the Minneapolis scene and innovative California hardcore acts such as Black Flag and Minutemen declared , " Primal punk is passé . The best of the American punk rockers have moved on . They have learned how to play their instruments . They have discovered melody , guitar solos and lyrics that are more than shouted political slogans . Some of them have even discovered the Grateful Dead . " By the end of the 1980s , these bands , who had largely eclipsed their punk rock forebears in popularity , were classified broadly as alternative rock . Alternative rock encompasses a diverse set of styles — including gothic rock and grunge , among others — unified by their debt to punk rock and their origins outside of the musical mainstream .
As American alternative bands like Sonic Youth , which had grown out of the no wave scene , and Boston 's Pixies started to gain larger audiences , major labels sought to capitalize on the underground market that had been sustained by hardcore punk for years . In 1991 , Nirvana emerged from Washington State 's grunge scene , achieving huge commercial success with its second album , Nevermind . The band 's members cited punk rock as a key influence on their style . " Punk is musical freedom " , wrote singer Kurt Cobain . " It ’ s saying , doing , and playing what you want . " Nirvana 's success opened the door to mainstream popularity for a wide range of other " left @-@ of @-@ the @-@ dial " acts , such as Pearl Jam and Red Hot Chili Peppers , and fueled the alternative rock boom of the early and mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = Emo = = =
In its original , mid @-@ 1980s incarnation , emo was a less musically restrictive style of punk developed by participants in the Washington , D.C. area hardcore scene . It was originally referred to as " emocore " , an abbreviation of " emotive hardcore " . Jimmy Eat World took emo in a radio @-@ ready pop punk direction , and had top ten albums in 2004 and 2007 .
= = = Heavy metal = = =
In the beginning , the Heavy metal created by Judas Priest was music of slow tempos and little aggression , When punk rock exploded in ' 77 in the music scene mainstream , many bands like Motorhead ( pioneer NWOBHM ) combine the dense sound of heavy metal with dirt and speed of punk rock creating a new movement called New wave of British heavy metal where many bands were influenced by many punk bands like Sex Pistols , the Damned and Ramones , among other bands . From this new style of heavy metal , they grew others even more aggressive styles but always influenced by punk rock , like Speed metal ( much influenced by punk rock and NWOBHM ) , Thrash metal ( influenced by hardcore punk and speed metal ) , Death metal ( which combined the thrash metal and D @-@ beat ) and Black metal ( influenced by death metal and Horror punk ) .
= = = Queercore = = =
In the 1990s , the queercore movement developed around a number of punk bands with gay , lesbian , bisexual , or genderqueer members such as Against Me ! , God Is My Co @-@ Pilot , Pansy Division , Team Dresch , and Sister George . Inspired by openly gay punk musicians of an earlier generation such as Jayne County , Phranc , and Randy Turner , and bands like Nervous Gender , the Screamers , and Coil , queercore embraces a variety of punk and other alternative music styles . Queercore lyrics often treat the themes of prejudice , sexual identity , gender identity , and individual rights . The movement has continued into the 21st century , supported by festivals such as Queeruption .
= = = Riot grrrl = = =
The Riot Grrrl movement , a significant aspect in the formation of the Third Wave feminist movement , was organized by taking the values and rhetoric of punk and using it to convey feminist messages . In 1991 , a concert of female @-@ led bands at the International Pop Underground Convention in Olympia , Washington , heralded the emerging riot grrrl phenomenon . Billed as " Love Rock Revolution Girl Style Now " , the concert 's lineup included Bikini Kill , Bratmobile , Heavens to Betsy , L7 , and Mecca Normal . The riot grrrl movement foregrounded feminist concerns and progressive politics in general ; the DIY ethic and fanzines were also central elements of the scene . This movement relied on media and technology to spread their ideas and messages , creating a cultural @-@ technological space for feminism to voice their concerns . They embodied the punk perspective , taking the anger and emotions and creating a separate culture from it . With riot grrrl , they were grounded in girl punk past , but also rooted in modern feminism . Singer @-@ guitarists Corin Tucker of Heavens to Betsy and Carrie Brownstein of Excuse 17 , bands active in both the queercore and riot grrrl scenes , cofounded the indie / punk band Sleater @-@ Kinney in 1994 . Bikini Kill 's lead singer , Kathleen Hanna , the iconic figure of riot grrrl , moved on to form the art punk group Le Tigre in 1998 .
= = Revival = =
By the 1990s , punk rock was sufficiently ingrained in Western culture that punk trappings were often used to market highly commercial bands as " rebels " . Marketers capitalized on the style and hipness of punk rock to such an extent that a 1993 ad campaign for an automobile , the Subaru Impreza , claimed that the car was " like punk rock " . Along with Nirvana , many of the leading alternative rock artists of the early 1990s acknowledged the influence of earlier punk rock acts . With Nirvana 's success , the major record companies once again saw punk bands as potentially profitable .
In 1993 , California 's Green Day and Bad Religion were both signed to major labels . The next year , Green Day put out Dookie , which became a huge hit , selling nine million albums in the United States in just over two years . Bad Religion 's Stranger Than Fiction was certified gold . Other California punk bands on the independent label Epitaph , run by Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz , also began achieving mainstream popularity . In 1994 , Epitaph released Let 's Go by Rancid , Punk in Drublic by NOFX , and Smash by the Offspring , each eventually certified gold or better . That June , Green Day 's " Longview " reached number one on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart and became a top forty airplay hit , arguably the first ever American punk song to do so ; just one month later , the Offspring 's " Come Out and Play " followed suit . MTV and radio stations such as Los Angeles ' KROQ @-@ FM played a major role in these bands ' crossover success , though NOFX refused to let MTV air its videos .
Following the lead of Boston 's Mighty Mighty Bosstones and two California bands , Anaheim 's No Doubt and Long Beach 's Sublime , ska punk and ska @-@ core became widely popular in the mid @-@ 1990s . By 1996 , genre acts such as Reel Big Fish and Less Than Jake were being signed to major labels . The original 2 Tone bands had emerged amid punk rock 's second wave , but their music was much closer to its Jamaican roots — " ska at 78 rpm " . Ska punk bands in the third wave of ska created a true musical fusion between the genres . ... And Out Come the Wolves , the 1995 album by Rancid — which had evolved out of Operation Ivy — became the first record in this ska revival to be certified gold ; Sublime 's self @-@ titled 1996 album was certified platinum early in 1997 . In Australia , two popular groups , skatecore band Frenzal Rhomb and pop punk act Bodyjar , also established followings in Japan .
Green Day and Dookie 's enormous sales paved the way for a host of bankable North American pop punk bands in the following decade . With punk rock 's renewed visibility came concerns among some in the punk community that the music was being co @-@ opted by the mainstream . They argued that by signing to major labels and appearing on MTV , punk bands like Green Day were buying into a system that punk was created to challenge . Such controversies have been part of the punk culture since 1977 , when the Clash was widely accused of " selling out " for signing with CBS Records . The Vans Warped Tour and the mall chain store Hot Topic brought punk even further into the U.S. mainstream .
= = In the mainstream = =
By early 1998 , the punk revival had commercially stalled , but not for long . That November , the Offspring 's Americana on the major Columbia label debuted at number two on the album chart . A bootleg MP3 of its first single , " Pretty Fly ( for a White Guy ) " , made it onto the Internet and was downloaded a record 22 million times — illegally . The following year , Enema of the State , the first major @-@ label release by pop punk band Blink @-@ 182 , reached the top ten and sold four million copies in under twelve months . In January 2000 , the album 's second single , " All the Small Things " , hit the sixth spot on the Billboard Hot 100 . While they were viewed as Green Day " acolytes " , critics also found teen pop acts such as Britney Spears , the Backstreet Boys , and ' N Sync suitable points of comparison for Blink @-@ 182 's sound and market niche . The band 's Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) and Blink @-@ 182 ( 2003 ) respectively rose to numbers one and three on the album chart . In November 2003 , The New Yorker described how the " giddily puerile " act had " become massively popular with the mainstream audience , a demographic formerly considered untouchable by punk @-@ rock purists . "
Other new North American pop punk bands , though often critically dismissed , also achieved major sales in the first decade of the 2000s . Ontario 's Sum 41 reached the Canadian top ten with its 2001 debut album , All Killer , No Filler , which eventually went platinum in the United States . The record included the number one U.S. Alternative hit " Fat Lip " , which incorporated verses of what one critic called " brat rap . "
The effect of commercialization on the music became an increasingly contentious issue . As observed by scholar Ross Haenfler , many punk fans " ' despise corporate punk rock ' , typified by bands such as Sum 41 and Blink 182 " . At the same time , politicized and independent @-@ label punk continued to thrive in the United States . Since 1993 , Anti @-@ Flag had been putting progressive politics at the center of its music . The administration of George W. Bush provided them and similarly minded acts eight years of conservative government to excoriate . Rise Against was the most successful of these groups , registering top ten records in 2006 with The Sufferer & the Witness and two years later with Appeal to Reason . Leftist punk band Against Me ! ' s New Wave was named best album of 2007 by Spin .
Elsewhere around the world , " punkabilly " band the Living End became major stars in Australia with their self @-@ titled 1998 debut .
The Yeah Yeah Yeahs 's album Mosquito has been classified as art @-@ punk .
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= Cutthroat trout =
The cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii ) is a fish species of the family Salmonidae native to cold @-@ water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean , Rocky Mountains , and Great Basin in North America . As a member of the genus Oncorhynchus , it is one of the Pacific trout , a group that includes the widely distributed rainbow trout . Cutthroat trout are popular gamefish , especially among anglers who enjoy fly fishing . The common name " cutthroat " refers to the distinctive red coloration on the underside of the lower jaw . The specific name clarkii was given to honor explorer William Clark , coleader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .
Cutthroat trout usually inhabit and spawn in small to moderately large , clear , well @-@ oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms . They also reproduce in clear , cold , moderately deep lakes . They are native to the alluvial or freestone streams that are typical tributaries of the rivers of the Pacific basin , Great Basin and Rocky Mountains . Cutthroat trout spawn in the spring and may inadvertently but naturally hybridize with rainbow trout , producing fertile cutbows . Some populations of the coastal cutthroat trout ( O. c. clarkii ) are semi @-@ anadromous .
Several subspecies of cutthroat trout are currently listed as threatened in their native ranges due to habitat loss and the introduction of non @-@ native species . Two subspecies , O. c. alvordensis and O. c. macdonaldi , are considered extinct . Cutthroat trout are raised in hatcheries to restore populations in their native range , as well as stock non @-@ native lake environments to support angling . The cutthroat trout type species and several subspecies are the official state fish of seven western U.S. states .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the cutthroat trout is Oncorhynchus clarkii . Cutthroat trout were the first New World trout encountered by Europeans when in 1541 , Spanish explorer Francisco de Coronado recorded seeing trout in the Pecos River near Santa Fe , New Mexico . These were most likely Rio Grande cutthroat trout ( O. c. virginalis ) The species was first described in the journals of explorer William Clark from specimens obtained during the Lewis and Clark Expedition from the Missouri River near Great Falls , Montana , and these were most likely the westslope cutthroat trout ( O. c. lewisi ) . As one of Lewis and Clark 's many missions was to describe the flora and fauna encountered during their expedition , cutthroat trout were given the name Salmo clarkii in honor of William Clark . In 1836 , the type specimen of S. clarkii was described by naturalist John Richardson from a tributary of the lower Columbia River , identified as the " Katpootl " , which was perhaps the Lewis River as there was a Multnomah village of similar name at the confluence . This type specimen was most likely the coastal cutthroat trout subspecies O. c. clarkii . Until the 1960s , populations of westslope cutthroat trout and Yellowstone cutthroat trout were lumped into one subspecies ; Salmo clarkii lewisii . Biologists later split the group into two subspecies , christening the name westslope cutthroat trout with the lewisii name which honors explorer Meriwether Lewis and renaming the Yellowstone cutthroat trout Salmo bouvierii , the first name given to the Yellowstone cutthroat trout by David Starr Jordan in 1883 honoring a U.S. Army Captain Bouvier .
In 1989 , morphological and genetic studies indicated trout of the Pacific basin were genetically closer to Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus species ) than to the Salmos – brown trout ( S. trutta ) or Atlantic salmon ( S. salar ) of the Atlantic basin . Thus , in 1989 , taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow , cutthroat and other Pacific basin trout into the genus Oncorhynchus .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Behnke in his salmon and trout handbook of 2002 recognized 14 subspecies of cutthroat trout that are each native to a separate geographic area . Not all of them were scientifically described , and different views on the taxonomic identities have been presented in some cases . It has been suggested that the cutthroat trout evolved from a common Oncorhynchus ancestor that migrated along the Pacific coast and into the mountain west primarily via the Columbia and Snake river basins 3 @-@ 5 million years ago , in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene epochs . These epochs had repeated glacial and interglacial periods that would have caused repeated fracturing and isolation of cutthroat trout populations , eventually resulting in the different subspecies found today . The 14 subspecies are found in four evolutionary groups — Coastal , Westslope , Yellowstone and Lahontan .
= = Description = =
Throughout their native and introduced ranges , cutthroat trout vary widely in size , coloration and habitat selection . Their coloration can range from golden to gray to green on the back . Cutthroat trout can generally be distinguished from rainbow trout by the presence of basibranchial teeth at the base of tongue and a maxillary that extends beyond the posterior edge of the eye . Depending on subspecies , strain and habitat , most have distinctive red , pink , or orange linear marks along the underside of their mandibles in the lower folds of the gill plates . These markings are responsible for the common name " cutthroat " , first given to the trout by outdoor writer Charles Hallock in an 1884 article in The American Angler . These markings are not unique to the species , some coastal rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus ) and Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) populations also display reddish or pink throat markings .
At maturity , different populations and subspecies of cutthroat trout can range from 6 to 40 inches ( 15 to 102 cm ) in length , depending on habitat and food availability . Sea @-@ run forms of coastal cutthroat trout average 2 to 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 3 kg ) . The length and weights of mature inland forms vary widely depending on their particular environment and availability of food . Stream @-@ resident fish are much smaller , 0 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 2 ounces ( 11 to 91 g ) , while lacustrine populations have attained weights ranging from 12 to 17 lb ( 5 @.@ 4 to 7 @.@ 7 kg ) in ideal conditions . The largest cutthroat trout subspecies is the Lahontan cutthroat trout ( O. c. henshawi ) . These fish average 8 to 9 in ( 20 to 23 cm ) in small streams and 8 to 22 in ( 20 to 56 cm ) in larger rivers and lakes . In ideal environments , the Lahontan cutthroat trout attains typical weights of 0 @.@ 25 to 8 lb ( 0 @.@ 11 to 3 @.@ 63 kg ) . The world record cutthroat trout is a Lahontan at 39 in ( 99 cm ) and 41 lb ( 19 kg ) .
= = = Lifecycle = = =
Cutthroat trout usually inhabit and spawn in small to moderately large , clear , well @-@ oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms . They are native to the alluvial or freestone streams typical of tributaries of the Pacific Basin , Great Basin and Rocky Mountains . They spawn in the spring , as early as February in coastal rivers and as late as July in high mountain lakes and streams . Spawning begins when water temperatures reach 43 to 46 ° F ( 6 to 8 ° C ) . Cutthroat trout construct a redd in the stream gravel to lay eggs . The female selects the site for and excavates the redd . Females , depending on size , lay between 200 and 4 @,@ 400 eggs . Eggs are fertilized with milt ( sperm ) by an attending male . Eggs hatch into alevins or sac fry in about a month and spend two weeks in the gravel while they absorb their yolk sack before emerging . After emergence , fry begin feeding on zooplankton . Juvenile cutthroat trout typically mature in three to five years . Lake @-@ resident cutthroat trout are usually found in moderately deep , cool lakes with adequate shallows and vegetation for good food production . Lake populations generally require access to gravel @-@ bottomed streams to be self @-@ sustaining , but occasionally spawn on shallow gravel beds with good water circulation .
Cutthroat trout naturally interbreed with the closely related rainbow trout , producing fertile hybrids commonly called " cutbows " . This hybrid generally bears similar coloration and overall appearance to the cutthroat trout , usually retaining the characteristic orange @-@ red slash . Cutbow hybrids often pose a taxonomic difficulty when trying to distinguish any given specimen as a rainbow or cutthroat trout . In addition , cutthroat trout may hybridize with O. gilae the Gila trout and O. apache the Apache trout in regions where their ranges overlap .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Range = = =
Cutthroat trout are native to western North America and have evolved through geographic isolation into 14 subspecies , each native to a different major drainage basin . Native cutthroat trout species are found along the Pacific Northwest coast from Alaska through British Columbia into northern California , in the Cascade Range , the Great Basin and throughout the Rocky Mountains including southern Alberta . Some coastal populations of the coastal cutthroat trout ( O. c. clarkii ) are semianadromous , spending a few months in marine environments to feed as adults and returning to fresh water from fall through early spring to feed on insects and spawn . Cutthroat trout have the second @-@ largest historic native range of North American trout ; the lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) having the largest . Ranges of some subspecies , particularly the westslope cutthroat trout ( O. c. lewisi ) have been reduced to less than 10 percent of their historic range due to habitat loss and introduction of non @-@ native species .
Although members of Oncorhynchus , the Pacific trout / salmon species , three subspecies — the westslope ( O. c. lewisi ) , the greenback ( O. c. stomias ) and Yellowstone cutthroat trout ( O. c. bouvierii ) — evolved populations east of the Continental Divide in the upper Missouri River basin , upper Arkansas and Platte River basins and upper Yellowstone River basin , each which drain into the Atlantic basin via the Mississippi River ( in 2005 , researchers published a report stating that a natural distribution of ( O. mykiss ) , the Conchos trout , is also located in an Atlantic basin drainage ) . Scientists believe that the climatic and geologic conditions 3 to 5 million years ago allowed cutthroat trout from the Snake River to migrate over the divide into the Yellowstone plateau via Two Ocean Pass . There is also evidence that Yellowstone Lake once drained south into the Snake River drainage . Evidence suggests that the westslope cutthroat trout was able to establish populations east of the divide via Summit Lake at Marias Pass which at one time connected the Flathead River drainage with the upper Missouri River drainage . Scientists speculate that there are several mountain passes associated with the headwaters of the Colorado River drainage and Arkansas / Platte River drainages that would have allowed migration of cutthroat trout east of the divide .
Cutthroat trout have been introduced into non @-@ native waters outside their historic native range , but not to the extent of the rainbow trout ( O. mykiss ) . Within the native range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout , U.S. Fisheries Bureau and National Park Service authorities introduced Yellowstone cutthroat trout into many fishless lakes in Yellowstone National Park . Cutthroat trout were introduced into Lake Michigan tributaries in the 1890s and sporadically in the early 20th century , but never established wild populations . A population of Yellowstone cutthroat trout purportedly has been established in Lake Huron . Although cutthroat trout are not native to Arizona , they are routinely introduced by the Arizona Game and Fish Department into high mountain lakes in the White Mountains in the northeastern region of that state .
= = = Habitat = = =
Cutthroat trout require cold , clear , well @-@ oxygenated , shallow rivers with gravel bottoms or cold , moderately deep lakes . Healthy stream @-@ side vegetation that reduces siltation is typical of healthy cutthroat trout habitat and beaver ponds may provide refuge during periods of drought and over winter . Most populations stay in fresh water throughout their lives and are known as nonmigratory , stream @-@ resident or riverine populations . The coastal cutthroat trout ( O. c. clarkii ) is the only cutthroat trout subspecies to coevolve through its entire range with the coastal rainbow trout ( O. m. irideus ) . Portions of the westslope cutthroat trout 's ( O. c. lewisi ) range overlap with the Columbia River redband trout ( O. m. gairdneri ) , but the majority of its native range is in headwater tributary streams above major waterfalls and other barriers to upstream migration . At least three subspecies are confined to isolated basins in the Great Basin and can tolerate saline or alkaline water .
Cutthroat trout are opportunistic feeders . Stream @-@ resident cutthroat trout primarily feed on larval , pupal and adult forms of aquatic insects ( typically caddisflies , stoneflies , mayflies and aquatic dipterans ) , and adult forms of terrestrial insects ( typically ants , beetles , grasshoppers and crickets ) that fall into the water , fish eggs , small fish , along with crayfish , shrimp and other crustaceans . As they grow the proportion of fish consumed increases in most populations . In saltwater estuaries and along beaches , Coastal cutthroat trout feed on small fish such as sculpins , sand lance , salmon fry and herring . They also consume shrimp , small squid and krill . In fresh water they consume the same diet as stream resident trout — aquatic insects and crustaceans , amphibians , earthworms , small fish and fish eggs . Within the range of the bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus ) the cutthroat trout is a forage fish for the piscivorous bull trout .
= = = Artificial propagation = = =
Various subspecies of cutthroat trout are raised in commercial , state and federal hatcheries for introduction into suitable native and non @-@ native riverine and lacustrine environments . In the early 20th century , several hatcheries were established in Yellowstone National Park by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries . These hatcheries not only produced stocks of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout ( O. c. bouvierii ) for the park , but also took advantage of the great spawning stock of cutthroat trout to supply eggs to hatcheries around the U.S. Between the years 1901 and 1953 a total of 818 million trout eggs were exported from the park to hatcheries throughout the U.S. The Lahontan National Fish Hatchery operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service exists to restore populations of the Lahontan cutthroat trout ( O. c. henshawi ) in Pyramid , Walker , Fallen Leaf , June , Marlette , and Gull Lakes and the Truckee River in California and Nevada . The hatchery produces about 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 Lahontan cutthroat trout fry annually . The Jackson National Fish Hatchery produces around 400 @,@ 000 Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout ( O. c. behnkei ) annually to support fisheries in Idaho and Wyoming . The Leadville National Fish Hatchery produces 125 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 Snake River fine @-@ spotted , greenback cutthroat and rainbow trout annually to support fishing in the Fryingpan and Arkansas River drainages and other Colorado waters . The Bozeman Fish Technology Center , formerly a cutthroat trout fish hatchery in Bozeman , Montana , plays a major role in the restoration of the greenback ( O. c. stomias ) and westslope cutthroat trout ( O. c. lewisi ) subspecies .
= = Population threats = =
The historic native range of cutthroat trout has been reduced by overfishing , urbanization and habitat loss due to mining , livestock grazing and logging . Population densities have been reduced and in some cases populations have disappeared though competition with non @-@ native brook , brown , lake and rainbow trout , kokanee salmon , lake whitefish and mysis shrimp which were introduced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Scientists believe the westslope cutthroat trout will eventually be extirpated from the large lakes in Western Montana due to the trophic cascades resulting from lake trout and mysis shrimp introductions . The most serious current threats to several subspecies are interspecific breeding with introduced rainbow trout creating hybrid cutbows and intraspecific breeding with other introduced cutthroat trout subspecies . In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the presence of lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) in Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park has caused a serious decline in ( O. c. bouvierii ) . Outbreaks of whirling disease in major spawning tributaries within the native ranges have also caused declines . Most subspecies of cutthroat trout are highly susceptible to whirling disease , although the Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout ( O. c. behnkei ) appears to be resistant to the parasite .
= = = Interspecific and intraspecific breeding = = =
The most serious impact on the genetic purity of most cutthroat trout subspecies results from interspecific and intraspecific breeding resulting in hybrids that carry the genes of both parents . In inland populations , the introduction of rainbow trout from hatchery stocks have resulted in cutbow hybrids that continue to diminish the genetic purity of many cutthroat trout subspecies . The introduction of hatchery @-@ raised Yellowstone cutthroat trout into native ranges of other cutthroat trout subspecies , particularly the westslope cutthroat trout , has resulted in intraspecific breeding and diminished genetic purity of the westslope subspecies . As such , populations of genetically pure westslope cutthroat trout are very rare and localized in streams above barriers to upstream migrations by introduced species . Fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke attributes the extinction of the yellowfin cutthroat trout ( O. c. macdonaldi ) and Alvord cutthroat trout ( O. c. alvordensis ) subspecies to the introduction of non @-@ native rainbow trout .
= = = Decline of the Yellowstone subspecies = = =
The population at the core of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout 's native range , in Yellowstone Lake , declined significantly in the 1960s due to overharvest of mature cutthroat trout by anglers , as well as overharvesting of eggs by hatcheries in the early 20th century . Managers implemented catch and release , which required anglers to return their catches to the lake , and they terminated hatchery operations in the park which allowed the cutthroat trout to recover . Then , in 1994 , park officials discovered lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) in Yellowstone Lake . Although lake trout were established in Shoshone , Lewis and Heart lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. government stocking operations in 1890 , they were never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage and their presence there is probably the result of accidental or illegal introductions . By 2000 , the cutthroat trout population had declined to less than 10 percent of its early 20th century abundance . However , aggressive lake trout eradication programs have killed over one million lake trout since 1996 , and the hope is that this will lead to a restoration of cutthroat numbers . Cutthroat trout co @-@ exist with lake trout in Heart Lake , an isolated back @-@ country lake at the head of the Heart River that gets little angling pressure .
= = Angling = =
Cutthroat trout are prized as a gamefish , particularly by fly anglers . They are regulated as a gamefish in every state and province they occur in . From the Yellowstone cutthroat trout fishery in Yellowstone National Park , the unique Lahontan cutthroat trout fishery in Pyramid Lake in Nevada , and the small stream fisheries of the westslope cutthroat trout to saltwater angling for sea @-@ run cutthroat trout on the Pacific coast , cutthroat trout are a popular quarry for trout anglers throughout their ranges . The all @-@ tackle world record is 41 lb ( 19 kg ) caught in Pyramid Lake in December 1925 . Their propensity to feed on aquatic and terrestrial insects make them an ideal quarry for the fly angler .
= = = Sea @-@ run fishing along the Pacific coast = = =
From Alaska to Northern California , coastal cutthroat trout in sea @-@ run , resident stream and lacustrine forms are sought by anglers . Puget Sound in Washington is a stronghold of sea @-@ run cutthroat trout fishing with its many tributaries and protected saltwater inlets and beaches . Fly anglers search for sea @-@ run cutthroat trout along beaches , river mouths and estuaries year round . In the lower reaches of larger rivers , anglers in drift boats float the rivers searching for trout along the wooded shorelines . In addition to a cutthroat trout sport fishery managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game , the Federal Subsistence Management Program manages coastal cutthroat trout subsistence fisheries in Southeast Alaska .
= = = Yellowstone fishery = = =
Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 . By the 1890s , the Yellowstone cutthroat trout fishery in the Yellowstone River and Yellowstone Lake were well known and being promoted in national guidebooks .
Fishing Grounds . — In the river at the lake outlet are the fishing grounds , about a mile from the hotel , while at many places between the lake and canyon excellent fishing is had from shore . The best results in the outlet are had from row boats ; they can be rented from the steamboat company who have a supply , as well as competent and experienced oarsmen . Not more than two can successfully fish from one boat . When the grounds are reached , have the oarsman occupy the " stern , " as from this position he can manipulate the landing net to a better advantage , the anchor is attached to the " bow . " During the trout season ( July to September ) , no better fishing can be found . They average about one and one @-@ half pounds each and are of the salmon myhiss [ sic ] variety — a catch of 100 , three or four hours before sundown , is not unfrequent .
In 1902 , anticipating the completion of the east entrance road from Cody , Wyoming , Captain Hiram M. Chittenden supervised the construction of the first " Fishing Bridge " across the outlet of Yellowstone Lake . Fishing Bridge was rebuilt in 1919 , and reconstructed in 1937 , primarily to accommodate vehicle traffic . Between 1916 and 1931 , a large development of campgrounds , cabins , stores and service facilities were built just east of the bridge to support anglers . This area is now known as the Fishing Bridge Historic District . The 1937 bridge boasted pedestrian walkways on either side of the roadway to give more room to anglers . Angling in the river , at Fishing Bridge and in the lake , boomed during the 1950s and 1960s and over harvest caused a significant decline in the fishery . Consequently , in 1973 , fishing was no longer permitted from Fishing Bridge .
= = = Pyramid Lake Lahontan subspecies fishery = = =
The Pyramid Lake strain of Lahontan cutthroat trout , source of the 41 @-@ pound ( 19 kg ) world record and native to Pyramid Lake , Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River , was brought to near @-@ extinction in the two decades between the 1920s @-@ 40s from overharvest , introduced species and loss of spawning habitat . In the 1970s , Pyramid Lake was stocked with Lahontan cutthroat trout strains still surviving in some nearby lakes , but they were not the large Pyramid Lake strain . Although the Paiute tribe had been successful in reestablishing a cutthroat trout fishery on the reservation in Pyramid Lake , the cutthroat trout were not the large fish of the late 19th and early 20th century . In the late 1970 , biologists discovered a surviving population of a pure Pyramid Lake strain in a small headwaters stream on the Nevada @-@ Utah border that had at some point around 1900 been introduced into the stream . In 1995 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began rearing these fish in the Lahontan National Fish Hatchery in Gardnerville , Nevada . In 2006 , the Pyramid Lake strain of Lahontan cutthroat trout were reintroduced into the lake . As Pyramid Lake has a very shallow shoreline , anglers use ladders to stand comfortably in 3 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water and cast to trout cruising along shoreline breaks . Considered a " world @-@ class " fishery , anglers routinely catch cutthroat trout exceeding 10 lb ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) .
= = As a symbol = =
The cutthroat trout is the state fish of Idaho , Montana and Wyoming , while particular subspecies of cutthroat are the state fish of Colorado , Nevada , New Mexico and Utah .
Idaho Montana and Wyoming – Cutthroat trout ( O. clarki )
Colorado – Greenback cutthroat trout ( O. c. stomias )
Nevada – Lahontan cutthroat trout O. c. henshawi
New Mexico – Rio Grande cutthroat trout ( O. c. virginalis )
Utah – Bonneville cutthroat trout ( O. c. utah )
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= Longtown Castle =
Longtown Castle , also termed Ewias Lacey in early accounts , is a ruined Norman motte @-@ and @-@ bailey fortification in Longtown , Herefordshire . Built around 1175 by Hugh de Lacy , possibly reusing former Roman earthworks , the castle had an unusual design with three baileys and two large enclosures to protect the neighbouring town . Early in the next century the castle was rebuilt in stone , with a circular keep erected on the motte and a gatehouse constructed between the inner and outer western baileys . By the 14th century , Longtown Castle had fallen into decline . Despite being pressed back into use during the Owain Glyndŵr rising in 1403 , it became ruined . In the 21st century the castle is maintained by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = Earlier sites = = =
It is uncertain when the first fortification at Longtown was built . The first defences may have been built during either the Iron Age or Roman , or Anglo @-@ Saxon periods , but this remains uncertain . If Roman defences were constructed at the site , it was probably because of a Roman road that may have run nearby , and the defences may well have then been reused in the building of the current castle , parts of whose earthworks have square , angular corners , similar to those of Roman forts but otherwise unusual in 12th century English castles .
= = = Initial construction = = =
After the Norman invasion of England and Wales in the late 11th century , a small castle was built at Pont Hedre , close to the site of the current castle , by either Roger de Lacy or Pain fitzJohn in order to protect the river crossing there . Longtown was then probably built to replace this older castle , probably around 1175 , by Hugh de Lacy , a successful favourite of Henry II and an administrator in newly conquered Ireland . Hugh had acquired the local lands around Ewias Lacey , an important Marcher Lord territory , in the 1160s and early 1170s . The early castle was occasionally also called Ewias Lacey , named after the wider lordship ; " Ewias " was a term meaning " sheep district " .
Longtown Castle was designed as a motte and bailey castle , on high ground alongside the River Monnow . More defensible sites on higher ground existed nearby , but this location was strategically well located close to the River , an important transport route . It had a 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) high motte and an unusual rectangular bailey design around 125 metres ( 410 ft ) by 110 metres ( 360 ft ) , divided into three parts , two baileys in the west and one in the east , each capable of being defended independently and enclosing around 1 @.@ 21 hectares ( 3 @.@ 0 acres ) in total . The 12th @-@ century castle was built primarily of timber with at least some stone in its design , but this stone was then reused when the castle was rebuilt in the 13th century . Two circuits of earthworks to the north and south of the castle , possibly with wooden palisades , enclosed the early settlement of Longtown . The region was troubled for the rest of the century , with revolts by the local Welsh against Anglo @-@ Norman rule .
= = = Expansion and decline = = =
The castle was extensively rebuilt in stone during the early 13th century . The stone keep , dating from the 1220s or 1230s , was constructed in the form of a circular great tower , with walls 5 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) thick and three turrets spaced evenly around the outside and a hall on the first floor . This circular design is particular to the Welsh Marches , and is also seen at Skenfrith and Caldicot . The reason for this choice is unclear , as it appears to have carried few military advantages . The stonework is made up of shale rubble with cut ashlar detailing ; the walls are around 4 @-@ metre ( 13 ft ) thick , but the keep 's foundations are extremely shallow . An inner gate to the western baileys was built to a simple design with two small turrets , and seems to have been fitted with a portcullis , while a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick wall encircled the rest of the inner western bailey ; another stone wall seems to have protected the outer half of the bailey . Inside the inner western bailey appears to have been the castle 's great hall and other service buildings . The work on the castle cost the de Lacys around £ 37 , a large sum of money for the time . The settlement of Longtown was probably established at the same time as the castle , and initially prospered .
The de Lacy family controlled Longtown Castle until Walter de Lacy 's death in 1234 . John Fitzgeoffrey then acquired the castle , during a period of increased conflict and tension between the Welsh princes Llywelyn the Great and Dafydd ap Llywelyn and the English marcher lords . The castle then passed to John Verdon and his sons , who struggled with local lawlessness and the Welsh revolts which continued until the end of the century . Edward temporarily confiscated the castle and estates from John 's son , Theobald Verdon , and in 1316 the castle passed to Bartholomew de Berghersh . The castle continued to be used as a fortification , and in 1317 orders were given to garrison it with 30 men .
The castle began to decline in importance , however , and in 1369 passed to the Despensers and then the Beauchamps , neither of whom used the castle . It was temporarily refortified by Henry IV in response to the Owain Glyndŵr uprising in North Wales in 1403 . The Nevilles acquired the property in the 15th century and it remained in the control of the Lords of Abergavenny until the 1970s . After the Black Death the town 's population fell away sharply as well , the protected area north of the castle was abandoned , and by the 16th century it was no longer a functioning trading centre .
It is unclear if the castle and town played any part in the English Civil War between 1642 – 45 , although cannon balls from the period have been discovered within the castle . Local oral tradition states that the castle was slighted , or deliberately destroyed , during the war . Stones from the castle were used for local building work by the 17th century onwards , and by the 18th century a house and shop had been constructed in the eastern bailey of the castle , along with a yard and garden . A gallows operated at the castle until 1790 . Buildings continued to encroach on the castle . By the end of the 19th century a school and a house , Castle Lodge , had been built in the castle grounds . Other buildings were built as lean @-@ to 's against the castle walls .
= = = 20th - 21st centuries = = =
Longtown Castle was acquired by the Ministry of Works in the 1970s . It was in a poor condition and extensive restoration work was carried out , including the removal of many of the buildings that had encroached on the walls . In the 21st century , the central parts of Longtown Castle , including the ruined keep , the internal gatehouse and fragments of the curtain wall , are maintained by English Heritage as a tourist attraction , although the wider earthworks lie on common land . The castle is protected as a scheduled monument .
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= The St. James =
The St. James is a luxury residential skyscraper in Washington Square West , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The 498 feet ( 152 m ) , 45 @-@ story high @-@ rise stands along Walnut Street and Washington Square and is the 12th tallest building in Philadelphia .
The Chicago @-@ style , glass @-@ and @-@ concrete skyscraper incorporated into its design several historic 19th @-@ century buildings that lined Walnut Street . These buildings included three Federal @-@ style rowhouses built in 1807 called York Row and the Italianate @-@ style former headquarters of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society , built in 1868 – 1869 . After lying vacant and neglected for years , the only part of York Row preserved were the rowhouses ' facades . Only a back portion of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society building was demolished , the rest being incorporated as retail and office space .
Developer P & A Associates first attempted to develop the site in 1995 , but was delayed because of a lack of investor confidence in the project . When the Philadelphia residential market improved in the late 1990s , St. James Associates Joint Venture , a joint venture of P & A Associates and others , began construction in November 2001 . The high @-@ rise building , completed in 2004 , features 306 units , with each but the studio apartments having a private balcony . Its amenities include a 60 feet ( 18 m ) swimming pool , a private courtyard , and a nine @-@ story parking garage that makes up the base of the building .
= = History = =
= = = PSFS headquarters and York Row = = =
The site of The St. James was formerly occupied by a group of historic 19th @-@ century buildings that lined Walnut Street in the Washington Square West neighborhood in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The most notable of these was the former headquarters of the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society ( PSFS ) . Designed in 1868 by Addison Hutton , the granite @-@ faced Italianate @-@ style building was the second headquarters building that PSFS had built . Construction began on the building on June 13 , 1868 and it was opened for business on October 11 , 1869 . An addition designed by Hutton was added in 1885 , and another designed by Frank Furness in 1895 . The building served as the PSFS headquarters until 1932 when the company moved to the PSFS Building on Market Street .
The other buildings are a group of three brick three @-@ story rowhouses called York Row . Built in 1807 in the Federal style , they are an early example of speculative housing development . York Row was built at a time when Philadelphia 's population was shifting westward , away from the Delaware River .
The buildings were bought for US $ 4 @.@ 7 million in 1988 by real estate investor Samuel A. Rappaport . Rappaport , who made a fortune by buying , improving , and then selling run @-@ down properties , announced in 1989 that he planned to turn the building into his own personal headquarters and add a glass @-@ enclosed ballroom on its top . Rappaport also planned to have an apartment in one of the York Row houses . However , like many other Rappaport @-@ owned buildings , they ended up being left vacant and neglected , becoming a target for vandals and the homeless .
Rappaport died in 1994 , and in January 1995 developer P & A Associates announced its agreement to buy the properties from his estate . The developer also disclosed plans to build a luxury residential tower at the site . The plan called for dismantling part of Furness 's additions to the PSFS headquarters , which would serve as the tower 's lobby . The York Row houses would have been completely demolished . The plan was controversial as preservationists wanted the buildings to remain unchanged . P & A Associates met with representatives of the Preservation Alliance for Greater Philadelphia and in February 1995 advanced a new plan that would preserve most of the PSFS headquarters and the York Row facade . The new plan , which was approved by the Philadelphia Historical Commission , included renovating the PSFS headquarters and converting it into restaurant and office space . The York Row building interiors had been stripped of everything except for one fireplace mantle and could not be restored . P & A Associates would instead preserve the front facade of the houses , back to the roof ridge line .
= = = Construction = = =
After its announcement in 1995 , the project stalled because P & A Associates was unable to find investors to finance the project . Investors were skeptical that luxury residential apartments outside the Rittenhouse Square neighborhood in Center City could be successful . The delay allowed another developer to announce an agreement to acquire the property . In March 1999 , Chicago @-@ based developer the Barton Group announced its plan to build a 37 @-@ story , 322 @-@ unit luxury residential tower . The Barton Group 's plan would also incorporate the PSFS headquarters building and York Row into the tower .
At the end of the 1990s , Philadelphia was experiencing a condominium boom , with more than 70 Center City office and manufacturing buildings being converted into rental and condominium apartments between 1998 and 2004 . With the residential market in Center City growing , P & A Associates found financing by going into a partnership with real estate firm Boston Financial to fund its planned residential tower . Around the same time , the Barton Group ended its intentions with the site and sold its interest in the property to P & A Associates and Boston Financial . The tower announced by P & A Associates and Boston Financial would be a 300 @-@ unit luxury rental tower called St. James Court , named after an adjacent street . The high @-@ rise would still incorporate the preservation efforts for the 19th @-@ century buildings it agreed to in 1995 .
P & A Associates received final approval from the city zoning board and the historical commission in August 1999 , but continued to seek more financing , which it was able to secure from Corus Bank of Chicago in September 2001 . To develop the tower , now called The St. James , P & A Associates formed the St. James Associates Joint Venture with Clark Realty Capital LLC and Lend Lease Real Estate Investments , which represented an undisclosed client . With financial backing from its partners and tax breaks for new residential construction passed in 2000 , construction began on November 28 , 2001 . BACE Construction ( Philadelphia based ) was awarded the construction of the project . Philadelphia had not seen any residential high @-@ rise development since the 1980s , and The St. James was one of the first to begin construction in the city , preceded only by the 16 @-@ story Residences at the Dockside , which broke ground in 2000 . It became the largest residential building in the city .
By the beginning of March 2004 , 20 percent of the 306 units in The St. James had been leased . Construction was completed later that month , with finishing touches added later in the year . In March 2005 , a year after the building was completed , P & A Associates and Clark Realty Capital , under the name of 700 Walnut LP , announced The St. James was for sale . At the time , 45 percent of its units were being rented . P & A Associates sold off its interest in the building that same year .
= = Building = =
The St. James is a 45 @-@ story , high @-@ rise luxury residential skyscraper in Center City . At 498 feet ( 152 m ) tall , it is the 12th tallest building in Philadelphia . The US $ 80 million , Chicago @-@ style high @-@ rise was designed by Solomon Cordwell Buenz & Associates Inc. with assistance by architectural firm Bower Lewis Thrower . Located between 8th Street , Walnut Street , St. James Street , and Washington Square , The St. James stands two blocks from Independence Hall . The glass and concrete skyscraper 's east and west facade is split between a curved wall , a squared @-@ off wing , and a strip of blue glass that separates them .
The St. James contains 415 @,@ 790 square feet ( 39 @,@ 000 m2 ) of residential and commercial space . This includes 8 @,@ 290 square feet ( 770 m2 ) of office space , 14 @,@ 500 square feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m2 ) of retail space , and 393 @,@ 000 square feet ( 37 @,@ 000 m2 ) of residential space . The 306 residential units feature 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) ceilings and floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling windows . The building features a four @-@ pipe heating and air @-@ conditioning system , and every unit , except for the studio apartments , has a private balcony . Building amenities include an 11th @-@ floor health club and a 60 feet ( 18 m ) swimming pool .
The first nine floors of The St. James house private parking for building residents . The street @-@ level retail floor is occupied by a Starbucks and an Oceanaire seafood restaurant . Along Walnut Street , The St. James incorporated the front facades of the York Row houses , while the rest of the buildings were demolished . The main tower is set 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) from the York Row facades to preserve the Row 's original look . All but the rear wing of the PSFS headquarters building was incorporated into the tower . The demolished portion of the PSFS building was converted into a hidden courtyard for residents .
