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= Epilepsy =
Epilepsy is a group of neurological diseases characterized by epileptic seizures . Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable to long periods of vigorous shaking . These episodes can result in physical injuries including occasionally broken bones . In epilepsy , seizures tend to recur , and have no immediate underlying cause . Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy . People with epilepsy in some areas of the world experience stigma due to the condition .
The cause of most cases of epilepsy is unknown , although some people develop epilepsy as the result of brain injury , stroke , brain tumors , infections of the brain , and birth defects . Known genetic mutations are directly linked to a small proportion of cases . Epileptic seizures are the result of excessive and abnormal nerve cell activity in the cortex of the brain . The diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar symptoms such as fainting and determining if another cause of seizures is present such as alcohol withdrawal or electrolyte problems . This may be partly done by imaging the brain and performing blood tests . Epilepsy can often be confirmed with an electroencephalogram ( EEG ) , but a normal test does not rule out the condition .
Epilepsy that occurs as a result of other issues can be prevented . Seizures are controllable with medication in about 70 % of cases . Inexpensive options are often available . In those whose seizures do not respond to medication , then surgery , neurostimulation , or dietary changes may be considered . Not all cases of epilepsy are lifelong , and many people improve to the point that treatment is no longer needed .
As of 2013 about 22 million people have epilepsy . Nearly 80 % of cases occur in the developing world . In 2013 it resulted in 116 @,@ 000 deaths up from 112 @,@ 000 deaths in 1990 . Epilepsy becomes more common as people age . In the developed world , onset of new cases occurs most frequently in babies and the elderly . In the developing world onset is more common in older children and young adults , due to differences in the frequency of the underlying causes . About 5 – 10 % of people will have an unprovoked seizure by the age of 80 , and the chance of experiencing a second seizure is between 40 and 50 % . In many areas of the world those with epilepsy either have restrictions placed on their ability to drive or are not permitted to drive until they are free of seizures for a specific length of time . The word epilepsy is from Ancient Greek : ἐεπιλαμβάνειν " to seize , possess , or afflict " .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Epilepsy is characterized by a long @-@ term risk of recurrent seizures . These seizures may present in several ways depending on the part of the brain involved and the person 's age .
= = = Seizures = = =
The most common type ( 60 % ) of seizures are convulsive . Of these , one @-@ third begin as generalized seizures from the start , affecting both hemispheres of the brain . Two @-@ thirds begin as partial seizures ( which affect one hemisphere of the brain ) which may then progress to generalized seizures . The remaining 40 % of seizures are non @-@ convulsive . An example of this type is the absence seizure , which presents as a decreased level of consciousness and usually lasts about 10 seconds .
Partial seizures are often preceded by certain experiences , known as auras . They include sensory ( visual , hearing , or smell ) , psychic , autonomic , and motor phenomena . Jerking activity may start in a specific muscle group and spread to surrounding muscle groups in which case it is known as a Jacksonian march . Automatisms may occur , which are non @-@ consciously @-@ generated activities and mostly simple repetitive movements like smacking of the lips or more complex activities such as attempts to pick up something .
There are six main types of generalized seizures : tonic @-@ clonic , tonic , clonic , myoclonic , absence , and atonic seizures . They all involve loss of consciousness and typically happen without warning .
Tonic @-@ clonic seizures occur with a contraction of the limbs followed by their extension along with arching of the back which lasts 10 – 30 seconds ( the tonic phase ) . A cry may be heard due to contraction of the chest muscles , followed by a shaking of the limbs in unison ( clonic phase ) . Tonic seizures produce constant contractions of the muscles . A person often turns blue as breathing is stopped . In clonic seizures there is shaking of the limbs in unison . After the shaking has stopped it may take 10 – 30 minutes for the person to return to normal ; this period is called the " postictal state " or " postictal phase . " Loss of bowel or bladder control may occur during a seizure . The tongue may be bitten at either the tip or on the sides during a seizure . In tonic @-@ clonic seizure , bites to the sides are more common . Tongue bites are also relatively common in psychogenic non @-@ epileptic seizures .
Myoclonic seizures involve spasms of muscles in either a few areas or all over . Absence seizures can be subtle with only a slight turn of the head or eye blinking . The person does not fall over and returns to normal right after it ends . Atonic seizures involve the loss of muscle activity for greater than one second . This typically occurs on both sides of the body .
About 6 % of those with epilepsy have seizures that are often triggered by specific events and are known as reflex seizures . Those with reflex epilepsy have seizures that are only triggered by specific stimuli . Common triggers include flashing lights and sudden noises . In certain types of epilepsy , seizures happen more often during sleep , and in other types they occur almost only when sleeping .
= = = Postictal = = =
After the active portion of a seizure , there is typically a period of confusion referred to as the postictal period before a normal level of consciousness returns . It usually lasts 3 to 15 minutes but may last for hours . Other common symptoms include feeling tired , headache , difficulty speaking , and abnormal behavior . Psychosis after a seizure is relatively common , occurring in 6 – 10 % of people . Often people do not remember what happened during this time . Localized weakness , known as Todd 's paralysis , may also occur after a partial seizure . When it occurs it typically lasts for seconds to minutes but may rarely last for a day or two .
= = = Psychosocial = = =
Epilepsy can have adverse effects on social and psychological well @-@ being . These effects may include social isolation , stigmatization , or disability . They may result in lower educational achievement and worse employment outcomes . Learning disabilities are common in those with the condition , and especially among children with epilepsy . The stigma of epilepsy can also affect the families of those with the disorder .
Certain disorders occur more often in people with epilepsy , depending partly on the epilepsy syndrome present . These include depression , anxiety , obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , and migraine . Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder affects three to five times more children with epilepsy than children without the condition . ADHD and epilepsy have significant consequences on a child 's behavioral , learning , and social development . Epilepsy is also more common in children with autism .
= = Causes = =
Epilepsy can have both genetic and acquired causes , with interaction of these factors in many cases . Established acquired causes include serious brain trauma , stroke , tumours and problems in the brain as a result of a previous infection . In about 60 % of cases the cause is unknown . Epilepsies caused by genetic , congenital , or developmental conditions are more common among younger people , while brain tumors and strokes are more likely in older people .
Seizures may also occur as a consequence of other health problems ; if they occur right around a specific cause , such as a stroke , head injury , toxic ingestion or metabolic problem , they are known as acute symptomatic seizures and are in the broader classification of seizure @-@ related disorders rather than epilepsy itself .
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetics is believed to be involved in the majority of cases , either directly or indirectly . Some epilepsies are due to a single gene defect ( 1 – 2 % ) ; most are due to the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors . Each of the single gene defects is rare , with more than 200 in all described . Most genes involved affect ion channels , either directly or indirectly . These include genes for ion channels themselves , enzymes , GABA , and G protein @-@ coupled receptors .
In identical twins , if one is affected there is a 50 – 60 % chance that the other will also be affected . In non @-@ identical twins the risk is 15 % . These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than partial seizures . If both twins are affected , most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome ( 70 – 90 % ) . Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population . Between 1 and 10 % of those with Down syndrome and 90 % of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy .
= = = Acquired = = =
Epilepsy may occur as a result of a number of other conditions including tumors , strokes , head trauma , previous infections of the central nervous system , genetic abnormalities , and as a result of brain damage around the time of birth . Of those with brain tumors , almost 30 % have epilepsy , making them the cause of about 4 % of cases . The risk is greatest for tumors in the temporal lobe and those that grow slowly . Other mass lesions such as cerebral cavernous malformations and arteriovenous malformations have risks as high as 40 – 60 % . Of those who have had a stroke , 2 – 4 % develop epilepsy . In the United Kingdom strokes account for 15 % of cases and it is believed to be the cause in 30 % of the elderly . Between 6 and 20 % of epilepsy is believed to be due to head trauma . Mild brain injury increases the risk about two @-@ fold while severe brain injury increases the risk seven @-@ fold . In those who have experienced a high @-@ powered gunshot wound to the head , the risk is about 50 % .
Some evidence links epilepsy and coeliac disease and non @-@ celiac gluten sensitivity , while other evidence does not . There appears to be a specific syndrome which includes coeliac disease , epilepsy and calcifications in the brain . A 2012 review estimates that between 1 % and 6 % of people with epilepsy have CD while 1 % of the general population has the condition .
The risk of epilepsy following meningitis is less than 10 % ; that disease more commonly causes seizures during the infection itself . In herpes simplex encephalitis the risk of a seizure is around 50 % with a high risk of epilepsy following ( up to 25 % ) . Infection with the pork tapeworm , which can result in neurocysticercosis , is the cause of up to half of epilepsy cases in areas of the world where the parasite is common . Epilepsy may also occur after other brain infections such as cerebral malaria , toxoplasmosis , and toxocariasis . Chronic alcohol use increases the risk of epilepsy : those who drink six units of alcohol per day have a two and a half fold increase in risk . Other risks include Alzheimer 's disease , multiple sclerosis , tuberous sclerosis , and autoimmune encephalitis . Getting vaccinated does not increase the risk of epilepsy . Malnutrition is a risk factor seen mostly in the developing world , although it is unclear however if it is a direct cause or an association . People with cerebral palsy have an increased risk of epilepsy , with half of people with spastic quadriplegia and spastic hemiplegia having the disease .
= = Mechanism = =
Normally brain electrical activity is non @-@ synchronous . Its activity is regulated by various factors both within the neuron and the cellular environment . Factors within the neuron include the type , number and distribution of ion channels , changes to receptors and changes of gene expression . Factors around the neuron include ion concentrations , synaptic plasticity and regulation of transmitter breakdown by glial cells .
= = = Epilepsy = = =
The exact mechanism of epilepsy itself is unknown . A little , however , is known about both the cellular and network mechanisms of epilepsy . However , it is unknown under which circumstances the brain shifts into the activity of a seizure with its excessive synchronization .
In epilepsy , the resistance of excitatory neurons to fire during this period is decreased . This may occur due to changes in ion channels or inhibitory neurons not functioning properly . This then results in a specific area from which seizures may develop , known as a " seizure focus " . Another mechanism of epilepsy may be the up @-@ regulation of excitatory circuits or down @-@ regulation of inhibitory circuits following an injury to the brain . These secondary epilepsies occur through processes known as epileptogenesis . Failure of the blood – brain barrier may also be a causal mechanism as it would allow substances in the blood to enter the brain .
= = = Seizures = = =
There is evidence that epileptic seizures are usually not a random event . Seizures are often brought on by factors such as stress , alcohol abuse , flickering light , or a lack of sleep , among others . The term seizure threshold is used to indicate the amount of stimulus necessary to bring about a seizure . Seizure threshold is lowered in epilepsy .
In epileptic seizures a group of neurons begin firing in an abnormal , excessive , and synchronized manner . This results in a wave of depolarization known as a paroxysmal depolarizing shift . Normally , after an excitatory neuron fires it becomes more resistant to firing for a period of time . This is due in part to the effect of inhibitory neurons , electrical changes within the excitatory neuron , and the negative effects of adenosine .
Partial seizures begin in one hemisphere of the brain while generalized seizures begin in both hemispheres . Some types of seizures may change brain structure , while others appear to have little effect . Gliosis , neuronal loss , and atrophy of specific areas of the brain are linked to epilepsy but it is unclear if epilepsy causes these changes or if these changes result in epilepsy .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of epilepsy is typically made based on observation of the seizure onset and the underlying cause . An electroencephalogram ( EEG ) to look for abnormal patterns of brain waves and neuroimaging ( CT scan or MRI ) to look at the structure of the brain are also usually part of the workup . While figuring out a specific epileptic syndrome is often attempted , it is not always possible . Video and EEG monitoring may be useful in difficult cases .
= = = Definition = = =
Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain defined by any of the following conditions :
Furthermore , epilepsy is considered to be resolved for individuals who had an age @-@ dependent epilepsy syndrome but are now past that age or those who have remained seizure @-@ free for the last 10 years , with no seizure medicines for the last 5 years .
This 2014 definition of the International League Against Epilepsy is a clarification of the ILAE 2005 conceptual definition , according to which epilepsy is " a disorder of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures and by the neurobiologic , cognitive , psychological , and social consequences of this condition . The definition of epilepsy requires the occurrence of at least one epileptic seizure . "
It is , therefore , possible to outgrow epilepsy or to undergo treatment that causes epilepsy to be resolved . Resolution of epilepsy , unfortunately , does not guarantee that it will not return . In the definition , epilepsy is now called a disease , rather than a disorder . This was a decision of the executive committee of the ILAE , taken because the word " disorder , " while perhaps having less stigma than does " disease , " also does not express the degree of seriousness that epilepsy deserves .
The definition is practical in nature and is designed for clinical use . In particular , it aims to clarify when an " enduring predisposition " according to the 2005 conceptual definition is present . Researchers , statistically @-@ minded epidemiologists , and other specialized groups may choose to use the older definition or a definition of their own devising . The ILAE considers doing so is perfectly allowable , so long as it is clear what definition is being used .
= = = Classification = = =
In contrast to the classification of seizures which focuses on what happens during a seizure , the classification of epilepsies focuses on the underlying causes . When a person is admitted to hospital after an epileptic seizure the diagnostic workup results preferably in the seizure itself being classified ( e.g. tonic @-@ clonic ) and in the underlying disease being identified ( e.g. hippocampal sclerosis ) . The name of the diagnosis finally made depends on the available diagnostic results and the applied definitions and classifications ( of seizures and epilepsies ) and its respective terminology .
The International League Against Epilepsy ( ILAE ) provided a classification of the epilepsies and epileptic syndromes in 1989 as follows :
This classification was widely accepted but has also been criticized mainly because the underlying causes of epilepsy ( which are a major determinant of clinical course and prognosis ) were not covered in detail . In 2010 the ILAE Commission for Classification of the Epilepsies addressed this issue and divided epilepsies into three categories ( genetic , structural / metabolic , unknown cause ) that were refined in their 2011 recommendation into four categories and a number of subcategories reflecting recent technologic and scientific advances .
= = = Syndromes = = =
Cases of epilepsy may be organized into epilepsy syndromes by the specific features that are present . These features include the age that seizure begin , the seizure types , EEG findings , among others . Identifying an epilepsy syndrome is useful as it helps determine the underlying causes as well as what anti @-@ seizure medication should be tried .
The ability to categorize a case of epilepsy into a specific syndrome occurs more often with children since the onset of seizures is commonly early . Less serious examples are benign rolandic epilepsy ( 2 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 ) , childhood absence epilepsy ( 0 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 ) and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy ( 0 @.@ 7 per 100 @,@ 000 ) . Severe syndromes with diffuse brain dysfunction caused , at least partly , by some aspect of epilepsy , are also referred to as epileptic encephalopathies . These are associated with frequent seizures that are resistant to treatment and severe cognitive dysfunction , for instance Lennox – Gastaut syndrome and West syndrome . Genetics is believed to play an important role in epilepsies by a number of mechanisms . Simple and complex modes of inheritance have been identified for some of them . However , extensive screening have failed to identify many single gene variants of large effect . More recent exome and genome sequencing studies have begun to reveal a number of de novo gene mutations that are responsible for some epileptic encephalopathies , including CHD2 and SYNGAP1 and DMN1 , GABBR2 , FASN and RYR3 .
Syndromes in which causes are not clearly identified are difficult to match with categories of the current classification of epilepsy . Categorization for these cases was made somewhat arbitrarily . The idiopathic ( unknown cause ) category of the 2011 classification includes syndromes in which the general clinical features and / or age specificity strongly point to a presumed genetic cause . Some childhood epilepsy syndromes are included in the unknown cause category in which the cause is presumed genetic , for instance benign rolandic epilepsy . Others are included in symptomatic despite a presumed genetic cause ( in at least in some cases ) , for instance Lennox @-@ Gastaut syndrome . Clinical syndromes in which epilepsy is not the main feature ( e.g. Angelman syndrome ) were categorized symptomatic but it was argued to include these within the category idiopathic . Classification of epilepsies and particularly of epilepsy syndromes will change with advances in research .
= = = Tests = = =
An electroencephalogram ( EEG ) can assist in showing brain activity suggestive of an increased risk of seizures . It is only recommended for those who are likely to have had an epileptic seizure on the basis of symptoms . In the diagnosis of epilepsy , electroencephalography may help distinguish the type of seizure or syndrome present . In children it is typically only needed after a second seizure . It cannot be used to rule out the diagnosis , and may be falsely positive in those without the disease . In certain situations it may be useful to perform the EEG while the affected individual is sleeping or sleep deprived .
Diagnostic imaging by CT scan and MRI is recommended after a first non @-@ febrile seizure to detect structural problems in and around the brain . MRI is generally a better imaging test except when bleeding is suspected , for which CT is more sensitive and more easily available . If someone attends the emergency room with a seizure but returns to normal quickly , imaging tests may be done at a later point . If a person has a previous diagnosis of epilepsy with previous imaging , repeating the imaging is usually not needed even if there are subsequent seizures .
For adults , the testing of electrolyte , blood glucose and calcium levels is important to rule out problems with these as causes . An electrocardiogram can rule out problems with the rhythm of the heart . A lumbar puncture may be useful to diagnose a central nervous system infection but is not routinely needed . In children additional tests may be required such as urine biochemistry and blood testing looking for metabolic disorders .
A high blood prolactin level within the first 20 minutes following a seizure may be useful to help confirm an epileptic seizure as opposed to psychogenic non @-@ epileptic seizure . Serum prolactin level is less useful for detecting partial seizures . If it is normal an epileptic seizure is still possible and a serum prolactin does not separate epileptic seizures from syncope . It is not recommended as a routine part of the diagnosis of epilepsy .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Diagnosis of epilepsy can be difficult . A number of other conditions may present very similar signs and symptoms to seizures , including syncope , hyperventilation , migraines , narcolepsy , panic attacks and psychogenic non @-@ epileptic seizures ( PNES ) . In particular a syncope can be accompanied by a short episode of convulsions . Nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy , often misdiagnosed as nightmares , was considered to be a parasomnia but later identified to be an epilepsy syndrome . Attacks of the movement disorder paroxysmal dyskinesia may be taken for epileptic seizures . The cause of a drop attack can be , among many others , an atonic seizure .
Children may have behaviors that are easily mistaken for epileptic seizures but are not . These include breath @-@ holding spells , bed wetting , night terrors , tics and shudder attacks . Gastroesophageal reflux may cause arching of the back and twisting of the head to the side in infants , which may be mistaken for tonic @-@ clonic seizures .
Misdiagnosis is frequent ( occurring in about 5 to 30 % of cases ) . Different studies showed that in many cases seizure @-@ like attacks in apparent treatment @-@ resistant epilepsy have a cardiovascular cause . Approximately 20 % of the people seen at epilepsy clinics have PNES and of those who have PNES about 10 % also have epilepsy ; separating the two based on the seizure episode alone without further testing is often difficult .
= = Prevention = =
While many cases are not preventable , efforts to reduce head injuries , provide good care around the time of birth , and reduce environmental parasites such as the pork tapeworm may be effective . Efforts in one part of Central America to decrease rates of pork tapeworm resulted in a 50 % decrease in new cases of epilepsy .
= = Management = =
Epilepsy is usually treated with daily medication once a second seizure has occurred , but for those at high risk , medication may be started after the first seizure . In some cases , a special diet , the implantation of a neurostimulator , or neurosurgery may be required .
= = = First aid = = =
Rolling a person with an active tonic @-@ clonic seizure onto their side and into the recovery position helps prevent fluids from getting into the lungs . Putting fingers , a bite block or tongue depressor in the mouth is not recommended as it might make the person vomit or result in the rescuer being bitten . Efforts should be taken to prevent further self @-@ injury . Spinal precautions are generally not needed .
If a seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes or if there are more than two seizures in an hour without a return to a normal level of consciousness between them , it is considered a medical emergency known as status epilepticus . This may require medical help to keep the airway open and protected ; a nasopharyngeal airway may be useful for this . At home the recommended initial medication for seizure of a long duration is midazolam placed in the mouth . Diazepam may also be used rectally . In hospital , intravenous lorazepam is preferred . If two doses of benzodiazepines are not effective , other medications such as phenytoin are recommended . Convulsive status epilepticus that does not respond to initial treatment typically requires admission to the intensive care unit and treatment with stronger agents such as thiopentone or propofol .
= = = Medications = = =
The mainstay treatment of epilepsy is anticonvulsant medications , possibly for the person 's entire life . The choice of anticonvulsant is based on seizure type , epilepsy syndrome , other medications used , other health problems , and the person 's age and lifestyle . A single medication is recommended initially ; if this is not effective , switching to a single other medication is recommended . Two medications at once is recommended only if a single medication does not work . In about half , the first agent is effective ; a second single agent helps in about 13 % and a third or two agents at the same time may help an additional 4 % . About 30 % of people continue to have seizures despite anticonvulsant treatment .
There are a number of medications available . Phenytoin , carbamazepine and valproate appear to be equally effective in both partial and generalized seizures . Controlled release carbamazepine appears to work as well as immediate release carbamazepine , and may have fewer side effects . In the United Kingdom , carbamazepine or lamotrigine are recommended as first @-@ line treatment for partial seizures , with levetiracetam and valproate as second @-@ line due to issues of cost and side effects . Valproate is recommended first @-@ line for generalized seizures with lamotrigine being second @-@ line . In those with absence seizures , ethosuximide or valproate are recommended ; valproate is particularly effective in myoclonic seizures and tonic or atonic seizures . If seizures are well @-@ controlled on a particular treatment , it is not usually necessary to routinely check the medication levels in the blood .
The least expensive anticonvulsant is phenobarbital at around $ 5 USD a year . The World Health Organization gives it a first @-@ line recommendation in the developing world and it is commonly used there . Access however may be difficult as some countries label it as a controlled drug .
Adverse effects from medications are reported in 10 to 90 % of people , depending on how and from whom the data is collected . Most adverse effects are dose @-@ related and mild . Some examples include mood changes , sleepiness , or an unsteadiness in gait . Certain medications have side effects that are not related to dose such as rashes , liver toxicity , or suppression of the bone marrow . Up to a quarter of people stop treatment due to adverse effects . Some medications are associated with birth defects when used in pregnancy . Valproate is of particular concern , especially during the first trimester . Despite this , treatment is often continued once effective , because the risk of untreated epilepsy is believed to be greater than the risk of the medications .
Slowly stopping medications may be reasonable in some people who do not have a seizure for two to four years ; however , around a third of people have a recurrence , most often during the first six months . Stopping is possible in about 70 % of children and 60 % of adults .
= = = Surgery = = =
Epilepsy surgery may be an option for people with partial seizures that remain a problem despite other treatments . These other treatments include at least a trial of two or three medications . The goal of surgery is total control of seizures and this may be achieved in 60 – 70 % of cases . Common procedures include cutting out the hippocampus via an anterior temporal lobe resection , removal of tumors , and removing parts of the neocortex . Some procedures such as a corpus callosotomy are attempted in an effort to decrease the number of seizures rather than cure the condition . Following surgery , medications may be slowly withdrawn in many cases .
Neurostimulation may be another option in those who are not candidates for surgery . Three types have been shown to be effective in those who do not respond to medications : vagus nerve stimulation , anterior thalamic stimulation , and closed @-@ loop responsive stimulation .
= = = Diet = = =
A ketogenic diet ( high @-@ fat , low @-@ carbohydrate , adequate @-@ protein ) appears to decrease the number of seizures by half in about 30 – 40 % of children . It is a reasonable option in those who have epilepsy that is not improved with medications and for whom surgery is not an option . About 10 % stay on the diet for a few years due to issues of effectiveness and tolerability . Side effects include stomach and intestinal problems in 30 % , and there are long term concerns of heart disease . Less radical diets are easier to tolerate and may be effective . It is unclear why this diet works . Exercise has been proposed as possibly useful for preventing seizures with some data to support this claim .
In people with coeliac disease or non @-@ celiac gluten sensitivity and occipital calcifications , a gluten @-@ free diet may decrease the frequency of seizures .
= = = Other = = =
Avoidance therapy consists of minimizing or eliminating triggers . For example , in those who are sensitive to light , using a small television , avoiding video games , or wearing dark glasses may be useful . Operant @-@ based biofeedback based on the EEG waves has some support in those who do not respond to medications . Psychological methods should not , however , be used to replace medications . Some dogs , commonly referred to as seizure dogs , may help during or after a seizure . It is not clear if dogs have the ability to predict seizures before they occur .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Alternative medicine , including acupuncture , psychological interventions , routine vitamins , and yoga , have no reliable evidence to support their use in epilepsy . There is not enough evidence to support the use of cannabis . Melatonin , as of 2016 , is insufficiently supported by evidence . The trials were of poor methodological quality and it was not possible to draw any definitive conclusions .
= = Prognosis = =
Epilepsy cannot usually be cured , but medication can control seizures effectively in about 70 % of cases . Of those with generalized seizures , more than 80 % can be well controlled with medications while this is true in only 50 % of people with partial seizures . One predictor of long @-@ term outcome is the number of seizures that occur in the first six months . Other factors increasing the risk of a poor outcome include little response to the initial treatment , generalized seizures , a family history of epilepsy , psychiatric problems , and waves on the EEG representing generalized epileptiform activity . In the developing world , 75 % of people are either untreated or not appropriately treated . In Africa , 90 % do not get treatment . This is partly related to appropriate medications not being available or being too expensive .
= = = Mortality = = =
People with epilepsy are at an increased risk of death . This increase is between 1 @.@ 6 and 4 @.@ 1 fold greater than that of the general population and is often related to : the underlying cause of the seizures , status epilepticus , suicide , trauma , and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy ( SUDEP ) . Death from status epilepticus is primarily due to an underlying problem rather than missing doses of medications . The risk of suicide is increased between two and six times in those with epilepsy . The cause of this is unclear . SUDEP appears to be partly related to the frequency of generalized tonic @-@ clonic seizures and accounts for about 15 % of epilepsy related deaths . It is unclear how to decrease its risk . The greatest increase in mortality from epilepsy is among the elderly . Those with epilepsy due to an unknown cause have little increased risk . In the United Kingdom , it is estimated that 40 – 60 % of deaths are possibly preventable . In the developing world , many deaths are due to untreated epilepsy leading to falls or status epilepticus .
= = Epidemiology = =
Epilepsy is one of the most common serious neurological disorders affecting about 22 million people as of 2013 . It affects 1 % of the population by age 20 and 3 % of the population by age 75 . It is more common in males than females with the overall difference being small . Most of those with the disorder ( 80 % ) are in the developing world .
The estimated prevalence of active epilepsy ( as of 2012 ) is in the range 3 – 10 per 1 @,@ 000 , with active epilepsy defined as someone with epilepsy who has had a least one unprovoked seizure in the last five years . Epilepsy begins each year in 40 – 70 per 100 @,@ 000 in developed countries and 80 – 140 per 100 @,@ 000 in developing countries . Poverty is a risk and includes both being from a poor country and being poor relative to others within one 's country . In the developed world epilepsy most commonly starts either in the young or in the old . In the developing world its onset is more common in older children and young adults due to the higher rates of trauma and infectious diseases . In developed countries the number of cases a year has decreased in children and increased among the elderly between the 1970s and 2003 . This has been attributed partly to better survival following strokes in the elderly .
= = History = =
The oldest medical records show that epilepsy has been affecting people at least since the beginning of recorded history . Throughout ancient history , the disease was thought to be a spiritual condition . The world 's oldest description of an epileptic seizure comes from a text in Akkadian ( a language used in ancient Mesopotamia ) and was written around 2000 BC . The person described in the text was diagnosed as being under the influence of a Moon god , and underwent an exorcism . Epileptic seizures are listed in the Code of Hammurabi ( c . 1790 BC ) as reason for which a purchased slave may be returned for a refund , and the Edwin Smith Papyrus ( c . 1700 BC ) describes cases of individuals with epileptic convulsions .
The oldest known detailed record of the disease itself is in the Sakikku , a Babylonian cuneiform medical text from 1067 – 1046 BC . This text gives signs and symptoms , details treatment and likely outcomes , and describes many features of the different seizure types . As the Babylonians had no biomedical understanding of the nature of disease , they attributed the seizures to possession by evil spirits and called for treating the condition through spiritual means . Around 900 BC , Punarvasu Atreya described epilepsy as loss of consciousness ; this definition was carried forward into the Ayurvedic text of Charaka Samhita ( about 400 BC ) .
The ancient Greeks had contradictory views of the disease . They thought of epilepsy as a form of spiritual possession , but also associated the condition with genius and the divine . One of the names they gave to it was the sacred disease . Epilepsy appears within Greek mythology : it is associated with the Moon goddesses Selene and Artemis , who afflicted those who upset them . The Greeks thought that important figures such as Julius Caesar and Hercules had the disease . The notable exception to this divine and spiritual view was that of the school of Hippocrates . In the fifth century BC , Hippocrates rejected the idea that the disease was caused by spirits . In his landmark work On the Sacred Disease , he proposed that epilepsy was not divine in origin and instead was a medically treatable problem originating in the brain . He accused those of attributing a sacred cause to the disease of spreading ignorance through a belief in superstitious magic . Hippocrates proposed that heredity was important as a cause , described worse outcomes if the disease presents at an early age , and made note of the physical characteristics as well as the social shame associated with it . Instead of referring to it as the sacred disease , he used the term great disease , giving rise to the modern term grand mal , used for tonic – clonic seizures . Despite his work detailing the physical origins of the disease , his view was not accepted at the time . Evil spirits continued to be blamed until at least the 17th century .
In most cultures , persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized , shunned , or even imprisoned ; in the Salpêtrière , the birthplace of modern neurology , Jean @-@ Martin Charcot found people with epilepsy side @-@ by @-@ side with the mentally ill , those with chronic syphilis , and the criminally insane . In ancient Rome , epilepsy was known as the Morbus Comitialis ( ' disease of the assembly hall ' ) and was seen as a curse from the gods . In northern Italy , epilepsy was once traditionally known as Saint Valentine 's malady .
In the mid @-@ 1800s , the first effective anti @-@ seizure medication , bromide , was introduced . The first modern treatment , phenobarbital , was developed in 1912 , with phenytoin coming into use in 1938 .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Stigma = = =
Stigma is commonly experienced , around the world , by those with epilepsy . It can affect people economically , socially and culturally . In India and China , epilepsy may be used as justification to deny marriage . People in some areas still believe those with epilepsy to be cursed . In Tanzania , as in other parts of Africa , epilepsy is associated with possession by evil spirits , witchcraft , or poisoning and is believed by many to be contagious , for which there is no evidence . Before 1970 the United Kingdom had laws which prevented people with epilepsy from marrying . The stigma may result in some people with epilepsy denying that they have ever had seizures .
= = = Economics = = =
Seizures result in direct economic costs of about one billion dollars in the United States . Epilepsy resulted in economic costs in Europe of around 15 @.@ 5 billion Euros in 2004 . In India epilepsy is estimated to result in costs of 1 @.@ 7 billion USD or 0 @.@ 5 % of the GDP . It is the cause of about 1 % of emergency department visits ( 2 % for emergency departments for children ) in the United States .
= = = Vehicles = = =
Those with epilepsy are at about twice the risk of being involved in a motor vehicular collision and thus in many areas of the world are not allowed to drive or only able to drive if certain conditions are met . In some places physicians are required by law to report if a person has had a seizure to the licensing body while in others the requirement is only that they encourage the person in question to report it themselves . Countries that require physician reporting include Sweden , Austria , Denmark and Spain . Countries that require the individual to report include the UK and New Zealand and the physician may report if they believe the individual has not already . In Canada , the United States and Australia the requirements around reporting vary by province or state . If seizures are well controlled most feel allowing driving is reasonable . The amount of time a person must be free from seizures before they can drive varies by country . Many countries require one to three years without seizures . In the United States the time needed without a seizure is determined by each state and is between three months and one year .
Those with epilepsy or seizures are typically denied a pilot license . In Canada if an individual has had no more than one seizure , they may be considered after five years for a limited license if all other testing is normal . Those with febrile seizures and drug related seizures may also be considered . In the United States , the Federal Aviation Administration does not allow those with epilepsy to get a commercial pilot license . Rarely , exceptions can be made for persons who have had an isolated seizure or febrile seizures and have remained free of seizures into adulthood without medication . In the United Kingdom , a full national private pilot license requires the same standards as a professional driver 's license . This requires a period of ten years without seizures while off medications . Those who do not meet this requirement may acquire a restricted license if free from seizures for five years .
= = = Support organizations = = =
There are organizations that provide support for people and families affected by epilepsy . The Out of the Shadows campaign , a joint effort by the World Health Organization , the International League Against Epilepsy and the International Bureau for Epilepsy , provides help internationally . The Joint Epilepsy Council serves the UK and Ireland . In the United States , the Epilepsy Foundation is a national organization that works to increase the acceptance of those with the disease , their ability to function in society and to promote research for a cure . The Epilepsy Foundation , some hospitals , and some individuals also run support groups in the United States .
= = Research = =
Seizure prediction refers to attempts to forecast epileptic seizures based on the EEG before they occur . As of 2011 , no effective mechanism to predict seizures has been developed . Kindling , where repeated exposures to events that could cause seizures eventually causes seizures more easily , has been used to create animal models of epilepsy .
Gene therapy is being studied in some types of epilepsy . Medications that alter immune function , such as intravenous immunoglobulins , are poorly supported by evidence . Noninvasive stereotactic radiosurgery is , as of 2012 , being compared to standard surgery for certain types of epilepsy .
Common locations for the start of seizures and neural networks have been found to be affected in the majority of epilepsy . Efforts to figure out how epilepsy occurs is working to take into account the different regions of the brain and the timing of their activity .
= = Other animals = =
Epilepsy occurs in a number of other animals including dogs and cats and is the most common brain disorder in dogs . It is typically treated with anticonvulsants such as phenobarbital or bromide in dogs and phenobarbital in cats . Imepitoin is also used in dogs . While generalized seizures in horses are fairly easy to diagnose , it may be more difficult in non @-@ generalized seizures and EEGs may be useful .
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= Rather Ripped =
Rather Ripped is the 14th studio album by the American experimental rock band Sonic Youth , released on June 13 , 2006 by Geffen Records . It is the band 's first album after the departure of multi @-@ instrumentalist Jim O 'Rourke , who joined the group as a fifth member in 1999 . Unlike its immediate predecessors , the album was produced by John Agnello and recorded at Sear Sound in New York City , the same studio where the band 's 1994 album Experimental Jet Set , Trash and No Star was recorded . It also completed Sonic Youth 's contract with Geffen , which released the band 's previous eight records .
Rather Ripped is generally considered one of the band 's most accessible albums , featuring an abundance of concise and catchy songs that deal with melancholic topics about adultery , sexual frustration and infidelity . Upon release , the album peaked at No. 71 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 64 on the UK Albums Chart . The album 's only single , " Incinerate " , was released in 2006 , alongside an accompanying music video by French director and writer Claire Denis . Rather Ripped received very positive reviews and was ranked at No. 12 in The Village Voice 's 2006 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Journalists generally praised the vocal delivery of singer and bassist Kim Gordon and the album 's simpler and cleaner melodies .
= = Background and recording = =
Rather Ripped is the follow @-@ up to Sonic Youth 's 2004 album Sonic Nurse and the band 's first record after the departure of multi @-@ instrumentalist Jim O 'Rourke , who joined the group as a fifth member in 1999 . According to guitarist Lee Ranaldo , O 'Rourke left the band to pursue film work and other recording projects . His departure affected the sound of Rather Ripped , with singer and guitarist Thurston Moore stating that the new record " is just a far more straight up rock and roll album " , in contrast to the " darker , twisted , complex quality " of O 'Rourke 's contributions . Moore also explained that he decided to write simpler songs " for everybody to plug into immediately " . The album 's working titles were Sonic Life and Do You Believe in Rapture ? The name " Rather Ripped " came from a Berkeley , California record store that later moved to Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
Unlike its immediate predecessors , which were recorded at the band 's own Echo Canyon studio in Lower Manhattan , Rather Ripped was recorded at Sear Sound in New York City ( the same studio where their 1994 album Experimental Jet Set , Trash and No Star was recorded ) , from December 2005 to January 2006 . The album was quickly produced and much of the material was not reworked due to the band 's limited time in the studio . During the recording sessions , Moore 's gear included two Fender Jazzmasters and a Fender Princeton . Ranaldo , on the other hand , played a Gibson Les Paul guitar for half of the album and used his Fender Telecaster Deluxe , " Jazzmaster copy @-@ made " by Saul Koll , and modified Fender Jazzmaster with humbuckers for the remaining tracks . Guitars were directly plugged into the mixer with no guitar amplifier in the signal chain . The band chose John Agnello as the album 's engineer due to his work with Don Fleming on albums by Screaming Trees in the early 1990s . He was also recommended by fellow musician J Mascis of Dinosaur Jr . , who had been working with Agnello for years . Additional work was done in early 2006 at Echo Canyon , as well as J Mascis 's Bisquiteen studio in Amherst , Massachusetts . The album was mastered by Greg Calbi at Sterling Sound in New York City in March 2006 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Rather Ripped is generally considered one of the band 's most accessible albums , featuring an abundance of concise and catchy melodies . Moore described it as " a super song record " that contains " rockers and ballads " . In addition , seven of the album 's 12 tracks have a duration of less than four minutes , a feature that is uncommon in previous Sonic Youth releases . The album generally favors guitar textures over feedback or noise , which typically characterized the band 's earlier works . Dave Heaton of PopMatters remarked that the guitars on Rather Ripped are joined together to form a vibrant and mysterious sound , stating that " it often feels like Sonic Youth are taking all the instrumental tricks they 've learned over the years and putting them in the service of building a lasting landscape of guitar sounds , one that reverberates with the sounds of the past but also feels eternally youthful " .
Lyrically , Rather Ripped deals with melancholic topics about adultery , sexual frustration and infidelity . In the opening track , " Reena " , whose working title was " Stonesy " , singer and bassist Kim Gordon is involved in a secondary relationship with a woman . Lead single " Incinerate " is built on a conventional love @-@ as @-@ fire metaphor , while " What a Waste " attributes sexual lust . " Pink Steam " , which is the longest track of the album , features a lengthy instrumental part that was described as " gorgeously windswept and violently romantic " . Its title was taken from a book by San Francisco author Dodie Bellamy . The song " Do You Believe in Rapture ? " is a political reflection on Christians in the office , while " Rats " , which is the only song on the album written by Ranaldo , was described as a " fulfilling ghost @-@ narrative " . The album ends with the semi @-@ acoustic ballad " Or " , which starts with strip @-@ club imagery and ends with Moore recounting various interview @-@ like questions such as " What comes first ? The music or the words ? "
= = Release = =
Rather Ripped was released on June 13 , 2006 and completed Sonic Youth 's contract with major label Geffen Records , which also released the band 's previous eight albums . The UK edition of the album includes two outtakes , " Helen Lundeberg " and " Eyeliner " , which were previously released as a 7 " single on the band 's own label , Sonic Youth Records . To promote the album , the band embarked on a tour across the United States , starting at New York 's famed CBGB on June 13 , 2006 , where the band had not performed since 1992 , and ending at the Bank of America Pavilion in Boston on September 3 , 2006 . Bassist Mark Ibold , formerly of the indie rock band Pavement , joined the band as part of the touring group .
Upon release , Rather Ripped peaked at No. 71 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 64 on the UK Albums Chart . The album also charted in other countries , including Australia , Belgium , Finland , France and Norway . The song " Incinerate " was released as a single in France and Australia in 2006 . Additionally , five music videos , one for " Incinerate " and four for " Jams Run Free " , were directed by French director and writer Claire Denis . The video for " Incinerate " is a performance of the band that was recorded at Le Nouveau Casino in Paris prior to their 2006 tour in support of the album , while the others are set in an apartment and repeat images of cats , roofing tiles and TV antennas . The videos were shot with a consumer @-@ grade digital video camera and feature a dissolving image resolution and fluctuating color palette .
= = Critical reception = =
Rather Ripped received generally very positive reviews from critics . PopMatters editor Dave Heaton felt that the album was a graceful and elegant way to end Sonic Youth 's unique relationship with Geffen , describing it as a " cohesive story about a band seeking the best way to take the reckless , brave spirits of free jazz , punk , and experimental music , and generate them within the confines of traditional rock song structure " . He also praised Moore 's lyrics , stating that " his Beat @-@ style poetry is especially evocative , and especially terse — a quality that fits well with an album that musically seems to be doing much the same , communicating a lot with a little " . Similarly , Dave Simpson of The Guardian felt that the band reinvented themselves with poppier songs , calling Rather Ripped " an extraordinary state of affairs in Sonic Youth 's 25th year " .
Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield highlighted Moore 's guitar playing for giving the album " a sense of emotional urgency " and considered " Incinerate " and " Pink Steam " some of the album 's highlights . Gordon 's vocal delivery was widely praised , with Ben Ratliff of The New York Times comparing it favorably to The Velvet Underground singer and collaborator Nico . Prominent music critic Robert Christgau also remarked that Gordon sounds " breathlessly girlish " despite being 53 at the time , and that both she and Moore " evoke visions of dalliance , displacement , recrimination , and salvation that never become unequivocally literal " . Sheffield concluded that the album features her first worthwhile songs in a decade .
Steve Hochman of Los Angeles Times credited the album 's catchy melodies for being smartly and effectively handled , commenting that " it almost makes you wonder what would have happened if Television and Peter Frampton had worked together " . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly wrote that , although the band " can still knock out a noisy punk stomper when the mood strikes " like on the track " Sleepin Around " , the cleaner and quieter melodies are the ones that " really rip up your emotions " . Slant 's Jimmy Newlin stated similar pros , noting that " quiet is the new loud " , and felt that the band 's shift towards romantic poignancy was " a welcome growth as the band advances well into its second decade of existence " .
Other reviews were less enthusiastic . Spin editor Joe Gross criticized Rather Ripped for its lack of expansive songs , stating that the album " is about three- or four @-@ minute songcraft — never the highlight of their résumé , even when [ Gordon ] lends her singular rasp " . Brandon Stosuy of Pitchfork Media felt that the second half of the album was weaker than the first and criticized the lyrics of the closer " Or " . AllMusic reviewer Heather Phares remarked that the band 's playing can occasionally outpace their songwriting , but nevertheless judjed Rather Ripped as " a solidly good album " that " shows that Sonic Youth is still in a comfortable yet creative groove , not a rut " . In February 2007 , Rather Ripped was ranked at No. 12 in The Village Voice 's 2006 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Additionally , Rolling Stone editors ranked the album third on their Top 50 Albums of 2006 list , while Pitchfork ranked it 43rd on a similar list .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Sonic Youth .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Italian cruiser Coatit =
Coatit was a torpedo cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina built in the late 1890s . She was the second and final member of the Agordat class . The ship , which was armed with twelve 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns and two 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , was too slow and short @-@ ranged to be able to scout effectively for the fleet , so her career was limited . She saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 , where she provided gunfire support to Italian troops in North Africa . She also caused a minor diplomatic incident from an attack on retreating Ottoman soldiers in Anatolia . Coatit was part of an international fleet sent to Constantinople when the city appeared to be at risk of falling to the Bulgarian Army during the First Balkan War . In 1919 , she was converted into a minelayer and was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Coatit was 91 @.@ 6 meters ( 301 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 32 m ( 30 @.@ 6 ft ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 54 m ( 11 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced up to 1 @,@ 292 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 272 long tons ; 1 @,@ 424 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers . Her engines were rated at 8 @,@ 215 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 126 kW ) and produced a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 153 – 185 .
Coatit was armed with a main battery of twelve 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly . She was also equipped with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was only lightly armored , with a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick deck .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Coatit was laid down at the Castellammare shipyard on 8 April 1897 and her completed hull was launched on 15 November 1899 . After completing fitting @-@ out work , the new cruiser was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 1 October 1900 . She proved to be too slow and short @-@ legged to be useful as a fleet scout , which limited her active duty career . She served in the main fleet in 1903 – 1904 , during which time the fleet was kept in a state of readiness for seven months . For the remaining five months , the ships had reduced crews . In 1904 , the ship was transferred to the Red Sea and stationed in Italy 's colony in Eritrea along with three other small vessels . Coatit was assigned to the hostile force that was tasked with simulating an attempt to land troops on Sicily during the 1908 fleet maneuvers .
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War against the Ottoman Empire in September 1911 , Coatit was stationed in the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron , under Rear Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the commander of the division . Coatit protected several battleships and armored cruisers while they bombarded the defenses of Tripoli on 3 – 4 October . Coatit , the armored cruiser Varese , and sixteen destroyers were tasked with patrolling the flanks of the bombardment force to prevent a surprise attack by the Ottoman Navy , which did not materialize . On 15 October , Coatit and her sister joined the battleship Napoli , the armored cruisers Pisa , Amalfi , and San Marco , three destroyers , and several troop transports for an attack on the port of Derna . Negotiators were sent ashore to attempt to secure the surrender of the garrison , which was refused . Napoli and the armored cruisers bombarded the Ottoman positions throughout the day , and on 18 October the Ottomans withdrew , allowing the Italian troops to come ashore and take possession of the port . The fleet remained offshore and helped to repel Ottoman counterattacks over the following two weeks . On 3 October 1912 , Coatit bombarded the port of Kalkan . She thereafter shelled an Ottoman infantry battalion in the area , which fled ; she nevertheless continued to fire on the retreating troops , expending around 200 rounds during the attack . The French cruiser Bruix was nearby and witnessed the attack , which her commander protested as a breach of international law .
Coatit was among an international force that entered the Ottoman capital city , Constantinople , during the First Balkan War in November 1912 , less than a month after the end of the Italo @-@ Turkish War . She and the battleship Emanuele Filiberto entered the straits on 11 November , along with the French armored cruisers Victor Hugo and Léon Gambetta , where they joined a pair of British cruisers . Warships from Germany , including the battlecruiser Goeben , Russia — the battleship Rostislav — and Spain arrived thereafter . The ships put a force of about 3 @,@ 000 men ashore to protect their nationals , though by the end of the month , the Bulgarian advance on the city had been halted . The international fleet nevertheless remained in the Sea of Marmara for a time until it was withdrawn to the island of Crete and subsequently dispersed . Coatit was converted into a minelayer in 1919 . Eight of the 76 mm guns and her torpedo tubes were removed and a pair of 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were installed . She served only briefly in this role and she was sold to ship breakers on 11 June 1920 .
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= Alicia Fox =
Victoria Elizabeth Crawford ( born June 30 , 1986 ) is an American model , actress , and professional wrestler currently signed to WWE under the ring name Alicia Fox , performing on the Raw brand .
Crawford signed a contract with WWE in 2006 , and debuted in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , a WWE developmental territory , in July . That same year , on October 20 , she won the OVW Women 's Championship , but lost it the following day ; her reign is not officially recognized by OVW . The following year , she moved to Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , another WWE developmental territory , where she competed regularly until 2009 . Crawford debuted on SmackDown in June 2008 , using the Alicia Fox name and the gimmick of a wedding planner . In November , she moved to the ECW brand , where she managed DJ Gabriel . The following year , Fox began challenging for the WWE Divas Championship , which she won in June 2010 , holding the title for two months , and becoming the first ever African American Divas Champion in WWE history .
In October 2014 , she began starring in the reality television series Total Divas on the E ! network as part of the main cast . In June 2015 , Fox aligned herself with The Bella Twins in the " Diva 's Revolution " , thus forming " Team Bella " .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In 2006 , Crawford signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and was assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory . She debuted on July 1 , 2006 , as a special guest referee , under her real name , in a match between Shelly Martinez and ODB . On September 6 , Crawford made her in @-@ ring debut , under the new ring name Tori , in an OVW women 's battle royal , in which she was eliminated by ODB . She spent the following month competing regularly in both singles and tag team matches , against opponents including Mickie James , ODB , and Katie Lea . In late September , she began managing Elijah Burke , accompanying him to the ring for matches against Chet The Jet . At the OVW television tapings on October 18 , having reverted to her real name , Crawford challenged Beth Phoenix for the OVW Women 's Championship , but lost following interference from Serena Deeb . Two days later , on October 20 , Crawford won a gauntlet match at an OVW house show to win the OVW Women 's Championship . The following night , however , Crawford lost the championship back to Phoenix , who won an eight @-@ woman elimination match . Crawford 's championship win is unrecognized by OVW , and the promotion considers Phoenix 's two reigns as champion as a single , uninterrupted reign . Crawford continued to feud with Phoenix in early 2007 , facing her in several tag team matches , in which Phoenix teamed with ODB and Crawford teamed with Lea or Deeb . Simultaneously , Crawford participated in the " Miss OVW " contest , which was won by ODB . Crawford had a series of matches with Milena Roucka in April , before moving onto a feud with Maryse Ouellet . Her final appearance in OVW was on July 21 , when she participated in a three @-@ way match for the OVW Women 's Championship , which was won by ODB .
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
Crawford debuted for WWE 's new developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) on September 2 , 2007 , participating in a best body contest . Her FCW in @-@ ring debut came on September 25 , where she and Nattie Neidhart defeated The Bella Twins ( Brianna and Nicole ) in a tag team match . She quickly began feuding with The Bella Twins , while allying herself with Neidhart . The Bella Twins defeated Crawford and Neidhart on two consecutive occasions , and on October 23 , Crawford lost to Nicole in a singles match . A week later , she and Sheamus O 'Shaunessy were defeated by Brianna and Kofi Kingston in a mixed tag team match . In December , Crawford teamed with Tommy Taylor in a loss to Brianna and Robert Anthony . The feud continued into 2008 , with the Bellas defeating Crawford and Maryse Ouellet on January 8 , and Crawford and Neidhart on January 19 and 29 . Following the completion of the feud , Crawford began competing regularly against her former tag team partner , Neidhart . Neidhart won their first singles encounter on February 5 and was on the winning side of a tag team match on February 23 , before Crawford won a singles match against her on February 26 . Following her debut on SmackDown , Crawford changed her ring name to Alicia Fox . She began managing Jack Gabriel in September , and teamed with Gabriel in mixed tag team matches against Mike Kruel and Wesley Holiday and Gabe Tuft and Melina , while continuing to compete in singles competition as well . Fox competed in the Queen of FCW tournament between December 2008 and February 2009 , defeating Jenny Quinn and Tiffany en route to the final , where she lost to Angela Fong .
= = = = Brand switches ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Crawford debuted on WWE 's main roster on the June 13 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , as Alicia Fox , in a backstage segment with Vickie Guerrero , which saw her portraying Guerrero and Edge 's wedding planner . During their wedding reception the following month , Triple H revealed Edge kissing Fox the day before the wedding on camera . Fox involved herself in the WWE Championship match at The Great American Bash when she attempted to help Edge , but she was stopped by Guerrero . The confusion surrounding her interference caused Edge to accidentally spear Guerrero .
After a three @-@ month hiatus from television , Fox resurfaced on the November 18 episode of ECW , managing English wrestler DJ Gabriel , in a fan favorite role . Their on @-@ screen association was explained by WWE claiming that Fox had moved her wedding planning business to England during her hiatus from WWE television , where she had met Gabriel . Gabriel and Fox began feuding with the Burchill siblings ( Paul and Katie Lea ) in late December 2008 . Fox made her ECW in @-@ ring debut on January 6 , 2009 , in a loss to Katie Lea . The following week , Gabriel and Fox defeated the Burchill siblings in a mixed tag team match , giving Fox her first win as part of the brand . In March , Fox and Gabriel feuded with Tyson Kidd and Natalya , with Natalya defeating Fox on March 3 episode of ECW . Fox competed in the 25 Diva battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , which was ultimately won by Santina Marella .
Fox was drafted to the SmackDown brand as a part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft on April 15 . She made her in @-@ ring debut as a villainous SmackDown Diva on the April 30 episode of WWE Superstars , teaming with Michelle McCool to defeat Maria and Gail Kim . After winning her debut match , Fox aligned herself with Michelle McCool , with the pair teaming together in tag team matches as well as accompanying each other to the ring for singles matches . Fox was in the corner of McCool when McCool won the WWE Women 's Championship at The Bash . Alicia Fox then went on to have a several week feud with SmackDown Diva Maria Kanellis . However , the rivalry wasn 't aired due to time difficulties . It was mostly Fox who won most the matches proving to be the best out of the two Divas . The rivalry came to an end after a No. 1 # Contendors match won by Alicia Fox . The main reason the rivalry didn 't continue was because Michelle McCool was the champion at the time and Alicia Fox was in an alliance with her .
On June 29 it was announced that Fox had been traded to the Raw brand . The following week , she made her Raw debut in a tag team match , teaming with Maryse against Gail Kim and Mickie James in a losing effort . She gained her first victory on Raw on July 13 , when Fox , Maryse , and Rosa Mendes won a six @-@ Diva tag team match . Fox picked up her first pinfall victory by defeating Kelly Kelly during a tag team match on the July 20 episode of Raw . On the August 10 episode of Raw , Fox was involved in a fatal four @-@ way match to determine the number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship , but was unsuccessful . The following month , on September 14 , she defeated Gail Kim to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship . She received a match for the championship at Hell in a Cell against Mickie James on October 4 , but was unsuccessful . Fox became the number one contender to the Divas Championship again on the November 2 episode of Raw , by winning a battle royal which involved The Bella Twins , Eve Torres , Gail Kim , and Kelly Kelly . She challenged Melina two weeks later for the championship , but was unsuccessful . Melina then vacated the Divas Championship due to injury , and a tournament was set up to determine the new champion in early January 2010 . Fox defeated Kelly Kelly in the first round of the tournament , but later lost to Gail Kim in the semi @-@ finals . Fox was on the winning team in a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match at WrestleMania XXVI , but on the losing side the following night in a rematch on Raw . On the April 5 episode of Raw , Fox was involved in a " Dress to Impress " battle royal to determine the number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship , but was unsuccessful , and the match was won by Eve Torres .
In May 2010 , Fox began a storyline with Zack Ryder , after he requested that she and Gail Kim be ringside on several occasions to watch his matches , so he could impress them and find a new valet . During his match with Evan Bourne on May 10 , Fox interfered on Ryder 's behalf , but was stopped by Gail Kim . The following week , Bourne and Kim defeated Ryder and Fox in a mixed tag team match . After the match , the evil Fox attacked Ryder in order to collect a " bounty " from the Raw guest host , Ashton Kutcher .
= = = = Divas Champion and various storylines ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = = =
On June 20 , 2010 , at the Fatal 4 – Way pay – per – view , Fox competed in a fatal four – way match for the WWE Divas Championship , which also involved Gail Kim , Eve Torres , and Maryse . Fox pinned Maryse to win the championship for the first time , and as a result became the first African American Diva to win the title . In her first title defence , on the July 5 episode of Raw , Fox successfully defended the championship against Eve after feigning an ankle injury and as a result , Eve was granted a rematch at Money in the Bank by Raw 's anonymous General Manager , where Fox was again able to successfully retain the championship . In August , Melina returned from an injury and attacked Fox , after the latter declared herself to be undefeatable and the greatest champion in history . After defeating Fox in a non – title match on Raw , Melina was granted a title shot , on August 15 , at SummerSlam , which she won , ending Fox 's reign at 56 days .
On August 31 , Fox was announced as the mentor of Maxine for the all – female third season of NXT but Maxine failed to win the competition , and was the second rookie Diva to be eliminated . Fox received a rematch for the Divas Championship against Melina on the September 6 episode of Raw , which she lost . In December , Fox competed in a battle royal to determine the winner of the " Diva of the Year " Slammy Award , but was eliminated by Natalya and also took part of a triple – threat number one contender 's match , which was won by Melina .
On April 26 , 2011 , Fox was drafted back to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft and in her first match back for the brand , acting as a villainess , she was defeated by Layla and suffered a shoulder injury . On the May 27 episode of SmackDown , in her return , Fox and Tamina Snuka defeated the team of Kaitlyn and AJ Lee , which later transitioned into a feud between the two sets of Divas , with Fox and Tamina regularly winning tag team matches and allying with Rosa Mendes . The alliance between Fox and Tamina ended on the August 11 episode of WWE Superstars , when Fox defeated Tamina in a singles match .
After a tag team match , which they lost , on the August 19 episode of SmackDown , Fox was attacked by Natalya , which provoked a feud between the two . She began acting as a face while wrestling alongside several different Divas to face Natalya and Beth Phoenix , collectively known as The Divas of Doom , in tag team matches , and also regularly competing against them in singles matches . As part of the storyline , Fox also prevented Natalya and Phoenix from attacking other Divas , including Kelly Kelly and AJ . The storyline continued sporadically throughout the first half of 2012 , with Fox losing tag team and singles matches to Phoenix and Natalya . Fox spent the remainder of 2012 and early 2013 competing in sporadic matches , usually on the losing side . In mid – 2013 , Fox appeared on the rebooted WWE NXT , entering a tournament to determine the inaugural NXT Women 's Champion , where she defeated Bayley in the first round , but lost to Paige in the semi – finals .
= = = = Total Divas Alliances ( 2013 – 2016 ) = = = =
In September , Fox took part of the WWE Divas Champion AJ Lee 's team which feuded with the cast of the Total Divas reality television show , which led to a traditional seven – on – seven elimination tag team match , in which Fox was the first to be eliminated , courtesy of Naomi .
Since January 2014 , Fox formed a tag team with Aksana , later dubbed " Foxsana " . In April , Fox participated in the " Vickie Guerrero Divas Championship Invitational " match at WrestleMania XXX , which was won by defending champion AJ Lee . After that , Fox started a feud with the newly crowned WWE Divas Champion Paige , losing to her in a series of matches on Raw , Main Event , and WWE Superstars . Her losses provoked a storyline , in which she lost her temper after matches , taunting the ring announcers , ringside crew , and crowd and defacing the ringside area . Fox was eventually able to defeat Paige on Raw on May 19 in a non – title match and celebrated by taking Jerry Lawler 's crown afterwards . Her victory set up a title match between the two at Payback , on June 1 , which Fox lost . Following a further loss to Paige on June 9 , Fox attacked tag team partner Aksana , before defeating her in a match on SmackDown , officially disbanding Foxsana .
After a hiatus , Fox returned to WWE television , on the September 29 episode of Raw , where she defeated AJ Lee , with the help of her former rival Paige and subsequently , formed an alliance with her , and went on to pick up another win over AJ on October 20 . However , when Fox inadvertently cost Paige a title match at Hell in a Cell , Paige dissolved the alliance by attacking her the following night on Raw . This prompted a traditional four – on – four elimination tag team match , with each captaining a side , at the Survivor Series pay – per – view in November , where Fox 's team won the match with a clean sweep . In January 2015 , Fox developed a rivalry with Naomi , during which she formed a brief alliance with The Miz and Damien Mizdow , and the trio went on to defeat Naomi and The Usos in a series of mixed tag team matches . On the April 13 episode of Raw , Fox competed in a number one contender 's battle royal for Nikki Bella 's WWE Divas Championship , which would be won by Paige .
On the June 15 episode of Raw , Fox was a part of the Divas that Paige tried to rally in an attempt to take a stand against The Bella Twins and join her , but no one accepted the offer . Three days later on SmackDown , Fox assisted Brie Bella in her match against Paige , and thus aligning herself with The Bella Twins and formed " Team Bella " . After weeks of Team Bella outnumbering Paige , Naomi , and Tamina , Stephanie McMahon called for a " revolution " in the WWE Divas Division by introducing the debuting Charlotte and Becky Lynch as Paige 's allies , and NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks aligning with Naomi and Tamina , leading to a brawl between the three teams . The three teams would ultimately face off , on August 23 , at SummerSlam in a three team elimination match . Team Bella would first eliminate Team B.A.D. when Brie Bella pinned Tamina , however Team PCB would win the match after Brie was pinned by Becky Lynch . On the August 25 episode of Tough Enough , Fox make a special appearance on the finale of the sixth season , wrestling finalists Amanda and eventual winner Sara Lee . Fox spent the remainder of 2015 competing occasionally in singles matches and tag team matches with Brie Bella , while Nikki Bella was off television with an injury .
After defeating Charlotte in a non – title match on the February 1 episode of Raw , Brie was granted a match for the WWE Divas Championship at Fastlane on February 21 , where she failed to capture the title . During that time , Team Bella quietly disbanded and both Fox and Brie transitioned into fan favorites .
Upon the fading of Team Bella , Fox teamed up with Brie against Team B.A.D. on the March 14 episode of Raw , where both of them were defeated after a distraction provided by Lana , transitioning herself into a face . On the March 22 episode of Main Event , alongside Natalya she accompanied Paige to her match against Naomi , accompanied by Tamina and Lana . Later in the match , she and Natalya were viciously attacked by Summer Rae and a returning Emma , distracting Paige as they aligned themselves with Lana and Team B.A.D. The following week , she along with Brie and Natalya accompanied Paige to her match against Emma on the March 28 episode of Raw , where she was defeated after Lana attacked Paige . Post @-@ match , she along her allies were attacked by Emma , Summer , Lana , Tamina and Naomi , before they were saved by a returning Eva Marie . As a result , a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match between the Total Divas team ( Brie , Fox , Natalya , Eva and Paige ) and the newly dubbed team B.A.D. & Blonde ( Naomi , Tamina , Lana , Emma , and Rae ) was announced for the WrestleMania 32 's pay @-@ per @-@ view pre @-@ show . At the event on April 3 , Fox 's team won after Naomi submitted to Brie Bella .
= = = = Singles competition ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
After a hiatus , Fox returned to WWE television on the July 15 episode of Main Event , losing to Becky Lynch . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Fox was drafted to Raw .
= = Other media = =
Fox made guest appearances for the reality television show Total Divas produced by WWE and E ! during the first two seasons , which began airing in July 2013 . In October 2014 , she joined the main cast of the program for the second half of the third season , which began airing in January 2015 . In 2013 , she made an appearance on the television series Cupcake Wars , as a guest judge along with fellow WWE Diva Layla . The following year , Fox and WWE Superstar The Miz presented an award at Cartoon Network 's Hall of Game Awards . Fox made her acting debut guest starring in two episodes of Syfy series Dominion that aired in July 2015 .
Fox has appeared in four WWE video games . She made her in @-@ game debut at WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2011 and appears in WWE ' 12 ( DLC ) , WWE 13 and WWE 2K16 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Personal life = =
Crawford has a younger sister named Christina , who was also a professional wrestler and is now a Tampa Bay Buccaneers cheerleader . Prior to becoming a professional wrestler , Crawford was a model , and signed with WWE after being seen in a fashion catalogue by John Laurinaitis .
On Total Divas , Crawford revealed that she was previously in a relationship with fellow wrestler Stu Bennett , known on @-@ screen as Wade Barrett and King Barrett . In 2016 , Total Divas featured Crawford being in a relationship with a man named Darryl .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Watch Yo ' Face ( Scissors kick , to a bent over or kneeling opponent ) — 2010 – present ; adopted from Booker T
Foxy Bomb ( Powerbomb ) — 2010
Officer Nasty ( Somersault leg drop ) — 2011 – 2013 ; used as a signature move thereafter
Foxy Buster ( Modified leg drop bulldog , to a kneeling opponent ) — 2014 – 2015 ; used as a signature move thereafter
Signature moves
Big boot , sometimes to an cornered or oncoming opponent
Bridging Northern Lights suplex
Canadian backbreaker rack
Corner slingshot back elbow
Elevated surfboard stretch
Handstand headsissors takedown , to an oncoming opponent
Knee drop , to the back of a face @-@ down opponent , sometimes done repeatedly in succession
Matrix evasion
Monkey flip
Multiple head smashes , to the top turnbuckle
Multiple pinning variations
Roll @-@ up , sometimes while bridging
Schoolgirl
Small package
Split legged sunset flip , from out of the corner
Reverse chinlock
Single leg dropkick , to an oncoming opponent
Single leg Boston crab , sometimes transitioned into an over the shoulder single leg Boston crab
Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl backbreaker , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
With Nikki Bella
Double team signature moves
Double axe handle , to an opponent 's midsection , sometimes followed by a legsweep ( Nikki )
Diving double axe handle , from the second rope , to the opponent 's arm
Double suplex
Nicknames
" The Bona @-@ fide Diva "
" The Foxy Floridian "
Managers
DJ Gabriel
Michelle McCool
Nikki Bella
Brie Bella
Wrestlers managed
Elijah Burke
DJ Gabriel
Michelle McCool
Zack Ryder
JTG
Nikki Bella
Brie Bella
Paige
Entrance themes
" Party On " By Jim Johnston ( November 18 , 2008 – April 30 , 2009 ; used with DJ Gabriel )
" Shake Yo Tail " by Billy Lincoln ( April 30 , 2009 – 2011 )
" Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Pa @-@ Party " by Jim Johnston ( 2011 – present )
" You Can Look ( But You Can 't Touch ) " by Jim Johnston and performed by Kim Sozzi ( June 25 , 2015 – October 26 , 2015 ; used as part of Team Bella )
" Beautiful Life " by CFO $ ( January 11 , 2016 – February 1 , 2016 ; used while accompanying Brie Bella )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her 17 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2010
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship ( 1 time )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2015 ) Team PCB vs. Team B.A.D. vs. Team Bella
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2013 ) with AJ Lee , Aksana , Kaitlyn , Rosa Mendes , Summer Rae , and Tamina Snuka vs. Brie Bella , Cameron , Eva Marie , JoJo , Naomi , Natalya , and Nikki Bella on November 24
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= USS Conyngham ( DD @-@ 58 ) =
USS Conyngham ( Destroyer No. 58 / DD @-@ 58 ) was a Tucker @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named for Gustavus Conyngham .
Conyngham was laid down by the William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia , in July 1914 and launched in July of the following year . The ship was a little more than 315 feet ( 96 m ) in length , just over 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Conyngham was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
After her January 1916 commissioning , Conyngham sailed in the Atlantic and the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Conyngham was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Conyngham made several rescues of passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats . Conyngham 's commander was commended for actions related to what was thought at the time to be a " probable " kill of a German submarine .
Upon returning to the United State in December 1918 , Conyngham underwent repairs at the Boston Navy Yard . She remained there in reduced commission through 1921 , with only brief episodes of activity . After returning to active service for about a year , she was decommissioned in June 1922 . In June 1924 , Conyngham was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Conyngham ( CG @-@ 2 ) until 1933 , when she was returned to the Navy . Later that year , the ship was renamed DD @-@ 58 to free the name Conyngham for another destroyer . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 .
= = Design and construction = =
Conyngham was authorized in 1913 as the second ship of the Tucker class which , like the related O 'Brien class , was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia , which laid down her keel on 27 July 1914 . Twelve months later , on 8 July 1915 , Conyngham was launched by sponsor Miss A. C. Stevens , a great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Gustavus Conyngham ( 1744 – 1819 ) , a Continental Navy officer . As built , Conyngham was 315 feet 3 inches ( 96 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 30 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 30 m ) abeam and drew 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 205 long tons ( 1 @,@ 224 t ) when fully loaded .
Conyngham had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . The power plant could generate 18 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and move the ship at speeds up to 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
Conyngham 's main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Conyngham was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Conyngham or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS Conyngham was commissioned into the United States Navy on 21 January 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Commander A. W. Johnson . Following her commissioning , Conyngham joined in tactics and war maneuvers off the east coast in 1916 and in the beginning of 1917 sailed to the Caribbean for war games and fleet maneuvers . Returning to Norfolk , Virginia on 23 March , she joined 5th Naval District Patrol Force and with Wadsworth and Sampson patrolled the approaches to Chesapeake Bay .
= = World War I = =
On 24 April 1917 Conyngham sailed from Boston , Massachusetts with her division for Queenstown , Ireland , the first destroyers to join English forces for duty after the entry of the United States into World War I earlier that month . This force patrolled off the Irish coast and escorted convoys through the danger zone where German submarine operated .
The destroyers also providing rescue services for stricken ships . When the British ship Karina was torpedoed and sunk by German submarine UC @-@ 75 on 17 August 1917 , Conyngham sped to her assistance and rescued 39 survivors . A similar distress call from the British ship Hartland on 22 November — torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 97 — resulted in the rescue of her 30 @-@ man crew by Conyngham .
The British Armed merchant cruiser Orama and ten destroyers , including Conyngham , were escorting an eastbound convoy of twenty steamers on 19 October , when German submarine U @-@ 62 surfaced in the midst of the group . The submarine launched its only remaining torpedo at Orama , sinking that vessel . Lookouts on Conyngham saw U @-@ 62 's periscope and quickly launched a depth charge attack on the spot where the U @-@ boat had submerged , bringing oil and debris to the surface . Conyngham 's commanding officer was commended for his prompt and effective action , and the British Admiralty awarded Conyngham a " probable " kill on the submarine . Unfortunately for Conyngham 's record , though , U @-@ 62 had survived the encounter .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the hostilities had ended on 11 November 1918 with Germany signing the Armistice , Conyngham sailed from Queenstown on 14 December 1918 for Boston to have an overhaul . From February to April 1919 , the destroyer participated in fleet exercises and division maneuvers in the Caribbean . Returning to Boston , she was placed in reduced commission until 1921 .
In June 1921 , Conyngham accompanied a Cuban warship that was repatriating the remains of former Cuban President Jose Miguel Gómez to Havana . She returned to Newport , Rhode Island , for summer exercises with her squadron and , after wintering at Charleston , South Carolina , reported to Philadelphia Navy Yard in March 1922 for inactivation . She was decommissioned there on 23 June 1922 .
= = United States Coast Guard career = =
On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . Conyngham was reactivated and transferred to the Treasury Department on 7 June 1924 for use by the Coast Guard . Designated CG @-@ 2 , Conyngham was commissioned on 8 March 1925 , and joined the " Rum Patrol " to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws .
After the United States Congress proposed the Twenty @-@ first Amendment to end prohibition in February 1933 , plans were made for Conyngham to be returned to the Navy . On 27 May 1933 , Conyngham arrived at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , and was decommissioned nine days later , on 5 June . Conyngham was transferred back to the Navy on 30 June . Later in 1933 , the ship was renamed DD @-@ 58 in order to free the name Conyngham for a new destroyer of the same name . DD @-@ 58 remained in noncommissioned status until struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 5 July 1934 . She was sold for scrap on 22 August in accordance with the London Naval Treaty .
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= Blood Drive ( The Office ) =
" Blood Drive " is the eighteenth episode of the fifth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the 90th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 5 , 2009 .
In the episode , a lonely Michael strikes up a pleasant conversation with a woman while giving blood , but passes out before he can learn her name . He holds a Valentine 's Day singles party at the Dunder Mifflin office with the hopes of meeting her . Meanwhile , Jim and Pam go on an awkward double date with Phyllis and Bob Vance .
The episode was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Randall Einhorn . It featured the first appearance of actress Lisa K. Wyatt as Lynne , who would make recurrent appearances as a love interest for Kevin . The episode received generally mixed reviews and , according to Nielsen ratings , was watched by 8 @.@ 63 million viewers during its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) is depressed because it is the first Valentine 's Day since he and Holly broke up . Michael donates blood at a mobile blood drive being held in the business park 's parking lot and has a nice conversation with a female donor ( Kathryn Aselton ) sitting next to him . When they both finish at the same time , Michael passes out because he did not eat much before giving blood , and when he wakes up she is gone . A disappointed Michael finds a glove he assumes she left behind and takes it , hoping she will come back for it . When Michael goes back into the office , he decides to gather all the single employees into the conference room to discuss their own personal romantic dilemmas . After becoming further depressed by their sad dating stories , Michael decides to try lifting their spirits by holding a singles mixer . He puts up flyers which also advertise the finding of a missing glove , and Michael hopes his mystery woman will come to the party as a result .
When Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) are threatened with banishment by Michael after they constantly gaze happily on each other , Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) invites them to have lunch with her and her husband Bob Vance ( Robert R. Shafer ) . Their meal initially goes well , but Phyllis and Bob disappear for a while after their food arrives . Hungry and not wanting to be rude by eating before they get back , Jim and Pam check the bathrooms and hear Phyllis and Bob having sex in the disabled bathroom . Phyllis and Bob finally come back to their table and Jim and Pam lose their appetites and look on in disgust as Phyllis and Bob seductively put food in each other 's mouths .
Back at the office , a few outsiders attend Michael 's party . One of the attendees ( Tate Hanyok ) strikes up a conversation with Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , who tries to sell her paper ; Dwight becomes angry when she tells him she already has a paper supplier . Another attendee named Lynne ( Lisa K. Wyatt ) converses with Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) , who is still somewhat depressed over his breakup with his fiancée Stacy and walks away when he admits it was she who broke it off . Kevin returns later to apologize to Lynne and admits he gets nervous talking to pretty girls ; Lynne is flattered and gives Kevin her e @-@ mail address . Afterwards , Michael is disappointed the woman who lost her glove does not show up and tells the employees they can go home early , but the empathetic staff decide to stay and later encourage Michael to leave with them .
The episode ends when Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) attempts to get a cookie from a blood drive nurse at the drive by claiming he gave blood earlier and showing a cotton ball taped to his arm as proof . The nurse recognizes he is lying because they are using band @-@ aids ; a frustrated Stanley leaves , and tells Phyllis , who is about to try the same trick . In the final scene , Creed ( Creed Bratton ) is seen leaving the blood mobile with a bag of donated blood in his coat pocket .
= = Production = =
" Blood Drive " was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Randall Einhorn . It featured the first appearance of actress Lisa K. Wyatt as Lynne , who would continue to make frequent appearances as a romantic interest for Kevin . During the episode , the Ed Helms character Andy is described as attending solo honeymoons in Napa Valley , The Bahamas and Walt Disney World Resort , which he previously booked before breaking off his engagement with Angela . Following the episode , NBC posted fake photos of Ed Helms visiting those locations on the show 's official Angela Martin and Andrew Bernard wedding website . The photos included Helms scuba @-@ diving , standing in front of a hot air balloon and visiting Disney 's Epcot Center , and includes an assurance by Andy that he " wanted all my bros and bras in cyberspace to know that the Ol ' Nard Dog is doing just fine . ”
The official website for The Office included three cut scenes from " Blood Drive " within a week of its original release . In the first 85 @-@ second clip , Dwight assures his office @-@ mates that the blood taken in the bloodmobile will not be used in any " ritualistic ways " . Later , while giving blood himself , he asks the hospital employee , " How do I know it 's not going to go into a person who will later come back to kill me ? " The second clip was two minutes of extended footage from the singles party . Meredith talks about her husband leaving her for a garbage @-@ woman whom her kids now consider their real mother instead of herself , and Dwight said he believes his soulmate , " probably died 700 years ago in feudal Japan after having impersonated a samurai , or at the very least she lives somewhere outside the Scranton Wilkes @-@ Barre corridor . " In the final 90 @-@ second clip , Dwight shows off his bobblehead doll collection to a woman , Creed tries unsuccessfully to pick up Lynne , and Dwight gets rid of an attractive male visitor who Michael fears could be competition . Dwight tells him the party is cancelled " due to a death in the elevator " .
= = Cultural references = =
During the singles party , Angela mentions that two men previously had a duel over her in Ohio , which is the second duel fought over her . This is a reference to " The Duel " , an Office episode from earlier in the fifth season , in which Andy and Dwight duel for her affections in the Dunder Mifflin parking lot . In the beginning of the " Blood Drive " episode , Jim , Michael and Dwight drive a phone salesman away by repeatedly saying " Ayyyy ! " in the style of Fonzie , the popular character from the sitcom Happy Days . The mysterious woman leaves a single pink glove behind after meeting Michael , in a similar fashion to the classic folk tale Cinderella . Kelly refers to the encounter as " like a modern @-@ day Enchanted " . Michael says he was hit by " Cupid 's sparrow " , a mistaken reference to the Roman mythological god who would inspire love by shooting people with arrows .
Michael makes jokes about feeling like a human juice box , describing himself as " Type O @-@ Cean Spray " , a combination of type O blood and the Ocean Spray juice company , and as " Hawaiian Blood Punch " , a reference to the fruit punch drink Hawaiian Punch . Jim says , " I have a lot of work to do this afternoon . Those mines aren 't going to sweep themselves , " a reference to the computer game Minesweeper . Ryan is said to be " sleeping with random prostitutes " in Thailand ; prostitution in the Southeast Asian nation is technically illegal , but is in practice tolerated and regulated . Kevin said his previous engagement ended immediately after he remarked that the Philadelphia Eagles , a National Football League football team , might have a chance at winning the NFC East division championship .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 5 , 2009 , " Blood Drive " was watched by 8 @.@ 63 million overall viewers , which was about average for the series at the time . The episode received a 5 @.@ 1 rating / 14 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 4 @.@ 5 rating / 11 share among viewers between 18 and 49 . The episode of 30 Rock , which aired at 9 : 30 p.m. directly after The Office , was seen by 7 @.@ 35 million viewers , an increase of 30 percent in viewership from the previous week 's 6 @.@ 3 million . Commentators said " Blood Drive " was directly responsible for this ratings increase for 30 Rock because the lead @-@ in Office episode was new , whereas the previous week 's episode was a repeat .
The episode received generally mixed reviews . Brian Howard of The Journal News described it as " classic Office " and praised the camaraderie the staff showed for each other and the " bizarre discomfort " of the double date with Jim , Pam , Phyllis and Bob . Howard described Dwight and Kevin as the episode 's stand @-@ outs . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the episode lacked many laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments , but was effective because the characters are so well developed : " The Office has , over the years , become as much of a kitchen sink drama as it is a comedy . ... The characters are so well @-@ drawn by now , and for the most part so likable , that a sweet , low @-@ key episode about Michael and the staff bonding over their singlehood worked even without a lot of memorable jokes . " Travis Fickett of IGN described the episode as " familiar territory , but it has plenty of fun moments . " Fickett praised the scene with Carell and the mystery woman , and Jim and Pam 's lunch . But Fickett said the series needed to address why Pam was staying with the company : " Jim and Pam still work there because , well , that 's part of the show - but there really isn 't a very good reason as to why these two would still be at this dead end job . "
Will Leitch of New York magazine described " Blood Drive " as " mostly a placeholder episode " , although he said it was " legitimately touching " when the cast stays late with Michael during the party . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club , who gave the episode a B + grade , said the episode included both pathos and " big laughs " . He particularly liked the joke of Andy attending all his honeymoons : " The thought of Andy forlornly embarking on a couple ’ s massage solo or sharing a romantic hot air balloon ride with himself was funny and sad in the best Office tradition . " Entertainment Weekly writer Jeff Labrecque said the episode was " unusually sweet " , but said the double date with Pam , Jim , Phyllis and Bob " felt slightly undercooked " . Josh McAuliffe of The Times @-@ Tribune of Scranton , Pennsylvania , said the episode was " a highly amusing , if not fantastic , half @-@ hour " and particularly praised the opening scene involving the phone system salesman .
Several reviewers described Dwight 's quote , " I can retract my penis up into itself , " as the most memorable line of the episode . Phyllis and Bob Vance 's sexual rendezvous in the handicapped restroom during the double date ranked number 8 in phillyBurbs.com 's top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office . " Blood Drive " was voted the seventeenth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 7 @.@ 86 out of 10 .
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= Robert and Thomas Wintour =
Robert Wintour ( 1568 – 30 January 1606 ) and Thomas Wintour ( 1571 or 1572 – 31 January 1606 ) , also spelt Winter , were members of the Gunpowder Plot , a failed conspiracy to assassinate King James I. Both were related to other conspirators , such as their cousin , Robert Catesby , and a half @-@ brother , John Wintour , also joined them following the plot 's failure . Thomas was an intelligent and educated man , fluent in several languages and trained as a lawyer , but chose instead to become a soldier , fighting for England in the Low Countries , France , and possibly in Central Europe . By 1600 , however , he changed his mind and became a fervent Catholic . On several occasions he travelled to the continent and entreated Spain on behalf of England 's oppressed Catholics , and suggested that with Spanish support a Catholic rebellion was likely .
As a momentum was building behind a peace settlement between the two countries , Thomas 's pleas fell on deaf ears . Instead , in 1604 he decided to join with Catesby , who planned to restore England to Catholicism by killing the king , and inciting a popular revolt in the Midlands , during which James 's daughter , Princess Elizabeth , would be installed as titular queen . Thomas returned to the continent and again failed to elicit Spanish support , but instead met Guy Fawkes , with whom he returned to England . Robert , a devout Catholic who inherited Huddington Court near Worcester , joined the conspiracy the following year .
The plot began to unravel following the delivery of an anonymous letter to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , warning him to stay away from Parliament . Thomas and Catesby confronted Monteagle 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the recently recruited Francis Tresham , threatening to kill him , but Tresham managed to convince them of his innocence . At that stage Thomas reportedly asked Catesby to abandon the scheme , to no avail . When Fawkes was captured at about midnight on 4 November 1605 , Thomas fled to Robert 's house at Huddington . Catesby and most of the others spent two days travelling across the Midlands attempting to incite a rebellion , but with an ever @-@ diminishing group of supporters they eventually settled at Holbeche House in Staffordshire , and waited for government forces to arrive . Thomas , by then reintegrated into the group , chose to remain with them , and in the ensuing firefight was shot in the shoulder , and captured . Robert , who had left before the battle , evaded capture until January 1606 .
Much of what is written about the plot is based on Thomas 's confessions , given in the Tower of London in November 1605 . The brothers were tried on 27 January 1606 , and hanged , drawn and quartered several days later in London .
= = Family and life before 1604 = =
Robert ( b . 1568 ) and Thomas Wintour ( b . 1571 – 72 ) were sons of George Wintour of Huddington Court in Worcestershire , and his wife Jane ( née Ingleby ) , daughter of Sir William Ingleby of Ripley Castle near Knaresborough . A sister , Dorothy , married another conspirator , John Grant . Two agnate half @-@ siblings , John and Elizabeth , resulted from their father 's marriage to Elizabeth Bourn , following Jane 's death . Their paternal grandparents were Robert Wintour of Cavewell in Gloucestershire , and his wife Catherine , daughter of Sir George Throckmorton of Coughton in Warwickshire . As scions of the Throckmortons , they could therefore claim a kinship with plotters like Robert Catesby and Francis Tresham . Their maternal uncle Francis Ingleby , a Catholic priest , was hanged , drawn and quartered at York in 1586 , a fact which in the opinion of historian and author Antonia Fraser , " could hardly have failed to leave a stark impression upon the Wintour family . " The Wintours took their name from the Welsh Gwyn Tour ( White Tower ) . ' Wyntour ' was sometimes used in signatures , but not ' Winter ' ( as the brothers are commonly named ) .
A faithful Catholic , Robert was married to Gertrude Talbot , daughter of the recusant John Talbot of Grafton . He inherited the Tudor Huddington Court near Worcester , along with a significant fortune with which he was known to be generous . Under Robert , Huddington Court became a known refuge for priests . The proclamation for his capture , issued following the plot 's failure , described him as " a man of mean stature , and rather low than otherwise ; square made , somewhat stooping ; near 40 years of age ; his hair and beard brown ; his beard not much , and his hair short . " The Jesuit John Gerard wrote that he was " esteemed in his life to be one of the wisest and most resolute and sufficient gentlemen in Worcestershire " . Gerard 's appraisal of Thomas was just as complimentary . He was apparently an intelligent , witty and educated man , who could speak Latin , Italian , Spanish and French . " He was of mean stature , but strong and comely and very valient , about 33 years old or somewhat more . " Thomas worked as a servant to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle . He was educated as a lawyer , but following several years of dissipation travelled to Flanders and enrolled in the English army . He fought against Catholic Spain in the Low Countries , France and possibly against the Turks in Central Europe . However , by 1600 his views had changed ; citing his belief in the injustice of fighting against the power of Catholic Spain , like his elder brother he became a passionate Catholic . Travelling as ' Mr Winter of Worcestershire ' , from 24 February 1601 he spent 13 days in Rome for the jubilee , and later that year and into 1602 travelled to Spain , to petition the Council on behalf of the Catholic rebels left leaderless by the execution of Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex . Father Henry Garnet , perhaps thinking that the purpose behind Thomas 's visit was to gain financial support for impoverished English Catholics , sent him to Superior Father Joseph Creswell , who made the introductions to the Spanish . This trip to Spain later became the first of two visits to be dubbed by the English government as the Spanish Treason , but Thomas 's timing was unfortunate , coming as it did so soon after Spain 's failed attack in Ireland , and he received only vague assurances of their support . In England he met with the Spanish embassy Don Juan de Tassis , who in August 1603 landed at Dover to help negotiate an Anglo @-@ Spanish treaty . Tassis quickly realised that any chance of a successful Catholic rebellion was unlikely , and discounted Thomas 's claim that , with funding , " 3 @,@ 000 Catholics " would be available for the cause . After meeting with King James he wrote to Spain emphasising the need to prioritise peace with England over the freedom of her Catholics .
= = Thomas meets with Robert Catesby and John Wright = =
According to contemporary accounts late in February 1604 Thomas 's cousin , Robert Catesby , invited him to his house in Lambeth , but Thomas was indisposed and could not attend . Catesby sent a second letter that Thomas did respond to , and when he arrived he found his cousin with John Wright , a devout Catholic and a renowned swordsman . Catesby planned to re @-@ establish Catholicism in England by blowing up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament , killing the king . Thomas did not immediately recoil from the idea . As a former soldier he was a practical man , and he agreed with Catesby that should the plot succeed , it would " breed a confusion fit to beget new alterations " . He also offered a warning of the price of failure : " the scandal would be so great which the Catholic religion might hereby sustain , as not only our enemies , but our friends also would with good reason condemn us . " He nevertheless agreed to join the conspiracy , and as Catesby had not entirely given up hope of foreign support — " because we will leave no peaceable and quiet way untried " — Thomas returned to the continent .
In Flanders he met Juan Fernández de Velasco , 5th Duke of Frías and Constable of Castile , who was holding court there before his journey to England to conclude the Treaty of London . Thomas again stressed the plight of English Catholics , hoping to influence the forthcoming treaty negotiations due to take place at Somerset House in London . The Constable was " friendly rather than forthcoming " . Thomas also met the Welsh spy Hugh Owen , and Sir William Stanley , who were both disparaging of Catesby 's hopes of Spanish assistance . Owen did , however , introduce Thomas to Guy Fawkes , a committed Catholic who had served under Stanley as a soldier in the Southern Netherlands . Although at that time the plotters had no detailed plans , Thomas told Fawkes of their ambition to " do somewhat in England " , should Spanish support be lacking . In late April therefore the two men returned together to Catesby 's lodgings at Lambeth , and told him that despite positive noises from the Spanish , " the deeds would nott answere " .
= = Robert joins = =
With the addition to the conspiracy of Thomas Percy ( John Wright 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , the five plotters met at the Duck and Drake inn , in the fashionable Strand district of London , on 20 May 1604 . From hereon Thomas Wintour remained at the heart of the conspiracy . The group leased properties in London , one in Lambeth for storing the gunpowder that was rowed across the Thames to its destination . His confession has the plotters digging a tunnel toward their target during one of the several prorogations of Parliament , abandoned when the chamber directly beneath the House of Lords became available .
Following the meeting in May Catesby enlisted the aid of several more Catholic men , including Robert Wintour . On the same day he was admitted to the plot , 25 March 1605 , the conspirators also purchased the lease to the undercroft they had supposedly tunnelled near . It was into this room that 36 barrels of gunpowder were brought , but when in late August Thomas and Fawkes made an inspection of the gunpowder , they found that it had decayed ( separated ) . Thus , more gunpowder was brought in .
Shortly after this , Catesby recruited the last three conspirators , Sir Ambrose Rookwood , Sir Everard Digby and Francis Tresham . The latter 's involvement in the plot has long been the subject of controversy , as on 26 October his brother @-@ in @-@ law William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , received an anonymous letter while at home , warning him to stay away from Parliament . Thomas went with Catesby to confront Tresham on the matter , threatening to " hang him " if he did not exonerate himself . Tresham managed to convince the pair that he was innocent , but Thomas then tried unsuccessfully to persuade Catesby to abandon the plot . His pleas were in vain ; Catesby 's position was echoed by Percy , who at a meeting of the three in London on Sunday 3 November , said that he was ready to " abide the uttermost trial " . On the same day , Robert and three others stayed at the home of John Talbot of Grafton , his father @-@ in @-@ law . His friends were Robert Acton and his two sons , plus servants . The group left the following morning with extra horses supplied by Everard Digby , and travelled to Coventry .
= = Failure and capture = =
Monteagle had delivered the letter to the English Secretary of State , Robert Cecil , 1st Earl of Salisbury , and on Saturday 2 November ( about a week later ) the Privy Council decided to undertake a search of Parliament . The following Monday , during the first search , Thomas Howard , 1st Earl of Suffolk , noticed the huge pile of faggots in the corner of the cellar beneath the House of Lords . The king insisted that another search be made , and about midnight another party , this time led by Thomas Knyvet , 1st Baron Knyvet , discovered Fawkes and arrested him .
News of Fawkes 's capture soon spread throughout London , including the Strand , where Christopher Wright , John Wright 's brother , overheard the commotion . He immediately went to Thomas , who was staying at the Duck and Drake inn . As Fawkes had given his name as " John Johnson " , servant of Percy , it was for the latter that the government 's first arrest warrant was issued . Thomas guessed as much , and told Wright to go to Percy and " bid him begone " . As the rest of those conspirators still in London fled the city , undaunted , he went over to Westminster to try and discern what he could . In author Alan Haynes 's opinion , this demonstrated an impressive degree of trust in Fawkes 's ability to confound his interrogators , but when Thomas heard for himself that the treason had been uncovered , he left for Huddington , stopping at his sister 's house in Norbrook along the way .
The fugitives reached Catesby 's family home of Ashby St Ledgers at about 6 : 00 pm . Not wanting to implicate his mother , Catesby sent a message to Robert , who had just recently arrived there , asking to meet just outside the town . There he told him that Fawkes had been captured . At Dunchurch they collected Everard Digby and his ' hunting party ' , which included Robert and Thomas 's half @-@ brother , John Wintour . He had been invited to join them on 4 November . The next day the group raided Warwick Castle for supplies , something that Robert strongly objected to as it would create " a great uproar " in the country , and later arrived at Huddington Court , where they met Thomas . Early the next morning Huddington 's occupants went to confession and took the Sacrament at Mass — in Fraser 's opinion , a sign that none of them thought they had long to live . They collected further arms and munitions from Hewell Grange , but trying to recruit more people to their cause they were met with disdain ; while the conspirators considered themselves to stand for " God and country " , the men of Hewell Grange replied that they were for " King James as well as God and Country " . Late that night , pulling a sodden cart full of weapons and armour behind them , they arrived at Holbeche House , near Kingswinford in Staffordshire . Robert was asked if he would go and see if he could elicit any help from his father @-@ in @-@ law , John Talbot . He refused , and Thomas went instead , with Stephen Littleton . Talbot was , however , loyal to James , and sent them away , claiming that their visit was " as much as his life was worth " . While returning to Holbeche , they received a message that Catesby , Rookwood , John Grant and another man were dead , and the rest apparently fled . Tired and desperate , the plotters had attempted to dry their soaked gunpowder in front of the fire , only for a stray spark to ignite it . While Littleton chose to leave , begging his companion to follow his example , Thomas continued on to Holbeche , where he found the remaining plotters alive , but injured .
While several including Robert and his half @-@ brother John chose to vanish into the night , Catesby , Percy , the Wright brothers , Grant , Rookwood and Thomas remained . Thomas asked them what they intended to do – " We mean here to die " . Thomas replied " I will take such part as you do " . Richard Walsh , Sheriff of Worcester , arrived with a vigilante force of about 200 men early on 8 November . Thomas was the first to be hit , in the shoulder , while crossing the courtyard . The Wright brothers were next , followed by Rookwood , still injured from the explosion the night before . Catesby and Percy were dropped by a single lucky shot . The sheriff 's men then proceeded to strip the defenders of their valuables , but Thomas was saved by the sheriff 's assistant . His fine sword , ordered and paid for four months previously , apparently proved too great a temptation for the Sheriff 's men , as it was never seen again . He and the others were taken first to Worcester , and then to the Tower of London . Despite a proclamation of 18 November naming them as wanted men , Robert Wintour and Stephen Litteton managed to evade capture until 9 January 1606 . They spent about two months hiding out in barns and houses ; at one point they were forced to restrain a drunken poacher who happened upon their hiding place . They were eventually discovered at the house of Humphrey Littleton in Hagley , after a cook , John Finwood , informed on them . Humphrey managed to escape , but was captured at Prestwood , in Staffordshire .
= = Thomas 's confession = =
Historically , much of what is written about the Gunpowder Plot is derived from Thomas 's confession , signed on 23 November 1605 ; details of the so @-@ called Spanish Treason were added three days later . One of only two confessions printed in the King 's Book ( a highly partial contemporary account of the affair ) , Thomas Wintour 's was the only account the government had of a plotter who had been involved from the beginning ; Guy Fawkes , weakened by days of torture , may have been at the heart of the group , but he was not at its first meetings . However , Antonia Fraser views the document with suspicion , not least because Thomas 's signature , ' Thomas Winter ' , differs from his normal signature , ' Thomas Wintour ' ( it was the former that was invariably used by the government ) . The signature , possibly forged by lieutenant of the Tower of London William Waad , was made only weeks after Thomas had been shot in the shoulder during the siege at Holbeche House . Biographer Mark Nicholls views the difference in signatures as a significant and puzzling lapse , if a " master forger " is presumed to be responsible for the document . He views the handwriting on the confession as " convincingly that of Winter [ Wintour ] " , pointing out that it appears to be the work of an author , not an editor , and written as a draft for the King 's Book . This is a view that generally , Alan Haynes agrees with : " no one has ever made a solid and sensible suggestion about why a government @-@ employed forger ( say Thomas Phelippes ) would deliberately make such an error in a crucial state document " .
Another of Fraser 's concerns is Waad 's report to Salisbury on 21 November : " Thomas Winter doth find his hand so strong as after dinner he will settle himself to write that he hath verbally declared to your Lordship adding what he shall remember " — or rather , what he was told to remember . A draft of Thomas 's confession , in Coke 's handwriting , places extra weight on the involvement of the Jesuits . Thomas 's confession also details his account of the mine supposedly dug toward Parliament , not mentioned in Fawkes 's first confession .
= = Trial and death = =
The trial of the eight surviving conspirators began on Monday 27 January . The two brothers were brought with the other plotters by barge from the Tower ( Catebsy 's servant , Thomas Bates , arrived from the Gatehouse Prison ) , to Whitehall . They were kept in Star Chamber , before being led into Westminster Hall . Charged with high treason , and with no defence counsel , the outcome was never in doubt . The Spanish Treason was a feature of Attorney General Edward Coke 's rhetoric , although the Spanish king was " reverently and respectfully spoken of " . The Jesuits , such as Henry Garnet , were condemned . Each of the brothers ' confessions were also read aloud . While in the Tower , Robert and Fawkes had shared adjacent cells , and were able to speak to each other . However , their private conversation was secretly recorded , and read aloud during the trial .
When asked if he had anything to say , " wherefore judgement of death should not be pronounced " , Thomas spoke of his regret at having introduced Robert to the plot , and asked to be hanged on his behalf as well as his own . Robert merely begged for mercy . At the end of the trial , the jury pronounced them all guilty of high treason .
Everard Digby , Robert Wintour , John Grant and Thomas Bates were executed on Thursday 30 January 1606 . Dragged by horse to Old St Paul 's Cathedral , Robert was the second to be executed , praying quietly to himself before he was hanged , drawn and quartered . The following morning , the remaining four were dragged to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster , opposite the building they had planned to destroy . Thomas was the first to mount the scaffold . It was customary to grant the condemned a speech , but Thomas , " a very pale and dead colour " , said it was " no time to discourse : he was come to die " . He absolved the Jesuits of any involvement in the plot , asked for Catholics to pray for him , and declared his adherence to the Roman religion . He was hanged for only a few seconds , and then taken to the block for the remainder of his grim sentence . Their half @-@ brother John was executed at Red Hill near Worcester , on 7 April .
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= Minoan eruption =
The Minoan eruption of Thera , also referred to as the Thera eruption or Santorini eruption , was a major catastrophic volcanic eruption with a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 6 or 7 and a dense @-@ rock equivalent ( DRE ) of 60 km3 ( 14 cu mi ) , Dated to the mid @-@ second millennium BCE , the eruption was one of the largest volcanic events on Earth in recorded history . It devastated the island of Thera ( now called Santorini ) , including the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri and communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and the coast of Crete with a related earthquake or tsunami .
There are no clear ancient records of the eruption , which may have inspired certain Greek myths , caused turmoil in Egypt and be alluded to in a Chinese chronicle .
= = Eruption = =
= = = Background = = =
Geological evidence shows the Thera volcano erupted numerous times over several hundred thousand years before the Minoan eruption . In a repeating process , the volcano would violently erupt , then eventually collapse into a roughly circular seawater @-@ filled caldera , with numerous small islands forming the circle . The caldera would slowly refill with magma , building a new volcano , which erupted and then collapsed in an ongoing cyclical process .
Immediately prior to the Minoan eruption , the walls of the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring of islands with the only entrance lying between Thera and the tiny island of Aspronisi . This cataclysmic eruption was centered on a small island just north of the existing island of Nea Kameni in the centre of the then @-@ existing caldera . The northern part of the caldera was refilled by the volcanic ash and lava , then collapsed again .
= = = Magnitude = = =
Research by a team of international scientists in 2006 revealed that the Santorini event was much larger than the original estimate of 39 km3 ( 9 @.@ 4 cu mi ) of Dense @-@ Rock Equivalent ( DRE ) , or total volume of material erupted from the volcano , that was published in 1991 . With an estimated DRE in excess of 60 km3 ( 14 cu mi ) , the volume of ejecta was approximately 100 km3 ( 24 cu mi ) . If so , the eruption 's Volcanic Explosivity Index was 7 . The volcano ejected up to four times as much as the well @-@ recorded eruption by Krakatoa in 1883 . The Thera volcanic events and subsequent ashfall probably sterilized the island , as occurred on Krakatoa . Only the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption of 1815 , Lake Taupo 's Hatepe eruption around 180 CE , and perhaps the Baekdu Mountain eruption around 970 CE released more material into the atmosphere during historic times .
= = = Sequence = = =
On Santorini , there is a 60 m ( 200 ft ) thick layer of white tephra that overlies the soil clearly delineating the ground level prior to the eruption . This layer has three distinct bands that indicate the different phases of the eruption . Studies have identified four major eruption phases , and one minor precursory tephra fall . The thinness of the first ash layer , along with the lack of noticeable erosion of that layer by winter rains before the next layer was deposited , indicate that the volcano gave the local population a few months ' warning . Since no human remains have been found at the Akrotiri site , this preliminary volcanic activity probably caused the island 's population to flee . It is also suggested that several months before the eruption , Santorini experienced one or more earthquakes , which damaged the local settlements .
Intense magmatic activity of the first major phase ( B01 / Minoan A ) of the eruption deposited up to 7 m ( 23 ft ) of pumice and ash , with a minor lithic component , southeast and east . Archaeological evidence indicated burial of man @-@ made structures with limited damage . The second ( B02 / Minoan B ) and third ( B03 / Minoan C ) eruption phases involved pyroclastic flow and lava fountain activity and the possible generation of tsunamis . Man @-@ made structures not buried during Minoan A were completely destroyed . The third phase was also characterized by the initiation of caldera collapse . The fourth , and last , major phase ( B04 / Minoan D ) was marked by varied activity : lithic @-@ rich base surge deposits , lahars , debris flows , and co @-@ ignimbrite ash @-@ fall deposits . This phase was characterized by the completion of caldera collapse , which produced megatsunamis .
= = Geomorphology = =
Although the fracturing process is not yet known , the altitudinal statistical analysis indicates that the caldera had formed just before the eruption . The area of the island was smaller , and the southern and eastern coastlines appeared regressed . During the eruption , the landscape was covered by the pumice sediments . In some places , the coastline vanished under thick tuff depositions . In others , recent coastlines were extended towards the sea . After the eruption , the geomorphology of the island was characterized by an intense erosional phase during which the pumice was progressively removed from the higher altitudes to the lower ones .
= = Volcanology = =
The Plinian eruption resulted in an estimated 30 to 35 km ( 19 to 22 mi ) high ash plume which extended into the stratosphere . In addition , the magma underlying the volcano came into contact with the shallow marine embayment , resulting in a violent steam eruption .
The eruption also generated a 35 to 150 m ( 115 to 492 ft ) high tsunami that devastated the north coast of Crete , 110 km ( 68 mi ) away . The tsunami affected coastal towns such as Amnisos , where building walls were knocked out of alignment . On the island of Anafi , 27 km ( 17 mi ) to the east , ash layers 3 m ( 10 ft ) deep have been found , as well as pumice layers on slopes 250 m ( 820 ft ) above sea level .
Elsewhere in the Mediterranean are pumice deposits that could have been caused by the Thera eruption . Ash layers in cores drilled from the seabed and from lakes in Turkey , however , show that the heaviest ashfall was towards the east and northeast of Santorini . The ash found on Crete is now known to have been from a precursory phase of the eruption , some weeks or months before the main eruptive phases , and it would have had little impact on the island . Santorini ash deposits were at one time claimed to have been found in the Nile delta , but this is now known to be a misidentification .
= = Eruption dating = =
The Minoan eruption is a key marker for the Bronze Age chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean world . It provides a fixed point for aligning the entire chronology of the second millennium BCE in the Aegean , as evidence of the eruption is found throughout the region . Despite the evidence , the exact date of the eruption has been difficult to determine . Archaeologists have traditionally placed it at approximately 1500 BCE . Radiocarbon dates , including analysis of an olive branch buried beneath a lava flow from the volcano that gave a date between 1627 BCE and 1600 BCE ( 95 % confidence interval ) , suggest an eruption date more than a century earlier than suggested by archaeologists . Thus , the radiocarbon dates and the archaeological dates are in substantial disagreement .
In 2012 , one of the proponents of an archaeological date , Felix Höflmayer , argued that archaeological evidence could be consistent with a date as early as 1590 BCE , reducing the discrepancy to around 50 years .
Conversely , the radiocarbon dates have been argued to be inaccurate on scientific grounds . That argument has been made , in particular , by Malcolm H. Wiener . The primary problem is that 14C @-@ deficient carbon , sourced from the environment , might easily have affected the radiocarbon dates .
= = = Relative chronology = = =
Archaeologists developed the Late Bronze Age chronologies of eastern Mediterranean cultures by analysing the origin of artifacts ( for example , items from Crete , mainland Greece , Cyprus or Canaan ) found in each archaeological layer . If an artifact 's origin can be accurately dated , it gives a reference date for the layer in which it is found . If the Thera eruption could be associated with a given layer of Cretan ( or other ) culture , chronologists could use the date of that layer to date the eruption itself . Since Thera 's culture at the time of destruction was similar to the Late Minoan IA ( LMIA ) culture on Crete , LMIA is the baseline to establish chronology elsewhere . The eruption also aligns with Late Cycladic I ( LCI ) and Late Helladic I ( LHI ) cultures , but predates Peloponnesian LHI . Archeological digs on Akrotiri have also yielded fragments of nine Syro @-@ Palestinian Middle Bronze II ( MBII ) gypsum vessels .
The Aegean prehistorians felt so confident about their calculations that they rejected early radiocarbon dates in the 1970s for LMI / LCI Thera , as radiocarbon suggested a date about a century earlier than the traditional dates .
At Tell el Dab 'a in Egypt , pumice found at this location has been dated to 1540 BCE , closer to the traditionally @-@ accepted date of Thera 's eruption . That matches the composition of the Thera eruption . This pumice has been contentious since the 1990s , as it represents the most prominent supported date to differ from the old chronology .
= = = Ice cores and tree rings = = =
Greenland ice cores show evidence of a large volcanic eruption in 1642 ± 5 BCE , which was suggested as being associated with Santorini . However , volcanic ash retrieved from an ice core does not match the expected Santorini fingerprint . The late Holocene eruption of the Mount Aniakchak , a volcano in Alaska , is now believed to be the source of the minute shards of volcanic glass in the Greenland ice core .
Another method that has been used to establish the date of eruption is tree @-@ ring dating . Tree @-@ ring data has shown that a large event interfering with normal tree growth in North America occurred during 1629 – 1628 ( ± 65 years ) BCE . Evidence of a climatic event around 1628 BCE has been found in studies of growth depression of European oaks in Ireland and of Scotch pines in Sweden . Bristlecone pine frost rings also indicate a date of 1627 BCE , supporting the late 1600s BCE dating . Procedural changes in how ice cores are interpreted would bring that data more in line with the dendrochronological numbers .
= = = Climatic effects = = =
Hydrogeologist Philip LaMoreaux asserted in 1995 that the eruption caused significant climatic changes in the eastern Mediterranean region , Aegean Sea and much of the Northern Hemisphere , but that was forcefully rebutted by volcanologist David Pyle a year later .
Around the time of the radiocarbon @-@ indicated date of the eruption , there is evidence for a significant climatic event in the Northern Hemisphere like failure of crops in China ( see below ) and evidence from tree rings , cited above : bristlecone pines of California ; bog oaks of Ireland , England , and Germany ; and other trees in Sweden . The tree rings precisely date the event to 1628 BCE .