Preservationists were critical of how the York Row houses were preserved . Calling them " facadectomies " , vice president of the Preservation Alliance for Greater Philadelphia J. Randall Cotton felt that saving the facades did not preserve the essence of the buildings , but that it was better than nothing . Cotton said , " At the eyeball level , it will give something of the coherence of the Philadelphia cityscape , which is a human scale . The beauty of Philadelphia is that its lots were 20 to 25 feet , which allowed for a door and two windows . It 's a falsehood to put a big building behind them . But it 's preferable to demolition . " The Philadelphia Inquirer architecture critic Inga Saffron was critical of the parking garage on the lower floors , saying it " detracts from [ The St. James 's ] crisp , vertical lines and bumps clumsily against the historic buildings . The garage also makes the tower feel distant from the life of the city . " The St. James has won several awards , including the 2006 National Association of Home Builders awards for Best Luxury Rental Apartment Primary Market and Best High @-@ Rise Rental Apartment .
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= Oxygen =
Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8 . It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as other compounds . By mass , oxygen is the third @-@ most abundant element in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen , a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O
2 . This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20 @.@ 8 % of the Earth 's atmosphere . Additionally , as oxides the element also makes up almost half of the Earth 's crust .
Oxygen is necessary to sustain most terrestrial life . Oxygen is used in cellular respiration and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen , such as proteins , nucleic acids , carbohydrates , and fats , as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells , teeth , and bone . Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water , the major constituent of lifeforms . Conversely , oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis , which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide . Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms . Another form ( allotrope ) of oxygen , ozone ( O
3 ) , strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high @-@ altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation . But ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by @-@ product of smog . At low earth orbit altitudes , sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft .
Oxygen was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele , in Uppsala , in 1773 or earlier , and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire , in 1774 , but Priestley is often given priority because his work was published first . The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier , whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then @-@ popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion . Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς oxys , " acid " , literally " sharp " , referring to the sour taste of acids and -γενής -genes , " producer " , literally " begetter " , because at the time of naming , it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition .
Common use of oxygen includes residential heating , internal combustion engines , production of steel , plastics and textiles , brazing , welding and cutting of steels and other metals , rocket propellant , oxygen therapy , and life support systems in aircraft , submarines , spaceflight and diving .
= = History = =
= = = Early experiments = = =
One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics , Philo of Byzantium . In his work Pneumatica , Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel 's neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neck . Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass . Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo 's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration .
In the late 17th century , Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion . English chemist John Mayow ( 1641 – 1679 ) refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus or just nitroaereus . In one experiment , he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one @-@ fourteenth of the air 's volume before extinguishing the subjects . From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion .
Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated , and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it . He also thought that the lungs separate nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the body . Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract " De respiratione " .
= = = Phlogiston theory = = =
Robert Hooke , Ole Borch , Mikhail Lomonosov , and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element . This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory , which was then the favored explanation of those processes .
Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher , and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl by 1731 , phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts . One part , called phlogiston , was given off when the substance containing it was burned , while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form , or calx .
Highly combustible materials that leave little residue , such as wood or coal , were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston ; non @-@ combustible substances that corrode , such as iron , contained very little . Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory , nor were any initial quantitative experiments conducted to test the idea ; instead , it was based on observations of what happens when something burns , that most common objects appear to become lighter and seem to lose something in the process . The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the gaseous combustion products . Indeed , one of the first clues that the phlogiston theory was incorrect was that metals gain weight in rusting ( when they were supposedly losing phlogiston ) .
= = = Discovery = = =
Oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele . He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1772 . Scheele called the gas " fire air " because it was the only known supporter of combustion , and wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire , which he sent to his publisher in 1775 . That document was published in 1777 .
In the meantime , on August 1 , 1774 , an experiment conducted by the British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide ( HgO ) inside a glass tube , which liberated a gas he named " dephlogisticated air " . He noted that candles burned brighter in the gas and that a mouse was more active and lived longer while breathing it . After breathing the gas himself , he wrote : " The feeling of it to my lungs was not sensibly different from that of common air , but I fancied that my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time afterwards . " Priestley published his findings in 1775 in a paper titled " An Account of Further Discoveries in Air " which was included in the second volume of his book titled Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air . Because he published his findings first , Priestley is usually given priority in the discovery .
The French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier later claimed to have discovered the new substance independently . Priestley visited Lavoisier in October 1774 and told him about his experiment and how he liberated the new gas . Scheele also posted a letter to Lavoisier on September 30 , 1774 that described his discovery of the previously unknown substance , but Lavoisier never acknowledged receiving it ( a copy of the letter was found in Scheele 's belongings after his death ) .
= = = Lavoisier 's contribution = = =
What Lavoisier did ( although this was disputed at the time ) was to conduct the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and give the first correct explanation of how combustion works . He used these and similar experiments , all started in 1774 , to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element .
In one experiment , Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container . He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container , which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed . He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in . This and other experiments on combustion were documented in his book Sur la combustion en général , which was published in 1777 . In that work , he proved that air is a mixture of two gases ; ' vital air ' , which is essential to combustion and respiration , and azote ( Gk. ἄζωτον " lifeless " ) , which did not support either . Azote later became nitrogen in English , although it has kept the name in French and several other European languages .
Lavoisier renamed ' vital air ' to oxygène in 1777 from the Greek roots ὀξύς ( oxys ) ( acid , literally " sharp " , from the taste of acids ) and -γενής ( -genēs ) ( producer , literally begetter ) , because he mistakenly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids . Chemists ( such as Sir Humphry Davy in 1812 ) eventually determined that Lavoisier was wrong in this regard ( hydrogen forms the basis for acid chemistry ) , but by then the name was too well established .
Oxygen entered the English language despite opposition by English scientists and the fact that the Englishman Priestley had first isolated the gas and written about it . This is partly due to a poem praising the gas titled " Oxygen " in the popular book The Botanic Garden ( 1791 ) by Erasmus Darwin , grandfather of Charles Darwin .
= = = Later history = = =
John Dalton 's original atomic hypothesis presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another . For example , Dalton assumed that water 's formula was HO , giving the atomic mass of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen , instead of the modern value of about 16 . In 1805 , Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen ; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water 's composition , based on what is now called Avogadro 's law and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases .
By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied and its components isolated by compressing and cooling it . Using a cascade method , Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide , which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it . He sent a telegram on December 22 , 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of liquid oxygen . Just two days later , French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his own method of liquefying molecular oxygen . Only a few drops of the liquid were produced in each case and no meaningful analysis could be conducted . Oxygen was liquified in a stable state for the first time on March 29 , 1883 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian University , Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski .
In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen for study . The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William Hampson . Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them . Later , in 1901 , oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed O
2 . This method of welding and cutting metal later became common .
In 1923 , the American scientist Robert H. Goddard became the first person to develop a rocket engine that burned liquid fuel ; the engine used gasoline for fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer . Goddard successfully flew a small liquid @-@ fueled rocket 56 m at 97 km / h on March 16 , 1926 in Auburn , Massachusetts , US .
Oxygen levels in the atmosphere are trending slightly downward globally , possibly because of fossil @-@ fuel burning .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Properties and molecular structure = = =
At standard temperature and pressure , oxygen is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas with the molecular formula O
2 , referred to as dioxygen .
As dioxygen , two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other . The bond can be variously described based on level of theory , but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent double bond that results from the filling of molecular orbitals formed from the atomic orbitals of the individual oxygen atoms , the filling of which results in a bond order of two . More specifically , the double bond is the result of sequential , low @-@ to @-@ high energy , or Aufbau , filling of orbitals , and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons , after sequential filling of the low σ and σ * orbitals ; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O @-@ O molecular axis and π overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O @-@ O molecular axis , and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest π and π * orbitals .
This combination of cancellations and σ and π overlaps results in dioxygen 's double bond character and reactivity , and a triplet electronic ground state . An electron configuration with two unpaired electrons , as is found in dioxygen ( see the filled π * orbitals in the diagram ) orbitals that are of equal energy — i.e. , degenerate — is a configuration termed a spin triplet state . Hence , the ground state of the O
2 molecule is referred to as triplet oxygen . The highest energy , partially filled orbitals are antibonding , and so their filling weakens the bond order from three to two . Because of its unpaired electrons , triplet oxygen reacts only slowly with most organic molecules , which have paired electron spins ; this prevents spontaneous combustion .
In the triplet form , O
2 molecules are paramagnetic . That is , they impart magnetic character to oxygen when it is in the presence of a magnetic field , because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the molecule , and the negative exchange energy between neighboring O
2 molecules . Liquid oxygen is so magnetic that , in laboratory demonstrations , a bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet .
Singlet oxygen is a name given to several higher @-@ energy species of molecular O
2 in which all the electron spins are paired . It is much more reactive with common organic molecules than is molecular oxygen per se . In nature , singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis , using the energy of sunlight . It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength , and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen . Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms ( and possibly animals ) play a major role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissues .
= = = Allotropes = = =
The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen , O
2 , the major part of the Earth 's atmospheric oxygen ( see Occurrence ) . O2 has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ · mol − 1 , which is smaller than the energy of other double bonds or pairs of single bonds in the biosphere and responsible for the exothermic reaction of O2 with any organic molecule . Due to its energy content , O2 is used by complex forms of life , such as animals , in cellular respiration ( see Biological role ) . Other aspects of O
2 are covered in the remainder of this article .
Trioxygen ( O
3 ) is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue . Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when O
2 combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O
2 by ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation . Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum , the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet . Near the Earth 's surface , it is a pollutant formed as a by @-@ product of automobile exhaust . The metastable molecule tetraoxygen ( O
4 ) was discovered in 2001 , and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen . It was proven in 2006 that this phase , created by pressurizing O
2 to 20 GPa , is in fact a rhombohedral O
8 cluster . This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either O
2 or O
3 and may therefore be used in rocket fuel . A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures , this phase becomes superconducting .
= = = Physical properties = = =
Oxygen dissolves more readily in water than nitrogen , and in freshwater more readily than seawater . Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved O
2 for every 2 molecules of N
2 ( 1 : 2 ) , compared with an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1 : 4 . The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature @-@ dependent , and about twice as much ( 14 @.@ 6 mg · L − 1 ) dissolves at 0 ° C than at 20 ° C ( 7 @.@ 6 mg · L − 1 ) . At 25 ° C and 1 standard atmosphere ( 101 @.@ 3 kPa ) of air , freshwater contains about 6 @.@ 04 milliliters ( mL ) of oxygen per liter , and seawater contains about 4 @.@ 95 mL per liter . At 5 ° C the solubility increases to 9 @.@ 0 mL ( 50 % more than at 25 ° C ) per liter for water and 7 @.@ 2 mL ( 45 % more ) per liter for sea water .
Oxygen condenses at 90 @.@ 20 K ( − 182 @.@ 95 ° C , − 297 @.@ 31 ° F ) , and freezes at 54 @.@ 36 K ( − 218 @.@ 79 ° C , − 361 @.@ 82 ° F ) . Both liquid and solid O
2 are clear substances with a light sky @-@ blue color caused by absorption in the red ( in contrast with the blue color of the sky , which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light ) . High @-@ purity liquid O
2 is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air . Liquid oxygen may also be condensed from air using liquid nitrogen as a coolant .
Oxygen is a highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials .
The spectroscopy of molecular oxygen is associated with the atmospheric processes of aurora , airglow and nightglow . The absorption in the Herzberg continuum and Schumann – Runge bands in the ultraviolet produces atomic oxygen that is important in the chemistry of the middle atmosphere . Excited state singlet molecular oxygen is responsible for red chemiluminescence in solution .
= = = Isotopes and stellar origin = = =
Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes , 16O , 17O , and 18O , with 16O being the most abundant ( 99 @.@ 762 % natural abundance ) .
Most 16O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion process in massive stars but some is made in the neon burning process . 17O is primarily made by the burning of hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle , making it a common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of stars . Most 18O is produced when 14N ( made abundant from CNO burning ) captures a 4He nucleus , making 18O common in the helium @-@ rich zones of evolved , massive stars .
Fourteen radioisotopes have been characterized . The most stable are 15O with a half @-@ life of 122 @.@ 24 seconds and 14O with a half @-@ life of 70 @.@ 606 seconds . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 27 s and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 83 milliseconds . The most common decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 16O is β + decay to yield nitrogen , and the most common mode for the isotopes heavier than 18O is beta decay to yield fluorine .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth 's biosphere , air , sea and land . Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . About 0 @.@ 9 % of the Sun 's mass is oxygen . Oxygen constitutes 49 @.@ 2 % of the Earth 's crust by mass as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth 's crust . It is also the major component of the world 's oceans ( 88 @.@ 8 % by mass ) . Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth 's atmosphere , taking up 20 @.@ 8 % of its volume and 23 @.@ 1 % of its mass ( some 1015 tonnes ) . Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere : Mars ( with 0 @.@ 1 % O
2 by volume ) and Venus have much less . The O
2 surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen @-@ containing molecules such as carbon dioxide .
The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle . This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth : the atmosphere , the biosphere , and the lithosphere . The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis , which is responsible for modern Earth 's atmosphere . Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere , while respiration , decay , and combustion remove it from the atmosphere . In the present equilibrium , production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1 / 2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year .
Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world 's water bodies . The increased solubility of O
2 at lower temperatures ( see Physical properties ) has important implications for ocean life , as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content . Water polluted with plant nutrients such as nitrates or phosphates may stimulate growth of algae by a process called eutrophication and the decay of these organisms and other biomaterials may reduce the O
2 content in eutrophic water bodies . Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water 's biochemical oxygen demand , or the amount of O
2 needed to restore it to a normal concentration .
= = = Analysis = = =
Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen @-@ 18 and oxygen @-@ 16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine the climate millions of years ago ( see oxygen isotope ratio cycle ) . Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope , oxygen @-@ 16 , evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12 % heavier oxygen @-@ 18 , and this disparity increases at lower temperatures . During periods of lower global temperatures , snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen @-@ 16 , and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen @-@ 18 . Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen @-@ 18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate . Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples as old as hundreds of thousands of years .
Planetary geologists have measured the relative quantities of oxygen isotopes in samples from the Earth , the Moon , Mars , and meteorites , but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the Sun , believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula . Analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen @-@ 16 than does the Earth . The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen @-@ 16 from the Sun 's disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth .
Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687 and 760 nm . Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform . This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation 's reflectance from its fluorescence , which is much weaker . The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation ; but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale .
= = Biological role of O2 = =
= = = Photosynthesis and respiration = = =
In nature , free oxygen is produced by the light @-@ driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis . According to some estimates , green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70 % of the free oxygen produced on Earth , and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants . Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher , while some estimates are lower , suggesting oceans produce ~ 45 % of Earth 's atmospheric oxygen each year .
A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is :
6 CO2 + 6 H
2O + photons → C
6H
12O
6 + 6 O
2
or simply
carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose + dioxygen
Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires the energy of four photons . Many steps are involved , but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane , which is used to synthesize adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) via photophosphorylation . The O
2 remaining ( after production of the water molecule ) is released into the atmosphere .
Molecular dioxygen , O
2 , is essential for cellular respiration in all aerobic organisms . Oxygen is used in mitochondria to generate ATP during oxidative phosphorylation . The reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified as :
C
6H
12O
6 + 6 O
2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H
2O + 2880 kJ · mol − 1
In vertebrates , O
2 diffuses through membranes in the lungs and into red blood cells . Hemoglobin binds O
2 , changing color from bluish red to bright red ( CO
2 is released from another part of hemoglobin through the Bohr effect ) . Other animals use hemocyanin ( molluscs and some arthropods ) or hemerythrin ( spiders and lobsters ) . A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cm3 of O
2 .
Until the discovery of anaerobic metazoa , oxygen was thought to be a requirement for all complex life .
Reactive oxygen species , such as superoxide ion ( O −
2 ) and hydrogen peroxide ( H
2O
2 ) , are dangerous by @-@ products of oxygen use in organisms . Parts of the immune system of higher organisms create peroxide , superoxide , and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes . Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack . Oxygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms , which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until O
2 began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2 @.@ 5 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event , about a billion years after the first appearance of these organisms .
An adult human at rest inhales 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 grams of oxygen per minute . This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year .
= = = Living organisms = = =
The free oxygen partial pressure in the body of a living vertebrate organism is highest in the respiratory system , and decreases along any arterial system , peripheral tissues , and venous system , respectively . Partial pressure is the pressure that oxygen would have if it alone occupied the volume .
= = = Build @-@ up in the atmosphere = = =
Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth 's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved , probably about 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago . Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic eon ( between 3 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 3 billion years ago ) . For the first billion years , any free oxygen produced by these organisms combined with dissolved iron in the oceans to form banded iron formations . When such oxygen sinks became saturated , free oxygen began to outgas from the oceans 3 – 2 @.@ 7 billion years ago , reaching 10 % of its present level around 1 @.@ 7 billion years ago .
The presence of large amounts of dissolved and free oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere may have driven most of the extant anaerobic organisms to extinction during the Great Oxygenation Event ( oxygen catastrophe ) about 2 @.@ 4 billion years ago . Cellular respiration using O
2 enables aerobic organisms to produce much more ATP than anaerobic organisms . Cellular respiration of O
2 occurs in all eukaryotes , including all complex multicellular organisms such as plants and animals .
Since the beginning of the Cambrian period 540 million years ago , atmospheric O
2 levels have fluctuated between 15 % and 30 % by volume . Towards the end of the Carboniferous period ( about 300 million years ago ) atmospheric O
2 levels reached a maximum of 35 % by volume , which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at this time .
Variations of oxygen shaped the climates of the past . When oxygen declined , atmospheric density dropped and this in turn increased surface evaporation , and led to precipitation increases and warmer temperatures .
At the current rate of photosynthesis it would take about 2 @,@ 000 years to regenerate the entire O
2 in the present atmosphere .
= = Industrial production = =
One hundred million tonnes of O
2 are extracted from air for industrial uses annually by two primary methods . The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air , with N
2 distilling as a vapor while O
2 is left as a liquid .
The other primary method of producing O
2 is passing a stream of clean , dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves , which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90 % to 93 % O
2 . Simultaneously , nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen @-@ saturated zeolite bed , by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it , in the reverse direction of flow . After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged , thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline . This is known as pressure swing adsorption . Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non @-@ cryogenic technologies ( see also the related vacuum swing adsorption ) .
Oxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen . DC electricity must be used : if AC is used , the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio 2 : 1 . Contrary to popular belief , the 2 : 1 ratio observed in the DC electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the empirical formula of water is H2O unless certain assumptions are made about the molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselves . A similar method is the electrocatalytic O
2 evolution from oxides and oxoacids . Chemical catalysts can be used as well , such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that are used as part of the life @-@ support equipment on submarines , and are still part of standard equipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergencies . Another air separation method is forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current , to produce nearly pure O
2 gas .
In large quantities , the price of liquid oxygen in 2001 was approximately $ 0 @.@ 21 / kg . Since the primary cost of production is the energy cost of liquefying the air , the production cost will change as energy cost varies .
= = Storage = =
Oxygen storage methods include high pressure oxygen tanks , cryogenics and chemical compounds . For reasons of economy , oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers , since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers , which stand outside hospitals and other institutions that need large volumes of pure oxygen gas . Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers , which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building . Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas ; a form that is useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy @-@ fuel welding and cutting .
= = Applications = =
= = = Medical = = =
Uptake of O
2 from the air is the essential purpose of respiration , so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine . Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient 's blood , but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs , easing work load on the heart . Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema , pneumonia , some heart disorders ( congestive heart failure ) , some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure , and any disease that impairs the body 's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen .
Treatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals , the patient 's home , or increasingly by portable devices . Oxygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation , but have since been replaced mostly by the use of oxygen masks or nasal cannulas .
Hyperbaric ( high @-@ pressure ) medicine uses special oxygen chambers to increase the partial pressure of O
2 around the patient and , when needed , the medical staff . Carbon monoxide poisoning , gas gangrene , and decompression sickness ( the ' bends ' ) are sometimes addressed with this therapy . Increased O
2 concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of hemoglobin . Oxygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene , so increasing its partial pressure helps kill them . Decompression sickness occurs in divers who decompress too quickly after a dive , resulting in bubbles of inert gas , mostly nitrogen and helium , forming in the blood . Increasing the pressure of O
2 as soon as possible helps to redissolve the bubbles back into the blood so that these excess gasses can be exhaled naturally through the lungs .
Oxygen is also used medically for patients who require mechanical ventilation , often at concentrations above the 21 % found in ambient air .
= = = Life support and recreational use = = =
An application of O
2 as a low @-@ pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits , which surround their occupant 's body with pressurized air . These devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one third normal pressure , resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of O
2 . This trade @-@ off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain suit flexibility .
Scuba divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered O
2 , but most often use normal pressure , and / or mixtures of oxygen and air . Pure or nearly pure O
2 use in diving at higher @-@ than @-@ sea @-@ level pressures is usually limited to rebreather , decompression , or emergency treatment use at relatively shallow depths ( ~ 6 meters depth , or less ) . Deeper diving requires significant dilution of O
2 with other gases , such as nitrogen or helium , to prevent oxygen toxicity .
People who climb mountains or fly in non @-@ pressurized fixed @-@ wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental O
2 supplies . Pressurized commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of O
2 automatically supplied to the passengers in case of cabin depressurization . Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat , causing oxygen masks to drop . Pulling on the masks " to start the flow of oxygen " as cabin safety instructions dictate , forces iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister . A steady stream of oxygen gas is then produced by the exothermic reaction .
Oxygen , as a supposed mild euphoric , has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and in sports . Oxygen bars are establishments found in Japan , California , and Las Vegas , Nevada since the late 1990s that offer higher than normal O
2 exposure for a fee . Professional athletes , especially in American football , sometimes go off @-@ field between plays to don oxygen masks to boost performance . The pharmacological effect is doubted ; a placebo effect is a more likely explanation . Available studies support a performance boost from enriched O
2 mixtures only if it is breathed during aerobic exercise .
Other recreational uses that do not involve breathing include pyrotechnic applications , such as George Goble 's five @-@ second ignition of barbecue grills .
= = = Industrial = = =
Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55 % of commercially produced oxygen . In this process , O
2 is injected through a high @-@ pressure lance into molten iron , which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides , SO
2 and CO
2 . The reactions are exothermic , so the temperature increases to 1 @,@ 700 ° C.
Another 25 % of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry . Ethylene is reacted with O
2 to create ethylene oxide , which , in turn , is converted into ethylene glycol ; the primary feeder material used to manufacture a host of products , including antifreeze and polyester polymers ( the precursors of many plastics and fabrics ) .
Most of the remaining 20 % of commercially produced oxygen is used in medical applications , metal cutting and welding , as an oxidizer in rocket fuel , and in water treatment . Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding burning acetylene with O
2 to produce a very hot flame . In this process , metal up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) thick is first heated with a small oxy @-@ acetylene flame and then quickly cut by a large stream of O
2 .
= = Compounds = =
The oxidation state of oxygen is − 2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen . The oxidation state − 1 is found in a few compounds such as peroxides . Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon : − 1 / 2 ( superoxides ) , − 1 / 3 ( ozonides ) , 0 ( elemental , hypofluorous acid ) , + 1 / 2 ( dioxygenyl ) , + 1 ( dioxygen difluoride ) , and + 2 ( oxygen difluoride ) .
= = = Oxides and other inorganic compounds = = =
Water ( H
2O ) is an oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound . Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional attraction ( about 23 @.@ 3 kJ · mol − 1 per hydrogen atom ) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule . These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15 % closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just van der Waals forces .
Due to its electronegativity , oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements to give corresponding oxides . The surface of most metals , such as aluminium and titanium , are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion . Many oxides of the transition metals are non @-@ stoichiometric compounds , with slightly less metal than the chemical formula would show . For example , the mineral FeO ( wüstite ) is written as Fe
1 − xO , where x is usually around 0 @.@ 05 .
Oxygen is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) . The Earth 's crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon ( silica SiO
2 , as found in granite and quartz ) , aluminium ( aluminium oxide Al
2O
3 , in bauxite and corundum ) , iron ( iron ( III ) oxide Fe
2O
3 , in hematite and rust ) , and calcium carbonate ( in limestone ) . The rest of the Earth 's crust is also made of oxygen compounds , in particular various complex silicates ( in silicate minerals ) . The Earth 's mantle , of much larger mass than the crust , is largely composed of silicates of magnesium and iron .
Water @-@ soluble silicates in the form of Na
4SiO
4 , Na
2SiO
3 , and Na
2Si
2O
5 are used as detergents and adhesives .
Oxygen also acts as a ligand for transition metals , forming transition metal dioxygen complexes , which feature metal – O
2 . This class of compounds includes the heme proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin . An exotic and unusual reaction occurs with PtF
6 , which oxidizes oxygen to give O2 + PtF6 − .
= = = Organic compounds and biomolecules = = =
Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are ( where " R " is an organic group ) : alcohols ( R @-@ OH ) ; ethers ( R @-@ O @-@ R ) ; ketones ( R @-@ CO @-@ R ) ; aldehydes ( R @-@ CO @-@ H ) ; carboxylic acids ( R @-@ COOH ) ; esters ( R @-@ COO @-@ R ) ; acid anhydrides ( R @-@ CO @-@ O @-@ CO @-@ R ) ; and amides ( R @-@ C ( O ) -NR
2 ) . There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen , including : acetone , methanol , ethanol , isopropanol , furan , THF , diethyl ether , dioxane , ethyl acetate , DMF , DMSO , acetic acid , and formic acid . Acetone ( ( CH
3 )
2CO ) and phenol ( C
6H
5OH ) are used as feeder materials in the synthesis of many different substances . Other important organic compounds that contain oxygen are : glycerol , formaldehyde , glutaraldehyde , citric acid , acetic anhydride , and acetamide . Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of three atoms .
Oxygen reacts spontaneously with many organic compounds at or below room temperature in a process called autoxidation . Most of the organic compounds that contain oxygen are not made by direct action of O
2 . Organic compounds important in industry and commerce that are made by direct oxidation of a precursor include ethylene oxide and peracetic acid .
The element is found in almost all biomolecules that are important to ( or generated by ) life . Only a few common complex biomolecules , such as squalene and the carotenes , contain no oxygen . Of the organic compounds with biological relevance , carbohydrates contain the largest proportion by mass of oxygen . All fats , fatty acids , amino acids , and proteins contain oxygen ( due to the presence of carbonyl groups in these acids and their ester residues ) . Oxygen also occurs in phosphate ( PO3 −
4 ) groups in the biologically important energy @-@ carrying molecules ATP and ADP , in the backbone and the purines ( except adenine ) and pyrimidines of RNA and DNA , and in bones as calcium phosphate and hydroxylapatite .
= = Safety and precautions = =
The NFPA 704 standard rates compressed oxygen gas as nonhazardous to health , nonflammable and nonreactive , but an oxidizer . Refrigerated liquid oxygen ( LOX ) is given a health hazard rating of 3 ( for increased risk of hyperoxia from condensed vapors , and for hazards common to cryogenic liquids such as frostbite ) , and all other ratings are the same as the compressed gas form .
= = = Toxicity = = =
Oxygen gas ( O
2 ) can be toxic at elevated partial pressures , leading to convulsions and other health problems . Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals ( kPa ) , equal to about 50 % oxygen composition at standard pressure or 2 @.@ 5 times the normal sea @-@ level O
2 partial pressure of about 21 kPa . This is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators , since gas supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of only 30 % – 50 % O
2 by volume ( about 30 kPa at standard pressure ) . ( although this figure also is subject to wide variation , depending on type of mask ) .
At one time , premature babies were placed in incubators containing O
2 @-@ rich air , but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being too high .
Breathing pure O
2 in space applications , such as in some modern space suits , or in early spacecraft such as Apollo , causes no damage due to the low total pressures used . In the case of spacesuits , the O
2 partial pressure in the breathing gas is , in general , about 30 kPa ( 1 @.@ 4 times normal ) , and the resulting O
2 partial pressure in the astronaut 's arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea @-@ level O
2 partial pressure ( for more information on this , see space suit and arterial blood gas ) .
Oxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and surface supplied diving . Prolonged breathing of an air mixture with an O
2 partial pressure more than 60 kPa can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis . Exposure to a O
2 partial pressures greater than 160 kPa ( about 1 @.@ 6 atm ) may lead to convulsions ( normally fatal for divers ) . Acute oxygen toxicity ( causing seizures , its most feared effect for divers ) can occur by breathing an air mixture with 21 % O
2 at 66 m ( 217 ft ) or more of depth ; the same thing can occur by breathing 100 % O
2 at only 6 m ( 20 ft ) .
= = = Combustion and other hazards = = =
Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion . Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity ; an ignition event , such as heat or a spark , is needed to trigger combustion . Oxygen is the oxidant , not the fuel , but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion . Combustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential , such as peroxides , chlorates , nitrates , perchlorates , and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire .
Concentrated O
2 will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically . Steel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel ; and therefore the design and manufacture of O
2 systems requires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimized . The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew in a launch pad test spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure O
2 but at slightly more than atmospheric pressure , instead of the 1 ⁄ 3 normal pressure that would be used in a mission .
Liquid oxygen spills , if allowed to soak into organic matter , such as wood , petrochemicals , and asphalt can cause these materials to detonate unpredictably on subsequent mechanical impact . As with other cryogenic liquids , on contact with the human body it can cause frostbites to the skin and the eyes .
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= Mirai no Museum =
" Mirai no Museum " ( Translation : " Future Museum " ) is a song by Japanese girl group Perfume from their fourth studio album Level 3 ( 2013 ) . The song was released as the album 's third single on 27 February 2013 . It was written , composed and produced by Yasutaka Nakata . The song is a dance pop track , which features instrumentation from synthesizers and keyboards . The track is translated to " Future Museum " and was used as the theme song for the Doraemon film , Nobita no Himitsu Dougu Museum .
" Mirai no Museum " received negative reviews from music critics , who felt it was childish and interrupted the composition sequence of the album . The song became their eighth consecutive single to stall at number two in Japan . The track became their first charting single in Korea since their 2011 single " Laser Beam / Kasuka na Kaori " . Yusuke Tanaka commissioned the accompanying music video for the single , which shows Perfume inside a comic book – style world . Perfume have performed the song in a number of live performances throughout Japan .
= = Background and composition = =
Japanese producer and Capsule musician Yasutaka Nakata wrote , arranged , and composed " Mirai no Museum " . Nakata has collaborated with all of Perfume 's records and songs from 2003 onwards . It was recorded in Tokyo , Japan and was mixed and mastered by Nakata . It is a dance and electropop song , and incorporates instrumentation of a drum machine , synthesizer and keyboards .
= = Reception = =
" Mirai no Museum " received mostly negative reviews from music critics . Writing for Land of Rising , Alex Shenmue said the song was one to skip . He felt that while the song was sung and produced well and catchy , “ it doesn 't fit the role of middle @-@ section track in this album , ” and “ breaks the musical delivery . ” He labelled it the “ one true issue on the album . ” Patrick St. Michael , writing for The Japan Times , said it was his least favorite single from the album and felt it was “ painfully out of place . ” Selective Hearings writer Nia labelled it a “ dud ” and “ childish . ” She said the song was the weakest and preferred their track " Hurly Burly " to replace the song , which was not featured on the album . A writer from CDJournal praised the “ dreamy ” and catchy production , but criticized the composition . Ian Martin , who had written their extended biography at Allmusic , had highlighted the song as an album and career standout .
The song charted in Japan , South Korea and Taiwan . Reaching number two on the Oricon Singles Chart , it became the group 's eighth consecutive single to stall at number two . It was the group 's last single to reach number two until their 2014 single " Cling Cling " reached the position and is their eleventh best @-@ selling single there . The track also peaked at two on Japan Hot 100 chart . The song reached number twenty @-@ three and thirteen in South Korea . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Release and promotion = =
Selected as the third single of Level 3 , the song was released as an extended play digital download on 27 February 2013 . Universal Music then released the single in the United Kingdom , New Zealand , Australia , Canada and the US . Two CD singles were issued ; a standalone CD with all four songs , and a digipak that included a bonus DVD , a lyric sheet and a music video comic book .
" Mirai no Museum " was used as the ending theme song for the film Doraemon : Nobita no Himitsu Dōgu Museum , released in March 2013 . Perfume debuted the track on Music Japan TV , where they sported the same outfit on the CD cover and performed the track . The group shot a promotional video for the film 's release . The official music video was directed by Japanese director Yusuke Tanaka and premiered on Perfume 's YouTube channel in June 2013 . It features Perfume inside a comic book , trying to defeat a heavily armored warrior . They are accompanied by a mysterious mascot man , who tries to hide away from the warrior when it attacks .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the " Mirai no Museum " CD single .
= = = Song credits = = =
Ayano Ōmoto ( Nocchi ) – vocals
Yuka Kashino ( Kashiyuka ) – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki ( A @-@ Chan ) – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
= = = Visual credits = = =
Yusuke Tanaka – director
Takahiko Kajima – video producer
Kazunali Tajima – camera
Tetsu Moridera – lighting director
Mikiko – choreographer
Shinichi Miter – stylist
Masako Osuga – make @-@ up
Yuki Shhimajiri – hair stylist
Drop – animation designer
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Yasutaka Nakata .
= = Charts , peaks and positions = =
= = Release history = =
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= Gagak Item =
Gagak Item ( [ ɡaˈɡaʔ iˈtəm ] ; Vernacular Malay for Black Raven , also known by the Dutch title De Zwarte Raaf ) is a 1939 bandit film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Joshua and Othniel Wong for Tan 's Film . Starring Rd Mochtar , Roekiah , and Eddy T. Effendi , it follows a masked man known only as " Gagak Item " ( " Black Raven " ) . The black @-@ and @-@ white film , which featured the cast and crew from the 1937 hit Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ) , was a commercial success and received positive reviews upon release . It is likely lost .
= = Production = =
Gagak Item was directed by brothers Joshua and Othniel Wong ; filming the work in black @-@ and @-@ white , they also handled sound editing . It was produced by Tan Khoen Yauw of Tan 's Film and starred Rd Mochtar , Roekiah , Eddy T. Effendi , and Kartolo . The Wongs and cast had first worked together on Albert Balink 's 1937 blockbuster Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ) , before joining Tan 's Film in 1938 for the highly successful Fatima ; Gagak Item was their second production with the company , which hoped to mirror Terang Boelan 's success . Through these prior films Mochtar and Roekiah had become an established screen couple .
Saeroen , a journalist @-@ turned @-@ screenwriter for Terang Boelan and Fatima , returned to write the script to Gagak Item . The film , a love story , followed a girl and a masked man known as " Gagak Item " ( " Black Raven " ) and was set in rural Buitenzorg ( now Bogor ) . The titular bandit was similar to Zorro , a character popular in the Indies at the time ; such figures had been a staple of travelling theatre troupes beginning in the early 1930s . When writing the script Saeroen continued the formula he had used in Terang Boelan , including action , music , beautiful vistas and physical comedy . The film had six songs performed by Hugo Dumas ' musical troupe Lief Java ; the troupe was known for its keroncong performances , mixing traditional music with Portuguese influences . Gagak Item featured vocals by kroncong singer Annie Landouw .
= = Release and reception = =
Gagak Item was released in late 1939 and was screened in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , the capital of the Indies ; Medan , North Sumatra ; and Surabaya , eastern Java . Some screenings of the film , also advertised under the Dutch title De Zwarte Raaf , had Dutch @-@ language subtitles . A novelisation of the film , published by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning , soon followed . Gagak Item was one of four domestic productions released in 1939 ; the film industry had undergone a significant downturn following the onset of the Great Depression , during which time cinemas mainly showed Hollywood productions , and had only begun recovering following the release of Terang Boelan .
Gagak Item was a commercial and critical success , although not as much as Tan 's earlier production . An anonymous review in Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad praised the film , especially its music . The reviewer opined that the film would be a great success and that the film industry in the Indies was showing promising developments . Another review in the same paper found that , although " one may shake one 's head over the cultural value of indigenous films " , the film was a step forward for the industry . The review praised Roekiah 's " demure " acting .
Following the success of Gagak Item the Wongs , Saeroen , Roekiah , and Mochtar continued to work with Tan 's Film . Their next production , Siti Akbari ( 1940 ) , was similarly successful , although again not as profitable as Terang Boelan or Fatima . Saeroen , Joshua Wong , and Mochtar left the company in 1940 : Wong and Mochtar after payment disputes , and Saeroen to return to journalism . Through 1941 Tan 's Film produced fewer movies than its competitors , and was ultimately shut down following the Japanese occupation in early 1942 .
Gagak Item was screened as late as January 1951 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Frederik Magle =
Frederik Reesen Magle ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈfʁæðˀʁæɡ ̊ ˈma ̝ ʊ ̯ lə ] ; born 17 April 1977 ) is a Danish composer , concert organist , and pianist . He writes contemporary classical music as well as fusion of classical music and other genres . His compositions include orchestral works , cantatas , chamber music , and solo works ( mainly for organ ) , including several compositions commissioned by the Danish Royal Family . Magle has gained a reputation as an organ virtuoso , and as a composer and performing artist who does not refrain from venturing into more experimental projects – often with improvisation – bordering jazz , electronica , and other non @-@ classical genres .
His best @-@ known works include his concerto for organ and orchestra The Infinite Second , his brass quintet piece Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) , composed for the christening of Prince Nikolai , The Hope for brass band and choir , his symphonic suite Cantabile , and a collection of improvisations for organ titled Like a Flame .
= = Life = =
Frederik Magle was born in Stubbekøbing , the son of actress and writer Mimi Heinrich and organist , painter and sculptor Christian Reesen Magle ( 1925 – 96 ) . He is the great @-@ nephew of the composer Emil Reesen ( his grandmother 's brother ) . Recognized early as a child prodigy , he appeared on television and in the news media at the age of 9 .
Magle was educated as a private student of Leif Thybo ( composition and music theory ) , and Ib Bindel ( organ ) . He was taught piano , score reading , and music theory from the age of six . At the age of 16 , he was admitted to the Royal Danish Academy of Music , where he was taught music theory by Yngve Jan Trede , but after one and a half years he decided to leave the music academy , explaining that he " could not both study at the conservatory and work independently as a composer at the same time . " He later stated that the decision " was difficult , and there was a lot to think through , " but that he did not regret it .
He received the scholarship of countess Erna Hamilton in 1993 . In 1994 , as an organ soloist , he won the Danish qualification rounds and national final of the Eurovision Young Musicians competition . He was one of eight winners of the 24 national competitions that year to be selected for the European final , held at the Philharmonic Concert Hall in Warsaw , Poland on 14 June 1994 . He performed Francis Poulenc 's Organ Concerto , but was not placed in the top 3 . The Polish organizers originally planned the qualifying round to be held elsewhere , but moved it to the Philharmonic Hall ( which contains a pipe organ ) to accommodate Magle 's participation .
Magle 's father died in 1996 , shortly before the first performance of Frederik Magle 's Christmas cantata A newborn child , before eternity , God ! , which is dedicated to him . Magle was awarded the Freemason 's Arts Prize in 2001 . In 2006 he took ownership of the classical music internet forum " Talk Classical " .
He has said that he often gets his ideas in dreams and always have a notebook next to him when he sleeps , in case he gets an idea for a " musical phrase or an orchestral build @-@ up " during the night .
= = Music = =
= = = 1985 – 1999 = = =
The first public performance of one of Frederik Magle 's compositions took place on Easter morning 7 April 1985 , in Stubbekøbing church , where a children 's choir performed an Easter hymn he had composed . Two years later , in 1987 , six of his hymns with texts by his mother Mimi Heinrich were performed by actress and singer Annie Birgit Garde at a concert in Lyngby church , and the same year he played on television for the first time . In 1988 , two of his larger works , the cantata We are afraid , and the " mini @-@ musical " A Christmas Child , were premiered in Grundtvig 's Church in Copenhagen before an audience of 2 @,@ 000 people . He began a collaboration with the violinist Nikolaj Znaider in 1990 , and they performed a series of concerts together . Later , Znaider gave the first performance of Magle 's variations for violin and piano in the Concertgebouw , Amsterdam , with the pianist Daniel Gortler : Journey in time describes a " kind of scenes or musical images " with the use of sharp dissonances , complicated rhythms and dramatic transitions and thematic formations .
In 1993 Magle composed music for the experimental theatre performance Der Die Das by the theatrical group Hotel Pro Forma , directed by Kirsten Dehlholm , which was performed at the 4th international Dance Festival in Munich , Germany . Other artists involved were the architect Thomas Wiesner , sculptors Anders Krüger and Frans Jacobi , painter Tomas Lahoda , and the costume designer Annette Meyer ; it was presented as a contemporary " Gesamtkunstwerk " comprising architecture , art , music , and performance .
Magle 's concerto for organ and orchestra The Infinite Second was given its first performance and recorded in 1994 at the 3rd international music festival in Riga Cathedral , Latvia by the Latvian Philharmonic Chamber Orchestra , conducted by Dzintars Josts , with Frederik Magle himself as organ soloist . The reviewer of Berlingske Tidende , Steen Chr . Steensen , described the organ concerto as " a long process from darkness to light " tonally " founded in the French school of organ music " . It was released on CD in 1996 along with his second symphony for organ Let there be light which had been premiered in Riga Cathedral in 1993 . The culture journalist Jakob Levinsen wrote of Magle 's method of structuring the two works :
... while his music appears quite conventional in terms of the traditional musical parameters , such as a preference for arch forms and a relatively conservative use of free tonality in terms of melody and harmony , what could be labelled the dramatic characters of his music are very definitely developed from the specific possibilities of the church organ itself . That goes for the often occurring contrast between very bright and very dark timbres , between clearly defined melodic lines and closely woven fields of sound , between huge pillars of chords and energetically moving patterns of rhythm . And it goes for his two dominating ways of structuring his music as well ( ... ) the gradual building of dynamic tensions through adding more and more layers of sound , the abrupt changes between light and dark , force and calm , clear and veiled . Including the courage to extend some of the parameters into the extremes – such as when a rhythmic pattern becomes so dense as to almost blurring the contours of the figurations involved , and only the outline of movement remains ...
The Christmas cantata A newborn child , before eternity , God ! was given its first performance in 1996 , commissioned by Kulturby 96 – the European Capital of Culture 1996 . In 1997 it was released on CD , in a recording made in Messiaskirken in Charlottenlund by the soloists Ingibjörg Gudjonsdottir , soprano , Elisabeth Halling , alto , Gert Henning @-@ Jensen , tenor , Christian Christiansen , bass , two mixed choirs , two children 's choirs , brass band , organ and percussion , conducted by Steen Lindholm . The cantata was described by the reviewer of Jyllands @-@ Posten as hard to classify , with a " religiously narrative robustness " . The work sets text from a kontakion by the 6th century hymnographer Romanos the Melodist , translated into Danish by the theology professor Christian Thodberg , and edited by the priest Kristian Høeg .
In 1995 @-@ 96 Magle composed a symphonic Lego Fantasia in three movements for piano and symphony orchestra , commissioned by the Lego Group . It was premiered on 24 August 1997 at a concert in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle by the London Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by David Parry , with Magle himself on piano . In 1998 the same performers recorded the work for a CD released by the Lego Group . Also in 1998 he was commissioned to write a work for Amnesty International : he composed Flammer for Frihed ( Flames for Freedom ) for solo piano . The piece was printed in a book of the same title containing essays by 24 Danes ( including then prime minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen , former prime minister Poul Schlüter , Tøger Seidenfaden , Ghita Nørby , and others ) . Edited by Monica Ritterband , the book was published on the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . On 22 November 1998 Magle 's Cantata to Saint Cecilia for soloists , choir , children 's choir , and chamber orchestra was given its first performance at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen . The following year it was recorded and released on the album Cæciliemusik ( Music for Saint Cecilia ) by the Danish Cæciliekoret ( The Cecilia Choir ) conducted by Gunnar Svensson with the soloists Birgitte Ewerlöf ( soprano ) , Tuva Semmingsen ( alto ) , and Jørgen Ditlevsen ( bass ) . The cantata 's text is by the author Iben Krogsdal ; based on the story of Saint Cecilia , who died in a gruesome way for her Christian faith , it has been described as " moderate modernism " with a special " Danish tone " and a transparent chamber musical instrumentation .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
In 2001 his work , The Hope , for brass band , choir , organ and percussion , was given its first performance during the commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the Battle of Copenhagen . The composition was commissioned by the Admiral Danish Fleet in cooperation with the Reformed Church in Copenhagen , where the premiere performance took place on 1 April . The Hope was subsequently recorded and released by the Royal Danish Navy on the album Søværnet Ønsker God Vind ( The Royal Danish Navy Wishes Godspeed ) in 2005 .
The Danish organ builders Frobenius commissioned a new work by Magle for their centennial jubilee in 2009 . Magle premiered the work , his Rhapsody for organ Viva Voce , at two gala concerts on 12 – 14 May 2009 in Aarhus Cathedral and Vangede church , in collaboration with Dame Gillian Weir .
In October that same year , a new pipe organ was inaugurated in Jørlunde church . Magle created its specifications and tonal design , after the old organ had perished in a fire five years earlier while in storage ; he gave the instrument 's inauguration concert on 8 November . In 2010 he released a double album of free improvisations on the Jørlunde @-@ organ , Like a Flame . Reviews of the album were predominantly favorable , described in MusicWeb International as " highly creative , sometimes visionary , [ and ] surprisingly unpompous " , but a scathing review in the Danish organ magazine ORGLET argued for traditional fugal and choral forms instead of free improvisation . One critic complained about the length of the album , finding it too long at more than two hours . The organist , jazz @-@ pianist , and composer Henrik Sørensen defended Magle 's free improvisational form in an article in Danish organ @-@ magazine Orgelforum .
In 2011 Magle composed an Allehelgenmesse ( All Hallows Mass ) , intended to be performed at the All Hallows service on the first Sunday of November , where people are invited to remember relatives who have died in the past year . Its text is by the hymn @-@ writer Iben Krogsdal and the pastor Morten Skovsted . Funded by the Danish Ministry Ecclesiastical Affairs , the Mass was made freely available online . After a performance in St Nicolas ' Church , Rønne , a music critic described the music as " intimate " and with " finish " .
= = = Works for the Danish Royal Family = = =
Magle played the organ at the christening of Prince Nikolai at Fredensborg Castle in 1999 and gave the first performance of his composition Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) for organ and brass quintet , with the Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards , as postlude . Lys på din vej was released on an album with the same title the following year , which received mixed reviews , being criticized especially by the newspaper Politiken for consisting of " endless repetitions of the same melodic material without development " . The piece was re @-@ recorded in 2013 by the Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards in a new version on their album Nordisk Musik ( Nordic Music ) . At the christening of Prince Felix in Møgeltønder church in 2002 another work by Frederik Magle was also premiered as postlude .
Magle composed a symphonic suite Cantabile , based on poems by Prince Henrik of Denmark ( the Prince Consort ) of which the first movement " Souffle le vent " was first performed in 2004 , and the remaining two movements " Cortège & Danse Macabre " and " Carillon " , in June 2009 in the Koncerthuset ( Copenhagen ) , on both occasions by the Danish National Symphony Orchestra conducted by Thomas Dausgaard . The score specifies a real giraffe thigh bone as a percussion instrument in the " Cortège & Danse Macabre " movement .
= = = Fusion / crossover = = =
Magle 's first CD , Sangen er et eventyr – Sange over H.C. Andersens eventyr ( The song is a fairytale – Songs based on fairytales by Hans Christian Andersen ) , of 1994 was recorded with the jazz double bassist Niels @-@ Henning Ørsted Pedersen , the jazz @-@ pianist Niels Lan Doky , the percussionist Alex Riel , Trio Rococo , and vocalist Thomas Eje . He also participated on the 2005 avant garde album Hymn to Sophia by the jazz saxophonist John Tchicai , where he improvised on pipe organ with Tchicai and the percussionist Peter Ole Jørgensen .
In 2011 Magle composed symphonic music for the album Elektra by the Danish hip hop group Suspekt . Emil Simonsen from Suspekt characterised Magle 's contribution as " essential for the development of the new album " , and described Frederik Magle as " one of the greatest musical sources of inspiration " the group had worked with . The collaboration received positive reviews in the Danish press , with Jyllands @-@ Posten calling the track " Nyt Pas " from Elektra " glowing orchestral hip hop with mature ambitions " , and the music magazine Gaffa describing the contrasts between Frederik Magle 's classical compositions and Suspekt 's hip hop as " extreme opposites that helped to make the evening special " in their review of the release concert in Koncerthuset , September 2011 . The orchestral music was recorded by the Czech Film Orchestra in the Rudolfinum Concert Hall , Prague .
Magle 's fusion @-@ work Polyphony , which combines rock music with contemporary classical music , was published in the Australian music textbook In Tune With Music , written by Ian Dorricott and Bernice Allan in 2013 .
= = List of works = =
This is a selective list of Magle 's major works , including all that have been recorded as of 2014 . For a complete list of his works , see List of compositions by Frederik Magle .
= = = Orchestra = = =
Concerto for organ and orchestra The infinite second ( 1994 )
Symphonic Lego Fantasia for piano and orchestra , commissioned by the Lego Group ( 1995 – 96 )
Rising of a new day ( 1998 )
Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) – orchestral version ( 1999 @-@ 2000 )
Cantabile , symphonic suite consisting of three symphonic poems for orchestra , choir , and soloists ( 2004 – 2009 )
= = = Choir = = =
We Are Afraid Cantata for choir , flute , clarinet , percussion , strings , piano , and organ ( 1988 )
Der Die Das , opera for 2 soloists and choir ( by Hotel Pro Forma ) ( 1993 )
A newborn child , before eternity , God ! Christmas cantata , for brass band , choir , soloists , organ and percussion ( 1996 )
Cantata to Saint Cecilia for soloists , choir , children 's choir , and chamber orchestra ( 1998 )
The Hope for brass band , choir , organ and percussion , written in memory of the battle of Copenhagen ( 2001 )
Phoenix for mixed choir and organ or piano four @-@ hands ( 2003 )
Allehelgenmesse ( All Hallows Mass ) for soprano , choir , cello and organ ( 2011 )
= = = Songs and Hymns = = =
30 hymns ( 1985 )
20 songs based on fairy tales by Hans Christian Andersen ( 1986 – 92 )
= = = Organ = = =
Symphony for organ No. 1 ( 1990 )
Symphony for organ No. 2 Let there be light ( 1993 )
Fantasia for organ Forårssol ( 1999 )
Cantilena ( 2003 )
Viva Voce ( 2008 )
At Blive ( To Become ) ( 2009 )
Like a Flame , 22 pieces for organ ( 2009 @-@ 2010 )
= = = Piano = = =
Flammer for Frihed ( Flames for Freedom ) ( 1998 )
= = = Chamber music = = =
Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) for organ and brass quintet , written for the christening of Prince Nikolai of Denmark ( 1999 )
Variations and theme Rejse i Tid ( Journey in Time ) for violin and piano ( 1999 )
Decet Dage og Nætter ( Days and Nights ) ( 1999 )
Intermezzo for brass quintet ( 2001 )
Kosmos for trumpet and organ ( 2001 )
Dåbens Pagt ( Pact of the Baptism ) for brass quintet , written for the christening of Prince Felix of Denmark ( 2002 )
= = = Other = = =
Handle with care – Life inside ballet . HD recording ( tape ) with song , synthesizers and sound effects ( 1995 )
En Anden Verden – Indgangen ( Another World – The Entrance ) for brass band ( 1997 )
= = Discography = =
1993 Sangen er et eventyr ( The song is a fairytale ) . Thomas Eje , The Danish Boys ' Choir , Trio Rococo , Niels Lan Doky , Niels @-@ Henning Ørsted Pedersen , Alex Riel . BMG 74321 24537 @-@ 2
1994 The Infinite Second . Latvian Philharmonic Chamber Orchestra , Dzintars Josts , Frederik Magle ( The organ in Riga Cathedral ) . EMI Classics 5555972
1997 Et nyfødt barn , før evighed , Gud ! ( A newborn child , before eternity , God ) . Christmas cantata . EMI Classics 5565942
1998 Symphonic Lego Fantasia . London Philharmonic Orchestra , David Parry , Frederik Magle ( piano ) . Released by the Lego Group .
1999 Cæciliemusik ( Music for Saint Cecilia ) . Danacord DACOCD 520
2000 Lys på din vej ( Light on your path ) . Frederik Magle ( piano and organ ) , The Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards , Danish National Chamber Orchestra , Frans Rasmussen . EMI Classics 5571152
2004 Kosmos . ClassicO CLASSCD 478
2005 Søværnet Ønsker God Vind ( The Royal Danish Navy wishes godspeed ) . The Royal Danish Naval Band . Released by the Royal Danish Navy
2005 Hymne til Sofia ( Hymn to Sophia ) . John Tchicai , Peter Ole Jørgensen , Frederik Magle . Calibrated CALI012
2010 Like a Flame . Frederik Magle ( organ improvisations ) . Proprius Music PRCD 2061
2011 Elektra . Featured symphonic music by Frederik Magle on the Suspekt @-@ album . Universal Music / Tabu Records .
2013 Nordisk Musik . Music for voice and brass quintet , including " Lys på din vej " . Povl Dissing , Signe Sneh Schreiber , Den Kongelige Livgardes Messingensemble ( Brass Ensemble of the Royal Danish Guards ) . Exlibris EXLCD30158
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= New York State Route 12D =
New York State Route 12D ( NY 12D ) is a north – south state highway located in the northern part of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is in the Oneida County village of Boonville , where it intersects NY 12 . The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 12 in the Lewis County village of Lyons Falls . NY 46 and NY 294 are also present in the immediate area of the route 's southern terminus .
NY 12D was originally assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to most of what is now NY 12 between Boonville and Lowville . The alignments of both routes between the two locations were swapped c . 1939 , placing NY 12D on its current alignment from Boonville to Potters Corners ( in the Town of West Turin ) and on NY 26 between Potters Corners and Lowville . The overlap between NY 12D and NY 26 remained in place until the 1970s when NY 12D was realigned onto its current routing between Potters Corners and Lyons Falls , replacing then @-@ New York State Route 337 .
= = Route description = =
NY 12D begins at an intersection with NY 12 at the southeastern edge of the village of Boonville in northern Oneida County . While NY 12 bypasses the village to the east , NY 12D heads northwest into the village on Main Street . At Schuyler Street , NY 12D bears west for one block to Post Street , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 46 . The eastern terminus of NY 294 is located one block to the south at the junction of Post and Ford Streets . NY 12D , meanwhile , turns north at Post Street and follows the street out of the village and through the town of Boonville to the Lewis County town of Leyden .
Within Leyden , NY 12D passes through largely rural terrain with the exception of a pair of roadside communities : the hamlet of Talcottville on the Sugar River , a tributary of the nearby Black River , and the community of Locust Grove at the intersection of NY 12D and Locust Grove Road . The route crosses into West Turin roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , where it intersects NY 26 at Potters Corners . NY 26 turns north here to follow the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 12D ; however , NY 12D turns northeast onto the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 26 toward Lyons Falls . Near the western edge of the village , NY 12D passes over NY 12 with no access between the two . The connection is made a short distance to the southeast via McAlpine and Cherry Streets , which NY 12D follows to terminate at NY 12 .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 27 , an unsigned legislative route that initially extended from Forestport to Alexandria Bay via Boonville , Lowville , and Watertown . From Boonville to Lowville , Route 27 utilized what is now NY 12D and NY 26 . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the segment of legislative Route 27 between Boonville and Lowville via Potters Corners was designated as part of NY 12 . An alternate route of NY 12 between Potters Corners and Lowville via Lyons Falls was assigned NY 12D as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , NY 12D was rerouted south of Lyons Falls to follow a routing similar to modern NY 12 to Boonville . The former routing of NY 12D between Potters Corners and Lyons Falls was redesignated as NY 337 c . 1935 . The routings of NY 12 and NY 12D between Boonville and Lowville were swapped c . 1939 .
Originally , NY 12 entered Lyons Falls on Franklin Street and followed Center and McAlpine Streets through the village before leaving the area on Cherry Street . NY 12 was rerouted onto its current alignment around the western edge of Lyons Falls in the late 1940s ; however , NY 337 was not truncated nor rerouted to meet the new path of NY 12 . Instead , NY 337 was initially extended eastward along the former alignment of NY 12 on McAlpine Street to a new terminus at Center Street . It was rerouted east of Cherry Street to follow Cherry south to NY 12 c . 1970 . The former routing of NY 337 along McAlpine Street from Cherry Street to a grade crossing with the Mohawk , Adirondack and Northern Railroad , a distance of 0 @.@ 03 miles ( 48 m ) , is now designated as NY 970J , an unsigned reference route . The overlap between NY 12D and NY 26 north of Potters Corners was eliminated c . 1972 when NY 12D was rerouted to follow NY 337 to Lyons Falls , placing NY 12D on its current alignment .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Scott Carson =
Scott Paul Carson ( born 3 September 1985 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Championship club Derby County .
Carson joined the Leeds United football academy in 2002 , making his full first @-@ team debut for Leeds against Manchester United in February 2004 . He made his first appearance for the England under @-@ 21 team in the same month and later set a record of 29 caps for the under @-@ 21 side .
In January 2005 , he moved to Liverpool for a £ 750 @,@ 000 fee and was called up for the England senior team later that year . He made nine appearances for Liverpool , including the UEFA Champions League quarter @-@ final victory over Juventus in April 2005 , before going on loan to Sheffield Wednesday , Charlton Athletic and Aston Villa in successive seasons to gain experience .
Following the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship , Carson made his full debut for the England senior team against Austria in November 2007 . After his return to Liverpool from his loan spell at Aston Villa at the end of the 2007 – 08 season , he joined West Bromwich Albion for a £ 3 @.@ 25 million fee in July 2008 . In 2011 he moved to Bursaspor of Turkey . After two years in Turkey , he moved back to England with Wigan Athletic , where he remained until 2015 when he signed for Derby County .
= = Club career = =
= = = Leeds United = = =
Born in Whitehaven , Cumbria , Carson grew up in Cleator Moor , where he attended Ehenside School . Although a promising rugby league player as a youth , he instead chose to concentrate on football , playing in goal for his school team from the age of " about 11 or 12 " . He quickly rose through the youth teams at local side Cleator Moor Celtic to play for the men 's team when he was 15 . He joined the Leeds United football academy in July 2002 after impressing former Leeds defender Peter Hampton while playing for non @-@ league Workington in the FA Youth Cup . He spent less than a year in the academy and half a season with the reserves before making his first @-@ team debut in January 2004 , coming on as a late substitute after Paul Robinson was sent off against Middlesbrough . Two weeks later , he made his full debut , starting against Manchester United in a 1 – 1 draw at Old Trafford , and made one further appearance in the 2003 – 04 season against Chelsea in May 2004 . Robinson left Leeds in May 2004 and Leeds signed Scottish international goalkeeper Neil Sullivan two months later to compete with Carson for a first @-@ team place , and to help Carson develop and improve . Carson 's contract was due to expire at the end of the 2004 – 05 season but Leeds were keen to retain him and in December 2004 offered him a new long @-@ term contract . However , he chose to join Liverpool , who paid Leeds a £ 750 @,@ 000 fee for him , in January 2005 .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Carson joined Liverpool on a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract and was to provide competition for Jerzy Dudek for a first @-@ team place . He made his first team debut for Liverpool in March 2005 in a defeat to Newcastle United , and made three consecutive appearances in April , including the home leg of the UEFA Champions League quarter @-@ final victory over Juventus . He was an unused substitute when Liverpool were victorious in the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final and 2005 UEFA Super Cup .
= = = = Sheffield Wednesday ( loan ) = = = =
Carson made only four appearances in the 2005 – 06 season , all in cup competitions , and in March 2006 , was allowed to move to Sheffield Wednesday on loan . Wednesday sought his services to help solve their goalkeeping crisis , while Carson was looking to gain more first team experience and to challenge for a place in the England 2006 FIFA World Cup squad . He kept five clean sheets in nine games for Wednesday , whose assistant manager Kevin Summerfield hailed his contribution as a key factor in helping the club escape relegation . He returned to Liverpool at the end of the season and in July 2006 , extended his contract with Liverpool until 2011 .
= = = = Charlton Athletic ( loan ) = = = =
In August 2006 , Carson joined Charlton Athletic on loan for the 2006 – 07 season , after Charlton failed in a bid for Norwich City goalkeeper Robert Green . Carson explained that " Liverpool want me to get some experience and then hopefully I can go back next season and be challenging Pepe [ Reina ] for the number one spot . There were a couple of Championship clubs interested but I need to be playing Premiership football because Robert Green , Ben Foster and Chris Kirkland are going to be playing week in , week out so I need to be performing . " He played in 36 of 38 Premier League games , missing only the two matches against Liverpool due to the terms of his loan deal . Although he was unable to prevent Charlton from being relegated at the end of 2006 – 07 , his outstanding form led him to be named as the Charlton Athletic Player of the Year , the first loan player ever to receive the award .
= = = = Aston Villa ( loan ) = = = =
Carson returned to Liverpool at the end of the season and in June 2007 , Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez confirmed that he would be part of the first @-@ team squad for the 2007 – 08 season , saying “ He must fight with Pepe Reina now for a starting place . ” Carson remained second choice to Reina , however , and faced further competition following the signing of Charles Itandje in August 2007 ; as a result , Carson was loaned out again , this time to Aston Villa at a cost to Villa of £ 2 million . Benitez said of the deal , " We do not want to sell him , we are very happy with Scott . But he needs to play to keep up his England place . " Aston Villa manager Martin O 'Neill preferred Carson to Thomas Sørensen and Stuart Taylor , and Carson played in all but three of Villa 's 38 league matches , missing the two games against Liverpool as he was ineligible to play , and kept 11 clean sheets during the 2007 – 08 season . He received the first red card of his career when he fouled Carlos Tevez in Villa 's 4 – 1 Premier League defeat to Manchester United .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Carson returned to Liverpool at the end of the 2007 – 08 season but in July 2008 joined West Bromwich Albion on a four @-@ year contract for a £ 3 @.@ 25 million fee , possibly rising to £ 3 @.@ 75 million , with an option for the club to extend the contract by another year . Carson , who had played for five different clubs since making his debut for Leeds in 2004 , explained that he wanted to get settled at one club , saying " I 've been like a nomad for three or four years . It 'll be good to get some roots and hopefully settle . I can see myself here for four or five years , even longer . " He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Arsenal in the opening game of the 2008 – 09 Premier League season . Despite relegation to the Championship Carson kept his first team place and after the departure of captain Jonathan Greening he was given the captaincy . West Bromwich Albion won promotion back to the Premier League , finishing second , 12 points clear of third place Nottingham Forest with Carson keeping 15 clean sheets out of 43 games . He had been playing regular football for the Midlands side , but in the 2010 – 11 season , his form seemed to dip and in January 2011 , Carson was briefly dropped to the bench for Welsh goalkeeper Boaz Myhill . After the appointment of Roy Hodgson as West Bromwich Albion head coach , he swiftly found himself back in favour at The Hawthorns .
= = = Bursaspor = = =
On 1 July 2011 , Carson completed a move to Turkish Süper Lig club Bursaspor for a £ 2 million fee . Carson enjoyed a good first season with Bursaspor . He was an ever @-@ present as they finished eighth , conceding thirty @-@ five goals in thirty @-@ four games , the fifth @-@ lowest in the 2011 – 12 Süper Lig season . He also received a runner @-@ up medal for the 2011 – 12 Turkish Cup .
In his second season in Turkey , he played twenty @-@ nine league games and conceded thirty @-@ three goals , helping his team concede the sixth @-@ fewest number of goals in the 2012 – 13 Süper Lig season . Bursaspor finished fourth and qualified for the 2013 – 14 UEFA Europa League .
= = = Wigan Athletic = = =
Carson joined Wigan Athletic for £ 700 @,@ 000 on a three @-@ year deal on 4 July 2013 .
= = = Derby County = = =
After Wigan 's relegation to League One , Carson signed a two @-@ year deal with Championship club Derby County with an option for a third year ; the fee was undisclosed .
= = International career = =
Carson was first called up to the England under @-@ 21 squad in October 2003 , a month after his 18th birthday , for the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifier against Turkey . At the time he was yet to make his competitive debut for Leeds United 's first team , and had previously played only four games for England at other levels . He made his under @-@ 21 debut in a 3 – 2 win for England against the Netherlands in February 2004 . He was selected in the squad for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship , and in the third game against Serbia , he earned his 28th under @-@ 21 cap , eclipsing the record held by Gareth Barry and Jamie Carragher . His 29th and final cap came against the hosts , the Netherlands , in the semi @-@ final , which finished level at 1 – 1 after extra @-@ time . In the resultant penalty shoot @-@ out , he saved one of the 16 penalties he faced and also scored one himself , but England lost 13 – 12 . Carson has since been overtaken by James Milner as the England Under @-@ 21 team 's most @-@ capped player .
In May 2005 , while still a member of the under @-@ 21 side , Carson was called up to the England senior team squad for the team 's tour of the United States later that month . A year later , he came on as substitute for Robert Green , who had suffered a serious injury , in the England B international friendly against Belarus in May 2006 . The injury to Green , who had been named in the England squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , led to Carson , who was on standby , being promoted to the England squad for the tournament , although he did not make any appearances . Carson continued to be selected for the England senior team squad , and in May 2007 , made his second appearance for the England B team in a 3 – 1 win over Albania . Following the 2007 UEFA Under @-@ 21 Championships , he made his full England debut in a friendly against Austria in November 2007 when he kept a clean sheet . A week later , he made his competitive debut in a crucial match against Croatia , which England lost 3 – 2 , resulting in their failure to qualify for UEFA Euro 2008 . Carson was held particularly culpable for the first goal , when Niko Kranjčar 's speculative shot from 30 yards dipped and bounced in front of him , with Carson only succeeding in parrying the ball into the net . England coach Steve McClaren was sacked the next day , as commentators criticised McClaren for selecting an inexperienced goalkeeper for the match .
New manager Fabio Capello named Carson in his first England squad for the friendly match against Switzerland in February 2008 , but the goalkeeper did not make the final squad for the match against France the following month due to injury . After failing to make Capello 's squads for the next five internationals , Carson was recalled to the England squad in October 2008 for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Kazakhstan and Belarus . He won his third England cap in November 2008 , in a friendly against Germany in Berlin when he came on for the second half . In doing so he became the first West Bromwich Albion player to play for England for 24 years . He won his fourth cap as a second @-@ half substitute against Sweden on 15 November 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
Carson married Amy Barton on 17 May 2008 in Egremont ; the couple have three children .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 17 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 15 November 2011 .
= = Honours = =
Liverpool
UEFA Super Cup : 2005
West Bromwich Albion
Football League Championship runner @-@ up : 2009 – 10
Bursaspor
Turkish Cup runner @-@ up : 2011 – 12
Individual
Charlton Athletic Player of the Year : 2006 – 07
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= Bam Thwok =
" Bam Thwok " is a 2004 download @-@ only single by the American alternative rock band the Pixies . Written and sung by bassist Kim Deal , the song was released exclusively through the iTunes Store on June 15 , 2004 . Upon its release , " Bam Thwok " was a commercial success , debuting at number one on the very first release of the UK Download Chart . The song was the band 's first recording since 1991 's Trompe le Monde .
Originally composed for the film Shrek 2 , " Bam Thwok " was not selected for the final soundtrack . The song 's lyrics display a surrealistic and nonsensical nature typical of the band ; Deal 's inspiration was a discarded child 's art book she found on a New York City street . " Bam Thwok " ' s major theme is " showing goodwill to everyone . "
= = Background = =
Following their 2004 reunion , the Pixies felt that recording a new song would " break the ice " between band members after their acrimonious split in 1993 . As the band were announcing dates for their reunion world tour , DreamWorks contacted manager Ken Goes to enquire whether they would be interested in recording a song for the title sequence of Shrek 2 . The band agreed , and frontman Black Francis and Deal began composing riffs for a song aimed at children . Deal had been experimenting with a chord progression for a while , and since her band The Breeders were then inactive , she decided to donate her new composition to the Pixies .
The Pixies chose Deal 's riff , as it was a " poppier , more kid @-@ friendly thing , " and Francis agreed to let her sing lead vocals and write the new song ; significantly , Francis is relegated to backing vocals on the track . Francis ' move was meant to warm the previously cold relations between the two — in the previous two Pixies studio albums , 1990 's Bossanova and 1991 's Trompe le Monde , Francis , the band 's principal songwriter , had not let Deal contribute any songs or sing lead vocals . This became one of the reasons for the Pixies ' 1993 split . However , the two appeared at the time to have resolved their differences : Francis praised " Bam Thwok , " as " a really good song . " despite joking in interviews about how he planned to remove as many of her compositions as possible from a hypothetical new album . However , Deal eventually left the band in June 2013 , before the release of the band 's next album , Indie Cindy .
= = Recording and release = =
The band arranged and rehearsed the song in lead guitarist Joey Santiago 's Pro Tools home studio , which he had built for his husband @-@ and @-@ wife band The Martinis . After in the words of Deal , " working it up a bit in Joe 's [ Santiago ] Pro Tools thing , " " Bam Thwok " was recorded in a DreamWorks @-@ funded demo session . The band travelled to Stagg Street Studios , a studio in Los Angeles , California , to record the song with engineer Ben Mumphrey . Francis later said the recording session " was very relaxed , a nice way to break the ice , " and admitted that " it didn 't feel like twelve years had passed . " The song was mixed by Mumphrey at Sound City Studios in late March .
" Bam Thwok " was released on the iTunes Store at midnight on June 15 , 2004 . The Pixies chose to release in that fashion as they were not signed to a major record label ; their earlier albums had been released on 4AD and Elektra Records . At the time of " Bam Thwok " ' s release , the Pixies ' management gave no indication as to whether future releases would be limited to the iTunes Music Store . Additionally , DreamWorks rejected the recording and the song never appeared on the Shrek 2 soundtrack .
= = Lyrics and melody = =
The theme of " Bam Thwok " is , according to Deal , " about loving everyone , showing goodwill to everyone " . The lyrics are typically surreal and offbeat ; Deal 's main inspiration for the song and its title was a discarded art book she found on a New York City street while on tour in the late 1990s . She later described the book : " From the handwriting , you could tell that this book must have belonged to a little kid . This kid had written a short story , a paragraph really , about a party that took place in another universe , about people and monsters that were partying together . That 's what provided the inspiration for the lyrics . "
The song is structured around a four @-@ beat guitar melody that incorporates major chords throughout . It begins with full instrumentation , over which Santiago layers a short guitar solo . During the first verse , the guitars and bass " drop down " , and do not re @-@ emerge until the chorus , which is repeated several times . A fifteen @-@ second " carousel @-@ esque " organ solo appears approximately midway through the song . The actual sound clip was performed and recorded by Santiago 's father @-@ in @-@ law " many years ago " while he was a missionary in the Philippines .
= = Reception = =
" Bam Thwok " debuted at number one on an early version of the UK Download Chart , although one report said that the fact that the Pixies were in first place despite releasing the single halfway through the period surveyed and only through iTunes " suggests there could be problems to iron out ... [ unless ] all iTunes owners are big fans of the Pixies . " In a press release from Apple , Pixies manager Ken Goes said : " By distributing our first song in 13 years exclusively on iTunes , we were able to quickly and inexpensively make it available to millions of fans in the US and Europe . One week after its release , we are thrilled at the response from iTunes users that have helped to make " Bam Thwok " a top seller across four countries . "
Hannah Harper of BBC Music remarked that the song was " not the greatest thing they 've ever done . " Band members noticed the change in output ; David Lovering , the Pixies ' drummer , commented that " it 's very unlike us . It 's a Pixies song but it 's still unlike a Pixies song " .
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= Potato Sack =
The Potato Sack is the name of an alternate reality game ( ARG ) created by the Valve Corporation and the developers of thirteen independent video games to promote the release of Valve 's title , Portal 2 , in April 2011 . Valve president Gabe Newell envisioned the game as a " Cross Game Design Event " in December 2010 , and allowed the developers a free rein to design the game using Valve 's Portal intellectual property . The game , requiring players to find and solve a number of puzzles hidden within updates of the thirteen games , ultimately led to the opportunity for players to release Portal 2 about 10 hours earlier than its planned release by playing games under the pretense of powering up GLaDOS , the sentient computer antagonist from Portal 2 . The ARG 's theme of potatoes is based on plot elements within Portal 2 , specifically that for part of the game , GLaDOS 's personality module is run off a potato battery .
Large numbers of people participated in solving the puzzles within the ARG . Reaction from players and journalists was mixed ; some saw the ARG as a show of strong support and commitment by Valve for independent game development , while others thought the ultimate conclusion was of limited benefit to justify buying the games to begin with .
= = History = =
= = = The Potato Sack Bundle = = =
The ARG began without announcement with the release of the " Potato Sack Bundle " on Steam on April 1 , 2011 , which offered the included games at 75 % off their normal price . The games included in the Potato Sack are listed below with their developer and release year .
= = = The first update = = =
On the release date of the Potato Sack bundle , players found the games within it had recently received updates . Most provided an immediate cosmetic change by replacing or adding assets that referred to potatoes . When players started looking deeper into these new assets , they discovered a series of glyphs that referred to other games associated with specific letters , as well as nonsense sentences that lead to specific cyphers . Other hints were less direct , using online services such as Twitter and YouTube to embed clues . In the case of Toki Tori , sections of new levels included braille code that referred to latitude and longitude coordinates of Two Tribes ' headquarters . One player , " Jake _ R " , traveled to Two Tribes , where he discovered the glyphs and cyphers posted outside their headquarters . Several of Two Tribes ' developers , upon learning of his presence , began filming him from a barbershop across the street . They would later use this footage of him climbing a pole to find these clues as part of another clue during the second phase .
= = = The second update = = =
On April 7 , each of the games in the Potato Sack received a second major update . Players found that by completing certain tasks in the game , they would be presented with login screens for the fictional Aperture Science corporation within the Steam interface . Other tasks and clues led to passwords that could be used to log in to these Aperture Science screens . These provided players with compressed archives of pictures that consisted of Portal 2 artwork , including photographs from around Seattle ( where Valve is based ) embedded in their alpha channels . Each archive included a portion of a larger archive that was password @-@ protected ; the password was unveiled using the glyphs , cyphers , and letters from the first update . The larger archive gave further photographs of the Seattle area . When the locations of these points were mapped and connected per the puzzle 's instructions , the map showed the word " prelude " . Furthermore , players that reached and logged into these screens received a potato icon for each accessed screen on their Steam profile .
= = = The third update = = =
On April 12 , another update for each game was released . These updates were all Portal themed , such as levels based on Aperture Science in The Ball and Killing Floor . Again , players found that by completing specific tasks in the new content , they would be presented with an Aperture Science screen , though this time the screens provided a cryptic audio clue . These clues were found to be two @-@ part clues relating to the previously @-@ identified locations around Seattle . By mapping these points , using locations commonly shared by one clue , players were led to the name of a Steam group that contained a single member by the name of " dinosaur " , a reference to an earlier ARG used for Portal 2 's announcement . Screenshots within this user 's profile gave a QR Code that pointed to a website with a countdown time set to expire on the morning of April 15 , 2011 . Players who discovered these audio clues would be awarded another potato on their Steam profile . A total of 36 possible potatoes were found : 35 within the games and the referenced Steam group , and a 36th earned by obtaining all 35 of the other potatoes .
Concurrent with these changes , Portal 2 became available for pre @-@ loading on the Steam client . At this point , several journalists and players suspected that Portal 2 may have been unlocked early at the end of the countdown timer . This correlated with a separate puzzle embedded in messages sent by Newell to a number of gaming sites ; the message suggested the " early release " of material and " thirteen offsite chambers " , seemingly referring to the independent games , as well as a message " 4 / 19 / 2011 7 AM = = 4 / 15 / 2011 9 AM " , again referencing the planned Portal 2 release date and the countdown timer . As April 15 drew near , about nine heavily involved players from the ARG appeared to disengage from the various chat rooms , leaving with the message " There 's a hole in the sky through which I can fly " — a line used in early advertisements for Portal ; when contacted by other players , these individuals remained coy and cryptic about their actions , appearing to have been " infected " by GLaDOS . It was later revealed that these players , contacted by Valve a few days prior , were invited to Valve 's headquarters to be the first to play Portal 2 .
= = = GLaDOS @ Home = = =
At the end of the countdown timer , the countdown website redirected to a new page on the fictional Aperture Science website , calling itself " GLaDOS @ Home " . Spoofing other distributed computing efforts like Folding @ home , the site stated that if players generated enough CPU cycles by playing the thirteen games in the Potato Sack , GLaDOS would be rebooted earlier , effectively suggesting an earlier release of Portal 2 before the originally scheduled time of 7 : 00 AM PDT on April 19 , 2011 . The number of potatoes found would also serve to help to " boost " the effort . Only one game , Killing Floor , saw an update in this phase , where a special chamber in their Portal @-@ themed map would be opened for players to complete for an in @-@ game achievement . The players organized a schedule of games to be played to maximize the rate of progression , and eventually , ended up unlocking Portal 2 on Steam about ten hours before this scheduled time . The approximately 1800 players that had successfully earned all 36 potatoes by the time of Portal 2 's launch were given the Valve complete pack , including Portal 2 , which they could gift to other players . Players who had found at least thirteen potatoes or played each of the Potato Sack games for a minimum amount of time received Portal 2 @-@ themed items within Team Fortress 2 .
= = = Reunion = = =
On June 13 , 2012 , the Potato Sack bundle briefly returned to Steam under the name " Potato Sack - June 2012 " .
= = Development = =
Valve had previously performed an ARG in the week prior to the announcement of Portal 2 , at the start of March 2010 . The ARG was initiated by a new patch to Portal that led to a sequence of puzzles , which were ultimately solved within hours of the patch 's release .
The idea of the Potato Sack ARG came from Valve president Gabe Newell sometime around December 2010 . Following on the success of the first ARG , he saw a way to promote both the highly anticipated Portal 2 release along with several independent games through a " Cross Game Design Event " . Dejobaan Games ' Leo Jaitley believed that Valve targeted developers that had proven track records of working with other developers , and not necessarily for the sales or popularity of the specific games . Valve invited the twenty independent developers to their headquarters on December 16 , though did not explain the rationale for the visit . Only there did Valve explain the promotion , with the ultimate goal being the early release of Portal 2 at the conclusion of the ARG , according to Gaijin Games ' CEO Alex Neuse . According to Rob Jagnow of Lazy 8 Studios , Valve assured the developers of an open relationship , stating that they had " No constraints . No NDAs . " and that the project was " built on trust and mutual respect " . Jaitley commented " most studios got involved knowing that there was likely to be some payoff , but without anything upfront or any promises of riches " .
To help with the ARG , Valve gave the developers a free rein over the game 's structure , and full access to Portal intellectual property to include within their games . Such assets included further voice work from Ellen McLain , the voice actress for GLaDOS , who recorded additional lines for the developers of the games to taunt the players with . Furthermore , the developers were given the opportunity to play what had existed of Portal 2 to build ideas for the ARG . Valve and the indie developers worked together over the next few days to design the ARG , creating the three phases , the timing between phases to allow for the puzzles to be solved , and the general fiction of the game . The developers decided to design the fiction of the ARG around the return of GLaDOS , who had been apparently destroyed at the end of Portal , leaving clues to her revival in the various games . The potato theme was based on Portal 2 's fiction , in which , during a portion of the game , GLaDOS ' personality is placed into a potato battery . To help promote the ARG , Valve and the developers arranged for the Potato Sack sale as to " make it easier for hard @-@ core fans to participate in every aspect of the ARG " .
Between the December meeting and second gathering in March 2011 , prior to the ARG 's launch , there was no direct verbal communication between Valve or the developers . Instead , the independent developers spent time , using a shared wiki provided by Valve , to plan out and coordinate the game . They also had to develop the new content for their games , which in most cases was work in addition to existing projects that they were presently undertaking . Others had to go back to older programming code and re @-@ acquaint themselves with it before undertaking the new additions for the ARG . Valve 's Jeep Barnett helped to coordinate the large effort . The second visit to Valve in March 2011 was to affirm the plans for the launch of the ARG .
The first update was tied with April Fools ' Day , with the addition of potatoes and gibberish sentences being in line with the pranks one normally sees on that day . Throughout the ARG , the players were monitored by the developers through the Internet Relay Chat , forums , and web sites that were being used to coordinate the solving effort . This allowed , for example , Two Tribes to prepare for Jake _ R 's visit , and the integration of a screenshot of the chat log in to one of the puzzles . In another example , another chat room user , following a red herring , visited a physical location near the California studio for Team Meat ; Edmund McMillen was able to arrange to meet the user and give him a signed copy of Super Meat Boy . Monitoring of the players enabled the developers to provide hints and clues for puzzles that players were struggling with as to allow the ARG to progress in a timely manner . While many puzzles of the ARG included cross @-@ game clues — such as finding the password for one of the Aperture Science login screens from another game — Neuse felt they could have increased the cross @-@ game complexity of the puzzles if they had more time to plan it out . The developers were aided by the agility of Valve in its participation . During the second phase , one of the developers asked if Newell would become involved in the ARG . Newell then fed the image with the encrypted message to media outlets . Valve also placed hidden messages in promotional videos for Portal 2 which helped to point the ARG players in specific directions , including calling some of the players out by name .
There were points during the ARG that players used unexpected means to solve a puzzle , but the developers and the player community worked around these issues . In some cases , players attempted to download beta versions of the patches to the games , but Valve was able to respond , usually in minutes , to block access to these . Valve also quickly responded to a web site that used Steam credentials to award players the potatoes without having to complete the target achievements ; only about 1 % of the potatoes were earned this way , and Valve later revoked them , though let players earn them again though legitimate means . Other players examined the files and binary code of the patched games to try to find password strings or other identifiers that would normally be seen only while playing the game . In at least one case , where this action served to reveal the solution to the puzzle before it was truly solved , the ARG players discouraged this behavior and apologized to Valve for these actions . When possible , the developers laid red herrings for those that tried to hack the ARG , including the use of Rickrolling .
Jagnow commented on several changes the developers would have made in hindsight after the completion of the ARG . One aspect he considered was the weak part of the fiction of the ARG , something he believed they would have integrated more in the game from the start . The release of the Potato Sack on April 1 may have been a bad decision according to Jagnow , as they did not get the press exposure they thought they would in conjunction with the other April Fool 's events occurring that day , with some media outlets hesitant to report on potential pranks for fear of having to retract these later . In the third phase , where certain players were " taken over " by GLaDOS , Jagnow felt they extracted these players from the game too early as they were influential in coordinating the chat rooms and wiki , leaving the remaining players confused . Instead , Jagnow suggested they should have found a way to allow these players to continue participating until near the end . Jagnow considered the push of the crescendo of the ARG , the " appearance " of GLaDOS @ Home , to have been the biggest failing . Originally scheduled for April 16 or 17 , it was pushed to April 15 to allow more players , including international ones , to participate in the effort to release Portal 2 early , and to gain media attention . Instead , the developers found that existing players of the ARG were frustrated with no new puzzles to solves , while new players brought to the site by the media were skeptical and saw the event as " a cheap media ploy to get players to buy the Potato Sack in the hope of an early Portal 2 release " .
= = Reception = =
Overall , the alternate reality game received mixed response from gamers , some praising it as outstanding marketing between Portal 2 and the indie gamers , others considering it a way to force players to buy games they do not want to gain access to Portal 2 earlier . Pete Davison of GamePro considered it a " risky marketing move " that relied on Valve 's long @-@ standing reputation with the community to build on their trust , as well as a " hugely positive sign of support for indie games " from the company . David Ewalt of Forbes considered the tactic a huge benefit for the indie developers , whose games led Steam sales charts in the weeks leading to Portal 2 's release . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica noted that it was entirely possible to ignore the alternate reality game without any negative effects or losing any potential benefits . Luke Plunkett of Kotaku was more critical , commenting that for most players in North America , having the release only ten hours earlier — occurring overnight for many — would be " business as usual " in that they would not be able to play until the next day ; thus , players that purchased and spent time in the Potato Sack games may have simply wasted their money for something they didn 't want to gain almost nothing back . Leigh Alexander of Gamasutra also criticized the ARG for not providing an idea of the expectation of reward when it was successfully completed , comparing the ten @-@ hour gain to a vignette in the movie A Christmas Story , where the main character after saving up money and waiting weeks for a secret decoder ring to decipher a message from a radio program , finds that the coded message is only an advertising blurb . Alexander suggested that instead , ARGs should give players an idea of the type of reward that may be offered , and then can exceed player 's expectations when it is completed . Retailers in countries where the disc @-@ based version of the game would have lagged a few days behind the Steam release opted to break their street date to avoid losing sales to the digital downloads .