= = Historical impact = =
= = = Minoan civilization = = =
The eruption devastated the nearby Minoan settlement at Akrotiri on Santorini , which was entombed in a layer of pumice . It is believed that the eruption also severely affected the Minoan population on Crete , but the extent of the impact is debated . Early theories proposed that ashfall from Thera on the eastern half of Crete choked off plant life , causing starvation of the local population . However , after more thorough field examinations , the theory has lost credibility , as it has been determined that no more than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) of ash fell anywhere on Crete . Other theories have been proposed based on archeological evidence found on Crete indicating that a tsunami , likely associated with the eruption , impacted the coastal areas of Crete and may have devastated the Minoan coastal settlements . Another theory is that much of the damage done to Minoan sites resulted from a large earthquake and the fires it caused , which preceded the Thera Eruption .
Significant Minoan remains have been found above the Late Minoan I era Thera ash layer and tsunami level , and it is unclear whether the effects were enough to trigger the downfall of the Minoan civilization . Some sites were abandoned or settlement systems significantly interrupted in the immediate aftermath of the eruption . As the Minoans were a sea power and depended on ships for their livelihood , the Thera eruption likely caused significant economic hardship to the Minoans . Whether the effects were enough to trigger the downfall of the civilization is intensely debated . The Mycenaean conquest of the Minoans occurred in Late Minoan II period . The Mycenaeans were a military civilization . Using their functional navy and a well @-@ equipped army , they were capable of an invasion . Mycenaean weaponry has been found in burials on Crete . That demonstrates Mycenaean military influence not many years after the eruption . Many archaeologists speculate that the eruption caused a crisis in Minoan civilization , making them vulnerable to conquest by the Mycenaeans .
= = = Chinese records = = =
A volcanic winter from an eruption in the late 17th century BCE has been claimed by some researchers to correlate with entries in Chinese records documenting the collapse of the Xia dynasty in China . According to the Bamboo Annals , the collapse of the dynasty and the rise of the Shang dynasty , approximately dated to 1618 BCE , were accompanied by " yellow fog , a dim sun , then three suns , frost in July , famine , and the withering of all five cereals " .
= = = Effect on Egyptian history = = =
Apocalyptic rainstorms , which devastated much of Egypt , and were described on the Tempest Stele of Ahmose I , have been attributed to short @-@ term climatic changes caused by the Theran eruption . The difficulty with this interpretation is that in the conventional but disputed Egyptian chronology Ahmose I ruled from c . 1539 – 1514 BC , whilst the eruption is thought to have occurred somewhere between 1642 @-@ 1540 BC .
Alternatively , if the eruption occurred in the Second Intermediate Period , the absence of Egyptian records of the eruption could be caused by the general disorder in Egypt around that time .
While it has been argued that the damage attributed to this storm may have been caused by an earthquake following the Thera Eruption , it has also been suggested that it was caused during a war with the Hyksos , and the storm reference is merely a metaphor for chaos upon which the Pharaoh was attempting to impose order . Documents such as Hatshepsut 's Speos Artemidos depict storms , but are clearly figurative not literal . Research indicates that the Speos Artemidos stele is a reference to her overcoming the powers of chaos and darkness .
= = = Greek traditions = = =
= = = = The Titanomachy = = = =
The eruption of Thera and volcanic fallout may have inspired the myths of the Titanomachy in Hesiod 's Theogony . The Titanomachy could have picked up elements of western Anatolian folk memory , as the tale spread westward . Hesiod 's lines have been compared with volcanic activity , citing Zeus 's thunderbolts as volcanic lightning , the boiling earth and sea as a breach of the magma chamber , immense flame and heat as evidence of phreatic explosions , among many other descriptions .
= = = = Atlantis = = = =
There is some archaeological , seismological and vulcanological evidence that the myth of Atlantis , described by Plato , is based upon the Santorini eruption .
= = = Book of Exodus = = =
Geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen seeks to establish a link between the eruption of Santorini ( c . 1600 BCE ) and the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt in the Bible .
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= SMS Bayern ( 1878 ) =
SMS Bayern was one of four Sachsen @-@ class armored frigates of the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Sachsen , Baden , and Württemberg . Named for Bavaria , Bayern was built by the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel from 1874 to 1881 . The ship was commissioned into the Imperial Navy in August 1881 . She was armed with a main battery of six 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns in two open barbettes .
After her commissioning , Bayern served with the fleet on numerous training exercises and cruises . She participated in several cruises escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II on state visits to Great Britain and to various cities in the Baltic Sea in the late 1880s and early 1890s . During 1895 – 1898 , the ship was modernized at the Schichau @-@ Werke dockyard in Danzig ; she served for another decade with the fleet before being withdrawn from active service in 1910 . She was used as a target ship after 1911 , until she was sold in 1919 and broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Bayern was ordered by the Imperial Navy under the contract name " A , " which denoted that the vessel was a new addition to the fleet . She was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven ; her keel was laid in 1874 under construction number 3 . The ship was launched on 13 May 1878 and commissioned into the German fleet on 4 August 1881 . Along with her three sisters , Bayern was the first large , armored warship built for the German navy that relied entirely on engines for propulsion .
The ship was 98 @.@ 2 meters ( 322 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 18 @.@ 4 m ( 60 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 32 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . Bayern was powered by two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , which were supplied with steam by eight coal @-@ fired Dürr boilers . The ship 's top speed was 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , at 5 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 200 kW ) Her standard complement consisted of 32 officers and 285 enlisted men , though while serving as a squadron flagship this was augmented by another 7 officers and 34 men .
She was armed with six 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns , two of which were single @-@ mounted in an open barbette forward of the conning tower and the remaining four mounted amidships , also on single mounts in an open barbette . As built , the ship was also equipped with six 8 @.@ 7 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) L / 24 guns and eight 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannons . Bayern 's armor was made of wrought iron , and was concentrated in an armored citadel amidships . The armor ranged from 203 to 254 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 0 in ) on the armored citadel , and between 50 – 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) on the deck . The barbette armor was 254 mm of wrought iron backed by 250 mm of teak .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in August 1881 , Bayern was placed in reserve . She was not activated for service with the fleet until 1884 ; this in part had to do with the poor performance of her sister Sachsen in the fleet maneuvers of 1880 . Among the problems associated with the Sachsen @-@ class ships was a tendency to roll dangerously due to their flat bottoms , which greatly reduced the accuracy of their guns . The ships were also poorly armored , compared to their contemporaries . In addition , they were slow and suffered from poor maneuverability . Nevertheless , Bayern and her three sisters served as the I Division in the 1884 fleet maneuvers , under the command of Rear Admiral Alexander von Monts .
Bayern remained with the fleet for the 1885 maneuvers , though she was joined only by the older ironclads Friedrich Carl and Hansa . The maneuvers were begun with a visit to Ålesund , Norway , after which the fleet went to the Baltic Sea for training exercises . Bayern was demobilized at the close of maneuvers . In October 1885 , August von Thomsen , who had been appointed chief gunner , set up the first long range gunnery experiments on Bayern . He went on to gain fame as " the father of German naval artillery . " Bayern 's three sisters and the new ironclad Oldenburg comprised the training squadron for 1886 . Bayern returned to active duty in 1888 , when she participated in a tour of the Baltic by the newly crowned Kaiser Wilhelm II . The fleet stopped in St. Petersburg , Stockholm , and Copenhagen on the seventeen @-@ day cruise .
Bayern participated in the ceremonial transfer of the island of Helgoland from British to German control in the summer of 1890 . She was present during the fleet maneuvers in September , where the entire eight @-@ ship armored squadron simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel . She remained with the I Division in 1891 ; the year 's maneuvers simulated a two @-@ front war against Russia and either France of Denmark . Bayern participated in the 1892 fleet maneuvers as well . Three separate simulations were conducted , which included French blockades of the German North Sea coast and a Russian attack on Kiel . Vice Admiral Wilhelm Schröder commanded the fleet maneuvers of 1893 , which simulated a protracted campaign against a superior French fleet . Bayern and her three sisters served as the Russian Baltic Fleet during the 1894 maneuvers .
The four Sachsen @-@ class ships were transferred to the II Division before the winter cruise of 1894 – 1895 , following the completion of the four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships . The German fleet now possessed two homogenous squadrons of four ships each . The two divisions steamed to Orkney and the Shetland Islands in the spring of 1895 . Bayern joined a massive fleet review on 21 July 1895 for the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , which connected Kiel to the North Sea . The Autumn 1895 maneuvers simulated a high @-@ seas battle between the I and II Divisions in the North Sea , followed by combined maneuvers with the rest of the fleet in the Baltic .
After the conclusion of the 1895 maneuvers , Bayern was taken into drydock at the Schichau @-@ Werke in Danzig for reconstruction . The ship 's old wrought iron and teak armor was replaced with new Krupp nickel @-@ steel armor . The four funnels were trunked into a single large funnel and new engines were also installed , which increased the ship 's speed to 15 @.@ 4 kn ( 28 @.@ 5 km / h ; 17 @.@ 7 mph ) . The ship 's 8 @.@ 7 cm guns were replaced with quick @-@ firing 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns and four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) autocannons . Work was completed in 1898 . Bayern 's three sisters were similarly modified between 1896 and 1899 . Bayern remained with the fleet until 19 February 1910 , when the ship was stricken from the naval register . She was converted into a target ship for the fleet and served in this capacity off Stollergrund after 1911 . On 5 May 1919 , Bayern was sold for scrapping and broken up in Kiel .
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= Faversham =
Faversham / ˈfævərʃəm / is a market town and civil parish in the Swale district of Kent , England . The town is 48 miles from London and 10 miles from Canterbury and lies next to the Swale , a strip of sea separating mainland Kent from the Isle of Sheppey in the Thames Estuary . It is close to the A2 , which follows an ancient British trackway which was used by the Romans and the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and known as Watling Street . The Faversham name is of Latin via Old English origin , meaning " the metal @-@ worker 's village " .
There has been a settlement at Faversham since pre @-@ Roman times , next to the ancient sea port on Faversham Creek , and archaeological evidence has shown a Roman theatre was based in the town . It was inhabited by the Saxons and mentioned in the Domesday book as Favreshant . The town was favoured by King Stephen who established Faversham Abbey , which survived until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 . Subsequently , the town became an important seaport and established itself as a centre for brewing , and the Shepherd Neame Brewery , founded in 1698 , remains a significant major employer .
The town was also the centre of the explosives industry between the 17th and early 20th century , before a decline following an accident in 1916 which killed over 100 workers . This coincided with a revival of the shipping industry in the town . Faversham has a number of landmarks , with several historic churches including St Mary of Charity , Faversham Parish Church , the Maison Dieu and Faversham Recreation Ground . Faversham Market has been established for over 900 years and is still based in the town centre . There are good road and rail links , including a Southeastern service to the High Speed 1 line at Ebbsfleet International and London .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Faversham was established as a settlement before the Roman conquest . The Romans established several towns in Kent including Faversham , with traffic through the Saxon Shore ports of Reculver , Richborough , Dover and Lympne converging on Canterbury before heading up Watling Street to London . The town was less than 10 miles from Canterbury , and consequently Faversham had become established on this road network by 50 AD following the initial conquest by Claudius in 43 AD . Numerous remains of Roman buildings have been discovered in and around Faversham , including under St Mary of Charity Church where coins and urns were discovered during reconstruction of the western tower in 1794 . In 2013 , the remains of a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Roman theatre , able to accommodate some 12 @,@ 000 people , were discovered at a hillside near the town . The cockpit @-@ style outdoor auditorium , the first of its kind found in Britain , was a style the Romans used elsewhere in their empire on the Continent .
There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Faversham was a summer capital for the Saxon kings of Kent . It was held in royal demesne in 811 , and is further cited in a charter granted by Coenwulf , the King of Mercia . Coenwulf described the town as the King 's little town of Fefresham , while it was recorded in the Domesday Book as Favreshant . The name has been documented as meaning " the metal @-@ worker 's village " , which may derive from the Old English fæfere , which in turn comes from the Latin " faber " meaning " craftsman " or " forger " . The town had established itself as a seaport by the Middle Ages , and became part of the Confederation of the Cinque Ports in the 13th century , providing a vessel to Dover . The Gough Map of Britain , printed in 1360 , shows the Swale as an important shipping channel for trade .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
The manor was recorded as Terra Regis , meaning it was part of the ancient royal estates . King Stephen gave it to his chief lieutenant , William of Ypres , but soon made him swap it with Lillechurch ( now Higham ) so that the manor of Faversham could form part of the endowment of Faversham Abbey . Stephen established the abbey in 1148 , and is buried there with his consort Matilda of Boulogne , and his son , Eustace , the Earl of Boulogne . Stephen favoured the town because of the abbey , and so it was historically important during his reign . King John tried to give the church to Simon of Wells in 1201 , but it was owned by the monks of St Augustine 's Abbey at Canterbury , who appealed to Rome and denied the request . Abbey Street was constructed around this time in order to provide an appropriate approach to the abbey from the town . It still houses timber framed buildings and has been described as " the finest medieval street in southeast England " .
Sir Thomas Culpeper was granted Faversham Abbey by Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 . Most of the abbey was demolished , and the remains of Stephen were rumoured to have been thrown into Faversham Creek . An excavation of the abbey in 1964 uncovered the empty graves . The entrance gates survived the demolition and lasted until the mid @-@ 18th century , but otherwise only a small section of outer wall survived . The abbey 's masonry was taken to Calais to reinforce defence of the town , then in British possession , against the French army . In 1539 , the ground upon which the abbey had stood , along with nearby land , passed to Sir Thomas Cheney , Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports .
Among the few surviving buildings of Faversham Abbey are the two barns at Abbey Farm . Minor Barn was built around 1425 ; Major Barn , the larger of the two , dates from 1476 . Next to the barns is the Abbey Farmhouse , part of which dates from the 14th century . The Abbey Guest house , on the east side of the Abbey 's Outer Gateway , has survived as Arden 's House . This house , now a private residence in Abbey Street , was the location of the murder of Thomas Arden in 1551 . The Faversham Almshouses were founded and endowed by Thomas Manfield in 1614 , with additional houses being built by Henry Wright in 1823 .
Due to the poor quality of roads in the Middle Ages , travel by sea was an important transport corridor . Richard Tylman ( or Tillman ) , mayor in 1581 , expanded the port at Faversham , building two wharfs . He became a key figure in exporting corn , wheat and malt to London from the town .
Several notable people in the Middle Ages had origins in Faversham . Haymo of Faversham was born in Faversham and later moved to Paris to join the Franciscans , becoming the " Aristotelian of Aristotelians " . Simon of Faversham was born in the town around the middle of the 13th century and later became Chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1304 . The notorious pirate Jack Ward is believed to have been born in Faversham around 1553 . John Wilson , lutenist and teacher was born in Faversham in 1595 who was the principal composer for the King 's Men and a professor of music at Oxford . There is now a plaque at the site of the house in Abbey Street where he was born .
= = = Explosives industry = = =
A gunpowder plant had been established around 1573 in Faversham . The town had a stream which could be dammed at intervals to provide power for watermills . It became known as the Home Works in the 18th century and was nationalised in 1759 . By the 19th century , the site stretched for around a mile along the waterfront . A second explosive works was established at Oare to the northwest of town in the late 17th century , with the Marsh Works following in 1786 . Towards the end of the 19th century , two new factories were built alongside the Swale to manage production of TNT and cordite . Faversham developed six explosive factories , and from 1874 to 1919 , the town was the centre of the explosives industry in the UK .
The first production of guncotton took place in the Marsh Works in 1847 . Due to a lack of experience with production methods , an explosion took place soon after work started , with several fatalities . On Sunday 2 April 1916 , an explosion occurred at one of the Swale factories in Uplees after sparks from a chimney ignited the works containing around 150 tonnes of high explosives . The incident killed over 100 people , which led to decline of the explosives industry in the town . Later accounts suggested that had the incident not happened on a Sunday , there would have been many more casualties .
All three gunpowder factories closed in 1934 due to the impending threat of World War II . Production was moved to Ardeer in Ayrshire , Scotland , and the munition industry around Faversham is now extinct . The town is now a harbour and market community ; old sail @-@ powered Thames barges are repaired , rebuilt and moored along the creekside .
= = = Industrial Revolution and beyond = = =
Kent is the centre of hop @-@ growing in England , being centred on nearby Canterbury and Faversham has been the home of several breweries . The Shepherd Neame Brewery was officially founded in 1698 , though brewing activities in Faversham pre @-@ date this . The brewery claims to be the oldest in Britain and continues to be family @-@ owned . The Rigden brewery was founded in the early 18th century by Edward Rigden . It subsequently merged with the Canterbury @-@ based George Beer in 1922 to become George Beer & Rigden before being purchased by the Maidstone based Fremlins . Whitbread bought out Fremlins in 1967 , and closed the Faversham brewery in 1990 . The site is now a Tesco superstore . Shepherd Neame remains a significant regional brewer despite a decline in consumption of traditional bitter beer , producing around 230 @,@ 000 barrels a year . It now also makes India Pale Ale under licence . Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Philip Neame , recipient of the Victoria Cross , was born in Faversham and a memorial to him was placed in the town centre in 2014 .
A shipyard was established in Faversham by James Pollock & Sons ( Shipbuilders ) in 1916 at the request of Lord Fisher , the First Lord of The Admiralty , for manufacturing barges for landing craft . Faversham already had a tradition of shipbuilding , and it soon became a major contributor to markets throughout the world , producing vessels such as the Molliette and the Violette , both constructed of concrete . Over 1200 ships were built and launched from Faversham between 1916 and 1969 .
Faversham Market is still held in the town centre . It is now the oldest street market in Kent , dating back over 900 years . Monthly markets are also held in Preston Street and Court Street .
Having been an important thoroughfare since the 12th century , Abbey Street went into decline around the start of the 20th . Some buildings on the street adjoining Quay Lane were demolished in 1892 and much of the entire street was intended for demolition as recently as the 1950s , until intervention from the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings . Local people began a determined fight to restore and preserve the area . Faversham has a highly active archaeological society and a series of community archaeology projects are run every year . In 2009 , evidence of the town 's medieval tannery was unearthed in back gardens of one street , and evidence from the Saxon period was uncovered during the Hunt the Saxons project between 2005 and 2007 .
= = Government = =
A charter was granted to the Mayor of Faversham , Jurats and Freemen of the Town of Faversham in 1546 , and regranted 1685 ; the town council was established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 . The parliamentary constituency of Faversham was created for the 1885 general election and replaced by the new constituencies of Sittingbourne and Sheppey and Faversham and Mid Kent at the 1997 general election . The town has been represented by a Member of Parliament from the Conservative Party other than between 1945 and 1970 . Since 2015 , the constituency 's MP has been Conservative Helen Whately .
Faversham is within the Swale local government district . The town contains the four electoral wards of Abbey , Davington Priory , St Ann 's and Watling . The town has absorbed several former civil parishes such as Buckland @-@ by @-@ Faversham and Faversham Without , and created new parishes in the area including Graveney , Luddenham , Oare and Sheldwich .
The Arms of Faversham Town Council is based on the Royal Arms of England , alluding to the town 's regal history .
= = Geography = =
Faversham is roughly equidistant between Sittingbourne and Canterbury . It lies 48 miles ( 77 km ) east of London , 18 miles ( 29 km ) east north east of Maidstone and 13 miles ( 21 km ) from Ashford . Nearby villages include Oare across Oare Creek to the north , Luddenham , Mockbeggar and Ospringe .
Geographically , Faversham sits at a boundary between marshland to the north and a mixture of brick earth , gravel and chalk to the south which leads into the North Downs . Faversham Creek connects the town to the Swale that separates mainland Kent from the Isle of Sheppey . The surrounding area is part of the South Swale Nature Reserve , popular with wildfowl and wading birds . The coastline around Faversham is a by @-@ product of the changes to sea level around Britain since the end of the last ice age . During Roman Britain and into the first millennium , the Faversham coast was a large estuary with Oare and Graveney being peninsulas . Land reclamation during the Middle Ages , which closed the River Wantsum and connected the Isle of Thanet to mainland Kent , resulted in less tidal waters reaching Faversham . This led to the gradual silting up of estuaries ; Faversham Creek and its tributaries have been reduced from 1 @,@ 378 acres ( 558 ha ) to 43 acres ( 17 ha ) . To stop the creek silting up completely and making navigation impossible , a number of sluices have been installed since the 16th century .
Faversham holds two UK weather records . The first was when the UK 's highest ever temperature was recorded on 10 August 2003 , at 38 @.@ 5 ° C ( 101 @.@ 3 ° F ) . This was the first time the temperature had ever exceeded 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) in the UK . The second was the highest UV index ever recorded , 16 ( Extreme ) on 6 June 2015 .
The absolute minimum temperature of − 17 @.@ 8 ° C ( 0 @.@ 0 ° F ) was set in January 1985 .
At the 2011 UK census , Faversham had a population of 19 @,@ 316 , an increase of 1 @,@ 606 from the 2001 census . The population figures were split into Abbey ( 6 @,@ 084 ) , Davington Priory ( 2 @,@ 593 ) , St Ann 's ( 5 @,@ 268 ) and Watling ( 5 @,@ 371 ) . 9 @,@ 770 people were employed within the town , split into retail ( 1 @,@ 416 ) , education ( 1 @,@ 239 ) , health and social work ( 1 @,@ 200 ) , construction ( 836 ) and manufacturing ( 692 ) . 17 @,@ 868 of the town 's residents were born in England .
= = Culture = =
Arden of Feversham is a play about the murder of Thomas Arden written around 1590 , possibly by William Shakespeare or Christopher Marlowe . It gives its name to the modern Arden Theatre in the town , Local theatre groups perform in the theatre as part of the Canterbury Festival each autumn .
The Royal Cinema is based near the town square . It opened in 1936 and is now Grade II listed . It is one of only two mock Tudor cinemas to survive in the UK .
The Faversham Society was established in 1962 , and is one of the oldest Civic Societies in the UK . It owns and manages the Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre as its headquarters . The Centre hosts a large museum depicting the town 's history and culture and hosts the town 's Visitor Information Centre , including a bookshop .
The Maison Dieu ( ' House of God ' ) , located on the A2 to the southwest of the town centre , is a hospital , monastery , hostel , retirement home and Royal lodge commissioned by Henry III in 1234 and now in the care of English Heritage . It is now managed by the Maison Dieu Trust and closely associated to the Faversham Society as a museum of Roman artefacts from the surrounding area .
Davington Priory lies to the northwest of the town centre and was founded in the mid 12th century . It is currently owned and occupied by musician and activist Bob Geldof .
Brogdale Farm , to the south of the town centre , has hosted the DEFRA National Fruit Collection since 1954 . It has over 2 @,@ 040 varieties of apple , 502 of pear , 350 of plum , 322 of cherry and smaller collections of bush fruits , nuts and grapes , all grown in 150 acres ( 61 ha ) of orchards . The farm hosts a number of fruit festivals throughout the year , guided tours and activities for schools . It also hosts the 9 @-@ inch Faversham miniature railway which runs through the orchards .
In 2011 it was discovered that the town owns an original version of Magna Carta , potentially worth about £ 20m , rather than a copy worth only £ 10 @,@ 000 . In 2015 , the copy went on display to the general public at the town 's Alexander Centre – the first time it had been on display for 715 years .
= = Community facilities = =
Faversham Recreation Ground ( locally known simply as Faversham Rec ) is to the east of the town centre . It was established in 1860 by local solicitor Henry Wreight , who bequeathed his £ 70 @,@ 000 estate , including two almshouses housing 70 people , to the town in order that locals would have an area to enjoy . The rec has been preserved and is now run by the town 's Municipal Charity . A bandstand was added towards the end of the 19th century , and sporting events began to be held on the rec . A week long party was held to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 , which drew praise from Princess Andrei of Russia , then living in Faversham . A 50 @-@ year extension on the lease was signed in 2010 , confirmed its continued use by the general public .
The Oare Gunpowder Works , scene of the 1916 explosion , is now a country park and nature reserve open to the public free of charge . The Oare Marshes are an important reserve for birds . There is an information centre near the site of the former Harty ferry over the Swale to the Isle of Sheppey . Remains of the process houses and other mill leats have been conserved , and various trails are signposted . An early 20th century electric @-@ powered gunpowder mill which was transferred to Ardeer in 1934 has been repatriated to the country park and is on display . The 18th @-@ century works bell has also been repatriated and is on display at Faversham 's Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre . Stonebridge Pond , on the site of the original Chart Mills , was donated to Swale Borough Council in the early 1980s . It is now a haven for wading birds .
= = Landmarks = =
Faversham Stone Chapel ( in Norton , Buckland and Stone ) is the remains of the Church of Our Lady of Elwarton , an ancient monument managed by The Faversham Society . It was originally used for pagan rituals in pre @-@ Roman Britain , and is the only remaining evidence in Britain of a church incorporating a pagan shrine . The building was converted into a church around AD601 when Pope Gregory I encouraged pagan buildings to be converted rather than destroyed . The church has not seen service since the 16th century and was reported as " being in a state of disrepair " and unused since the Reformation .
Although Faversham Abbey was dissolved by Henry VIII the nearby St Mary of Charity , Faversham Parish Church remains , and has been a Grade I listed building since 1950 . The church was established in 1147 by King Stephen and Queen Matilda , with a distinctive spire added around 1794 – 97 that can be easily seen from many places around town . The interior was restored in the mid @-@ 19th century by the architect Sir George Gilbert Scott , who redesigned the nave and transepts and added a stone encasing to the spire . The church reputedly contains the remains of King Stephen , which were recovered from Faversham Creek after the dissolution of the abbey . The church holds an altar dedicated to Saints Crispin and Crispinian , who reportedly fled to Faversham in the 3rd century .
St Catherine 's Church dates from the Norman period and was extensively restored in the 1860s . The nearby Ospringe Church , to the southwest of town , dates from Norman Britain , aside from a replacement tower built in 1866 . The National Shrine of Saint Jude is a Roman Catholic shrine in the Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel . It was established in 1955 and regularly attracts Catholic pilgrims .
The historic central area , especially the part @-@ pedestrian parts between the station and the creek , attracts visitors , who can learn about the town 's history and features at the Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lis centre , which provides tourist information and houses a museum . There is still a regular market several days each week in the market square where the Guildhall stands . Nearby streets feature old pubs , almshouses , shops and a growing collection of art galleries and restaurants .
Faversham Cottage Hospital opened in 1887 . It was extended in 1922 and included a World War I memorial , which was unveiled by Vice Admiral Hugh Evan @-@ Thomas . The memorial was later adapted to commemorate World War II casualties . In 2014 , the memorial became Grade II listed .
Faversham Cemetery opened in 1898 . The chapel was designed by Edwin Pover . 73 victims of the 1916 gunpowder explosion are buried in the cemetery , as is the Irish novelist Kate O 'Brien .
= = Transport = =
Faversham is close to the A2 road , a historically important route from London to Canterbury and the Channel ports . The route began as an ancient trackway which the Romans later paved and marked as Iter II ( Second Route ) on the Antonine Itinerary . The Anglo @-@ Saxons named it Wæcelinga Stræt ( Watling Street ) and it was marked as such by Matthew Paris ' Schema Britannie in 1250 . The road continued to be an important thoroughfare , and is shown next to Faversham on Philip Symonson 's map of Kent published in 1596 .
The A2 road still carries traffic between Sittingbourne and Canterbury , though London bound traffic now takes the M2 motorway . The A299 Thanet Way provides access to the Isle of Thanet and the A251 Ashford Road is a local road to Ashford . The Mall is one of the main roads to the town centre from the A2 . It was built in the late 18th century as a dignified approach road , and attracted development of villas along its length .
Faversham railway station opened in 1858 . A former goods sheet built as part of the original railway works is now Grade I listed . Trains travel to London , terminating at either Victoria or St. Pancras International . In the other direction , trains travel either to Dover Priory ( via Canterbury East ) or to Ramsgate ( via Margate ) . Since 2009 Southeastern Highspeed links Faversham to High Speed 1 , Ebbsfleet International , and London 's Stratford International and London St Pancras stations .
The town is served by a number of buses . Arriva Southern Counties run services to Sittingbourne and Maidstone and Stagecoach in East Kent operates routes to Canterbury , Ashford Maidstone . Stagecoach in East Kent also run services to Whitstable . National Cycle Route 1 passes through the town , en route from Whitstable to Sittingbourne . Swale Borough Council have expressed concern over the lack of bus and cycle facilities in the town , when compared to road and rail , and there is a particular lack of public transport to nearby rural areas .
= = Education = =
There has been a school in Faversham since the 12th century . Archival evidence has shown this had become a grammar school by 1420 . In 1526 , John Cole , chaplain to Henry VII and Henry VIII and Warden of All Souls College , Oxford , established a new grammar school on the estate of Ewell Farm . The property fell into disuse after the dissolution of the abbey , and a replacement grammar school was not established until 1587 . The Wreights School , a commercial school , was founded in 1856 , while a corresponding girls ' school , The Gibbs School was established in 1883 . The two boys ' schools were amalgamated in 1920 , forming Queen Elizabeth 's Grammar School . The current school dates from 1967 , when the boys and girls schools were merged , forming the first co @-@ educational grammar school in Kent .
The Abbey School is a Business and Enterprise Academy formed in September 1983 by the amalgamation of the Ethelbert Road Boys School and Lady Capel School for Girls . It has over 1000 pupils and is located in the south of the town , beside the A2 London Road .
= = Sport = =
Faversham Town F.C. were formed in 1884 and compete in Division One South of the Isthmian League . They have a 2000 @-@ seat stadium to the south of the town and are the only team besides the England national football team to wear the 3 lions badge . The King George V playing fields are all that remain of the Mount Field , which in 1876 hosted a first @-@ class match between Kent and Hampshire County Cricket Club .
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= Ivan Bagramyan =
Ivan Khristoforovich Bagramyan ( Armenian : Հովհաննես Քրիստափորի Բաղրամյան ; Russian : Ива ́ н Христофо ́ рович Баграмя ́ н ) , also known as Hovhannes Khachaturi Baghramyan ( Armenian : Հովհաննես Խաչատուրի ( alternatively , Քրիստափորի , Kristapori ) Բաղրամյան ; Russian : Оване ́ с Хачату ́ рович Баграмя ́ н ) ( 2 December [ O.S. 20 November ] 1897 – 21 September 1982 ) , was a Soviet military commander and Marshal of the Soviet Union of Armenian origin . During World War II , Bagramyan was the first non @-@ Slavic military officer to become a commander of a Front . He was among several Armenians in the Soviet Army who held the highest proportion of high @-@ ranking officers in the Soviet military during the war .
Bagramyan 's experience in military planning as a chief of staff allowed him to distinguish himself as a capable commander in the early stages of the Soviet counter @-@ offensives against Nazi Germany . He was given his first command of a unit in 1942 , and in November 1943 received his most prestigious command as the commander of the 1st Baltic Front . As commander of the Baltic Front , he participated in the offensives which pushed German forces out of the Baltic republics .
He did not immediately join the Communist Party after the consolidation of the October Revolution , becoming a member only in 1941 , a move atypical for a Soviet military officer . After the war , he served as a deputy member of the Supreme Soviets of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic and Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and was a regular attendee of the Party Congresses . In 1952 , he became a candidate for entry into the Central Committee and , in 1961 , was inducted as a full member . For his contributions during the war , he was widely regarded as a national hero in the Soviet Union , and continues to hold such esteemed status among Armenians .
= = Early life = =
Ivan Bagramyan was born to Armenian parents in the village of Chardakhlu , near Yelizavetpol ( modern Ganja , Azerbaijan ) , then a part of the Russian Empire . Hamazasp Babadzhanian , a fellow Armenian who was to become the chief marshal of the Soviet Armor corps , was born in the same village . While Bagramyan 's father , Khachatur , went to work all day at the railway station in Yelizavetpol , his mother , Mariam , stayed at home to take care of her seven children . Because his parents could not afford to send him to the local gymnasium , they decided to enroll him at a recently opened two @-@ year school in Yelizavetpol .
Graduating in 1912 , Bagramyan , whom everyone affectionately called Vanya , followed his father and his brothers in a path in rail work , attending the three @-@ year railway technical institute located in Tiflis . He graduated with honors and was slated to become a railway engineer within a few years when events in the First World War changed his life .
= = World War I = =
Bagramyan was well aware of the military situation at the Caucasus front during the first months of the world war . In the winter of 1914 @-@ 15 , the Imperial Russian Army was able to withstand and repel the Ottoman Empire 's offensive at Sarikamish , and to take the fight to its territory . Bagramyan also began reading harrowing reports in the Russian press of what was taking place against his fellow kinsmen across the border : the Ottomans had embarked on a campaign to annihilate systematically their Armenian subjects . He desperately attempted to join the military effort but because he was only seventeen and a railway mechanic , he was not liable to be drafted . This did not dissuade him from trying , as he later remarked , " My place was at the front . "
His opportunity came on 16 September 1915 , when he was accepted by the Russian Army as a volunteer . He was placed in the 116th Reserve Battalion and sent to Akhaltsikhe for basic training . With his training complete in December , he joined the Second Caucasus Frontier Regiment of the Russian Expeditionary Corps , which was sent to dislodge the Ottoman Turks in Persia . Bagramyan participated in several battles in Asadabad , Hamedan and Kermanshah , the Russian victories here sending Ottoman forces reeling toward Anatolia .
Learning about the exploits of the men in the outfit , the chief of staff of the regiment , General Pavel Melik @-@ Shahnazaryan , advised Bagramyan to return to Tiflis to enroll in the Praporshchik Military Academy . But in order to attend the school , Bagramyan needed to satisfy the academy 's requirement of having completed school at a gymnasium . This did not deter him and , after preparing for the courses in Armavir , he passed his exams and began attending the academy on February 13 , 1917 . He graduated in June 1917 and was assigned to the Third Armenian Infantry regiment stationed near Lake Urmia . But with the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government in the midst of the October Revolution of 1917 , his unit was demobilized .
However , with the creation of the newly established First Republic of Armenia in 1918 , Bagramyan enlisted in the Third Armenian Regiment of that country 's armed forces . From 1 April 1918 , that is , after the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk ( March 3 , 1918 ) with the Russian SFSR , he was in the First Armenian Cavalry Regiment , which put a halt to the Ottoman 3rd Army , which was bent on conquering the remains of the republic , in Karaurgan , Sarikamish and Kars . He most notably took part in the May 1918 Battle of Sardarapat , where the Armenian military scored a crucial victory against Turkish forces . He remained in the regiment until May 1920 .
= = Interwar years = =
Three years after the toppling of the Provisional Government by the Bolsheviks in October 1917 , the Red Army invaded the southern Caucasus republics of Azerbaijan , Georgia and Armenia . In May 1920 , Bagramyan , upset with the country 's social and political conditions , participated in a failed rebellion against the Dashnak @-@ led government of Armenia . He was jailed and sent to work in the fields for several months but was allowed to rejoin the military with the outbreak of the Turkish – Armenian War . But in December 1920 , Armenia was sovietized and the national army was subsequently disbanded . Bagramyan , however , chose to join the 11th Soviet Army and was appointed a cavalry regiment commander .
As life in Armenia grew relatively more stable under Soviet rule , Bagramyan sought to locate a woman he had met several years earlier , Tamara Hamayakovna . Tamara , who was at this time living in Nakhichevan with her family , had been married to an Armenian officer who had been killed during the Turkish @-@ Armenian war , leaving her with their one @-@ year @-@ old son , Movses . Bagramyan visited her and the two decided to get married at the end of 1922 . In addition to their son Movses , who went on to become a painter , they had a daughter , Margarit , who later became a doctor . Tamara remained at Bagramyan 's side until her death in 1973 .
In 1923 , Bagramyan was appointed commander of the Alexandropol Cavalry Regiment , a position he held until 1931 . Two years later , Bagramyan graduated from the Leningrad Cavalry School and , in 1934 , from the Frunze Military Academy . In his memoirs , Pyotr Grigorenko , a Ukrainian commander who attended Frunze , recalled how Bagramyan was expelled from the academy by his superiors after they had learned that he had been a secret member of the banned Dashnak Armenian nationalist party for more than a decade . Pending his arrest , Grigorenko described Bagramyan " deeply depressed , saying he only wished they 'd arrest him soon so that he could get it over with . " Grigorenko advised that he appeal the arrest warrant which Bagramyan reluctantly did and , with the help of Armenian politburo member Anastas Mikoyan , the arrest warrant was revoked and he accepted to be " rehabilitated . " From 1934 to 1936 , he served as the chief of staff of the 5th Cavalry Division , and from 1938 , he worked as a senior instructor and lecturer at the Military Academy of the Soviet General Staff . Concurrently , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had purged much of the Soviet officer corps of its veteran commanders . While fellow students from the military academy , Andrei Yeremenko and Georgy Zhukov , had seen their careers rise , Bagramyan 's had remained stagnant .
In 1940 , when General Zhukov was promoted to commander of the Kiev Military District in the Ukraine , Bagramyan wrote a letter asking to serve under his command . Zhukov agreed , and in December asked for his help writing a paper to be presented to the commanders of the Soviet Military Districts . Bagramyan 's paper , Conducting a Contemporary Offensive Operation , apparently impressed Zhukov , as he promoted Bagramyan to become the head of Operations for the Soviet 12th Army based in the Ukraine . Within three months however , Bagramyan , then a colonel , was appointed deputy chief of staff of the Southwestern Front , headquartered in Kiev .
= = World War II = =
= = = Ukraine = = =
In June 1941 , Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union . Unlike many of the border troops who were caught off guard by the offensive , Bagramyan and his commander , General Mikhail Kirponos , believed an invasion by Germany was inevitable . However , Kirponos chose to ignore Bagramyan 's viewpoint that the German offensive would employ the lightning speed Blitzkrieg tactics like those seen in the campaigns in Poland in 1939 and Western Europe in 1940 . Since the winter of 1939 – 40 , Bagramyan had been busy devising a battle plan that would counter threats from the western Ukraine , which was approved after numerous revisions on 10 May 1940 .
On the morning of 22 June , he was tasked with the overseeing of a transfer of a military convoy to Ternopol . While his column was passing the Soviet airfields near the city of Brody , German air strikes hit the aircraft on the ground . Several hours later , they arrived in Ternopol , having been strafed twice by the planes . Three days after the invasion , the plans for the counter @-@ offensive were implemented , but disorder engulfed the troops , and the counter @-@ attack collapsed . Bagramyan took part in the great tank battles in western Ukraine and the defensive operation around Kiev , in which Kirponos was killed and the entire Front captured by the Germans . He was one of a handful of senior officers who escaped from the encircled Front .
Bagramyan was then appointed chief of staff to Marshal Semyon Timoshenko and along with future Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev , then a political officer , coordinated the fighting around Rostov . In his memoirs , Khrushchev described Bagramyan as a " very precise person who reported on everything just as it was . How many troops we had , their positions , and the general situation . "
Khrushchev went on to detail an account where Marshal Semyon Budyonny , sent by the chief of the operations department from Moscow as a representative of STAVKA , arrived in Kiev to courtmartial Bagramyan , who vigorously protested and said that if he was an incapable staff officer , then he should instead be given a field unit to command . To Bagramyan 's astonishment , Budyonny went on to attempt to convince him to agree to his execution . Khrushchev remarked that the argument was sparked arbitrarily and had taken place after an " abundant feast with cognac " and that " in those days we didn 't take that kind of conversation seriously . " According to him , at the time however , the Soviet military was especially suspicious of the men in its ranks , itself judging that there were " enemies of the people ... everywhere , especially the Red Army . "
Bagramyan was instrumental in the planning of two Soviet counter @-@ offensives against the Germans , including the major push made by Soviet forces in December during the Battle of Moscow , and for this was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General . In the same month , he was made the chief of staff of a military operations group that would oversee three Army Groups : the Southern , the Southwestern and Bryansk Fronts . In March 1942 , he went along with Khrushchev and Timoshenko to Moscow to present the plans of a new counter @-@ offensive in the Ukrainian city of Kharkov to Stalin . Stalin , impressed with his plan , approved the operation and on April 8 , promoted Bagramyan as Chief of Staff of the Southwestern Front . On 12 May 1942 , armies of the Southwestern Front attacked Kharkov but the launch of the offensive came at an inopportune moment since they were attacking from the Barvenkovo Salient , a region that German forces were near closing .
While Soviet forces were initially successful in recapturing Kharkov , they found themselves trapped by the German army after the closing of Barvenkovo . On 18 May , Bagramyan asked Timoshenko to alter the plans but Timoshenko along with Stalin refused to approve his request . Soviet losses were heavy as the 6th , 9th and 57th armies ( approximately 18 – 20 divisions ) comprising a large portion of the Southwestern Front , were all destroyed and Bagramyan was removed from his post on 28 June by STAVKA . According to Khrushchev , Bagramyan was so devastated from the immense loss of men that after the operation was called off , " he burst into tears . His nerves cracked ... He was weeping for our army . " Held responsible for the failure of the operation and " poor staff work " , he was demoted to chief of staff of the Soviet 28th Army . Several days later , he wrote a letter to Stalin asking to " serve at the front at any capacity , however modest . " British military historian John Erickson contends that Bagramyan was unfairly scapegoated by Stalin in his attempts to " hunt for [ the ] culprits " of the mismanagement of operations .
= = = The 16th Army = = =
Though he had never led a fighting unit prior to the war , he was given his first command of an army in the Western Front as his superiors , and particularly Marshal Zhukov were impressed with his skills and capabilities as a staff officer . Zhukov , with the approval of STAVKA , appointed him commander of the 16th Army ( 2nd formation ) , ( July 1942 - April 1943 ) replacing its former commander , Konstantin Rokossovsky who had been sent to command the Bryansk Front . The 16th Army transferred its troops to the 5th Army , and its command and staff were moved to the second echelon of the Western Front were the Army took up command of part of the 10th Army 's troops , and its defensive positions . On 11 August , however , German forces mounted a surprise offensive on the southern flank of Western Front , splitting the 61st Army from the 16th Army which was not taking part in the Rzhev @-@ Sychevka Offensive operation . The German forces threatened Bagramyan 's left flank as he quickly moved his forces to counter their movements and halted them from advancing further on 9 September .
With the rest of the Eastern Front battles almost entirely focused on Stalingrad and the Germans ' attempts to advance to the Caucasus , the 16th Army was not called up to action until February 1943 . By then , the German 6th Army besieged in Stalingrad had been encircled and surrendered . The 16th Army at the time was composed of four divisions and one infantry brigade and in light of the new offensive , Bagramyan 's force was given two extra divisions , an infantry brigade , four tank brigades and several artillery regiments .
= = = Kursk = = =
As the battle of Stalingrad marked the turning point of the war , German forces reorganized for a new offensive in the summer of 1943 to attack the Soviet held Kursk salient in Russia . The German High Command was to deploy veteran units to destroy the salient , including the Ninth Army and the II SS Panzer Corps . STAVKA , already informed of the impending offensive , called for an advance toward the German defenses positioned near the town of Kozelsk , which would drive south with the help of the armies of the Central Front . The forces would then proceed to cut off a 75 @-@ mile ( 121 km ) gap that would effectively surround the Germans and cut if off from reinforcements . This was similar to Operation Uranus , where the Soviet Army encircled and trapped the Sixth Army in Stalingrad .
Bagramyan 's 11th Guards Army ( the renamed 16th Army ) was tasked to take part in the offensive and was given an additional three infantry divisions and two tank corps , a force composed of fifteen divisions . Bagramyan , however , argued to STAVKA that its planning was too audacious in the hopes of repeating a successful encirclement like that in Uranus . He claimed that his forces would be overstretched and would have difficulty in attacking the entrenched German positions in Bolkhov . To avoid a repetition of the failure in Kharkov the previous year , he instead asked that the 61st Army from the Bryansk Front aid his 11th Guards in destroying the German forces in Bolkhov , thus eliminating the Ninth Army 's protection from the north . He appealed to his front commander Vasily Sokolovsky as well the Bryansk 's M. A. Reyter , both of whom rejected his proposal . In April , STAVKA recalled the main commanders of the Fronts and Armies to Moscow on a briefing of the preparations for the battle . Against the protestations of Sokolovsky and Reyter , Bagramyan proposed his alternative plan to Stalin , who agreed that it would be the more correct course to follow . Bagramyan was given twenty days to prepare the 11th Guards Army and on 24 May reported that his forces were ready . The 11th Guards now was composed of 135 @,@ 000 men , 280 armored fighting vehicles , 2 @,@ 700 artillery pieces and several hundred planes to lend air support for the ground forces . Stalin , however , felt it necessary to further wear thin the fighting abilities of the German forces and delayed the offensive .
Ultimately , it was the German forces on who took the initiative by launching Operation Citadel on 5 July in the area around Kursk . German losses were initially heavy due to Soviet defensive preparations . Taking advantage of this , on 12 July , Bagramyan 's forces commenced their offensive , codenamed Operation Kutuzov , and quickly breached the German defenses , advancing a distance of 45 miles ( 72 km ) by 18 July . By 28 July , the operation concluded successfully and he was promoted to the rank of Colonel @-@ General . In the following month , his forces took part in the large @-@ scale tank offensives which routed the German assaults and forced Germany to remain on the defensive for the remainder of the war .
= = = Belarus = = =
With the end of operations in Kursk , the Soviets began a series of offensives on various fronts to push the Germans out of the occupied Soviet republics . In October 1943 , Bagramyan 's 11th Guards Army was transferred to the Second Baltic Front which was concentrated on the retaking of Belarus and namely , the Baltic republics . In November , Stalin offered Bagramyan the position of head commander of the First Baltic Front which had the similar objectives of the Second but was making little headway in its attempts to advance northwards .
Stalin would allow him to retain the 11th Guards and suggested that Colonel @-@ General N. E. Chibisov , an officer he had served under , assume his position . Bagramyan , however , commented that he had had a frictional relationship with Chibisov and instead nominated Lieutenant @-@ General K. N. Galitsky . Stalin , belatedly realizing that Bagramyan was implying that the two would be unable to coordinate harmoniously due to a conflict of holding the same rank , agreed to Bagramyan 's suggestion and promoted him to the rank Army General . He also agreed to have the Second Baltic Front return a tank corps and an infantry division that was taken from the 11th Guards , thus bolstering the forces under Bagramyan to a total of four armies : 11th Guards , 39th , 43rd and the 4th Shock .
In the winter of 1943 , his forces advanced forward towards the Belarusian city of Vitebsk . One of the key elements to Bagramyan 's success was that many of the soldiers were part of veteran units that had been trained in the Arctic regions of Siberia , enabling them to easily push through entrenched defenses the Germans had spent months preparing . Among the key locations imperative to reach Vitebsk was the small town of Gorodok , which served as a communications hub that the Germans had heavily fortified . Despite the heavy defense preparations , Bagramyan was able to utilize his heavy artillery and air support from the Red Air Force in late December to bombard the town and then launch a three @-@ pronged attack from the ground . The German garrison was overwhelmed , and by 24 December , two infantry divisions and one tank division had surrendered . In Moscow , the news of the victory at Gorodok prompted a 124 @-@ cannon salute in honor of Bagramyan and the First Baltic Front .
On 2 April 1944 Stalin granted Bagramyan 's request to relieve the troops of the Front of offensive duties . However , German forces took this to their advantage as they mounted a new offensive against Soviet partisan fighters in Belarus . Bagramyan 's senior staff diverted air support and other crucial supplies to aid the partisans , allowing most of them to escape the German encirclement . With the advance of Soviet forces in the Baltic and the Ukraine , German Army Group Center had largely been isolated as STAVKA prepared to eliminate the pocket ( consisting of Third Panzer , Second , Fourth , and Ninth Armies ) . STAVKA 's plan , codenamed Operation Bagration was kept secret from all of the involved Front commanders . Bagramyan himself was only informed in May 1944 of his role in the offensive .
Bagration called for the First , Second and Third Belorussian and the First Baltic Fronts to engulf Army Group Center . Bagramyan was tasked with attacking the forces in the pocket , cross the Daugava River and , along with Third Belorussian , clear the surrounding areas of Vitebsk of German forces . Although he felt the plans for the Bagration were sound , he worried about the possibility of a German incursion by Army Group North against his forces from the north . He appealed to his superiors once more , Zhukov and Alexander Vasilevsky , to have the First Baltic Front move westward to help eliminate the Third Panzer Army , thus splitting Army Group North in two . Zhukov and Vasilevsky accepted his argument , introducing it to Stalin in a meeting on 23 May who formally approved it in a directive on 31 May .
Although Bagramyan found it acceptable to sustain heavy casualties ( as did all the commanders of the Red Army ) , he was disturbed with the immense loss of life his forces were sustaining . He , however , attempted to reduce those levels primarily by maintaining the element of surprise in operations . In his preparations for Bagration , he planned for the 43rd Army to move through the more geographically difficult swamps and marshlands to Army Group North 's right flank . This maneuver would thus take North by surprise since it expected the Soviet offensive to move through more suitable terrain . He proved correct , as in early June 1944 , the 43rd achieved success in its attack . Commander of the 43rd Army , General Afanasy Beloborodov , wrote that during the offensive they apprehended a German general who stated that German forces had been blindsided by the attacking forces .
As Bagramyan pushed towards Vitebsk , his forces were aided by the same Belorussian guerrilla fighters who had escaped the German encirclement in April . They provided vital intelligence , including information on the location of bridges and troop movements , and launched attacks against German logistic lines . On 22 June 1944 , Bagration began as Bagramyan proceeded in moving westwards as previously planned . However , a widening gap on the Front 's northern flank grew as it advanced while the Second Baltic Front , tasked to help defend that area , took no action . Stalin agreed to send a tank corps to reinforce Bagramyan 's forces but ordered him to capture Polotsk , which would sever Army Group North 's communication lines and open up a route towards the central Baltic . By 3 July , his troops had accomplished the tasks set forth in the directive , destroyed the Third Panzer Army and captured Polotsk . For his achievements , on 7 July he was decorated with the title of Hero of the Soviet Union .
= = = The Baltics = = =
With the overall success of Soviet forces in Bagration , his Front was expanded by three armies ( although he ceded the 4th Shock Army to Second Baltic ) , the 39th Army ( previously under the command of Third Belorussian ) , the 51st and the 2nd Guards Armies . The First Baltic Front was ordered by STAVKA to move westward in order to stop Army Group North 's remaining forces from escaping to Germany . Despite this , Bagramyan understood that many of the general orders being given to the German Army were directed by Adolf Hitler , rather than the General Staff , and knew that while there was a possibility that they would confront them in the Lithuanian city of Kaunas , he felt the more likely location would be in Latvia 's capital , Riga . He spoke with Vasilevsky who agreed to change the plans if his theory and intuition proved correct .
As the First Baltic began moving towards Lithuania and into eastern Latvia , it became clear that Army Group North would attempt to outflank Bagramyan 's forces near Daugavpils , as he had previously predicted . Vasilevsky , keeping his promise , appealed to Stalin to allow Bagramyan to move to Daugavpils but he refused to do so . Vasilevsky in turn , took it upon his own initiative and gave Bagramyan the go ahead . However , with the loss of 4th Shock Army , Bagramyan was left shortchanged since his promised 39th Army had not only not arrived but was composed of only seven divisions ( in comparison to 4th Shock 's ten ) . Feeling that time was being lost , he pressed on with the units he had .
By 9 July , his ground forces had made significant gains in cutting off a vital road that connected Kaunas to Daugavpils . Taking advantage of this , Bagramyan worked with other Front commanders to attack the rear guard of Army Group Center but poor coordination between the units led a stall in the advance . At this time , Bagramyan realized that German forces were most probably not going to easily retreat from the Baltics and so further advances towards Kaunas would be pointless . He proposed to STAVKA to launch a full @-@ scale offensive towards Riga but the former rejected his plans , stating that the armies of Second and Third Baltic Fronts would have already pushed Army Group Center to Prussia by the time of the offensive . He attempted to convince them otherwise , citing the numerically deficient forces in the two Fronts , but was rebuffed and ordered to drive towards a road connecting the Lithuanian city of Šiauliai to Riga , resulting in its capture in late July .
With its capture , he persuaded Vasilevsky to allow his forces to move towards Riga , receiving a formal go @-@ ahead by STAVKA in a directive on 29 July . On 30 July , his forces finally reached the seaside city of Tukums , near the Bay of Riga , thereby cutting off a total of 38 German infantry and armored divisions in Latvia . For his achievements in this battle , he was given the title of Hero of the Soviet Union . During the month of August , Soviet forces stalled in the Riga offensive , concentrating on halting German attacks . Finally on 14 September 1944 , the First , Second and Third Baltic Fronts launched full @-@ scale offensives with the objective of Riga , encountering fierce resistance by its defenders . On 24 September , with his forces only 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Riga , STAVKA ordered Bagramyan 's forces to abandon it to the Second and Third Baltic Fronts , regroup , and instead advance against Memel . His forces attacked Memel on 5 October and on 10 October , reached the city , effectively preventing Army Group North from retreating to Prussia .