Though direct sales from Steam are unknown , the Potato Sack ARG helped to boost sales of the independent games . The whole Potato Sack promotion was the second @-@ highest selling compilation on Steam in the week prior to Portal 2 's release , following Portal 2 itself and ahead of the Potato Sack / Portal 2 bundle . Dylan Fitterer , programmer for Audiosurf , noted that during the promotion , more than 6000 people were playing his game at a time , compared to 300 players before the event . Fitterer also saw an opportunity to create a new game based upon the ARG @-@ themed addition to Audiosurf . Ichiro Lambe of Dejobaan Games was also pleased with the sales increased ; while not a windfall , it helped him to continue to live comfortably . Thomas Grip of Frictional Games claimed that the boost of sales for Amnesia within the first two days of the Potato Sack sale completely covered the development costs for the added " Justine " content they had developed for the ARG . John Gibson of Tripwire Interactive believed that similar ARGs could be run in the future without the presence of a major title like Portal 2 as long as there is a significant payoff for the players .
Journalists noted that many of the user reviews for Portal 2 on Metacritic evoked negative opinion of the game , believed to be tied to the minimal impact on Portal 2 's release time . These users cited complaints about the game being too short ( with some saying it is only four hours long ) , the existence of paid downloadable content at launch for some versions , and supposed evidence that the game on Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X were ports of the console version . Journalists have defended Valve in these claims , countering that the game 's length depends on the amount of immersion the player puts into the game , that the downloadable content is only cosmetic additions for the co @-@ op mode , and that the quality of the graphics on the Windows and Mac version do not suggest a simple console port .
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= Neville Southall =
Neville Southall MBE ( born 16 September 1958 ) is a Welsh former international footballer . He has been described as one of the best goalkeepers of his generation and won the FWA Footballer of the Year award in 1985 .
He joined Bury from Winsford United for a £ 6 @,@ 000 fee in 1980 , and turned professional in his early 20s after a number of years as a semi @-@ professional and amateur player . During his teenage years he worked as a binman , waiter and hod carrier . He moved on to Everton for £ 150 @,@ 000 in 1981 and established himself as the club 's first @-@ choice goalkeeper by the 1983 – 84 season . He went on to make a club record 578 appearances in the Football League and Premier League ( 750 in all competitions ) ; his honours with the club include a European Cup Winners ' Cup medal in 1985 , a First Division championship medal in 1984 – 85 and 1986 – 87 , an FA Cup winners medal in 1984 and 1995 , and an FA Charity Shield winners medal in 1984 , 1985 , 1986 , and 1995 . He also played in the 1985 and 1989 FA Cup finals , the League Cup final in 1984 , and helped Everton to a second place in the league in 1985 – 86 . After leaving Everton in 1998 , he became Torquay United 's regular goalkeeper for two years . He also made a handful of appearances for numerous other clubs .
He played internationally for Wales , winning a record 92 caps between 1982 and 1998 , though he did not feature in any major international competitions . As an individual , he was named on the PFA Team of the Year four consecutive times , and was listed as one of the world 's top ten goalkeepers by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics on four occasions . He is a member of the Gwladys Street 's Hall of Fame . He has been named as one of the 100 ' Greatest Players of the 20th Century ' by World Soccer magazine . In 1995 he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) for his services to football .
Since his retirement as a player , Southall has briefly managed Dover Athletic , Hastings United and Margate , and has coached at numerous clubs as well as the Welsh national youth teams . He has also worked extensively with disadvantaged children , and set up his own educational consultancy .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Born and raised in Llandudno to Fred and Rose Southall , he was the middle child of three boys . Southall played youth football for his school team and the Llandudno Swifts , where he played alongside Joey Jones . He was educated at Ysgol John Bright , though left without any qualifications at age 16 . At age 14 he toured Germany with the Llandudno Swifts and was offered a chance to play for the youth team of Bundesliga outfit Fortuna Düsseldorf , but decided against the move to Germany . The Swifts were a poor side that were regularly beaten heavily , though the near constant barrage of shots he faced enabled Southall to improve on his shot @-@ stopping skills .
As a teenager , Southall had unsuccessful trials at Wrexham , Crewe Alexandra and Bolton Wanderers . He aspired to be a postman , and never believed that he would make a living playing football . He then worked as a binman , waiter and hod carrier and therefore entered the game relatively late . He played for Llandudno Town at age 15 , before joining Northern Premier League side Bangor City on £ 10 a week as a semi @-@ professional the following year . Bangor manager Dave Elliott regularly selected veteran goalkeeper Peter Eales ahead of Southall . Everton asked Elliot permission to take Southall on trial , but Elliot left the club shortly after and no trial took place . With Bangor in financial trouble the paid playing staff began to leave the club , and Southall left Bangor and went on to accept an offer of £ 3 a week to play for Conwy United . He moved on to Cheshire County League club Winsford United at the age of 20 . The club won the Cheshire Senior Cup in 1980 , and Southall was voted the club 's Player of the Year .
= = = Bury = = =
Southall 's performances attracted the attention of Bury and Wigan Athletic , and he was convinced to sign with Bury after he was personally approached by manager Dave Connor . Bury paid Winsford £ 6 @,@ 000 and would later pay another £ 25 @,@ 000 after he was sold on . However he never played for Connor as he was replaced by Jim Iley before the start of the 1980 – 81 season ; despite this managerial change he was still seen as the future replacement to club stalwart John Forrest . He received specialist goalkeeping coaching from Wilf McGuinness . He made his first team debut against Wigan Athletic on 20 September , in a 2 – 1 victory . The " Shakers " had an indifferent league campaign in the Fourth Division , though they managed to reach the Third Round of the FA Cup and beat Newcastle United in the League Cup . Southall kept 15 clean sheets after conceding 50 goals in his 44 domestic appearances , and was named as Bury 's Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year .
= = = Everton = = =
Southall was bought by Everton manager Howard Kendall for £ 150 @,@ 000 in the summer of 1981 . To win a first team place he had to compete with Jim McDonagh ( a Gordon Lee signing who would soon leave the club ) , Jim Arnold ( also a new signing ) , and Martin Hodge ( who was injured throughout his time at Everton ) . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 win over Ipswich Town in October , after Arnold picked up an injury . He returned to the first team in December , and he kept a clean sheet against Aston Villa and remained an ever @-@ present throughout the rest of the 1981 – 82 season .
Kendall described Southall as the best goalkeeper in the First Division " outside the big three " of Ray Clemence , Peter Shilton and Joe Corrigan . However he began to suffer from ulcerated toes , which gave him severely swollen feet and caused him pain and discomfort throughout matches . On 6 November 1982 , he conceded five goals in a 5 – 0 defeat to Mersey rivals Liverpool at Goodison Park . Kendall then dropped Southall as part of a shake @-@ up at the club . He spent January and February on loan at John McGrath 's Port Vale , and played nine Fourth Division games . McGrath was impressed and tried to take Southall to Vale Park on a permanent basis , but was rebuffed by Kendall . Back at Everton he played the last four games of the 1982 – 83 season after Arnold picked up an injury .
Arnold was the preferred choice in goal at the start of the 1983 – 84 season , before Southall was recalled on 1 October against Notts County . Everton had a poor start to the league campaign , but excelled in cup competitions , reaching the final of both the League Cup and the FA Cup . Southall 's first appearance at Wembley was in the League Cup final against Liverpool , and he kept a clean sheet in a goalless draw . The replay was held at Maine Road , and Liverpool won the tie 1 – 0 with a Graeme Souness goal . He was rarely called into action in the 1984 FA Cup Final , and kept a clean sheet as Everton claimed the trophy with a 2 – 0 victory over Watford .
Southall kept a clean sheet at Wembley in the 1984 FA Charity Shield , as Everton beat Liverpool 1 – 0 to take home the first silverware of the 1984 – 85 season . They then lost the opening two league games of the season , before losing only three of their next 37 league games to win the First Division title by a 13 @-@ point margin . Over the course of the season they beat Liverpool both at Anfield and at Goodison , and recorded a 5 – 0 win over Manchester United . Southall made one particularly crucial save from a point @-@ blank Mark Falco header in a 2 – 1 win over title chasers Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane on 3 April ; the Daily Mail 's Jeff Powell described it as " the most astonishing save since Gordon Banks left Pelé dumbfounded in Mexico " . In the European Cup Winners ' Cup , Everton beat UCD ( Ireland ) , Inter Bratislava ( Czechoslovakia ) , Fortuna Sittard ( Netherlands ) , and Bayern Munich ( Germany ) in two @-@ legged encounters , and Southall conceded just the one goal ( from Dieter Hoeneß ) over the course of all eight matches . They then beat Austrian club Rapid Wien 3 – 1 in the final at De Kuip to win the first European title in the club 's history . Three days later Everton played in the 1985 FA Cup Final , but lost 1 – 0 to Manchester United after a Norman Whiteside goal in extra @-@ time . At the end of the season Southall was named as the FWA Footballer of the Year , becoming only the first Everton player , second Welshman and fourth goalkeeper to win the award .
Though Everton had won a place in the European Cup , English clubs were banned from European competitions following the Heysel Stadium disaster . Southall remained bitter over this , blaming UEFA for the tragedy and stating that the ban was a convenient way to break up English dominance of European competitions . Limited to domestic competitions , Everton won the FA Charity Shield with a 2 – 0 win over Manchester United ; during the celebrations Southall wore a T @-@ shirt saying " I Love My Wife " as a symbolic gesture following tabloid stories of an alleged affair . After getting sent off against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge in October , Kendal criticised Southall in the press by saying he " let the lads down " . Despite this set @-@ back , he agreed to sign a six @-@ year contract in December , which was then the longest contract the club had ever issued . However he twisted his ankle ligaments on international duty with ten league games left to play . In his absence , his deputy Bobby Mimms took his place , and Everton lost both the league title and the 1986 FA Cup Final to Liverpool .
Sidelined through injury at the start of the 1986 – 87 season , he returned to the first team against Watford in October . He was the club 's Player of the Month in February , and won man of the match awards in wins over Arsenal and Chelsea as Everton claimed another league title . Comparing the two title wins ( 1985 and 1987 ) , Southall said that the latter success was " more rewarding and satisfying " as it had proved to be " more of a struggle " compared to the ease in which the title was won in the former campaign .
After Kendall left Merseyside to coach Athletic Bilbao , his assistant Colin Harvey took charge at Goodison ; Southall responded well to the change , as he believed Harvey " understood my obsessive and relentless desire to be the best " . Everton finished fourth in 1987 – 88 , conceding a club record low of 27 goals in 40 league games , and reached the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup . Southall had missed the opening stages of the season after undergoing knee surgery .
Harvey had failed to adequately replace some of Everton 's departing star players , and Southall noted how " the mediocrity became habitual " as the club coasted to an eighth @-@ place finish in the 1988 – 89 season . He kept goal in the final of the Full Members Cup ( a largely unsuccessful tournament inspired by the ban on European football ) , as Everton were beaten 4 – 3 by Nottingham Forest . More significantly , he kept goal against Liverpool in the 1989 FA Cup Final after conceding only two goals in the seven games en route to the final . In an emotional match in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster in the semi @-@ final encounter with Nottingham Forest , Liverpool won the cup with a 3 – 2 extra @-@ time victory .
Everton were leading the division at the start of the 1989 – 90 season , but their title challenge fell away after a televised 6 – 2 defeat to Aston Villa . Southall was later told he needed surgery that would keep him out of action for eight months , but he instead sought out a back specialist who told him he simply had a " bad back " and found that the problem corrected itself .
Southall requested a transfer before the start of the 1990 – 91 season . He famously sat down during a " sulking session " against a goalpost at half @-@ time of the season opener whilst his teammates were still in the changing rooms while three goals down to newly promoted Leeds United ( a game eventually lost 3 – 2 ) ; Southall was fined two weeks wages despite denying it was a protest and that he simply did it to clear his head . He then received a phone call from Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson , but Southall 's hostile phone manner put Ferguson off the idea of signing him , and Ferguson instead bought Danish goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel . Howard Kendall returned as Everton manager in November , with Colin Harvey being demoted to his assistant , and led the club out of relegation trouble to secure a ninth @-@ place finish . They also reached the final of the Full Members Cup at Wembley , losing 4 – 1 to Crystal Palace , though Southall refused to collect his runners @-@ up medal as he did not value the competition .
Everton were a declining force , and finished 12th in the league in 1991 – 92 whilst exiting both the FA Cup and League Cup at the Fourth Round . They then finished 13th in the 1992 – 93 season in the newly created Premier League , just four points above the relegation zone . Kendall resigned mid @-@ way through the 1993 – 94 campaign and was replaced by Mike Walker – Southall later described Walker as a man who loved his suntan more than football . Walker oversaw a run of bad results and Everton only escaped relegation with a final day victory over Wimbledon , winning 3 – 2 after turning round a 2 – 0 deficit . Southall saw that his teammates were reluctant to take a penalty in the match and so took the ball himself before Graham Stuart plucked up the courage to take the ball from him and convert the penalty .
Everton picked up four points from their opening 12 league games of the 1994 – 95 season , and Southall received death threats after being confronted by an Everton fan during a match at Goodison Park . Walker was sacked and replaced by Joe Royle , who led the club to a 2 – 0 win over Liverpool in his first match in charge – this game also marked a record 35th Merseyside derby appearance for Southall . It was also the second match of seven consecutive games Everton went without conceding a goal – another club record . Southall then conceded just one goal ( a penalty ) in five games en route to the 1995 FA Cup Final against Manchester United . Everton won the game 1 – 0 , with Southall making a double save from Paul Scholes ; the victory left Southall as the most decorated Everton player in the club 's history .
In the summer of 1995 Southall was given a testimonial match against Celtic as well as an MBE – during the ceremony the Queen asked Southall " what will you do now that you 're retired ? " . He went on to keep a clean sheet in the 1995 FA Charity Shield , as Everton beat Blackburn Rovers 1 – 0 . He remained an ever @-@ present in the 1995 – 96 season , though Royle then tried to sign Crystal Palace goalkeeper Nigel Martyn . He tried to sell Southall to Wolverhampton Wanderers , but cancelled the deal after becoming concerned over the pre @-@ season form of touted replacement Paul Gerrard , and instead doubled Southall 's wages to £ 6 @,@ 000 a week with a new two @-@ year contract . Despite this , Royle dedicated an entire chapter of his 2005 autobiography to decrying Southall as a " potential weak link " .
After a promising start to the 1996 – 97 , Everton were beaten six times in a row after Christmas and Southall resorted to ringing up a phone @-@ in radio show to defend manager Joe Royle from unhappy supporters . Royle dropped Southall from the team despite the show of support , though he rejected a transfer offer from Chelsea , who were prepared to double Southall 's wages . Caretaker @-@ manager Dave Watson restored Southall to the starting line @-@ up after Royle 's resignation , and steered the club away from relegation .
Howard Kendall returned again to manage Everton for the 1997 – 98 season , and played Southall in the Everton goal for the final time on 29 November , in a 2 – 0 defeat at home to Tottenham Hotspur . Thomas Myhre took his place in goal , and Southall rejected a coaching role at the club in order to search for first team football elsewhere .
In December 1997 , Southall went to Alvin Martin 's Southend United of the Second Division on loan . He made nine appearances in a brief stay at Roots Hall . He joined Chris Kamara 's First Division Stoke City in February 1998 . Kamara resigned two months later , and caretaker @-@ manager Alan Durban pulled Southall aside on his first day in charge to say " I 'll let you manage the reserves , so long as you keep your head down , do whatever I tell you , and I won 't tell everybody you 're a bad influence " . Southall was shocked by Durban 's words , and could not explain his attitude . Both Southend and Stoke would end the season bottom of their respective divisions , and Everton only avoided relegation on the last day of the season . He left the Britannia Stadium in the summer , and later said " one of the worst episodes of my life had drawn to a close " .
= = = Later years = = =
Former teammate Ian Snodin invited him to join Football Conference side Doncaster Rovers on a short @-@ term deal at the start of the 1997 – 98 season . He signed with Wes Saunders 's Torquay United of the Third Division in December 1998 . He saved a penalty on his debut at Plainmoor , in a 2 – 0 win over Hull City , and signed a contract lasting until the end of the 1998 – 99 campaign . He was named as Torquay 's Player of the Year at the end of the season . However , on 29 January 2000 , he picked up a concussion in a 2 – 1 defeat to Chester City at the Deva Stadium , and was substituted . Though he recovered from his injury after the match , he left the club not long afterwards .
Southall made a return to the Premier League by signing with Bradford City as a player @-@ coach , helping to coach Aidan Davison , Matt Clarke and Gary Walsh . All three goalkeepers picked up injuries , leaving manager Paul Jewell no choice but to play Southall at Valley Parade on 12 March 2000 , against Leeds United . At the age of 41 years and 178 days he became the fourth oldest player in Premier League history . Leeds won 2 – 1 , and Southall was criticised in the media for being too overweight to play professionally . He left Bradford at the end of the 2000 – 01 season after falling out with new boss Jim Jefferies .
= = International career = =
Wales manager Mike England preferred Dai Davies in goal as Southall began to play first team football at Everton , and Southall only got a run of games once Davies retired . His first cap came against Northern Ireland at the Racecourse Ground , Wrexham on 27 May 1982 in the 1982 British Home Championship , Wales won 3 – 0 .
Wales came close to qualifying for the 1986 FIFA World Cup despite losing their opening qualifying games away to Iceland and Spain . Wales then beat Iceland at Ninian Park , before recording a surprise 1 – 0 win over Scotland at Hampden Park with a single Ian Rush goal . A 3 – 0 win over Spain at the Racecourse Ground meant that Wales could secure qualification by beating Scotland in their final qualification game at Ninian Park , though a draw would not be enough . The game ended in a 1 – 1 draw after a late Davie Cooper penalty cancelled out Mark Hughes 's opener ; Southall got a hand to the penalty , but could not keep it out . However , the result of the game was put into perspective when Scotland manager Jock Stein suffered a heart attack at the end of the game and died shortly afterwards .
Wales came close to qualifying for UEFA Euro 1988 , which would have been the first UEFA European Football Championship in the nation 's history . Going into the final two games of qualifying , Wales led their group . Southall was injured , and so missed the match against Denmark in Copenhagen , which ended in a 1 – 0 defeat with Eddie Niedzwiecki in goal . Southall returned to play the final game , a 2 – 0 defeat to Czechoslovakia in Prague which left Wales two points short of group winners Denmark . Manager Mike England was then replaced by Terry Yorath , who also made Southall a virtual ever @-@ present in the Wales goal .
In qualifying for the 1990 FIFA World Cup , Wales faced Netherlands , West Germany and Finland . They failed to win a game and finished bottom of the group , though Southall did get the chance to play against some of the world 's best players in Ruud Gullit , Marco van Basten , Frank Rijkaard , Rudi Völler , Andreas Möller , Andreas Brehme , and Jürgen Klinsmann .
In qualifying for UEFA Euro 1992 , Wales were placed in the same group as World Champions Germany , and finished just one points behind the Germans after conceding just six goals in their six games . Wales beat Germany 1 – 0 at the Cardiff Arms Park on 5 June 1991 , and three months later beat Brazil in a friendly by the same scoreline . The game which settled the qualifying group came in Nuremberg on 16 October 1991 , and Wales lost 4 – 1 to the Germans , ending Southall 's Wales record run of 385 minutes without conceding an international goal .
Wales were seen to have their best chance in reaching a major tournament after their group was selected for qualification for the 1994 FIFA World Cup . However a Gheorghe Hagi @-@ inspired Romania defeated Wales 5 – 1 in Bucharest to open the Wales campaign . Victories over the Faroe Islands and Belgium and two draws with the Representation of Czechs and Slovaks put Wales back on track , and a victory over Romania in Cardiff in the last game of the tournament would be enough to secure a place in the World Cup . However Southall allowed a 25 @-@ yard strike from Hagi slip under his body and into the net and was nutmegged by Florin Răducioiu as Wales were beaten 2 – 1 . Once again a death put Welsh footballing hopes into perspective , as Southall attended the funeral of retired postman John Hill , who was killed after being struck by a flare released at the end of the match .
Manager Terry Yorath was replaced by John Toshack , who stuck with Southall but resigned after just 48 days after falling out with the Football Association of Wales . Results went badly under new boss Mike Smith , despite a 2 – 0 victory over Albania in the first game of qualifying for UEFA Euro 1996 . An embarrassing 3 – 2 defeat to Moldova was followed by a heavy 5 – 0 loss to Georgia . Two defeats to Bulgaria ended faint hopes of qualification and cost Smith his job .
Southall applied for the vacant position , but Bobby Gould was chosen instead , who in turn named Southall and Ian Rush as his assistants . He tried Danny Coyne , Andy Marriott and Tony Roberts in goal in friendly games , but selected Southall for the World Cup qualifying wins over San Marino . A month away from his 39th birthday , he won his final cap against Turkey on 20 August 1997 ; the Turks won 6 – 4 . Southall only played the first half as Gould blamed him for the three goals he conceded – his replacement Paul Jones went on to concede three himself in the second half . His 92 Welsh caps are a national record , he conceded 126 goals , for an average of 1 @.@ 34 per match . The 1958 FIFA World Cup was the only time until the end of his career that Wales qualified for a major tournament and the British Home Championship was played for the final time in 1984 , therefore the majority of Southall 's caps came in friendlies or qualifying games .
= = Style of play = =
Southall was renowned for his shot @-@ stopping ability , particularly in dealing with one @-@ on @-@ one situations , quickly coming off his line to intimidate the onrushing forward and relying on his instinctive reactions to save the ball . He would spend hours reading books about boxing and golf to improve his balance and spring , and would focus on improving minor pieces of kit and behaviour , saying that " If I changed 100 things and got 1 % better because of one of them , then it was worth it " .
= = Coaching and management career = =
Southall was appointed caretaker manager of Wales , alongside Mark Hughes , following the resignation of Bobby Gould after a 4 – 0 defeat against Italy on 5 June 1999 . In his only game in charge Wales lost 2 – 0 to Denmark at Anfield on 9 June 1999 , and Mark Hughes was appointed as manager on a full @-@ time basis . During his time playing for Torquay , he also worked as a goalkeeping coach at Huddersfield Town and Tranmere Rovers . He later became a player @-@ coach at York City , Rhyl , Shrewsbury Town , and Dagenham & Redbridge .
He was appointed manager of Football Conference club Dover Athletic in December 2001 . His managing stint at the Kent club was short and he was sacked in March 2002 , after only a few months in charge , after the club 's new owners decided to promote his assistant Clive Walker . He later made cameo appearances as a player at Canvey Island . He also began teaching young people from deprived backgrounds how to coach in a community scheme called Soccer Skills , and later worked in the special education sector . He set up his own educational consultancy that specialised in working with NEETs , in partnership with Brooklands College .
He had a spell as Wales under @-@ 19 coach , but quit his post in November 2004 , claiming he was treated with " a total lack of respect " and that the coaching was compromised because " ... as always , it 's about money . " FAW management committee chairman Ken Tucker issued a rebuke , saying : " Nev is making comments on things he knows little about . It is sad when people make comments without any knowledge of the finances of the FAW . "
A month after resigning from the national scene , Southall returned to management with Hastings United . However just one year on he was sacked , with the Hastings chairman saying that " there have recently been an increasing number of issues on which Neville and I have disagreed and it had got to the point where our working relationship had broken down , beyond the point of repair , as far as I was concerned " .
In November 2008 , Margate manager Terry Yorath appointed Southall as his assistant in the Isthmian League . In September 2009 , he became the caretaker @-@ manager after Yorath resigned as manager .
= = Personal life = =
Southall married Eryl Williams in June 1980 . The couple had a daughter , Samantha , in 1987 . He admitted to having affairs over the course of the 18 @-@ year marriage , and left Eryl for another woman , an aromatherapist named Emma , in 1998 .
He is a teetotaller ; this fact , coupled with his shy personality and focus on football gave him a reputation as something of a loner . In August 2012 , his autobiography " The Binman Chronicles " was released . It was the sixth best selling football book of 2012 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
Sourced from The English National Football Archive
= = = International statistics = = =
= = Honours = =
In December 2004 he was voted as Everton 's all @-@ time cult hero . He holds numerous Everton club records , including : most league appearances ( 578 ) , most FA Cup appearances ( 70 ) , most League Cup appearances ( 65 ) , and most clean sheets ( 269 ) . He is named on the Gwladys Street 's Hall of Fame . In 1998 he was named as one of the Football League 100 Legends . His 92 caps for Wales are also a record . In 1999 , World Soccer magazine named him joint 95th ( with László Kubala ) in the ' Greatest Players of the 20th Century ' . In the IFFHS World 's Best Goalkeeper rankings he was listed fifth in 1987 , seventh in 1988 , ninth in 1989 , and fourth in 1991 . He was voted FWA Footballer of the Year in 1985 , making him the last goalkeeper to be given the award . He was voted BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year in 1995 .
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= Brigadier General Albert Pike =
Brigadier General Albert Pike is a public artwork in Washington , D.C. honoring Albert Pike ( 1809 – 1891 ) , a poet , lawyer , soldier , and influential figure in the Scottish Rite of freemasonry . The memorial is sited near the corner of 3rd and D Streets NW in the Judiciary Square neighborhood . The memorial 's two bronze figures were sculpted by Gaetano Trentanove , an Italian @-@ American artist responsible for another Washington , D.C. sculptural landmark , the Daniel Webster Memorial . The dedication ceremony in 1901 was attended by thousands of Masons who marched in a celebratory parade .
The Pike memorial is the only outdoor sculpture in Washington , D.C. honoring a Confederate general . Though Pike is depicted as a Mason , not a soldier , the memorial has often stirred controversy . The memorial is one of 18 Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The memorial is owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Albert Pike ( 1809 – 1891 ) was a Massachusetts native who became a schoolteacher and frontiersman before settling in Arkansas . There he began teaching again and continued to write poetry , a lifelong passion . His letters to local newspapers led to a job offer as editor for the Arkansas Advocate , a newspaper in Little Rock affiliated with the Whig Party . Pike later became a successful lawyer specializing in Native American claims against the U.S. government . He served as a captain in the Mexican – American War and resumed his legal practice following the war . In the 1850s , Pike switched his allegiance to the Know Nothing Party due to the Whig Party 's reluctance to embrace slavery and sided with the Confederacy when Southern states seceded from the United States in 1861 . During the Civil War , Pike 's knowledge of Native Americans led to him being commissioned a brigadier general in the Confederate Army . He assembled an Indian cavalry loyal to the Confederacy and led them in battle at Pea Ridge , where his poor leadership and inability to keep the cavalry engaged with the enemy was a contributing factor to the Confederate 's loss . Alleged atrocities committed by his troops include the scalping of captured enemy combatants . A few months after the battle , Pike resigned from the army and resumed practicing law . Following the war , Pike settled in Memphis , Tennessee , where it was rumored he became involved with the Ku Klux Klan ( KKK ) , though no definitive evidence proves his relationship with the organization .
Around 1870 he moved to Washington , D.C. to practice law and continue serving as Sovereign Grand Commander ( SGC ) of the Washington @-@ based Supreme Council , Southern Jurisdiction ( SCJC ) , one of two jurisdictions in the Scottish Rite . Pike had become a Mason in 1850 and quickly rose up its ranks , becoming the SGC in 1859 . He rewrote and interpreted Masonic rituals and compiled the Southern Jurisdiction 's first philosophical document , Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry , an influential book in the organization . Pike continued serving as SGC until his death in 1891 . Pike once stated " When I am dead , I wish my monument to be builded only in the hearts and memories of my brethren of the Ancient and Accepted Rite " , but a few years after his death , Masons began plans for a monument in the nation 's capital .
The SCJC chose Italian @-@ American artist Gaetano Trentanove to sculpt the memorial . Trentanove was an acquaintance of Pike and had recently received praise for his sculpture of Jacques Marquette housed in the National Statuary Hall Collection . While Trentanove was working on the commission , Masons lobbied members of Congress for public land in Washington , D.C. where the monument could be placed . When members of the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) , a fraternal organization of Union veterans , became aware of plans for a public memorial to be erected in Washington , D.C. in honor of a Confederate general , they contacted congressmen and told them it would be a disgrace to the memories of all Union soldiers . Nevertheless , on April 9 , 1898 , members of Congress approved the memorial after Masons assured them it would depict Pike as a civilian , not a soldier .
Excavation for the memorial site took place in the summer of 1899 and on July 4 , 1900 , the cornerstone was laid . Prior to the cornerstone ceremony , several members of the SCJC , including Third Assistant Secretary of State Thomas W. Cridler , gathered at the House of the Temple at 433 3rd Street NW ( current site of the Tax Court Building ) , where Pike had lived , to reminisce . The men signed a parchment noting the date and who was in attendance . At the ceremony , the parchment was enclosed in a bottle and placed in an opening of the memorial 's foundation . The total cost of the memorial was $ 15 @,@ 000 , raised by members of the SCJC . Fabrication was carried out by the Washington Granite Monumental Company and the sculptures founded by Fonderia Galli .
= = = Dedication = = =
The dedication ceremony on October 23 , 1901 , was planned to coincide with the centennial anniversary of the SCJC . At 2 P.M. , members of the Grand Lodge of the Masons of the District of Columbia led by Grand Master Harry Standiford marched from the Masonic Temple at 9th and F Streets NW to the House of the Temple where they joined thousands of Masons taking part in the parade . The parade ended at the memorial site , on a triangular lot bordered by 3rd Street , D Street , and Indiana Avenue NW . A large temporary stand for invited guests and ceremony participants was built at the base of the memorial .
Following a musical performance by Haley 's Washington Band , grand commanders of the SCJC , the Scottish Rite 's Northern Jurisdiction , and Royal Order of Scotland all released the halyard holding the U.S. flag that covered the memorial . This was followed by loud cheers from the crowd and a prayer given by Masonic chaplain Charles Alvin Smith . Frederick Webber , secretary general of the SCJC , then gave a speech and formally presented the memorial to the American people :
I am here to represent the Supreme Council , and in its name to present to the government of the United States this statue . It will long stand as a loving tribute from his brethren of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry .
President of the District Commission H. B. F. McFarland accepted the memorial on behalf of the American people :
Although Albert Pike was a soldier in the Civil War , this statue will commemorate him rather as a victor in the honorable rivalries of peace . It is well that you thus add to the comparatively small number of statues in the city of Washington which honor the victories of peace rather than of war .
After additional music was performed by the band , a benediction was given and the ceremony concluded . Throughout the ceremony , Pike was portrayed as a kind poet , though there were a few references to his service as a Confederate general .
= = = Later history = = =
For many years , members of the United Daughters of the Confederacy would hold ceremonies at the site on Pike 's birthday and Masons would decorate the memorial , though the latter still happens on occasion . The memorial was removed in 1972 during construction of Interstate 395 and reinstalled in September 1977 near its former site . The memorial is one of 18 Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . It is also designated a contributing property to the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site , established on September 30 , 1965 . In 1993 , the memorial was surveyed by the Smithsonian Institution as part of its Save Outdoor Sculpture ! program and it was deemed " well maintained . " The memorial is owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Pike 's memorial has often stirred controversy throughout its history , beginning with the GAR 's lobbying efforts against its erection to protesters arguing it honors a traitor and alleged racist . Starting in the 1990s , there was renewed interest in removing the statue . In late 1992 , members of the LaRouche movement , including civil rights activist and Lyndon LaRouche 's vice presidential candidate James Bevel , began a series of protests demanding the memorial be removed , citing Pike 's alleged links with the KKK . During one such event , LaRouche supporters draped Pike 's statue with a KKK pointed hat and gown . Bevel stated : " One way or the other , this statue is coming down . Either the statue will be taken down gracefully or it will be torn down . " The protesters sought a congressional resolution to have the statue removed and replaced with a monument inscribed with the Declaration of Independence . Historian and LaRouche activist Anton Chaitkin called the statue a " monument to terrorism " and members of the Council of the District of Columbia petitioned to have the statue removed . Michael Farquhar , a former writer and editor at The Washington Post , called Pike a " blustering blowhard , a feeble poet , a laughable hypocrite , a shameless jingoist , a notoriously insubordinate military officer , and yes , a bigot with genocidal inclinations . " John W. Boettjer , then managing editor of the Scottish Rite Journal , wrote a rebuttal op @-@ ed in The Washington Post in defense of the memorial and pointed out that only an Act of Congress could result in the statue 's removal . He stated : " [ Pike ] received a full pardon from the federal government for his service in the Civil War as a Confederate general . There is not a jot of reliable proof that Albert Pike was ever a member , much less an officer , of the Klan . " Boettjer also claimed a LaRouche video promised the Middle East conflict would be solved and World War III averted if the statue was removed . The weekly protests by LaRouche supporters continued into 1993 . That year Bevel and Chaitkin were convicted of " unlawful statue climbing " and sentenced to one week in jail .
There was continued criticism of the memorial in the 1990s and 2000s . John F. Doyle , a retired judge of the Superior Court of the District of Columbia , said Pike was responsible for Native American casualties during the Civil War and their subsequent loss of land . Journalist and author Richard G. Zimmerman called Pike 's statue a " poor choice for a pedestal " and said inscriptions on the memorial noting Pike 's virtues should include " bigot , indicted traitor , alleged barbarian , suspected plagiarist , jailbird . " C. Fred Kleinknecht , then chief executive officer of the Scottish Rite , defended Pike and said the statue was not in honor of his role as a Confederate general , but as an " advocate for Native Americans and his role as a champion of educational and social reform and for his literary accomplishments and scholarship . " Scottish Rite Journal managing editor S. Brent Morris has also defended the memorial and Pike 's role as a Confederate officer : " We 're not embarrassed in the least that he was a Confederate general ... Even in 1901 , I don 't think the United States Congress would have approved honoring a Confederate general , so he was honored for all his other accomplishments . "
= = Design and location = =
The statue of Pike is the only outdoor sculpture in Washington , D.C. honoring a Confederate general , although he is dressed as a civilian , not a soldier . It is located in Reservation 188 at the southwest corner of 3rd and D Street NW in the Judiciary Square neighborhood . It is sited between the U.S. Department of Labor 's Frances Perkins Building and Metropolitan Police Department headquarters .
The bronze sculpture of Pike measures 11 ft ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high and depicts him as a Masonic leader , not a Confederate officer . He is wearing a double @-@ breasted vest and a long coat . His right arm is extended and with the left hand he holds a book , thought to be his work Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry . The sculpture surmounts a granite , Beaux @-@ Arts base that is 17 @.@ 2 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) tall and 17 @.@ 1 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide . On the front of the memorial ( north side ) , a bronze sculpture representing the Goddess of Masonry rests halfway down the base . With her right hand , she holds the banner of the Scottish Rite on a staff . She is wearing a long Greek robe and facing downward , her ankles crossed and feet dangling .
Inscriptions on the memorial include the following :
G. TRENTANOVE / FLLI GALLI FUSERO ( base of Pike 's sculpture )
33 / DEUS MEUMQUE JUS ( on banner held by Goddess figure )
ALBERT PIKE ( front of upper base )
Born December 29th , 1809 . / Died April 2nd , 1891 . ( rear of base )
AUTHOR - VIXIT / LABORUM EJUS SUPERTITIES SUN FRUCTUS - POET ( front of lower base )
SCHOLAR - SOLDIER ( left side of lower base )
ORATOR - JURIST ( right side of lower base )
PHILANTHROPIST - ERECTED 1901 BY THE SUPREME COUNCIL OF / THE AASR OF FREEMASONRY / FOR THE S J U.S.A. - PHILOSOPHER ( rear of lower base )
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= Mount Rainier =
Mount Rainier ( pronounced : / reɪˈnɪər / ) , Mount Tacoma , or Mount Tahoma is the highest mountain of the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest , and the highest mountain in the U.S. state of Washington . It is a large active stratovolcano located 54 miles ( 87 km ) south @-@ southeast of Seattle . It is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States and the Cascade Volcanic Arc , with a summit elevation of 14 @,@ 411 ft ( 4 @,@ 392 m ) .
Mt . Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world , and it is on the Decade Volcano list . Because of its large amount of glacial ice , Mt . Rainier could potentially produce massive lahars that could threaten the entire Puyallup River valley , and poses a grave threat to sections of Seattle , a city with nearly a million people living in it .
= = Name = =
Mount Rainier was first known by the Native Americans as Talol , or Tacoma or Tahoma . One hypothesis of the word origin is [ təqʷúʔbəʔ ] ( " mother of waters " ) , in the Lushootseed language spoken by the Puyallup people . Another hypothesis is that " Tacoma " means " larger than Mount Baker " in Lushootseed : " Ta " , larger , plus " Koma ( Kulshan ) " , Mount Baker . Other names originally used include Tahoma , Tacobeh , and Pooskaus .
The current name was given by George Vancouver , who named it in honor of his friend , Rear Admiral Peter Rainier . The map of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804 @-@ 1806 refers to it as " Mt . Regniere " .
Although " Rainier " had been considered the official name of the mountain , Theodore Winthrop , in his posthumously published 1862 travel book The Canoe and the Saddle , referred to the mountain as " Tacoma " and for a time , both names were used interchangeably , although " Mt . Tacoma " was preferred in the city of Tacoma .
In 1890 , the United States Board on Geographic Names declared that the mountain would be known as " Rainier " . Following this in 1897 , the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve , and the national park was established three years later . Despite this , there was still a movement to change the mountain 's name to " Tacoma " and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924 .
In the lead up to Super Bowl XLVIII , the Washington State Senate passed a resolution on Friday , January 31 , 2014 , temporarily renaming the mountain Mount Seattle Seahawks until the midnight after the Super Bowl , Monday , February 3 , 2014 , in response to the renaming of 53 mountains in Colorado after the 53 members of the Denver Broncos by Governor of Colorado John Hickenlooper .
After the renaming of Mount McKinley in 2015 , debate over the name resumed .
= = Geographical setting = =
Mount Rainier is the highest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range . This peak is located just east of Eatonville and just southeast of Seattle and Tacoma . Mount Rainier is ranked third of the 128 ultra @-@ prominent mountain peaks of the United States . Mount Rainier has a topographic prominence of 13 @,@ 210 ft ( 4 @,@ 026 m ) , which is greater than that of K2 , the world 's second @-@ tallest mountain , at 13 @,@ 189 ft ( 4 @,@ 020 m ) . On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of the Seattle @-@ Tacoma metropolitan area to such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as " the Mountain . " On days of exceptional clarity , it can also be seen from as far away as Corvallis , Oregon ( at Marys Peak ) and Victoria , British Columbia .
With 26 major glaciers and 36 sq mi ( 93 km2 ) of permanent snowfields and glaciers , Mount Rainier is the most heavily glaciated peak in the lower 48 states . The summit is topped by two volcanic craters , each more than 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) in diameter , with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater . Geothermal heat from the volcano keeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice , and has formed the world 's largest volcanic glacier cave network within the ice @-@ filled craters , with nearly 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of passages . A small crater lake about 130 by 30 ft ( 39 @.@ 6 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) in size and 16 ft ( 5 m ) deep , the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14 @,@ 203 ft ( 4 @,@ 329 m ) , occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft ( 30 m ) of ice and is accessible only via the caves .
The Carbon , Puyallup , Mowich , Nisqually , and Cowlitz Rivers begin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier . The sources of the White River are Winthrop , Emmons , and Fryingpan Glaciers . The White , Carbon , and Mowich join the Puyallup River , which discharges into Commencement Bay at Tacoma ; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east of Lacey ; and the Cowlitz joins the Columbia River between Kelso and Longview .
= = = Subsidiary peaks = = =
The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits . The highest is called the Columbia Crest . The second highest summit is Point Success , 14 @,@ 158 ft ( 4 @,@ 315 m ) , at the southern edge of the summit plateau , atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver . It has a topographic prominence of about 138 ft ( 42 m ) , so it is not considered a separate peak . The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap , 14 @,@ 112 ft ( 4 @,@ 301 m ) , at the northwestern edge , which overlooks Liberty Ridge , the Sunset Amphitheater , and the dramatic Willis Wall . Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft ( 150 m ) , and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence @-@ based rules . A prominence cutoff of 400 ft ( 122 m ) is commonly used in Washington state .
High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known as Little Tahoma Peak , 11 @,@ 138 ft ( 3 @,@ 395 m ) , an eroded remnant of the earlier , much higher , Mount Rainier . It has a prominence of 858 ft ( 262 m ) , and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest , so it is usually considered a separate peak . If considered separately from Mt . Rainier , Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington .
= = Geology = =
Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc that consists of lava flows , debris flows , and pyroclastic ejecta and flows . Its early volcanic deposits are estimated at more than 840 @,@ 000 years old and are part of the Lily Formation ( about 2 @.@ 9 million to 840 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The early deposits formed a " proto @-@ Rainier " or an ancestral cone prior to the present @-@ day cone . The present cone is more than 500 @,@ 000 years old .
The volcano is highly eroded , with glaciers on its slopes , and appears to be made mostly of andesite . Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) before a major debris avalanche and the resulting Osceola Mudflow approximately 5 @,@ 000 years ago . In the past , Rainier has had large debris avalanches , and has also produced enormous lahars ( volcanic mudflows ) due to the large amount of glacial ice present . Its lahars have reached all the way to Puget Sound , a distance of more than 30 mi ( 48 km ) . Around 5 @,@ 000 years ago , a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow , which went all the way to the site of present @-@ day Tacoma and south Seattle . This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1 @,@ 600 ft ( 500 m ) of Rainier , bringing its height down to around 14 @,@ 100 ft ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) . About 530 to 550 years ago , the Electron Mudflow occurred , although this was not as large @-@ scale as the Osceola Mudflow .
After the major collapse approximately 5 @,@ 000 years ago , subsequent eruptions of lava and tephra built up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1 @,@ 000 years ago . As many as 11 Holocene tephra layers have been found .
= = = Modern activity and the current threat = = =
The most recent recorded volcanic eruption was between 1820 and 1854 , but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858 , 1870 , 1879 , 1882 and 1894 as well .
Although Mount Rainier is an active volcano , as of 2016 seismic monitors within Mount Rainier National Park and on top of the mountain appear to show that it is indeed very much alive , but very soundly asleep . However , an eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and an eruption would also cause trouble from Vancouver , Canada to San Francisco because of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere .
Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of the Pacific Ring of Fire . This includes mountains and calderas like Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak in California , Crater Lake , Three Sisters , and Mount Hood in Oregon , Mount Saint Helens , Mount Adams , Glacier Peak , and Mount Baker in Washington , and Mount Cayley , Garibaldi , Silverthrone , and Mount Meager in British Columbia . All of the above are dormant , but alive , and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future , including Mount Rainier . Of these , only two have erupted in the past hundred years : Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 & 2004 . However , past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples of sub @-@ plinian eruptions or higher : Crater Lake 's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to implode , and Mt . Rainier 's closest neighbor , Mount St. Helen 's had a huge chunk of the side of the mountain blow up in a phreatic explosion caused by a mix of gas and water ; where St. Helens was once perfectly symmetrical there is now , thirty five years later , a huge crater at the top of one face . Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in this range at 2 @-@ 3 per century .
Mount Rainier is currently listed as a Decade Volcano , or one of the 16 volcanoes with the greatest likelihood of causing great loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes . If Mt . Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18 , 1980 eruption , the effect would be cumulatively greater , because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on the volcano compared to Mount St. Helens , the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier , and the simple fact that Mt Rainier is a much bigger volcano , almost twice the size of St. Helens . Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property , as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits . According to the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , about 150 @,@ 000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier . Not only is there much ice atop the volcano , the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity . According to Geoff Clayton , a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm , RH2 Engineering , a repeat of the Osceola mudflow would destroy Enumclaw , Orting , Kent , Auburn , Puyallup , Sumner and all of Renton . Such a mudflow might also reach down the Duwamish estuary and destroy parts of downtown Seattle , and cause tsunamis in Puget Sound and Lake Washington . Rainier is also capable of producing pyroclastic flows and expelling lava .
According to K. Scott , a scientist with the USGS :
" A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire ... For example , a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years , on the average , is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire . People know the danger of fire , so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms , but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars , and few have applicable flood insurance . "
The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs in Pierce County . The more populous King County is also in the lahar area , but currently has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard . More recently ( since 2001 ) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up , leading local authorities in at @-@ risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to the Armero tragedy .
= = = Seismic background = = =
Typically , up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit . Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time , predominantly in the region of 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 km ) below the summit . These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier . Presumably , hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids . Seismic swarms ( not initiated with a mainshock ) are common features at volcanoes , and are rarely associated with eruptive activity . Rainier has had several such swarms ; there were days @-@ long swarms in 2002 , 2004 , and 2007 , two of which ( 2002 and 2004 ) included M 3 @.@ 2 earthquakes . A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier . Yet another swarm was observed in 2011 .
= = = Glaciers = = =
Glaciers are among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier . They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers , including some that provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation . Together with perennial snow patches , the 26 major glaciers cover about 36 square miles ( 93 km2 ) of the mountain 's surface and have a volume of about 1 cubic mile ( 4 @.@ 2 km3 ) .
Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and by deformation , the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals . Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier . During May 1970 , Nisqually Glacier was measured moving as fast as 29 inches ( 74 cm ) per day . Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter , probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base .
The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past . For example , during the last ice age , from about 25 @,@ 000 to about 15 @,@ 000 years ago , glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin .
Between the 14th century and 1850 , many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age . Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as the Little Ice Age . During the Little Ice Age , the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft ( 200 to 240 m ) downvalley from the site of the Glacier Bridge , Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers merged at the base of Glacier Island , and the terminus of Emmons Glacier reached within 1 @.@ 2 mi ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) of the White River Campground .
Retreat of the Little Ice Age glaciers was slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid . Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950 , Mount Rainier 's glaciers lost about one @-@ quarter of their length . Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s , however , many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid @-@ century . The Carbon , Cowlitz , Emmons , and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s . Since the early @-@ 1980s , however , many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed .
The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows , through glacial outburst floods not associated with any eruption . The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s , and again in August , 2015 .
= = Human history = =
At the time of European contact , the river valleys and other areas near the mountain were inhabited by many Pacific Northwest tribes who hunted and gathered berries in its forests and mountain meadows . These included the Nisqually , Cowlitz , Yakama , Puyallup , and Muckleshoot .
Captain George Vancouver reached Puget Sound in early May 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain .
In 1833 , Dr. William Fraser Tolmie explored the area looking for medicinal plants . Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump received a hero 's welcome in the streets of Olympia after their successful summit climb in 1870 . The first female ascent was made in 1890 by Fay Fuller , accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates .
John Muir climbed Mount Rainier in 1888 , and although he enjoyed the view , he conceded that it was best appreciated from below . Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain . In 1893 , the area was set aside as part of the Pacific Forest Reserve in order to protect its physical and economic resources , primarily timber and watersheds .
Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment , railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism . On March 2 , 1899 , President William McKinley established Mount Rainier National Park as America 's fifth national park . Congress dedicated the new park " for the benefit and enjoyment of the people " and " ... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber , mineral deposits , natural curiosities , or wonders within said park , and their retention in their natural condition . "
In 1998 , the United States Geological Survey began putting together the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System to assist in the emergency evacuation of the Puyallup River valley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow . It is now run by the Pierce County Department of Emergency Management . Tacoma , at the mouth of the Puyallup , is only 37 mi ( 60 km ) west of Rainier , and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi ( 43 and 32 km ) away , respectively .
Mt . Rainier appears on four distinct United States postage stamp issues . In 1934 , it was the 3 @-@ cent issue in a series of National Park stamps , and was also shown on a souvenir sheet issued for a philatelic convention . The following year , in 1935 , both of these were reprinted by Postmaster General James A. Farley as special issues given to officials and friends . Because of complaints by the public , " Farley 's Follies " were reproduced in large numbers . The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it is imperforate . Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available .
The Washington state quarter , which was released on April 11 , 2007 , features Mount Rainier and a salmon .
= = Climbing and recreation = =
Mountain climbing on Mount Rainier is difficult , involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south of Alaska . Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit . Climbing teams demand experience in glacier travel , self @-@ rescue , and wilderness travel . About 8 @,@ 000 to 13 @,@ 000 people attempt the climb each year , about 90 % via routes from Camp Muir on the southeast flank . Most of the rest ascend Emmons Glacier via Camp Schurman on the northeast . About half of the attempts are successful , with weather and conditioning being the most common reasons for failure . All climbers who plan to climb above high camps , Camp Muir and Camp Schurman , are required by law to purchase a Mount Rainier Climbing Pass and register for their climb . Additionally , solo climbers must fill out a solo climbing request form and receive written permission from the Superintendent before attempting to climb .
The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981 , when eleven people lost their lives in an ice fall on the Ingraham Glacier . This was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier .
More recently , the mountain received media attention in 2012 , as one of the park rangers lost his life when several climbers were caught in a storm while trying to ascend the mountain . While trying to help load the climbers into a rescue helicopter , the ranger lost his footing , and slid 3 @,@ 700 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) to his death .
In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years , six climbers — two guides , and four clients — last heard from on May 28 , 2014 , were presumed dead on May 31 , 2014 , when low @-@ flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers . Officials concluded that there was no possible chance for survival after the climbers fell 3 @,@ 300 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) while attempting or returning from the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route . Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9 @,@ 500 ft ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) , possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing , though the exact cause of the accident is unknown . The bodies of three of the guest climbers were spotted on August 7 , 2014 , during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19 , 2014 . The bodies of the fourth guest climber and two guides have not been located .
About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall , avalanche , falls , and hypothermia associated with severe weather ( 58 reported since and including the 1981 accident through 2010 per American Alpine Club Accidents in North American Mountaineering and the NPS ) .
Hiking , backcountry skiing , photography , and camping are popular in the park . Hiking trails , including the Wonderland Trail — a 93 @-@ mile or 150 @-@ kilometre circumnavigation of the peak — provide access to the backcountry . Mount Rainier is also popular for winter sports , including snowshoeing and cross @-@ country skiing .
= = Climate = =
The summit of Mount Rainier has an alpine climate .
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= Cowboy Jimmy Moore =
Cowboy Jimmy Moore ( September 14 , 1910 – November 17 , 1999 ) , born James William Moore , was a world @-@ class American pocket billiards ( pool ) player originally from Troup County , Georgia , and for most of his life a resident of Albuquerque , New Mexico , best known for his mastery in the game of straight pool ( 14 @.@ 1 continuous ) .
An excellent athlete at various sports , Moore 's many records in billiards include winning the Michigan State Billiard Championship four times , placing second at the World Championship five times competing against the best in the world such as Willie Mosconi , Irving Crane and Luther Lassiter , winning the United States National Pocket Billiards Championship in 1958 , the National Invitation Pocket Billiards Championship in 1965 and the Legends of Pocket Billiards competition in 1984 .
Moore was also known for his straight pool exhibition work , as a formidable road player , and for his unusual pool style , which included both his flamboyant cowboy dress , and his rare form of cueing technique known as a slip stroke . Moore also worked as a technical adviser for billiard @-@ related scenes in television and film in such productions as My Living Doll , and the Jerry Lewis movie The Family Jewels . He is an inductee of the Billiard Congress of America 's Hall of Fame , the International Pocket Billiards Hall of Fame , and the Albuquerque Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Early years = =
James William Moore was born on September 14 , 1910 on a farm located in Troup County , Georgia , just outside the City of Hogansville . He was the son of a Georgia blacksmith , sheriff and streetcar conductor . He began working at a young age , supplementing his family 's income variously as a cotton picker earning 35 cents per 100 pounds , managing a fruit stand , and delivering newspapers . His family moved to Detroit when he was 13 , where other ways of making money presented themselves . Moore ran card games and pursued other games of chance , even pitching pennies . He was very good at such gambling pursuits and was a naturally gifted athlete , attaining a Triple @-@ A level as a baseball player in the minor leagues , once bowled a perfect game , and was a fine golfer .
I was shooting in the ' 70s soon after I took up golf . I thought about trying to become a pro but I figured there wasn 't any money in it . That was true , back then . Same thing for baseball . I was a pretty good pitcher — I played in the minors for Belle Isle , out of Detroit — but I didn 't think I could make a living at it .
In 1928 at 18 years of age , Moore took a job as a pinsetter at Car Barns , a local bowling alley , earning six cents a line . True to form , Moore was a quick study , for a time carrying a 233 bowling average . Moore first picked up a cue stick at Car Barns , playing on the single 4 x 8 foot pool table the bowling alley had available . According to Moore he immediately fell in love with the game ; specifically , with the game of straight pool ( 14 @.@ 1 continuous ) , at which he would chiefly compete during his career , though not to the exclusion of all other billiard disciplines — Moore would become national snooker champion , and would place second at the 1961 First Annual World 's One @-@ Pocket Billiards Tournament in Johnston City , Illinois .
Straight pool was the game of championship pocket billiards competition until approximately the 1980s when it was overtaken by " faster " games such as nine @-@ ball . In the game , a shooter may attempt to pocket any object ball on the table . The object is to reach a set number of points determined by agreement before the game — typically 150 in professional competition . One point is scored for each ball pocketed in the pocket called and where no foul has transpired . According to Moore , his high run in the game was 236 ball in a row .
Six months after his first introduction to the game , Moore entered and won the 1929 Michigan State billiard championship . He successfully defended that title in the following three years . During the midst of the Great Depression , however , playing pool for trophies was not a luxury Moore could afford , so he took his game on the road .
= = On the road = =
Moore first partnered with hustler cum exhibition player , Ray St. Laurent , a colorful character who staged exhibitions wearing a red cape and mask while billed as " The Red Devil " . Although St. Laurent fostered Moore , they were not equals on the pool table . One winter evening in Canton , Ohio , St. Laurent was losing badly in a thoroughly overmatched gambling session to Ohio road legend , Don Willis , known as the " Cincinnati Kid " , who was considered by many of his colleagues of the time " the deadliest player alive " . The wager was 25 cents a ball — a not inconsiderable sum at the time — and Moore was stakehorsing the match . Eventually disgusted by the uneven proceedings , Moore told St. Laurent that he couldn 't win and asked him to step aside and let him have a go . Willis later recalled :
Here was this punk kid sitting there saying , ' I 'll play you some . ' Well , he got out of that overcoat and ran over me in my home poolroom . He never missed a ball .
Moore and Willis became traveling partners following their match , often accompanied on the road by future six @-@ time world champion Luther " Wimpy " Lassiter . Given his skill and prominent road partners , Moore 's name began to be known in the billiard world . In 1940 , the World Pocket Billiards ( straight pool ) titleholder of that year , Andrew Ponzi , sought out Moore looking for a challenge . At the match ultimately arranged , Moore first beat Ponzi out of $ 80 playing nine @-@ ball , and then beat him at his own game of choice , straight pool , with Moore scoring 125 points to Ponzi 's 82 .
After Moore 's match with Ponzi , he was hired by Ponzi 's sometime employer , Sylvester Livingston , a pool impresario who hosted exhibitions with a stable of top pool talent including Irving Crane who , like Lassiter , would become a six @-@ time world champion . During 1941 Moore performed 250 exhibitions across the country , earning $ 5 for matinees , and $ 7 for evening performances . He lost only one match over the year , and posted straight pool runs of 100 or more in 24 out of the 250 exhibitions .
By that time Moore was recognizable by his cowboy airs . He customarily wore cowboy boots , a white Stetson hat and a string tie , kept his hair in a crew @-@ cut , and was rarely seen without a cigar . He was also known for his unusual form of stroke . Moore employed a slip stroke — a shooting technique in which a player releases his gripping hand briefly and re @-@ grasps the cue farther back on the butt just before hitting the cue ball . Employing the slip stroke to good effect , Moore was deadly accurate , but could also shoot with great power .
In 1945 , Moore 's purchased a home in Albuquerque , New Mexico , where he would live for the rest of his life with his wife , Julie Chavez , whom he married in 1949 . They had seven children together : sons Jamie , Raymond and Tommy , and daughters Pamela Nathan , Kolma Moore , Emily DiLorenzo and Linda Bates . Soon after moving to Albuquerque , he became co @-@ owner and operator of the U Cue Billiards Hall located in the City . It was said that hustlers avoided going through Albuquerque just to avoid getting into a money game with Moore .
= = Exhibition and competition = =
Though Moore continued playing on the road — as he would for over 40 years — he began competing and placing in top @-@ tier tournaments . His tournament career was to be overshadowed by an enduring series of runner @-@ up finishes that would earn him the nickname " pool 's underpaid prince " in such publications as Esquire Magazine . The name that stuck with him for life , however , was Cowboy . According to Moore , he became ' Cowboy ' Jimmy Moore when he appeared at the Commodore Hotel championships in New York City in the 1950s wearing the required tuxedo , but nevertheless sporting cowboy boots and his signature white Stetson hat .
The second @-@ place @-@ saga started in 1951 at the two @-@ week @-@ long , double @-@ elimination , round robin format , World Championship tournament , held that year in Boston . At the competition , Moore was defeated in his last match by Willie Mosconi . His record was seven wins in nine matches , including triumphs over future Billiard Congress of America ( BCA ) Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers , Irving Crane and Arthur " Babe " Cranfield .
In 1952 he made a strong showing in the same competition , held once more in Boston , running 93 balls against Lassiter , beating him 150 to 25 , but again finishing behind Willie Mosconi , this time sharing second place with Jimmy Caras and Joe Procita . Moore 's match with Mosconi had an ending score of 150 to 58 in 19 innings . Moore competed in the 1953 World Championship in San Francisco , but did not place , losing in his last match to Crane , 150 @-@ 56 in 7 innings .
The following year Moore took second place yet again in the World Championship , held that year in Philadelphia . The 1954 tournament was not sponsored and was unsanctioned by the BCA ; in its absence being organized by Irving Crane . It was denominated by newspapers , such as The New York Times , as the " Unofficial World Pocket Billiard Championship . " In a career highlight in the penultimate match there , Moore was losing 148 to 8 to Irving Crane . When Crane let him back to the table , Moore ran 142 balls and out . Despite this feat , Moore was dispatched to second place by Lassiter , with a final score of 150 to 95 , sharing second place with Crane . The defending champion , Mosconi , did not participate .
Moore 's runner @-@ up streak continued in the 1956 World Championship held at Judice 's Academy in Brooklyn , New York . He clinched second place , to Willie Mosconi 's now almost ubiquitous first , with a 150 to 50 score over Al Coslosky of Philadelphia in 15 innings , a win over Richard Riggie of Baltimore , 150 to 121 , with an inspired run of 107 balls , but a loss to Lassiter , 150 to 70 in 7 innings . That same year Moore played Mosconi at a challenge match in Kinston , North Carolina . It was not Moore 's day as Mosconi posted a career highlight ; a perfect match — 150 balls in a row in one inning .
In all , Moore came in second at the World Championship five times but never took the crown . He did however win the National Pocket Billiards Championship held in Chicago at Bensinger 's Billiards in 1958 . The tournament was a challenge match , marathon straight pool race to 3 @,@ 000 points between Moore and Luther Lassiter . It was a tight competition , with Lassiter leading at one point 1 @,@ 800 to 1 @,@ 512 . Moore battled back and eventually won with a final score of 3 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 634 .
He didn 't think I could beat him , and that made me mad . I had to get mad to win . I was way behind , then I ran 95 , 96 , 97 and 175 , and only missed then when I scratched on the break . Ran right past him .
Moore would eventually have ten second place finishes in world @-@ title competition . Nevertheless , he frequently competed with and beat all of the players whom he so often played second fiddle to in sanctioned tournament play . In fact , later in 1958 , the same year he won the National Pocket Billiards Championship against Lassiter , he roundly defeated Mosconi in a two @-@ day exhibition match in his home town of Albuquerque , with a final score of 500 to 397 . Moore and Mosconi would battle it out many times in unsanctioned but publicized play . In addition to matches previously mentioned , they vied at Albuquerque 's old Chaplin Alley in 1956 ; at the Highland Bowl in 1958 ; and later , in matches in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina , Philadelphia , Chicago and Johnston City at the Jansco Brother 's Stardust Open , where Moore would win the prize for " all @-@ around honors " .
It was not until 1965 at the National Invitation Pocket Billiards Championship , seven years after his last first place finish , that he would repeat as champion in a sanctioned tournament . At that contest held at the Riviera Terrace in New York City , along the way to first place and the prize of $ 4 @,@ 000 , Moore defeated : Onofrio Lauri 150 to 117 ; Joe Balsis 150 to -3 ; Cisero Murphy 150 to 96 ; " Champagne " Edwin Kelly 150 to 83 in 3 innings ; and the ever @-@ present Luther Lassiter , 150 to 41 in 4 innings . The runner up in the tourney was Joe Balsis .
In addition to competition , Moore served as a technical adviser for billiard @-@ related scenes in television and film , including My Living Doll starring Julie Newmar and Robert Cummings in 1964 , and the Jerry Lewis movie The Family Jewels in 1965 .
= = Later life = =
Moore was inducted into the International Pocket Billiards Hall of Fame in 1982 , the Billiard Congress of America 's Hall of Fame in 1994 , and the Albuquerque Sports Hall of Fame in 1998 . He remained competitive in tournament and match play well into his 70s . In 1984 , at age 74 , Moore won the Legends of Pocket Billiards competition on ESPN . Even in later years he was still deadly on a pool table , running 111 balls three days after his 80th birthday . " Until the traffic accident I had about a year ago , I was still playing my usual speed " Moore said in July 1999 at the age of 89 . However , Moore 's health declined rapidly that same year . He died on November 17 , 1999 of natural causes .
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= USS Constellation vs L 'Insurgente =
The USS Constellation vs L 'Insurgente , or the Action of 9 February 1799 , was a single @-@ ship action fought between frigates of the French Navy and the United States Navy during the Quasi @-@ War , the battle resulted in the USS Constellation 's capture of L 'Insurgente .
The previous year , an undeclared war had begun between the United States and France due to French privateering attacks against American vessels . An American squadron under Commodore Thomas Truxtun had been sent to patrol the waters between Puerto Rico and Saint Kitts with orders to engage any French forces they found in the area . While Truxtun was sailing independently of his squadron in the Constellation , his flagship , he met and engaged L 'Insurgente . After chasing the French ship through a storm , Constellation was able to force L 'Insurgente into an engagement that lasted an hour and fourteen minutes before the French frigate surrendered . The French sustained heavy casualties in the action , while the numbers of American dead and wounded were low . After the action L 'Insurgente was taken to Saint Kitts and commissioned into the United States Navy as USS Insurgent . With this and later victories , American morale soared , and Truxtun returned home to honor and praise from the American government and the public at large .
= = Background = =
In 1798 an undeclared war between the United States and France began due to French privateering attacks against American vessels . In response to the attacks , the United States government decided to go on the offensive by sending four naval squadrons to the Caribbean with orders to seize armed French vessels and prevent privateers from attacking American ships . One of the squadrons , under the command of Commodore Thomas Truxtun , was dispatched to cruise between Puerto Rico and Saint Kitts . Truxtun 's squadron consisted of his flagship , the frigate USS Constellation , the 20 @-@ gun Baltimore , the brigs Richmond and Norfolk , and the revenue cutter Virginia . Opposing Truxtun were several French vessels based out of Guadeloupe , among them a number of privateers as well as two French naval frigates and a smaller , 20 @-@ gun corvette . One of the French frigates , the L 'Insurgente , sortied out from Guadaloupe on 8 February , commanded by Michel @-@ Pierre Barreaut .
Though the 1 @,@ 265 @-@ ton Constellation was officially classified by the United States Navy as a 36 @-@ gun frigate , during the Quasi @-@ War she carried a heavier armament of 38 guns . Consisting of twenty @-@ eight 24 @-@ pounders on her main deck and ten 12 @-@ pounders on her spar deck , Constellation 's main armament had a combined throwing weight of 396 pounds ( 180 kg ) . In contrast , L 'Insurgente , rated a 32 @-@ gun Sémillante @-@ class frigate , was armed with 40 cannons . The armament of Barreaut 's 950 @-@ ton ship consisted of twenty @-@ four 12 @-@ pounders , two 18 @-@ pounders , eight 6 @-@ pounders , four 32 @-@ pounder carronades , and two 24 @-@ pounder carronades , totaling a combined throwing weight of only 282 pounds ( 128 kg ) . Thus although Barreaut 's vessel carried two more guns in total , Truxtun 's frigate had a more powerful armament due to shot weight . In a boarding action , the French frigate 's crew of 409 men would have had an advantage over the American ship 's 309 , but in a gunnery duel the Americans were superior .
= = Battle = =
At noon on 9 February , while cruising independently , Truxtun 's men sighted a frigate off the coast of Nevis . Upon approach it was evident that the vessel was flying American colors , and Constellation attempted to move closer to investigate . Unknown to Truxtun , the frigate was the French L 'Insurgente under Michel @-@ Pierre Barreaut . Nearing the still @-@ unidentified L 'Insurgente , Truxtun attempted to signal her to discern her nationality by displaying first British signals and then American signals . Unable to send the correct reply , L 'Insurgente replaced the American colors with French and fired a gun . Upon sighting Constellation at 12 : 30 p.m. , Barreaut mistook the ship for a British corvette and began to flee toward the Dutch islands of Saba and Sint Eustatius to evade his assailant . Truxtun gave chase , but was hampered at 1 : 30 p.m. when the two vessels ran into a gale . As a result of the storm , L 'Insurgente lost her main topmast and was severely damaged , while Constellation managed to avoid significant damage and was able to close in on Barreaut .
Though Truxton 's ship initially held an advantageous position in the wind known as the weather gauge , she was over @-@ armed , and as a result her leeward side heeled so much that the gunports on that side of the vessel could not be opened . Truxton decided to cede the weather gauge to the French by sailing around the L 'Insurgente 's leeward side and bringing the Constellation near the French frigate 's port side . In such a position the Constellation was disadvantaged by the wind , but was able to avoid some of the heeling effect on her guns . With the Constellation approaching his frigate fast , Barreaut tried to communicate with the Americans in order to avoid a fight . The American frigate ignored the French attempt at hailing her and closed to within fifty yards of L 'Insurgente before opening up on her with a broadside . Loading her cannons with double shot , the opening American salvo severely damaged the French frigate 's quarterdeck . Barreaut 's vessel replied with her own broadsides that damaged Constellation 's fore topmast . Midshipman David Porter , stationed in the rigging of the Constellation 's damaged mast , managed to relieve pressure from it and prevented its collapse . The L 'Insurgente attempted to close on the American frigate to board her . With less damage to her rigging , Constellation was easily able to avoid Barreaut 's attempts at boarding .
Constellation crossed L 'Insurgente 's bow and raked her with a broadside . Truxtun then maneuvered Constellation to the L 'Insurgente 's starboard side and fired further broadsides into the French frigate , but received damage to her rigging in return . Constellation slipped ahead of L 'Insurgente , again crossing her bow and raking her . Once more Constellation slipped next to L 'Insurgente 's leeward side and fired into her , disabling the French vessel 's 18 @-@ pounder guns . Constellation crossed the frigate 's bow a third time , but the French ship had by then sustained massive damage . Attempts by Barreaut 's crew to repair L 'Insurgente 's rigging were fruitless and the French captain subsequently was forced to strike his colors and surrender the vessel . The entire engagement had lasted one hour and fourteen minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
The end of the action signaled the first victory over an enemy warship for the newly formed United States Navy . After Barreaut had struck his colors , Truxtun sent a boat over to board , identify , and take possession of the French vessel . It was only upon boarding L 'Insurgente that the Americans learned the identity of their opponents . The storm and the battle had caused immense damage to the French frigate . In comparison , Constellation had suffered moderate damage to her rigging , but was otherwise still intact . French casualties included 29 killed and 41 wounded , while the Americans suffered two dead and two wounded . One American died shortly after the action ended , of wounds received from French fire ; another was executed for cowardice by Constellation 's Lieutenant Andrew Sterett after the man deserted his gun at the start of the action .
Constellation began taking on prisoners of war from L 'Insurgente , but by nightfall the two ships had become separated in a storm . Left aboard L 'Insurgente were the Constellation 's First Lieutenant John Rodgers , Midshipman David Porter , and 11 enlisted men , along with 170 French prisoners . The Americans were forced to sail the vessel short @-@ handed while guarding the French prisoners . As the prisoners outnumbered their captors and no gear to secure them could be found aboard , the Frenchmen were driven into L 'Insurgente 's lower holds . Finally , after three nights , L 'Insurgente was brought in to Saint Kitts where Constellation was waiting for her . While at the American naval depot at Saint Kitts , the Constellation 's troublesome 24 @-@ pounder guns were removed and replaced with 18 @-@ pounder cannons . At the American prize court in Norfolk , Virginia , L 'Insurgente was condemned to be sold as a war prize , with the proceeds distributed to the crew of the Constellation . Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert managed to negotiate the prize award down from $ 120 @,@ 000 to $ 84 @,@ 000 before purchasing L 'Insurgente and commissioning her in the United States Navy as the USS Insurgent .
For his victory over L 'Insurgente , Truxtun received honors both at home and abroad . When accounts of the action reached London , Truxtun was fêted by the merchants there who sent him a piece of silver plate to commemorate his victory . In the United States , morale soared upon hearing of the first American victory over the French . Truxtun was cited by Benjamin Stoddert , the Secretary of the Navy , for his excellent conduct during the action , and songs and poems such as Brave Yankee Boys were later written about the event . In contrast , when Barreaut returned to France he was accused of failing to put up sufficient resistance in the engagement and was given a court @-@ martial . Despite the accusations , he had been praised by Truxton after the action for his bravery and was acquitted during the court @-@ martial . The French were infuriated upon hearing the results of the action because the two countries were not officially at war ; Governor Edme Étienne Borne Desfourneaux of Guadeloupe demanded that Insurgent be returned to French control . Upon learning of the American refusal to repatriate Insurgent , Desfourneaux was outraged and ordered all American vessels and property to be seized , while also declaring that a state of war existed between the United States and Guadeloupe . After continuing their cruise for a few weeks , both Insurgent and Constellation were forced to return to Norfolk , Virginia , by the end of March due to the expiration of the terms of enlistment of their crews . On her next cruise Constellation dueled La Vengeance , though that French frigate escaped L 'Insurgente 's fate .
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= Letocetum =
Letocetum is the ancient remains of a Roman settlement . It was an important military staging post and posting station near the junction of Watling Street , the Roman military road to North Wales , and Icknield ( or Ryknild ) Street ( now the A38 ) . The site is now within the parish of Wall , Staffordshire , England . It is owned and run by the National Trust , under the name Letocetum Roman Baths Site & Museum . The site is in the guardianship of English Heritage as Wall Roman Site .
The Romans came to Letocetum in 50 CE to establish a fortress during the early years of the invasion of Britain . The land could not support large amounts of soldiers and Letocetum , at an important cross @-@ roads , became a large scale posting station . The settlement developed with successive bath houses and mansiones built to serve the official travellers as well as the growing civilian population . It is known mainly from detailed excavations in 1912 – 13 , which concentrated on the sites of the mansio and bath @-@ house , but there is evidence of a substantial settlement with possible basilica , temples , and amphitheatre .
The remains visible today are those of the stone bath house and mansio , built in approximately 130 CE after Letocetum ceased to have a military function and became a civilian settlement . The settlement reached its peak during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and at this time occupied 8 @.@ 1 – 12 hectares ( 20 – 30 acres ) . At the end of the 3rd century , the town relocated within high defensive walls astride Watling Street . After the Romans left early in the 5th century the settlement went into decline . The modern village of Wall emerged in the land once occupied by Letocetum .
= = Name = =
The site is mentioned as Etocetum in the Antonine Itinerary and presumably represented a Latinisation of a Brittonic place name reconstructed as * Lētocaiton ( " Grey @-@ wood " ; cf . Old Welsh : Luitcoyt and modern Welsh Lwytgoed ) . The name possibly represented the species of tree prominent at the site such as ash and elm . Ford identifies the community as the Cair Luit Coyd ( " Fort Greywood " ) listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his History of the Britains , previously identified with Lincoln or Lichfield .
= = History = =
= = = Native settlement = = =
It is likely that a small native settlement occupied the site before the advent of the Romans , possibly as the main trading station on the boundary between two British tribes , the Corieltauvi in the East Midlands whose later tribal centre was at Ratae Corieltauvorum , and the Cornovii to the west with their original capital Uriconon ( which would later give its name to the important Roman British city of Viroconium ) at the hill fort on The Wrekin . These tribes offered little resistance to Roman rule .
= = = Military staging post = = =
In about 50 CE , a Roman vexillatio built a large timber fortress on a hilltop ( near the site of the current church ) at Letocetum . This housed the Legio XIV Gemina during the campaigns of governor Aulus Didius Gallus against the Brigantes . It was a good defensive position , but the poor farmland surrounding the fortress could not support large numbers of soldiers . During the Neronian period this initial fortress was replaced with a smaller one and Letocetum then developed into a large @-@ scale posting station . Most of the troops moved to the fortress at Viroconium during the early administration of Gaius Suetonius Paulinus in about 58 CE .
= = = Posting station = = =
A mansio was built to provide lodging for official couriers travelling on Watling Street . A bath house was also built for the travellers and the growing civilian population . When the first mansio and bath house were completed , workers were needed to provide wood for the bath house , look after animals , and repair vehicles to be used by the official travellers . The civilian population would have provided many of these services . The native settlement grew during the Flavian period onwards to occupy 8 @.@ 1 – 12 hectares ( 20 – 30 acres ) . Roman burials with 1st and 2nd century pottery were found along Watling Street in 1927 , and more in 1966 . In the field between the mansio site and Watling Street , a round depression in the ground may mark the site of a Roman amphitheatre . A large earthenware vessel in the likeness of Minerva was found near the modern church , which may therefore be the site of a temple of Minerva . A rectangular crop @-@ mark in the field to the north @-@ west of the bath @-@ house , only visible in dry weather , may be the site of another temple .
When the Legion XIV first settled at Letocetum they would have used existing trackways . A stone @-@ surfaced road was needed to allow reliable movement . Watling Street was given a stone surface past Letocetum in about 70 CE . This date is approximated from two coins found in the centre of Letocetum beneath the first road surfacing . There is no evidence to indicate when Ryknild Street was constructed , but from the layout it is thought that Watling Street was built first . Watling Street stretched from Letocetum to London in one direction and to Wroxeter and Chester in the other . Ryknild Street , 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) wide where it crossed with Watling Street , connected Letocetum with Cirencester to the south west and Yorkshire to the north east .
= = = = Early mansiones and bath houses = = = =
The foundations of the last mansio built at the site , and its associated bath @-@ house , were uncovered by archaeologists in 1912 – 13 . The rooms of both the mansio and bath @-@ house were emptied and the stone foundations were exposed . This work left , in some lower stratified levels , traces of the two earlier wooden mansiones .
The hillside had been terraced and the first mansio , whose construction is dated to 54 – 60 CE , fully occupied one terrace . It was of a sleeper beam construction , the walls were wattle and daub , some were plastered and some were painted with simple linear decoration . It has been assumed the roof was thatch and was consumed when the building was destroyed by fire . The rooms were arranged around a square courtyard approximately 19 by 19 metres ( 62 ft × 62 ft ) . Due to the construction of later buildings the known layout of the first mansio is very fragmentary . The date at which the first mansio was destroyed is uncertain , it was probably near the beginning of the 2nd century , as the destruction layers contained Flavian @-@ Trajanic samian @-@ ware , part of a mortarium dating from 70 – 100 CE and part of a glass bowl which has been dated to the 2nd century .
The evidence for the layout of the second mansio is also very fragmentary . It was a courtyard building constructed with posts set vertically in foundation trenches .
The walls were plaster and daub and some rooms were painted in vivid colours . In the courtyard was a large well 2 @.@ 29 by 2 @.@ 44 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft × 8 @.@ 0 ft ) and 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) deep , cut into the underlying sandstone . The second mansio was deliberately dismantled in about 140 – 150 CE during construction of the third mansio . The well was filled in at this time and contained a samian sherd dated 125 – 145 CE . About the same time the second hilltop fort was abandoned and the town ceased to be a military site . One of the last military features at Letocetum was the " punic ditch " associated with this last small fort . The ditch was filled before any secondary silt formed and the filling contained a Trajanic coin dated 98 – 117 CE and pottery suggesting a Hadrianic or early Antonine date .
The earliest bath @-@ house was discovered during an excavation in 1956 . In a construction trench of the very first building was a worn coin of Vespasian dated 71 CE , due to the condition of the coin it is believed that this building was erected around 100 CE . It is thought that this building was built during the military period as the surviving masonry is of high quality with finely dressed stone and a wall some 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) thick . It is thought that the second mansio , the last fort , and the first bath house all ended approximately at the end of the military period on the site .
= = = = Civilian development ; the third mansio and second bath @-@ house = = = =
Letocetum ceased to be used by the military after about 130 CE , probably leaving the town under the authority of the civitas of the Cornovii with its capital at Viroconium Cornoviorum . About this time that a new mansio and bath house were built .
The third and best @-@ understood mansio was built on a stone base about 130 CE . It was at least two storeys high and fronted by a colonnade with a tiled roof , probably supported on wooden columns . In the centre of the colonnade , a large door formed the main entrance to the interior of the building . Through the entrance hall was a colonnaded atrium or courtyard with a plastered floor , the central area probably being open to the sky and perhaps containing a herbaceous garden . Timber posts resting on these foundations around the edges of the colonnade supported a balcony above .
The entrance hall was flanked on either side by similarly sized rooms probably accessible from the central courtyard . The one on the west contained washing facilities and a gutter leading to a soak @-@ away in the central part of the building , the room to the east may possibly have been a guardroom . On the western side of the courtyard were three small rooms which opened out onto the central colonnade at ground level . The function of these rooms is uncertain , but they were probably used as private accommodation for users of the mansio . The largest room in the mansio lay in the north @-@ east corner , the chamber was heated by a channelled hypocaust system added some time after the building was first completed .
To the west of the mansio lay the public bath @-@ house , separated from it by a cobbled road between 2 @.@ 4 and 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 and 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide . From the street , a paved area led into a colonnade fronting the building on the east and continuing round the north side . Large doors in the centre of the eastern colonnade opened into a large , covered courtyard . This courtyard may have been a basilica ; a settlement of this size would be expected to have one , and this is the only candidate on the site . At the far north end of the bath complex was the stoke @-@ room or praefurnium , which contained the wood @-@ fired furnaces of the hypocaust system . This underfloor heating system was present in the tepidarium , the caldarium and the laconicum where the floors were supported on pillars of tiles or pilae . The hot combustion gases from the stoke @-@ room furnaces circulated under the floor between these pillars and were drawn up around the sides of the building through box tiles embedded in the walls , to escape finally through vents in the barrel @-@ vaulted roof .
= = = Late Roman defences ; abandoned mansio and bath @-@ house = = =
Letocetum lost its public buildings near the end of the 3rd century ; the bath @-@ house and mansio were destroyed by fire . Around this time , very solid defences were built which did not include the bath @-@ house or mansio sites . The reason the bath @-@ house and mansio were abandoned can not be determined but the reason was probably economic . Other mansio sites around Britain appear to have been abandoned at this time . This did not imply an end to the posting service at Letocetum , it may have been a less costly reorganisation . The late defences were built in about 300 CE astride Watling Street , approximately 150 metres ( 490 ft ) east of the mansio site . The defences consisted of a stone wall about 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) thick , fronted by three ditches and with a contemporary turf rampart to the rear , the area within the walls was 2 @.@ 1 hectares ( 5 @.@ 2 acres ) . The northern and western sides were identified and sectioned in 1964 and the foundations of a wall at the south west corner were uncovered . On the western side a section of wall was found still standing 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high above shallow foundations but below the ploughed soil . The wall is believed to have been built within the period 275 – 325 CE .
It is thought that the construction of these defences was related to a general uprising of the Welsh tribes , the Ordovices and Silures , that occurred at this time . The revolt was soon quelled , but , to guard against further disruptions , a series of strongholds including Letocetum , Pennocrucium , and Uxacona were established along the length of Watling Street . All 4th century archaeological remains have come from within the defences and none from outside , suggesting that the whole population were within the defences by the 4th century . The latest coin to be found at Letocetum was minted in the time of the Emperor Gratian and dated to 381 CE . Roman administration collapsed at the beginning of the 5th century and nothing has been found at the site that is datable after this time .
= = = Post @-@ Roman abandonment and later re @-@ occupation = = =
The settlement must have been significant for some time ; it is listed in the 9th century Historia Brittonum , and Reno writes " Wall , appearing as Cair Luitcoyt , and undoubtedly correctly ascribed , appears rather incongruously among such major towns and military depots as York , London , Chester , Wroxeter and Caerleon but nevertheless must have been a place of important consequence because of its inclusion as a strategic city . " The late defences led to its description as a Caer and a British , possibly Powysian , outpost was established there . We have no knowledge of the period immediately after the Roman departure as no historical or archaeological evidence is present .
Letocetum lost all importance with the development of nearby Lichfield in the 7th century as the seat of a Bishop . When the place again emerged historically it was under a new name , Wall . This name referred to the remains of the late Roman defences , parts of which were still standing in the early 19th century .
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= Waylon Smithers =
Waylon J. Smithers , Jr . , usually referred to as Mr. Smithers or simply Smithers , is a recurring fictional character in the American animated sitcom The Simpsons , who is voiced by Harry Shearer . Smithers first appeared in the episode " Homer 's Odyssey " , although his voice could be heard in the series premiere " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . He is the consummate executive and personal assistant of Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's owner Mr. Burns .
Smithers ' devotion to Mr. Burns was inspired from how numerous Fox executives and staff members acted towards Barry Diller . The idea for Smithers ' ambiguous sexual orientation came from Sam Simon , who proposed that Smithers should be gay , but little attention should be drawn to it . Smithers ' first name ( Waylon ) was derived from that of puppeteer Wayland Flowers .
Smithers was originally animated and intended for storyline purposes by some producers and directors to be African American . This however was ultimately changed in later episodes with conflicting and unknown confirmed reasons as to why . Matt Groening however in an unintended interview with TMZ , confirms that the animation director at that time originally drew Smithers black according to plan , but he was changed to " yellow " . When asked by the interviewer why he wasn 't kept that way , Groening did not respond other than " it was a mistake " .
Smithers is an obedient and sycophantic assistant to Mr. Burns , and the relationship between the two is a frequent running gag on The Simpsons . In many ways , Smithers represents the stereotype of a closeted gay man , and numerous overt allusions and double entendres concerning his homosexuality are made , though some of the show 's producers instead interpret him as a " Burns @-@ sexual " . In the season 27 ( 2016 ) episode " The Burns Cage " , he came out as gay .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Smithers is Mr. Burns ' devoted executive assistant . His father , Waylon Smithers , Sr. , worked for Burns until he died of radiation poisoning after saving Springfield from a potential nuclear meltdown , when Smithers was a baby . Although he is not openly gay , Smithers frequents Springfield 's gay village and goes on a vacation to a male @-@ only resort . It was revealed in a flashback that he was married to a woman once , but the two split up when Mr. Burns came between them . Smithers is shown to have a passionate and deep love for Mr. Burns , and his sexual orientation has been characterized by the writers of the show as " Burns @-@ sexual " .
Mr. Burns remained largely ignorant of Smithers ' devoted adoration , much to Smithers ' frustration . Mr. Burns himself has been involved with several women and in " A Hunka Hunka Burns in Love " , Smithers is noticeably disgusted when Mr. Burns starts looking for a female companion . Burns , for his part , views Smithers as somewhat of a lackey , albeit a highly valued one for his competence . He has " rewarded " Smithers ' devotion with the future " honor " of being buried alive with him after he dies . Smithers has been shown to be somewhat dependent on his relationship with Burns . In " Homer the Smithers " , Mr. Burns orders Smithers to take a vacation and Homer Simpson is hired as a temporary replacement . When Homer loses his temper and punches Mr. Burns in the face , Mr. Burns learns to become self @-@ reliant and this results in Smithers being fired . Smithers decides that he needs to be Mr. Burns ' assistant and eventually gets his job back . In the season 27 episode " The Burns Cage " , Smithers admits his love to Burns , who reaffirms his contempt for his assistant .
Smithers ' official job at the power plant appears to be that of executive assistant , which he says is " actually about 2 @,@ 800 smaller jobs " responsible for monitoring employee attendance , and is often a disciplinarian and has won dozens of employee of the month awards . He has often hinted at wanting to be promoted to the position of executive vice president , but Burns has repeatedly quashed this dream , while whimsically bestowing the vice presidency on a dog . Smithers has the largest collection of Malibu Stacy dolls in Springfield and is the president of the Malibu Stacy fan club .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Smithers was partly based on how numerous Fox executives and staff members acted towards Barry Diller . The idea for Smithers ' orientation was pitched by Sam Simon , who proposed that Smithers should be gay , but the writers should never draw too much attention to it and should try to keep it in the back of their heads . Jay Kogen said " Originally he was gay and black ... But we thought it was too much so we just kept him gay . " The script for " Blood Feud " originally featured Smithers saying " Just leave me enough to get home to my wife and kids " , but the line had to be cut for time . Smithers is voiced by Harry Shearer , who is also the voice of Mr. Burns . Shearer is often able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take . Dan Castellaneta occasionally fills in for Shearer at table reads and voices Smithers . The name Waylon was first used in " I Married Marge " and comes from the puppeteer Wayland Flowers .