In early 1945 , Bagramyan 's army , under the overall command of Vasilievsky , took part in the advance into East Prussia . In Operation Samland , Bagramyan 's First Baltic Front , now known as the Samland Group , captured Königsberg ( now Kaliningrad ) in April . On 9 May 1945 , he accepted the surrender of the German forces penned up in Latvia , capturing a total of 158 aircraft , 18 @,@ 000 vehicles , 500 tanks and assault guns among other weaponry .
= = Career after World War II = =
After the war , Bagramyan remained in command of the Baltic Military District , commanding operations against partisans in Lithuania and Latvia . In 1954 , he was appointed Chief Inspector of the Ministry of Defense . In 1955 , he was appointed Deputy Minister of Defense with the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union . He was also head of the Military Academy of General Staff and commander of the reserve forces of the Soviet Armed Forces .
He spent much of his time writing articles in military journals on Soviet strategic operations and most notably , co @-@ authored the six @-@ volume work on Soviet involvement during World War II , The Soviet Union 's Great Patriotic War ( 1941 – 1945 ) . In August 1967 , Bagramyan accompanied General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev and premier Alexei Kosygin to North Vietnam , where they met with Vietnamese leaders as he , serving in the role of a military expert , helped negotiate the transfer of logistics and arms to the country during the Vietnam War .
He retired in 1968 . In 1971 , Bagramyan completed his first volume of his memoirs in This is How the War Began in 1971 and in 1977 the second volume , Thus We Went to Victory , was published . Among the numerous points he noted in the second book was an analysis of the Red Army 's costly offensives in the early stages of the war :
There is no point in hiding that before the war we mostly learned to attack , and did not pay enough attention to such an important manoeuvre as retreat . Now we have paid for this . It turned out that the commanders and the staff were not sufficiently prepared to prepare and execute the retreat manoeuvre . Now , in the second week of war , we had in fact to learn from the beginning the most difficult art - the art of the execution of retreat .
In 1980 , another book of Bagramyan entitled My Memoirs was published and was based on the first and second volumes . A large portion of the book was dedicated to the Armenian issues including the territories of Western Armenia , massacres of Armenians by the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian Genocide , the Ottoman invasion of Armenia and the Battle of Sardarapat , as well as other topics .
Marshal Bagramyan was awarded with numerous Soviet and foreign orders and medals for his service , including two Orders of the Hero of the Soviet Union , seven Orders of Lenin , the Order of the October Revolution , three Orders of the Red Banner , two Orders of Suvorov and the Order of Kutuzov . Among the other commendations he received were the Polish Virtuti Militari , the Medal For the Victory Over Germany and the Medal " For the Victory over Japan " .
After the death of Marshal Vasily Chuikov on 18 March 1982 , he was the last surviving Soviet Marshal who held a high command in World War II . However , Bagramyan was ill and died a few months later , on 21 September 1982 , at the age of 84 . He was buried with full military honors at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Moscow . A town in Armenia ( 40 @.@ 19333 ° N 44 @.@ 36861 ° E / 40 @.@ 19333 ; 44 @.@ 36861 ) , a military firing range , an Armenian Army training brigade , and a subway station and street in the capital of Armenia , Yerevan , are named in his honor . On 11 May 1997 , the government of Armenia established the commemorative 100th Anniversary of Marshal Bagramyan medal . It is awarded to service and civilian personnel who participated in the Second World War .
According to the Soviet laws , a monument made out of bronze had to be erected in the birthplace of a recipient of two orders of the Hero of the Soviet Union . The one that was erected in Chardakhlu village for Bagramyan was destroyed by Azerbaijanis after the Karabakh movement broke out . His brother Aleksey Khristoforovich Bagramyan 's grave was also desecrated in Fakhri Khiyaban ( The Alley of Honor ) cemetery , which is located in present @-@ day Baku , Azerbaijan .
= = Honours and awards = =
Soviet Union
Foreign
Honorary personal arms
Damascus sword - a gift of the Armenian people
Bagramyan 's awards have been deposited in the Central Armed Forces Museum .
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= Russian Roulette ( song ) =
" Russian Roulette " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . It premiered on radio stations worldwide on October 20 , 2009 and was released as the album 's lead single on October 27 through Def Jam Recordings . Written and produced by Ne @-@ Yo and Chuck Harmony , " Russian Roulette " is a pop and R & B ballad that contains dark , morbid , and tense atmospheric elements in its composition . Lyrically , the single is about an abusive romantic relationship that ended abruptly . Music critics noted the lyrical theme as a response to the domestic violence case between Rihanna and her boyfriend , singer Chris Brown .
" Russian Roulette " received generally positive reviews from critics , with many praising Rihanna 's vocal performance and the song 's lyrics . It reached the top @-@ ten in over twenty countries worldwide including number one in Czech Republic , Israel , Luxembourg , Norway , Portugal , Slovakia and Switzerland . The song reached number two on the UK Singles Chart and number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . " Russian Roulette " also topped the UK R & B and US Hot Dance Club Songs charts . It was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) denoting sales of over two million copies in the United States alone .
The song 's music video , was shot by director Anthony Mandler , a frequent collaborator of Rihanna 's , and depicts Rihanna playing a game of the titular Russian roulette with her love interest played by American actor Jesse Williams . Other scenes include Rihanna in the woods where she is run over by a car , in a gas chamber , in a padded cell , and shots being fired at her underwater . The singer performed " Russian Roulette " on several occasions including on the sixth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom , and on the Late Show with David Letterman in the United States . The song was included on the set list of Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour . English singer George Michael performed a cover of " Russian Roulette " during his Symphonica Tour .
= = Writing and production = =
In 2009 , producer Chuck Harmony and singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo convened together to conceptualize a song that would take Rihanna 's music to a further level . According to Harmony , they didn 't wanted to re @-@ work the previous efforts by Rihanna — something that according to him the fans expected . The producer told MTV News that they wanted to give Rihanna a film , not just a song with a length of three minutes , " I felt musically like everybody was gonna give like that ' Disturbia , ' ' SOS , ' kind of pop , uptempo stuff , and I really wanted the song that me and Ne @-@ Yo did to stand out . "
Following a domestic violence case between Rihanna and her boyfriend American entertainer Chris Brown , media speculated as to whether any song featured on her fourth upcoming album would be about him . In an interview with MTV News , Ne @-@ Yo clarified that he would not write a song for Rihanna about Brown , because he considered the idea unnecessary . Harmony said that no matter what song Rihanna released as a lead single from the album , it would be looked at as a song about Brown .
In an interview with the same publication , Ne @-@ Yo explained how he wrote the lyrics , " I 'm listening to the track , and all I can see is Rihanna and some random person sitting across from each other at the table with a gun sitting in the middle of the table and playing Russian roulette . " Ne @-@ Yo further stated that Rihanna is not afraid to trying new things and from the first moment she heard the song he knew she would like it , " I trust Rihanna to be Rihanna , and she trusts me to be me . That 's the coolest thing about our relationship . I must say this song is a step in somewhat of a different direction for both of us . " When Harmony heard the song , both he and Ne @-@ Yo were aware that they should change some elements and that it had to be darker and edgier .
" Russian Roulette " was recorded during the summer 2009 , at the Roc the Mic Studios in New York City by Marcos Tovar . Mykael Alexander was the assistant recorder while Makeba Riddick made the vocal production of the song . Mike " TrakGuru " Johnson recorded the music and Kevin Hanson served as an assistant . " Russian Roulette " was mixed by Kevin " KD " Davis together with Jared Newcomb who served as an assistant . Jessie Bonds played the guitars in the song . Harmony explained that after the song was done , Rihanna called Ne @-@ Yo and told him that " Russian Roulette " is one of her favorites , " I think overall she was comfortable with the vibe of the song and comfortable with the lyrical content of the song . She loves the song . "
= = Release and artwork = =
On October 14 , 2009 , a black metal " R " along with a message saying " The Wait is Over " was placed on Rihanna 's official website . Subsequently , Rihanna posted on her official Twitter profile " # The Wait Is Ova . Nov. 23 09 " . Speculation rose among fans that " The Wait Is Ova " , literally meaning " The wait is over " , would either be the name of a new single or the then @-@ upcoming album . According to Entertainment Weekly the date looked accurate for her album release and " The Wait Is Ova " would not be the title of the album . Two days later , a countdown timer appeared on her website and was scheduled to end on October 20 , 2009 . After the timer finished counting , " Russian Roulette " premiered on BBC Radio 1 , the singer 's official website and on American radio stations . The artwork for the single features Rihanna posing topless with a strip wire around her chest and wearing an eye patch " that completes the angry look " .
Def Jam Recordings serviced the song to contemporary , rhythmic and urban radio in the United States on October 27 , 2009 as the lead single from Rated R. In an interview with NME , Rihanna explained that she and her management didn 't have doubts if " Russian Roulette " should be the lead single as it was very personal and emotional track to her . On November 3 , the single was released for a digital download via iTunes Store worldwide . The album version of " Russian Roulette " together with its instrumental were released as a CD single in Germany on November 13 . On December 11 , seven remixes of the song were digitally released in some countries .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Russian Roulette " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B ballad that contains dark , haunting , morbid , and tense atmospheric elements . The song has an instrumentation consisted of guitars , piano and synths which play over a " heart beat " bass line and is accompanied with Rihanna 's " affecting " vocals . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine wrote that the song 's production is also decorated with the sound of a rolling dice . According to Jon Pareless of The New York Times " Russian Roulette " " is paced by a heartbeat , a ticking clock and Rihanna 's fearful voice . " The single is written in the key of F ♯ minor , in common time , with a tempo of 83 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocal range spans from F ♯ 3 to C5 . Chicago Tribune 's Greg Kot called the singer 's voice a " delicate instrument " that is often the least element in her song 's production , however , he noted that on the song " she 's squarely in the center of the action " .
Lyrically , " Russian Roulette " is about an abusive romantic relationship that ends abruptly , with some critics comparing them to the relationship that Rihanna had with Brown . Kot noted that the single 's lyrics compare a relationship to a fatal game of choice , while Andy Jill of The Independent wrote that the its title refers to a " state of relationships " . Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice described the song as a spare , suspenseful , violent torch song with a literal title . Los Angeles Times ' Todd Martens wrote that although the song 's lyrics are vague and find people speculating , they " hint at a situation one probably doesn 't want to be in the middle of " . Sasha Resende of The Michigan Daily wrote " the ballad , which employs reckless gunplay as a not @-@ so @-@ subtle metaphor for a troubled relationship , achieves its seemingly morbid intent . "
" Russian Roulette " begins with a " searing " guitar solo that later transitions into a " pulsing " beat which stays constant until the end of the song . The single opens with the lyrics , " Take a breath / Take it deep / Calm yourself / He says to me / If you play / You play for keeps / Take the gun / And count to three . " The metaphor about the game of Russian roulette is also present in the chorus in which Rihanna sings , " And you can see my heart beating / You can see it through my chest / I said I 'm terrified , but I 'm not leaving / I know that I must pass this test / So just pull the trigger . " In the upcoming verse , the character that the singer portrays in the song it 's scared that the man talking to her will always have a power over , " Say a prayer to yourself / He says close your eyes / Sometimes it helps / And then I get a scary thought / That he 's here means he 's never lost . " " Russian Roulette " ends with a sound of a gun shot , which according to Michaelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club extends the drama accompanied by " harrowing scenarios and tremulous vocals " .
= = Critical response = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy praised " Russian Roulette " and called it a " masterful return effort " . He additionally wrote that the single is " brave , brilliantly @-@ realized and bizarre enough to distance " the singer from the other pop or R & B performers like Lady Gaga . According to Levine , the song is her best vocal performances and shows Rihanna growing in front of the audience 's eyes . Will Hines of Consequence of Sound called the song a worth centerpiece and further wrote that it stands out from other tracks on the album which proves that Rated R " was a cathartic process for the singer " . Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times wrote that although is hard to imagine the song to be played in a car or a club , it 's " attention @-@ grabbing stuff , standing in stark — emphasis on stark — contrast to much of the current pop landscape . " Alibhe Malone of NME wrote that Rated R is an album about power and control in which " Russian Roulette " sets the agenda .
The Boston Globe 's Sarah Rodman wrote that the song is moody but far too deliberate and " has a grab bag of evocative images but never quite jells " . A reviewer of OK ! magazine wrote that the single represents a downbeat way for return to the charts for Rihanna , but can grow on you . Andy Jill of The Independent stated that " Russian Roulette " and " Fire Bomb " have " inflammatory " titles . Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson wrote that although Rihanna took risk with releasing the song , it pays off , " Rihanna is in fine vocal form throughout , and Ne @-@ Yo 's songwriting is economical and evocative per usual . " A staff from MTV Newsroom thought that the single retains some sort of attitude and atmosphere that made Rihanna " such a definitive artist " . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone concluded that works like " Russian Roulette " , " a domestic @-@ violence victim 's confession whipped into soaring melodrama — tell us why : She was busy saying her piece in the studio . "
Andy Kellman of AllMusic stated that in the song Rihanna had a sudden desire to provoke even if that is in metaphorical context . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal concluded that the single is a bad Céline Dion song with " barrel @-@ turning revolver noises that actually sound like a can of spray paint being shook up " . Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice stated that " Russian Roulette " ' s composition , makes the song unpleasant for listening . Chris Richards of The Washington Post wrote that the song has " plodding beat " and " forgettable hook " and additionally criticized the ending of the song with a sound of gunshot ; according to him that 's an attempt to " salvage its wasted potential " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Russian Roulette " debuted at number 100 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated November 7 , 2009 . The next week the song reached a new peak of 75 . In its first week of digital release , " Russian Roulette " sold 132 @,@ 000 copies and moved from 75 to number nine ; it became Rihanna 's twelfth top @-@ ten single on the chart and made her the second female artist of the 2000s decade with most top @-@ ten songs only behind Beyoncé . Also , subsequently debuted at number nine on the US Digital Songs chart . On the Pop Songs chart , the single debuted at number 36 and moved to 35 the next week with audience over 29 million audience impressions on the radio . In its third week , the song reached its peak of 21 on the chart . Additionally , it peaked at number 49 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In the US , " Russian Roulette " was most successful on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart where it peaked at number one in its seventh week for the issue dated February 20 , 2010 . It was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) denoting sales of over two million digital copies in the US alone . " Russian Roulette " also peaked at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 .
" Russian Roulette " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 19 on November 9 , 2009 , climbing into the top ten the following week at number nine . After fluctuating around the top ten mark over the following three weeks , it regained its peak position on December 14 , 2009 . It remained on the chart for 12 weeks , earning a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand . " Russian Roulette " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart , at number 11 on November 16 , 2009 . The following week it climbed to its peak of number seven . It remained in the top ten for three consecutive weeks , and for 12 weeks on the chart in total . It has been certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association denoting sales of 35 @,@ 000 copies .
" Russian Roulette " entered the UK Singles Chart at number six on November 29 , 2009 . The following week , it rose to its peak of number two , giving Rihanna her eleventh top five single in the country . Simultaneously , it peaked at number one on the UK R & B Chart and remained at the top for three consecutive weeks . It was certified Silver in the United Kingdom on February 12 , 2010 , after selling 200 @,@ 000 copies . As of August 2011 , the single has sold over 360 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . Elsewhere in Europe , the song managed to top the charts in Norway , Slovakia , and Switzerland , and attained top five positions in Austria , Belgium , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Scotland and Sweden . It also reached the top ten in Denmark , Italy and Spain .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Russian Roulette " was directed by Rihanna 's frequent collaborator Anthony Mandler , who directed Rihanna 's previous videos for " Take a Bow " , " Disturbia " , " Rehab " and " Wait Your Turn " . In November 2009 , Rihanna appeared on " TV total " in Germany to talk about her new album and preview 30 seconds of the video for the song . Mandler spoke to MTV News , stating " I think that with this song and the meaning of this song and how loaded it all is , no pun intended , how much imagery and perhaps symbolism that is loaded in this song , the only way to do it was to do something that was visually challenging " . The music video for the song premiered on ABC 's 20 / 20 on November 13 , 2009 .
The music video opens with shots of Rihanna hooded , lying on the floor of a gas chamber . Three men , dressed in black uniforms and wearing dark round glasses circulate around the singer , attempting to extort information from her . The scene then moves to a dimly lit room in which Rihanna sits at a table with her love interest ( played by American actor Jesse Williams ) opposite . On the table between them lies a silver revolver in which , throughout the video , they take it turns holding to their heads . Other scenes include Rihanna in a woodland at night standing in the middle of a highway before a car speeds towards her , quickly cutting to another scene , giving the impression she is run over . Elements of blood and tears and vehicular assault dominate the video . In the final scenes , Rihanna is shown underwater , floating whilst being fired at ; one bullet is visually seen cutting her throat . The video ends with her lover apparently committing suicide with the revolver placed between them .
= = = Reception = = =
The reception of the music video was mixed , with many critics noting its dark theme . James Montgomery of MTV reviewed the video stating : , " There 's seemingly no bottom to the inky depths Rihanna plumbs in her brand @-@ new ' Russian Roulette ' video , a dark , claustrophobic descent that 's creepier than anything she 's ever done before ( including the ' Disturbia ' video ) " . Katy Hall from The Huffington Post commented that the video comes from a pretty dark place and tells more depressing story than Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " . According to Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone , there is a lot of imagery that is influenced by the altercation of Rihanna and Chris Brown from February 2009 , including a speeding car that approaches Rihanna while she stands alone at night – " a moment that seems to mirror the events immediately following the assault " . Megan Masters from E ! Online commented that the video " portrays " some seemingly real emotion with her bouncing back @-@ and @-@ forth between writhing around a padded cell . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly supported the dark imagery used in the video , explaining , " What , you thought Rihanna was going to give ' Russian Roulette ' a video full of sunshine and rainbows and peppy choreography ? Her first single from Rated R is a song about violence " .
= = Live performances and cover = =
Following the release of Rated R in the United Kingdom , Rihanna performed the song for the first time at the Nokia promotional concert at Brixton Academy in London . Rihanna performed the song as part of a set list , which included " Wait Your Turn " and " Hard " , the latter of which Rihanna was joined on stage by Young Jeezy , to perform the song together . During the set , Rihanna also performed songs from her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad , including " Disturbia " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " . " Run This Town " and " Umbrella " were performed with assistance of Jay @-@ Z , whose vocals are featured on the songs She performed " Russian Roulette " while particularly sitting on a throne chair . A reviewer from MTV UK stated that " The Barbadian beauty then sat seductively on stage in a throne that even the Beckhams would be proud of to belt out the ballad " .
After the release of the album in the United States , she embarked on some promotional performances . Rihanna performed " Russian Roulette " , together with " Wait Your Turn " , " Hard " and " Umbrella " on Good Morning America as part of the fall concert series in New York City . Just a day later , she performed the song again , this time on the Late Show with David Letterman . On November 29 , 2009 , Rihanna flew to the United Kingdom , again , to perform " Russian Roulette " on the series six of The X Factor . The performance was similar to the one from the Nokia promotional concert and featured Rihanna sitting on a throne chair . In February 2010 , Rihanna recorded on AOL Sessions , where she performed the song , together with " Hard " , " Rude Boy " , " Disturbia " and " Take a Bow " .
" Russian Roulette " was the opening song on Rihanna 's setlist for her Last Girl on Earth Tour , after the presentation " Mad House " . She performed the song on a movable platform while wearing a floor @-@ length gown covered with red LED lights . Neil McCormick of The Telegraph , in a review of one of the tour 's concerts , said : " She kicked off with the homicidal pop @-@ rock ballad Russian Roulette to screen imagery of burning naked mannequins and had shed most of her clothes by her second song ... " . Later the track was excluded from the setlist for the Australian leg of the tour , together with " Rehab " , and was replaced with " Only Girl ( In the World ) " as the tour starter . English singer George Michael covered " Russian Roulette " during his orchestral concert tour , titled the Symphonica Tour ( 2011 — 12 ) .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Locations
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; mixed at Chung King Studios , New York City , New York .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R , Def Jam Recordings , SRP .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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= Frank Fetter =
Frank Albert Fetter ( / ˈfɛtər / ; March 8 , 1863 – March 21 , 1949 ) was an American economist of the Austrian School . Fetter 's treatise , The Principles of Economics , contributed to an increased American interest in the Austrian School , including the theories of Eugen von Böhm @-@ Bawerk , Friedrich von Wieser , Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek .
Fetter notably debated Alfred Marshall , presenting a theoretical reassessment of land as capital . Fetter 's arguments have been credited with prompting mainstream economists to abandon the Georgist idea " that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent .... " A proponent of the subjective theory of value , Fetter emphasized the importance of time preference and rebuffed Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book , The Rate of Interest .
= = Early life and education = =
Frank Fetter was born in Peru , Indiana to a Quaker family during the height of the American Civil War . Fetter proved an able student as a youth , as demonstrated by his acceptance to Indiana University in 1879 when he was only sixteen years old . At Indiana , he joined the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity . Fetter was on track to graduate with the class of 1883 , but left college to run his family 's bookstore upon news of his father 's declining health . Working in the bookstore offered an opportunity for the young man to acquaint himself with some of the economic ideas that would later prove formative . Chief among the intellectual influences Fetter encountered at this time was Henry George 's Progress and Poverty ( 1879 ) .
After eight years , Fetter returned to academia and finally completed his B.A. in 1891 . In 1892 , Jeremiah W. Jenks — who had taught Fetter at Indiana University — acquired a teaching position at Cornell University at the new President White School of History and Political Science and subsequently secured a fellowship for Fetter at that institution . Fetter completed his Master of Philosophy degree the same year . Jenks then convinced Fetter to study , as Jenks himself had , under Johannes Conrad at the Sorbonne in Paris , France . Fetter earned his Ph.D. in 1894 from the University of Halle in Germany , where he wrote his doctoral dissertation , a critique of Malthusian population theory .
= = Professional life = =
After earning his doctoral degree , Fetter accepted an instructorship at Cornell , but quickly left after being offered a position as a professor at Indiana University . In 1898 , Stanford University lured him away from Indiana , but Fetter resigned from Stanford three years later over a dispute regarding academic freedom . After leaving Stanford in 1901 , Fetter went back to Cornell , where he remained for ten years . In 1911 , he again found himself in professional transition , accepting the position of chairman in an interdisciplinary department at Princeton University which incorporated history , politics , and economics . Fetter was the first chairman of Princeton University 's Department of Economics and Social institutions .
Despite his ideological proximity and personal rapport with eminent Austrian School economists such as Eugen von Böhm @-@ Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser , as well as his favorable reviews of works by Ludwig von Mises and F.A. Hayek , Fetter referred to himself , Thorstein Veblen , and Herbert J. Davenport more specifically as being members of the " American Psychological School . " The appellation " Psychological School " is now generally considered to be synonymous with " Austrian School . "
Fetter was a staunch opponent of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's plan to end the gold standard and worked with other economists in lobbying against the move to a fiat currency . As some indication of Fetter 's role in these efforts ,
In January 1933 , a letter was sent to the president @-@ elect , urging him not only to lower tariff barriers to revive international trade , but to maintain the gold standard " unflinchingly . " The letter was signed by a number of prominent " traditional " economists , headed by the American " Austrian , " Frank A. Fetter , of Princeton .
= = Theoretical contributions in economics = =
= = = Land as capital = = =
Fetter participated in a notable debate with English economist Alfred Marshall , both through his 1904 Principles of Economics and a number of journal articles in the American Economic Association 's journals and in the Quarterly Journal of Economics . He contested Marshall 's position that land is theoretically distinct from capital . Fetter argued that such a distinction was impractical , stating that ,
The notion that it is a simple matter to distinguish between the yield of natural agents and that of improvements is fanciful and confusing .... The objective classification of land and capital as natural and artificial agents is a task that always must transcend the human power of discrimination .
Fetter 's stand on this issue further led him to oppose Georgist ideas like the land value tax . Mark Blaug , a specialist in the history of economic thought , credits Fetter and John Bates Clark with influencing mainstream economists to abandon the idea " that land is a unique factor of production and hence that there is any special need for a special theory of ground rent .... This is in fact the basis of all the attacks on Henry George by contemporary economists and certainly the fundamental reason why professional economists increasingly ignored him . "
= = = Applications of subjective value theory = = =
Fetter believed in the subjective theory of value , and thus supported a pure time preference theory of interest . Richard Ebeling wrote that Fetter " constructed a consistent theory of value , price , cost , and production in the context of emphasizing the time @-@ valuational element in all consumption and production choices . " According to Jeffrey Herbener , Fetter asserted that " just as the price of each consumer good is determined solely by subjective value , the rate of interest is determined solely by time preference . "
Likewise , Herbener explains , this led Fetter to also conclude that " [ t ] he rental price of each producer good is imputed to it by entrepreneurial demand and is equal to its discounted marginal value product . The capital value of each durable good is equal to the discounted value of its future rents . " Fetter 's contribution to the Austrian subjectivist tradition , then , is that he " showed how this uniform , subjective theory of value implies the demise of socialist theories of labor exploitation , Ricardian theories of rent , and productivity theories of interest . "
= = = Criticism of Fisher 's theory of interest = = =
In " Interest Theories , Old and New " ( 1914 ) , Fetter criticized Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book , The Rate of Interest , a tome which had heavily influenced Fetter . As Murray Rothbard recounts , upon further review of Fisher 's earlier work ,
... Fetter discovered that the seeds of error were in Fisher 's publication of 1907 . Fisher had stated that valuations of present and future goods imply a preexisting money rate of interest , thereby suggesting that a pure time @-@ preference explanation of interest involves circular reasoning . By way of contrast , and in the course of explaining his own pure time @-@ preference , or " capitalization , " theory of interest , Fetter showed that time valuation is prerequisite to the determination of the market rate of interest .
= = Reception in academia = =
In 1909 , at the age of forty @-@ six , Fetter was awarded an honorary LL.D. from Colgate University , and he was made president of the American Economic Association in 1913 . Additional honorary doctoral degrees were conferred on Fetter by Occidental College in 1930 and Indiana University in 1934 . He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society . In 1927 , he was awarded the Karl Menger Medal by the Austrian Economic Society .
Fetter 's treatise , Principles of Economics ( 1904 ) , has been described by Herbener as " unsurpassed until Ludwig von Mises 's treatise of 1940 , Nationaloekonomie . " In Rothbard 's preface to the 1977 edition of Fetter 's Capital , Interest , and Rent , he notes that he was first introduced to Fetter 's work via a citation in Mises ' Human Action and describes Fetter 's views on interest and rent as being " Austrian " and influential on his own views .
... while reading Fetter 's oeuvre in the course of writing my Man , Economy , and State ... I was struck by the brilliance and consistency of his integrated theory of distribution and by the neglect of Fetter in current histories of economic thought , even by those that are Austrian oriented . For Fetter 's systematic theory , while challenging and original ( particularly his theories of interest and rent ) , was emphatically in the Austrian school tradition .
Upon Fetter 's death in 1949 , J. Douglas Brown , who would later be named Provost of Princeton University , wrote a " Memorial " to Fetter for the American Economic Review . He opened the tribute with the announcement that " with the death of Frank Albert Fetter the great company of American economists has suffered an irreparable loss . "
= = Books = =
Versuch einer Bevolkerungslehre ausgehen von einer Kritic des Malthus 'schen Bevolkerungsprincips ( Translation : " An Essay on Population Doctrine based on a Critique of the Population Principles of Malthus " ) . Jena : Gustav Fischer , 1894 .
The Principles of Economics . [ 2 ] New York : The Century Co . , 1905
Source Book in Economics . New York : The Century Company . , 1912 .
Economics , Volume 1 : Economic Principles . [ 3 ] New York : The Century Co . , 1915 .
Manual of References and Exercises in Economics for Use with , Vol . 1 : Economic Principles . New York : The Century Co . , 1916 .
Economics , Vol . 2 : Modern Economic Problems . [ 4 ] New York : The Century Co . , 1916 . Revised 2nd edition , 1922 .
Manual of References and Exercises in Economics for Use with , Vol . 2 : Modern Economics . New York : The Century Co . , 1917 .
Masquerade of Monopoly . New York : Harcourt , Brace & Co . , 1931 .
Capital , Interest and Rent : Essays in the theory of distribution . [ 5 ] Institute for Humane Studies . Kansas City : Sheed Andrews and McMeel , Inc . , 1977 .
= = Articles = =
" Recent Discussion of the Capital Concept " by Frank A. Fetter , Quarterly Journal of Economics , ( 1900 )
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= The Frying Game =
" The Frying Game " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 2002 . In the episode , after accidentally injuring an endangered screamapillar , Homer is sentenced to two weeks of community service . As part of his sentence , Homer delivers Meals on Wheels to an old woman called Mrs. Bellamy , who subtly guilts him , and later Marge , into becoming her personal servant . One day , the two find Mrs. Bellamy dead in her house , having been stabbed by a man with braces who quickly escapes the murder scene . Being the only ones present when the police arrive , Homer and Marge are soon suspected for the murder . The episode also features a " Snuh cascade " , an homage to a group of Simpsons fans on Usenet .
" The Frying Game " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Michael Polcino . The screamapillar was conceived by the episode 's writer , who pitched it to the other staff writers . It has since been described as a satire on the Endangered Species Act , a United States environmental law passed during the 1970s . The idea that Homer 's execution was in fact part of a reality game show was conceived by former staff writer George Meyer . The episode features Frances Sternhagen as Mrs. Bellamy and Carmen Electra as herself . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 5 million viewers , finishing in 46th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its home video release , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Homer decides to give Marge a koi pond for their anniversary , but an endangered " Screamapillar " takes refuge in the pond . Bound by law not to disturb it , Homer accidentally injures the loud , unsettling insect larva and is sentenced to community service .
Homer begins delivering Meals on Wheels to an elderly woman , Mrs. Bellamy , who takes a liking to him . She subtly guilts Homer and later , Marge , into becoming her personal servants . When Mrs. Bellamy turns up dead , having been stabbed with a pair of scissors , Homer and Marge are the prime suspects in the murder , even though they witnessed a man with braces leaving the murder scene , with Mrs. Bellamy 's necklace . The people of Springfield are very suspicious of Homer and Marge , and Chief Wiggum does not believe their story . Finally , during an inspection of the house , Maggie is found with Mrs. Bellamy 's stolen necklace . Bart , Lisa and Maggie are adopted by Cletus Spuckler , who decides to change their " city names " to " Dingus Squatford Junior , and Pamela E. Lee " ( with Lisa apparently becoming Dingus ) .
Despite no lie detector or DNA test given , the two are sentenced to death in the electric chair . In a successful bid to spare Marge , Homer says that he acted alone . As he is sitting in the electric chair , it is suddenly revealed to Homer that he is on a new reality TV show , Frame Up that airs on Fox TV . The whole thing was just part of an elaborate hidden camera scheme , the " man with the braces " was the show 's host , and Mrs. Bellamy is guest host Carmen Electra in disguise . Homer and Marge are reunited with the kids , and Homer is furious that he had to suffer so the show could get higher ratings . Carmen Electra tries to explain , but Homer is too busy looking at her breasts . Chief Wiggum , on the other hand , initially seems furious that the police department used was wasted on what turned out to not even be a real case , but he drops his anger when he learns he will be in the show and Eddie and Lou will be given producer credits .
= = Production = =
" The Frying Game " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Michael Polcino . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 2002 . The screamapillar , the larva that the Simpsons find in their garden , was , according to current showrunner Al Jean , Swartzwelder 's " total conception . " He pitched the idea to the Simpsons writing staff , and because they found it " hilarious , " they decided to include it in the episode . Jean said that when people ask what sense of humor Swartzwelder has , the screamapillar is " one of the best examples . " It was voiced by main cast member Dan Castellaneta , who portrays Homer among other characters in the series . Because the screamapillar only communicates by screaming , its lines were recorded last during recording sessions , as the screaming would " burn out " Castellaneta 's voice .
In a scene in the episode , Homer is on death row and eats his last meal . The meal consists solely of junk food like hamburgers and fried chicken . The scene came from an article that the writers had read , in which it said that death sentenced prisoners often requested junk food as their last meal . On the way to the electric chair , Homer meets a man resembling Michael Clarke Duncan 's character John Coffey in The Green Mile . While recording lines for the episode , the staff were told that Duncan was visiting the Fox studios . Having not recorded the lines for the character yet , the staff asked Duncan if he wanted to voice the character , but he declined . The music that plays during the scene is also from The Green Mile . The idea that Homer 's execution was in fact a reality show on Fox was conceived by former staff writer George Meyer . According to fellow writer Matt Selman , the writing staff liked the idea since reality shows were " really big " at the time . The episode features American actress Frances Sternhagen as Mrs Bellamy , and glamour model Carmen Electra as herself . According to Jean , Electra 's character is " one of the most voluptuous figures " they have ever had on The Simpsons .
= = Themes = =
Jean has himself admitted in an interview that The Simpsons is of " liberal bent " . In the DVD commentaries , creator Matt Groening and the majority of people who work on the show state several times that they are very liberal , but some , such as John Swartzwelder ( the writer of this and many other The Simpsons episodes ) , are conservative . In his book The Really Inconvenient Truths : Seven Environmental Catastrophes Liberals Don 't Want You to Know About- Because They Helped Cause Them , Iain Murray described " The Frying Game " as " subversively conservative " , and wrote that it shows " The best popular explanation of the liberal environmentalist model for endangered species . " In the episode , Homer buys a koi pond for Marge , only to find a screamapillar has taken residence in their garden . When Homer tries to squash it , an EPA official tells him that allowing an endangered species to die is a federal offense , under the " Reversal of Freedoms Act of 1994 . " Homer is forced to coddle the screamapillar , and when he accidentally squashes it , Homer is found guilty of " attempted insecticide and aggravated buggery . " The " Reversal of Freedoms Act " is a reference to the Endangered Species Act , an environmental law that Murray opined had " indeed become the Reversal of Freedoms Act . " He continued , " Landowners who happened to have threatened or endangered species on their lands or who simply have habitat that might be used by endangered species are routinely prevented from using their lands or property . They are stopped from undertaking such activities as harvesting their trees , grazing their cattle , irrigating their fields , clearing brush along fence lines , disking firebreaks around their homes and barns , or building new homes .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on May 19 , 2002 , " The Frying Game " received a 6 @.@ 2 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode finished in 46th place in the ratings for the week of May 13 – 19 , 2002 . On August 24 , 2010 , " The Frying Game " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set . Matt Groening , Al Jean , Matt Selman , John Frink , Don Payne , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Michael Polcino and Deb Lacusta participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " The Frying Game " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide described the episode as " pretty good " , writing " I like the obnoxious Screamapillar , and the way the Simpsons become seen as murderers also amuses . This allows S13 to move toward a satisfying conclusion . "
DVD Verdict 's Jennifer Malkowski gave the episode a B + , declaring the episode 's " highlight " " one of the reasons the Screamapillar is endangered , that it 's ' sexually attracted to fire . ' "
On the other hand , giving the episode a negative review , Andre Dellamorte of Collider described it as " terrible . " DVD Talk 's Ryan Keefer wrote a negative review as well , calling it " definitely forgettable " and criticizing it for " fall [ ing ] apart quickly . " Ron Martin of 411Mania criticized the Screamapillar character , describing it as " just as annoying as Homer 's constant screaming earlier in the season . " Writing for IGN , R.L. Shaffer described it as one of the worst episodes of the entire series , writing " Episodes like ' Homer the Moe , ' ' The Frying Game , ' ' The Old Man and the Key , ' and ' Sweets and Sour Marge ' represent some of the worst of The Simpsons . " James Greene of Nerve.com put the episode ninth on his list " Ten Times The Simpsons Jumped the Shark , " criticizing that the episode " eighty @-@ sixed the chance to nail a great murder mystery akin to ' Who Shot Mr. Burns ? ' in favor of topical humor " and calling the ending a " truly stupid cop @-@ out . "
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= Ten Dollar Bill ( Roy Lichtenstein ) =
Ten Dollar Bill ( also referred to as The Dollar Bill ) is a 1956 proto @-@ pop art lithographic drawing by Roy Lichtenstein . Considered to be a combination of Americana art and cubism , the work is referred to as the beginning to Lichtenstein 's work on pop art . Twenty @-@ five editions of the lithograph were made by Lichtenstein , which were exhibited at several galleries . The piece is based on the design for the ten @-@ dollar bill and has influenced several of Lichtenstein 's later works . The picture has received generally favorable reception from critics , and is considered to be one of the best artistic portrayals of currency .
= = Background and history = =
Roy Lichtenstein began experimentation with printmaking in the late 1940s , well before its rise in popularity in the early 1960s . Lichtenstein created his first lithograph and woodcut artwork in 1948 while he was working on receiving his graduate degree in fine arts from Ohio State University . During the late 1940s , he created abstract paintings influenced by several artists , especially Pablo Picasso . From 1951 through early 1956 , Lichtenstein painted what were considered by Gianni Mercurio to be " jagged , post @-@ cubist " designs of famous American artworks . Many of his pieces reflected portraits of the American west , especially Native Americans and cowboys , as well as other themes , such as images of president George Washington . Lichtenstein referred to the period as his " American " series , and it was generally negatively received by critics . Lichtenstein also began experimenting in abstract expressionism , using the technique on several of his western painting designs . These were poorly received , however , being compared by one critic to " the doodling of a five @-@ year old " .
In 1956 , Lichtenstein created twenty @-@ five editions of Ten Dollar Bill and gave them to several private collectors and museums . Starting in late October 1994 , Ten Dollar Bill went on display at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , along with 89 of Lichtenstein 's print artworks . As a part of " The Prints of Roy Lichtenstein " , the piece was displayed in Washington until January 8 , 1995 , before it was moved to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and put on display as part of that city 's WinterFest ' 95 , starting in mid @-@ February of that year . The tour moved in May to the Dallas Museum of Art , the final place it was displayed . In December 1996 , Lichtenstein and his wife donated 154 prints of his artwork to the National Gallery of Art for permanent keeping . This donation included several famous pieces , including Crying Girl , along with one of the editions of Ten Dollar Bill .
Another edition of Ten Dollar Bill was a part of the showcase opening exhibit " $ how Me the Money : The Dollar As Art " for the American Numismatic Association Money Museum in Colorado Springs , Colorado . This exhibit ran from October 4 , 2002 , until December 1 . The lithograph was shown alongside work from Andy Warhol , Robert Dowd , and others . Later , the work was made a part of the " Roy Lichtenstein Prints 1956 @-@ 1997 " collection , created entirely from the family gallery of Jordan Schnitzer . This tour began in June 2006 at the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art , and traveled across the country , exhibiting in Las Vegas and Austin , Texas , among other places . The collection tour ended in 2008 .
= = Description = =
Based on the design for the United States ten @-@ dollar bill , Ten Dollar Bill measures 14 by 28 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 3 in ) , and is drawn on sheets of paper with dimensions of 42 @.@ 8 by 57 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 16 @.@ 9 by 22 @.@ 7 in ) . Classified as a proto @-@ pop art work , the lithograph is considered by Janis Hendrickson to be " a Picasso @-@ esque vision of what currency could look like " , as well as a " humorous " combination of " established art forms and Americana " . The drawing has the dimensions and shape of the ten @-@ dollar bill , and completely covers the space needed , which has led to Lichtenstein being considered by Hendrickson as " almost seeming to be forging money " . Hendrickson also describes the picture as being a " brand @-@ new bill of tender and not a picture of one " . Mary Lee Corlett and Hendrickson noted that the " schematic head " of the medallion portrait of Alexander Hamilton , the prominent feature of the print , " shows him as a planar , anteater @-@ like being " with a " hair @-@ do of the young Picasso " and eyes similar to a " figure by Francis Picabia " . According to Hendrickson , the exterior framing for The Dollar Bill was " simplified " from the original dollar design , appearing in " an imbalanced , drunken fashion " . The lithograph has full margins surrounding the main design , as well as the signature " rf Lichtenstein " and a number between one and 25 , followed by / 25 , reflecting the print number of the specific work , as well as the years 1956 / 79 .
= = Reception = =
Stephen Goode , a critic for Insight on the News , considered the piece to be the beginning of the Pop Art movement , labeling the work " a sign of things to come as other artists tackled common yet sacrosanct items , including the American flag " . Lichtenstein , reflecting on his work , told reporters , " The idea of counterfeiting money always occurs to you when you do lithography " . Despite the assessments of critics , Lichtenstein , in an interview with Joan Marter , considered the work to be " a kind of Cubist dollar bill , not a Pop one " . He continued , " The fact it was a ten @-@ dollar @-@ bill at all [ suggests that ] there was some kind of Pop influence on me that I wasn 't aware of so much . They 're really not Pop at all . They 're more funny , or humorous , or something " .
In the book Off Limits : Rutgers University and the Avant @-@ garde , 1957 @-@ 1963 , the piece was described as a " humorous , Cubist abstraction of the currency " . Discussing the piece after edition 10 was given to the National Gallery of Australia , critic Jaklyn Babington considered Lichtenstein 's early works , including Ten Dollar Bill , to be " intriguing precursors to the artist ’ s subsequent development " . She called it a " finely hand @-@ drawn lithograph " , and considered the work to be " the only hint of Lichtenstein ’ s imminent obsession with American popular culture " . Babington finished by noting , " we see Lichtenstein first taking an everyday object , symbolic of the growing American consumer culture , as his subject matter " .
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= New Worlds ( magazine ) =
New Worlds was a British science fiction magazine that began in 1936 as a fanzine called Novae Terrae . It adopted its current title in 1939 , after John Carnell became editor . First published professionally in 1946 , it became the leading publication of its type ; the period to 1960 has been described by historian Mike Ashley as the magazine 's " Golden Age " .
Carnell joined the British Army in 1940 following the outbreak of the Second World War , and did not return to civilian life until 1946 . He negotiated a publishing agreement for the magazine with Pendulum Publications , but only three issues of New Worlds were subsequently produced before Pendulum 's bankruptcy in late 1947 . A group of science fiction fans formed a company called Nova Publications to revive the magazine ; the first issue under their management appeared in mid @-@ 1949 . New Worlds continued to appear on a regular basis until issue 20 , published in early 1953 , following which a change of printers led to a hiatus in publication . It was not until early 1954 , when Maclaren & Sons acquired control of Nova Publications , that the magazine returned to a stable monthly schedule .
New Worlds was acquired by Roberts & Vinter in 1964 , when Michael Moorcock became editor . By the end of 1966 financial problems led Roberts & Vinter to abandon New Worlds , but with the aid of an Arts Council grant obtained by Brian Aldiss , Moorcock was able to publish the magazine independently . He featured a good deal of experimental and avant @-@ garde material , and New Worlds became the focus of the " New Wave " of science fiction . Reaction among the science fiction community was mixed , with partisans and opponents of the New Wave debating the merits of New Worlds in the columns of critical journals such as Speculation . Several of the regular contributors during this period , including Brian Aldiss , J. G. Ballard and Thomas M. Disch , became major names in the field . By 1970 Moorcock was too deeply in debt to be able to continue with the magazine , and it ceased publication with issue 200 . The title has been revived multiple times , with Moorcock 's direct involvement or approval ; as of 2012 , 22 additional issues have appeared in various formats , including several anthologies .
= = Publishing history = =
= = = Early years = = =
In 1926 , Hugo Gernsback launched Amazing Stories , the first science fiction ( sf ) magazine . It was soon followed by other US titles also specializing in sf , such as Astounding Stories and Wonder Stories . These were distributed in the UK , and British fan organizations began to appear . In 1936 , Maurice K. Hanson , a science fiction fan living in Nuneaton , founded a fanzine called Novae Terrae ( Latin for " new worlds " ) for the local branch of the Science Fiction League . Hanson subsequently moved to London and his fanzine became the official publication of the Science Fiction Association , founded in 1937 .
Arthur C. Clarke , John Carnell and William F. Temple became involved in Novae Terrae 's production . In 1939 Hanson gave up the editorship to Carnell , who retitled the fanzine New Worlds and restarted the numbering at volume 1 number 1 ; the first issue under Carnell 's control was dated March 1939 . Carnell wanted to turn New Worlds into a professional magazine , and through W.J. Passingham , a writer , had begun discussions with a publisher named The Worlds Says Ltd . In January 1940 Carnell was asked to put together three issues , and Carnell and Passingham each put up £ 50 towards costs . Carnell solicited material from British authors including John F. Burke , C.S. Youd , and David McIlwain , and acquired Robert A. Heinlein 's " Lost Legion " , but in March internal strife led to the collapse of The World Says . Alfred Greig , the director , returned to his native Canada without repaying Carnell and Passingham , and no issues were ever printed .
Carnell joined the army in 1940 , serving with the Royal Artillery , Combined Operations , and Naval Bombardment . After his return to civilian life in January 1946 he met writer Frank Edward Arnold , who had been working with Pendulum Publications on a new science fiction line . Arnold introduced Carnell to Stephen D. Frances , Pendulum 's director . Frances believed in the commercial possibilities of science fiction , and since Carnell still had the portfolio of stories he had put together in 1940 , Pendulum soon agreed to make New Worlds into a professional magazine . The first issue appeared in July 1946 , although there was no date on the magazine . The initial print run was 15 @,@ 000 , but only 3 @,@ 000 copies were sold — a very disappointing return . Carnell felt that the cover artwork , which he considered to be weak , was partly responsible for the poor sales . He put together a new design , based on covers from two US science fiction magazines , and gave it to artist Victor Caesari to complete . The resulting space scene was the cover for the second issue , which appeared in October 1946 ; in combination with Pendulum 's investment in promoting the magazine this led to much better sales , and the second issue sold out completely . Pendulum rebound the remaining copies of the first issue with the second cover design , and repriced them at 1 / 6 ( 7.5p ) ; the first two issues had been priced at 2 / - ( 10p ) . The new cover and price were much more popular and the repackaged first issue , like the second , soon sold out .
Pendulum Publications produced one more issue in October 1947 , shortly before going bankrupt and thus leaving New Worlds without a publisher . The magazine was saved by a group of sf fans who since 1946 had been meeting regularly on Thursday nights at the White Horse public house on New Fetter Lane , near Fleet Street . At one of those meetings it was suggested that they form a company to revive New Worlds ; one of those present , Frank Cooper , recently retired from the RAF , agreed to look into what would be necessary to start a new company .
= = = Nova Publications = = =
In May 1948 Carnell announced at a science fiction convention in London that plans were well underway to form a new company , to be called Nova Publications Ltd . Nova raised £ 600 in capital and was launched in early 1949 . There were initially six directors : the chairman was John Wyndham , and the remaining board members were G. Ken Chapman , Frank Cooper , Walter Gillings , Eric C. Williams , and John Carnell . A printer was found near Stoke Newington , where Frank Cooper was based , and the first issue ( numbered 4 , to follow on from the three Pendulum issues ) appeared in June . It was planned to move to regular quarterly publication , and subsequently to a bimonthly schedule . To keep costs down Nova decided to handle the distribution themselves ; this was not easy but Cooper and his assistant , Les Flood , were sufficiently successful that in July the decision was taken to go ahead with the planned quarterly schedule . A fifth issue duly appeared in September , and the sixth issue the following spring , dated Spring 1950 .
In 1950 , with New Worlds on a stable quarterly schedule , Nova Publications decided to launch a companion , Science Fantasy . They chose Walter Gillings as the editor ; but he was replaced by Carnell after two issues , partly because Nova could not afford to pay two editorial salaries , and partly because of " fundamental differences of opinion " . At the end of 1951 New Worlds went bimonthly , and by the middle of the year had reached a circulation of 18 @,@ 000 . The price had been reduced to 1 / 6 with the third issue , but with paper costs rising Nova looked for a cheaper printer . The new printer , The Carlton Press , was supposed to take over production with the May 1953 issue ( number 21 ) , but the issue was late , and had to be dated June 1953 instead . The issue was shoddily produced , which dismayed Nova 's board , and printers ' strikes caused further delays . Nova discovered that The Carlton Press was an agent with no printing facilities ; they farmed out work to other printers , but were only able to get their commissions executed when they paid off any prior debts to those printers . Issue 22 was repeatedly delayed ; proofs appeared in August , and the issue itself was promised for November . Even this late schedule was not adhered to , and Carnell finally received a copy of the print run in January 1954 . The copy was dated 1953 ( with no month ) , and since this made it useless for distribution in 1954 , Carnell refused to accept the print run . While the dispute with the printers was going on , Carnell and Maurice Goldsmith , a journalist acquaintance of Carnell 's , put together a small conference of well @-@ known science fiction authors , including Arthur C. Clarke and John Wyndham . Goldsmith covered the conference for Illustrated , a weekly magazine , and the article caught the attention of Maclaren & Sons Ltd , a technical trade publisher interested in launching a new sf magazine . Carnell turned down the offer because of his loyalty to Nova Publications , but subsequent discussions ultimately led to Maclaren taking control of Nova , with a commitment to produce New Worlds on a monthly basis and Science Fantasy on a bimonthly schedule . By January 1954 , when The Carlton Press delivered the incorrectly dated issue 22 , the acquisition by Maclaren was complete , and Maclaren 's legal department was helpful in resolving the dispute . The printing press who had actually printed the issue were not paid by The Carlton Press , so an injunction was obtained that sequestered the issues to avoid them being sold to recover the printing costs . Carnell retained the copy he had been sent in January , and it is thought that this is the only copy that exists of The Carlton Press 's version of this issue , as the remainder of the printing run was destroyed at the conclusion of the court case . The cover painting , by Gerard Quinn , was subsequently used on issue 13 of Science Fantasy , and all the stories and editorial material eventually appeared in later issues of New Worlds over the next year .
The financial support that Maclaren provided meant that once issue 22 finally appeared in April 1954 , it was the start of a regular monthly schedule that lasted until 1964 with just one hiccup : a printing dispute in 1959 delayed the August issue and it was combined with the September issue . Despite this stability , New Worlds 's circulation began to decline in the early 1960s . Nova Publications had launched a third magazine , Science Fiction Adventures , in 1958 , but both it and Science Fantasy were also losing readers , and in May 1963 Science Fiction Adventures was cancelled . In September of that year Nova 's board decided to close down both New Worlds and Science Fantasy , and in preparation for the change Carnell signed a contract in December 1963 to edit an original anthology series , New Writings in SF , for publisher Dennis Dobson .
= = = Roberts & Vinter = = =
The magazines were unexpectedly saved by David Warburton of Roberts & Vinter , a London publishing house . The printer who had been printing both New Worlds and Science Fantasy happened to meet Warburton in a pub , and mentioned that he was looking for additional work to fill the gaps in his schedule left by the demise of the magazines . Roberts & Vinter were having difficulty getting good distribution for their existing titles , which were violent thrillers , and were interested in acquiring more respectable titles that would help them penetrate the British distribution network , which was heavily dependent on W.H. Smith and John Menzies , the two main British newsagent chains . Warburton 's partner , Godfrey Gold , ran a company that was connected to Roberts & Vinter and published pin @-@ up magazines ; like Warburton , Gold needed to improve his ability to distribute his titles .
When Michael Moorcock , who by this time had begun selling stories to Carnell , heard of the plans to cease publication of New Worlds and Science Fantasy , he wrote a letter that appeared in issue 141 lamenting the loss to the British science fiction field of both the magazines and Carnell himself . Carnell did not want to continue to edit the magazines in addition to New Writings in SF , and recommended Moorcock to Warburton . Kyril Bonfiglioli , an Oxford art dealer who was a friend of Brian Aldiss , also expressed an interest . Warburton gave Moorcock the choice of which magazine to edit ; Moorcock chose New Worlds , and Bonfiglioli became the new editor of Science Fantasy . Moorcock wanted to switch to a large format , and showed Warburton a dummy issue he had made up , but Warburton insisted on a paperback format in order to fit in with the other titles they were producing , though he agreed to revisit the format in the future if sales improved . The first issue under Moorcock 's control was number 142 , dated May / June 1964 . The schedule was initially bimonthly , but at the start of 1965 it returned to a stable monthly schedule .
In July 1966 Roberts & Vinter 's distributor , Thorpe & Porter , went bankrupt , owing Roberts & Vinter a substantial sum . The resulting financial pressure led Roberts & Vinter to focus on their more profitable magazines , and they made plans to close down both Science Fantasy and New Worlds . After hearing of these plans , Moorcock and Warburton began to consider forming a separate company to continue publishing New Worlds , and Brian Aldiss contacted well @-@ known literary figures such as J.B. Priestley , Kingsley Amis , Marghanita Laski , and Angus Wilson to gain support for an application for a grant from the British Arts Council in late 1966 . In early January 1967 Aldiss discovered that the grant application would be successful , and that New Worlds would be awarded £ 150 per issue , though in the event the formal grant certification was delayed until at least May . The grant was enough to enable the magazine to continue , though it would not cover all costs . A publisher still needed to be found , and both Fontana and Panther Books expressed an interest , but the promise of the money and the prestige of an Arts Council grant convinced Warburton to stay involved personally . While these negotiations were going on , two more issues were assembled from backfile material and donated stories . Roberts & Vinter had ceased to exist by this time , so a sister company , Gold Star Publications , became the publisher for both these issues , with Warburton and Aldiss providing Gold Star with personal financial guarantees . These two issues appeared in March and April 1967 , but the latter was mistakenly also dated March in the indicia . Science Fantasy , which by this time had been retitled SF Impulse , was not continued but was merged with New Worlds as of the first Gold Star issue , though nothing of SF Impulse 's design or content was visible in New Worlds .
= = = Arts Council = = =
The partnership Warburton and Moorcock formed to continue New Worlds was named Magnelist Publications . Moorcock and Warburton reviewed the dummy issue Moorcock had put together when he first became editor , and Warburton agreed to switch to the larger format . The first issue from Magnelist appeared in July 1967 , beginning a regular monthly schedule . Moorcock remained as editor with Langdon Jones as his assistant , and Charles Platt became the layout designer . Poor sales led Warburton to cease his involvement after the November issue , but the magazine was again saved , this time by Sylvester Stein of Stonehart Publications .
Delays led to a skipped month , with the December 1967 and January 1968 issues being combined into one , but a monthly schedule returned thereafter . The March 1968 issue contained the third instalment of Norman Spinrad 's novel Bug Jack Barron , which included some fairly explicit sex scenes . A member of parliament complained in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom that the Arts Council was " sponsoring filth " ; and soon W.H. Smith and John Menzies , the two main retail outlets for magazines in the UK , withdrew the magazine from sale . The complaints came at the time when the Arts Council was considering renewing the grant for another year , and it appeared for a while that New Worlds would have to cease publication , but eventually the grant was renewed . Some private donations also came in , and with money from advertising , and a substantial contribution from Moorcock himself , the magazine was able to survive . The loss of revenue caused by the withdrawal from sale of the March 1968 issue was exacerbated by a temporary ban on the magazine in South Africa , New Zealand and Australia , and by John Menzies ' subsequent decision not to stock New Worlds . W.H. Smith left it to their individual branch managers to decide whether or not to carry the magazine . Stonehart were unhappy with developments and refused to pay the printers , who in turn withheld the printed copies . The Arts Council money had been intended for the contributors , but a disagreement over the grant led to Stonehart 's refusal to pay them as well . Some negative coverage appeared in the press as a consequence of the distribution ban . The grant was eventually renewed , but by late that year Stein had had enough and Stonehart ceased their involvement with New Worlds after the July 1968 issue .
Without reliable distribution at the leading newsagents , New Worlds had to rely on subscriptions and donations . The magazine was not profitable , and since Moorcock had not formed a company to publish it , he was personally responsible for its costs . To bring in cash he had been writing fantasy novels at a very rapid rate since early 1968 , and from early 1969 the editorial work was given to various others , primarily Charles Platt and Langdon Jones . A regular monthly schedule was adhered to from January until July 1969 , at which point came another financial blow when it was discovered that half of the print run of 20 @,@ 000 was being held back by the distributors . Moorcock attempted to regroup by reducing the number of pages in each issue , and because he was again forced to write as much as he could to earn enough to pay New Worlds 's bills , he turned over almost all editorial duties to Charles Platt , though others involved with the magazine also took turns at the editorial work over the next few issues . Moorcock was £ 3 @,@ 000 in debt , and in combination with the Arts Council 's decision not to renew their grant he found himself with no option but to cease publication . The April 1970 issue , the 200th , was the last that went out to the distributors ; one more issue was prepared and mailed to subscribers in March of the following year .
= = = Later incarnations = = =
When Moorcock realized that the magazine would have to fold , he made arrangements with Sphere Books to continue New Worlds as a quarterly paperback anthology series . Sphere produced eight issues , although the quarterly schedule was not adhered to after the fourth issue ; the eighth issue appeared in 1975 . Six issues were reprinted in the US . The early issues did well financially , with about 25 @,@ 000 copies sold , not counting US sales . Moorcock turned over the editorship to Charles Platt with the sixth volume , and to Hilary Bailey thereafter , to give himself more time to devote to his own writing : he also commented that by this time " I no longer had my editorial touch ( I couldn 't read sf at all ) " . Sphere cancelled the series after two more issues ; it was briefly taken over by Corgi Books , but sales were weak and Corgi dropped the series with New Worlds 10 in 1976 , although according to Moorcock he and Bailey decided to end the series when they got into disagreements with Corgi . In the US Berkley Books published volumes 1 through 4 , and when they dropped the series Platt , who was a consulting editor at Avon Books , reprinted two further volumes , number 6 and 7 of the UK series .
In 1978 the magazine was revived by Moorcock again , this time in a fanzine format . Four more issues appeared , professionally printed and with various editors , between Spring 1978 and September 1979 . There followed a long gap until 1991 , when New Worlds again reappeared as a paperback anthology series , this time edited by David S. Garnett . Four volumes appeared between 1991 and 1994 , published by Victor Gollancz . Moorcock edited a fiftieth anniversary issue in 1996 , and Garnett subsequently edited one more issue of the anthology . Together with the earlier fanzine , magazine and anthology versions , these took the issue numbering from 212 through to 222 . In 2012 there was a relaunch in the form of a simultaneous print and online magazine , titled Michael Moorcock 's New Worlds - two issues were released before a long period of hiatus , followed by a formal statement in Facebook ( October 8 , 2014 ) that the magazine had ceased due to lack of subscriber income .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = Carnell = = =
The lead story of the first issue of New Worlds was Maurice Hugi 's " The Mill of the Gods " . John Russell Fearn contributed four stories , under his own name and three pseudonyms , and William Temple provided " The Three Pylons " , a fantasy which turned out to be the most popular story in the issue . Sf historian Mike Ashley regards the next two issues as an improvement on the first ; the second issue contained John Wyndham 's " The Living Lies " , under his " John Beynon " alias , and the third contained " Inheritance " , an early story by Arthur C. Clarke . Wyndham 's story , about hostility and bigotry shown by settlers on Venus to the Venusian natives , was reprinted in Other Worlds in 1950 , while " Inheritance " later appeared in Astounding Science Fiction .
The acquisition of Nova Publications by Maclaren in 1954 gave New Worlds the stability to establish itself as a leading magazine . Ashley describes the period from 1954 to 1960 as a " Golden Age " for New Worlds . Carnell bought J. G. Ballard 's first sale , " Escapement " , which appeared in the December 1956 New Worlds ; Ballard went on to become a significant figure in the genre in the 1960s . Ballard was grateful to Carnell for the support he provided Ballard in the late 1950s . Much of Ballard 's work appeared in New Worlds and Science Fantasy , and Ballard later recalled that Carnell " recognized what I was on about from a very early stage and he encouraged me to go on writing in my own way . " Carnell also published much of Brian Aldiss 's early work in Science Fantasy and New Worlds . John Brunner , later to become one of the most successful British science fiction writers , appeared regularly in the Nova magazines , starting with " Visitors ' Book " in the April 1955 New Worlds . James White began publishing with " Assisted Passage " in the January 1953 New Worlds , and in 1957 began his popular Sector General series , about a hospital for aliens , with " Sector General " in the November 1957 issue . John Wyndham , who was already well known outside the genre for works such as The Day of the Triffids , began a series about the Troons , a space @-@ going family , with " For All the Night " in the April 1958 issue . Arthur C. Clarke , another very successful British sf writer of the period , wrote relatively few short stories for the British market , but did publish " Who 's There " in the November 1958 New Worlds . Colin Kapp began his popular " Unorthodox Engineers " series with " The Railways up on Cannis " , in October 1959 . Other less well @-@ known writers who were prolific during the late 1950s included J. T. McIntosh , Kenneth Bulmer , and E. C. Tubb .
New Worlds has been credited with " shap [ ing ] the way science fiction developed " as a genre . It " did the most " of any magazine for British science fiction , helping to revive a nationalist style of speculative fiction in the 1950s ; Roger Luckhurst called it " the most important British sf journal " . Particularly influential were Clarke 's " Guardian Angel " ( published in 1950 ) , and the work of Brian Aldiss , John Brunner and J. G. Ballard . Mike Ashley argued that New Worlds and Science @-@ Fantasy were " the bedrock of high @-@ quality science fiction in Britain " . Female readership for the magazine was between 5 and 15 percent , according to surveys conducted during the 1950s . The magazine became increasingly popular among a younger demographic : readers 19 and under made up 5 percent of total readership in 1954 , 18 percent in 1958 , and 31 percent in 1963 . The same polls also showed an increase in the number of science and technology workers reading the magazine during that period . Among the best artists of this period were Brian Lewis , Gordon Hutchings , and Gerard Quinn , whose art is regarded by Ashley as comparable in style to Virgil Finlay 's work . However , in 1957 Carnell stopped using interior art , saying that " art work in the digest @-@ size magazines is as out @-@ of @-@ date as a coal fire " .
In Ashley 's view , the quality of New Worlds began to drop somewhat in the early 1960s . It still ran popular series such as White 's Sector General stories , and printed some well @-@ received stories such as Harry Harrison 's " The Streets of Ashkelon " , about a clash between an atheist ( the protagonist ) and a priest , on another planet . Because of the subject matter , it took six years for Harrison to find an editor willing to accept the story ; when Aldiss bought it for an anthology , Carnell agreed to print it in New Worlds , where it appeared in September 1962 . J.G. Ballard continued to publish in New Worlds , but was now sending his more conventional stories to the US magazines , and submitting his more experimental pieces to Carnell . Examples from 1961 to 1964 include " The Overloaded Man " , " The Subliminal Man " , " End @-@ Game " , and " The Terminal Beach " , with themes of psychological stress , and changes to the nature of perception and of reality .
= = = Moorcock = = =
When Roberts & Vinter made the decision to close down New Worlds in 1963 , Moorcock and Ballard considered publishing a new magazine that would be willing , as Carnell had been , to publish experimental material . Moorcock assembled a dummy issue , and later described his intentions : " It would be on art paper , to take good quality illustrations ; it would be the size of , say , Playboy so that it would get good display space on the newsstands ; it would specialise in experimental work by writers like [ William ] Burroughs and [ Eduardo ] Paolozzi , but it would be ' popular ' , it would seek to publicise such experimenters ; it would publish all those writers who had become demoralised by a lack of sympathetic publishers and by baffled critics ; it would attempt a cross @-@ fertilization of popular sf , science and the work of the literary and artistic avant garde . " Moorcock also wrote a letter to Carnell setting out his thoughts on what science fiction needed : " Editors who are willing to take a risk on a story and run it even though this may bring criticism on their heads . " The letter was published in the final Nova Publications issue , which also carried the announcement that Moorcock would be taking over from Carnell as editor of New Worlds , though Moorcock had been unaware he would be considered for the post when he wrote his letter .
Moorcock 's first issue , dated May / June 1964 , bore a cover by James Cawthorn illustrating the first instalment of Ballard 's novella " Equinox " ; Ballard also contributed a book review of William Burroughs ' Dead Fingers Talk , and stories by Brian Aldiss , Barrington Bayley , and John Brunner completed the issue . Moorcock 's editorial included a quote from a radio interview with William Burroughs to the effect that " If writers are to describe the advanced techniques of the Space Age , they must invent writing techniques equally advanced in order properly to deal with them . " Within the first few issues , Moorcock printed stories intended to demonstrate his editorial goals . The most controversial of these was Langdon Jones ' " I Remember , Anita ... " , which appeared in the September / October 1964 issue ; the story contained sex scenes that led to arguments in the magazine 's letter column , and some regular subscribers abandoned the magazines , though overall circulation increased .
Moorcock contributed a substantial amount of material , under his own name and under pseudonyms such as James Colvin ; some of these stories were fairly traditional , but contributions such as the Jerry Cornelius stories , which began with " Preliminary Data " in the August 1965 issue , were much more experimental . He also printed his novella " Behold the Man " in the September 1966 issue ; the story , about a time traveler who returns to the time of Christ , won him a Nebula Award the following year . Ballard also began to write some of his most controversial stories , including " You : Coma : Marilyn Monroe " in the June 1966 issue , and " The Assassination of John Fitzgerald Kennedy Considered as a Downhill Motor Race " , in March 1967 ; both had been previously published in Ambit , a literary magazine , in 1966 .
Many writers now found New Worlds to be a market in which they could publish experimental material . Charles Platt , David I. Masson , and Barrington Bayley were among the British writers in this group , and Moorcock also attracted work from US writers such as John Sladek , Roger Zelazny and Thomas M. Disch . Zelazny 's contributions included " For a Breath I Tarry " in March 1966 , and Disch published several short stories and the novel Echo Round His Bones , which was serialized starting in the December 1966 and January 1967 issues . Disch commented that he had been unable to find a publisher for the novel in the US .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the term " New Wave " began to be applied to the more experimental work that Moorcock was publishing , and New Worlds was soon regarded as the leading publication in the New Wave movement . In addition to the experimental material , Moorcock attempted to keep the existing readership happy by publishing more traditional science fiction ; in the words of sf historian Colin Greenland , he " changed the contents of the magazine much more slowly than he pretended to " . Traditional sf stories bought by Moorcock include Vernor Vinge 's first story , " Apartness " , which appeared in June 1965 ; he also printed material from Bob Shaw , early stories by Terry Pratchett , and , in March 1965 , Arthur C. Clarke 's " Sunjammer " .
= = = Arts Council and after = = =
When Moorcock took over publication of New Worlds from Roberts & Vinter he changed the format from digest to a larger size with good quality paper that allowed better use of artwork . The first issue in this format , July 1967 , contained part one of Disch 's Camp Concentration , a novel which Disch had been unable to sell in the U.S. because of the explicitness of the language used by the protagonist . Disch afterwards recalled that some of the experimental language in the book was written in the knowledge that New Worlds was available as a market for unconventional fiction . Other new writers who appeared in the magazine include M. John Harrison and Robert Holdstock , both of whom appeared in the November 1968 issue . The December 1968 issue included Samuel R. Delany 's " Time Considered as a Helix of Semi @-@ Precious Stones " , and Harlan Ellison 's " A Boy and His Dog " appeared in April 1969 ; Ellison won a Nebula Award , and Delany both a Nebula and a Hugo , though it was not until the stories were reprinted in book form that they were widely noticed .
The July 1967 issue of New Worlds contained Pamela Zoline 's first story , " The Heat Death of the Universe " , which used entropy , a frequent theme in New Worlds , as a metaphor . The story is one of the best examples of the new approach Moorcock was taking with the magazine : in the words of critic Edward James , the goal was to " use science @-@ fictional and scientific language and imagery to describe perfectly ' ordinary ' scenes of life , and by doing so produce altered perceptions of reality in the reader " . " Inner space " , a term originally coined by J.B. Priestley , was also used to describe the focus of the stories Moorcock printed , in contrast to traditional science fiction 's focus on outer space , and James regards the term as " the watchword of the British New Wave , and the shibboleth by which one recognized those who had abandoned Gernsback and Campbell . " The methods and interests of these writers were quite different from those of traditional science fiction : the concern was with internal rather than external reality , and experimental techniques , unusual juxtapositions of material , and a focus on psychological concerns were the norm .
With the switch to anthology format , some of the more experimental material disappeared . In his editorials , Moorcock made it clear that he did not want to exclude traditional sf stories ; he wanted to eliminate the genre boundaries completely , and have science fiction treated as part of the mainstream of fiction . However , the quarterlies were labelled as science fiction since Sphere knew that would increase sales . The stories printed in the anthologies were generally downbeat . Some of the material had been intended for Sword & Sorcery , a magazine planned as a companion to Vision of Tomorrow , but which folded before its first issue appeared . New writers who appeared for the first time in the quarterly anthology series included Marta Randall ( under the name Marta Bergstrasser ) , Eleanor Arnason , Geoff Ryman , and Rachel Pollack ( as Richard A. Pollack ) .
Issue 212 reprinted a piece written by Moorcock and M. John Harrison that was a spoof issue of The Guardian ; it had been published in Frendz , an underground paper , in 1971 . The next two issues also contained mock newspaper stories , but issue 215 contained somewhat more conventional material , including a Jerry Cornelius story , written by Charles Partington . Issue 216 , the last of the late 1970s issues , reintroduced the mock news stories . The 1990s anthology series did not try to recapture the atmosphere or style of the 1960s or 1970s New Worlds . It contained some well @-@ received material , including stories by Moorcock , Paul Di Filippo , and Ian McDonald , though it was financially unsuccessful .
= = New Worlds and the " New Wave " = =
New Worlds ' greatest influence on science fiction came in the 1960s , with the " New Wave " that began with Moorcock 's polemical editorials . Moorcock asserted in 1965 that a writer of good sf " can learn from his predecessors , but he should not imitate them " ; and he was soon publishing stories that were quite different in technique and style from anything that had appeared before , not just in New Worlds itself , but in any of the sf magazines . Moorcock 's goal was to use the magazine to " define a new avant @-@ garde role " for the genre . New Worlds thus became the " ideological center of the [ New Wave ] movement to rejuvenate conjectural literature " .
The term " New Wave " did not meet with universal approval among those who were regarded as part of it . Brian Aldiss , for example , wrote to Judith Merril in 1966 that he suspected the term was " a journalistic invention of yours and Mike Moorcock 's " , and added " I feel I am no part of the New Wave ; I was here before ' em , and by God I mean to be here after they 've gone ( still writing bloody science fiction ) ! " Merril was a key advocate for the New Wave , and popularized it in her anthology England Swings SF , which appeared in 1968 ; she spent almost a year in London , living near Moorcock , when researching the anthology in 1966 – 1967 . Merril and writer Christopher Priest were among those who used the term " New Wave " to describe the work being done in New Worlds , but Aldiss was not the only writer to object to the term , and it never received a generally accepted definition . Critic Brian Attebery characterizes it as a " disruptive , existentially fraught and formally daring " style ; Peter Nicholls hesitates to define it but comments that " perhaps the fundamental element was the belief that sf could and should be taken seriously as literature " . In a 1967 interview , Ballard , one of the writers most closely associated with the New Wave , described modern U.S. sf as extrovert and optimistic , and contrasted it with " the new science fiction , that other people apart from myself are now beginning to write " , which he saw as " introverted , possibly pessimistic rather than optimistic , much less certain of its own territory . "
Whatever the exact definition of the term , between 1964 and 1966 , New Worlds was at the forefront of the New Wave movement . Two guest editorials in 1962 and 1963 ( " Which way to Inner Space ? " by Ballard and " Play with Feeling " by Moorcock ) were arguably the " first glimmerings " of New Wave ideas in sf magazines . Latham suggests that these were " the first volleys in the polemical offensive they would launch once [ Moorcock ] gained control of the magazine and installed [ Ballard ] as his resident visionary " . The response to the New Wave from critics and sf fans was varied . Christopher Priest called New Worlds a " New Wave prozine " , but lauded the talents of its writers and its experimental stories ( with the exception of Ballard 's The Crystal World , which he deemed " tedious and wearying " ) . Ian McAuley suggested the magazine 's editors were " plugging the ' inner @-@ space ' jazz for all its [ sic ] worth " . Mike Ashley argued that New Worlds was instrumental in promoting authors that would not otherwise have been published ( a suggestion with which Bould and Butler concur ) . Ballard was a particular focus of both praise and , more significantly , vehement criticism , and was vigorously defended by Moorcock . Peter Weston took an " even @-@ handed approach " by praising New Worlds in Speculation editorials , in contrast with his largely negative columnists . Beginning in 1966 , US fanzines began responding to New Worlds and its detractors , and the debate spread to the professional US magazines as well . Judith Merril praised Disch and Ballard 's contributions to New Worlds in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction , but Algis Budrys in Galaxy rebutted her viewpoint and condemned both authors . Frederik Pohl called New Worlds " damned dull " , advocating a return to adventure stories . American science fiction authors " were finding it increasingly difficult to avoid partisan alignments in the developing New Wave war " because of the preponderance of columns and letters in American magazines both for and against New Worlds and New Wave in general . Latham suggests that " the New Worlds editorial conclave was actively working within fandom to counteract the Old Guard assaults " .
By the end of the 1960s , New Worlds and the New Wave 's connection to and influence on science fiction was becoming tenuous . In the August 1969 issue , Platt asserted that " New Worlds is not a science @-@ fiction magazine " , and Moorcock likened it to an avant @-@ garde and experimental literary review . The sf world had lost interest in New Worlds , and it had become , in Ashley 's words , " a revolution running out of energy " . In the longer term , however , it proved influential , despite the lack of wide acceptance at the time : in the words of sf historian Brian Stableford , " the paths beaten by the New Worlds writers are now much more generally in use " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The following table shows the editorial succession at New Worlds , indicates which issues appeared from which publisher , and gives the format , page count and price of each issue : Note that dates in [ square brackets ] indicate the approximate date that an issue was released in cases where a month did not appear on the magazine itself .
There were US reprints of six of the New Worlds Quarterly anthology series . The first four were published by Berkley Books ; Avon Books picked up two more of the series after Berkley dropped it , but since the fifth volume had been missed by that time , Avon retitled volumes 6 and 7 as New Worlds Quarterly 5 and New Worlds Quarterly 6 .
= = = US editions = = =
A US reprint edition of New Worlds ran briefly in 1960 , published by Great American Publications , who at the time were the publishers of Fantastic Universe , edited by Hans Stefan Santesson . The first issue appeared in March 1960 ; it omitted Carnell 's name , and credited Santesson as editor . Although the fiction consisted entirely of reprints , with all but one story coming from the British New Worlds , this was not declared to the reader . Carnell was unhappy with the results of this attempt to break into the US market , but in the event Great American collapsed later that year and only five issues appeared , on a monthly schedule from March to July . The contents of the issues did not correspond to specific British issues : the majority were taken from New Worlds but one story was reprinted from Nova 's edition of Science Fiction Adventures , and three were taken from Fantastic Universe , which had ceased publication with its March 1960 issue .
Subsequently the British edition was released in the US essentially unchanged , with a cover date delayed by one month , starting with issue 99 ( October 1960 ) .
= = = Anthologies = = =
Several anthologies of stories from New Worlds have been published , including :
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= Washington Park Court District =
The Washington Park Court District is a Grand Boulevard community area neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago , Illinois . It was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2 , 1991 . Despite its name , it is not located within either the Washington Park community area or the Washington Park park , but is one block north of both . The district was named for the Park .
The district includes row houses built between 1895 and 1905 , with addresses of 4900 – 4959 South Washington Park Court and 417 – 439 East 50th Street . Many of the houses share architectural features . The neighborhood was part of the early twentieth century segregationist racial covenant wave that swept Chicago following the Great Migration . The community area has continued to be almost exclusively African American since the 1930s .
= = Architecture = =
Washington Park Court , which runs one @-@ way northbound from East 50th Street to East 49th Street , is a one @-@ city block @-@ long street located at 432 east in the Chicago street numbering system . Officially , it runs from 4900 south to 5060 south in the numbering system . The street and several adjacent homes at one end are recognized as a distinct district within the city , according to the City of Chicago Department of Planning and Development . In May 1990 , the district was one of ten that were under consideration for Chicago Landmark status , and it was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2 , 1991 . The district was named for the Park , which was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted .
The T. G. Dickinson Real Estate Company , which created the subdivision in 1892 , mandated 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) setbacks for all properties and originally sold lots in small groups of two or three . Between 1895 and 1905 , the tone of the district became clear with the development of its row houses . In 1990 , the district contained forty @-@ nine row houses that span a wide variety of architectural styles including Classical Revival and Romanesque . As of 2004 , the district contained fifty @-@ one properties . The street hosts residential designs of architect Henry Newhouse and of developers Andrew and John Dubach . At least twenty @-@ five of the lots were developed by the Dubaches and at least twelve of the properties were designed by Newhouse . Their architectural contributions set the tone for the block , which uses mostly brick and limestone houses that share porch and cornice lines . Most houses have mansards or recessed roofs with bay fronts .
= = Demographic change = =
Between 1900 and 1934 the African American population in Chicago grew from 30 @,@ 000 to 236 @,@ 000 . The population was initially diluted in scattered places , but during this time , due to the change in the demographics of Chicago , it became concentrated in two large strips of land . The racial concentration was enforced by violence for few decades , until restrictive covenants became the preferred way to enforce segregation . Although they were previously rare , racially restrictive covenants among property owners that outlawed the purchase , lease , or occupation of their properties by African Americans became common in Chicago in the 1920s following the Great Migration , especially after the 1926 United States Supreme Court upheld racially restrictive covenants in Corrigan v. Buckley ( 271 U.S. 323 ( 1926 ) ) .
During the first half of the 20th Century , The Black Belt was the term for the African American neighborhood from 22nd Street to 31st Street along State Street on Chicago 's South Side . South Side local businessmen and the University of Chicago became alarmed at the prospect of poorer blacks moving from the Black Belt due to a combination of racial succession and economic decline . Because 85 % of Chicago was covenanted , most black neighborhoods were bounded by covenanted areas . The Washington Park Court Improvement Association changed its focus from neighborhood improvement projects , such as planting shrubs and cleaning streets , to upholding segregationist policies . When necessary , the organization resorted to violence to pursue its segregationist purpose , and between 1917 and 1921 , bombs were used to discourage encroachment into majority white neighborhoods . The bombs were used at the residences of African Americans as well as the properties of real estate agents and bankers .
Eventually the term Black Belt included the region from 39th Street to 95th Street between the Dan Ryan Expressway and Lake Michigan . Since the 1930 United States Census , the Grand Boulevard community area has been over 90 % African American . In both the 1960 and 1990 Census , the community area was over 99 % African American . As of the 2000 Census , the area was 98 @.@ 2 % African American and 0 @.@ 8 % Hispanic .
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= A Retrospective ( Pink Martini album ) =
A Retrospective is the first compilation album by the American group Pink Martini , released in September 2011 in the United Kingdom and the following month in the United States , Australia and Canada . The album contains twenty @-@ one tracks from six studio albums . Guest artists include Michael Feinstein ( " How Long Will It Last ? " ) , French singer and songwriter Georges Moustaki ( " Ma Solitude " ) and director Gus Van Sant ( " Moon River " ) ; the compilation also features remixes by New York City disc jockey Johnny Dynell ( " Una Notte a Napoli " ) and Hiroshi Wada ( " Kikuchiyo to Mohshimasu " ) .
Critical reception of the compilation album was positive overall ; many reviewers appreciated the album in its entirety but criticized select tracks . A Retrospective reached a peak position of number seven on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Composition = =
A Retrospective contains twenty @-@ one tracks totaling more than seventy minutes in length , some of which were previously unreleased . Tracks originally appearing on the group 's 1997 debut album Sympathique include Manuel Jiménez 's " ¿ Donde Estas Yolanda ? " , " La Soledad " , " Sympathique " , " Que Sera Sera " by Ray Evans and Jay Livingston , and " Amado Mio " . " Hang On Little Tomato " , " Una Notte a Napoli " , " Anna ( El Negro Zumbón ) " , " Lilly " and " Aspettami " first appeared on Hang On Little Tomato ( 2004 ) . The group 's 2007 album Hey Eugene ! included the song of the same name ; similarly , " Splendor in the Grass " was the title track of the 2009 album of the same name . The samba @-@ influenced version of " Auld Lang Syne " was the final track on Pink Martini 's 2010 holiday album Joy to the World . 1969 , the collaborative album with Saori Yuki first released in October 2011 , included Jorge Ben Jor 's " Mas que Nada " .
" Moon River " , originally by Henry Mancini and Johnny Mercer , and " The Man with the Big Sombrero " were previously unreleased . " Moon River " featured guest vocals by director Gus Van Sant , marking his singing debut . French singer @-@ songwriter Georges Moustaki provided vocals on " Ma Solitude " , and pianist and singer Michael Feinstein contributed to Max Lief and Joseph Meyer 's " How Long Will It Last ? " The compilation also features two remixed recordings : " Una Notte a Napoli " by New York City disc jockey Johnny Dynell , and an instrumental version of " Kikuchiyo to Mohshimasu " by Hiroshi Wada . " Kikuchiyo to Mohshimasu " originally appeared on Hang On Little Tomato .
Included with the album is a 48 @-@ page booklet of previously unseen Polaroid pictures taken by Thomas Lauderdale , along with postcards and posters from Pink Martini 's history . A deluxe hardbound CD book version was also available for purchase . The group promoted the release of A Retrospective and 1969 by touring throughout the United States , including a holiday special in Portland , Oregon featuring Saori Yuki as part of their Holiday Tour .
= = Reception = =
Overall , critical reception of the album was positive , though some reviewers criticized select tracks . Michael Upchurch of The Seattle Times wrote that the " A " before " Retrospective " in the album 's title was appropriate and that the compilation included highlights of the group 's career . The New Zealand Herald 's Lydia Jenkin thought the collection represented a standard Pink Martini concert set list by including a variety of sounds , languages and vocalists , each delivered with " class , passion and subtlety " . Jenkin awarded the album 3 @.@ 5 of 5 stars , complimenting the album overall but noting that some tracks featured less " elegant sophistication " or " imaginative " arrangements . Marion Pragt wrote a positive review for The Cambridge Student , believing the compilation incorporated various styles of music and reflected the group 's " cosmopolitan nature " . Pragt concluded by asserting that the album was " perfect for avid admirers and newcomers alike " .
Rave magazine 's Chad Parkhill rated the album three of four stars . Parkhill described " Auld Lang Syne " as " weirdly off @-@ kilter " and found Dynell 's remix to be " profoundly derivative " , but also called some of the previously unreleased material " wonderful " . Tom D 'Antoni of Oregon Music News called Van Sant 's performance " truly awful in execution " , but considered the album to be " simply sensational " overall . The Sydney Star Observer 's Nick Bond complimented the album 's artwork and packaging .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
A Retrospective reached a peak positive of number seven on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Release history = =
Release history adapted from Pink Martini 's official website .
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= University of Surrey =
The University of Surrey is a public research university located within the county town of Guildford , Surrey , in the South East of England , United Kingdom . The university specialises in science , engineering , medicine and business . It received its charter on 9 September 1966 , and was previously situated near Battersea Park in south @-@ west London . The institution was known as Battersea College of Technology before gaining university status . Its roots , however , go back to the Battersea Polytechnic Institute , founded in 1891 to provide further and higher education for London 's poorer inhabitants .
The university conducts research on small satellites and has a high number of staff who are members of learned societies . The university has recently expanded into China by launching the Surrey International Institute with Dongbei University of Finance and Economics .
The university 's main campus is located on Stag Hill close to the centre of Guildford and adjacent to Guildford Cathedral . A second campus , at Manor Park , is located a short distance away and has been developed to expand upon existing accommodation , academic buildings and sporting facilities .
The university is a major centre for satellite and mobile communications research . In March 2014 , the British Prime Minister David Cameron announced a partnership between the University of Surrey , King 's College London and the University of Dresden for the development of 5G technology . The university is a member of the Association of MBAs , the European University Association and Association of Commonwealth Universities . The university is one of only eight universities to be ranked within the top 10 of all three major national league tables for 2016 . According to the figures revealed by the Higher Education Statistics Agency 2013 / 14 , the University of Surrey has the fourth highest percentage of graduates entering employment and / or further study within six months of graduation at 96 @.@ 9 % ( behind Lancaster University , Robert Gordon University and Arts University Bournemouth ) — higher than the University of Oxford ( 92 @.@ 6 % ) and the University of Cambridge ( 95 @.@ 2 % ) .
The university has 10 Fellows of the Royal Society , 21 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering , one Fellow of the British Academy and 6 Fellows of the Academy of Social Sciences .
= = History = =
= = = Battersea Polytechnic Institute = = =
The University of Surrey was preceded by the Battersea Polytechnic Institute which was founded in 1891 and admitted its first students in 1894 . Its aims were to provide greater access to further and higher education for some of the " poorer inhabitants " of London .
In 1901 , Evening Classes consisted of some of the following ; Mechanical Engineering and Building , Electrical Engineering , Chemical and other Trades , Physics and Natural Science , Maths , Languages , and Commercial subjects , Music . Special classes for Women in Domestic Economy subjects . Day Classes in Art , Science , Women 's subjects and Gymnastics . Classes in preparation for University and Professional Examinations . Also . Science day School for Boys and Girls , Commercial School for Girls , Training School for Domestic Economy and Training for Teachers .
The Institute focused on science and technology subjects , and from about 1920 taught some classes for University of London students . The Institute awarded University of London external degrees .
= = = Battersea College of Technology = = =
In 1956 , the Institute was among the first to receive the designation " College of Advanced Technology " and was renamed Battersea College of Technology . By the beginning of the sixties , the College had virtually outgrown its building in Battersea and had decided to move to Guildford . In addition to this , the Robbins Report of 1963 proposed that the Colleges of Advanced Technology , including Battersea , should expand and become degree @-@ awarding universities .
In 1965 , the university @-@ designate acquired a greenfield site in Guildford from Guildford Cathedral , Guildford Borough Council and the Onslow Village Trust .
= = = University = = =
On 9 September 1966 the University of Surrey was established by Royal Charter and by 1970 the move from Battersea to Guildford was complete .
Early visitors to the new campus were Led Zeppelin , who performed their very first gig at the university on 25 October 1968 .
Between 1982 and 2008 , the university became the trustee of the building of the Guildford Institute , using parts of the building for its adult education programme ad providing a university presence in the heart of Guildford . The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance ( formerly Associated Examining Board ) moved from Aldershot to its own headquarters building on the Stag Hill campus in 1985 .
The university marked its Silver Jubilee in 1991 , an event celebrated by the publishing of Surrey – The Rise of a Modern University by Roy Douglas and by a Service of Thanksgiving in Guildford Cathedral attended by HM The Queen in March 1992 .
The university celebrated its 35th anniversary year in May 2002 with a major event in Guildford Cathedral . It was also marked by the unveiling of the Surrey Scholar sculpture ( by Allan Sly FBS ) to mark the Golden Jubilee of Her Majesty The Queen and as a gift to the people of Guildford . The Surrey Scholar is located at the bottom of Guildford High Street . Understanding the Real World , a visual history of the university , by Christopher Pick , was published to coincide with this anniversary .
In 2007 , the university saw a major increase in overall applications by 39 % compared with the previous year . This was followed by a further increase in applications of 12 % in 2008 .
In October 2008 , the university lost out to Royal Holloway in a bid to merge with London medical institute St George 's , University of London .
From September 2009 , the Guildford School of Acting became a subsidiary of the university and relocated from Guildford town centre to the university campus .
= = = Governance = = =
On 1 July 2005 , Sir Christopher Snowden became Surrey 's fourth Vice @-@ Chancellor and Chief Executive . Like his predecessors Dowling and Kelly , Snowden is a Fellow of the Royal Society . Sir Christopher stepped down in March 2015 to take up the Vice @-@ Chancellorship at the University of Southampton .
On 3 December 2015 it was announced that Professor G.Q. Max Lu would become the University 's fifth President and Vice @-@ Chancellor , taking up his appointment in April 2016 .
= = Campus = =
The university moved in 1968 to a new 30 ha ( 74 @-@ acre ) site on Stag Hill in Guildford , adjacent to Guildford Cathedral . A further 90 ha ( 222 acres ) allocated to the university remained undeveloped until 2005 . The new Manor Park campus , designed as a car @-@ free village , is 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 mi ) from the Stag Hill campus and on the other side of the A3 trunk road . It combines residences for students and staff , buildings for research and teaching , and sporting facilities .
The BBC 's local radio station for Surrey and North @-@ East Hampshire , BBC Surrey , has its studios on the campus . In addition the university has a student @-@ run medium wave radio station , Stag Radio .
In November 2007 , the university was given planning permission to build the Surrey Multifaith Centre . This will be the first building in Britain to have a Synagogue , Muslim Prayer Hall , Gurdwara and Chapel built separately under one roof .
On 8 July 2009 , a temporary Amigo convenience store opened in the BB Building on the campus , replacing the previous One Stop store which was situated near the library . The new store is operated by the Compass Group , and will see the University enjoy ' guaranteed rental income and share of turnover ' . The project is part of wider work which saw a new building , housing a larger shop and library extension , which opened on the One Stop site in April 2011 .
In September 2009 , the Guildford School of Acting moved into a new purpose built facility on the main Stag Hill campus as part of a strategic merger between the two organisations . The old Sports Centre has been converted into the Ivy Arts Centre , a performing arts facility housing a 200 @-@ seat theatre and studio and workshop space .
A £ 35 million research centre for the development of the first worldwide 5G network was scheduled to open in February 2015 .
= = = Surrey Sports Park = = =
In April 2010 , a £ 35 million new sports centre named the Surrey Sports Park opened .
The Surrey Sports Park is situated close to the main university campus on its Manor Park site . It houses a 50 @-@ metre Olympic @-@ size swimming pool , three multi @-@ sports halls , a squash centre , 700 square metres of fitness facilities , two artificial floodlit pitches , outdoor and indoor tennis courts , four real tennis courts and a climbing centre .
The 1 @,@ 000 seat indoor arena is home to Guildford Heat basketball team , who have been using the venue since 2010 following a move from their previous home at the Guildford Spectrum . Heat are one of the leading teams and former winners of the British Basketball League , the country 's top division .
It played host to all but 4 matches of the 2010 Women 's Rugby World Cup ( the semi finals , 3rd place play off and final were held at the Twickenham Stoop ) . It is also the official training facility for Harlequins rugby club , with plans to add a private gym for the club in addition to the already available facilities .
It will also be the home ground of UniS Old Boys F.C. , a football team for alumni of the university , which competes in the Surrey County Intermediate League ( Western ) , at the 12th level of the English football league system .
Surrey University participates in an annual sports festival called the Varsity Games . The university competes against other institutions such as Royal Holloway , University of London and Kingston University . Over the years , there has been stiff competition between Surrey and Kingston for the Varsity Cup , that has made both universities arch @-@ rivals at the Games .
= = Organisation = =
The academic activities of the university are divided into the following three faculties :
= = Academic profile = =
= = = Research = = =
The university conducts extensive research on small satellites , with its Surrey Space Centre and spin @-@ off commercial company , Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd . In the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise , the University of Surrey received a 5 * rating in the categories of " Sociology " , " Other Studies and Professions Allied to Medicine " , and " Electrical and Electronic Engineering " and a 5 rating in the categories of " Psychology " , " Physics " , " Applied Mathematics " , " Statistics and Operational Research " , " European Studies " , and " Russian , Slavonic and East European Languages " .
The new 5G Innovation Centre ( 5GIC ) at the University of Surrey has gained over £ 40m support from international telecommunications companies including Aeroflex , AIRCOM International , BBC , BT Group , EE ( telecommunications company ) , Fujitsu Laboratories of Europe , Huawei , Ofcom , Rohde & Schwarz , Samsung , Telefonica and Vodafone – and a further £ 11.6m from the Higher Education Funding Council for England ( HEFCE ) .
The Centre will provide industry with a world @-@ leading real @-@ time experimental facility for testing and optimising advanced technologies , underpinning the development of the new mobile broadband internet products and services . This will give Surrey the opportunity to be a major influence in critical standardisation and radio regulatory bodies in the emerging 5G arena .
Professor Rahim Tafazolli , Director of the 5GIC , said , “ By bringing together leading academics with heavyweight industry partners , I believe we can develop the technologies required for the future .
In addition , the Surrey Research Park is a 28 ha ( 69 @-@ acre ) low density development which is owned and developed by the university , providing large landscaped areas with water features and facilities for over 110 companies engaged in a broad spectrum of research , development and design activities . The university generates the third highest endowment income out of all UK universities " reflecting its commercially @-@ orientated heritage . "
= = = Centre for Communication Systems Research = = =
CCSR at the University of Surrey is the UK 's largest and most well @-@ known academic research centre in Mobile and Satellite Communication Systems . CCSR has a long @-@ standing track record of being a major academic research group in the field of wireless communications within Europe and historically it has a unique research approach on both satellite as well as terrestrial mobile communication systems . The research activities within the group encompass all levels of communication systems , from antennas & propagation , air interfaces , PHY , MAC , networking layer up to the service support platforms and distributed applications and user interfaces . It is a major participant in European Union Information Science and Technology ( IST ) projects . It has major collaborations in India , China , Korea , Japan and USA as well as several links in the communications industry and UK Catapults . It holds a 100 % graduate employment record . CCSR was selected by industry as a core member of the UK Virtual Centre of Excellence in Mobile and Personal Communications .
Surrey ’ s research into the Web of Things has been highlighted as one of the top 10 technology trends for 2014 by the IEEE Computing Society .
= = = Awards = = =
In 1991 the university was granted the Queen 's Award for Export Achievement , and in 1996 it was awarded the Queen 's Anniversary Prize for Higher & Further Education in recognition of the university 's outstanding achievement in satellite engineering and communications , teaching and research by the Centre for Satellite Engineering Research and its associated companies . In 1998 Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd ( SSTL ) was awarded the Queen 's Award for Technological Achievement . This was presented in person by the Queen on her second visit to the university , accompanied by HRH The Duke of Edinburgh and HRH The Duke of Kent , Chancellor of the University .
More recently the university was awarded the 2002 Queen 's Anniversary Prize for Higher & Further Education , this time for its internationally renowned research and development on optoelectronic devices and ion beam applications . The university has a high number of staff who are academicians of the learned societies : 10 Fellows of the Royal Society , 21 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering , one Fellow of the British Academy and 6 Fellows of the Academy of Social Sciences .
In July 2007 , the university was awarded Fairtrade University status by the Fairtrade Foundation .
In 2011 , the university won the 2011 Queen 's Anniversary Prize for Higher & Further Education , for its research into the fields of safe water and sanitation .
In 2013 , the Electronic Engineering Department of the university won the 2013 Elektra Award University Department of the Year , marking it the most innovative and successful in Europe .
= = = Rankings = = =
The University of Surrey is recognised as one of the leading universities in the United Kingdom and has climbed rapidly in national league tables as of recent years . In the The Sunday Times 10 @-@ year ( 1998 – 2007 ) average ranking of British universities based on consistent league table performance , Surrey was ranked 35th overall in the UK , as of 2016 it now places between 4th and 8th in the three main ranking compilations of universities in the United Kingdom . For the most recent domestic university league tables , the university is ranked 4th overall by The Guardian , 8th overall by the Complete University Guide , 8th overall by the Times and Sunday Times Good University Guide 2016 .
Subjects ranked in the top 10 include Hospitality & Tourism , Law , Electronic Engineering , Food Science , Sociology , Aerospace Engineering , Mechanical Engineering , Civil Engineering , Chemical Engineering , Economics and Psychology . In world rankings , Times Higher Education ranked the university 190th in 2007 .
= = = Educational links = = =
Since its foundation , the university has fostered links with other educational bodies in the local community and region . For example , in recent years it has validated courses at and subsequently accredited Saint Mary 's College ( now an independent institution called St Mary 's University College , Twickenham ) , Wimbledon School of Art , and Farnborough College of Technology . The university currently validates courses at North East Surrey College of Technology ( NESCOT ) , Guildford School of Acting , Guildford College of Further & Higher Education , King Edward VII Hospital Department of Staff Development , The Nuclear Department at HMS Sultan , St John 's Seminary , Southern Theological Education & Training Scheme ( STETS ) , the Pre @-@ Retirement Association and SHL ( UK ) Ltd .
In 1998 , as a result of the continuing development in the relationship between the university and the nearby Roehampton Institute , it was decided to form an academic federation . In November 1999 , the Privy Council approved the necessary changes to the university 's Charter and Statutes and the Roehampton Institute became The University of Surrey Roehampton at the beginning of 2000 . Between 2000 and 2004 , the university and Roehampton worked together as the Federal University of Surrey . In June 2004 , the Privy Council granted Roehampton an independent university title , and it became Roehampton University from 1 August 2004 . This move ended the federal partnership between the two institutions , although collaboration between the two is being maintained .
In 2007 , the university and Dongbei University of Finance and Economics in Dalian , China , launched the Surrey International Institute , DUFE . The SII at DUFE offers Surrey degrees and dual @-@ degree programmes in China . A placement year link with University of North Carolina is currently being initiated in 2009 , where each institution places students from the other with companies located nearby , in the South East of England and the Carolinas , respectively .
= = = International partners = = =
The university holds a number of formal links with institutions from around the world to share teaching and research and facilitate staff and student exchanges .
University of São Paulo , Brazil
Seoul National University , South Korea
University of Central Florida , USA
North Carolina State University , USA
The DUFE — Surrey International Institute ( 东北财经大学萨里国际学院 ) is an academic partnership with the Dongbei University of Finance and Economics in Dalian , China
University of Hong Kong
Nanyang Technological University
National Autonomous University of Mexico Head Associate Diego Luiz
MODUL University Vienna , Austria
= = Notable academics and alumni = =
= = = Notable alumni = = =
= = = Notable academics = = =
Academics to work at the university include Alf Adams , pioneer of the strained quantum @-@ well laser ; Jim Al @-@ Khalili , the nuclear physicist , author and broadcaster ; Aleks Krotoski , the technology journalist and broadcaster ; Sir Martin Sweeting , founder of Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd ; and Nigel Gilbert , the sociologist pioneer in the use of agent @-@ based models in the social sciences .
On 20 May 2009 , Andreas Mogensen , a researcher at the Surrey Space Centre , was announced as a new member of the European Astronaut Corps , part of the European Space Agency and in doing so , will become the first Danish astronaut .
In February 2011 , terrorism and Northern Ireland expert Marie Breen Smyth , joined the Politics department , as Chair in International Relations . In March 2005 , Breen @-@ Smyth , ( then Smyth ) gave evidence to the House of Commons Northern Ireland Affairs Committee Inquiry into Dealing with Northern Ireland 's past . Another notable academic was the late translation studies scholar Peter Newmark .
One notable academic , who is known for his work in Nanotechnology , is Ravi Silva . Ravi Silva is the current Director of the Advanced Technology Institute at the university . In 2003 , he was awarded the Albert Einstein Silver Medal and the Javed Husain Prize by UNESCO for contributions to electronic devices . The 2011 Clifford Paterson Lecture was given by Silva for his outstanding contributions to basic science and engineering in the field of carbon nanoscience and nanotechnology . The lecture is given annually on any aspect of engineering . The General Electric Company Limited endowed the lecture in 1975 in honour of Clifford Paterson who undertook the creation of the GEC Research Laboratories in 1919 . Other notable academics who have delivered the lecture include Frank Kelly and Richard Friend , both from the University of Cambridge .
Surrey 's Centre for Environmental Strategy ( established by Roland Clift in 1992 ) gained a lot of attention with the publication of Prosperity Without Growth by University of Surrey academic Tim Jackson , Professor of Sustainable Development and Director of the ESRC Research Group on Lifestyles , Values and Environment .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students ' Union = = =
The University of Surrey Students ' Union is the sole representative body of Surrey students to the university . It consists of a membership department ( representing students on academic and welfare issues , as well as administering sports clubs and societies ) as well as a commercial department . The organisation is non @-@ profit , meaning any takings from the Union 's four commercial outlets are invested in supporting the membership side of the business .
The Union was incorporated as an independent charity in July 2011 . It has a trustee board consisting of four external trustees , a member of University staff , a student trustee , and five full @-@ time student sabbatical officers ( President , VP Education , VP Welfare , VP Sports , VP Societies ) .
The Union hosts many Balls throughout the academic year . The Union ball is a formal event , where students are smartly dressed . There is a Winter Ball at the end of the Autumn term . The Ball season begins in the Summer term with the Colours Ball . Colours Ball is an event organised for all sports activities done at the university . It is done at the end of the sports season , where members of various sports ' clubs are honoured for their contribution to Sports at Surrey . There is a break in the middle of the season for students to sit their final examinations . After the examinations , the season continues with events from several Union societies . The season ends with the Graduation Ball at the end of the year for the graduating class .
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= Ronald M. George =
Ronald Marc George ( born March 11 , 1940 ) is the retired 27th Chief Justice of California , where he headed the Supreme Court of California and the Judicial Council of California . Governor Pete Wilson appointed George as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court in 1991 and elevated George to Chief Justice in 1996 .
= = Education and early career = =
Ron George grew up in Beverly Hills , the son of a Hungarian immigrant mother and French immigrant father . A 1957 graduate of Beverly Hills High School , George earned his B.A. from Princeton University in 1961 and his J.D. from Stanford Law School in 1964 .
Upon graduating from Stanford , George was a Deputy California Attorney General from 1965 – 1972 . As a Deputy Attorney General , he argued unsuccessfully on behalf of the State of California before the United States Supreme Court in Chimel v. California in 1969 . The following year , he again represented California before the U.S. Supreme Court , this time successfully defending the death penalty in McGautha v. California . In 1971 , he represented California as an amicus curiae in support of the successful argument of the State of Illinois in Kirby v. Illinois .
In 1972 , his final year as a Deputy Attorney General , George unsuccessfully argued in favor of the death penalty before the California Supreme Court in California v. Anderson but was successful in defending the conviction of Sirhan Sirhan in the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy , a U.S. Senator and 1968 presidential candidate . The ruling in California v. Anderson resulted in the dismissal of Aikens v. California as moot ; George was to have represented the State of California in this case .
= = Early judicial career = =
Governor Ronald Reagan appointed George as a Judge of the Los Angeles Municipal Court on April 20 , 1972 . George was elected to a full six @-@ year term on November 2 , 1976 . Governor Jerry Brown appointed him to the Los Angeles County Superior Court on December 23 , 1977 ; George was elected to a full six @-@ year term on November 7 , 1978 , and re @-@ elected on November 6 , 1984 .
As a Superior Court judge , George presided over the trial of Hillside Strangler Angelo Buono in 1981 – 1983 . George also presided over the trial of Marvin Gay , Sr. for the slaying of Gay 's son , the singer Marvin Gaye . George was lauded for his extremely unusual decision to deny the motion by Los Angeles County District Attorney 's office to dismiss all 10 counts of murder against Buono . However , his unusual decision was speculated to be a result of his earlier decision to separate crucial counts of rape and sodomy , which in themselves would serve as evidence against the defendant , from the murder charges . The prosecutors felt the evidence against Buono was so weak that it did not justify even an attempt to win at trial . Judges rarely second @-@ guess the prosecutors ' judgment on such a matter ( and George stated that he was " loath " to do so ) . However , George 's review of the evidence in the case caused him to feel so strongly that the prosecutors were in error that he did exactly that . George reassigned the case to the California Attorney General 's office , and that office successfully convicted Buono on nine of the 10 counts . Thus , it was recognized that the judge , through his action to deny the earlier motion to dismiss , had ultimately prevented a serial killer from going free . Oddly , Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp had been elected California Attorney General in the middle of the lengthy trial , so a Van de Kamp @-@ led District Attorney 's office attempted to dismiss the unwinnable case only to have a Van de Kamp @-@ led Attorney General 's office win nine convictions in the case .
Governor George Deukmejian appointed him to the California Second District Court of Appeal on July 23 , 1987 . George was confirmed and sworn in on August 27 , 1987 , and was elected to a full twelve @-@ year term on November 6 , 1990 .
= = Supreme Court = =
Governor Pete Wilson appointed Justice Ron George to the California Supreme Court on July 29 , 1991 . George was confirmed and sworn in as an Associate Justice on September 3 , 1991 . California voters elected him to a full twelve @-@ year term on November 8 , 1994 . Wilson appointed George as the 27th Chief Justice of California on March 28 , 1996 . George was confirmed and sworn into office on May 1 , 1996 . He was elected to a full twelve @-@ year term on November 3 , 1998 , with 75 @.@ 5 % percent of the vote .
George was occasionally floated as a candidate for justice of the United States Supreme Court as a conservative acceptable to Democrats , such as when Democratic United States Senator Barbara Boxer suggested George as a potential nominee for the seat on the Court vacated by Sandra Day O 'Connor 's retirement . Boxer described both George and his fellow California Supreme Court Justice Kathryn Werdegar , as Republicans who " reflect the spirit of Sandra Day O 'Connor 's tenure — independent and nonideological . "
In 2008 , Justice George authored the opinion in the Supreme Court 's 4 @-@ 3 ruling in In re Marriage Cases legalizing same @-@ sex marriage in California . Citing the court 's 1948 decision legalizing interracial marriages , George 's opinion found that sexual orientation is a protected class like race and gender , meaning that attempts to ban same @-@ sex marriage would be subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause of the California Constitution . It was the first state high court in the country to do so . Voters would overturn the decision less than six months later by passing Proposition 8 in the November 2008 elections . However , Proposition 8 would itself be later overturned by a Federal Court in Perry v. Schwarzenegger and In Re Marriage Cases reinstated as valid constitutional law in California .
On July 14 , 2010 , Justice George announced he would not seek to be re @-@ elected in 2010 and would therefore retire at the end of his term : January 2 , 2011 . He was succeeded by Tani Cantil @-@ Sakauye .
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= 34th Street – Hudson Yards ( IRT Flushing Line ) =
34th Street – Hudson Yards is a New York City Subway station in Manhattan 's West Side on the IRT Flushing Line , and is the western ( railroad south ) terminus for the 7 < 7 > trains . It has two tracks and one island platform , with two levels of mezzanines : one directly above the platform and the other directly below street level .