Smithers made his first appearance in " Homer 's Odyssey " , which was the third episode of the first season , although he can be heard over a speaker in The Simpsons series premiere " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . In his first visual appearance in " Homer 's Odyssey " , Smithers was mistakenly animated with the wrong color and was made darker than most characters by Gyorgi Peluci , the color stylist . David Silverman has claimed that Smithers was always intended to be " Mr Burns ' white sycophant " , and the staff thought it " would be a bad idea to have a black subservient character " and so switched him to his intended color for his next episode . Silverman retconned this error by saying that Smithers had a tan from a recent holiday in the Caribbean . The first appearance of a yellow Smithers was " There 's No Disgrace Like Home " , the fourth episode of the first season .
= = = Development = = =
Smithers ' relationship with Mr. Burns has long been a running gag on The Simpsons . Smithers is an obedient and sycophantic assistant to Mr. Burns . There have often been strong hints about Smithers ' true feelings for his boss , with one of the earliest references being in the season one episode " The Telltale Head " . Smithers ' sexual orientation has often come into question , with some fans claiming he is a " Burns @-@ sexual " and only attracted to his boss , while others maintain that he is , without a doubt , gay . During the Bill Oakley / Josh Weinstein era , they still tried to keep his sexuality mysterious and there was debate among the writers about his orientation . Al Jean , who thinks of Smithers as being a " Burns @-@ sexual " , felt that had Mr. Burns been a woman , then Smithers would not be gay . David Silverman , a former supervising director has said , " [ Smithers ] seems to be focused on one particular human , as opposed to anything beyond that . [ Rather than being gay ] , he 's sort of ' Burns @-@ sexual . ' " In a 2006 study conducted by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation , it was determined that nine of the 679 lead and supporting characters on scripted broadcast television were gay or lesbian , but Smithers was not included . A list published in 2008 by the same organization included Smithers ; Patty Bouvier , Marge Simpson 's lesbian sister , was included on both lists .
The debate is referenced in " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " , when the episode host , Troy McClure is answering viewer questions , and one that is asked is " What is the real deal with Mr. Burns ' assistant Smithers ? You know what I 'm talking about . " A montage of various clips that shows Smithers ' lust for Mr. Burns follows , and in the end , McClure says " as you can see , the real deal with Waylon Smithers is that he 's Mr. Burns ' assistant . He 's in his early forties , is unmarried , and currently resides in Springfield . Thanks for writing ! "
Several of the allusions to Smithers ' sexuality have turned into battles with the censors . For example , in Smithers ' fantasy of a naked Mr. Burns popping out of a birthday cake in " Rosebud " , the censors had not wanted Mr. Burns to be naked . Another example is " Marge Gets a Job " , which has a dream sequence where Smithers is sleeping and Burns flies through a window . The sequence shows Burns flying towards him and Smithers looking happy , but originally it went on for a few seconds longer . It had to be trimmed down due to scenes that showed " Mr. Burns land [ ing ] in a particular position on Smithers ' anatomy " . There were also issues with " the lump in his bed " , which the animators said had drawn as his knee , but the censors had misinterpreted .
In the second season , the writers started to enjoy writing about Smithers and Burns ' relationship , and the writers often pitched episodes with them as the focus , but many never came to fruition .
Mostly in the early seasons , Smithers had a catchphrase , which comes from a recurring joke that Mr. Burns never remembers who Homer Simpson is . Smithers and Burns would watch Homer ( usually over a security camera feed ) and Burns would ask , " Who is that man ? " , to which Smithers would reply , " That 's Homer Simpson , sir , one of your [ drones , organ banks , carbon blobs , etc . ] from sector 7G . " Burns would invariably respond , " Simpson , eh ? "
In September 2015 , it was confirmed by Jean that Smithers would come out to Mr. Burns in a season 27 episode . The episode , " The Burns Cage " , was broadcast the following April and saw Smithers unsuccessfully try to move on from Burns . A writer for British progressive magazine the New Statesman felt that the episode was a retcon , making a serious story about the character 's homosexuality instead of the previous jokes and innuendo which were arguably homophobic .
= = Reception = =
In 2004 , The Simpsons producers announced that one of their characters was going to come out of the closet . Speculation on who it would be was printed in newspapers throughout the United States and Canada ( even claiming Smithers ' " sexual orientation was about the worst @-@ kept secret in Springfield " ) as well as in Australia , New Zealand , Ireland , ( the Irish Independent called Smithers " too obvious " a choice ) , and the United Kingdom . Despite Matt Groening joking that it would be Homer , the Boston Herald calculated the odds of several characters being gay , with Smithers at a million to one . PlanetOut Inc. hosted an online poll in the weeks prior to the episode to determine based on " cartoon gaydar " who was gay on the Simpsons , with 97 % of the respondents choosing Smithers . Jenny Stewart , the entertainment editor at the site said of the poll , " We 've never had such an avalanche of people voting in any of our polls as we did on The Simpsons . " It was Patty Bouvier who came out .
In a 2007 article , Entertainment Weekly named Smithers the 16th @-@ greatest sidekick of all time . They have also described Smithers and Mr. Burns as being " TV 's most functional dysfunctional couple " . Star News Online named " Smithers ' fey way " as one of the four hundred reasons why they loved The Simpsons . In a 2003 article , Entertainment Weekly named the " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " duo of episodes , in which Smithers was prominently featured , the series ' 25th @-@ best episode . Gay.com ranked Smithers as the sixth @-@ gayest cartoon character .
= = Merchandise = =
Smithers was made into an action figure , and four different versions were included as part of the World of Springfield toy line . The first shows Smithers in his normal attire with a picture of Mr. Burns at his feet and was released in 2000 as part of " wave two " . The second , released in 2002 as part of " wave ten " , is called " resort Smithers " and shows him dressed as he was at the resort in the episode " Homer the Smithers " . In 2003 , a series of figures exclusive to Electronics Boutique was released , and a set of one Mr. Burns figure and two different Smithers toys based on the episode " Rosebud " were included . One , called " Bobo Smithers " shows Smithers dressed as Mr. Burns ' teddy bear Bobo ; and the other , known as " future Smithers " , shows him as a robotic dog . A " future Burns " was included in the set as a companion to " future Smithers " and depicts Burns as a robot as he appeared at the end of the episode .
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= Jack Gets in the Game =
" Jack Gets in the Game " is the second episode of NBC 's second season of 30 Rock and twenty @-@ third episode overall . It was written by Jon Pollack and directed by one of the season 's producers , Don Scardino . It first aired on November 8 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Fajer Al @-@ Kaisi , Will Arnett , Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , Erin Hilgartner , Marceline Hugot , Matt Lauria , Jean Morgan , Chris Parnell , Sherri Shepherd and Rip Torn .
In this episode , Devon Banks ( Will Arnett ) finds out that Jack had a heart attack , which occurred in " Hiatus " , and decides to use this to his advantage ; Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is still trying to fix his marriage to Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) ; and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) begins to see the positive side of being overweight . This episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Jack realizes that his boss Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) is hinting that he will retire and believes that he , Jack , is a definite candidate to take over Don 's job , as the CEO of General Electric . Jack 's only other opposition is Devon , who has returned from the west coast , only now with a fiancée who happens to be Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) , Don 's daughter . Upon returning , Devon , who is secretly gay , finds out from Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) about Jack 's secret heart attack . At a gathering at Don 's house , the pair face off against one another during a game of football .
Tracy is still struggling with his marriage to Angie , who had thrown him out of their family home . Later in this episode , the pair reconcile , but only if Tracy allows for Angie to follow him to make sure that he isn 't having an affair .
Jenna becomes attached to her newly gained fat when a mishap during a sketch , on TGS with Tracy Jordan , brings her large amounts of attention from the public . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is still re @-@ adjusting to life outside of a relationship .
= = Production = =
Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live thirteen times , the second highest number of episodes of any host of the series .
The " Me Want Food " t @-@ shirts which Jenna and Liz see in the NBC store , at Rockefeller Center , were made available from the NBC Universal website shortly after the episode aired . Shortly after the episode " MILF Island " aired , similar t @-@ shirts were manufactured , featuring the MILF Island logo .
= = Reception = =
" Jack Gets in the Game " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 6 million American viewers . This episode achieved a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 in the key 18 – 49 demographic , a series high in that category . The 3 @.@ 0 refers to 3 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. and the 8 refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast , in the U.S. This episode was the highest @-@ rated program , in its timeslot , among the men 18 – 34 demographic .
Robert Canning of IGN thought that this was a " solid episode " , and that Will Arnett 's character " was even more entertaining in this episode " compared to his appearance in the episode " Fireworks " . He added that " there was little to complain about " , and rated it 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide said that he " preferred this episode of 30 Rock " compared to the previous episode , " SeinfeldVision " . Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly asked his readers " do you feel like Liz Lemon took a back seat , and if so , did you mind ? " , adding that " [ Alec ] Baldwin and [ Tracy ] Morgan get the laughs , but like the Tracy Jordan Meat Machine [ from " The Rural Juror " ] , 30 Rock requires three distinct flavors . Don 't be afraid to sprinkle in the Lemon . "
For their work in this episode , Arnett and Rip Torn were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series .
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= United States National Bank Building =
The United States National Bank Building is a building located in downtown Portland , Oregon , that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Designed by famed Portland architect A. E. Doyle in a Roman classical style , the four @-@ story building 's first section , facing Sixth Avenue , was completed and opened in 1917 . An extension westward to Broadway , approximately doubling its size , was constructed in 1925 . Since then the building has occupied one @-@ half of a city block . It features a four @-@ story @-@ high colonnade of Corinthian order columns at its eastern end , originally the principal façade , and extensive use of glazed terracotta . The interior is also decorated extensively with highly textured materials . The building was constructed for the United States National Bank of Portland ( USNB ) , which ultimately became part of U.S. Bancorp , whose retail banking division operates as U.S. Bank . In 2016 , almost 100 years after the building 's opening , it continues to serve as the bank 's main Portland branch .
= = History = =
The United States National Bank of Portland , the predecessor of present @-@ day U.S. Bancorp , was established in Portland in 1890 , opening for business in February 1891 . During the following three decades , the bank experienced significant growth . It weathered the Panic of 1893 better than many of its competitors , and later acquired some of the competing Portland banks , including the Ainsworth National Bank ( in 1902 ) , the Wells Fargo Bank ( in 1905 ) , and the Lumbermen 's National Bank ( in 1917 ) . With the 1902 acquisition , U.S. National Bank moved its headquarters into a larger space formerly occupied by Ainsworth National , in the Ainsworth Building , then located at S.W. Third and Stark streets in downtown Portland . By the 1910s , the bank had outgrown its space . The firm purchased a quarter @-@ block of land at the northwest corner of Sixth and Stark streets in early 1916 and hired Portland architect A. E. Doyle to design a new , dedicated headquarters building .
Construction began in 1916 and was completed in 1917 ; the building opened to the public on July 30 , 1917 . Although the building now extends a full block along Stark Street , with entrances on both 6th Avenue and Broadway , it originally faced only 6th Street ( now 6th Avenue ) and extended only about halfway to Broadway .
In 1922 ( another source says 1920 ) , the bank purchased the building that had occupied the quarter @-@ block immediately to the west from the Elks organization which would allow the 1917 bank building to be expanded west to Broadway . ( The Elks were preparing to move to a new building elsewhere in downtown . ) Originally , a new 24 @-@ story building was planned for the site , but the bank ultimately decided to expand its existing building , keeping the same design and height for the new section . Shortly after demolition of the old Elks Building in early 1924 , construction of the bank building 's expansion began . The new section opened in 1925 , doubling the building 's size and adding an entrance on Broadway . Doyle was hired again to oversee the expansion , which helped to ensure that that new section would replicate the style of the original section as much as possible , making the expanded building look as though it were built as a single structure , rather than in two stages separated by eight years . In the same year , U.S. National Bank of Portland acquired the Ladd & Tilton Bank , which had been established in 1859 , and was the first financial institution in the Pacific Northwest . This acquisition made USNB " the largest financial institution north of San Francisco and west of Minneapolis " .
In 1946 , U.S. National purchased the Wells Fargo Building ( since 1922 known as the Porter Building ) , a multistory office building located directly adjacent , immediately to the north , to expand its downtown Portland headquarters . United States National Bank of Portland changed its name to United States National Bank of Oregon in 1964 . By 1970 , the bank was operating 119 branches . At that time , it announced plans for another major expansion of its headquarters on property it had acquired diagonally across from the Wells Fargo Building . The entire oversize block , bounded by 5th and 6th Avenues , and Oak and Burnside Streets , had been acquired , its existing buildings to be razed and replaced by new U.S. National Bank buildings . The first of these was a seven @-@ story building ( the U.S. Bank Plaza , at 5th & Oak ) , completed in 1974 . But the headline structure was the U.S. Bancorp Tower , a 42 @-@ story building that opened in 1983 ( having already been part of the bank 's long @-@ term site plans in 1970 , but ultimately delayed until the 1980s ) . Notwithstanding this major expansion , the firm continued to own and use its landmark 1917 building , which company president LeRoy Staver , in a 1970 Oregonian article , called " a jewel of a banking property and one that will never be duplicated " .
In a 1979 article , The Oregonian wrote that , " The 1917 @-@ vintage U.S. National Bank , 321 S.W. Sixth Avenue , retains nearly all its original features , inside and out , a rare trait among Portland landmarks . " The U.S. National Bank of Oregon was honored by the Portland Historical Landmarks Commission in that year for its longstanding commitment to maintaining the building in nearly original condition .
The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 , and was still serving as the bank 's main branch . Since the end of 1968 , United States National Bank of Oregon has been owned by the then @-@ newly formed holding company U.S. Bancorp , which provides consumer banking under the U.S. Bank name . Almost 100 years after its opening , the 1917 @-@ built , 1925 @-@ expanded original United States National Bank Building continues to serve as the main branch of U.S. Bank in Portland in 2016 .
= = Description = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The building is five stories tall including a mezzanine level and , after its 1925 expansion , occupies a 100 @-@ by @-@ 200 @-@ foot ( 30 m × 61 m ) area , along the north side of SW Stark Street from Sixth Avenue to Broadway . The eastern façade , facing Sixth Avenue , features six freestanding Corinthian columns , each 54 ft ( 16 m ) in height . These support a portico that is topped by a large and richly decorated Roman frieze , a cornice and balustrade . Decorations on the cornice include lion heads and palmettes . At the back of the portico , and behind the columns , are two Corinthian pilasters , at the far left and right ends of the façade . Between these are " five vertical bays separated by piers made of coursed , rusticated terra cotta . Window openings are set in cast @-@ bronze frames . " The five windows at the second @-@ floor level are topped by cast @-@ bronze segmental pediments . There are three entrance doorways in the three central bays , although originally there was only one . The central entrance features a pair of large bronze doors with highly decorated bas relief panels , surrounded by detailed terracotta , including a heraldic eagle in a pedimented cornice above the doorway . The bronze relief panels were cast in 1931 , replacing the 1917 door panels which had used replicas of early Greek , Roman and U.S. coins as a design motif . Designed by Avard Fairbanks , they " depict noble concepts of American life , such as ' Knowledge and Service ' , ' Domestic Welfare ' , ' Progress through Direction ' , and so on . " Fairbanks also designed bronze relief panels for the building 's western façade , built in 1925 .
The overall exterior design was modeled closely on a 1904 bank building , the headquarters of the Knickerbocker Trust Company , in New York City .
The southern façade , along Stark Street , is 200 ft ( 61 m ) long and features a line of 14 Corinthian pilasters . The 12 window bays on this side have frames made of cast iron . Above the pilasters and fourth @-@ floor windows are a cornice and balustrade with a design similar to that used at the eastern end . The Stark Street side includes one entrance , which was present from 1917 , located at what was then the far back corner of the building , but its position became approximately midway along the Stark Street side following the 1925 expansion .
At the building 's west end , constructed eight years later and facing Broadway , the façade is similar to the eastern one , but the main body of the building extends to the corners of the lot , and instead of a full @-@ width portico there is a recessed portico with only two columns in the center . Six pilasters line the eastern façade , three to each side of the columns , all topped by Corinthian capitals , the same as on the building 's other two exposed sides . Another difference from the eastern façade is that , on the western façade , " United States National Bank " is inscribed in the central section of the frieze , in place of the rinceau decoration there at the building 's opposite end . Ornamental bronze lanterns flank the central entrance , which features bas relief panels cast in bronze in 1926 – 27 and designed by Avard Fairbanks . The panels at the western entrance " depict pivotal events in the historical development of the Columbia Basin " .
= = = Interior = = =
The ground floor holds the main banking room ( the Portland branch of U.S. Bank ) , and a grand room measuring 100 by 40 feet ( 30 m × 12 m ) with 30 @-@ foot ( 9 m ) ceilings . The interior is extensively decorated with highly textured materials . Square columns of polished marble topped by Corinthian capitals that incorporate an eagle motif line all four sides of the main public space . The coffered ceiling is intricately detailed . The marble floor is patterned , and the teller windows are divided by Hauteville @-@ marble pillars detailed with bas reliefs . A recessed mezzanine floor runs along the north and south sides , behind the columns . The bank vaults are in the basement , where the public space also has a marble floor .
The third and fourth floors are office space , centered around a courtyard . A remodeling of the fourth @-@ floor offices in 1948 , based on designs by Pietro Belluschi , incorporated Oregon myrtle in the paneling and custom furnishings . The bank 's board room , located on the third floor , includes a marble fireplace and stained glass windows by the noted Portland company , Povey Brothers Studio . The room is 55 ft × 30 ft ( 16 @.@ 8 m × 9 @.@ 1 m ) . Its walls are covered in dark walnut . Ornamental lighting fixtures with brass wall mountings adorn the east and west ends of the room , and a bronze ring chandelier hangs above the center .
= = Immediate surroundings = =
At its east end , the United States National Bank Building stands directly across 6th Avenue from another A. E. Doyle @-@ designed bank building , the Bank of California Building , of 1925 . The aforementioned building 's Italianate style contrasts sharply with the U.S. National Bank Building 's classical design . The northbound Portland Transit Mall passes in front of the building 's east end , and during the mall 's construction in 1976 – 77 the plain concrete sidewalk there was resurfaced in brick , and street trees were added . MAX light rail trains have passed in front of the building 's east end on 6th Avenue since 2009 , following a 2007 – 08 rebuilding of the transit mall .
= = = General = = =
Tess , John M. ( December 1985 ) . " National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form : United States National Bank Building " ( PDF ) . National Park Service . Retrieved 2016 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
= = = Specific = = =
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= B in the Mix : The Remixes =
B in the Mix : The Remixes is the first remix album by American recording artist Britney Spears . It was released on November 22 , 2005 , by JIVE Records . The album contains remixes of tracks from her first four studio albums — ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) , Britney ( 2001 ) and In the Zone ( 2003 ) — a remix of " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " , and a new track , " And Then We Kiss " . The remixes were done by DJs such as Peter Rauhofer and Stuart Price . The music was influenced by various genres of electronic music , such as ambient and techno .
Critics gave mixed reviews to the album . Some reviewers called B in the Mix : The Remixes a good remix compilation , while others argued that the album was conceived as a product and also criticized what they perceived as weak vocals . B in the Mix : The Remixes charted in countries such as Belgium , Japan , Italy and the United States , where it peaked at number four on the Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums . As of November 2007 , the album had sold one million copies worldwide , making it one of the best selling remix albums of all time . It received minimal promotion by Spears ' standards . " And Then We Kiss " was released as promotional single from the album in Australia and New Zealand .
= = Background = =
On September 28 , 2005 , JIVE Records announced through a press release that Spears would release a remix album titled Remixed . However , on November 8 , 2005 , it was reported by Jennifer Vineyard of MTV that the album was actually titled B in the Mix : The Remixes , and was going to be released on November 22 , 2005 . The album includes songs from her previous albums remixed by DJs such as Peter Rauhofer and Stuart Price . Price had previously remixed " Breathe on Me " from In the Zone for a limited edition bonus disc of Spears ' 2004 compilation , Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . B in the Mix : The Remixes also includes one new song , " And Then We Kiss " ; the song had previously been set to be included on a bonus disc of her 2005 DVD Britney & Kevin : Chaotic , but was left out for unknown reasons . B in the Mix : The Remixes had two covers . In the American edition , Spears does not appear on the cover ; there is a butterfly instead . Vineyard noted this saying , " [ the album ] is being marketed in a more underground way than usually associated with a superstar act " . In the international edition , Spears appears behind the butterfly .
= = Composition = =
The Bill Hamel remix of " Touch of My Hand " is a trance track with elements of ambient . Spears ' voice has been described as " chopped up into skittering syllables and [ ... ] becomes part of the beat " . The album 's fourth track , the Jacques Lu Cont 's Thin White Duke Mix of " Breathe on Me " slows the beat from the original track making the song " darker and dirtier " . The remix style was compared to songs by Kylie Minogue and Madonna . Dave Audé Slave Driver Mix of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " consists of a guitar track and " quirky analog touches " , according to Kurt Kirton of About.com. " And Then We Kiss " contains influences of euro @-@ trance , techno and usage of synthesizers . The song blends dance @-@ rock guitars and symphonic strings and closes with an orchestral overtone . Its lyrics talk about a kiss and the different sensations that the protagonist experiences , including trembling , crying and moaning . At the beginning she sings the lines " Lying alone / touching my skin " which suggest that the whole song may actually be a fantasy . The album 's seventh track , the Valentin remix of " Everytime " contains a serious groove and pounding percussion , with usage of synthesizers . The Jason Nevins remix of " Early Mornin ' " is considered the only hip hop song of B in the Mix : The Remixes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
B in the Mix : The Remixes received mixed reviews from music critics . Kurt Kirton of About.com highlighted the remixes of " Everytime " and " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , adding that the album would be better if it included more tracks . He summarized his review saying , " this is a decent release that should please any Britney fan and most club music fanatics " . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone said the album was " even more redundant " than Greatest Hits : My Prerogative , but added that with the exception of " Toxic " , " just about every original track is bettered here " . Spence D. of IGN said , " If you had the choice to purchase only one Britney Spears ' album , then this would be the one to spend your money on . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic commented that " B in the Mix doesn 't exactly erase the impression that Spears isn 't in tune with her recording career " . He also stated that on tracks such as " Toxic " , " her flaws stand out just a bit too much [ ... ] the instrumental hooks have been removed from the record , leaving Spears to carry the day — which she can 't really do . [ ... ] Overall this album sounds and feels like what it really is : a piece of product " . MTV writer Bradley Stern praised the album , saying it " featured loads of excellent remixes stretching from ' ... Baby One More Time ' to ' Toxic ' , but nothing shined quite as bright as the album 's undeniable highlight : ' And Then We Kiss ( Junkie XL Remix ) ' . "
Gregg Shapiro of the Bay Area Reporter gave the album a mostly negative review , calling it " hazardous waste " . He also noted that Spears 's voice was " reedy , cold and mechanical " when stripped from the original mixes . However , he highlighted two tracks , saying , " Spears come closest to achieving dance @-@ diva status on the Valentin remix of ' Everytime ' , while the Davidson Ospina 2005 remix of ' Baby One More Time ' elevates the original bubblegum track to club classic " . Mike Daniel of The Dallas Morning News called the Justice remix of " Me Against the Music " the best track of the album , but said it " has the feel of a hastily executed stopgap measure with almost no marketing @-@ related thought behind it except to fulfill the once @-@ every @-@ two @-@ years release cycle that 's been established for Britney material . " Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt noted the remixes " amps already @-@ aggressive singles like ' Toxic ' and ' Me Against the Music ' to brain @-@ popping levels of synth spiraling " , and transforms " sad @-@ eyed slow jams like ' Everytime ' and ' Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know ' into Hi @-@ NRG bursts . This party is BYORB ( Bring Your Own Red Bull ) ; without it , you might not be able to keep up . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , B in the Mix : The Remixes debuted at number one hundred thirty @-@ four on the Billboard 200 , selling 14 @,@ 000 copies in its first week.It spent 11 weeks on the chart overall . The album also peaked at number four on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums , making it the first top four title on the chart since July 2002 that had more than 10 @,@ 000 units sold . The album spent a total of twenty @-@ one weeks on the chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , B in the Mix : The Remixes has sold over 131 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album also debuted on Belgium charts at number ninety @-@ nine on the dated week of December 17 , 2005 , and also debuted at number fifty @-@ nine on the Italian chart on the dated week of November 25 , 2005 . The album peaked at twenty @-@ five in Japan , where it stayed eight weeks in that chart . As of November 2007 , B in the Mix : The Remixes had sold one million copies worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time .
= = Promotion = =
B in the Mix : The Remixes received little promotion compared to Spears ' standards . A promotional 12 @-@ inch single titled Key Cuts from Remixed with five of the album 's remixes was leaked more than two weeks before the album was released . A contest was launched on Spears ' paid fan site for those who pre @-@ ordered the album . The winner received a copy of Britney & Kevin : Chaotic , a bottle of Fantasy with an additional lotion and make @-@ up kit and a personalized autographed picture of Spears . On November 22 , 2005 , a release party was held at an unspecified club in Los Angeles , California , organized by Spears ' management and the webmaster of the fansite WorldOfBritney.com. It was a limited event to 500 people , including members of the fansite or her official fan club . Spears commented , " I just wanted to say that I love the idea of all my fans getting together to celebrate the release of my new album . I was happy to help ! I hope you have a great night out at the club and dance all night long ! " .
Before being included on B in the Mix : The Remixes , " And Then We Kiss " was initially produced by Mark Taylor for Spears ' fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It failed to be included on the album ; however , after being remixed by Junkie XL for the remix album , it was released as promotional single from the album in Australia and New Zealand . A promotional 12 @-@ inch single featuring a new version of the remix was also released . The remix received mostly positive reviews from music critics , with some noticing its potential to be a radio or club hit . " And Then We Kiss " failed to appear on any major charts . However , it peaked at number fifteen on the US Billboard Hot Dance Airplay . The version of the song produced by Taylor remained unreleased for years , until a new mix of the song labeled as the original version leaked online on September 2 , 2011 . After suggestions that it may be a fake , Taylor confirmed its authenticity to Bradley Stern of Muumuse.com on September 5 , 2011 .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a signifies a remixer and additional producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
^ c signifies a vocal producer
= = Personnel = =
Audio mastering : Chaz Harper
A & R : Steve Lunt , David Stamm
Management : Dan Dymtrow
Design : Jackie Murphy
Photography : Anthony Carlucci
= = Charts = =
= = Key Cuts from Remixed = =
To promote the album , JIVE Records released an EP containing a few tracks off the album . This EP , known as Key Cuts from Remixed was sent around to DJ 's in both 12 " Vinyl and CD format .
= = = Track listings = = =
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= Königsberg @-@ class cruiser ( 1905 ) =
The Königsberg class was a group of four light cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy . The class comprised four vessels : SMS Königsberg , the lead ship , SMS Nürnberg , SMS Stuttgart , and SMS Stettin . The ships were an improvement on the preceding Bremen class , being slightly larger and faster , and mounting the same armament of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
The four ships saw extensive service during World War I. Königsberg conducted commerce warfare in the Indian Ocean before being trapped in the Rufiji River and sunk by British warships . Her guns nevertheless continued to see action as converted artillery pieces for the German Army in German East Africa . Nürnberg was part of the German East Asia Squadron , and participated in the Battles of Coronel and Falkland Islands . At the former , she sank the British armored cruiser HMS Monmouth , and at the latter , she was in turn sunk by the cruiser HMS Kent .
Stuttgart and Stettin remained in German waters during the war , and both saw action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The two cruisers engaged in close @-@ range night fighting with the British fleet , but neither was significantly damaged . Both ships were withdrawn from service later in the war , Stettin to serve as a training ship , and Stuttgart to be converted into a seaplane tender in 1918 . They both survived the war , and were surrendered to Britain as war prizes ; they were dismantled in the early 1920s .
= = Design = =
The 1898 Naval Law authorized the construction of 30 new light cruisers by 1904 ; the Gazelle and Bremen classes filled the requirements for the first seventeen vessels . The Königsberg design followed the same general parameters as the two earlier classes , but with significant improvements in terms of size and speed . Like the Bremens , one member of the Königsberg class , Stettin , was fitted with steam turbines to evaluate their performance compared to traditional triple @-@ expansion engines .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Königsberg class had slightly different characteristics . The lead ship was 114 @.@ 8 meters ( 377 ft ) long at the waterline and 115 @.@ 3 m ( 378 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 29 m ( 17 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . The remaining three ships were 116 @.@ 8 m ( 383 ft ) long at the waterline and 117 @.@ 4 m ( 385 ft ) long overall ; they had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 14 to 5 @.@ 4 m ( 16 @.@ 9 to 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . Königsberg displaced 3 @,@ 390 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 340 long tons ; 3 @,@ 740 short tons ) as designed and up to 3 @,@ 814 t ( 3 @,@ 754 long tons ; 4 @,@ 204 short tons ) at full combat load . Nürnberg and Stuttgart were designed to displace 3 @,@ 469 t ( 3 @,@ 414 long tons ; 3 @,@ 824 short tons ) , with full load displacements of 3 @,@ 902 t ( 3 @,@ 840 long tons ; 4 @,@ 301 short tons ) and 4 @,@ 002 t ( 3 @,@ 939 long tons ; 4 @,@ 411 short tons ) , respectively . Stettin displaced 3 @,@ 480 t ( 3 @,@ 430 long tons ; 3 @,@ 840 short tons ) as designed and 3 @,@ 822 t ( 3 @,@ 762 long tons ; 4 @,@ 213 short tons ) at combat load .
The ships ' hulls were constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the steel outer hull was built . The hulls were divided into thirteen or fourteen watertight compartments . A double bottom ran for forty @-@ seven percent of the length of the keel . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . The ships of the class were good sea boats , but they were crank and rolled up to twenty degrees . They were also very wet at high speeds and suffered from a slight weather helm ; in the case of Stuttgart , she suffered from quite severe weather helm . The ships ' metacentric height was .54 to .65 m ( 1 ft 9 in to 2 ft 2 in ) . The ships had a crew of fourteen officers and 308 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies .
= = = Machinery = = =
The first three Königsberg @-@ class ships ' propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines rated at 13 @,@ 200 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . Stettin was instead equipped with a pair of Parsons steam turbines , rated at 13 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) and a top speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Each ship exceeded their design speed by at least half a knot on speed trials , however . All four ships ' engines were powered by eleven coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers , which were trunked into three funnels . The ships were designed to carry 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of coal , though they could store up to 880 t ( 870 long tons ; 970 short tons ) . Königsberg could steam for 5 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 650 km ; 6 @,@ 620 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , while the other three ships ' ranges were considerably shorter . Nürnberg and Stuttgart could cruise for 4 @,@ 120 nmi ( 7 @,@ 630 km ; 4 @,@ 740 mi ) at the same speed , and Stettin had a range of 4 @,@ 170 nmi ( 7 @,@ 720 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) . Königsberg had two electricity generators , while the other three ships were equipped with three generators . The generators produced a total output of 90 and 135 kilowatts at 100 volts , respectively .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Königsberg later had a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns installed . The last three ships were also equipped with eight 5 @.@ 2 cm SK L / 55 guns with 4 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . All four ships were also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside .
Armor protection for the members of the class consisted of two layers of steel with one layer of Krupp armor . The ships of the Königsberg class were protected by an armored deck that was 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships , and reduced to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick aft . Sloped armor 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick gave a measure of vertical protection . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . The ships ' guns were protected with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick gun shields .
= = Construction = =
The first three ships of the class were built by government shipyards . Königsberg was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in 1905 , launched on 12 December 1905 , and commissioned into the German Navy on 6 April 1907 . Nürnberg was also laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel , in 1906 . Her launching occurred on 28 August 1906 , and she was commissioned on 10 April 1908 . Stuttgart was built by the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig . She was laid down in 1905 , launched on 22 September 1906 , and commissioned on 1 February 1908 . Stettin was the only ship of the class built by a private shipbuilding firm , by AG Vulcan in her namesake city . She was laid down in 1906 , launched on 7 March 1907 , and commissioned just seven months later on 29 October 1907 .
= = Service history = =
The ships of the Königsberg class served with the High Seas Fleet after their commissionings , though Stuttgart also saw service as a gunnery training ship . Nürnberg and Königsberg were deployed overseas in 1910 and 1914 , respectively . Nürnberg was sent to the East Asia Squadron , while Königsberg went to east African waters . Stuttgart and Stettin meanwhile remained in Germany .
All four ships had active careers during World War I and saw action at many major battles during the conflict . At the outbreak of war , Königsberg was stationed in German East Africa ; she was ordered to begin raiding British commerce in the region . She was relatively unsuccessful in this regard , having sunk only the British freighter City of Winchester . She did , however , surprise the British cruiser HMS Pegasus in harbor and sank her in the Battle of Zanzibar . She was then blockaded in the Rufiji River and eventually destroyed by two British monitors , HMS Mersey and HMS Severn . Königsberg 's guns were removed from the wreck and mounted on improvised gun carriages and used in German East Africa during the World War I land campaign .
Nürnberg was still assigned to the East Asia Squadron under Admiral Maximilian von Spee when war broke out . Initially based in Tsingtao , China , the squadron crossed the Pacific in an attempt to raid British commerce off South America . The ship saw action at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914 where a British squadron attempted to intercept the German flotilla . There she sank the British armored cruiser HMS Monmouth . The following month during the Battle of the Falkland Islands , Nürnberg was sunk by the armored cruiser HMS Kent , part of another British squadron sent to hunt down Spee 's squadron .
Stettin and Stuttgart both saw action with the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea . Stettin participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 , and suffered relatively minor damage . Both cruisers participated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . Stettin was hit twice but was not badly damaged during the night , while Stuttgart emerged from the battle unscathed . Both ships were withdrawn from service in 1917 ; Stettin was used as a training ship , while Stuttgart was converted into a seaplane tender in 1918 . The two ships survived the war and were surrendered to Britain as war prizes ; they were later broken up for scrap in the early 1920s .
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= Marceline the Vampire Queen =
Marceline the Vampire Queen is a character in the American animated television series Adventure Time created by Pendleton Ward . She is voiced by Olivia Olson in most appearances , by Ava Acres as a child and by Cloris Leachman as an old woman . Marceline is a fun @-@ loving 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old trickster vampire queen . The name " Marceline " is based on the middle name of a childhood friend of Ward 's , Marie . The artistic design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead @-@ character designer and prop designer for Adventure Time . Unlike a traditional vampire , Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive ; rather , she eats the color red . Marceline is a musician who plays an electric bass that she made from her family 's heirloom battle @-@ axe .
The character makes her debut in the first season episode " Evicted ! " and functions as an antagonist , forcing Finn and Jake from their home . However , as the series progresses , Marceline becomes a close friend to Finn and Jake . Information regarding her early life remains sparse as of 2015 ; however , her demon @-@ father Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Olivia 's real @-@ life father , Martin Olson ) has appeared in several episodes . In addition , Marceline was the focus of a miniseries entitled Stakes , which aired during the show 's seventh season .
Marceline has been critically acclaimed and is popular with fans of Adventure Time . Ward himself has stated that Marceline is his favorite character in the series because he does not know everything about her history and backstory , which he noted adds a mysterious element to her character . Despite the positivity , the episodes " What Was Missing " and " Sky Witch " became somewhat controversial because of an implied past relationship between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline .
= = Creation and design = =
Marceline is one of the major characters in Adventure Time . Although she did not appear in the series ' pilot , the groundwork for her design and character were present in the series pitch book , penned by series creator Pendleton Ward . Marceline 's name is based on the name of a childhood friend of Ward 's , Marie , whose middle name is Marceline . Ward described Marie as someone who likes the horror movie Psycho and wears dark clothing . Ward purposely set out to make Marceline 's character complex , as he explained that " with the female characters it ’ s easy to either write them as clichés or write them as the extreme opposite of those clichés [ … ] I just try to make them have faults and strengths just like Finn and Jake have . "
Marceline is voiced by Olivia Olson . Olivia 's father Martin Olson was an acquaintance of Ward , and Olivia was encouraged to audition for Adventure Time after Ward told her father that he wanted " her as a voice " on his show . She had originally auditioned for the role of Princess Bubblegum . After her initial audition , she was asked to read for the role of Marceline , and was " definitely impressed by the character " after seeing design drawings . Martin Olson later noted that Olivia 's audition was a " sham " to please the network executives because Ward had already wanted her to be a voice on the show . In order to get into character , Olson often dresses in a manner similar to Marceline when she records her lines ; she explained , " I always find ... that on the days that I go in to record Marceline , I ’ ll dress like her , in a weird way ... I ’ ll throw on some rock n ’ roll boots , maybe some red lipstick , and just go in there . " Olson also is the character 's singing voice . According to storyboard artist Cole Sanchez , composers Casey James Basichis and Tim Kiefer produce the bass music that the character performs in the series . Many of the songs written for Marceline were uploaded onto the internet by the writers as well as the production company . For instance , Rob Sugar — the father of former storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar — often uploaded demos of songs written for Marceline by Rebecca . Furthermore , Frederator also posted demos , as well as a full version of the popular " Fry Song " , sung by Marceline in the episode " It Came from the Nightosphere " , on its official blog . In flashback sequences , younger Marceline is voiced by Ava Acres . In the fifth season episodes " Finn the Human " and " Jake the Dog " , an older , alternate universe version of the character is voiced by Cloris Leachman . Martin Olson also provides the voice for Marceline 's demonic father Hunson Abadeer . Olivia Olson later noted that the opportunity to voice act with her father was " pretty cool ” .
The design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead character and prop designer for Adventure Time . Visually , Marceline has long , dark hair . She rarely walks on the ground , generally preferring to float when she travels , moves , and sleeps . Marceline , unlike many of the other characters , wears varying outfits in most of her appearances . According to Ward , her clothing changes from episode to episode because " girls own more than one outfit " . Olson was impressed by her character 's fashion design stating , " she has really cool style [ … ] I love what they come up with [ in ] every episode . " Olson explained that when she goes in to record the voices for each episode , she is " totally surprised " by the costuming for Marceline . While she says her lines , she is able to view the animatics for the episode and sometimes has to stop to admire the unique designs . Marceline 's physical size and shape slightly changes depending on who is drawing her . Rynda later called this " one of the coolest parts " about the character 's animation due to the fact that " every artist leaves a little bit of their own taste and sensibilities in what they draw . "
= = Appearances = =
Roughly a thousand years prior to the events of the series , Marceline was born to a demon lord named Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Martin Olson ) and a human woman ( voiced by Rebecca Sugar ) . Abadeer is the ruler of the Nightosphere — a Hell @-@ like demon dimension — and subsists on the souls of sentient beings . For some reason , Marceline was left abandoned on Earth in events immediately following the Mushroom War , a mysterious war that ravaged the earth one thousand years prior to events of the series . During this time , Simon Petrikov — the name of the Ice King before he was overcome by the evil power of his crown — found Marceline in the ruins of a city and gave her a stuffed animal named Hambo to cheer her up . The two developed a caring relationship , although the crown took a toll on Simon 's mental health , forcing him to leave Marceline alone . During this period in her life , she was reunited with her father , only to be disgusted by his cold and heartless ways . Although she attempted to tolerate his evil and selfish antics , she eventually severed all ties with Abadeer after she discovered him eating fries that she had made for herself . In the following years , Marceline roamed the land of Ooo and eventually befriended a tribe of humans . She became their guardian and ally , and she helped them kill vampires , who had taken over much of the land . Marceline soon discovered that , upon killing a vampire , she was able to acquire their unique abilities . However , when she tried to fight the Vampire King himself , she was bitten . Although she eventually managed to slay him , she was turned in the process . At some point , she began a romantic relationship with a magician named Ash . The two would move into the Tree Fort , but their relationship would come to an end . Presumably , around this time , Marceline befriended Princess Bubblegum ; the two would often avoid official royal meetings and explore the Candy Kingdom 's elaborate rock candy mining complex . Eventually , however , Bubblegum pushed Marceline away , leaving an animosity between the two that lasted for a while .
In the series ' present , Marceline eventually comes into contact with Finn and Jake in the episode " Evicted ! " , when she forces them from their home . In the episode " Henchman " , Marceline tricks Finn into becoming her accomplice , but Finn soon discovers that she is not evil , but rather fond of mischief and pranks , and the two develop a friendship . In the second season premiere " It Came From the Nightosphere " , Abadeer is accidentally summoned to Ooo by Finn . While Abadeer ravages the land , Finn discovers that there is animosity between Marceline and her father . Finn manages to distract Abadeer by playing a recording of Marceline 's " Fry Song " , which leads to a brief moment of reconciliation between the two before Finn sends him back to the Nightosphere . In the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " , Ash attempts to rekindle his former relationship with Marceline via trickery . Disguised as Marceline 's " spirit animal " , he tricks Finn and Jake into believing that Marceline has fallen asleep due to a sleep spell that has been self @-@ inflicted . Following Ash 's advice , the two enter into Marceline 's mind to retrieve the " memory core " in an attempt to wake her up . Along the way , they encounter various memories of her as a child in the aftermath of the Mushroom War . However , the duo soon learn that it was an elaborate trick by Ash ; Finn and Jake actually removed Marceline 's memory of their break @-@ up . In the end , Finn is able to convince Marceline , and she promptly attacks her chauvinistic ex @-@ boyfriend . In " What Was Missing " , past animosity between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum is explored when Finn , Jake , Princess Bubblegum , BMO , and Marceline form a band in order to defeat the Door Lord and recover what was stolen from them .
In " Daddy 's Little Monster " , Marceline 's dad returns and gives her an amulet that causes her to become the demonic and evil overlord of the Nightosphere . After an ordeal , Finn saves Marceline from the amulet . Marceline admits that all she wants is for her father to understand her . When Finn wishes for an alternate reality in which the Lich never existed during the events of the fifth season premiere " Finn the Human " , a universe is created in which the Mushroom War was prevented by Simon Petrikov and Marceline never became a vampire . She appears in the episode as an extremely frail and aged half @-@ demon , who was killed when a " mutagenic bomb " that was frozen in ice by Simon Petrikov detonates . Jake manages to undo this reality with his wish and sets everything back to the way it was . In " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists the help of Princess Bubblegum , and the two are able to track down Maja , the titular Sky Witch . It is revealed that Ash sold Hambo to Maja . Only when Bubblegum trades her beloved rock shirt — which was given to her by Marceline — is Hambo able to be reunited with Marceline . After the events of " Sky Witch " , Bubblegum and Marceline are on much friendlier ground , and their friendship is completely reaffirmed in the seventh season episode " Varmints " . In " Betty " , Marceline sacrifices Hambo so that Ice King — who lost his powers and became Simon Petrikov again — can open a portal into time so that Simon can reconcile with his estranged fiancee Betty .