The station , originally part of the city 's bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics and the failed attempt to build the West Side Stadium , was first scheduled to open in summer 2012 . When London was chosen for the Olympics , the opening date was pushed to December 2013 . In 2011 , the opening was postponed to June 2014 , pending the completion of the escalators and elevators in the station . After a series of delays involving escalator , elevator , and fire and safety systems , the station finally opened on September 13 , 2015 . The 34th Street station is the first completely new station in the New York City Subway system since 1989 , as well as the first such station funded by the government of New York City since 1950 .
The new construction , part of the city 's and the MTA 's master plan for the Far West Side , extended the IRT Flushing Line west from Times Square to Eleventh Avenue , then south to 34th Street . Although the West Side Stadium plan was rejected by city and state planning agencies , the 7 Subway Extension plan received approval to move ahead , as New York political leaders wanted to see the warehouse district west of Eighth Avenue and north of 34th Street redeveloped as part of the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project , and subway service was to be an essential part of that effort . The extension also serves the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center , which was expanded in 2008 – 14 and is located just half a block away from the station entrances .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In response to the City Planning Commission 's 1993 proposal to improve access to the Manhattan Central Business District , the Metropolitan Transportation Authority ( MTA ) began exploring the possibility of an extension of the IRT Flushing Line to New Jersey . In 2001 , a business and civic group convened by Senator Charles Schumer argued that a westward extension of the Midtown office district could not be accomplished without a subway extension , saying :
The long blocks along the avenues make the walk as long as 20 minutes to the westernmost parts of the area . In addition , there is no convenient link from Grand Central Station or elsewhere on the east side of Manhattan , making the Far West Side a difficult commute for workers from parts of Manhattan , Queens , Westchester and Connecticut .
It was again proposed as part of the New York City bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The City wanted to get funding before July 2005 , at which time the International Olympic Committee would vote on funding . However , due to shortfalls in the MTA 's Capital Program , as well as preexisting funding for the Second Avenue Subway and East Side Access , the MTA could not pay to fund the extension . After a proposal for the West Side Stadium , an Olympic stadium to be located above the nearby West Side Yard , was rejected in 2005 , New York City quickly lost their Olympic bid .
For then @-@ Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the extension was still a priority . His December 12 , 2006 , address to the New York League of Conservation Voters noted that in November 2006 , the government began issuing bonds to fund the extension of the 7 subway to Eleventh Avenue and 34th Street . The extension was funded with New York City funds from municipal tax increment financing ( TIF ) bond sales that are expected to be repaid with property tax revenues from future developments in areas served by the extension . The one @-@ station extension to the burgeoning Hudson Yards was originally to cost US $ 2 @.@ 1 billion , but eventually grew to US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion , excluding a US $ 500 million intermediate station at 10th Avenue that was canceled due to costs .
In October 2007 , the MTA awarded a $ 1 @.@ 145 billion contract to build 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) of twin @-@ tube tunnel to S3 , a joint venture of J.F. Shea , Skanska USA Civil , and Schiavone . The contract was to build tunnel from the then @-@ current 7 train terminus at Times Square westward underneath 41st Street to Eleventh Avenue , then down to 26th Street . Richard Dattner and Partners , Architects , designed the 34th Street station . After excavating the new terminal 's shell and creating the first 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of tunnel using the drill @-@ and @-@ blast method , S3 placed two tunnel @-@ boring machines ( TBMs ) in the ground to dig the remaining 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) ; as it dug , each TBM placed precast concrete liner segments to create the tunnel interior .
On December 21 , 2009 , the MTA said that a tunnel @-@ boring machine broke through the 34th Street station cavern wall . Both tunnel @-@ boring machines were scheduled to finish the required tunneling in the spring of 2010 .
In April 2011 , the MTA announced that the contract covering the tunnels , the station mezzanine and passenger platform was 85 % complete , and that the systems contract , covering mechanical and electrical systems , electric power , lighting and train tracks would be awarded by July 2011 . The systems contract was awarded in September 2011 . In May 2012 , the MTA announced that the extension , now 65 % complete , had received the installation of the first set of rails . By August 2013 , the extension was 90 % complete .
On December 20 , 2013 , Bloomberg took a ceremonial ride on a train to the nearly @-@ complete station , celebrating a part of his legacy as mayor , during a press tour of the extension . Train testing did not commence until June 2015 .
= = = Delays = = =
In January 2012 , the station was touted as under @-@ budget and on schedule to open in 2013 , before a series of delays plagued the project . The station , originally part of the city 's bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics , was supposed to first open as part of a two @-@ station subway extension , including Tenth Avenue station , in summer 2012 . When London was chosen for the Olympics , the opening date was pushed to December 2013 ; the Tenth Avenue station was dropped from construction plans soon after . By June 2012 , trains were still expected to run " for test purposes " by the end of 2013 . That same month , the station 's opening was delayed to June 2014 for completion of the station 's fitting @-@ out .
Michael Horodniceanu , chief of MTA Construction Company , told the New York Times in January 2014 that complications in the installation of the inclined elevator would likely cause a further delay of about three months , bringing the opening date to very late summer or early fall of 2014 , or to November 2014 . By March 2014 , the station 's tentative opening date was still to be in November 2014 .
Then , in May 2014 , the opening was delayed again to install the inclined elevators , as they had originally failed a factory test in Como Province , Italy . Officials had insisted that the Italian @-@ manufactured elevators had software and parts made from a variety of different companies in America , rather than from a single foreign company . However , the station was not delayed solely because of the elevators . The station 's opening was also pushed to later dates due to " integrated testing for fire protection " , which required the completion of all station infrastructure , including escalators , stairs , and elevators . Escalators and tunnel ventilation systems also caused the station to be delayed . At this point , the station was expected to open for service in late 2014 , but due to further elevator delays as well as problems with the extension 's ventilation systems , it was delayed in October 2014 by a further few months , to February 2015 . The opening date was originally supposed to be before 10 Hudson Yards , the first Hudson Yards building , opened in July 2015 .
At this point , the project was so far delayed that the MTA was offered US $ 4 @.@ 75 million in " incentive " money if the station opened by February 24 , 2015 . Software changes were made to solve the elevators ' problems , and the elevators were installed . Testing would be complete by November . Three ventilation systems were already installed by October 1 , 2014 , with two more systems to be installed by the end of the month . On November 17 , it was confirmed that February 24 would be the opening date for the station ; new signs and the southern entrance 's canopy started to be erected . However , just a month later , the MTA stated that it was unable to open the subway extension for service until April to July 2015 , due to the failure to get the inclined elevators to work properly . The MTA also cited problems with the fire alarm and security systems as another reason for the delay . In addition , Hudson Yards ' developer , The Related Companies , also needed to dig caissons for the foundations of 55 Hudson Yards , just above the subway station , and the foundation work needed to be complete before the MTA could proceed with opening the station .
The MTA made another announcement , on March 24 , 2015 , saying that the station 's opening would be delayed again to summer 2015 , due to more problems with the fire and security systems . In addition , third rails , public service announcement systems , ventilation fans , escalators , and elevators would need to be tested . By April 2015 , the station was complete , but unopened . On June 15 , 2015 , though , the extension was pushed back again to " before the end of the third quarter " of 2015 . A month later , the MTA confirmed that the station would be opened on or before September 13 , 2015 . The opening date was confirmed on August 28 , 2015 . By this point , MTA chairman Thomas Prendergast had stated that the myriad delays in both the new station and in the other MTA Capital Construction projects were humiliating .
= = = Operation = = =
The station opened on September 13 , 2015 , in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony attended by New York City mayor Bill de Blasio , U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer , and former deputy mayor Dan Doctoroff . The secondary station entrance at 35th Street , as well as finishing touches within the station itself , was not expected to be completed until 2016 .
Just a couple of days after the station opened , though , there were some problems in and around the station , which multiple news outlets criticized . An escalator broke down on September 14 , just a day after the station 's opening . In an unrelated September 16 incident , a straphanger got injured while walking up another escalator at the 34th Street station . Earlier that day , the New York Post reported on signal problems in the brand @-@ new tunnels around the station , while riders complained about the delays on Twitter and Reddit . A Wall Street Journal commentator remarked that " it 's only a matter of months ( make that weeks ) before the gleaming station ... is pockmarked with chewing @-@ gum spots , urban scrawl and litter . " Overall , however , the station received positive acclaim during its first few days of service . In an article in several newspapers distributed by NYC Community Media , Lenore Skenazy writes that many riders have praised the station 's design , its cleanliness , and its climate @-@ controlled platforms , and noted herself that the station looked and felt " as uplifting as a cathedral " .
In March 2016 , news sources reported that despite the station 's high cost , the station had maintenance problems : there were leaks in the ceiling of the corridors holding the escalators , the station 's bathrooms were closed because of flooding from the street , and icicles had formed on the ceiling of the station . The MTA supposedly knew about the issues for several years , even during construction . The MTA board called these issues " unacceptable " and the contractor responsible for waterproofing the station spent $ 3 million to fix them . The leaky ceiling was reportedly fixed by May 2016 .
= = Station layout = =
The approximately 1 @,@ 200 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 370 m ) station , designed by Dattner Architects , has a single wide island platform serving two tracks , as well as eight staircases between the lower mezzanine and the platform . The platform itself is 35 feet ( 11 m ) wide , which makes it much wider than many other island platforms in the subway system ; by comparison , the Chambers Street station in Lower Manhattan has platforms that are 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) wide , and the Second Avenue Subway stations are 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) wide . The platform , at 585 feet ( 178 m ) long , is among the longest in the IRT system , as well as the longest " column @-@ free " platform of any station in the system . In addition , there is a large 3 @-@ block @-@ long mezzanine , stretching between 33rd and 36th Streets , overhead .
The station 's extreme depth necessitates an upper ( fare ) mezzanine and a lower ( passenger ) mezzanine . A 27 @.@ 6 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) fare mezzanine is located under the basements of 55 Hudson Yards , and escalators and an incline elevator lead to a lower mezzanine , which is 109 feet ( 33 m ) deep . The Empire Connection and North River Tunnels are both above the station . Above the lower mezzanine is a curved , oval @-@ shaped ceiling indentation that helps to cover the ventilation tubes in the station ceiling , and also acts as a skylight . The curved , cavernous ceiling of the lower mezzanine helps the station be energy @-@ efficient via the use of indirect lighting . The station has a total of five escalators from the lower mezzanine to the upper mezzanine , and four escalators from the upper mezzanine to the main entrance . There are also four elevators ; of these , two are vertical elevators — one from street level to the upper mezzanine , and one from the lower mezzanine to platform level — while the other two are incline elevators .
There are four escalators and two stairs from the main entrance to the upper mezzanine . Past the main entrance 's fare control , which is split into two banks , there are two parallel shafts down to the lower mezzanine ; the northern shaft carries four escalators , while the southern shaft carries one escalator and the two incline elevators . The lowermost five escalators are the system 's longest and take about one minute and thirty seconds to traverse .
The walls adjacent to the tracks have white tiles arranged in sets of three 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) columns of 3 tiles each . There are two @-@ tile @-@ high gray squares containing white " 34 " s in the middle of each set of columns . They are pre @-@ fabricated porcelain panels , in three @-@ by @-@ five slabs , to allow easy replacement . On the lower mezzanine , the architects used high ceilings and convex railings to make the station seem bigger , thus improving passenger flow . A tiling pattern , similar to that used on platform level , is also used on the lower mezzanine , though electronic advertisement panels are mounted on the walls at certain areas along the lower mezzanine . The cavernous station 's design has been compared to that of Washington Metro stations , although early plans for narrow , Washington Metro @-@ like platforms were scrapped . The station has also been compared to stations along London 's Jubilee Line Extension , and in fact , the station 's architecture was inspired by that of the Canary Wharf tube station on that extension .
The station , which is paid for with tax increment financing property taxes , is the first to be funded by the city since the Jamaica – 179th Street station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line opened in 1950 , as well as the first new unique station in the New York City Subway since the three stations on the IND 63rd Street Line opened in October 1989 .
= = = Entrances and exits = = =
The station has two entrances and exits :
Main Station Entrance / Ventilation Building – escalators and elevator on the west side of Hudson Boulevard between 33rd and 34th Streets
Secondary Station Entrance – escalators on the SW corner of Hudson Boulevard and 35th Street ; under construction as of May 2016
The main entrance , located at the southeast corner of the intersection of 34th Street and Hudson Boulevard , has a turtle shell @-@ shaped glass canopy above it that allows light to shine on the upper mezzanine . The elevator is located south of 34th Street in Hudson Park , while the escalator entrance is located further east , closer to the boulevard . The ventilation building will be built over by developers at a future date . The second entrance , which will contain escalator entrances is at the southwest corner of 35th Street and Hudson Boulevard East . At both of the exits , the staircases and four escalators each go down 40 feet ( 12 m ) to a fare control area , then another 80 feet ( 24 m ) to the common lower mezzanine ; the main entrance was completed by summer 2014 , while the secondary entrance is still under construction and will be completed by 2016 .
Both entrances will feature the glass canopy design , the first of their kind in the subway system . They are intended to stand out aesthetically . The entrances are interweaved with the Hudson Yards developments , with the main entrance wedged between 50 Hudson Yards to the east and 55 Hudson Yards to the west . The rest of the Hudson Yards development is located very close to the south of the station . Both entrances are based on a design by architect Toshiko Mori , which itself is based on the design of smaller station entrances in the Paris Métro .
There was provisionally an entrance inside the 3 Hudson Boulevard building , near where the secondary station building will be . However , as both entrances will use a glass canopy cover independent of any Hudson Yards structures , the 3 Hudson Boulevard entrance was shelved in lieu of a subway entrance directly to the east of 3 Hudson Boulevard .
In the preliminary plans , there was also going to be an entrance at the southwest corner of Eleventh Avenue and 36th Street to serve the Javits Center directly . The secondary exit would have been relocated to the north side of 34th Street west of Hudson Boulevard .
= = = Features = = =
In September 2007 , it was announced that the new station would feature platform screen doors . However , plans for screen doors in New York City Subway stations were dropped in 2012 , because of their high cost of $ 1 million per platform edge . However , even without the inclusion of platform screen doors for ventilation and safety purposes , the station — along with the new South Ferry station on the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line and the three Phase 1 Second Avenue Subway stations on the Upper East Side — includes special air @-@ cooling systems that keep the temperature at 72 to 78 ° F ( 22 to 26 ° C ) year @-@ round . These systems , which already existed at Grand Central – 42nd Street station , help reduce the temperature along platforms . The station also has ventilation towers that are the largest in the New York City Subway system .
Unlike most stations in the system , which do not have open public restrooms , there are public restrooms in the station . The station also has a stainless steel oval @-@ shaped station agent booth .
Materials used in the station are expected to last at least 100 years ; include granite tile , ceramic tile , stainless steel panels on the walls , painted steel panels on the ceilings , energy @-@ efficient fluorescent lamps and LEDs , and mesh ; and are supposed to conform to New York City Transit criteria , including slip @-@ resistance . The station also uses acoustic ceiling tiles to reduce noise , in addition to using indirect lighting . The station is also compliant with National Fire Protection Association standards , despite its extreme depth , as it can be evacuated in six minutes in case of fire , and the platform can be cleared within four minutes .
While the station was not equipped with Wi @-@ Fi or 3G at the time of opening , it was to be installed " in the near future " . However , the station does include " countdown clocks " indicating the time until the next train , as well as Help Point emergency intercoms and in @-@ station travel planners .
As part of the MTA 's " Arts for Transit " program , three mosaics by Xenobia Bailey , which total approximately 2 @,@ 788 square feet ( 259 @.@ 0 m2 ) , were installed in three locations within the station . The artworks , titled Funktional Vibrations , are based on some of Bailey 's crocheting patterns , and is located in an oval @-@ shaped recession in the ceiling at the 34th Street entrance . The other two mosaics are located in the station entrances . The Hudson Park and Boulevard project is also included with the construction of the station . However , there is no artwork in the rest of the station ; one Newsweek writer observed that while the station was " very clean but also a little antiseptic " , " cool " , and " efficient " , it was also " lacking all character " with its austere design .
= = = = Incline elevators = = = =
The station is more than 10 stories deep , placing it among the system 's deepest — so deep , in fact , that the North River Tunnels and the planned Gateway Project tunnels pass over it by approximately 35 feet ( 11 m ) . The station , which is 125 feet ( 38 m ) below street level , and 108 feet ( 33 m ) below sea level in total , is the third deepest subway station in the entire system , behind 190th Street and 191st Street stations ; as a result , nine escalators were installed at the station . In addition , passenger access to the station includes a pair of custom @-@ made incline elevators , which are installed in the southernmost of the two shafts between the upper and lower mezzanines , at the 34th Street end of the station . In April 2014 , the first of two 172 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 52 m ) incline elevators was installed in the station . The elevators are relatively slow in order to encourage non @-@ disabled riders to use the escalators . These incline elevators make the station the first to be built to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ( ADA ) .
The 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) high incline elevators , which move at 100 feet ( 30 m ) per minute ( making an entire trip between the mezzanine levels in less than two minutes ) and are sloped at a 27 @-@ degree angle , are the first of their kind in the system . Each elevator can hold up to 15 standing passengers or five wheelchair passengers . The inclined elevators were less expensive than vertically @-@ traveling elevators , and were installed within the large escalator shaft at 34th Street . However , as the incline elevators had originally failed a factory test by its manufacturer Maspero Elevatori , there were multiple delays in opening the station , and the opening date was eventually delayed from December 2013 to late 2014 , then to mid @-@ 2015 .
The use of inclined elevators was intended to provide wheelchair @-@ bound patrons with a shorter , easier path to the train platform as well as to reduce tunneling costs . The two elevators were manufactured by Maspero Elevatori , in Appiano Gentile , Italy , using a controller made on Long Island , speed governors made in Ohio , and buttons and other parts in Queens . The software for the elevator was written in the United States . Maspero Elevatori assembled the elevators in Italy , and they failed an operational test there , prior to being shipped to the United States . The MTA said the manufacturer chose to use American subcontractors in place of local Italian suppliers after reading the specifications the transit agency submitted . The MTA worked with the manufacturer to try to resolve the problems caused by a very high level of customization .
= = = Track layout = = =
The tracks of this station continue south of the station , down to 25th Street , to allow trains to be stored south of the station during off @-@ peak hours ; the tail tracks are seven blocks long , enough to store two 11 @-@ car trains each , since the delivery of the R188 train cars was to add 66 more cars to the fleet of the 7 service . There are also two diamond crossovers , one north and one south of the station . The storage tracks at this location were constructed due to the Corona Yard in Queens lacking any space to hold any more trains , and expanding the yard is very difficult due to its location next to the Flushing River . A new storage yard elsewhere would be prohibitively expensive , as it would cost hundreds of millions of dollars .
= = Projected ridership = =
The station was originally expected to be very heavily used , due to its location as " the only subway line serving the area west of Ninth Avenue below 59th Street " , as well as its status as the main subway station for the Hudson Yards area and the closest station to the busy Javits Center . Originally , the station was projected to serve 27 @,@ 000 passengers per day , or about 9 @.@ 855 million passengers per year , when it first opened . After the Hudson Yards is complete , ridership was to grow very heavily , with an average of 35 @,@ 000 people per hour using the station at its peak by 2020 . By September 2015 , though , projections had increased to a proposed ridership of 32 @,@ 000 people per hour . The projected 2025 ridership of 200 @,@ 000 daily riders is more than at Times Square station , the station with the most ridership as of 2013 with 197 @,@ 696 riders a day .
Projections predict that during the morning rush hour alone , 26 @,@ 000 passengers will be leaving the station , while 15 @,@ 000 will be simultaneously entering the station . This will make it the busiest subway station in New York City that is not a transfer station . The station is built to handle an even higher capacity of 40 @,@ 000 passengers per hour during peak times and events at the Javits Center . The high projected ridership is despite the fact that it was once described as a station on an " extension to nowhere " , given the relative sparseness of the area in 2007 . As late as 2011 , it was thought that the city was wasting money on the station because , at the time , Hudson Yards had not yet been finalized .
It was reported that only 7 @,@ 000 daily riders entered the station between September 13 – 22 , 2015 , drastically below the MTA 's projected ridership of 32 @,@ 000 passengers upon the station 's opening . This was attributed to incompleteness of developments in the area , as well as an unopened entrance to the High Line Park , which is nearby . In late October 2015 , AM New York found that the average daily ridership was even lower , at only 5 @,@ 900 passengers per day , except for during the 2015 New York Comic Con on October 8 – 11 , when average daily ridership reached 18 @,@ 300 daily riders . The station 's official ridership for 2015 was 692 @,@ 165 , amounting to 2 @,@ 064 riders on an average weekday ; this made 34th Street – Hudson Yards the 392nd busiest station in the city out of 422 total stations .
= = Effects = =
The warehouse district west of Eighth Avenue and north of 34th Street was rezoned in 2005 into a commercial and residential area , and the station is part of an effort to accelerate development in the area . The reportedly " transformative " subway extension to 34th Street spurred development in the Hudson Yards area by providing transit access for future tenants of the Hudson Yards development , and by keeping up with the MTA 's goal to " ensure that all new residential and commercial growth in the MTA region between 2008 and 2030 is concentrated within a half @-@ mile of an MTA station " . In addition to providing transit access to residents and tenants of nearby neighborhoods , the construction of the station was expected to bolster the area 's commercial growth and , in turn , creating up to 50 @,@ 000 jobs in the area .
Mitchell Moss , director of New York University 's Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management , states that the development of Hudson Yards , and the related subway extension , were among the benefits of the 2012 Olympic bid , saying that " the # 7 Extension will be one of the largest expansions of the New York City transit system in decades and one of the most significant in terms of its potential impact . " Moss says that redevelopment of the west side was a direct result of the new subway station 's construction . Kenneth T. Jackson , editor of The Encyclopedia of New York City , describes the extension as a " very important " one .
Since the station started construction , land prices in the immediate area have nearly doubled . Interest in the surrounding area has also grown , as many development companies are going to Hudson Yards to buy air rights ; for instance Related Companies , already the developer of Hudson Yards , entered a contract to buy a $ 75 million @-@ plus parcel of land between 35th and 36th Streets and between Eleventh Avenue and Hudson Boulevard , as well as land over a McDonald 's to build 50 Hudson Yards . Also as a result of the subway extension , three tenants have already been found for 10 Hudson Yards , and Citigroup is considering moving to the area . Most importantly , however , the $ 750 million platform supporting much of Hudson Yards was built starting in January 2013 ; subway construction for a station that could potentially carry up to 27 @,@ 000 daily passengers necessitated the construction of more buildings , as 70 % of tenants are expected to come to Hudson Yards via the 7 subway extension . Additionally , new restaurants , luxury condominiums , and stores have appeared near the station and along the extension 's route , and residential prices along the extension have also increased . A construction boom has occurred in the greater Hudson Yards area as well .
The station is described by the MTA as the centerpiece of the Hudson Park and Boulevard , as well as of the entire Hudson Yards project , which developers say could not have been started without the 7 subway extension . Horodniceanu stated that " this new , modern station will be the lifeline of Manhattan 's newest neighborhood . It will make it possible for thousands of residents , employees and visitors to get to Hudson Yards easily and quickly . Without the extension , this new development would not have been possible . " The completion of the High Line and the Hudson Boulevard , as well as the Javits Center renovation , are boosting development in the area as well . Although Hudson Yards was not finished at the time of the station 's opening , the High Line and the Javits Center are popular destinations for station patrons .
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= Tanyus Shahin =
Tanyus Shahin Saadeh al @-@ Rayfouni ( also spelled Tanios Chahine Saadé Al Rayfouné , given name also spelled Taniyus or Tanius ) ( 1815 – 1895 ) was a Maronite muleteer and peasant leader from Mount Lebanon . He led a peasants ' revolt in the area of Keserwan in 1859 , during which he drove out the area 's Maronite nobility , the feudal Khazen lords , and declared a peasants ' republic . While he had a reputation as a ruffian and provocateur among members of the Maronite clergy and European consuls , Shahin became a popular figure among Christian commoners , many of whom considered him the guardian of their interests , a view which Shahin promoted .
Following his victory in Keserwan , Shahin and his fighters launched intermittent raids against villages in nearby regions , such as Jubail and Matn , often in the name of defending the rights of local Christians . The assaults and their repercussions served as catalysts of the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war , particularly the battle of Beit Mery between local Maronites and Druze , in which Shahin was a principal belligerent . Although he claimed he could raise an army of 50 @,@ 000 to combat the forces of the Druze feudal lords , he did not participate further in the war . Following the war 's end , he was defeated by Youssef Karam in a struggle over political influence in Maronite affairs . Shahin subsequently relinquished his republic and worked in the judiciary of his home village , Rayfoun .
= = Early life and character = =
According to historian Elizabeth Thompson , there are sparse biographical details available about Shahin . He was born to a Maronite Christian family in the village of Rayfoun in the Keserwan district of Mount Lebanon in 1815 . According to Thompson , Shahin may have been literate as indicated by his early career as an artisan and an entrepreneur , while Lebanese historian Kamal Salibi describes him as " half @-@ literate " . Prior to leading the 1859 peasant revolt in Keserwan , Shahin was a blacksmith and a muleteer who transported goods throughout Keserwan .
Shahin was tall and of muscular build . According to Thompson , Shahin " was more a man of spoken word than the pen , famous for powerful , sermon @-@ like speeches at village meetings " , and for his violent temper , according to Salibi . He acted as a local shaykh shabab ( leader of young men ) , a title that carried honor and typically denoted a village strongman who derived power from his following of armed men . He was admired and respected by the peasants of Keserwan , some of whom considered him their " redeemer " . According to a local chronicler , residents " prepared grand receptions for him amid joy and celebrations " when he entered a local village . Various European diplomats described him as a " ruffian of despicable character " and as dishonest , while some clergymen also regarded him as deceitful .
= = Leadership of peasants ' revolt = =
= = = Uprising in Keserwan = = =
Peasant anger in Keserwan had been building since the mid @-@ 19th century , due to a number of factors , including the burdens of corvée ( unpaid labor for a landlord ) that had been imposed during the rule of Emir Bashir Shihab II , general economic hardship , and the decreasing availability of land . The Maronite Khazen family traditionally served as the sheikhs ( chiefs ) of Keserwan , although their power had been significantly diminished during Emir Bashir 's rule . The Khazens opposed the creation of the " Double Qaimaqmate " in Mount Lebanon in the 1840s , which divided Mount Lebanon into Druze and Christian @-@ run sectors , and were incensed at the appointment of a sheikh from the mixed Druze @-@ Christian Abu 'l Lama family as the qaimaqam ( deputy governor ) of the Maronite section of the Qaimaqamate . The Khazens feared that such an appointment would formally subordinate them to the Abu 'l Lama sheikhs . Following the Abu 'l Lama sheikh 's death in 1854 , his successor Bashir Ahmad Abu 'l Lama attempted to further reduce the Khazens ' influence , prompting the Khazens to stir the peasants to revolt against Bashir Ahmad . The revolt against Bashir Ahmad soon turned against the Khazen sheikhs and their feudal allies . The peasant subjects of the Khazen sheikhs had long been wary of their rule due to the excessive taxes they imposed as well as the additional gifts the peasants were virtually obligated to give the sheikhs , which many peasants considered humiliating .
In early 1858 , a group of peasants from Keserwan lodged a formal complaint against the Khazens to Khurshid Pasha , the Ottoman governor of Beirut . Later , in March 1858 , the Khazens held a summit for the people of Keserwan to garner support for their nomination of a new qaimaqam . Instead , the peasants participating in the summit voiced their dissent against the Khazens and in October , several villages in Keserwan entered into an alliance against the Khazen sheikhs . Shahin was chosen by this alliance of peasants as their leader in December , and was declared the wakil awwal ( first delegate ) .
In January 1859 , Shahin intensified the armed revolt against the Khazen sheikhs and with 800 of his peasant fighters , he besieged the Khazens during a summit they were holding in Ghosta . The siege prompted the sheikhs to flee the village , and the peasants under Shahin subsequently plundered the Khazens ' estates . Shahin and his men proceeded to attack the Khazens in other villages with little blood spilled in the process , with the exception of the wife and daughter of a Khazen sheikh who were killed in Ajaltoun in July during a raid on their home by the peasants . The Maronite patriarch , Paul Peter Massad , condemned their killing as a " horrific crime " . Silk and wheat warehouses belonging to the sheikhs were plundered and the goods were redistributed among the peasants of Keserwan . By July , the Khazens had been routed and between 500 and 600 family members had fled to Beirut in an impoverished state . Shahin broadened the peasants ' main demands of tax relief and refunds for the illegal payments they had previously paid to the Khazen sheikhs to also include political and legal reforms . Shahin cited the Edict of Gülhane , which mandated equality for all Ottoman citizens .
= = = Establishment of republic = = =
Following his victory over the Khazen sheikhs , Shahin and the peasants of Keserwan formed a government , with Shahin declaring a jumhuriyya ( republic ) . He became known as the wakil ' amm ( general delegate ) , and in the fall of 1859 moved the headquarters of the rebellion from the coastal village of Zouk Mikael to his hometown of Rayfoun in the mountains . Although revolts were relatively commonplace in Mount Lebanon , the ousting of a noble family by their peasant subjects was unprecedented . Shahin 's government consisted of a 100 @-@ member council made up of representatives from the villages of Keserwan . Over half of the representatives were peasants who did not own land , 32 were relatively well @-@ to @-@ do farmers , ten were clergymen and three were merchants or lenders . Shahin , who by this point oversaw a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong militia , exercised power by seizing arms , ensured the upholding of the law and established security on the roads . He disciplined dissidents suspected of betraying the government and issued decrees in the name of the public . He also entered into negotiations with the Khazen sheikhs , but they reached a stalemate .
The main villages that supported Shahin 's government were Rayfoun , Ajaltoun , Ashqout , Qleiat and Mazraat Kfardebian . The representatives of these villages were able to gain the solidarity of other villages by persuading their inhabitants through both peaceful and coercive means that as Christians they were all a part of single community with a united purpose . The leaders of some villages , such as those of Ghosta , Aramoun , Ghazir and Ftuh opposed Shahin and his revolt . Shahin 's popularity among the Christian peasants of Mount Lebanon grew as he came to be viewed as their savior from both the Druze nobles and the traditional Maronite elites . This reputation was further solidified after Shahin 's men backed Christian residents in a clash with Druze residents in the mixed village of Beit Meri in Matn in August 1859 .
The Khazens demanded the restoration of their rule in Keserwan and lodged complaints to the Ottoman government about property stolen or damaged by the peasantry . The Ottomans launched an investigation in Keserwan , but in their interviews with the peasants , all claimed that they were unaware of looting and other crimes , while representatives of Shahin denied that they were rebels , insisting that they only sought the implementation of the Tanzimat reforms and the restoration of law and order . In petitions to the Maronite Patriarchate , the peasants demanded compensation by the Khazens for taxes that were illegally extorted from them , an abolition to the traditional gift @-@ giving required of the peasants , the abolition of marriage taxes levied by the Khazens and an end to the practice of beating peasants , among other demands . Shahin nominally recognized the Maronite Patriarchate as the ultimate arbiter of disputes , but consistently urged them to honor their obligations to the " ahali " ( commoners ) . In one incident he or his men fired shots toward the patriarch 's headquarters in Bkirki for hosting a number of Khazens who were seeking refuge there . In March 1859 , Shahin rebuffed the church 's request to make an agreement with the Khazen sheikhs , citing the need to first " consult with all the ahali and all the villages " .
Shahin 's rise generally confused the Ottoman government because Shahin used the Tanzimat to legitimize his revolt . The Ottomans did not consider the religious equality called for by the Tanzimat reforms to translate into class equality , which is how Shahin interpreted it . Moreover , the Ottomans did not countenance that a semi @-@ literate Arabic @-@ speaking peasant from a rural region such as Keserwan would serve as a representative of the Tanzimat . They reacted to Shahin 's revolt negatively , although the provincial Ottoman authorities of Beirut generally felt powerless to act against the peasant rebels due to a lack of funds and forces on the ground . Khurshid Pasha sympathized more with the Khazen sheikhs and in a letter to the Patriarchate accused Shahin of using " deceit to lead astray the minds of the people and to seduce them into following his evil ways " . The principal focus of the Ottoman authorities in Lebanon was containing Shahin 's revolt . However , later historians of Lebanon accused Khurshid Pasha of at least tacitly supporting Shahin in order to break communal solidarity .
Khurshid Pasha dispatched Emir Yusuf Ali Murad , a Maronite sheikh from the Abu 'l Lama family , to rein in peasant rebels in Jubail , but Shahin sent a letter warning Emir Yusuf not to " intervene in the affairs " of Jubail because the " Christians of Jubail were united with the ahali of Keserwan " and claimed that " all the Christians of Syria have made common cause " . He condemned Emir Yusuf for aligning himself with the ousted sheikhs and his " Druze relatives " and accused him of attempting to " subjugate the Christians after we achieved our [ freedom ] " . He threatened Emir Yusuf to " return without delay " and that if he " desires a fight , we are more eager than you , and we are not afraid " . Shahin 's confidence in the support he received from the Christian peasantry of Keserwan and other parts of Mount Lebanon and his challenge to Emir Yusuf through a populist sectarian approach alarmed the Maronite elites , the church and the Ottoman authorities .
In response to a Maronite priest 's complaints about harassment by Shia Muslims against Christians , Shahin 's men attacked and plundered Shia villages and travelers in Jubail and demanded that Shia villages convert to Christianity to avoid assault . The Shia residents of Jubail protested these assaults in June 1859 . While Shahin 's actions further frustrated the local elites , Christian , Muslim and Druze alike , his reputation as the defender of Christian rights was bolstered at the popular level .
= = Civil war in Mount Lebanon = =
The increased assertiveness of Maronite peasants as a result of Shahin 's revolt and confidence in their demographic majority in Mount Lebanon alarmed Druze feudal lords , who began arming their peasant fighters . Likewise , Maronite peasants , who despite their general confidence were still wary of growing Muslim hostility toward Christians in Ottoman Syria , were also being armed , in particular by Maronite bishop Tobia Aoun . Tensions spilled into violence , and between March and May 1860 , several retaliatory tit @-@ for @-@ tat killings and attacks of sectarian nature between Druzes and Christians had been occurring throughout Mount Lebanon and its immediate environs . In late May , Shahin and some 300 of his men entered the village of Naccache in the mixed Druze @-@ Maronite Matn district to seize silk owned by a noble family of Keserwan . However , instead of returning to Rayfoun , they proceeded to enter the nearby Maronite village of Antelias . Shahin 's incursion into Antelias was considered a provocation by the Druze who feared that the presence of Shahin 's fighters in that village threatened the Druze residents of Matn . Many Christians in turn viewed the deployment of Khurshid Pasha 's troops in Hazmiyeh on 26 May as a provocation because they suspected Khurshid Pasha of being allied with the Druze and that this was the signal for the beginning of the Druze counter @-@ attack . Shahin 's stated purpose for entering Antelias was to protect the Christian Shihab emirs based in the village of Baabda .
The Shihab emirs requested Shahin and his men withdraw from Baabda 's vicinity to avoid conflict . However , on 29 May , clashes occurred in the Matn village of Beit Mery between its Druze and Christian residents , which led to the participation of their respective coreligionists from other villages in the vicinity . By 30 May , the Druze had defeated the Keserwan fighters in Beit Meri . Fighting subsequently spread throughout Matn , with 35 – 40 Christian villages being burned . According to Lebanese historian Leila Tarazi Fawaz , the Keserwan fighters proved to be undisciplined and ineffective against the more experienced , unified and better organized Druze forces .
The fighting in Matn spread throughout Mount Lebanon and its surrounding area , becoming a civil war mainly between the Druze and the Christians , which later spilled over into other parts of Syria . Shahin claimed that he could raise 50 @,@ 000 fighters to fight the Druze , and Christians from areas outside of Keserwan appealed for his intervention . However , when his men were halted by Ottoman forces in Matn , Shahin and other Maronite militia leaders largely restricted their operations to guarding their areas of origin . In mid @-@ June , when Zahle , the last Christian stronghold , was besieged by the Druze , Shahin did not send reinforcements and the town fell . This all but consolidated a Druze victory in Mount Lebanon . On 29 July , under pressure from Bishop Aoun , Shahin agreed to openly declare his obedience to the Ottoman sultan . Although the peasants ' revolt had not been directly against the Ottoman state , Shahin 's declaration served as a virtual repudiation of the revolt 's legitimacy . In his declaration , Shahin asserted that he was forced to revolt by the treacherous " men of corruption " .
= = Later life and death = =
French @-@ led international intervention ended the civil war and order was restored by 1861 . Shahin 's movement was in a precarious state in the war 's aftermath ; Shahin could not financially support his impoverished peasant partisans , the Maronite clergy was disillusioned with him , and Ottoman officialdom and the local nobility were arrayed against him . The Ottomans , the clergy and the nobility resolved to bring an end to Shahin 's movement because it represented the last obstacle to their political reorganization of Mount Lebanon into the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate . Shahin threatened to convert to Protestantism together with his partisans if the Khazen sheikhs were restored to Keserwan , while Patriarch Massad of the Maronite Church was prepared to excommunicate Shahin and his supporters .
Meanwhile , Youssef Karam , a Maronite leader from Ehden who acquired a degree of popularity during the war and backing from the Maronite Patriarchate and the French government , was appointed acting qaimaqam of the Christian areas of Mount Lebanon by Fuad Pasha after the war 's end . Shahin opposed Karam , who in a bid to reconcile the Maronite community , issued orders directed to the peasants of Keserwan to restore properties seized from the Khazens and compensate the latter for their losses . Shahin was backed by Emir Majid Shihab , who sought to replace Karam as qaimaqam . Tensions between Shahin and Karam in Keserwan in late March 1861 culminated in a battle between their forces in an area between Rayfoun and ' Ashqout , in which Shahin was defeated and fled . Karam subsequently raided Shahin 's home in Rayfoun , imprisoned some of Shahin 's supporters and posted a number of his own troops in villages that supported Shahin 's movement .
Fuad Pasha advised Karam to pursue and capture Shahin , while the British consul communicated his desire to see Karam restore the Khazens to their former position in Keserwan . Shahin ultimately reconciled with Karam on 12 April under the mediation of the French general Charles de Beaufort . Shahin agreed to submit to the Qaimaqamate 's authority without conditions . Later in 1861 , Shahin relinquished the republic that he established in Keserwan . Subsequent to his retirement from politics , Shahin served as a judicial official in Rayfoun . There , in 1895 , he died in relative obscurity . He left no memoirs about his role in the civil war .
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= Treehouse of Horror IV =
" Treehouse of Horror IV " ( originally known as " The Simpsons Halloween Special IV " ) is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season and the fourth episode in the Treehouse of Horror series of Halloween specials . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 28 , 1993 , and features three short stories called " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " , and " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " . The episode was directed by David Silverman and co @-@ written by Conan O 'Brien , Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein , Greg Daniels , Dan McGrath , and Bill Canterbury .
In " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , Homer Simpson announces he would sell his soul for a doughnut , and the Devil appears to make a deal with Homer . Homer tries to outsmart the Devil by not finishing the doughnut but eventually eats it and is sent to Hell . A trial is held between Homer and the Devil to determine the rightful owner of Homer 's soul . In " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " , while riding the bus to school , Bart Simpson believes he sees a gremlin taking apart the bus piece by piece . Nobody sees it except for Bart , so he tries to remove it on his own . In " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " , Mr. Burns is a vampire and Bart falls victim to his bite . Lisa and the rest of the family go to Burns ' castle to kill Burns so Bart can return to normal .
As with the rest of the Halloween specials , the episode is considered non @-@ canon and falls outside of the show 's regular continuity . The episode makes cultural references to television series such as The Twilight Zone , Night Gallery , and Peanuts . References are also made to films such as Bram Stoker 's Dracula and The Lost Boys . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 5 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Bart introduces each of the three segments by walking through a gallery of paintings and each time choosing one of them as the focus of his story .
= = = The Devil and Homer Simpson = = =
In a parody of The Devil and Daniel Webster , at work , Homer states that he would sell his soul for a doughnut after finding that Lenny and Carl took all the doughnuts and threw them at an old man ( Abe Simpson ) " for kicks " . The Devil , revealed to be Ned Flanders , appears and offers Homer a contract to seal the deal . However , before Homer finishes the doughnut , he realizes that Ned will not be able to have his soul if he does not eat all of the doughnut and keeps the final piece in the refrigerator . Unfortunately , while half @-@ asleep and looking for a midnight snack , he eats the final piece of the " forbidden donut " , and Ned instantly reappears to take possession of Homer 's soul . Marge and Lisa plead with Ned , finally getting him to agree to hold a trial the next day . Until then , Homer is sent to spend the rest of the day being punished in Hell . At the stroke of twelve midnight , Ned brings Homer back to the Simpson household for his trial . Then , when the Simpsons ' lawyer , Lionel Hutz , flees after ruining his case , Marge makes a final effort to save Homer by displaying a photo from their wedding day . On the back of the photo , Homer has written that , in return for Marge giving him her hand in marriage , he pledges his soul to her forever ; therefore , it was not his property to sell at the time of his deal with Ned . The jury rules in favor of the Simpsons and the presiding judge dismisses the case . Enraged , the Devil leaves , but not before he turns Homer 's head into a doughnut .
= = = Terror at 5 ½ Feet = = =
In a parody of the Twilight Zone episode , " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " , after having a nightmare in which he is killed in a bus crash , Bart rides the bus to school one rainy morning . He panics when he sees a gremlin on the side of the bus loosening the lug nuts on one of the wheels . Bart unsuccessfully tries to convince the other passengers of the danger . In desperation , Bart climbs halfway out the window to scare off the gremlin with an emergency flare . The gremlin catches fire and falls from the bus , but is found by Ned Flanders , who decides to adopt the creature . When the bus finally stops , everyone sees the obvious damage , but Bart is still sent away to an insane asylum for the rest of his life for his disruptive behavior . Bart is relieved as he is finally able to rest , but the gremlin appears in the back window of the ambulance , holding Flanders ' decapitated ( yet still living ) head , which makes Bart scream in terror .
= = = Bart Simpson 's Dracula = = =
In a parody of Bram Stoker 's Dracula , after a news story about several vampire attacks , Lisa begins to suspect that Mr. Burns is a vampire , but the rest of the family dismisses her concerns . The family is invited to Burns ' castle in Pennsylvania , where Bart and Lisa discover a secret staircase descending to an eerie basement filled with coffins . As they investigate , vampires emerge from the coffins and encircle them . Lisa escapes , but Bart activates the " Super Fun Happy Slide " , causing him to be captured and get bitten by Burns . Bart returns to the table with Burns , who tells him to take a seat . Bart is very pale and is behaving oddly , but these factors get little attention by the family . Later that night , Lisa is awakened by a now undead Bart and his vampire friends . When Bart is about to bite Lisa , Homer and Marge interrupt and discover that Bart is a vampire . Lisa claims that the only way to restore him is to kill the head vampire , Mr. Burns . The family returns to the Burns ' mansion , where Homer drives a stake through Burns ' heart . Unfortunately , despite Burns ' death , Bart still remains a vampire . To make things worse , Lisa discovers that everyone in the Simpson family except for herself is a vampire , and that the true head vampire is inexplicably Marge , not Mr. Burns . With this revelation , the whole entire family swoops in on Lisa , only to stop and wish everyone a happy Halloween . Then , they all harmonize " Hark the Herald Angels Sing " , parodying A Charlie Brown Christmas .
= = Production = =
" Treehouse of Horror IV " was directed by David Silverman and co @-@ written by Conan O 'Brien , Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein , Greg Daniels , Dan McGrath , and Bill Canterbury . It is the fourth episode of the annual Treehouse of Horror Halloween specials . As with the rest of the Halloween specials , the episode is considered non @-@ canon and falls outside of the show 's regular continuity . O 'Brien worked on the " wraparounds " of Bart introducing each segment to make sure that they " pulled " the episode together . The wraparounds are based on Rod Serling 's television series Night Gallery , in which Serling appears at an art gallery and introduces each episode by unveiling paintings depicting the stories . Executive producer James L. Brooks loved the show , so it was " great fun " for him to do the parody . Show runner David Mirkin thought the Treehouse of Horror episodes were the hardest episodes to do because the staff had to fit in all three stories in only 22 minutes . Mirkin said , " Things had to happen really fast . They 're really just crammed with jokes and story beats and everything . "
The first segment , " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , was written by Daniels and McGrath . The first time Devil Flanders appears , he looks the same as the devil Chernabog from the 1940 Walt Disney produced film Fantasia ; Silverman particularly admired the animation in that sequence . Oakley loved the idea of Flanders being the Devil because he is the one you would least expect . He also thought Harry Shearer did a good job of playing Flanders in a much darker way , while remaining very true to the character . Many scenes had to be cut to shorten the segment , including one that showed Homer 's severed head being used as a bowling ball by a demon in hell . This scene later appeared in the clip show episode " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " , which aired in the show 's seventh season .
The second segment , " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " , was written by Oakley and Weinstein . It was inspired by an episode of The Twilight Zone called " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " , in which William Shatner 's character is inside an airplane watching a gremlin tear apart the wing . Silverman watched the episode to get inspiration for Bart 's facial expressions . Oakley said there was a lot of work put into the design of the gremlin in " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " to make him scary " within The Simpsons universe " . Mirkin said he felt the gremlin was well @-@ done because he looked scary and " yet it looks like a completely organic Simpsons character " . Üter , a character from Germany , makes his first appearance on the show in this segment ; he was conceived as a one @-@ time joke , but reappeared in later episodes because Mirkin felt he was " such a perfect stereotype " .
The third segment , " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " , was written by Canterbury . It is based on Francis Ford Coppola 's film Bram Stoker 's Dracula . Mirkin was a big fan of the film and pushed for a segment about vampires inspired by the movie . He liked the final result and felt Mr. Burns was perfect in the role as Dracula . Dracula and his castle was designed by Silverman . Mirkin , a " big " Peanuts fan , came up with the idea for the ending of " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " .
= = Cultural references = =
The wraparound segments are a reference to Rod Serling 's television series Night Gallery . " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " is a parody of The Twilight Zone episode " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " . The title and a majority of the plot of " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " is a parody of the Francis Ford Coppola film Bram Stoker 's Dracula . The ending of " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " is a reference to A Charlie Brown Christmas . The title " The Devil and Homer Simpson " is a reference to the short story " The Devil and Daniel Webster " in which a farmer sells his soul for prosperity but is then defended in court against the Devil with a jury of the Devil 's choosing . The demon who is feeding Homer donuts says : " I don 't understand it . James Coco went mad in fifteen minutes ! " James Coco was a character actor known in the 1970s ... He parodied the Belgian sleuth Hercule Poirot , penned by Agatha Christie . In the movie , James Coco ’ s character throws a volley of subtle food jokes . In his last years , Coco received attention for his culinary talents and best @-@ selling cookbooks . The James Coco Diet , an educational book which included chapters on menu planning and behavior modification as well as choice recipes ) , was just one that he promoted on the talk show circuit . It is probably not a coincidence that he often played characters with extreme food issues . The jury at Homer 's trial consists of John Wilkes Booth , Lizzie Borden , John Dillinger , Blackbeard , Benedict Arnold , the starting lineup of the 1976 Philadelphia Flyers , and Richard Nixon . The first time the Devil appears , he resembles the demon Chernabog from the Walt Disney film Fantasia , especially after Homer discovers a technicality and starts taunting the Devil that he 's " smarter than the devil " , until the Devil turns into the Chernabog @-@ esque demon and glares at him before disappearing . The scene in Hell where Homer is fed all the doughnuts in the world , and asks for more , is a direct parody of the cartoon Pigs is Pigs , in which a generic pig character ( a Porky Pig @-@ esque character ) known for being a glutton is taken in by a scientist and forced to eat all the food in the world . At Mr. Burns ' castle , Lisa notices a tome resting on a stand in the basement . She runs over and reads the title : " Yes , I Am a Vampire , by Monty Burns . Foreword by Steve Allen , " a reference to American actor Steve Allen . Shortly after she finds the tome , she makes allusions to Shemp and Curly Howard of the Three Stooges , mistaken Bart 's fearful attempts at getting her attention as impressions of the two . In " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " , Bart is seen floating outside Lisa 's bedroom window . This is a parody of The Lost Boys as well as Stephen King 's novel Salem 's Lot . The family 's plan to kill the head vampire is also a reference to both the film and novel . In particular , the twist revelation that Burns is not the head vampire is also a reference to the twist ending of The Lost Boys . The closing credits of the episode features a version of the Simpsons theme that is a combination of the instruments used in The Munsters theme song and the harpsichord and clicking from the Addams Family theme song .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror IV " finished 17th in the ratings for the week of October 25 to October 31 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 5 , translating to 13 @.@ 6 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said the episode included many notable sequences and was " probably the best " Treehouses of Horror episode . They particularly liked the scenes in Hell where Homer is punished by the Devil , and Chief Wiggum 's attempts to deal with Dracula ( whom he thinks is a mummy ) in the " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " segment by ordering the Egyptian wing of the Springfield museum to be destroyed . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " was the best segment of the episode . Jacobson praised " The Devil and Homer Simpson " as clever funny , and described " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " as " easily the least effective " , claiming it , " presents some good moments but never quite takes flight " . Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode an A grade and called it " one of the very best " Halloween specials , although said " Treehouse of Horror V " was better . Central Michigan Life 's John Thorpe named it the tenth best episode of the series , and wrote : " The best part comes when Homer decides not to eat the last part of the doughnut , thus saving him from hell . Hilarious . " DVD Talk 's Bill Gibron gave the episode a 4 out of 5 score .
Kim Nowacki of Yakima Herald @-@ Republic named " Treehouse of Horror IV " her " all @-@ time favorite " episode . She praised the parodies of The Twilight Zone and A Charlie Brown Christmas . The episode 's reference to Bram Stoker 's Dracula was named the 32nd greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
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= Liquid fly @-@ back booster =
Liquid Fly @-@ back Booster ( LFBB ) is a cancelled German Aerospace Center 's ( DLR 's ) project to develop a reusable liquid rocket booster for Ariane 5 in order to significantly reduce a high cost of space transportation and increase environmental friendliness . LFBB would replace existing solid rocket boosters , providing main thrust during the liftoff . Once separated , two winged boosters would perform an atmospheric entry , fly back autonomously to the French Guiana , and land horizontally on the airport like an airplane .
Additionally a family of derivative launch vehicles was proposed in order to take an advantage of economies of scale , further reducing launch costs . These derivatives include a Reusable First Stage in a class of small and medium size launch vehicles like Vega and Arianespace Soyuz , the Super @-@ Heavy Lift Launcher capable of lifting nearly 70 tonnes to the orbit , and a Two @-@ Stage @-@ To @-@ Orbit system operating a dedicated reusable orbiter .
German Aerospace Center studied Liquid Fly @-@ back Boosters as a part of future launcher research program from 1999 to 2004 . After the cancellation of the project , publications at DLR continued until 2009 .
= = Development = =
The German Aerospace Center ( DLR ) studied potential future launch vehicles of the European Union under the Ausgewählte Systeme und Technologien für Raumtransport ( ASTRA ; English : Systems and Technologies for Space Transportation Applications ) programme from 1999 to 2005 , with additional studies continuing until 2009 . The LFBB design was one of two projects within the ASTRA program , the other being Phoenix RLV . During development , scale models were constructed for testing various configurations in DLR 's supersonic Trisonische Messstrecke Köln ( TMK ; English : Trisonic measuring section at Cologne ) and in their Hyperschallwindkanal 2 Köln ( H2K ; English : Hypersonic wind canal at Cologne ) wind tunnels . The preliminary mechanical design of other major elements was done by the companies EADS Space Transportation and MAN .
The advantages of reusable boosters include simplicity from using only one type of fuel , environmental friendliness , and lower reoccurring costs . Studies concluded that reusable fly @-@ back boosters would be the most affordable and the least risky way for European space launch systems to start becoming reusable . These fly @-@ back boosters had the potential to reduce launch costs . However , when other projects , such as Space Shuttle or VentureStar , undertook this objective , they failed to meet their goals . Supporting technologies needed for LFBB construction can be developed within 10 years , and additional launchers can be developed based on fly @-@ back boosters to minimise costs and provide maintenance synergy across multiple classes of launch vehicles . Eventually , the hardware grew too large and the LFBB project was scrapped , with one member of the French space agency ( CNES ) remarking :
The thing that shocked me was that at the beginning , this reusable flyback booster was just a cylinder with engines and little wings , just a turbo fan in the back . And three years later these were complete Airbuses in terms of size with four engines in each of them .
= = Description = =
The overall concept of the liquid boosters in the LFBB programme was to retain the Ariane 5 's core and upper stages , along with the payload fairings , and replace its solid rocket boosters ( EAP P241 , from French Étages d ’ Accélération à Poudre ) with reusable liquid rocket boosters . These boosters would provide the main thrust during take @-@ off . After separation , they would return to a spaceport in French Guiana for landing . This vertical take @-@ off , horizontal landing ( VTHL ) mode of operation would allow liquid fly @-@ back boosters to continue operating from the Guiana Space Centre , thus avoiding any major changes to the ascend profile of Ariane 5 . Launch vehicle payload performance of the Cryogenic Evolution type @-@ A ( ECA ) variant would increase from 10 @,@ 500 kg ( 23 @,@ 100 lb ) to 12 @,@ 300 kg ( 27 @,@ 100 lb ) .
In the reference design , each LFBB consists of three engines installed in a circular arrangement at the aft of the vehicle . Each engine is a Vulcain engine with reduced expansion ratio . An additional three turbofan air @-@ breathing engines , installed in the nose section , provide power for fly @-@ back . The fuselage is 41 m ( 135 ft ) long , with an outer tank diameter of 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) , specifically designed to match the existing Ariane 5 core stage and to reduce manufacturing costs . A low @-@ wing V @-@ tail canard configuration was selected , with a wingspan of approximately 21 m ( 69 ft ) and an area of 115 m2 ( 1 @,@ 240 sq ft ) . The aerofoil was based on a transonic profile from the Royal Aircraft Establishment ( RAE 2822 ) . The gross lift @-@ off mass ( GLOW ) of each booster is 222 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 245 @.@ 3 short tons ) , with 54 tonnes ( 60 short tons ) upon separation and 46 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 50 @.@ 9 short tons ) dry mass . In comparison , the GLOW for EAP P241 is 273 tonnes ( 301 short tons ) .
The booster was designed to have four independent propulsion systems , the first of which – main rocket propulsion – would be based on three gimbaled Vulcain engines fueled by 168 @,@ 500 kg ( 371 @,@ 500 lb ) of propellant . Second , Eurojet EJ200 fly @-@ back turbofan engines would be propelled with hydrogen to reduce fuel mass . Further , ten 2 kN ( 450 lbf ) thrusters placed on each side of the vehicle would be used by the reaction control system . Finally , the fourth propulsion system would be based on solid rocket motors that separate the boosters from the core stage . An up @-@ scaled version of the motors used in existing EAP boosters would be mounted in the attachment ring and inside the wing 's main structure .
A typical mission profile would begin with the ignition of a main stage and both boosters , followed by an acceleration to 2 km / s ( 1 @.@ 2 mi / s ) and then a separation at the altitude of 50 km ( 31 mi ) . As the main stage continues its flight into orbit , the boosters follow a ballistic trajectory , reaching an altitude of 90 – 100 km ( 56 – 62 mi ) . After low @-@ energy atmospheric entry , the boosters reach denser layers of the atmosphere where they perform a banking turn toward the target airfield . Gliding continues until they achieve an altitude that is optimal for engaging turbofan engines and entering cruise flight . At this point , about 550 km ( 340 mi ) from the launch point , the boosters would be flying over the Atlantic Ocean . The cruise back to the airport requires about 3 @,@ 650 kg ( 8 @,@ 050 lb ) of hydrogen fuel and takes over two hours to complete . An undercarriage is deployed and each booster lands autonomously . After separation , the boosters are not under threat of collision until they land due to small differences in their initial flight trajectories .
= = Derivatives = =
The development of liquid fly @-@ back boosters has the potential to enable three additional space transportation systems with an objective of increasing production and creating economies of scale . The aim of the LFBB project at DLR was to reduce Ariane 5 operational costs and to develop future derivatives , including a reusable first stage of a small @-@ to @-@ medium launch vehicle , a super @-@ heavy launch vehicle capable of lifting 67 tonnes ( 74 short tons ) to Low Earth orbit , and a reusable two @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit launch vehicle . Initially , LFBBs would be used only on Ariane 5 . Over time , alternative configurations could phase out Arianespace Soyuz and Vega .
= = = Reusable first stage = = =
The LFBB was studied with the three upper stage composites , to attain a Reusable First Stage ( RFS ) configuration . The first was a Vega derivative , with a Zefiro 23 second stage , a Zefiro 9 third stage and an AVUM upper stage . With the LFBB replacing the P80 stage , the payload to sun @-@ synchronous orbit ( SSO ) would increase to 1 @,@ 882 kg ( 4 @,@ 149 lb ) , compared to the 1 @,@ 450 kg ( 3 @,@ 200 lb ) of the Vega . The second was an Ariane 4 derivative called H @-@ 25 . It was based on an H10 upper stage with a Vinci rocket engine and 25 tonnes ( 28 short tons ) of cryogenic fuel . Depending on the method of deceleration , the payload to SSO is between 1 @,@ 481 and 2 @,@ 788 kg ( 3 @,@ 265 and 6 @,@ 146 lb ) . The third was a large cryogenic upper stage , called H @-@ 185 , based on an alternative , yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ developed Ariane 5 main stage with 185 tonnes ( 204 short tons ) of cryogenic fuel . Its payload to SSO is 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) .
Two of the lighter configurations ( the Zefiro 23 and the H @-@ 25 ) use upper stages mounted on top of the booster . Due to the lower weight , it might have been necessary to lower the amount of fuel in a booster to ensure that the separation velocity , the flight path , and the reentry do not exceed design bounds . In the case of H @-@ 25 , it might be necessary to accelerate the fly @-@ back boosters to above 2 km / s ( 1 @.@ 2 mi / s ) to help the upper stage achieve its desired orbit . Consequently , two solutions were proposed to decelerate the boosters after separation . The first option was to actively decelerate them using 10 tonnes ( 11 short tons ) of fuel and reduce the velocity by 300 m / s ( 980 ft / s ) . However , launch performance would drop below that of the Vega derivative . Another option is to use aerodynamic forces to decelerate . However , a hypersonic parachute was deemed too expensive and too complex . As a result , an alternative ballute was proposed . Flight dynamics simulation revealed that a ballute with a cross @-@ section of 45 m2 ( 480 sq ft ) offered the best compromise between loads on the booster and deceleration by aerodynamic forces . In this configuration , a launch performance of up to 2 @,@ 788 kg ( 6 @,@ 146 lb ) could be achieved , partly thanks to a higher separation velocity .
The heaviest configuration uses a single booster with an asymmetrically mounted , large , expendable cryogenic stage designated H @-@ 185 . It was proposed as a future variant of the Ariane 5 core stage ( H158 ) , eventually meant to phase out the main stage in a standard launch configuration with LFBB . H @-@ 185 would use a new Vulcain 3 main engine , with increased vacuum thrust . When launched with a single booster , both stages would be operated in parallel , and be delivered to a 180 by 800 km ( 110 by 500 mi ) orbit before separation . The remaining upper stage composite would weigh 7 @,@ 360 kg ( 16 @,@ 230 lb ) , with a 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) payload performance to SSO . When launching to Low Earth orbit , payload mass can be increased to over 10 @,@ 000 kg ( 22 @,@ 000 lb ) .
= = = Super @-@ heavy lift launcher = = =
The Super @-@ Heavy Lift Launcher ( SHLL ) would consist of a new cryogenic main stage , five liquid fly @-@ back boosters , and a re @-@ ignitable injection stage . This configuration was designed to provide increased capabilities for complex missions , including manned explorations to the Moon and to Mars , as well as the launch of large solar @-@ powered satellites .
The new core stage would stand 28 @.@ 65 m ( 94 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and have a diameter of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , feeding 600 tonnes ( 660 short tons ) of LOX / LH2 to three Vulcain 3 engines . The increased circumference of the main stage allows five LFBBs to be integrated with either retractable or variable @-@ geometry wings . The upper stage would be a derivative of the Ariane 5 ESC @-@ B , with the size upped to 5 @.@ 6 m × 8 @.@ 98 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft × 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , and strengthened to bear higher loads . The Vinci engine was proofed to be sufficiently powerful for orbital insertion . Payload would be enclosed in an 8 m × 29 @.@ 5 m ( 26 ft × 97 ft ) fairing . The launch vehicle would have a total height of 69 m ( 226 ft ) and a mass of 1 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 100 short tons ) . The payload to LEO would be 67 @,@ 280 kg ( 148 @,@ 330 lb ) .
When launched to a 200 km × 600 km ( 120 mi × 370 mi ) Low Earth transfer orbit , the LFBBs would separate at an altitude of 51 km ( 32 mi ) , at a speed of 1 @.@ 55 km / s ( 0 @.@ 96 mi / s ) . To avoid simultaneous separation of all boosters , either a cross @-@ feed to the main stage , or throttling could be used . The return flight of the boosters would require an estimated 3 @,@ 250 kg ( 7 @,@ 170 lb ) of fuel , including a 30 % reserve .
= = = Two @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit = = =
A reusable Two @-@ Stage @-@ To @-@ Orbit ( TSTO ) launch vehicle was planned to be implemented about 15 years after the addition of LFBBs to Ariane 5 . However , only a preliminary analysis of TSTO was completed . The proposed configuration consisted of two boosters with retractable wings attached to the external fuel tank , and a reusable orbiter with fixed wings carrying payload on top of it . During geostationary transfer orbit ( GTO ) missions , an additional , expandable upper stage would be used .
The external tank , being a core of the system , would have a diameter of 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 18 ft ) and a height of 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) , carrying 167 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 184 @.@ 6 short tons ) of propellant . The attached orbiter would be 28 @.@ 8 metres ( 94 ft ) tall and 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) in diameter , carrying 50 tonnes ( 55 short tons ) of propellant . The payload fairing mount atop the orbiter would be 5 @.@ 4 by 20 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft × 67 ft ) . For LEO missions , the launch vehicle would be 57 @.@ 3 metres ( 188 ft ) tall , with a gross lift @-@ off mass of 739 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 815 @.@ 0 short tons ) . The payload to LEO would be 12 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 28 @,@ 200 lb ) , with an increase to 8 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 18 @,@ 700 lb ) to GTO when using an expandable upper stage .
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= Vimala Temple =
The Vimala Temple or Bimala Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to goddess Vimala ( Bimala ) , located within the Jagannath Temple complex in Puri in the Indian state of Orissa . It is generally regarded as a Shakti Pitha , among the holiest temples dedicated to the Hindu Goddess .
The temple is located in the south @-@ west corner of the inner enclosure of the Jagannath temple complex and on the western corner of the tower of Jagannath , next to the sacred pond Rohini kunda . The temple faces east and is built of sandstone and laterite . It is built in the Deula style with four components ; vimana ( structure containing the sanctum ) , jagamohana ( assembly hall ) , nata @-@ mandapa ( festival hall ) and bhoga @-@ mandapa ( hall of offerings ) . The temple was renovated around 2005 and is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India , Bhubaneswar Circle .
Though a small shrine in the temple complex , the Vimala temple is important to the Goddess @-@ oriented Shakta and Tantric worshippers , who revere it even more than the main Jagannath shrine . Vimala is considered to be the Tantric consort of Jagannath and a guardian of the temple complex . Devotees pay respect to Vimala before worshipping Jagannath in the main temple . Food offered to Jagannath does not get sanctified as Mahaprasad until it is also offered to Vimala . The Goddess @-@ oriented festival of Durga Puja in the Hindu month of Ashvin ( October ) is celebrated for sixteen days at Vimala , culminating with Vijayadashami .
= = History = =
The central icon of Vimala is of sixth century CE . The present structure , based on its architecture , seems to have been built in the ninth century under the Eastern Ganga dynasty , possibly over ruins of an earlier temple . Its architecture is similar to the shrine of Narasimha near the Mukti @-@ mandapa ( a temple hall ) in the Jagannath temple complex , dated to the ninth century . The Madala Panji states that the temple was constructed by Yayati Keshari , a ruler of Somavashi Dynasty of South Kosala . Kings Yayati I ( c . 922 – 955 ) and Yayati II ( c . 1025 – 1040 ) are known by the title Yayati Keshari . The sculptures , especially the parshvadevatas ( attendant deities ) , as well as the background slab of the central icon , reflect the Somavashi style and may be part of the original temple , on whose ruins the new temple was constructed . Vimala is believed to have preceded even the central Jagannath shrine .
Hindu philosopher and saint Adi Shankara ( c . 8th century ) is believed to have established Govardhana matha in Puri , with Vimala as its presiding goddess . According to Starza ( author of The Jagannatha Temple at Puri ) , the Jagannath Temple was once a centre of worship for the Trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva , along with their consorts and the three central forms of the Hindu Goddess , Sarasvati , Lakshmi and Parvati ( in the form of Vimala ) . The Shri Vidya sect devoted to Goddess worship was strong here until the 17th century . Slowly , Shri Vidya and Shiva @-@ centric Shaiva traditions were eroded but remnants continue , with the Vishnu @-@ centric Vaishnavism becoming the sole tradition . The Tantric Panchamakara , which includes fish , meat , liquor , parched grain and ritual intercourse , were replaced with vegetarian offerings and dance of devdasis . Fish was caught locally and offered to the goddess . King Narasimhadeva , who ruled between 1623 – 47 , ended the meat and fish offerings of the goddess , although the tradition was later partly revitalized . Today , the goddess is offered meat and fish on special days .
= = Architecture = =
The temple is located in the south @-@ west corner of the inner enclosure of the Jagannath temple complex and on the right hand western corner of the tower of Jagannath , next to the sacred pond Rohini kunda . The temple faces east and is built of sandstone and laterite . It is built in the Deula style that has four components namely , vimana ( structure containing the sanctum ) , jagamohana ( assembly hall ) , nata @-@ mandapa ( festival hall ) and bhoga @-@ mandapa ( hall of offerings ) . The temple is maintained and was renovated around 2005 by the Archaeological Survey of India , Bhubaneswar Circle .
= = = Vimana = = =
The vimana is a Rekha deula ( a tall building with a shape of sugarloaf ) , 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height and in shape of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) square . It stands on a 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) platform , which is decorated with lotus and other floral designs and scrollwork . The outer wall of the vimana is divided into 5 parts ( from base to top ) : pabhaga , talajangha , bandhana , upara jangha and baranda . The niches and intervening recesses of the first part of the wall are ornate , with khakhara mundis ( a type of niche ) , scrollwork , floral designs , creepers , love @-@ making couples and Nagas ( serpent @-@ men ) . The niches and intervening recesses of the second part of the wall are also decorated with khakhara mundis , simhavidalas ( a lion @-@ faced beast ) , Gajavidalas ( an elephant @-@ faced lion trampling a lion ) , jaliwork , scrollwork , sikshadana scene ( sages teaching disciples ) and kirtimukha ( a monster face ) motifs , along with the figurines of eight Dikpalas ( guardian gods of the directions ) and some goddesses . The third part of the outer wall has two horizontal mouldings decorated with alasa @-@ kanyas ( beautiful human maidens ) , scrollwork and floral and lotus motifs . The niches and recesses of the fourth part of the wall are decorated with pidha mundis ( a type of niche ) , simhavidalas , erotic scenes , alasa @-@ kanyas , scrollwork , jaliwork and floral designs , along with figures of the consorts of the Dikpalas , Nagas and their female consort Naginis and various goddesses . The Dikpalas and their consorts are seen with their mounts and aligned to their respective directions .
Images of the parshvadevatas ( attendant deities ) are placed in the central niches of the outer wall ( bada ) on three sides : the eight @-@ armed Durga slaying Mahishasura on the south ; the six @-@ armed goddess Chamunda standing on Shiva on the west and an empty niche on the north , which probably had a goddess figure that was stolen . The lintel of the attendant deity niche has Gaja Lakshmi figurines . The frames of the niches are decorated with scrollwork and kirtimukha motifs and two female attendants accompany each niche . The uppermost part of the outer wall has ten horizontal mouldings , ornate with scrollwork , kirtimukha and lotus and floral motifs . Within the vimana lies the garbhagriha ( sanctum ) , which is topped with a pancharatha @-@ style , curvilinear temple pinnacle .
The goddess Vimala is deified within the sanctum , the sixth century inner chamber that is devoid of wall decorations . The central icon of Vimala holds a rosary in the upper right hand . Her lower right hand is held in a boon @-@ giving gesture and her lower left holds a pitcher , considered to be filled with amrita ( celestial elixir of life ) . The attribute in the upper left hand is heavily disputed . Descriptions include a human figurine , a nagini , a mermaid , a naga @-@ pasha ( serpent @-@ noose ) or some other object . She holds no weapons normally attributed to Durga . The icon is installed on a simhasana ( lion @-@ throne ) , adorned with the figures of the goddess ' female attendants Chhaya and Maya on the sides . The image is said to be made of lakha ( a type of wax ) and slightly taller than 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) .
The sanctum door , with a flight of stairs , leads down to the jagamohana . The lintel has the Gaja Lakshmi figurine in the centre surrounded with apsaras ( celestial maidens ) . The Navagraha ( deities of the classical planets ) are carved above the lintel . The doorjambs are decorated scrollwork , creepers , flowers and boys playing . Two gate @-@ keeper sculptors surround the door .
= = = Jagamohana = = =
The jagamohana or mukhasala is a pidha deula ( square building with a pyramid @-@ shaped roof ) , 35 feet ( 11 m ) in height with a 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) square base . It stands on a 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) high platform , which is decorated with floral designs and scrollwork . The outer wall is divided into 5 parts , as in the vimana . The niches and intervening recesses of the first part are adorned with Khakhara mundi niches ( having amorous couples and erotic scenes ) , Naga pilasters , scrollwork , jaliwork and floral motifs . The talajangha has the same motifs as the vimana 's second part of the wall , barring the goddesses . The third part of the wall has three horizontal mouldings . The fourth part of the wall also resembles its counterpart in the vimana , except it does not have the Naga and goddess sculptures . The uppermost part of the wall has seven horizontal mouldings , the central portion of which is decorated with dancing women , amorous couples , elephants , deer , scrollwork and jaliwork . The gavaksha ( decorative arch ) on the northern and southern sides are royal court and sikshadana scenes , with a balustraded window on each side . The frames of the windows are decorated with scrollwork , jaliwork , playing boys , floral designs , creepers and dancing women . The structure is topped with a pyramidal shikhara . The inner walls have no ornamentation . The jagamohana has two doorways : one towards the sanctum ( already discussed in vimana section ) and other towards the natamandapa , which is similar in style and decoration to the former .
= = = Natamandapa = = =
The natamandapa is a pidha deula , 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) in height and in shape of rectangle 35 feet ( 11 m ) in length by 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . It is probably a later addition to the original temple , which consisted of the vimana and jagamohana . It stands on a 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) platform . The five divisions of the outer wall are undecorated . It is topped with a small pyramidal pinnacle . The natamandapa has four door ways , one on each side of the wall . Inner walls of the natamandapa are adorned with Pattachitra @-@ style traditional Orissan paintings , depicting sixteen forms of the Hindu Goddess , including the Mahavidyas .
= = = Bhogamandapa = = =
The bhogamandapa is a pidha deula , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in height and in shape of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) square . It stands on a 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) platform . The five outer wall divisions are undecorated . It is topped with a small pinnacle . An eight @-@ armed dancing Ganesha and a 12 @-@ armed , six @-@ headed standing Kartikeya ( both are the sons of Parvati and Shiva ) occupy niches on the western inner wall . The ceiling has floral paintings with a lotus design in the middle , suspending downwards . The bhogamandapa has four doorways , opening on each side . Two female gatekeepers guard each door . A flight of steps at the eastern doorway serves as the main entrance of the temple .
At the entrance to the shrine outside the bhogamandapa , there is a 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) Gaja @-@ Simha , the lion – the goddess ' vahana ( mount or vehicle ) – riding over an elephant , symbolizing the victory of good over evil . It is covered by a flat roof .
= = Religious significance = =
The Vimala Temple is considered one of the Shakti Pithas , the most sacred temples of the Hindu Goddess , identified with Parvati or Durga as consort of the god Shiva . It is considered to be a prime example of the importance of the Shakti cult in Orissa . It is customary to worship Shiva at each Shakti Pitha in the form of Bhairava , the male counterpart or guardian of the presiding goddess of the Shakti Pitha .
In Goddess @-@ oriented worship , Vimala ( Bimala ) is regarded as the presiding goddess of the Purushottama ( Puri ) Shakti Pitha . Jagannath , a form of the god Vishnu / Krishna ( Krishna is generally regarded as an avatar of Vishnu ) , is worshipped as the Pitha 's Bhairava . This is a departure from the usual tradition of Bhairava as a form of Shiva . So , in this temple complex , Vishnu – one of the Hindu trinity – is equated with Shiva , another of the trinity ; this is interpreted to convey the oneness of God . In this regard , Vimala - generally associated with Shiva 's consort - is also considered as Lakshmi , the consort of Vishnu . Conversely , Tantrics consider Jagannath as Shiva @-@ Bhairava , rather than a form of Vishnu .
The main sanctum of the Jagannath Temple has three deities : Jagannath , Balabhadra ( elder brother of Krishna , sometimes identified with Shiva ) and Subhadra ( the younger sister of Krishna and Balabhadra ) . In Jagannath @-@ centric traditions , while Lakshmi is the orthodox consort of Jagannath in the temple complex , Vimala is the Tantric ( heterodox ) consort and guardian goddess of the temple complex .
Vimala is identified with the goddesses Katyayini , Durga , Bhairavi , Bhuvaneshvari and Ekanamsha in various texts and rituals . She is considered the shakti of Vishnu as well as Shiva in the climactic Durga Puja festivities in the temple . She appears as Mahishasuramardini ( Durga as slayer of the demon Mahishasura ) or Vijayalakshmi ( the warrior form of Lakshmi ) in New Delhi Konark stele , 13th century stone stele originally from Konark Sun Temple and now housed in National Museum , New Delhi .
= = = In Shakti Pitha lists = = =
According to Hindu legend , Sati , the daughter of Prajapati Daksha , married Shiva against the wish of Daksha . Daksha organised a great yajna ( sacrifice ) , but did not invite Sati and Shiva . Uninvited , Sati reached the yajna @-@ site , where Daksha ignored Sati and vilified Shiva . Unable to withstand this insult , Sati sacrificed herself in the fire . The wild , grief @-@ stricken Shiva wandered the universe with her half @-@ burnt corpse . Finally , Vishnu dismembered her body into 51 parts , each of which fell on different places on the earth , each creating a Shakti Pitha .
The list of Shakti Pithas differ in various religious texts . Many mention Vimala or Jagannath temple complex as a Shakti Pitha , and calls the location by various names . In the Kalika Purana , four Pithas ( centres of Tantrism ) are mentioned , corresponding to the four cardinal directions . The Oddiyana or Uddiyana ( now clearly identified as Orissa ) in the west hosts the temple of Katyayini ( identified with Vimala ) and her consort Jagannath . The Hevajara Tantra , which has a similar list , also mentions Katyayini as the Bhairavi and Jagannath as the Bhairava in the Pitha of Udra ( Odra , identified with Orissa ) .
The Pithanirnaya or Mahapithanirupana section from the Tantrachudamani mentions Viraja @-@ kshetra in Utkala ( present @-@ day Orissa ) as a Shakti Pitha , with Vimala as the presiding goddess ( Devi ) , Jagannath as Bhairava and her navel as the body part that fell here . One version of this text , however , demotes the site from a Pitha to an upa @-@ Pitha ( subordinate Pitha ) . Here , the Ucchishta ( that is , left @-@ over or partially eaten food ) of Sati is said to be the " fallen part " ( anga @-@ pratyanga ) and the temple location is called Nilachal or " Blue mountain " , which is the traditional name of the site of the Jagannath temple complex . Nilachal or Nila Parvat is mentioned as an upa @-@ pitha also in the Shiva @-@ charita with Vimala and Jagannath as the Devi and Bhairava respectively .
The Tantric work Kubjika Tantra names Vimala among 42 Siddha Pithas , where Siddhis - a set of supernatural powers - can be gained . The Devi Bhagavata Purana , Prana Toshini Tantra and Brihan Nila Tantra name the Vimala temple as a Pitha in their list of 108 temples . The Matsya Purana mentions Purushottama Kshetra with goddess Vimala as a Shakti Pitha . The Vamana Purana notes it as a sacred pilgrimage site . The Mahapitha Nirupanam also mentions Vimala and Jagannath as deities of the Pitha . In the Namasttotra Sata , a Puranic list of 100 mother goddesses , Vimala of Purushottama is named . The Devi Purana also mentions it as a Pitha where feet of Sati fell .
= = Worship = =
The people of Orissa take pride in the Vimala temple . They consider it the most important temple to the Goddess and a must @-@ visit . Devotees visit the temple religiously every day and recite hymns from the Devi Mahatmya , attributed to the sage Markandeya , Debyaparadhakshyamapana stotram by Adi Shankara and Vimalastakam composed by Purusottam Rakshit . It is prescribed that devotees pay their respects to the goddess Vimala before worshipping Jagannath in the main temple . The waters of Rohini kunda , the tirtha ( sacred pool ) of Vimala , are also considered holy . Tantrics often visit the temple , which they consider more important than the central Jagannath shrine .
The Goddess @-@ oriented festival of Durga Puja in the Hindu month of Ashvin ( October ) is celebrated for sixteen days , culminating with Vijayadashami . On Vijayadashami , Vimala is worshipped by the titular Gajapati king of Puri as the goddess Durga , who is believed to have slain the demon Mahishasura on this day . The earliest record of this is the New Delhi Konark stele , which narrate that King Narasimhadeva I ( reign : 1238 – 1264 ) worshipped Durga @-@ Madhava ( Vimala @-@ Jagannath ) on the tenth day of Durga Puja , that is , Vijayadashami . As the goddess is believed to assume a destructive aspect during the Durga Puja , women are debarred in the temple as they are considered too " weak @-@ hearted " to witness this terrible form of the goddess .
= = = Food offerings = = =
Generally , no separate food offerings are cooked for the goddess Vimala . The goddess is described to survive on the remnants ( Ucchishta ) of Jagannath 's meals . The vegetarian food offerings to Jagannath are offered to Vimala , after which they are sanctified as Mahaprasad ( see also prasad ) . The Mahaprasad consists of dried rice mixed with grated coconut , cheese , curd and butter . The Shankaracharya , head of the Govardhana matha , receives a pot of the mahaprasad and a plate of khichdi that is offered to the goddess , the presiding goddess ( Adya @-@ shakti ) of the matha as well as of the temple .
The legend narrates the tale behind the tradition of offering the Ucchishta , which otherwise is a taboo in Hinduism . Once , Shiva on a visit to Vishnu 's abode Vaikuntha , saw that a few food grains ( Ucchishta ) had fallen on the ground after Vishnu finished his meal . Shiva quickly picked up a grain and swallowed it . Unbeknownst to him , half of it stuck to his beard . When he returned to his abode , the sage Narada saw the half grain on Shiva 's beard , and ate it . Parvati , Shiva 's consort , was upset that her rightful share of Vishnu 's prasad had been eaten by Narada . In a peeved mood , she went to Vishnu and complained . Vishnu pacified her saying that in the Kali Yuga ( the present era as per Hindu beliefs ) , she would live at Puri as Vimala , and would daily eat the remnants of his food .
The only time in the year when separate food is cooked for the goddess is when she is offered non @-@ vegetarian offerings . During Durga Puja , Vimala is offered non @-@ vegetarian food and animal sacrifice , traditionally offered to the Hindu Mother Goddess . The goddess is considered to assume a destructive form during the festival and the meat is considered necessary to placate her . In strict secrecy during the pre @-@ dawn hours , animal sacrifice of a he @-@ goat is offered in the temple , while fish from the sacred Markanda temple tank are cooked and offered to Vimala , as per Tantric rituals . The rituals have to be completed before the doors of the main sanctum of the vegetarian Jagannath are opened at dawn and the first morning aarti is offered to the god . Vaishnava devotees of Jagannath are debarred from the temple . Only a few who witness the ceremony are given the Bimala parusa ( Vimala 's cuisine ) as prasad . The animal sacrifice and the non @-@ vegetarian offerings to Vimala produced protests .
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= Tropical Storm Danielle ( 1986 ) =
Tropical Storm Danielle was the only tropical storm to move through the Caribbean Sea in 1986 . A short @-@ lived cyclone , Danielle developed on September 7 to the east of the southern Lesser Antilles . Strengthening to peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , the storm moved through Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , where a rainband moved across the main island with hurricane @-@ force gusts . Continuing westward , Danielle absorbed dry air from northern South America and dissipated on September 10 .
The threat of Danielle prompted gale warnings in Barbados as well as Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . On the former island , wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . On Saint Vincent , the winds caused a major power outage , while heavy rainfall left crop damage . Another rain system affected the country a few weeks later , and the combined monetary damage totaled $ 9 @.@ 2 million ( 1986 USD , $ 18 million 2010 USD ) ; 142 people had to seek shelter after their homes were destroyed , and a total of 436 dwellings were impacted to some degree . In Trinidad and Tobago , the outer rainbands produced flooding and mudslides . Further west , Danielle briefly threatened Jamaica , although it dissipated before affecting the island .
= = Meteorological history = =
Around September 1 , a tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa . It progressed westward through the tropical Atlantic Ocean , initially at a moderate speed before accelerating to 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) on September 6 . A tropical depression developed along the tropical wave early on September 7 , and satellite imagery indicated that it quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Danielle about 385 mi ( 620 km ) east @-@ southeast of Grenada , an island in the Lesser Antilles .
On September 8 , Hurricane Hunters flew into Tropical Storm Danielle and reported maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , as well as a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 millibars ( 30 inHg ) . Initially , forecasters anticipated Danielle would strengthen further . As the storm moved through Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , a rainband north of the center contained winds of near hurricane force , which moved across the island of Saint Vincent . After maintaining peak winds for about 18 hours , Danielle began weakening in the eastern Caribbean Sea , due to entrainment of dry air from northern South America . Paralleling the northern coast of the continent , the circulation became dislocated from the convection . Late on September 9 , the system weakened to tropical depression status , and the next day it dissipated in the western Caribbean . It was the only tropical cyclone in the Caribbean Sea during 1986 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Before Tropical Storm Danielle moved through the Lesser Antilles , a small @-@ craft advisory was issued , and later , gale warnings were posted for Barbados as well as Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . On Saint Vincent , the threat of the storm forced the closure of the main commercial airport , as well as schools , businesses , and stores . Further west , Danielle briefly posed a threat to Jamaica , prompting officials in that country to issue a tropical storm watch . Two months earlier , the precursor to Tropical Storm Andrew killed 49 people on the island ; to avoid a recurrence , the Jamaican government worked to evacuate fishermen from two small islands as a precaution .
As Danielle moved through the Lesser Antilles , a rainband struck the island of Saint Vincent with wind gusts of near hurricane @-@ force . The winds caused a major power outage on the island , and destroyed the roofs of more than 30 houses . Elsewhere in the country , the combination of winds and heavy rains caused heavy crop damage . Twelve days after Danielle struck , a severe rainstorm affected Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . The combined disasters produced a damage total of $ 9 @.@ 3 million ( 1986 USD , $ 18 million 2010 USD ) , the majority of it from crop damage . About 40 % of the banana crop was destroyed or unfit for cultivation , and 2 @,@ 050 acres ( 8 @.@ 3 km2 ) of other crops were seriously affected . The two storms caused the deaths of 120 animals , although there were no human fatalities . In addition to the crop damage , the combined impact of the two storms left over 100 houses destroyed , with a total of 436 dwellings damaged ; this forced 142 people to seek emergency shelter . Across the country , the heavy rainfall caused mudslides and flooding which disrupted the transportation and utility network .
During its passage , Danielle produced a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) wind gust at the airport in Bridgetown , Barbados . A coast guard ship from Barbados ran aground into a reef in the southern Grenadines , but it was rescued . Further south , rainbands from Danielle swept through Trinidad and Tobago , producing up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of flooding . The flooding caused 27 landslides and destroyed 4 bridges . Damage in the country was estimated at $ 8 million ( 1986 TTD , $ 1 @.@ 2 million 1986 USD ) .
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= The Tale of Peter Rabbit =
The Tale of Peter Rabbit is a British children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter that follows mischievous and disobedient young Peter Rabbit as he is chased about the garden of Mr. McGregor . He escapes and returns home to his mother who puts him to bed after dosing him with camomile tea . The tale was written for five @-@ year @-@ old Noel Moore , son of Potter 's former governess Annie Carter Moore , in 1893 . It was revised and privately printed by Potter in 1901 after several publishers ' rejections but was printed in a trade edition by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1902 . The book was a success , and multiple reprints were issued in the years immediately following its debut . It has been translated into 36 languages and with 45 million copies sold it is one of the best @-@ selling books of all time .
The book has generated considerable merchandise over the decades since its release for both children and adults with toys , dishes , foods , clothing , videos and other products made available . Potter was one of the first to be responsible for such merchandise when she patented a Peter Rabbit doll in 1903 and followed it almost immediately with a Peter Rabbit board game .
= = Plot = =
The story focuses on a family of anthropomorphic rabbits , the widowed mother rabbit cautioning her young against entering a vegetable garden grown by a man named Mr. McGregor , telling them : " your Father had an accident there ; he was put in a pie by Mrs. McGregor " . Whereas her three daughters obediently refrain from entering the garden , going down the lane to pick blackberries , her rebellious son Peter enters the garden to snack on some vegetables . Peter ends up eating more than is good for him and goes looking for parsley to cure his stomach ache . However , Peter is spotted by Mr. McGregor and loses his jacket and shoes while trying to escape . He hides in a watering can in a shed , but then has to run away again when Mr. McGregor finds him , and ends up completely lost . After sneaking past a cat , Peter sees the gate where he entered the garden from a distance and heads for it , despite being spotted and chased by Mr. McGregor again . He finds difficulties in wriggling beneath the gate , but manages to escape the garden , only to spot his abandoned clothing articles being used to dress Mr. McGregor 's scarecrow . After returning home , a sick Peter is sent to bed by his mother whereas his well @-@ behaved sisters receive a sumptuous dinner of milk and berries as opposed to Peter 's supper of chamomile tea .
= = Composition = =
The story was inspired by a pet rabbit Potter had as a child , which she named Peter Piper . Through the 1890s , Potter sent illustrated story letters to the children of her former governess , Annie Moore , and , in 1900 , Moore , realizing the commercial potential of Potter 's stories , suggested they be made into books . Potter embraced the suggestion , and , borrowing her complete correspondence ( which had been carefully preserved by the Moore children ) , selected a letter written on 4 September 1893 to five @-@ year @-@ old Noel that featured a tale about a rabbit named Peter . Potter biographer Linda Lear explains : " The original letter was too short to make a proper book so [ Potter ] added some text and made new black @-@ and @-@ white illustrations ... and made it more suspenseful . These changes slowed the narrative down , added intrigue , and gave a greater sense of the passage of time . Then she copied it out into a stiff @-@ covered exercise book , and painted a coloured frontispiece showing Mrs. Rabbit dosing Peter with camomile tea " .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Private publication = = =
As Lear explains , Potter titled The Tale of Peter Rabbit and Mr. McGregor 's Garden and sent it to publishers , but " her manuscript was returned ... including Frederick Warne & Co . ... who nearly a decade earlier had shown some interest in her artwork . Some publishers wanted a shorter book , others a longer one . But most wanted coloured illustrations which by 1900 were both popular and affordable " . The several rejections proved frustrating to Potter who knew exactly how her book should look ( she had adopted the format and style of Helen Bannerman 's Little Black Sambo ) " and how much it should cost " . She decided to publish the book herself , and , on 16 December 1901 , the first 250 copies of her privately printed The Tale of Peter Rabbit " was ready for distribution to family and friends " .
= = = First commercial edition = = =
In 1901 , as Lear explains , a Potter family friend and sometime poet , Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley , set Potter 's tale into " rather dreadful didactic verse and submitted it , along with Potter 's illustrations and half her revised manuscript , to Frederick Warne & Co . , " which had been among the original rejecters . Warne editors declined Rawnsley 's version " but asked to see the complete Potter manuscript " – their interest stimulated by the opportunity The Tale of Peter Rabbit offered the publisher to compete with the success of Helen Bannerman 's wildly popular Little Black Sambo and other small format children 's books then on the market . When Warne inquired about the lack of colour illustrations in the book , Potter replied that rabbit @-@ brown and green were not good subjects for colouration . Warne declined the book but opened the possibility for future publication .
Warne wanted colour illustrations throughout the ' bunny book ' ( as the firm referred to the tale ) and suggested cutting the illustrations " from forty @-@ two to thirty @-@ two ... and marked which ones might best be eliminated " . Potter initially resisted the idea of colour illustrations but then realized her stubborn stance was a mistake . She sent Warne " several colour illustrations , along with a copy of her privately printed edition " which Warne then handed to their eminent children 's book illustrator L. Leslie Brooke for his professional opinion , who was impressed with to Potter 's work . Fortuitously , his recommendation coincided with a sudden surge in the small picture @-@ book market .
Meanwhile , Potter continued to distribute her privately printed edition to family and friends , with the celebrated creator of Sherlock Holmes , Arthur Conan Doyle , acquiring a copy for his children . When the first private printing of 250 copies was sold out , another 200 were prepared . She noted in an inscription in one copy that her beloved pet rabbit Peter had died .
Potter arrived at an agreement with Warne for an initial publication of 5 @,@ 000 commercial copies . Negotiations dragged on into the following year with a contract finally signed in June 1902 . Potter was closely involved in the publication process of the trade edition of the tale – redrawing when necessary , making minor adjustments to the prose and correcting punctuation . The blocks for the illustrations and text were sent to printer Edmund Evans for engraving , and she made adjustments to the proofs when she received them . Lear writes that " Even before the publication of the tale in early October 1902 , the first 8 @,@ 000 copies were sold out . By the year 's end there were 28 @,@ 000 copies of The Tale of Peter Rabbit in print . By the middle of 1903 there was a fifth edition sporting coloured endpapers ... a sixth printing was produced within the month " ; and a year after the first commercial publication there were 56 @,@ 470 copies in print .
= = = American copyright = = =
Warne 's New York office " failed to register the copyright for The Tale of Peter Rabbit in the United States " and unlicensed copies of the book " ( from which Potter would receive no royalties ) began to appear in the spring of 1903 . There was nothing anyone could do to stop them " .
The enormous financial loss ... [ to Potter ] only became evident over time " , but the necessity of protecting her intellectual property hit home after the successful 1903 publication of The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin when her father returned from the Burlington Arcade in Mayfair at Christmas 1903 with a toy squirrel labelled Nutkin .
= = Merchandising = =
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the " longevity of her books comes from strategy " , writes Potter biographer Ruth MacDonald . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales ; between 1903 and 1905 these included a Peter Rabbit stuffed toy , an unpublished board game , and nursery wallpaper .
Considerable variants on the original format and version of The Tale of Peter Rabbit as well as spin @-@ off merchandise have been made available over the decades . Variant versions include " pop @-@ ups , toy theatres , and lift @-@ the @-@ flap books " . By 1998 , modern technology had made available " videos , audio cassette , a CD @-@ ROMs , a computer program , and Internet sites " , as described by Margaret Mackey writing in The case of Peter Rabbit : changing conditions of literature for children . She continues : " Warne and their collaborators and competitors have produced a large collection of activity books and a monthly educational magazine " . A plethora of other Peter Rabbit related merchandise exists as well , and " toy shops in the United States and Britain have whole sections of store specially signposted and earmarked exclusively for Potter @-@ related toys and merchandise " .
Unauthorized copying of The Tale of Peter Rabbit has flourished over the decades with products only loosely associated with the original . In 1916 , American Louise A. Field cashed in on the popularity by writing books such as Peter Rabbit Goes to School or Peter Rabbit and His Ma , the illustrations of which showed him in his distinctive blue jacket . In an animated movie by Golden Films , The New Adventures of Peter Rabbit , " Peter is given buck teeth , an American accent and a fourth sister Hopsy . " Another video " retelling of the tale casts Peter as a Christian preacher singing songs about God and Jesus . "
= = Literary criticism = =
Writing in Storyteller : The Classic that Heralded America 's Storytelling Revival , in discussing the difference between stories that lend themselves well to telling and stories that lend themselves well to reading , Ramon Ross explains Peter Rabbit is a story created for reading . He believes Potter created a good mix of suspense and tension , intermixed with lulls in the action . He goes on to write that the writing style — " the economy of words , the crisp writing " — lends itself well to a young audience .
Lear writes that Potter " had in fact created a new form of animal fable in : one in which anthropomorphic animals behave as real animals with true animal instincts " , and a form of fable with anatomically correct illustrations drawn by a scientifically minded artist . She further states Peter Rabbit 's nature is familiar to rabbit enthusiasts " and endorsed by those who are not ... because her portrayal speaks to some universal understanding of rabbity behaviour . " She describes the tale as a " perfect marriage of word and image " and " a triumph of fantasy and fact " .
According to Stuart Jeffries , " ... psychoanalytic critiques of her work have multiplied since her death in 1943 . " Carole Scott writes in Beatrix Potter 's Peter Rabbit that the reader cannot help but identify with rebellious little Peter and his plight as all the illustrations are presented from his low @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground view , most feature Peter in close @-@ up and within touching distance , and Mr. McGregor is distanced from the reader by always being depicted on the far side of Peter . Scott explains : " This identification dramatically instills fear and tension in the reader , and interacts with the frequently distanced voice of the verbal narrative " , sometimes with contradictory effects . In the verbal narrative and the illustration for the moment when Mr. McGregor attempts to trap Peter under a garden sieve , for example , the verbal narrative presents the murderous intent of Mr. McGregor as a matter @-@ of @-@ fact , everyday occurrence while the illustration presents the desperate moment from the terrified view of a small animal in fear of his life – a view that is reinforced by the birds that take flight to the left and the right .
In the illustration of Peter standing by the locked door , the verbal narrative describes the scene without the flippancy evident in the moment of the sieve . The inability to overcome obstacles is presented in the verbal narrative with objective matter @-@ of @-@ factness and the statement , " Peter began to cry " is offered without irony or attitude , thus drawing the reader closer to Peter ’ s emotions and plight . The illustration depicts an unclothed Peter standing upright against the door , one foot upon the other with a tear running from his eye . Without his clothes , Peter is only a small , wild animal but his tears , his emotions , and his human posture intensifies the reader ’ s identification with him . Here , verbal narrative and illustration work in harmony rather than in disharmony . Scott suggests Potter ’ s tale has encouraged many generations of children to " self @-@ indulgence , disobedience , transgression of social boundaries and ethics , and assertion of their wild , unpredictable nature against the constrictions of civilized living . "
Frank Delaney notes " a self @-@ containment " in Potter 's writing reflective of an uninterested mother and a lonely childhood spent in the company of pets . John Bidwell , curator at the Morgan Library & Museum in New York , observed " ... the sardonic humor that makes Beatrix Potter so much fun for kids and grown @-@ ups . ”
= = Adaptations = =
In 1938 , shortly after the success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , Walt Disney became interested in making an animated film based on The Tale of Peter Rabbit . However , Beatrix Potter refused to give the rights to Disney because of marketing issues .
In 1971 , Peter Rabbit appeared as a character in the ballet film The Tales of Beatrix Potter . In the autumn of 1991 , HBO aired an animated musical adaptation of The Tale of Peter Rabbit , narrated by Carol Burnett , as part of the network 's Storybook Musicals series , which was later released to VHS by Family Home Entertainment . In 1992 , the tale was adapted to animation again for the BBC anthology series , The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends , which has since been released on VHS and DVD . In 2006 , Peter Rabbit was heavily referenced in a biopic about Beatrix Potter entitled Miss Potter . In December 2012 , a new CGI @-@ animated children 's TV series titled Peter Rabbit premiered on Nickelodeon , with a full series run beginning in February 2013 .
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= Epaulettes ( stamp ) =
Epaulettes ( French : Épaulettes , Dutch : Epauletten ) is the colloquial name of the first series of postage stamps issued by Belgium . The stamps , which depicted King Leopold I and his prominent epaulettes from which the type 's name derives , became legally usable on 1 July 1849 . They were produced as the result of a series of national reforms to the postal system in Belgium , based on the success of similar British reforms in 1840 . Two denominations with the same design were issued simultaneously : a brown 10 centimes and a blue 20 centimes . The stamps allowed postal costs to be pre @-@ paid by the sender , rather than the receiver , and led to a sharp increase in the volume of mail . Although quickly superseded by new types , the Epaulettes proved extremely influential and have since inspired several series of commemorative stamps .
= = Background = =
Heavily influenced by the example of the British postal system , which issued its first stamp , the Penny Black , in 1840 , the Belgian government supported the inauguration of a Belgian equivalent . Under the existing system , postage costs were paid by the receiver rather than the sender , which discouraged people from receiving , and therefore sending , letters . The idea of postage stamps , which would allow the sender to pay in advance , was officially sanctioned by Leopold I on the Loi apportant des modifications au régime des postes ( " Law bringing modifications to the postal system " ) on 24 December 1847 while the radical liberal and future Prime Minister , Walthère Frère @-@ Orban , served as Minister of Public Works . The debate on the reform of the postage in Belgium occurred at the same time as widespread postage reform , influenced by the British example , in France , Bavaria and elsewhere .
A second act , the Loi sur la réforme postale ( " Law on postal reform " ) , was signed on 22 April 1849 . The second law set out more detailed terms for the launch of the postal system and on 17 June 1849 , Leopold I officially requested the new Minister of Public Works , Hippolyte Rolin , to act on the new laws .
= = Stamps = =
On 1 July 1849 , the first postage stamps were launched , produced in two denominations with the same design . The first , a brown 10 centimes stamp , could be used to send a letter up to a distance of 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) ; the blue 20 centimes could be used on all other ordinary national mail . The successful design was just one of a variety of options produced by Jacob Wiener .
The stamps were officially described by an Avis ministériel ( " Ministerial notice " ) of 1849 as each being a " small engraving representing the portrait of the King , with indication as to their value ... they will be printed on a paper of which the reverse is coated in a thin layer of glue . "
The Epaulettes stamps depicted Leopold I wearing military uniform , with highly visible epaulettes , and were printed using the intaglio method . They were inscribed " POSTES " ( " postage " ) at the top , along with the stamp 's value in numbers . At the bottom was the stamps face value in French language text . No Dutch language version was produced . Like the first British stamps , it did not carry the name of its country of origin since they were intended for use only within Belgium . The stamp was designed by Charles Baugniet , based on the King 's official portrait painted by the artist Liévin De Winne . It composition was by Jacob Wiener and the engraver John Henry Robinson . It was not perforated and was instead cut from sheets of 10x10 by hand .
The stamp carried the two crossed " L " s monogram of Leopold I as a watermark . To attach it to an envelope , the stamp , which already contained gum , had to be moistened before application . Around 5 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 examples of each denomination were produced .
Philatelists distinguish several minor variations among the series . For the 10 centimes , some slight colour variations exist , described as grey @-@ brown ( brun @-@ gris ) and russet @-@ brown ( brun @-@ roux ) . In the 20 centimes , variations in dark blue ( bleu @-@ foncé ) and milky blue ( bleu @-@ laiteux ) have been noted . Of all the colour variations , the russet @-@ brown examples commanding the highest premium among collectors . Some double @-@ printed ( error ) stamps are also known .
= = Operation = =
The stamps were sold from post @-@ offices across the country but some were also issued to postmen for sale . Sales started on 25 June 1849 , however their use only became legal on 1 July . Because of the lack of an infrastructure of post boxes , particularly in rural areas , letters could be given directly to the postman in person rather than delivered to post offices to be sent .
For use , the stamps were cancelled with a heavy , circular black ink stamp . The cancellations , like their British equivalent , had a number in the centre ( between one and 135 ) which was different for each post office around the country .
= = Effects and legacy = =
The introduction of the postage stamp , along with daily delivery , allowed a large increase in the volume of mail carried . By 1849 , between ten and fifteen million letters were being carried each year . The creation of the stamps also led to a structural expansion of the national postage system , which in 1830 had counted just 123 post offices and 240 postmen .
The success of the initial Epaulettes series inspired the introduction of three new varieties with different designs and denominations in October 1849 . These new types replaced the epaulettes design with the so @-@ called " Medallion " ( Médaillon ) type , featuring Leopold I 's portrait within a circular medallion window . In the same issue , a new denomination of forty centimes in red was produced for overseas mail . It was rumoured at the time that Leopold I did not like the design at the time , and believed that the epaulettes gave him a childlike aspect . The Epaulettes were officially superseded in 1859 , but remained legally valid until 1 July 1866 when , following Leopold I 's death , all stamps bearing his effigy were demonetised .
A nearly identical re @-@ impression was made in 1866 on laid paper which are distinguished by slightly different dimensions . Further re @-@ impressions date to 1895 . The Epaulettes have also subsequently been the subject of various commemorative stamps . The Epaulettes featured as part of the design of stamps issued by Belgium in 1925 and 1972 . For their 100th and 150th anniversary , in 1949 and 1999 , the Belgian postal service published commemorative series .
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= Eduardo Núñez =
Eduardo Michelle Núñez Méndez ( born June 15 , 1987 ) is a Dominican professional baseball infielder for the Minnesota Twins of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played in MLB for the New York Yankees from 2010 through 2013 . Although shortstop is his primary position , Núñez serves as a utility infielder , and played in the outfield for the Yankees as well .
The Yankees signed Núñez as an international free agent in 2004 . He played minor league baseball in their organization from 2005 through 2010 , until he made his MLB debut with the Yankees on August 19 , 2010 . He has served to allow Derek Jeter and Alex Rodriguez the ability to take days off in the field . Due to struggles and inconsistency , the Yankees designated Núñez for assignment at the start of the 2014 season . He was traded to the Twins , and enjoyed a breakout season in 2016 , when he was named to appear in the MLB All @-@ Star Game .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The New York Yankees signed Núñez as an international free agent in February 2004 . The organization introduced him to Derek Jeter , his childhood idol , at a press conference , where they told Jeter that Núñez was to be their eventual replacement for Jeter as the Yankees ' starting shortstop .
Núñez made his professional debut in minor league baseball with the Staten Island Yankees of the Class A Short Season New York – Pennsylvania League in the 2005 season . Nunez represented the Yankees in the league 's All @-@ Star Game . That season , the Yankees won their third consecutive league championship , and Nunez was rated as the fourth @-@ best prospect in the New York – Penn League . Going into the 2006 season , Baseball America ranked Núñez the sixth @-@ best prospect in the Yankees organization , and the prospect with the best throwing arm . The Yankees started Núñez with the Tampa Yankees of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League in 2006 ; he struggled with Tampa , and the Yankees demoted him to the Charleston RiverDogs of the Class A South Atlantic League ( SAL ) on May 17 . Overall , Núñez had a .214 batting average for Tampa and Charleston .
In 2007 , Núñez started the season with Charleston , and was named the starting shortstop for the Southern Division in the SAL All @-@ Star Game . He was promoted to Tampa on July 28 . He played for Tampa in 2008 , batting .271 with six home runs and 42 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 94 games . He was promoted to the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League for the 2009 season . With Trenton , he had a .322 batting average in 123 games and appeared in the Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , in which he got two hits . The Yankees promoted Núñez to the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Yankees of the Class AAA International League for the 2009 playoffs . Following the 2009 season , the Yankees added Núñez to their 40 @-@ man roster to protect him from being selected by another franchise in the Rule 5 draft . In 2010 , the Yankees assigned Núñez to Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre . There , he batted .289 in 118 games , with 55 runs scored , 25 doubles , three triples , four home runs , 50 RBI , and 23 stolen bases . He was named to the International League All @-@ Star team , the postseason All @-@ Star team , and the Topps Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star Team . Núñez won the Kevin Lawn Award as the Yankees ' minor league player of the year for 2010 .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Núñez was called up to the majors for the first time on August 19 , 2010 after Lance Berkman was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list . Núñez debuted on the same day , replacing Jeter in the seventh inning and fouling out in his only plate appearance . Núñez received playing time as a fill @-@ in for Jeter and the then @-@ injured Alex Rodriguez . On August 21 , Núñez recorded his first major league hit , a go @-@ ahead RBI single into right field . Núñez hit his first career home run against the Chicago White Sox on August 28 , 2010 . He also stole his first career base the same day . In 30 games for the Yankees , Nunez hit .280 , with one home run , seven RBIs , and scored 12 runs . After the season , Baseball America rated him as the eighth @-@ best prospect in the Yankees organization , while also naming him the " Best Defensive Infielder " and the " Best Infield Arm " in the Yankees organization . Núñez was part of the Yankees postseason in case Jeter or A @-@ Rod get injured again . The Yankees ventured through the playoffs until losing to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 ALCS .