The miniseries Stakes , which aired during the show ’ s seventh season , documents the reemergence of five of Marceline ’ s most powerful vampiric foes : the Fool ( voiced by Ron Funches ) , the Empress Eyes ( voiced by Rebecca Romijn ) , the Hierophant ( voiced by Paul Williams ) , the Moon ( voiced by Beau Billingslea ) , and the Vampire King himself ( voiced by Billy Brown ) . The quintet remerge after Bubblegum tries to extract Marceline ’ s vampiric essence , in an attempt to return Marceline to her normal half @-@ demon state . The reappearance of these vampires forces Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) to stake them one @-@ by @-@ one , although the Vampire King is neutralized through a scientific process that removes the vampiric essence from his body .
= = = Other = = =
The gender @-@ swapped version of Marceline — named Marshall Lee — appeared in the third season episode " Fionna and Cake " . This version of the character only had a small cameo and no lines . It was later revealed that another Fionna and Cake episode was in the works for season five , and that the plot would largely revolve around Marshall Lee . The episode — titled " Bad Little Boy " — aired on February 18 , 2013 . In the episode , the princesses that are captured by the Ice King are tired of his poorly written Fionna and Cake fan fiction stories , so Marceline stops by the Ice Kingdom to show him how to properly do it ; she tells a tale involving her gender @-@ swapped character , Marshall Lee . The character was voiced by comedian and musician Donald Glover .
A six issue spin @-@ off comic miniseries titled Marceline and the Scream Queens , written by Meredith Gran of Octopus Pie , debuted in July 2012 . The series featured Marceline and Princess Bubblegum forming a band and touring around Ooo . The series is published by Boom ! Studios under its kid @-@ oriented imprint KaBoom , which also publishes the rest of the Adventure Time series . Other contributors to the series include Faith Erin Hicks , and Liz Prince . KaBoom has also published Seeing Red by Kate Leth , and Marceline Gone Adrift by Gran .
Marceline is also featured in the iOS game Adventure Time : Rock Bandits . In the context of the game , the Ice King kidnaps Marceline 's fans at a concert so that they will be his fans instead . Finn and Jake must then free the captured citizens . Marceline is set to appear as a playable character in the toys @-@ to @-@ life video game Lego Dimensions , distributed via a " fun pack " containing a Marceline Lego minifigure and a constructable " Lunatic Amp " accessory .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Personality and traits = = =
In the context of the series , Marceline is a half @-@ demon and half @-@ human vampire , and the eponymous Vampire Queen , after having killed the previous Vampire King . Although she is at least 1 @,@ 000 years old , she was designed to appear in the form of an 18- to 21 @-@ year @-@ old . In her first role , Marceline functions as the antagonist of the story , forcing Finn and Jake from their home . However , as the series progressed , she became a close friend to the two . Ward has stated that she is not a villain . Marceline 's wandering of the Land of Ooo has made her into a fearless daredevil . Her fondness for mischief and fun has turned her into a trickster . Although appearing hostile at first , Finn soon realizes that she is " a radical dame who likes to play games " .
Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive . Rather , she only needs to eat the color red out of objects . She can eat various shades of red , including " low @-@ grade " shades such as pink . Since she is only satiated by the color , blood is only appealing to her because it is red . However , Ward has noted that she " drinks blood sometimes " . When Marceline is deprived of red , she enters into a " feral " state , and will instinctively try to kill others and drink their blood . Like traditional Western vampires , she is vulnerable to sunlight and is capable of turning into a bat of varying size . Marceline also possesses several powers , such as levitation , invisibility , and the ability to shape @-@ shift into various paranormal creatures , and self @-@ healing ; she gained these powers after absorbing the essence of five powerful vampires , as documented in Stakes . Marceline is also a survivor of the Mushroom War . Hints of her past are sprinkled through the series ; in " Memory of a Memory " a trip into Marceline 's mind shows her as a child wandering around the outskirts of a destroyed city , and " I Remember You " features her meeting Simon Petrikov in a ruined city .
She was very emotionally attached to her teddy bear Hambo , which was given to her by a still @-@ human Simon Petrikov , as revealed in the episode " I Remember You " . In " Memory of a Memory " , after Ash sold the teddy bear to a witch , Marceline was furious and broke up with him . In the episode " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists Princess Bubblegum 's help , and they retrieve the bear , but in " Betty " , she sacrifices the bear in order to allow Simon the chance to communicate with his fiancée . Although she is very independent , her detachment often makes her feel alone , as seen in " Marceline 's Closet " ; while Jake and Finn are hiding in her closet , she expresses most of her feeling via the writings of her 500 @-@ year @-@ old diary . Throughout the series , Marceline is seen playing music ; in several official sources , she is described as " a wild rocker girl " . Several times throughout the series , she jams with Finn and Jake , and various others depending on the circumstances . She is usually shown playing her axe bass , which was formerly her family 's heirloom battle axe . According to Ward , she is ambidextrous , which explains her ability to play bass with both hands . She often finds it easier to express her feelings through music , as seen with songs like the " Fry Song " , about her father , and " I 'm Just Your Problem " , about her relationship with Princess Bubblegum .
= = = Relationships = = =
Marceline has a close relationship with Finn and Jake . Marceline and Finn have many things in common with one another ; in the episodes " Evicted " and " Henchman " it is stated that the reason Marceline befriended Finn is because he simply enjoys being himself . Although she has kissed Finn platonically on the cheek twice , Ward has noted that there is no romantic subtext between the two . On the other hand , Marceline and Jake share a more complex relationship . In her initial appearances , she derived pleasure from scaring Jake , who was terrified " of her vampire bite " . Jake , in turn , felt that she was evil and had managed to take over Finn 's mind . Due to this , Jake attempted to kill her several times , to no avail . However , after the events of " Henchman " , Jake seems to have forgotten his fear of her ; in " Memory of a Memory " , he even refers to her as a " friend " in one of her memories .
Marceline shares a rocky relationship with Princess Bubblegum . Initially , in the series bible , the two were described as " friendly rivals " competing for Finn 's attention . However , as the show has gone on , their relationship has been fleshed out and changed . Marceline was the first person to address Bubblegum by her first name — Bonnibel — which occurred in the episode " Go With Me " . Their connections are explored further in the season three episode " What Was Missing " . In the episode , Marceline 's song " I 'm Just Your Problem " and the dialogue between her and Bubblegum implied that there may have had some sort of relationship in the past , although the exact details surrounding the nature of the relationship were not explained . This later caused an internet controversy over Marceline 's sexual orientation . However , after the events of " What Was Missing " , Marceline and Bubblegum 's relationship seems to have gotten better , as the two spend quality time together in " Sky Witch " and " Stakes " .
Marceline and her father , Hunson Abadeer , have trouble accepting one another . Initially , Marceline feels that her father does not care for her , and expresses her feelings through the before @-@ mentioned " Fry Song " . Although they admit to loving each other , Abadeer constantly pressures Marceline to follow in the family business and take over ruling the Nightosphere , a prospective job Marceline does not want . Marceline and the Ice King also have a complicated relationship . In the episode " I Remember You " , it is revealed that the Ice King — then , the human man named Simon Petrikov — discovered her crying in the ruins of a city destroyed by the Mushroom Wars . It was Simon who gave little Marceline Hambo and attempted to watch over her . This kind gesture made the Ice King a long @-@ time close friend to Marceline . However , as the crown 's power increased , Simon began to forget more and more about his relationship with Marceline , until he had all but forgotten their friendship . Former storyboard artist and current supervising director for the series Adam Muto explained that Marceline and the Ice King 's history was not part of the series ' initial plan , but something that " evolved from [ the show 's ] original course and it will likely continue to evolve in the future . "
= = Reception = =
Marceline has attracted positive critical attention . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club praised that the fact that she is one " of this show ’ s most tragic characters " . He later wrote that her addition " was a major turning point for the series , introducing a hip , adventure @-@ loving female to the cast who can hold her own against Finn and Jake and also has a strong connection to Ooo ’ s past . " Furthermore , he noted that " she ’ s been at the center of some of the show ’ s most emotional episodes " , and " beyond her dramatic value , Marceline tends to just make every episode better " because " her writers clearly enjoy writing scenes for her " . Susana Polo of The Mary Sue referred to the character as " one of the radder characters " in the series . Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline 's introduction in " Evicted ! " as the fourth best moment in the series ' first season . He wrote that " sure , in this episode she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey , this is the first time we meet her and she 's awesome . " He later wrote that " Marceline = best " . io9 writer Charlies Jane Anders wrote that Marceline 's — as well as the Ice King 's — appearance in " I Remember You " was " one of the most intense things I 've seen in ages . " She praised Marceline 's development from a " pretty one @-@ note villain " to a type of person that " we sort of knew " . CartoonNetwork.co.uk named her " Character of the Week " on January 24 , 2012 . The Guardian called Marceline the best character in Adventure Time in a DVD review of the series , noting in particular that " she 's … responsible for some of the show 's best songs . "
The production crew of Adventure Time are also pleased with the character . Ward has stated several times that Marceline is his favorite character because he does not " know everything about her character yet " , which he finds " mysterious [ and ] cool " . Rynda claimed that Marceline was probably his favorite character in the series because " she 's just really fun to draw . " Marceline is also particularly popular with the Adventure Time fan base , and after the release of " Evicted ! " her popularity grew enormously . Ward later noted that he felt " good about that . It 's nice " . The character 's popularity has been recognized by the company that owns Adventure Time . In fact , the official press release for the Adventure Time : Marceline and the Scream Queens companion comic book referred to the character as a " fan @-@ favorite " .
Marceline 's popularity has transcended into other mediums of popular culture ; American singer Willow dedicated two tracks of her debut album Ardipithecus to the character , which were eponymously named after her .
= = = Relationship controversy = = =
The episode " What Was Missing " became controversial because of an allegedly implied past relationship between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum . The controversy largely began after an accompanying " Mathematical " recap — a studio @-@ endorsed behind the scenes video series implied that there were lesbian relations between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline and that the writing staff actively seeks input from fans . This incident was addressed by the show 's producer , Fred Seibert , who said that " in trying to get the show ’ s audience involved we got wrapped up by both fan conjecture and spicy fanart and went a little too far . " Soon after , the video recap and the entire channel was pulled off of YouTube , although " What Was Missing " still airs during reruns . Seibert 's decision to remove the video also proved controversial ; Bitch magazine later wrote an article about how the episode " handled female desire — female queer desire at that — in a subtle but complex way " , but that the removal of the recap and the studio 's perceived treatment of the controversy was detrimental towards the acceptance of queer romance in children 's television . Ward later addressed the issue and gave a more neutral view ; he said that , because there were " so many extreme positions taken on it all over the Internet " , he did not " really want to comment on it [ because ] it was a big hullaballoo . "
In August 2014 , Olson told a crowd of fans gathered at a Barnes & Noble book signing from The Adventure Time Encyclopedia , that , according to Ward , Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had dated in the past , but that because the series airs in some areas where homosexual relationships are illegal , the show has not been able to officially make clear the relationship in the series itself .
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= Volvariella bombycina =
Volvariella bombycina , commonly known as the silky sheath , silky rosegill , silver @-@ silk straw mushroom , or tree mushroom , is a species of edible mushroom in the family Pluteaceae . It is an uncommon but widespread species , having been reported from Asia , Australia , the Caribbean , Europe , and North America . The fruit body ( mushroom ) begins developing in a thin , egg @-@ like sac . This ruptures and the stem expands quickly , leaving the sac at the base of the stem as a volva . The cap , which can attain a diameter of up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) , is white to slightly yellowish and covered with silky hairs . On the underside of the cap are closely spaced gills , free from attachment to the stem , and initially white before turning pink as the spores mature . The mushroom grows singly or in clusters , often appearing in old knotholes and wounds in elms and maples . V. bombycina contains compounds with antibacterial properties .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in 1774 by German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer as Agaricus bombycinus . Throughout its taxonomical history , it has been shuffled to several genera , including Pluteus ( by Elias Fries in 1836 ) , Volvaria ( Paul Kummer , 1871 ) , and Volvariopsis ( William Alphonso Murrill , 1911 ) . Rolf Singer placed it in its current genus , Volvariella , in 1951 . Other names that have been applied to the species include Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck 's Amanita calyptrata and August Johann Georg Karl Batsch 's Agaricus denudatus ( both published in 1783 ) , but these are illegitimate names as Schäffer 's earlier 1774 name has priority .
In 1949 , Murrill described the variety flaviceps from collections made growing on magnolia wood in Gainesville , Florida . Although he originally described it as a new species , Volvaria flaviceps , Robert Shaffer considered it a variety of V. bombycina . Variety microspora was first described in 1953 , was later ( 1961 ) named by R.W.G. Dennis ; variety palmicola was originally described as a distinct species Volvaria palmicola by Belgian mycologist Maurice Beely in 1928 , and later as a variety of V. bombycina by the same author in 1937 .
The root for the generic name Volvariella ( as well as Volvaria and Volvariopsis , genera in which the species had been formerly placed ) derives from the Latin volva , meaning " wrapper " or " a covering " . The specific epithet bombycina derives from the Latin root bombyc , or " silky " . Common names for the mushroom include the " silky sheath " , the " silky rosegill " , the " silver @-@ silk straw mushroom " , or the " tree mushroom " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Volvariella bombycina are initially egg @-@ shaped when still enclosed in the universal veil . As they expand , the caps later becoming bell @-@ shaped or convex , and finally nearly flattened in age , attaining a diameter of 5 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The dry cap surface is covered with silky threads . Its color is white to yellowish , becoming more pale approaching the margin . The flesh is thin , soft , and white , and has an odor , resembling raw potatoes . Gills are crowded close together , free from attachment to the stem , and initially white before turning pinkish as the spores mature . The stem measures 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) long by 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , and is typically tapered upward or thickened below . It is white , with a smooth surface , and is often slightly curved . The universal veil is membranous , often areolate ( cracked into irregularly shaped blocks ) or scaly , and forms a long , saclike volva that wraps around the base of the stem . It is white to yellowish or dingy brown , and often divided into lobes .
The variety V. bombycina var. flaviceps is distinguished from the main form by its smaller , bright yellow caps , up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , and its dirty @-@ white , scaly volva . Murrill also noted that it developed a " peculiar sickening odor during drying " . V. bombycina var. microspora has smaller spores ( 6 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 μm ) , a yellow cap , and a blotched brown volva . V. bombycina var. palmicola also has a yellow cap and small spores ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 4 μm ) , but can be distinguished from the previous varieties by its distantly spaced gills .
Mushrooms produce a spore print with a color ranging from pinkish to salmon . Spores are elliptical , smooth , and measure 6 @.@ 5 – 10 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 19 – 43 by 6 – 11 μm . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia that occur on the gill face ) are usually spindle shaped , but have a widely variable morphology ; they are abundant in the hymenium , and have dimensions of 26 – 122 by 8 – 57 μm . The cheilocystidia ( on the gill edge ) are similar in morphology and abundance , some may feature knobs held at the end of slender projections up to 20 μm long ; dimensions are in the range of 26 and 144 μm long by 8 – 46 μm wide . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae of V. bombycina .
The fruit bodies can be readily grown in laboratory culture .
= = = Similar species = = =
The combination of a silky white cap , white stem , pink gills , pink spore print , and growth on wood is characteristic of this species and make identification of Volvariella bombycina in the field relatively easy . Some Pluteus species have a general similar appearance , and also produce pinkish to pinkish @-@ brown spore prints , but they lack a volva . Amanita species grow on the ground and make white spore prints . V. pusilla has a small cap measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter with silky fibers and short lines visible at the cap edge when moist ; it grows in soil in gardens and greenhouses and on lawns . V. hypopithys has a medium @-@ size white cap that is 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter with silky to scaly fibers and lacks the short lines at the cap edge when moist ; it grows on the ground in woods . V. caesiotincta has a bluish @-@ gray cap , while V. gloiocephala can be distinguished from V. bombycina by its smooth cap that is sticky when damp , and a white volva .
= = = Edibility = = =
The fruit bodies are edible , and usually considered of good quality . They have been called " excellent " , " tasty " with a " modest and pleasant flavor " , and " worth eating if found in large enough quantities " .
Alexander H. Smith related a story of how unique circumstances led to the development of a local superstition about the species :
... the members of a family here in Ann Arbor were poisoned , some fatally , as the result of eating caps of a species of Amanita . The next year Volvaria bombycina fruited on a maple tree at the home of these people , and the story was circulated that some of the spores of the poisonous fungus , which caused the deaths the year before , had escaped from the house , lodged in the tree , germinated , grew and were now producing fruiting bodies . Consequently the carpophores of the Volvaria were held in great awe by the neighbors , and soon came to be referred to as the " ghost mushroom " . No one , of course , would consider eating them .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Volvariella bombycina is a saprobic species . Fruit bodies grow singly or in small groups on trunks and decayed stumps of dead hardwoods . Favored species include sugar maple , red maple , silver maple , magnolia , mango , beech , oak , and elm . It is often found in clefts and knotholes of dead or living tree trunks . It has been noted to fruit in the same location for several years . Despite its preference for hardwoods , it has been reported growing on rare instances on coniferous wood . An uncommon species with a wide distribution , it has been reported from Asia ( China , India , Korea , Pakistan ) , the Caribbean ( Cuba ) , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America . It acquired protected status in Hungary in 2005 , making it a legal offense to pick it . Variety microspora is known from Venezuela , while V. bombycina var. palmicola occurs in the DR Congo .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Several bioactive secondary metabolites have been isolated and identified from Volvariella bombycina fruit bodies , mycelium , or pure culture . The compounds ergosta @-@ 4 @,@ 6 @,@ 8 ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , ergosterol peroxide , indole @-@ 3 @-@ carboxaldehyde , and indazole were found in liquid culture . In 2009 , the novel compound isodeoxyhelicobasidin was identified from culture broth ; this compound inhibits the enzyme human elastase . The fungus also produces compounds that have antioxidative activity .
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= Sale el Sol ( song ) =
" Sale el Sol " ( English : " The Sun Comes Out " ) is a song recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for her ninth studio album of the same name . The song was written and produced by the singer and her frequent collaborator Luis Fernando Ochoa and belongs to the " very rock and roll " direction of the album . Musically , " Sale el Sol " is a folk and Latin music @-@ influenced alternative rock track . Its lyrics encourage one to be optimistic during difficult times . Epic Records released " Sale el Sol " as the second single from the album on 4 January 2011 .
Critical reception towards the song was positive , with many critics praising its composition and placement as the opening track of the album . Although it appeared on only a few record charts , " Sale el Sol " performed well in Mexico and Spain , peaking at numbers one and eight on the Monitor Latino and Spanish Singles Chart , respectively . It was certified gold in both the countries . In the United States , it reached number ten on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .
An accompanying music video for " Sale el Sol " was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , and features Shakira and her band performing the song in a snow @-@ decked forest . Spanish Cava wine producer Freixenet used the video as their Christmas season commercial . " Sale el Sol " was also included on the set list of The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 . At the Rock in Rio concert show in May 2010 , Shakira sang the song as a tribute to Argentine singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati , who had fallen into a coma earlier that month .
= = Background and composition = =
In 2010 , Shakira began work on ninth studio album Sale el Sol . The singer split the album into three musical " directions , " one of which is " very rock and roll . " Shakira , who was a rock artist at the beginning of her career but later took on a more pop @-@ influenced approach , said it had been " fun to re @-@ encounter that side of my artistic personality . " The title track is an alternative rock song , with additional influences of folk and Latin music . Written and produced by Shakira and her frequent collaborator Luis Fernando Ochoa , " Sale el Sol " is a call for " optimism through difficult times . " The words " Sale el Sol " are Spanish for " The Sun Comes Out , " and Shakira explained why she chose the motif of the rise of the sun , saying :
" I was a little bit down at the end of last year , but as soon as this year started , the sun started shining for me . I find myself smiling more often , I feel more free and liberated . You go through difficult moments , everybody does , but there 's always the sun inside of us that never extinguishes , and it has come out for me . And , hopefully , it will be a long day in the sun . "
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Sale el Sol " was globally released as the second single from the album on 4 January 2011 . The song was made available for digitally downloading on the iTunes Store on the same day . It was a moderate commercial success , performing well in Latin American countries . It reached number one on the Monitor Latino airplay chart in Mexico . The Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) certified " Sale el Sol " gold for shipping 30 @,@ 000 units in the country . It debuted and peaked at number eight on the Spanish Singles Chart and charted for a total of 23 weeks . The Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) too certified " Sale el Sol " gold for achieving sales of 20 @,@ 000 units in Spain .
In the United States , " Sale el Sol " was a hit on the Latin Billboard charts . The song peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and appeared on it for 38 weeks in total . It was more successful on the airplay chart , peaking at number two on the Latin Pop Airplay chart .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Sale el Sol " received positive reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic highlighted its rock influences and deemed it " anthemic . " Billboard commended its lyrics , calling them " evocative and hopeful " and found it emotionally appealing , saying " Wistful and beautiful , it highlights a more pared @-@ down Shakira . " Jesus Yanez @-@ Reyes from Northern Arizona News complimented Shakira 's vocal delivery and songwriting , and felt the combination of rock and Latin music in the song made it " reminiscent " of Shakira 's earlier work . Reyes also praised its placement as the opening track of the album and commented : " Undoubtedly , this song starts the album off on the right track , with only higher expectations to come . " The instrumentation of the song reminded Carlos Macias from Terra Music of Shakira 's work in her sixth studio album Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 ( 2005 ) and called it a " good welcome " to the album .
At the Premio Lo Nuestro awards ceremony in 2012 , " Sale el Sol " was nominated for " Canción Pop del Año " ( " Pop Song of the Year " ) , but lost to another song by Shakira , " Rabiosa " .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Sale el Sol " was directed by Shakira 's frequent collaborator Jaume de Laiguana . Parts of the video also served as a Christmas season commercial for Spanish Cava wine producer Freixenet , who donated an estimated amount of 500 @,@ 000 euros to Shakira 's charity Barefoot Foundation . The singer 's official website announced the music video on 9 February 2011 . It was made available to digitally download from the iTunes Store a day earlier .
It begins with the title of the song being shown on a black background , with a bright sun @-@ like circle in place of the letter " o " . Dressed in an entirely black attire , Shakira then appears singing the song with a mic stand in a snowy forest setting . She is backed by a four @-@ piece band of musicians , who are also wearing black costumes . As the first chorus of the song ends , it start to snow . In a maze @-@ like structure , Shakira is shown running in a large golden frock , trying to find her way . Changing back to the forest setting , the camera pans upward to reveal that the maze is built behind the wall in front of which Shakira and her band are performing . The song 's bridge co @-@ indices with the occurrence of a storm and culminates with Shakira tearing her top open , after which the sun rises and the intensity of the lighting increases . The video ends with Shakira opening a door that leads her out of the maze . Scenes from Laiguana 's short documentary film Hagamos Que Salga el Sol ( Let the Sun Rise ) , which was filmed in Colombia , are interspersed in the video .
Robbie Daw from Idolator called the music video " sunny " and commented : " What more do you want from a Shakira video than the sizzling hot singer in a beautiful frock , wandering through a long maze while making her way out of the cold and into the sun @-@ drenched scenery . "
= = = Live performances = = =
" Sale el Sol " was included as the thirteenth song on the set list of Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . In May 2010 , Shakira sang the song at the Rock in Rio concert show in Madrid , Spain , as a tribute to Argentine singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati , her frequent @-@ collaborator and close friend who had suffered a stroke earlier in the month and had fallen into a coma .
= = Formats and track listing = =
Digital download
" Sale el Sol " - 3 : 20
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque =
Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque ( Arabic : المسجد الاقصى Al @-@ Masjid al @-@ Aqsa , IPA : [ ʔælˈmæsdʒɪd ælˈʔɑqsˤɑ ] , “ the Farthest Mosque " , Hebrew : מסגד אל @-@ אקצא Misgad al @-@ Aktsa ) , also known as Al @-@ Aqsa and Bayt al @-@ Muqaddas , is the third holiest site in Islam and is located in the Old City of Jerusalem . Whilst the entire site on which the silver @-@ domed mosque sits , along with the Dome of the Rock , seventeen gates , and four minarets , was itself historically known as the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque , today a narrower definition prevails , and the wider compound is usually referred to as al @-@ Haram ash @-@ Sharif ( " the Noble Sanctuary " ) , or the Temple Mount , the holiest site in Judaism . Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al @-@ Aqsa during the Night Journey . Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards this site until the seventeenth month after the emigration , when God directed him to turn towards the Kaaba .
The mosque was originally a small prayer house built by the Rashidun caliph Umar , but was rebuilt and expanded by the Umayyad caliph Abd al @-@ Malik and finished by his son al @-@ Walid in 705 CE . The mosque was completely destroyed by an earthquake in 746 and rebuilt by the Abbasid caliph al @-@ Mansur in 754 . His successor al @-@ Mahdi rebuilt it again in 780 . Another earthquake destroyed most of al @-@ Aqsa in 1033 , but two years later the Fatimid caliph Ali az @-@ Zahir built another mosque which has stood to the present day .
During the periodic renovations undertaken , the various ruling dynasties of the Islamic Caliphate constructed additions to the mosque and its precincts , such as its dome , facade , its minbar , minarets and the interior structure . When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099 , they used the mosque as a palace and the Dome of the Rock as a church , but its function as a mosque was restored after its recapture by Saladin in 1187 . More renovations , repairs and additions were undertaken in the later centuries by the Ayyubids , Mamluks , Ottomans , the Supreme Muslim Council , and Jordan . Today , the Old City is under Israeli control , but the mosque remains under the administration of the Jordanian / Palestinian @-@ led Islamic Waqf .
= = Etymology = =
Masjid al @-@ Aqsa translates from Arabic into English as " the farthest mosque " . The name refers to a chapter of the Quran called " The Night Journey " in which it is said that Muhammad traveled from Mecca to " the farthest mosque " , and then up to Heaven on a heavenly creature called al @-@ Buraq al @-@ Sharif . Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque as a whole is confused with a particular building within it , also known as al @-@ Jami ' al @-@ Aqsa or al @-@ Qibli or Masjid al @-@ Jumah or al @-@ Mughata ; these names refer to the southern building with the silver lead dome .
For centuries , al @-@ Masjid al @-@ Aqsa referred not only to the mosque , but to the entire sacred sanctuary , while al @-@ Jami ' al @-@ Aqsa referred to the specific site of the mosque . This changed during the period of Ottoman rule ( c. early 16th century to 1917 ) when the sanctuary complex came to be known as al @-@ Haram al @-@ Sharif .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ construction = = =
The al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is located on the Temple Mount , referred to by Muslims today as the " Haram al @-@ Sharif " ( " The Noble Sanctuary " ) , an enclosure expanded by King Herod the Great beginning in 20 BCE . The mosque resides on an artificial platform that is supported by arches constructed by Herod 's engineers to overcome the difficult topographic conditions resulting from the southward expansion of the enclosure into the Tyropoeon and Kidron valleys . At the time of the Second Temple , the present site of the mosque was occupied by the Royal Stoa , a basilica running the southern wall of the enclosure . The Royal Stoa was destroyed along with the Temple during the sacking of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE .
It was once thought that Emperor Justinian 's " Nea Ekklesia of the Theotokos " , or the New Church of the God @-@ Bearer , dedicated to the God @-@ bearing Virgin Mary , consecrated in 543 and commonly known as the Nea Church , was situated where al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was later constructed . However , remains identified as those of the Nea Church were uncovered in the south part of the Jewish Quarter in 1973 .
Analysis of the wooden beams and panels removed from the mosque during renovations in the 1930s shows they are made from Cedar of Lebanon and cypress . Radiocarbon dating indicates a large range of ages , some as old as 9th @-@ century BCE , showing that some of the wood had previously been used in older buildings .
In 2012 , it was reported that Robert Hamilton , an archaeologist who worked on the Temple Mount after the 1927 Jericho earthquake , had discovered remains under al @-@ Aqsa mosque that he did not publish in his book on the excavations . These included a mosaic like those used in Byzantine churches , and a Jewish mikveh from the Second Temple period .
= = = Construction by the Umayyads = = =
The current construction of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is dated to the early Umayyad period of rule in Palestine . Architectural historian K. A. C. Creswell , referring to a testimony by Arculf , a Gallic monk , during his pilgrimage to Palestine in 679 – 82 , notes the possibility that the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab , erected a primitive quadrangular building for a capacity of 3 @,@ 000 worshipers somewhere on the Haram ash @-@ Sharif . However , Arculf visited Palestine during the reign of Mu 'awiyah I , and it is possible that Mu 'awiyah ordered the construction , not Umar . This latter claim is explicitly supported by the early Muslim scholar al @-@ Muthahhar bin Tahir .
According to several Muslim scholars , including Mujir ad @-@ Din , al @-@ Suyuti , and al @-@ Muqaddasi , the mosque was reconstructed and expanded by the caliph Abd al @-@ Malik in 690 along with the Dome of the Rock . Guy le Strange claims that Abd al @-@ Malik used materials from the destroyed Church of Our Lady to build the mosque and points to possible evidence that substructures on the southeast corners of the mosque are remains of the church . In planning his magnificent project on the Temple Mount , which in effect would turn the entire complex into the Haram al @-@ Sharif ( " the Noble Sanctuary " ) , Abd al @-@ Malik wanted to replace the slipshod structure described by Arculf with a more sheltered structure enclosing the qibla , a necessary element in his grand scheme . However , the entire Haram al @-@ Sharif was meant to represent a mosque . How much he modified the aspect of the earlier building is unknown , but the length of the new building is indicated by the existence of traces of a bridge leading from the Umayyad palace just south of the western part of the complex . The bridge would have spanned the street running just outside the southern wall of the Haram al @-@ Sharif to give direct access to the mosque . Direct access from palace to mosque was a well @-@ known feature in the Umayyad period , as evidenced at various early sites . Abd al @-@ Malik shifted the central axis of the mosque some 40 meters ( 130 ft ) westward , in accord with his overall plan for the Haram al @-@ Sharif . The earlier axis is represented in the structure by the niche still known as the " mihrab of ' Umar . " In placing emphasis on the Dome of the Rock , Abd al @-@ Malik had his architects align his new al @-@ Aqsa Mosque according to the position of the Rock , thus shifting the main north – south axis of the Noble Sanctuary , a line running through the Dome of the Chain and the Mihrab of Umar .
In contrast , Creswell , while referring to the Aphrodito Papyri , claims that Abd al @-@ Malik 's son , al @-@ Walid I , reconstructed the Aqsa Mosque over a period of six months to a year , using workers from Damascus . Most scholars agree that the mosque 's reconstruction was started by Abd al @-@ Malik , but that al @-@ Walid oversaw its completion . In 713 – 14 , a series of earthquakes ravaged Jerusalem , destroying the eastern section of the mosque , which was subsequently rebuilt during al @-@ Walid 's rule . In order to finance its reconstruction , al @-@ Walid had gold from the dome of the Rock minted to use as money to purchase the material . The Umayyad @-@ built al @-@ Aqsa Mosque most likely measured 112 x 39 meters .
= = = Earthquakes and reconstructions = = =
In 746 , the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was damaged in an earthquake , four years before as @-@ Saffah overthrew the Umayyads and established the Abbasid Caliphate . The second Abbasid caliph Abu Ja 'far al @-@ Mansur declared his intent to repair the mosque in 753 , and he had the gold and silver plaques that covered the gates of the mosque removed and turned into dinars and dirhams to finance the reconstruction which ended in 771 . A second earthquake damaged most of al @-@ Mansur 's repairs , excluding those made in the southern portion in 774 . In 780 , the successor caliph Muhammad al @-@ Mahdi had it rebuilt , but curtailed its length and increased its breadth . Al @-@ Mahdi 's renovation is the first known to have written records describing it . In 985 , Jerusalem @-@ born Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi recorded that the renovated mosque had " fifteen naves and fifteen gates " .
In 1033 , there was another earthquake , severely damaging the mosque . The Fatimid caliph Ali az @-@ Zahir rebuilt and completely renovated the mosque between 1034 and 1036 . The number of naves was drastically reduced from fifteen to seven . Az @-@ Zahir built the four arcades of the central hall and aisle , which presently serve as the foundation of the mosque . The central aisle was double the width of the other aisles and had a large gable roof upon which the dome — made of wood — was constructed . Persian geographer , Nasir Khusraw describes the Aqsa Mosque during a visit in 1047 :
The Haram Area ( Noble Sanctuary ) lies in the eastern part of the city ; and through the bazaar of this ( quarter ) you enter the Area by a great and beautiful gateway ( Dargah ) ... After passing this gateway , you have on the right two great colonnades ( Riwaq ) , each of which has nine @-@ and @-@ twenty marble pillars , whose capitals and bases are of colored marbles , and the joints are set in lead . Above the pillars rise arches , that are constructed , of masonry , without mortar or cement , and each arch is constructed of no more than five or six blocks of stone . These colonnades lead down to near the Maqsurah .
Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders in 1099 , during the First Crusade . They named the mosque " Solomon 's Temple " , distinguishing it from the Dome of the Rock , which they named Templum Domini ( Temple of God ) . While the Dome of the Rock was turned into a Christian church under the care of the Augustinians , the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque was used as a royal palace and also as a stable for horses . In 1119 , it was transformed into the headquarters of the Templar Knights . During this period , the mosque underwent some structural changes , including the expansion of its northern porch , and the addition of an apse and a dividing wall . A new cloister and church were also built at the site , along with various other structures . The Templars constructed vaulted western and eastern annexes to the building ; the western currently serves as the women 's mosque and the eastern as the Islamic Museum .
After the Ayyubids under the leadership of Saladin reconquered Jerusalem following the siege of 1187 , several repairs and renovations were undertaken at al @-@ Aqsa Mosque . In order to prepare the mosque for Friday prayers , within a week of his capture of Jerusalem Saladin had the toilets and grain stores installed by the Crusaders at al @-@ Aqsa removed , the floors covered with precious carpets , and its interior scented with rosewater and incense . Saladin 's predecessor — the Zengid sultan Nur al @-@ Din — had commissioned the construction of a new minbar or " pulpit " made of ivory and wood in 1168 – 69 , but it was completed after his death ; Nur ad @-@ Din 's minbar was added to the mosque in November 1187 by Saladin . The Ayyubid sultan of Damascus , al @-@ Mu 'azzam , built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates in 1218 . In 1345 , the Mamluks under al @-@ Kamil Shaban added two naves and two gates to the mosque 's eastern side .
After the Ottomans assumed power in 1517 , they did not undertake any major renovations or repairs to the mosque itself , but they did to the Noble Sanctuary as a whole . This included the building of the Fountain of Qasim Pasha ( 1527 ) , the restoration of the Pool of Raranj , and the building of three free @-@ standing domes — the most notable being the Dome of the Prophet built in 1538 . All construction was ordered by the Ottoman governors of Jerusalem and not the sultans themselves . The sultans did make additions to existing minarets , however . In 1816 , the mosque was restored by Governor Sulayman Pasha al @-@ Adil after having been in a dilapidated state .
= = = Modern era = = =
The first renovation in the 20th @-@ century occurred in 1922 , when the Supreme Muslim Council under Amin al @-@ Husayni ( the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem ) commissioned Turkish architect Ahmet Kemalettin Bey to restore al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and the monuments in its precincts . The council also commissioned British architects , Egyptian engineering experts and local officials to contribute to and oversee the repairs and additions which were carried out in 1924 – 25 by Kemalettin . The renovations included reinforcing the mosque 's ancient Umayyad foundations , rectifying the interior columns , replacing the beams , erecting a scaffolding , conserving the arches and drum of the main dome 's interior , rebuilding the southern wall , and replacing timber in the central nave with a slab of concrete . The renovations also revealed Fatimid @-@ era mosaics and inscriptions on the interior arches that had been covered with plasterwork . The arches were decorated with gold and green @-@ tinted gypsum and their timber tie beams were replaced with brass . A quarter of the stained glass windows also were carefully renewed so as to preserve their original Abbasid and Fatimid designs . Severe damage was caused by the 1927 and 1937 earthquakes , but the mosque was repaired in 1938 and 1942 .
On 21 August 1969 , a fire was started by a visitor from Australia named Denis Michael Rohan . Rohan was a member of an evangelical Christian sect known as the Worldwide Church of God . He hoped that by burning down al @-@ Aqsa Mosque he would hasten the Second Coming of Jesus , making way for the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple on the Temple Mount . Rohan was subsequently hospitalized in a mental institution . In response to the incident , a summit of Islamic countries was held in Rabat that same year , hosted by Faisal of Saudi Arabia , the late king of Saudi Arabia . The al @-@ Aqsa fire is regarded as one of the catalysts for the formation of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference ( OIC , now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ) in 1972 .
In the 1980s , Ben Shoshan and Yehuda Etzion , both members of the Gush Emunim Underground , plotted to blow up the al @-@ Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock . Etzion believed that blowing up the two mosques would cause a spiritual awakening in Israel , and would solve all the problems of the Jewish people . They also hoped the Third Temple of Jerusalem would be built on the location of the mosque . On 15 January , 1988 , during the First Intifada , Israeli troops fired rubber bullets and tear gas at protesters outside the mosque , wounding 40 worshipers . On 8 October , 1990 , 22 Palestinians were killed and over 100 others injured by Israeli Border Police during protests that were triggered by the announcement of the Temple Mount Faithful , a group of religious Jews , that they were going to lay the cornerstone of the Third Temple .
On 28 September 2000 , then @-@ opposition leader of Israel Ariel Sharon and members of the Likud Party , along with 1 @,@ 000 armed guards , visited the al @-@ Aqsa compound ; a large group of Palestinians went to protest the visit . After Sharon and the Likud Party members left , a demonstration erupted and Palestinians on the grounds of the Haram al @-@ Sharif began throwing stones and other projectiles at Israeli riot police . Police fired tear gas and rubber bullets at the crowd , injuring 24 people . The visit sparked a five @-@ year uprising by the Palestinians , commonly referred to as the al @-@ Aqsa Intifada , though some commentators , citing subsequent speeches by PA officials , particularly Imad Falouji and Arafat himself , claim that the Intifada had been planned months in advance , as early as July upon Yasser Arafat 's return from Camp David talks . On 29 September , the Israeli government deployed 2 @,@ 000 riot police to the mosque . When a group of Palestinians left the mosque after Friday prayers ( Jumu 'ah , ) they hurled stones at the police . The police then stormed the mosque compound , firing both live ammunition and rubber bullets at the group of Palestinians , killing four and wounding about 200 .
On 5 November 2014 , Israeli police entered Al @-@ Aqsa for the first time since capturing Jerusalem in 1967 , said Sheikh Azzam Al @-@ Khatib , director of the Islamic Waqf . Previous media reports of ' storming Al @-@ Aqsa ' referred to the Haram al @-@ Sharif compound rather than the Al @-@ Aqsa mosque itself .
= = Architecture = =
The rectangular al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and its precincts are 144 @,@ 000 square meters ( 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , although the mosque itself is about 35 @,@ 000 square meters ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and could hold up to 5 @,@ 000 worshipers . It is 83 m ( 272 ft ) long , 56 m ( 184 ft ) wide . Unlike the Dome of the Rock , which reflects classical Byzantine architecture , the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is characteristic of early Islamic architecture .
= = = Dome = = =
Nothing remains of the original dome built by Abd al @-@ Malik . The present @-@ day dome was built by az @-@ Zahir and consists of wood plated with lead enamelwork . In 1969 , the dome was reconstructed in concrete and covered with anodized aluminum , instead of the original ribbed lead enamel work sheeting . In 1983 , the aluminum outer covering was replaced with lead to match the original design by az @-@ Zahir .
Al @-@ Aqsa 's dome is one of the few domes to be built in front of the mihrab during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods , the others being the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus ( 715 ) and the Great Mosque at Sousse ( 850 ) . The interior of the dome is painted with 14th @-@ century @-@ era decorations . During the 1969 burning , the paintings were assumed to be irreparably lost , but were completely reconstructed using the trateggio technique , a method that uses fine vertical lines to distinguish reconstructed areas from original ones .
= = = Facade and porch = = =
The facade of the mosque was built in 1065 CE on the instructions of the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Mustansir Billah . It was crowned with a balustrade consisting of arcades and small columns . The Crusaders damaged the facade , but it was restored and renovated by the Ayyubids . One addition was the covering of the facade with tiles . The second @-@ hand material of the facade 's arches includes sculpted , ornamental material taken from Crusader structures in Jerusalem . The facade consists of fourteen stone arches , most of which are of a Romanesque style . The outer arches added by the Mamluks follow the same general design . The entrance to the mosque is through the facade 's central arch .
The porch is located at the top of the facade . The central bays of the porch were built by the Knights Templar during the First Crusade , but Saladin 's nephew al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa ordered the construction of the porch itself in 1217 .
= = = Interior = = =
The al @-@ Aqsa Mosque has seven aisles of hypostyle naves with several additional small halls to the west and east of the southern section of the building . There are 121 stained glass windows in the mosque from the Abbasid and Fatimid eras . About a fourth of them were restored in 1924 .
The mosque 's interior is supported by 45 columns , 33 of which are white marble and 12 of stone . The column rows of the central aisles are heavy and stunted . The remaining four rows are better proportioned . The capitals of the columns are of four different kinds : those in the central aisle are heavy and primitively designed , while those under the dome are of the Corinthian order , and made from Italian white marble . The capitals in the eastern aisle are of a heavy basket @-@ shaped design and those east and west of the dome are also basket @-@ shaped , but smaller and better proportioned . The columns and piers are connected by an architectural rave , which consists of beams of roughly squared timber enclosed in a wooden casing .
A great portion of the mosque is covered with whitewash , but the drum of the dome and the walls immediately beneath it are decorated with mosaics and marble . Some paintings by an Italian artist were introduced when repairs were undertaken at the mosque after an earthquake ravaged the mosque in 1927 . The ceiling of the mosque was painted with funding by King Farouk of Egypt .
The minbar ( " pulpit " ) of the mosque was built by a craftsman named Akhtarini from Aleppo on the orders of the Zengid sultan Nur ad @-@ Din . It was intended to be a gift for the mosque when Nur ad @-@ Din would capture Jerusalem from the Crusaders and took six years to build ( 1168 – 74 ) . Nur ad @-@ Din died and the Crusaders still controlled Jerusalem , but in 1187 , Saladin captured the city and the minbar was installed . The structure was made of ivory and carefully crafted wood . Arabic calligraphy , geometrical and floral designs were inscribed in the woodwork . After its destruction by Rohan in 1969 , it was replaced by a much simpler minbar . In January 2007 , Adnan al @-@ Husayni — head of the Islamic waqf in charge of al @-@ Aqsa — stated that a new minbar would be installed ; it was installed in February 2007 . The design of the new minbar was drawn by Jamil Badran based on an exact replica of the Saladin Minbar and was finished by Badran within a period of five years . The minbar itself was built in Jordan over a period of four years and the craftsmen used " ancient woodworking methods , joining the pieces with pegs instead of nails , but employed computer images to design the pulpit [ minbar ] . "
= = = Ablution fountain = = =
The mosque 's main ablution fountain , known as al @-@ Kas ( " the Cup " ) , is located north of the mosque between it and the Dome of the Rock . It is used by worshipers to perform wudu , a ritual washing of the hands , arms , legs , feet , and face before entry into the mosque . It was first built in 709 by the Umayyads , but in 1327 – 28 Governor Tankiz enlarged it to accommodate more worshipers . Although originally supplied with water from Solomon 's Pools near Bethlehem , it currently receives water from pipes connected to Jerusalem 's water supply . In the 20th @-@ century , al @-@ Kas was provided taps and stone seating .
The Fountain of Qasim Pasha , built by the Ottomans in 1526 and located north of the mosque on the platform of the Dome of the Rock , was used by worshipers for ablution and for drinking until the 1940s . Today , it stands as a monumental structure .
= = Religious significance in Islam = =
In Islam , the term " al @-@ Aqsa Mosque " refers to the entire Noble Sanctuary . The mosque is believed to be the second house of prayer constructed after the Masjid al @-@ Haram in Mecca . Post @-@ Rashidun @-@ era Islamic scholars traditionally identified the mosque as the site referred to in the sura ( Quranic chapter ) al @-@ Isra ( " the Night Journey " ) . This specific verse in the Quran cemented the significant religious importance of al @-@ Aqsa in Islam . The specific passage reads " Praise be to Him who made His servant journey in the night from the sacred sanctuary to the remotest sanctuary . " Muslims traditionally identify the " sacred sanctuary " as the Masjid al @-@ Haram and the " remotest sanctuary " as the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque , even though initially , Rashidun and Umayyad @-@ era scholars were in disagreement about the location of the " remotest sanctuary " with some arguing it was actually located near Mecca . Eventually scholarly consensus determined that its location was indeed in Jerusalem .
= = = Isra and Mi 'raj = = =
According to the Quran and Islamic traditions , al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is the place from which Muhammad went on a night journey ( al @-@ isra ) during which he rode on Buraq , who took him from Mecca to al @-@ Aqsa . Muhammad tethered Buraq to the Western Wall and prayed at al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and after he finished his prayers , the angel Jibril ( Gabriel ) traveled with him to heaven , where he met several other prophets and led them in prayer .
= = = First qibla = = =
The historical significance of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque in Islam is further emphasized by the fact that Muslims turned towards al @-@ Aqsa when they prayed for a period of sixteen or seventeen months after migration to Medina in 624 ; it thus became the qibla ( " direction " ) that Muslims faced for prayer . Muhammad later prayed towards the Kaaba in Mecca after receiving a revelation during a prayer session [ Quran 2 : 142 – 151 ] in the Masjid al @-@ Qiblatayn . The qibla was relocated to the Kaaba where Muslims have been directed to pray ever since .
The altering of the qibla was precisely the reason the Rashidun caliph Umar , despite identifying the mosque which Muhammad used to ascend to Heaven upon his arrival at the Noble Sanctuary in 638 , neither prayed facing it nor built any structure upon it . This was because the significance of that particular spot on the Noble Sanctuary was superseded in Islamic jurisprudence by the Kaaba in Mecca after the change of the qibla towards that site .
According to early Quranic interpreters and what is generally accepted as Islamic tradition , in 638 CE Umar , upon entering a conquered Jerusalem , consulted with Ka 'ab al @-@ Ahbar — a Jewish convert to Islam who came with him from Medina — as to where the best spot would be to build a mosque . Al @-@ Ahbar suggested to him that it should be behind the Rock " ... so that all of Jerusalem would be before you . " Umar replied , " You correspond to Judaism ! " Immediately after this conversation , Umar began to clean up the site — which was filled with trash and debris — with his cloak , and other Muslim followers imitated him until the site was clean . Umar then prayed at the spot where it was believed that Muhammad had prayed before his night journey , reciting the Quranic sura Sad . Thus , according to this tradition , Umar thereby reconsecrated the site as a mosque .
Because of the holiness of Noble Sanctuary itself — being a place where David and Solomon had prayed — Umar constructed a small prayer house in the southern corner of its platform , taking care to avoid allowing the Rock to come between the mosque and the direction of Kaaba so that Muslims would face only Mecca when they prayed .
= = = Religious status = = =
Jerusalem is recognized as a sacred site in Islam . Though the Quran does not mention Jerusalem by name , it has been understood by Islamic scholars since the earliest times that many passages in the Quran refer to Jerusalem . Jerusalem is also mentioned many times in the hadith . Some academics attribute the holiness of Jerusalem to the rise and expansion of a certain type of literary genre , known as al @-@ Fadhail or history of cities . The Fadhail of Jerusalem inspired Muslims , especially during the Umayyad period , to embellish the sanctity of the city beyond its status in the holy texts . Others point to the political motives of the Umayyad dynasty which led to the sanctification of Jerusalem in Islam .
Later medieval scripts , as well as modern @-@ day political tracts , tend to classify al @-@ Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam . For example , Sahih al @-@ Bukhari quotes Abu Darda as saying : " the Prophet of God Muhammad said a prayer in the Sacred Mosque ( in Mecca ) is worth 100 @,@ 000 prayers ; a prayer in my mosque ( in Medina ) is worth 1 @,@ 000 prayers ; and a prayer in al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is worth 500 prayers more than in any other mosque " . In addition , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , refers to the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam ( and calls for Arab sovereignty over it ) .
= = Current situations = =
= = = Administration = = =
The Waqf Ministry of Jordan held control of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque until the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . After Israel 's victory in that war , Israel transferred the control of the mosque and the northern Noble Sanctuary to the Islamic waqf trust , who are independent of the Israeli government . However , Israeli Security Forces are permitted to patrol and conduct searches within the perimeter of the mosque . After the 1969 arson attack , the waqf employed architects , technicians and craftsmen in a committee that carry out regular maintenance operations . The Islamic Movement in Israel and the waqf have attempted to increase Muslim control of the Temple Mount as a way of countering Israeli policies and the escalating presence of Israeli security forces around the site since the Second Intifada . Some activities included refurbishing abandoned structures and renovating .
Muhammad Ahmad Hussein is the head imam and manager of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque and was assigned the role of Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in 2006 by Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas . Ownership of the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque is a contentious issue in the Israel @-@ Palestinian conflict . Israel claims sovereignty over the mosque along with all of the Temple Mount ( Noble Sanctuary ) , but Palestinians hold the custodianship of the site through the Islamic waqf . During the negotiations at the 2000 Camp David Summit , Palestinians demanded complete ownership of the mosque and other Islamic holy sites in East Jerusalem .
Current Imams :
Sheikh Abu Yusuf Sneia , Sheikh Ali Al Abbasi , Sheikh Sa 'eed Qalqeeli , Sheikh Walid
= = = Access = = =
Muslim residents of Israel and Palestinians living in East Jerusalem are normally allowed to enter the Temple Mount and pray at the al @-@ Aqsa Mosque without restrictions . Due to security measures , the Israeli government occasionally prevents certain groups of Muslims from reaching al @-@ Aqsa by blocking the entrances to the complex ; the restrictions vary from time to time . At times restrictions have prevented all men under 50 and women under 45 from entering , but married men over 45 are allowed . Sometimes the restrictions are enforced on the occasion of Friday prayers , other times they are over an extended period of time . Restrictions are most severe for Gazans , followed by restrictions on those from West Bank . The Israeli government states that the restrictions are in place for security reasons .
Until 2000 , non @-@ Muslim visitors could enter the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque by getting a ticket from the Waqf . That procedure ended when the Second Intifada began . Fifteen years later , negotiation between Israel and Jordan might result in allowing visitors to enter once again .
= = = Excavations = = =
Several excavations outside the Temple Mount took place following the 1967 War . In 1970 , Israeli authorities commenced intensive excavations outside the walls next to the mosque on the southern and western sides . Palestinians believed that tunnels were being dug under the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque in order to undermine its foundations , which was denied by Israelis , who claimed that the closest excavation to the mosque was some 70 meters ( 230 ft ) to its south . The Archaeological Department of the Israeli Ministry of Religious Affairs dug a tunnel near the western portion of the mosque in 1984 . According to UNESCO 's special envoy to Jerusalem Oleg Grabar , buildings and structures on the Temple Mount are deteriorating due mostly to disputes between the Israeli , Palestinian and Jordanian governments over who is actually responsible for the site .
In February 2007 , the Department started to excavate a site for archaeological remains in a location where the government wanted to rebuild a collapsed pedestrian bridge leading to the Mughrabi Gate , the only entrance for non @-@ Muslims into the Temple Mount complex . This site was 60 meters ( 200 ft ) away from the mosque . The excavations provoked anger throughout the Islamic world , and Israel was accused of trying to destroy the foundation of the mosque . Ismail Haniya — then Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority and Hamas leader — called on Palestinians to unite to protest the excavations , while Fatah said they would end their ceasefire with Israel . Israel denied all charges against them , calling them " ludicrous " .
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= The Cure ( Fringe ) =
" The Cure " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It followed two women suffering from a fictional disease , who are then given radiation drugs and exploited by a pharmaceutical company to cause nearby individuals ' brains to boil .
The episode was written by Felicia D. Henderson and Brad Caleb Kane , and directed by Bill Eagles . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner meant for the first six episodes of the first season to serve as a " prologue " , while the following episodes would get " into the next chapter " of the series .
" The Cure " first aired in the United States on October 21 , 2008 on the Fox network to an estimated 8 @.@ 91 viewers . It received mixed to negative reviews , with many critics doubting the plausibility of the science depicted in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In Milford , Massachusetts , men in Hazmat suits drop a woman ( Maria Dizzia ) out of a white van , who then enters a nearby diner . Suffering from memory loss , the woman becomes irritated under a cop 's questioning and causes the other patrons ' brains to boil and then explode ; she dies soon after in the same fashion .
The Fringe team consisting of Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) , Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , and Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) arrive , and Agent Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) briefs them that the woman , Emily Kramer , disappeared two weeks previously , and that her corpse exhibits three times the radiation as the other victims . Upon further investigation of her body , Walter concludes she was suffering from a rare and incurable disease , " Bellini 's lymphocemia , " but was mysteriously cured . Further tests reveal Kramer was held against her will , and given nootropic drugs intravenously that makes her brain emit a microwave burst , then set loose by her experimenters as a test .
Another woman with the same disease , Claire Williams ( Marjan Neshat ) , is reported missing soon after . Before her disappearance , Claire 's husband tells them she also was recently cured . Her captors are shown , commenting that " the last one was a test , this one counts " . While rifling through Emily 's house , Olivia and Peter learn Emily and Claire were friends , and that Emily 's husband also knew her despite denying it earlier . He tells them they and other victims of the disease undertook private research and discovered a cure with the help of a physician , Dr. Nadim Patel ( Alok Tewari ) . Before committing suicide , the doctor tells them David Esterbrook ( Chris Eigeman ) , the chief scientist of a competitor of Massive Dynamic , is the one responsible . Olivia confronts Esterbrook at a medical conference to discover his motivations , only to be threatened by him ; Broyles admonishes her for intimidating such a high profile individual in a public setting .
To get to the high profile Esterbrook , Peter makes a deal with Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , who tells him where to find Claire before she can be turned into a radioactive bomb . The FBI storms the building , and Olivia is able to give Claire the cure before her head explodes . Estebrook arrogantly tells Olivia his lawyers will spring him out of any trouble , and she publicly arrests him to ensure the press finds out , causing his company 's stock to dramatically decrease in value . After Broyles lectures her , Olivia tells him her emotions ( which she had exhibited strongly all episode ) make her a better agent .
In a sideplot , Olivia reveals that she shot her abusive stepfather when she was nine years old , but he survived and disappeared soon after . The strong emotions Olivia exhibited in the episode were because the events take place on her birthday , and her stepfather sends her a card every year to let her know " he 's still out there " . The final scene shows Olivia opening a birthday card from her stepfather .
= = Production = =
" The Cure " was written by co @-@ executive producer Felicia D. Henderson and co @-@ producer Brad Caleb Kane , while filmmaker Bill Eagles directed it . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , executive producer Jeff Pinkner stated that the first six episodes of the first season were a " prologue " that ended with " The Cure , " and that the following episodes , beginning with " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " , were " getting into the next chapter " of the series .
Pinkner also told the Los Angeles Times that " Bellini 's lymphocemia " , the disease depicted in the episode , was invented by the writers , but its characteristics are real . He elaborated " We just didn 't want to imply that individuals working on their own could cure it . We didn 't want to be irresponsible to people with the real disease " . Some critics have noted that " Bellini 's lymphocemia " may have been a reference to Italian physician and anatomist Lorenzo Bellini .
It featured one @-@ time guest appearances by actors Chris Eigeman , Maria Dizzia , Marjan Neshat , William Hill , Lisa Emery , Robert Eli , and Alok Tewari . Eigeman 's David Esterbrook 's assistant was named after Elizabeth Sarnoff , a television writer and producer . Some of her work includes Lost , another series created by J. J. Abrams .
For the opening scene , a " special kind of blood " was placed in and around the actors ' eyes to simulate their brains boiling . For the scene in which the actress is pushed up against a glass door , the special effects department created a device wearing a brown wig with an explosive charge designed to imitate the actress ' head exploding . Director Bill Eagles described the scene as " imagin [ ing ] an egg in your microwave spinning around and around at high voltage . What happens ? Bang ! It just explodes . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial broadcast on October 21 , 2008 , " The Cure " was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 91 million viewers in the United States . It garnered a 5 @.@ 5 / 8 ratings share for all households , and was Fox 's ninth most watched show of the week .
= = = Reviews = = =
Reviews for the episode ranged from mixed to negative . TV Squad writer Jane Boursaw noted that Broyles " is surely one of the most intense guys on TV " , and also enjoyed Walter 's scenes . Josie Kafka from Open Salon thought the fringe cases each week were " an odd way to build a mythology : the Big Secret seems to be that people in positions of power are evil and do evil things , often for money . But if Peter 's right , and all these stand @-@ alones are also detailing a series of steps taken by the Big Bads in preparation for something ... well , that 's an exciting idea . " She gave it " two out of four Expendable Gerbils . " io9 's Annalee Newitz praised the episode , declaring it made her " officially a watcher of Fringe , rather than a sampler " . She continued , " It was the first time that the show really gelled ... I think Fringe hit its stride last night because it finally showed us our main characters ' true strengths ... More importantly , Fringe has finally gotten into its main groove : human experimentation . That 's what links all the scooby gang 's investigations together into the Pattern , and that 's what makes this show particularly timely in an age when people are scared of how biotechnology will change humanity . "
Further reviews tended to be negative . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated the episode 6 @.@ 0 / 10 , explaining " It 's starting to feel as if Walter 's loony logic is starting to influence the actual writing of Fringe . " Fickett criticized Walter 's science and " silly ranting [ s ] " , Olivia 's stepfather storyline , and believed certain lines of dialogue to be " dangerously close to self @-@ parody . " Sarah Stegall from SFScope was skeptical of the episode 's science , and explained " I really don 't want any more of this . I 'm tired of this formulaic series . I 'm tired of Anna Torv 's earnest , sad expressions — can we get this woman to laugh once or twice ? Joshua Jackson and Kirk Acevedo are good supports and foils for Olivia , but there 's no there there when it comes to Agent Dunham . " Patrick Kevin Day from the Los Angeles Times liked the opening sequence , but was distracted from fully enjoying the episode because he thought the science was " wonky . " The A.V. Club columnist Noel Murray graded the episode with a B , explaining he liked Chris Eigeman 's presence and the efforts at further developing the characters , but questioned the Pattern storyline , despite admitting that he does not require rational scientific explanations in science fiction . Tim Grierson of New York Magazine disliked the focus on Olivia , calling it " a long hour of television . " Referring to Olivia 's " feminist " speech to Broyles , Grierson continued , " It 's sort of cute how Fringe occasionally pretends that it 's more than just a freak show . But if they 're going to focus on a character , it should be Walter — though we shudder to think how his flatulence will factor into the plot . "
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= Buxbaumia =
Buxbaumia ( Bug moss , Bug @-@ on @-@ a @-@ stick , Humpbacked elves , or Elf @-@ cap moss ) is a genus of twelve species of moss ( Bryophyta ) . It was first named in 1742 by Albrecht von Haller and later brought into modern botanical nomenclature in 1801 by Johann Hedwig to commemorate Johann Christian Buxbaum , a German physician and botanist who discovered the moss in 1712 at the mouth of the Volga River . The moss is microscopic for most of its existence , and plants are noticeable only after they begin to produce their reproductive structures . The asymmetrical spore capsule has a distinctive shape and structure , some features of which appear to be transitional from those in primitive mosses to most modern mosses .
= = Description = =
Plants of Buxbaumia have a much reduced gametophyte , bearing a sporophyte that is enormous by comparison . In most mosses , the gametophyte stage of the life cycle is both green and leafy , and is substantially larger than the spore @-@ producing stage . Unlike these other mosses , the gametophyte of Buxbaumia is microscopic , colorless , stemless , and nearly leafless . It consists exclusively of thread @-@ like protonemata for most of its existence , resembling a thin green @-@ black felt on the surface where it grows . The plants are dioicous , with separate plants producing the male and female organs . Male plants develop only one microscopic leaf around each antheridium , and female plants produce just three or four tiny colorless leaves around each archegonium .
Because of its small size , the gametophyte stage is not generally noticed until the stalked sporangium develops , and is locatable principally because the sporangium grows upon and above the tiny gametophyte . The extremely reduced state of Buxbaumia plants raises the question of how it makes or obtains sufficient nutrition for survival . In contrast to most mosses , Buxbaumia does not produce abundant chlorophyll and is saprophytic . It is possible that some of its nutritional needs are met by fungi that grow within the plant .
The sporophyte at maturity is between 4 and 11 mm tall . The spore capsule is attached at the top of the stalk and is distinctive , being asymmetric in shape and oblique in attachment . As with most other Bryopsida , the opening through which the spores are released is surrounded by a double peristome ( diplolepidious ) formed from the cell walls of disintegrated cells . The exostome ( outer row ) consists of 16 short articulated " teeth " . Unlike most other mosses , the endostome ( inner row ) does not divide into teeth , but rather is a continuous pleated membrane around the capsule opening . Only the genus Diphyscium has a similar peristome structure , although that genus has only 16 pleats in its endostome , in contrast to the 32 pleats in Buxbaumia . Diphyscium shares with Buxbaumia one other oddity of the sporophyte ; the foot ( stalk base ) ramifies as a result of outgrowths , so much so that they may be mistaken for rhizoids .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Species of Buxbaumia may be found across much of the temperate to subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere , as well as cooler regions of Australia and New Zealand .
The moss is an annual or biennial plant and grows in disturbed habitats or as a pioneer species . The plants grow on decaying wood , rock outcrops , or directly on the soil . They do not grow regularly or reliably at given locations , and frequently disappear from places where they have previously been found . Sporophyte stages begin their development in the autumn , and are green through the winter months . Spores are mature and ready for dispersal by the late spring or early summer . The spores are ejected from the capsule in puffs when raindrops fall upon the capsule 's flattened top .
The asymmetric sporophytes of Buxbaumia aphylla develop so that the opening is oriented towards the strongest source of light , usually towards the south . The species often grows together with the diminutive liverwort Cephaloziella , which forms a blackish crust that is easier to spot than Buxbaumia itself .
= = Classification = =
Buxbaumia is the only genus in the family Buxbaumiaceae , the order Buxbaumiales , and the subclass Buxbaumiidae . It is the sister group to all other members of class Bryopsida . Some older classifications included the Diphysciaceae within the Buxbaumiales ( or as part of the Buxbaumiaceae ) because of similarities in the peristome structure , or placed the Buxbaumiaceae in the Tetraphidales . Most recent cladistic studies using DNA sequences are not conclusive regarding the relationship between Buxbaumia and Diphyscium , but evidence suggests they are separate lines of a paraphyletic group . No recent studies favor a placement with the Tetraphidales .
The genus Buxbaumia includes twelve species :
Because of the simplicity of its structure , Goebel interpreted Buxbaumia as a primitive moss , transitional between the algae and mosses , but subsequent research suggests that it is a secondarily reduced form . The unusual peristome in Buxbaumia is now thought to be a transitional form between the nematodontous ( cellular teeth ) peristome of the Polytrichopsida and the arthrodontous ( cell wall teeth ) peristome of the Bryopsida .
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= Ashland Mill Bridge =
The Ashland Mill Bridge was a lenticular pony truss bridge over the Pachaug River in Griswold , Connecticut that was built in 1886 by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company . It was built following the Ashland dam break of February 1886 which washed away the previous bridges . The bridge served the millyard of the Ashland Cotton Company , in the Jewett City section of Griswold . The bridge was 65 feet ( 20 m ) long and crossed a millrace on a skew angle . The Ashland Mill was damaged by arson in March 1994 and subsequently torn down , but the bridge itself remained . By 1999 , the town deemed the bridge unsafe and closed it , and by February 1999 , the bridge was moved to a vacant parking lot and was replaced with a new bridge . The bridge was added to the state of Connecticut historic register and it was later added to the National Register of Historic Places in April 1999 . It was removed from the National Register in February 2016 .
= = Construction = =
Heavy rains in February 1886 caused the Ashland dam to break and the resulting flood damaged the Ashland Cotton Company 's buildings and washed away the previous bridges at the site . The Berlin Iron Bridge Company was contracted to build a total of three bridges in the area , the Ashland Mill Bridge , another larger lenticular truss for Ashland Street and another 33 feet ( 10 m ) bridge for the Slater mill which was located further downstream . Clouette and Tinh note that the mill owners may have been influenced in their decision by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company 's bridges that were already in place in the surrounding area .
The Ashland Mill Bridge was a single @-@ span lenticular pony truss bridge . Completed in 1886 , it was a roadway from Ashland Street to the millyard . The bridge was made of four 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) long panels , totaling 65 feet ( 20 m ) in length . The roadway was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide . The bridge 's wrought @-@ iron truss was 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) deep and it crossed the river at a 28 ° angle . All but the truss 's joints were pinned except for the endposts ' lower @-@ chord nut connections ; as was distinctive of the Berlin Iron Bridge Company 's bridges . The plate @-@ girder floor beams supported wooden stringers and floored with planks across the width of the bridge . The bridge 's railing were made of two 5 / 8 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5875 cm ) rods bolted to the inside of the trusses . A 1905 postcard depicts the bridge being painted red , but the paint was nearly absent by 1998 .
= = Fate = =
In March 1994 , the manufacturing buildings were damaged by arson and were subsequently demolished . The site became a town park and the bridge was anticipated to be rehabilitated and serve as a pedestrian bridge in the park . The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in April 1999 for being a historically significant example of late 19th @-@ century bridge fabrication and as a surviving example of a bridge built by the Berlin Iron Bridge Company without significant modification or deterioration . It was also locally significant as a remaining artefact of the Ashland Cotton Company , formerly a major employer in the city .
In 1999 , the town closed the bridge as it was deemed unsafe and badly deteriorated . It was estimated that $ 72 @,@ 000 would be needed to relocate the bridge . In February 1999 , an eight @-@ member committee was tasked with planning a municipal park on the site . First Selectman Paul Brycki , hoped that the pending nomination to the National Register of Historic Places would help obtain grant money to repair the bridge . Prior to February 1999 , the historic bridge was moved to a vacant parking lot near the town hall and a replacement bridge was installed . The bridge was also on the state of Connecticut 's historic register list .
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= Ranbir Kapoor =
Ranbir Kapoor ( pronounced [ rəˈɳbiːr kəˈpuːr ] ; born 28 September 1982 ) is an Indian actor . Through his career in Bollywood films , he has become one of the most popular celebrities and one of the highest @-@ paid actors in India . He is the recipient of several awards , including five Filmfare Awards .
The son of actors Rishi and Neetu , and the grandson of actor @-@ director Raj , Kapoor pursued film @-@ making and method acting at the School of Visual Arts and the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute , respectively . He subsequently assisted Sanjay Leela Bhansali on the film Black ( 2005 ) . Kapoor made his acting debut with Bhansali 's tragic romance Saawariya ( 2007 ) , a box office flop but notable for earning him his first Filmfare Award — Best Male Debut . He was awarded the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for his performances in three films of 2009 — the coming @-@ of @-@ age film Wake Up Sid , the comedy Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani , and the drama Rocket Singh : Salesman of the Year .
Kapoor won two consecutive Best Actor awards at Filmfare for portraying a troubled musician in the drama Rockstar ( 2011 ) and a deaf @-@ mute man in the comedy @-@ drama Barfi ! ( 2012 ) . A starring role in the romantic comedy Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films , established him as a leading Bollywood actor . However , he followed it by starring in a series of films that under @-@ performed at the box office , although his performance in the romantic drama Tamasha ( 2015 ) was praised .
In addition to acting in films , Kapoor supports charities and causes . He is the co @-@ founder of the production company Picture Shuru Productions , and is a co @-@ owner of the Indian Super League football team Mumbai City FC .
= = Early life and background = =
Ranbir Kapoor was born on 28 September 1982 in Mumbai to Rishi and Neetu , both actors of the Hindi film industry . He is the great @-@ grandson of Prithviraj and the grandson of actor @-@ director Raj . His elder sister , Riddhima ( born 1980 ) , is an interior and fashion designer . The actresses Karisma and Kareena are his first cousins . Kapoor was educated at the Bombay Scottish School in Mahim . As a student , he found little interest in academics and would rank low among his peers .
Kapoor has been vocal about how his parent 's troubled marriage affected him as a child : " Sometimes the fights would get really bad . I would be sitting on the steps , my head between my knees , till five or six in the morning , waiting for them to stop " . These experiences led to a " reservoir of emotions building up inside [ him ] " , which he said compelled him to develop an interest in film . In his early years , Kapoor was close to his mother , but had a dysfunctional relationship with his father . After completing his tenth standard examinations , he worked as an assistant director to his father on the film Aa Ab Laut Chalen ( 1999 ) , during which he developed a closer bond with him .
After completing his pre @-@ university education from the H.R. College of Commerce and Economics , Kapoor relocated to New York City to learn film @-@ making at the School of Visual Arts , and subsequently pursued method acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute . In film school , Kapoor directed and starred in two short films , entitled Passion to Love and India 1964 . The loneliness of living alone in New York City coupled with his experience in film school , which he described as " useless " , inspired him to pursue a career in Bollywood . Upon returning to Mumbai , Kapoor was hired as an assistant director to Sanjay Leela Bhansali on the 2005 film Black . He described the experience : " I was getting beaten up , abused , doing everything from cleaning the floor to fixing the lights from 7 am to 4 am , but I was learning every day . " He later remarked that his motive for working on Black was to get Bhansali to offer him an acting job .
= = Career = =
= = = Debut and initial success ( 2007 – 10 ) = = =
Following the release of Black , Bhansali cast Kapoor as the protagonist of his 2007 tragic romance Saawariya , alongside Sonam Kapoor and Rani Mukerji . The film tells the story of a tramp , played by him , who falls obsessively in love with a woman awaiting the return of her lover . In an interview with the news and entertainment portal Rediff.com , Kapoor stated that his character was written as a tribute to his grandfather 's iconic roles as a tramp . Saawariya was the first Indian film to be produced by a Hollywood studio ( Sony Pictures Entertainment ) , and was a highly anticipated release . However , film critics were disappointed with the picture with BBC 's Jaspreet Pandohar calling it a " misfire on a massive scale " . CNN @-@ IBN 's Rajeev Masand considered it " contrived and fake " , but was impressed by Kapoor 's " affable charm " and wrote that " he ’ s got that star quality to him which is so rare to find . " At the box office , Saawariya failed to earn profits . However , at the annual Filmfare Awards ceremony , Kapoor was awarded a Best Male Debut trophy .
Despite the commercial failure of Saawariya , Kapoor was contracted by Yash Raj Films for a primary role in the Siddharth Anand @-@ directed romantic comedy Bachna Ae Haseeno ( 2008 ) . The film was his first commercial success , in which his role was that of a womaniser who is romantically involved with three women , played by Bipasha Basu , Minissha Lamba , and Deepika Padukone , at different stages of his life . Rachel Saltz of The New York Times expressed mixed views on his performance , but predicted that his " puppy @-@ dog sweetness " would " serve him well as a Bollywood leading man " .
In 2009 , Kapoor had three film releases . In Dharma Productions 's Wake Up Sid , a coming of age film from director Ayan Mukerji , Kapoor portrayed Siddharth " Sid " Mehra , a rich , lazy teenager whose life undergoes a series of changes after interacting with an ambitious journalist ( played by Konkana Sen Sharma ) . When Mukerji narrated the then @-@ untitled script of the film to him , Kapoor came up with the title himself . The media expressed doubt on the film 's financial prospect as it depicted a romantic relationship between a younger man and an older woman . It eventually emerged as a sleeper hit and garnered acclaim from the critics . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama reviewed that Kapoor 's performance in the film proved that he was " amongst the best in the business today " .
Kapoor next starred opposite Katrina Kaif in Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani , a slapstick comedy from director Rajkumar Santoshi , that emerged as the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2009 . Film critic Gaurav Malani praised Kapoor 's flair for comedy , but criticised his " over @-@ excited husky baritone " . Kapoor 's final release that year was the Shimit Amin @-@ directed Rocket Singh : Salesman of the Year , a drama about a sardar who aspires to be a salesman . Film critic Mayank Shekhar praised the film and found Kapoor 's performance to be " astonishingly sincere " , but the film earned little at the box office . Kapoor later professed to being highly disappointed by the film 's commercial failure . At the 55th Filmfare Awards , Kapoor was awarded the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for his performances in all three of his 2009 releases , and he also received two Best Actor nominations at the ceremony for Wake Up Sid and Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani .
Prakash Jha 's big @-@ budget ensemble political thriller Raajneeti was Kapoor 's first release of 2010 . The film , which starred Nana Patekar , Ajay Devgn , Arjun Rampal , Manoj Bajpayee , Katrina Kaif and Sarah Thompson in prominent roles , was inspired by the Indian epic The Mahabharata and Mario Puzo 's 1969 novel The Godfather . Kapoor 's role was of Samar Pratap ( based on the characters of Arjuna and Michael Corleone ) , the youngest heir of an Indian political dynasty , who is reluctantly drawn to politics after the assassination of his father . Kapoor described it as his first complex role and considered it a departure from the " lover boy roles " that he had previously played . Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India reviewed : " The film finally belongs to Ranbir Kapoor who perfects the art of minimalism — and literally grows before your eyes — as the simmering volcano that cannot be held back , once it erupts . " Robert Abele of the Los Angeles Times , however , was more critical of his performance which he considered " stony rather than calculating — especially jarring compared to the histrionic turns around him " . Indian trade journalists were apprehensive of Raajneeti recovering its ₹ 600 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) investment . The film , however , proved to be a major commercial success with worldwide earnings of over ₹ 1 @.@ 43 billion ( US $ 21 million ) . Kapoor received a third Best Actor nomination at Filmfare for the film .
Later that same year , Kapoor collaborated with Priyanka Chopra on Anand 's Anjaana Anjaani , a comedy @-@ drama involving two strangers who vow to commit suicide on New Year 's Eve . The film was a moderate financial success , but garnered little praise from the critics . Rajeev Masand noted that Kapoor " struggles with a badly @-@ defined role " and NDTV 's Anupama Chopra concluded : " Ranbir tries hard to salvage the film , dropping his shirt several times but even his lovingly shot chest can ’ t save the film . "
= = = Critical acclaim ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = =
Following an item number in the children 's film Chillar Party ( 2011 ) , Kapoor took on the role of Janardhan " Jordan " Jakhar in Imtiaz Ali 's Rockstar , a drama that follows the journey of an aspiring musician from a humble background to international stardom . In preparation for the role , Kapoor lived with a Jat family in Pitam Pura and studied their mannerisms . He additionally learned to play the guitar and practiced extensively at A.R. Rahman 's ( the film 's music composer ) music studio . As part of the film 's promotional activity , Kapoor performed at a live concert in Mumbai . Film critics were polarised on their view of the film , but were unanimous in their praise for Kapoor ; Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis was particularly impressed with the film and thought that Kapoor 's portrayal was one of " Hindi cinema ’ s most accomplished performances by a lead actor " . For the role , Kapoor won both the Best Actor and Best Actor ( Critics ) trophies at the 57th Filmfare Awards ceremony , along with Best Actor awards at Screen and IIFA . With a gross revenue of ₹ 1 @.@ 07 billion ( US $ 16 million ) , Rockstar was one of the top @-@ grossing Hindi films of the year .
The 2012 romantic comedy Barfi ! was Kapoor 's first release to earn over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) at the domestic box office . Directed by Anurag Basu , the film ( set in the 1970s ) tells the story of its titular protagonist ( a deaf and mute man , played by Kapoor ) who falls in love with a woman who is already engaged ( played by Ileana D 'Cruz ) and later , an autistic girl ( played by Priyanka Chopra ) . In preparation , Kapoor observed the work of actors Roberto Benigni , Charlie Chaplin , and his grandfather . Barfi ! received praise from the critics , and the performances of the three lead actors were acclaimed . Ronnie Scheib of Variety praised Kapoor for successfully channeling Chaplin in " tone and affect " , and Raja Sen of Rediff.com wrote that " he does very strongly indeed with this Chaplin @-@ tribute role , bestowing his character with heart every step of the way " . The film was submitted as India ’ s official entry for the 85th Academy Awards , and was screened at the Marrakech and Busan International Film Festivals . Kapoor won second consecutive Best Actor awards at the Filmfare , Screen , and IIFA Award ceremonies .
Kapoor achieved further success in 2013 when he reunited with director Ayan Mukerji for the romantic comedy Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani co @-@ starring Deepika Padukone , Kalki Koechlin , and Aditya Roy Kapoor . He was cast as Kabir " Bunny " Thapar , a commitment @-@ phobic photographer , a character Kapoor found to be an extension of himself . His pairing with Padukone , after their highly publicised break @-@ up , led to hype surrounding the film 's release . Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani emerged as one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time with earnings of ₹ 3 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 45 million ) , proving to be Kapoor 's third consecutive commercial success in three years and earned him another Best Actor nomination at Filmfare . Film critics found the film to be " riddled with clichés " , but praised both Kapoor and Padukone , with Daily News and Analysis ' Tushar Joshi labelling their on @-@ screen chemistry as " unsurpassable " . Kapoor 's second release of 2013 was the action @-@ comedy film Besharam in which he played a petty thief , alongside Pallavi Sharda and his parents . The film met with an overwhelming negative reception and emerged as a failure ; Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu described it as " Kapoor 's hall of shame " .
= = = Commercial struggles ( 2014 – present ) = = =
After a year @-@ long absence from the screen , Kapoor featured as a mysterious thief in Roy ( 2015 ) , a romantic thriller which critic Sarita A. Tanwar described as a " boring , exhausting and pretentious " film . The series of financial failures continued with his next release , the Anurag Kashyap @-@ directed crime drama Bombay Velvet , based on the historian Gyan Prakash 's book Mumbai Fables , which also starred Anushka Sharma and Karan Johar . Kapoor portrayed an ambitious boxer in the 1960s who is drawn towards a life of crime ; he based his tapori diction on Johnny Walker 's character in Mr. & Mrs. ' 55 ( 1955 ) . Made on a budget of ₹ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 18 million ) , the film opened to meager box @-@ office collections and mixed reviews from critics . Ritika Bhatia of Business Standard found Kapoor 's part to be a departure from his previous roles , writing that he " does test the waters with methodical sincerity but his portrayal lacks depth on occasion " . Bombay Velvet was eventually screened at the Locarno and Bucheon film festivals .
Kapoor next reunited with Deepika Padukone to film Tamasha ( 2015 ) , a romantic drama from Imtiaz Ali . He played the role of Ved Sahni , a man who desires a career in the arts but settles for a life of monotony as an engineer . As with his previous three releases , the film failed commercially and received mixed reviews from critics . Kapoor 's performance , however , was praised ; Lisa Tsering of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " Kapoor is beautifully cast , his trademark mix of assertive theatricality and subtle emotion well suited to the role of a man who seemingly has it all under control , until he doesn ’ t . " The film earned him a Best Actor nomination at Filmfare .
= = = = Upcoming projects = = = =
As of July 2016 , Kapoor has launched a production company named Picture Shuru Productions in a collaboration with director Anurag Basu ; their first production — the comedy @-@ mystery film Jagga Jasoos — will feature Kapoor ( alongside Katrina Kaif ) in the role of a teenage detective . Kapoor is filming alongside Aishwarya Rai and Anushka Sharma for Karan Johar 's romantic drama Ae Dil Hai Mushkil . In addition , he has committed to star opposite Alia Bhatt in Ayan Mukerji 's Dragon , a fantasy film about a man with superpowers , and will portray the actor Sanjay Dutt in a biopic directed by Rajkumar Hirani .
= = Personal life = =
Kapoor has been vocal about his personal life , and has stated that the his parents ' marriage taught him how complex a relationship can be . He had his first serious relationship while in the seventh grade , and suffered from depression when it ended . While filming Bachna Ae Haseeno in 2008 , Kapoor began dating his co @-@ star Deepika Padukone . The relationship attracted substantial media coverage in India and they speculated on an impending engagement . However , the couple broke up a year later . Kapoor maintained that the split was amicable , though the media widely reported that the split was due to infidelity on Kapoor 's part . Kapoor later confessed : " Yes , I have , out of immaturity , out of inexperience , out of taking advantage of certain temptations , out of callousness . " Later in 2015 , Kapoor stated that they both had resolved the conflict and had moved on with their lives . Since the split , he has been reticent to publicly discuss his personal life .
Rumours of an affair with Katrina Kaif first emerged during the production of Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani in 2009 . In August 2013 , a set of paparazzi photographs of Kapoor and Kaif at a beach in Spain were published by Stardust . Although Kapoor initially declined to speak of the relationship , he admitted to it in 2015 : " Both of us are sure about our relationship and if we don 't open about it now , it would be showing disrespect to the relationship . " As of February 2016 , the media reported that they had broken up .
= = Off @-@ screen work = =
In addition to acting , Kapoor is a football enthusiast and supports charities and organisations . He is the vice @-@ captain of the All Stars Football Club , a celebrity football club that raises money for charity . In March 2013 , he played the game to raise funds for the Magic Funds Organisation , an NGO for underprivileged children . Along with the chartered accountant Bimal Parekh , Kapoor acquired ownership rights in 2014 for the Mumbai @-@ based football team of the Indian Super League , named Mumbai City FC . Also that year , Kapoor announced his participation with the digital music company Saavn as a content and programming adviser . In 2016 , he featured in the documentary series Girls with Goals , to create awareness about and raise funds for YUWA , an all @-@ girls football team in the state of Jharkhand .
Kapoor supports the empowerment of the girl child and is the goodwill ambassador of Shabana Azmi 's Mijwan Welfare Society , an NGO which helps empower women . He supports environmental charities , and in 2011 donated money to the Community Water Initiative , a charitable organisation owned by PepsiCo . In 2012 , he appeared alongside other celebrities in a short film by Zoya Akhtar to generate awareness on breast cancer . He is the campaign ambassador for NDTV 's Marks for Sports , a nationwide initiative to promote fitness and health in India . In 2013 , Kapoor participated in an auction on eBay , where the highest bidder gets an opportunity to interact with him ; the proceeds were donated to Save the Children , a non @-@ profit organisation that raised funds for flood affected households in Uttarakhand . That same year , he appeared alongside other celebrities in a commercial , produced by the National Film Development Corporation of India , to create awareness about children 's education . In December 2014 , Kapoor again took part in an eBay auction ; the phiran he wore in Rockstar was sold , with proceeds going to the redevelopment of the flood @-@ ravaged states of Kashmir and Assam . Kapoor had also fronted a campaign to collect donations for the victims of the April 2015 Nepal earthquake . In 2015 , he presented 2 @,@ 000 raincoats to the Mumbai traffic police as an appreciation for their service during the year 's heavy monsoon .
= = In the media = =
Born into a family of popular actors , Kapoor faced the media spotlight from a young age ; Hindustan Times published that " he was always a star kid from whom everyone had great expectations " . Despite the failure of his first film ( Saawariya ) , IANS reported that he " rose like [ a ] meteor on film firmament by giving compelling performances in films like Raajneeti , Rockstar and [ .. ] Barfi ! " Discussing the commercial viability of Kapoor , Apoorva Mehta ( the COO of Dharma Productions ) noted in 2013 , " In a short career span of 10 films , Ranbir Kapoor has achieved a tremendous jump in the business done by his films . " Also that year , The Economic Times credited him as " the most bankable actor of his generation " . However , following the success of Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani , each of Kapoor 's releases under @-@ performed at the box @-@ office . This led trade journalists to criticise his choice of films , noting that his inclination towards experimental projects negatively impacted his commercial appeal .
Nationally , Kapoor is one of the most popular and high @-@ profile celebrities . In 2012 and 2013 Forbes featured him among the top twenty in India 's Celebrity 100 , a list based on the income and popularity of the country 's celebrities . For the next two years , he was ranked 11th with an estimated annual earning of ₹ 93 @.@ 25 crore ( US $ 14 million ) and ₹ 85 crore ( US $ 13 million ) respectively , making him one of the highest @-@ paid actors in the country . Kapoor has frequently featured in Rediff.com 's annual listing of " Bollywood 's Best Actors " ; he was ranked second in 2009 , first in 2011 , third in 2012 , and held the sixth position in 2015 .
Kapoor has been cited as one of the most attractive Indian celebrities by the media . He has featured on The Times of India 's listing of the ' Most Desirable Man ' from 2010 to 2015 , ranking among the top ten each year . In 2009 People magazine listed him as the " Sexiest Man Alive " in India , and in 2013 he topped Filmfare 's poll of the " Most Stylish Young Actor " . Also in 2013 , he was one of the recipients of the " People of the Year " award by the Limca Book of Records . In 2010 , he was voted the " Sexiest Asian Man " in a poll conducted by the magazine Eastern Eye . Kapoor continued to feature among the top ten of the list from 2011 – 2014 . Kapoor is also the celebrity endorser for various brands and services , including Pepsi , Panasonic , Renault India , Lenovo and the Spanish football club FC Barcelona .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Kapoor has been the recipient of five Filmfare Awards : Best Male Debut for Saawariya ( 2007 ) , Critics Award for Best Actor for Wake Up Sid ( 2009 ) , Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani ( 2009 ) , and Rocket Singh : Salesman of the Year ( 2009 ) ( jointly for the three films ) , and Rockstar ( 2011 ) , and Best Actor awards for Rockstar ( 2011 ) and Barfi ! ( 2012 ) .
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