Núñez beat out Ramiro Peña for the role as the utility infielder to start the 2011 season . With the Yankees , Núñez played approximately two games a week , allowing Derek Jeter and Alex Rodriguez to rest more often . Núñez batted .339 while filling in for the Yankees as their starting shortstop for three weeks while Jeter was injured ; he later became the team 's starting third baseman when Rodriguez required arthroscopic knee surgery . In addition to playing various infield positions , manager Joe Girardi also used Núñez as an outfielder when Nick Swisher experienced tendinitis in his elbow . Núñez played in 112 games for the Yankees , and led the team in errors with 20 , despite only playing part @-@ time .
Despite his defensive struggles , the Yankees viewed Núñez as likely to make their 25 @-@ man roster out of spring training in 2012 as a utility infielder . With Brett Gardner , the Yankees ' starting left fielder , injuring his elbow , Núñez received playing time in left field , as well as the infield . In his first twenty games of the 2012 New York Yankees season , Núñez hit .294 , but committed four errors in 58 chances . The day after he committed two errors in a game against the Tampa Bay Rays , Núñez was demoted to the Triple @-@ A Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre team . The team decided to abandon their approach of using Núñez as a utility player so that he can receive daily playing time at shortstop and second base , as the organization still views him as an everyday shortstop .
On September 1 , 2012 , the Yankees promoted Núñez from Triple @-@ A and manager Joe Girardi placed him into the starting lineup against the Baltimore Orioles for that day . He finished the regular season with a .292 batting average in 82 at @-@ bats . Though he was left off of the Yankees ' postseason roster for the 2012 American League Championship Series , he was added to the roster when Jeter suffered a fractured ankle . In Game 3 of the 2012 ALCS , Núñez hit his first career postseason home run off of Tigers pitcher Justin Verlander . The Yankees lost the series to the Tigers in a 4 @-@ game sweep .
Heading into the 2013 season , Yankees ' General Manager Brian Cashman said that if Núñez were to make the team , he would do so as a utility infielder , reversing the team 's position . However , Núñez only played shortstop during spring training . Jeter began the season on the disabled list , and Núñez started at shortstop for the Yankees on Opening Day . Núñez was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on May 12 after missing the previous week due to soreness in his left rib cage . He was then transferred to the 60 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained left oblique . He was activated from the disabled list on July 6 after missing 2 months . He ended the season with .a 260 batting average and 28 RBIs in 90 games played .
In spring training in 2014 , Núñez competed with Zelous Wheeler , Yangervis Solarte , Dean Anna , and Scott Sizemore for a reserve infielder role with the Yankees . With reserve infielder Brendan Ryan starting the season on the disabled list , the Yankees chose Anna and Solarte over Núñez . To add Solarte to the roster , the Yankees designated Núñez for assignment .
= = = Minnesota Twins = = =
With the hope of improving their offense , the Minnesota Twins acquired Núñez from the Yankees on April 7 , 2014 , in exchange for minor league pitcher Miguel Sulbaran . The Twins optioned him to the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . After batting 7 @-@ for @-@ 22 ( .318 ) for Rochester , he was promoted to the Twins as the 26th man on their roster for a doubleheader on April 17 , and was optioned back the next day . He finished the season with a .250 batting average in 72 games played with the Twins .
Núñez and the Twins agreed to a $ 1 @.@ 025 million salary for the 2015 season , avoiding salary arbitration . In 72 games in 2015 , Núñez hit .282 / .327 / .431 with 4 HR and 20 RBI across 4 positions for the Twins .
Avoiding arbitration with the Twins at $ 1 @.@ 475 million for the 2016 season , Núñez entered the season expecting to compete for a reserve role . On the Twins Opening Day roster in 2016 , Núñez impressed in April , hitting .373 in 18 games in a reserve role . However , following an injury to shortstop Eduardo Escobar , Núñez began earning more playing time as the team 's starting shortstop . With an injury to third baseman Trevor Plouffe , Núñez remained in the lineup following Escobar 's return . He became the Twins ' leadoff hitter . On July 5 , Núñez was named to his first All @-@ Star Game . That day , he had a .315 batting average with 11 home runs and 19 stolen bases .
= = Scouting profile = =
The Yankees viewed Núñez as a possible replacement at shortstop for Jeter . Though they were willing to trade Jesús Montero , their top hitting prospect , the Yankees considered Núñez untouchable in trade negotiations . Scouts consider Núñez 's throwing arm to be strong , and compliment his ability to hit for average , hit for power , and baserunning ability . However , scouts feel he can get " lackadaisical in the field " and swings at too many pitches outside of the strike zone .
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= Arcade Fire =
Arcade Fire is a Canadian indie rock band based in Montreal , Quebec consisting of husband and wife Win Butler and Régine Chassagne , along with Win 's younger brother Will Butler , Richard Reed Parry , Tim Kingsbury and Jeremy Gara . The band 's current touring line @-@ up also includes former core member Sarah Neufeld , frequent collaborator Owen Pallett , two additional percussionists , Diol Edmond and Tiwill Duprate , and saxophonists Matt Bauder and Stuart Bogie .
Founded in 2001 by friends and classmates Win Butler and Josh Deu , the band came to prominence in 2004 with the release of their critically acclaimed debut album Funeral . Their second studio album , Neon Bible , won them the 2008 Meteor Music Award for Best International Album and the 2008 Juno Award for Alternative Album of the Year . Their third studio album , The Suburbs , was released in 2010 to critical acclaim and commercial success . It received many accolades , including the 2011 Grammy for Album of the Year , the 2011 Juno Award for Album of the Year , and the 2011 Brit Award for Best International Album . In 2013 , Arcade Fire released their fourth album , Reflektor , and scored the feature film Her , for which band members William Butler and Owen Pallett were nominated in the Best Original Score category at the 86th Academy Awards . All four of their studio albums have received nominations for the Best Alternative Music Album Grammy ; the band 's work has also been named three times as a shortlist nominee for the Polaris Music Prize : in 2007 for Neon Bible , in 2011 for The Suburbs and in 2014 for Reflektor , winning the award for The Suburbs .
The band plays guitar , drums , bass guitar , piano , violin , viola , cello , double bass , xylophone , glockenspiel , keyboard , synthesizer , French horn , accordion , harp , mandolin , and hurdy @-@ gurdy , and takes most of these instruments on tour ; the multi @-@ instrumentalist band members switch duties throughout shows .
= = History = =
= = = 2001 – 03 : Formation and early work = = =
Win Butler and Josh Deu originally founded Arcade Fire in Montreal around 2001 , having first met at Phillips Exeter Academy as high school students . Both attended Concordia University where their musical ideas began to develop and the first incarnation of the band was born . The duo began rehearsing their material at McGill University where they met Régine Chassagne , a music student whom they asked to join them . Deu recalls , " Win and I played guitar . Everyone played guitar . We had no music to show her , but she ended up saying yes to joining us , and I don ’ t know why . Maybe there was a little spark with Win . " The trio recorded a set of demos and began performing live in the second half of 2001 . At that time , the band consisted of Butler , Chassagne , Deu , multi @-@ instrumentalist Tim Kyle ( later of Wild Light ) , bassist Alan Lavian ( later of Les Angles Morts , Crystal Clyffs , and AIDS Wolf ) , guitarist / drummer Dane Mills ( later of Crackpot ) , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Brendan Reed ( later of Les Angles Morts and founding member of Clues ) , who lived with Butler and Chassagne in Montreal 's Mile End neighbourhood at the time and was a collaborator with them on song @-@ writing and arrangement ( 2001 – 2003 ) .
The initial Montreal structure of the band began to dissolve in the summer of 2002 , when they travelled to Butler 's family farm on Mount Desert Island , Maine to record their self @-@ titled EP . Tension between Butler and bassist Myles Broscoe led the latter to exit the band following the recording session . Richard Reed Parry , who had been enlisted to help the band record , began to collaborate with them during the sessions and would go on to join the band shortly afterwards . Around the same time , Joshua Deu left the band to continue his studies ; he continued to collaborate on the visual aspects of the band . In the winter of 2003 , the band celebrated the release of its EP with a show at Montreal 's Casa del Popolo . Before a crowd packed beyond capacity , the band 's set ended ( in the middle of an encore ) with an argument between Butler and Reed , who quit the band on @-@ stage . Mills told gathered friends in the crowd immediately thereafter that he considered the band to have broken up , as such resigning from the band as well . Following the on @-@ stage implosion , Butler 's brother William Butler ( subject of the early Arcade Fire song " William Pierce Butler " ) and Tim Kingsbury were brought in to replace Reed and Mills so that the band could continue , and they set out to promote the self @-@ titled EP . The eponymous release ( often referred to by fans as the Us Kids Know EP ) was sold at early shows . After the band achieved fame , the EP was subsequently remastered and given a full release .
The promise shown by the new band in its early live shows allowed them to land a record contract with the independent record label , Merge Records , before the end of its first year together .
When asked about the rumour that the band 's name refers to a fire in an arcade , Win Butler replied : " It 's not a rumour , it 's based on a story that someone told me . It 's not an actual event , but one that I took to be real . I would say that it 's probably something that the kid made up , but at the time I believed him . "
= = = 2004 – 06 : Funeral = = =
Funeral was released in September 2004 in Canada and February 2005 in Great Britain . The title of the debut album referred to the deaths of several relatives of band members ( prominently the Butlers ' grandfather , composer / arranger Alvino Rey ) during its recording . These events created a somber atmosphere that influenced songs such as " Une année sans lumière " ( " A Year Without Light " ) , " In the Backseat " , and " Haïti " , Chassagne 's elegy to her homeland .
The album was critically and commercially acclaimed . It appeared on many top ten album lists for 2004 and 2005 ( due to delayed international releases ) , with Pitchfork , Filter , No Ripcord , and The MTV2 2005 Review crowning it the album of the year . NME named Funeral second in their list of 2005 's best albums . NME also named " Rebellion ( Lies ) " the second best track . By November 2005 , Funeral had gone gold in both Canada and the UK , and sold over half a million copies worldwide , a very large number for an independent release with minimal television or radio exposure . The album became Merge Records ' first in the Billboard 200 chart and the label 's biggest selling album to date , surpassing Neutral Milk Hotel 's In the Aeroplane Over the Sea .
The band booked small clubs for their 2004 tour , but growing interest forced many venue changes , far beyond the band 's expectations , and the tour continued into mid @-@ 2005 throughout the United States , Canada , Europe , the SummerSonic Festival in Japan , and the Hillside Festival in Guelph . Taking much of the summer of 2005 off , the band made key festival appearances at the Halifax Pop Explosion , Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , the Sasquatch ! Music Festival , Lollapalooza , Vegoose Festival , Reading and Leeds Festival in the UK , Electric Picnic in Ireland and the Lowlands Festival in the Netherlands .
Arcade Fire was featured on the April 4 , 2005 cover of Time 's Canadian edition . On May 1 , 2005 , the band performed at the Coachella Valley Music & Arts Festival . In May 2005 , the band signed a short @-@ term publishing contract with EMI for Funeral , and in June the band released a new single , " Cold Wind " , on Six Feet Under , Vol . 2 : Everything Ends . The BBC used the track " Wake Up " on an advertisement for their autumn 2005 season , and the tracks " Rebellion ( Lies ) " and " Neighborhood No. 1 ( Tunnels ) " ( See Neighborhood 1 ( Tunnels ) ) on adverts in January 2006 . On September 9 , 2005 , the band appeared on the British / US television special " Fashion Rocks " , on which David Bowie joined them for " Wake Up " . This recording , as well as recordings of the band 's collaboration on Bowie 's " Life on Mars " and " Five Years , " were made available on the iTunes Music Store in a virtual live EP . The same trip to New York City took them to the Late Show with David Letterman and a concert in Central Park . The Central Park show featured a surprise appearance by Bowie . On September 11 , 2005 , Arcade Fire appeared on the long @-@ running BBC music series Top of the Pops , performing " Rebellion ( Lies ) " . The band also performed to a TV audience in Paris for Canal + , and the show was later screened on the British television 's Channel 4 . The band scored two number one songs on MTV2 ( UK ) NME Chart Show , with " Neighborhood No. 3 ( Power Out ) " and a three @-@ week run with " Wake Up " . This success followed Rough Trade Records 's last @-@ minute decision to release " Wake Up " only on 7 " vinyl .
" Wake Up " was played immediately before the Irish rock group U2 started their concerts on their 2005 – 06 Vertigo Tour ; Arcade Fire subsequently opened three shows for that tour , and at the third in Montreal , Canada , appeared on stage during U2 's encore to join in a cover of Joy Division 's " Love Will Tear Us Apart " . Additionally , The Dan Patrick Show , a daily national sports talk show in the US , plays the song as a lead @-@ out every Friday to signify the end of their show . The song was also heard numerous times during the Super Bowl telecast on February 5 , 2010 .
Funeral and the single " Cold Wind " were nominated for Grammys in the Best Alternative Rock Album and Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media categories ( Six Feet Under , Vol . 2 : Everything Ends ) , respectively . On April 2 , 2006 , in Halifax , Nova Scotia , Arcade Fire received the Juno Award for Songwriters Of The Year for three songs from Funeral : " Wake Up " , " Rebellion ( Lies ) " , and " Neighborhood No. 3 ( Power Out ) " . The band was nominated for three BRIT Awards : Best International Group , Best International Album , and Best International Breakthrough Act .
Arcade Fire made an appearance on the BBC show Later with Jools Holland on May 12 , 2005 , performing " Power Out " and " Rebellion ( Lies ) " . On December 27 , 2005 , Funeral was ranked No. 1 on MTV2 's " 50 Greatest Albums of the Year " in the United Kingdom . On October 22 , 2007 , Funeral was ranked No. 8 in Bob Mersereau 's book The Top 100 Canadian Albums . In late 2009 , Pitchfork Media ranked the album No. 2 in their list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s , behind Radiohead 's Kid A.
= = = 2006 – 10 : Neon Bible = = =
During the downtime between Funeral and the beginning of recording sessions for Neon Bible , the band purchased a defunct church in the small Quebec town of Farnham , approximately 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) southeast of Montreal , and spent the early part of 2006 converting it into a recording studio .
The first track officially released from Neon Bible was " Intervention " in December 2006 on iTunes . Proceeds from this release were dedicated to Partners in Health . An error resulted in a second song , " Black Wave / Bad Vibrations " , appearing on iTunes for a short time . The album was leaked to peer @-@ to @-@ peer networks on January 26 , 2007 , and was officially released March 5 , 2007 in the UK and March 6 in North America . Neon Bible premiered at number 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart and the Irish Album Charts , and number 2 on the US Billboard Top 200 charts and the UK Top 40 Album Chart for the week of March 12 , 2007 . The album was also number 1 on the Rock and Indie album charts . The first proper single , " Black Mirror " , reached the No. 1 spot on CBC Radio 3 's R3 @-@ 30 chart for five consecutive weeks , from March 22 to April 19 , 2007 , and was the first single by any band ever to spend more than two weeks atop the chart . The album gained much critical acclaim ( even being mooted as a strong contender for album of the year ) , and because of its success saw the band proclaimed the most exciting act on the earth by British music magazine Q. Paste voted it one of the five best albums of 2007 . Trouser Press writer Jason Reeher ranked Neon Bible " among the best indie rock recordings of all time . "
Arcade Fire made their first appearance on Saturday Night Live on February 24 , 2007 ( Episode 618 ) , performing " Intervention " and " Keep the Car Running " . Owen Pallett was not present as he was recording for his solo project . During the performance , one of Win Butler 's guitar strings broke , prompting him to rip the strings from his acoustic guitar and smash it on the floor until it shattered . On this guitar , " sak vide pa kanpe " was written in duct tape across the front . A Haitian proverb meaning " An empty sack cannot stand up " in Creole , this may have been a reference to the extreme poverty of Haiti , the country of origin of Régine Chassagne .
On July 10 , 2007 , Neon Bible was named to the shortlist for the 2007 Polaris Music Prize . Patrick Watson was announced as the winner at a gala ceremony on September 24 , 2007 . However , due to the band 's preference not to participate in compilation albums , they were the only nominee not to have a track on the Polaris promotional compilation 2007 Polaris Music Prize . Some media initially reported that the Polaris committee had snubbed the band by excluding them , leading the band and the committee to issue a joint press release confirming that the band chose not to have a track included on the album .
The Neon Bible tour continued into September 2007 with 25 + dates scheduled in North America and Europe through mid @-@ November . In Paris the band did a Take @-@ Away Show video session shot by Vincent Moon . The band toured Australia and New Zealand for the first time in early 2008 as part of the 2008 Big Day Out festival . On October 14 , 2007 , Win Butler and Régine Chassagne made a surprise guest appearance at a Bruce Springsteen show in Ottawa , playing " State Trooper " and " Keep the Car Running " . The band committed to give Partners in Health $ 1 @.@ 00 , £ 1 @.@ 00 , or € 1 @.@ 00 of every ticket sold on its 2008 European and North American tours .
Arcade Fire further helped PIH , when it recorded " Lenin " on Red Hot Organization 's latest album , Dark Was the Night . Sales from DWTN generated over $ 850 @,@ 000 in money donated to AIDS related charities — $ 300 @,@ 000 of which was given to PIH on Arcade Fire 's behalf .
In February 2008 , Win Butler announced on the band 's journal that the Neon Bible tour had come to an end , after one year of touring and a total of 122 shows ( including 33 festivals ) in 75 cities and 19 countries .
Win Butler has been a vocal supporter of Barack Obama since the end of the New Hampshire Primary . Arcade Fire performed two free concerts for Obama in Cleveland and Nelsonville , Ohio on March 2 , 2008 and March 3 , 2008 before the state 's March 4 primary . The band , with Superchunk , performed another two free concerts for Obama on May 1 in Greensboro , North Carolina , and on May 2 in Carrboro , North Carolina before the state 's May 6 primary . On January 21 , 2009 , Arcade Fire and Jay @-@ Z were the musical guests at the Obama Campaign Staff Ball at the DC Armory , at Obama 's request . Butler thanked President Obama for his stated intent to close the prison at Guantanamo Bay , and repeatedly thanked the Obama staffers for their work during the election .
The band was rumoured to be working with producer Markus Dravs on the soundtrack for the Richard Kelly film The Box . Win Butler denied the claims , but stated that he and Owen Pallett " may do an instrumental piece or two " for the film .
In December 2008 , Pitchfork reported the band set up the website miroir @-@ noir.com to foreshadow the release of a concert film with the same title , reporting , " Miroir Noir will feature live footage from the Neon Bible tour . " The upcoming film was directed by Vincent Morisset . It was made available to pre @-@ order on December 15 , 2008 with the digital version available to download immediately , and the DVD shipping March 31 , 2009 .
A re @-@ recorded version of the band 's song " Wake Up " from their 2004 debut album , Funeral , has been used for the trailer of the Spike Jonze film Where the Wild Things Are , which was released on October 2009 . The song " Wake Up " has also become popular on sports radio talk shows in the US In 2009 , two nationally syndicated shows — The Dan Patrick Show and The Petros and Money Show — frequently used the song as " bumper " music . The National Football League featured this recording in commercials throughout the broadcast of the 2010 Super Bowl . The band donated the proceeds from licensing the song to the NFL to the charity Partners In Health .
= = = 2010 – 12 : The Suburbs = = =
On May 27 , 2010 it was announced that a new double @-@ sided 12 " single would be released the same day , with the full album , called The Suburbs , to be released on August 2 in the UK and on August 3 in the US and Canada thanks to Merge Records . The album is produced by Markus Dravs , who worked on previous album , 2007 's Neon Bible and was engineered by Marcus Paquin , who has also previously worked with the band . A track @-@ by @-@ track review ahead of The Suburbs release by The Quietus website said , " The progression is similar to the one William Blake takes us through in Songs of Innocence and of Experience that suggests forward momentum and maturity . " The album was released with eight different covers .
The first show announced was Oxegen 2010 which took place in Ireland in July . The band announced that they would play songs from the new album in their headline performance at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2010 , with Win Butler noting " We 're really looking forward to playing the new songs live ... [ it 's ] like an inventor emerging from his basement after a year 's work . "
In July 2010 , Arcade Fire announced they would be broadcasting their August 5 concert at Madison Square Garden live via YouTube . They later announced the video would be directed by Terry Gilliam . The Suburbs was released worldwide at the start of August 2010 to extensive critical acclaim comparable to Funeral and Neon Bible . During the 2010 tour Arcade Fire gave a tribute to Jay Reatard performing the cover of " Oh , It 's Such a Shame . " Win Butler confessed to Zane Lowe that the band wanted Jay Reatard to support the band on this tour , but he died . The Suburbs went on to debut at number one in the US ( on the Billboard 200 ) , selling 156 @,@ 000 units in its first week . It was also number one in the UK and Canada .
In August 2010 , Arcade Fire and Google released an interactive music video , written and directed by Chris Milk and produced by B @-@ Reel , which allows the viewer to enter the address where they grew up and the video is then " geopersonalised " . This video utilizes the band 's song " We Used to Wait " from The Suburbs , and showcases capabilities of HTML5 and Google 's Chrome browser . On November 13 , 2010 , Arcade Fire made their second appearance on Saturday Night Live , performing " We Used to Wait " and " Sprawl II ( Mountains Beyond Mountains ) " .
In a nod to the Butlers ' maternal grandfather , Alvino Rey , who was an amateur radio operator , the logo used by the band from this time was a variation of that used by the American Radio Relay League . Also , when playing the single " We Used to Wait " live , the background video screen features a radio exchange between Rey and a Canadian operator having Call Sign VE3YV . The video also features many other amateur radio artifacts .
Arcade Fire performed at the 53rd Grammy Awards in February 2011 . The band was nominated for Grammy Awards in three categories : Album of the Year , Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , and Best Alternative Music Album ( for The Suburbs ) . Out of the three nominations , they won the award for Album of the Year .
At the 2011 BRIT Awards , The Suburbs won Best International Album , and Arcade Fire won the Award for Best International Group .
In March 2011 , Arcade Fire was honoured at the Juno Awards of 2011 . They won Group of the Year and Songwriter of the Year for " Ready to Start " , " Sprawl II ( Mountains Beyond Mountains ) " , and " We Used to Wait " , all off The Suburbs . The Suburbs also won Album of the Year and Alternative Album of the Year .
On April 19 , 2011 it was announced that Arcade Fire will release a deluxe edition of their album The Suburbs featuring the short film Scenes from the Suburbs , by director Spike Jonze , as well as two new tracks , " Culture War " and " Speaking in Tongues " featuring David Byrne . Scenes from the Suburbs , which debuted at the Berlin International Film Festival 2011 , has a running time of 30 minutes . The film screened at the SXSW Film Festival 2011 and saw its online premiere on MUBI on June 27 , 2011 . Writing for the Canadian Press , Nick Patch called the film " a sci @-@ fi puzzler that seems to blend the paranoia of Terry Gilliam films with the nostalgia of classic Steven Spielberg flicks . "
On June 16 , the album was named as a longlisted nominee ( one of 40 ) for the 2011 Polaris Music Prize . On July 6 , the album was named as a shortlisted ( one of 10 ) nominee for the 2011 award . On September 20 , 2011 , they were awarded the Polaris Prize .
On May 19 , 2012 Arcade Fire ( minus members Will and Tim ) made their third appearance on Saturday Night Live , playing as a backup band for musical guest and host Mick Jagger . The band played " The Last Time " with Jagger , and participated in Kristen Wiig 's farewell skit , playing " She 's a Rainbow " into " Ruby Tuesday " . The band wore carrés rouges ( red squares ) to show support for the 2012 Quebec student protests .
Arcade Fire recorded a song for The Hunger Games soundtrack ( The Hunger Games : Songs from District 12 and Beyond ) , called " Abraham 's Daughter " . The song is featured in the movie 's end credits . The soundtrack was released on March 20 , 2012 , debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 . It sold more than 175 @,@ 000 copies in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan . It 's the first theatrical film soundtrack to top the chart since Michael Jackson 's " This Is It " debuted at No. 1 on the list . It is also only the 16th soundtrack to debut at No. 1 in the history of the Billboard 200 chart ( those soundtracks include film , television , and straight @-@ to @-@ video efforts ) .
Arcade Fire also contributed to the movie 's original score , The Hunger Games : Original Motion Picture Score . The group composed the grand , fascistic @-@ inspired , ominous Panem national anthem , entitled " Horn of Plenty " , an important and signature leitmotif appearing throughout the film . “ We were interested in making music that would be more integral in the movie , just as a mental exercise , ” Butler , who co @-@ wrote the song with Chassagne , explained . “ And there ’ s an anthem that runs throughout the books , the national anthem of the fascist Capitol . So as a thought experiment , we tried to write what that might sound like . It ’ s like the Capitol ’ s idea of itself , basically . ” He further added that " it 's not a pop song or anything . More of an anthem that could be playing at a big sporting event like the [ Hunger ] Games . So we did a structure for that , and then James Newton Howard made a movie @-@ score version of it that happens in several places in the film . ” Arcade Fire 's Panem national anthem has received strong reviews . According to Spin Mobile , " ' Horn of Plenty ' sounds both exactly like Arcade Fire and exactly like a futuristic anthem . "
= = = 2013 – present : Reflektor and Her Soundtrack = = =
Arcade Fire and Mercury Records confirmed that they would release a fourth album in late 2013 . In December 2012 , the band 's manager Scott Rodger confirmed that Arcade Fire was in the studio working with regular producer of the band Markus Dravs and James Murphy , frontman of LCD Soundsystem . The official Arcade Fire pre @-@ order website sets the release date on October 28 , 2013 . The band announced on January 18 , 2013 that they were selling the church they had been using as a studio due to a collapsed roof . Throughout 2013 , the band worked on the album in several different recording studios - including Murphy 's DFA Records studio in New York . On June 22 , 2013 , Rolling Stone reported that new material from the album would be released on September 9 , 2013 .
On July 12 , the band announced via a reply on Twitter that their new album will be released on October 29 .
Arcade Fire 's 2013 tour generated controversy in some smaller clubs . The band made a mandatory dress code of " formal dress or costume " for a few locations , with negative reactions from fans .
Arcade Fire members William Butler and Owen Pallett received an Oscar nomination for Best Original score for Spike Jonze 's 2013 science @-@ fiction romance film Her . Speculation emerged in August that the album would be named Reflektor after images began circulating of street art using the name . These images were collected on an Instagram account and later uploads noted the date of September 9 and time of 9 P.M. Arcade Fire confirmed their connection to the campaign with a billboard put up in New York City on August 26 , 2013 . A week later , the band released a 15 @-@ second music clip on Spotify titled " 9pm 9 / 9 " under the album name Reflektor .
English rock musician David Bowie contributed to backing vocals on the title song , " Reflektor " after praising the song 's quality in fall 2013 .
Arcade Fire have recorded a version of the 1980 hit single " Games Without Frontiers " for the Peter Gabriel tribute album And I 'll Scratch Yours , which was released in September 2013 .
Arcade Fire were the musical guest on the 39th season premiere of Saturday Night Live on September 28 , 2013 . The episode drew six million viewers . They also appeared in a half hour special on NBC , Arcade Fire in Here Comes the Night Time , that aired immediately after SNL . The special featured cameo appearances by Ben Stiller , Bono , Bill Hader , Zach Galifianakis , Rainn Wilson , Aziz Ansari , Eric Wareheim , and Michael Cera . The concert footage was filmed at the band 's surprise September 9 appearance at Montreal 's Club Salsathèque .
Arcade Fire performed live at the YouTube Music Awards on November 3 , 2013 . The performance featured an experimental " live video " directed by Her writer and director Spike Jonze , and actress Greta Gerwig . The band was nominated for a Satellite Award for Best Original Score for Her . They were also nominated for a Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Music Score . The band headlined the 2014 Glastonbury Festival on June 27 .
At the 2014 Juno Awards , Reflektor won Album of the Year and Alternative Album of the Year . The album was also a shortlisted nominee for the 2014 Polaris Music Prize .
A documentary film called The Reflektor Tapes , about the making of the album , was released on September 24 , 2015 and was shown at the 2015 Toronto Film Festival . The following day , a deluxe edition of the album containing original recordings and five unreleased songs was released . The documentary was directed by Kahlil Joseph , winner of the 2013 Sundance Grand Jury Prize for Short Films .
On May 25 , 2016 Win Butler and Régine Chassagne performed a surprise set outside the Louvre which included a new song . The pair were invited by the french street artist JR to DJ at the launch of his new exhibition titled JR Au Louvre , but set up set up drums and keyboards in the Tuleries gardens . The band covered David Bowie 's Oh ! You Pretty Things and Nothing Compares 2 U by Sinéad O 'Connor . On June 17 , Butler hosted a Reddit AMA , where he answered fan questions about the next Arcade Fire album . He stated that the new record maybe released in spring 2017 and that the band had ' no definite schedule though . It 'll be done when it 's done . ' On July 5 , the band played their first complete full @-@ band concert in two years in Barcelona , Spain as a warm up for their upcoming summer festival dates in Canada , Portugal , Spain and USA .
On July 19 , Tim Kingsbury told the CBC that the band 's upcoming fifth album will be out in 2017 .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Funeral ( 2004 )
Neon Bible ( 2007 )
The Suburbs ( 2010 )
Reflektor ( 2013 )
= = Tours = =
Funeral Tour ( 2003 – 2005 )
Neon Bible Tour ( 2007 – 2008 )
The Suburbs Tour ( 2010 – 2011 )
Reflektor Tour ( 2013 – 2014 )
2016 Tour ( 2016 )
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= Outer Hebrides =
The Outer Hebrides , also known as the Western Isles ( Scottish Gaelic : Na h @-@ Eileanan Siar [ nə ˈhelanən ˈʃiəɾ ] or Na h @-@ Eileanan an Iar [ nəˈhelanən əˈɲiəɾ ] ) , Innse Gall ( " islands of the strangers " ) or the Long Isle or Long Island ( Gaelic : An t @-@ Eilean Fada ) , is an island chain off the west coast of mainland Scotland . The islands are geographically coextensive with Comhairle nan Eilean Siar , one of the 32 unitary council areas of Scotland . They form part of the Hebrides , separated from the Scottish mainland and from the Inner Hebrides by the waters of the Minch , the Little Minch and the Sea of the Hebrides . Scottish Gaelic is the predominant spoken language , although in a few areas English speakers form a majority .
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed from ancient metamorphic rocks and the climate is mild and oceanic . The 15 inhabited islands have a total population of 27 @,@ 400 and there are more than 50 substantial uninhabited islands . From Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis is roughly 210 kilometres ( 130 mi ) .
There are various important prehistoric structures , many of which pre @-@ date the first written references to the islands by Roman and Greek authors . The Western Isles became part of the Norse kingdom of the Suðreyjar , which lasted for over 400 years until sovereignty was transferred to Scotland by the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . Control of the islands was then held by clan chiefs , principal of whom were the MacLeods , MacDonalds , Mackenzies and MacNeils . The Highland Clearances of the 19th century had a devastating effect on many communities and it is only in recent years that population levels have ceased to decline . Much of the land is now under local control and commercial activity is based on tourism , crofting , fishing , and weaving .
Sea transport is crucial and a variety of ferry services operate between the islands and to mainland Scotland . Modern navigation systems now minimise the dangers but in the past the stormy seas have claimed many ships . Religion , music and sport are important aspects of local culture , and there are numerous designated conservation areas to protect the natural environment .
= = Geography = =
The main islands form an archipelago of which the major islands include Lewis and Harris , North Uist , Benbecula , South Uist , and Barra . Lewis and Harris has an area of 217 @,@ 898 hectares ( 841 sq mi ) and is the largest island in Scotland and the third largest in the British Isles , after Great Britain and Ireland . It incorporates Lewis in the north and Harris in the south , both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands , although they are joined by a land border . The island does not have a common name in either English or Gaelic and is referred to as " Lewis and Harris " , " Lewis with Harris " , " Harris with Lewis " etc .
The largest islands are deeply indented by arms of the sea such as Loch Ròg , Loch Seaforth and Loch nam Madadh . There are also more than 7 @,@ 500 freshwater lochs in the Outer Hebrides , about 24 % of the total for the whole of Scotland . North and South Uist and Lewis in particular have landscapes with a high percentage of freshwater and a maze and complexity of loch shapes . Harris has fewer large bodies of water but innumerable small lochans . Loch Langavat on Lewis is 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) long , and has several large islands in its midst , including Eilean Mòr . Although Loch Suaineabhal has only 25 % of the Langavat 's surface area it has a mean depth of 33 metres ( 108 ft ) and is the most voluminous on the island . Of Loch Sgadabhagh on North Uist it has been said that " there is probably no other loch in Britain which approaches Loch Scadavay in irregularity and complexity of outline . " Loch Bì is South Uist 's largest loch and at 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) long it all but cuts the island in two .
Much of the western coastline of the islands is machair , a fertile low @-@ lying dune pastureland . Lewis is comparatively flat , and largely consists of treeless moors of blanket peat . The highest eminence is Mealisval at 574 m ( 1 @,@ 883 ft ) in the south west . Most of Harris is mountainous , with large areas of exposed rock and Clisham , the archipelago 's only Corbett , reaches 799 m ( 2 @,@ 621 ft ) in height . North and South Uist and Benbecula , ( sometimes collectively referred to as The Uists ) have sandy beaches and wide cultivated areas of machair to the west and virtually uninhabited mountainous areas to the east . The highest peak here is Beinn Mhòr at 620 metres ( 2 @,@ 034 ft ) . The Uists and their immediate outliers have a combined area of 74 @,@ 540 hectares ( 288 sq mi ) . This includes the Uists themselves and the islands that link to them by causeways and bridges . Barra is 5 @,@ 875 hectares ( 23 sq mi ) in extent and has a rugged interior , surrounded by machair and extensive beaches .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Much of the archipelago is a protected habitat including both the islands and the surrounding waters . There are 53 Sites of Special Scientific Interest of which the largest are Loch an Duin , North Uist at 15 @,@ 100 hectares ( 37 @,@ 000 acres ) and North Harris , which is 12 @,@ 700 hectares ( 31 @,@ 000 acres ) in extent .
Loch Druidibeg on South Uist is a national nature reserve owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage . The reserve covers 1 @,@ 677 hectares across the whole range of local habitats . Over 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the reserve , some of which are nationally scarce . South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant Slender Naiad , which is a European Protected Species .
There has been considerable controversy over hedgehogs on the Uists . The animals are not native to the islands , having been introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests and their spread posed a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds . In 2003 Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although they were halted in 2007 , with trapped animals now being relocated to the mainland .
Nationally important populations of breeding waders are present in the Outer Hebrides including common redshank , dunlin , lapwing and ringed plover . The islands also provide a habitat for other important species such as corncrake , hen harrier , golden eagle and otter . Offshore , basking shark and various species of whale and dolphin can be seen regularly , and the remoter islands ' seabird populations are of international significance . St Kilda has 60 @,@ 000 northern gannets , amounting to 24 % of the world population , 49 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of Leach 's petrel , up to 90 % of the European population and 136 @,@ 000 pairs of puffin and 67 @,@ 000 northern fulmar pairs , about 30 % and 13 % of the respective UK totals . Mingulay is an important breeding ground for razorbills , with 9 @,@ 514 pairs , 6 @.@ 3 % of the European population .
The bumblebee Bombus jonellus var. hebridensis is endemic to the Hebrides and there are local variants of the dark green fritillary and green @-@ veined white butterflies . The St Kilda wren is a subspecies of wren whose range is confined to the islands whose name it bears .
= = Population = =
The inhabited islands had a total population of 26 @,@ 502 at the time of the 2001 census and the 2011 figure was 27 @,@ 684 . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 . The largest settlement in the Outer Hebrides is Stornoway on Lewis , which has a population of about 8 @,@ 100 .
In addition to the major North Ford ( Oitir Mhòr ) and South Ford causeways that connect North Uist to Benbecula via the northern of the Grimsay 's , and Benbecula to South Uist , several other islands are linked by smaller causeways or bridges . Great Bernera and Scalpay have bridge connections to Lewis and Harris respectively , with causeways linking Baleshare and Berneray to North Uist , Eriskay to South Uist , Flodaigh , Fraoch @-@ eilean and the southern Grimsay to Benbecula , and Vatersay to Barra . This means that all the inhabited islands are now connected to at least one other island by a land transport route .
= = = Uninhabited islands = = =
There are more than fifty uninhabited islands greater in size than 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) in the Outer Hebrides , including the Barra Isles , Flannan Isles , Monach Islands , the Shiant Isles and the islands of Loch Ròg . In common with the other main island chains of Scotland , many of the more remote islands were abandoned during the 19th and 20th centuries , in some cases after continuous habitation since the prehistoric period . More than 35 such islands have been identified in the Outer Hebrides alone . On Barra Head , for example , Historic Scotland have identified eighty @-@ three archaeological sites on the island , the majority being of a pre @-@ medieval date . In the 18th century the population was over fifty , but the last native islanders had left by 1931 . The island became completely uninhabited by 1980 with the automation of the lighthouse .
Some of the smaller islands continue to contribute to modern culture . The " Mingulay Boat Song " , although evocative of island life , was written after the abandonment of the island in 1938 and Taransay hosted the BBC television series Castaway 2000 . Others have played a part in Scottish history . On 4 May 1746 , the " Young Pretender " Charles Edward Stuart hid on Eilean Liubhaird with some of his men for four days whilst Royal Navy vessels patrolled the Minch .
Smaller isles and skerries and other island groups pepper the North Atlantic surrounding the main islands . Some are not geologically part of the Outer Hebrides , but are administratively and in most cases culturally , part of Comhairle nan Eilean Siar . 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the west of Lewis lies St Kilda , now uninhabited except for a small military base . A similar distance to the north of Lewis are North Rona and Sula Sgeir , two small and remote islands . While Rona used to support a small population who grew grain and raised cattle , Sula Sgeir is an inhospitable rock . Thousands of northern gannets nest here , and by special arrangement some of their young , known as gugas are harvested annually by the men of Ness . The status of Rockall , which is 367 kilometres ( 228 mi ) to the west of North Uist and which the Island of Rockall Act 1972 decreed to be a part of the Western Isles , remains a matter of international dispute .
= = Geology = =
Most of the islands have a bedrock formed from Lewisian gneiss . These are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe , having been formed in the Precambrian period up to three billion years ago . In addition to the Outer Hebrides , they form basement deposits on the Scottish mainland west of the Moine Thrust and on the islands of Coll and Tiree . These rocks are largely igneous in origin , mixed with metamorphosed marble , quartzite and mica schist and intruded by later basaltic dykes and granite magma . The gneiss 's delicate pink colours are exposed throughout the islands and it is sometimes referred to by geologists as " The Old Boy " .
Granite intrusions are found in the parish of Barvas in west Lewis , and another forms the summit plateau of the mountain Roineabhal in Harris . The granite here is anorthosite , and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of the Moon . There are relatively small outcrops of Triassic sandstone at Broad Bay near Stornoway . The Shiant Isles and St Kilda are formed from much later tertiary basalt and basalt and gabbros respectively . The sandstone at Broad Bay was once thought to be Torridonian or Old Red Sandstone .
= = Climate = =
The Outer Hebrides have a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude , due to the influence of the North Atlantic Current . The average temperature for the year is 6 ° C ( 44 ° F ) in January and 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in summer . The average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 43 in ) and sunshine hours range from 1 @,@ 100 to 1 @,@ 200 per year . The summer days are relatively long and May to August is the driest period . Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes . According to the writer W. H. Murray if a visitor asks an islander for a weather forecast " he will not , like a mainlander answer dry , wet or sunny , but quote you a figure from the Beaufort Scale . " There are gales one day in six at the Butt of Lewis and small fish are blown onto the grass on top of 190 metre ( 620 ft ) high cliffs at Barra Head during winter storms .
= = Prehistory = =
The Hebrides were originally settled in the Mesolithic era and have a diversity of important prehistoric sites . Eilean Dòmhnuill in Loch Olabhat on North Uist was constructed circa 3200 – 2800 BC and may be Scotland 's earliest crannog ( a type of artificial island ) . The Callanish Stones dating from about 2900 BC are the finest example of a stone circle in Scotland , the 13 primary monoliths of between one and five metres high creating a circumference about 13 metres ( 43 ft ) in diameter . Cladh Hallan on South Uist , the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found and the impressive ruins of Dun Carloway broch on Lewis both date from the Iron Age .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest written references that have survived relating to the islands were made by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History , where he states that there are 30 " Hebudes " , and makes a separate reference to " Dumna " , which Watson ( 1926 ) concludes is unequivocally the Outer Hebrides . Writing about 80 years later , in 140 @-@ 150 AD , Ptolemy , drawing on the earlier naval expeditions of Agricola , also distinguished between the Ebudes , of which he writes there were only five ( and thus possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides ) and Dumna . Dumna is cognate with the Early Celtic dumnos and means the " deep @-@ sea isle " . Pliny probably took his information from Pytheas of Massilia who visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC . It is possible that Ptolemy did as well , as Agricola 's information about the west coast of Scotland was of poor quality . Breeze also suggests that Dumna might be Lewis and Harris , the largest island of the Outer Hebrides although he conflates this single island with the name " Long Island " . Watson ( 1926 ) states that the meaning of Ptolemy 's " Eboudai " is unknown and that the root may be pre @-@ Celtic . Murray ( 1966 ) claims that Ptolemy 's " Ebudae " was originally derived from the Old Norse Havbredey , meaning " isles on the edge of the sea " . This idea is often repeated but no firm evidence of this derivation has emerged .
Other early written references include the flight of the Nemed people from Ireland to " Domon " , which is mentioned in the 12th @-@ century Lebor Gabála Érenn and a 13th @-@ century poem concerning Raghnall mac Gofraidh , then the heir to the throne of Mann and the Isles , who is said to have " broken the gate of Magh Domhna " . Magh Domhna means " the plain of Domhna ( or Domon ) " , but the precise meaning of the text is not clear .
In Irish mythology the islands were the home of the Fomorians , described as " huge and ugly " and " ship men of the sea " . They were pirates , extracting tribute from the coasts of Ireland and one of their kings was Indech mac Dé Domnand ( i.e. Indech , son of the goddess Domnu , who ruled over the deep seas ) .
In modern Gaelic the islands are sometimes referred to collectively as An t @-@ Eilean Fada ( the Long Island ) or Na h @-@ Eileanan a @-@ Muigh ( the Outer Isles ) . Innse Gall ( islands of the foreigners or strangers ) is also heard occasionally , a name that was originally used by mainland Highlanders when the islands were ruled by the Norse .
The individual island and place names in the Outer Hebrides have mixed Gaelic and Norse origins . Various Gaelic terms are used repeatedly :
There are also several islands called Orasaigh from the Norse Örfirirsey meaning " tidal " or " ebb island " .
= = History = =
In Scotland , the Celtic Iron Age way of life , often troubled but never extinguished by Rome , re @-@ asserted itself when the legions abandoned any permanent occupation in 211 AD . Hanson ( 2003 ) writes : " For many years it has been almost axiomatic in studies of the period that the Roman conquest must have had some major medium or long @-@ term impact on Scotland . On present evidence that cannot be substantiated either in terms of environment , economy , or , indeed , society . The impact appears to have been very limited . The general picture remains one of broad continuity , not of disruption ... The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of brief interludes within a longer continuum of indigenous development . " The Romans ' direct impact on the Highlands and Islands was scant and there is no evidence that they ever actually landed in the Outer Hebrides .
The later Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish , although the historical record is sparse . Hunter ( 2000 ) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD : " As for Shetland , Orkney , Skye and the Western Isles , their inhabitants , most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time , are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence . " The island of Pabbay is the site of the Pabbay Stone , the only extant Pictish symbol stone in the Outer Hebrides . This 6th century stele shows a flower , V @-@ rod and lunar crescent to which has been added a later and somewhat crude cross .
= = = Norse control = = =
Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century AD and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades , especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872 . In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose was the dominant figure of the mid 9th century , by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders . These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown , although in practice the latter 's control was fairly limited . Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway . The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney , the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year , directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various islands petty kingdoms . By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control , although at a price . His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis " fire played high in the heaven " as " flame spouted from the houses " and that in the Uists " the king dyed his sword red in blood " . Thompson ( 1968 ) provides a more literal translation : " Fire played in the fig @-@ trees of Liodhus ; it mounted up to heaven . Far and wide the people were driven to flight . The fire gushed out of the houses " .
The Hebrides were now part of Kingdom of the Isles , whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway . The Kingdom had two parts : the Suðr @-@ eyjar or South Isles encompassing the Hebrides and the Isle of Man ; and the Norðr @-@ eyjar or North Isles of Orkney and Shetland . This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156 , at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled , the Norse @-@ Celtic kinsman of the Manx royal house .
Following the ill @-@ fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway , the Outer Hebrides along with the Isle of Man , were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth . Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and placenames , the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited . The best known find from this time is the Lewis chessmen , which date from the mid 12th century .
= = = Scots rule = = =
As the Norse era drew to a close the Norse @-@ speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic @-@ speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris , the MacDonalds of the Uists and MacNeil of Barra . This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles , based on Islay , were in theory these chiefs ' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control .
The growing threat that Clan Donald posed to the Scottish crown led to the forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493 , but although the king had the power to subdue the organised military might of the Hebrides , he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance . The House of Stuart 's attempts to control the Outer Hebrides were then at first desultory and little more than punitive expeditions . In 1506 the Earl of Huntly besieged and captured Stornoway Castle using cannon . In 1540 James V himself conducted a royal tour , forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him . There followed a period of peace , but all too soon the clans were at loggerheads again .
In 1598 King James VI authorised some " Gentleman Adventurers " from Fife to civilise the " most barbarous Isle of Lewis " . Initially successful , the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod , who based their forces on Bearasaigh in Loch Ròg . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful , and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony . By this time Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail , ( later the Earls of Seaforth ) , who pursued a more enlightened approach , investing in fishing in particular . The historian W. C. MacKenzie was moved to write :
At the end of the seventeenth century , the picture we have of Lewis that of a people pursuing their avocation in peace , but not in plenty . The Seaforths ... , besides establishing orderly Government in the island .. had done a great deal to rescue the people from the slough of ignorance and incivility in which they found themselves immersed . But in the sphere of economics their policy apparently was of little service to the community .
The Seaforth 's royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms by Cromwell 's troops , who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway and in 1645 Lewismen fought on the royalist side at the Battle of Auldearn . A new era of Hebridean involvement in the affairs of the wider world was about to commence .
= = = British era = = =
With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707 the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain , but the clan 's loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong . A considerable number of islandmen " came out " in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the " 15 " although the response to the 1745 rising was muted . Nonetheless the aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden , which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration , was widely felt . The British government 's strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English @-@ speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them . This may have brought peace to the islands , but in the following century it came at a terrible price .
The Highland Clearances of the 19th century destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms . For example , Colonel Gordon of Cluny , owner of Barra , South Uist and Benbecula evicted thousands of islanders using trickery and cruelty and even offered to sell Barra to the government as a penal colony . Islands such as Fuaigh Mòr were completely cleared of their populations and even today the subject is recalled with bitterness and resentment in some areas . The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands ' kelp industry , which thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic . For example , hundreds left North Uist for Cape Breton , Nova Scotia . The pre @-@ clearance population of the island had been almost 5 @,@ 000 , although by 1841 it had fallen to 3 @,@ 870 and was only 2 @,@ 349 by 1931 .
For those who remained new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle , commercial fishing and tourism . During the summer season in the 1860s and 1870s five thousand inhabitants of Lewis could be found in Wick on the mainland of Scotland , employed on the fishing boats and at the quaysides . Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago 's populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries . By 2001 the population of North Uist was only 1 @,@ 271 .
The work of the Napier Commission and the Congested Districts Board , and the passing of the Crofting Act of 1886 helped , but social unrest continued . In July 1906 grazing land on Vatersay was raided by landless men from Barra and its isles . Lady Gordon Cathcart took legal action against the " raiders " but the visiting judge took the view that she had neglected her duties as a landowner and that " long indifference to the necessities of the cottars had gone far to drive them to exasperation " . Millennia of continuous occupation notwithstanding , many of the remoter islands were abandoned - Mingulay in 1912 , Hirta in 1930 , and Ceann Iar in 1942 among them . This process involved a transition from these places being perceived as relatively self @-@ sufficient agricultural economies to a view becoming held by both island residents and outsiders alike that they lacked the essential services of a modern industrial economy .
There were gradual economic improvements , among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design . The creation of the Highlands and Islands Development Board and the discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965 , the establishment of a unitary local authority for the islands in 1975 and more recently the renewables sector have all contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades . The Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries . Comhairle nan Eilean Siar , the local authority , employs 2 @,@ 000 people , making it the largest employer in the Outer Hebrides . See also the " Innse Gall area plan 2010 " and the Comhairle 's " Factfile - Economy " .
= = Economy = =
Modern commercial activities centre on tourism , crofting , fishing , and weaving including the manufacture of Harris tweed . Some of the larger islands have development trusts that support the local economy and , in striking contrast to the 19th and 20th century domination by absentee landlords , more than two thirds of the Western Isles population now lives on community @-@ owned estates . However the economic position of the islands remains relatively precarious . The Western Isles , including Stornoway , are defined by Highlands and Islands Enterprise as an economically " Fragile Area " and they have an estimated trade deficit of some £ 163 @.@ 4 million . Overall , the area is relatively reliant on primary industries and the public sector , and fishing and fish farming in particular are vulnerable to environmental impacts , changing market pressures and European legislation .
There is some optimism about the possibility of future developments in for example , renewable energy generation , tourism , and education , and after declines in the 20th century the population has stabilised since 2003 , although it is ageing .
= = Politics and local government = =
From the passing of the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1889 to 1975 Lewis formed part of the county of Ross and Cromarty and the rest of the archipelago , including Harris , was part of Inverness @-@ shire .
The Outer Hebrides became a unitary council area in 1975 , although in most of the rest of Scotland similar unitary councils were not established until 1996 . Since then , the islands have formed one of the 32 unitary council areas that now cover the whole country , with the council officially known by its Gaelic name , Comhairle nan Eilean Siar under the terms of the Local Government ( Gaelic Names ) ( Scotland ) Act 1997 . The council has its base in Stornoway on Lewis and is often known locally simply as " the Comhairle " or a ' Chomhairle . The Comhairle is one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents . The other independent run Councils are Shetland and Orkney . Moray is run by a Conservative / Independent coalition .
The name for the British Parliament constituency covering this area is Na h @-@ Eileanan an Iar , the seat being held by Angus MacNeil MP since 2005 , while the Scottish Parliament constituency for the area is Na h @-@ Eileanan an Iar , the incumbent being Alasdair Allan MSP .
The Scottish independence referendum has led some islanders to call for a debate on the constitutional position of the Western Isles , linked with similar initiatives in Orkney and Shetland .
= = Gaelic language = =
The Outer Hebrides have historically been a very strong Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig ) speaking area . Both the 1901 and 1921 census reported that all parishes were over 75 % Gaelic speaking , including areas of high population density such as Stornoway . However , the Education ( Scotland ) Act 1872 led to generations of Gaels being forbidden to speak their native language in the classroom , and is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language . People still living can recall being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school . Nonetheless , by 1971 most areas were still more than 75 % Gaelic speaking – with the exception of Stornoway , Benbecula and South Uist at 50 @-@ 74 % .
In the 2001 census , each island overall was over 50 % Gaelic speaking – South Uist ( 71 % ) , Harris ( 69 % ) , Barra ( 68 % ) , North Uist ( 67 % ) , Lewis ( 56 % ) and Benbecula ( 56 % ) . With 59 @.@ 3 % of Gaelic speakers or a total of 15 @,@ 723 speakers , this made the Outer Hebrides the most strongly coherent Gaelic speaking area in Scotland .
Most areas were between 60 @-@ 74 % Gaelic speaking and the areas with the highest density of over 80 % are Scalpay near Harris , Newtonferry and Kildonan , whilst Daliburgh , Linshader , Eriskay , Brue , Boisdale , West Harris , Ardveenish , Soval , Ness , and Bragar all have more than 75 % . The areas with the lowest density of speakers are Stornoway ( 44 % ) , Braigh ( 41 % ) , Melbost ( 41 % ) , and Balivanich ( 37 % ) .
The Gaelic Language ( Scotland ) Act was enacted by the Scottish Parliament in 2005 to provide continuing support for the language . However , by 2011 the overall percentage of Gaelic speakers in the Outer Hebrides had fallen to 52 % .
= = Transport = =
Scheduled ferry services between the Outer Hebrides and the Scottish Mainland and Inner Hebrides operate on the following routes :
Oban to Castlebay on Barra and Lochboisdale on South Uist
Uig on Skye to Tarbert on Harris
Uig on Skye to Lochmaddy on North Uist
Ullapool to Stornoway on Lewis
Tiree to Castlebay , Barra ( summer only ) .
Other ferries operate between some of the islands .
National Rail services are available for onward journeys , from stations at Oban , which has direct services to Glasgow . However , parliamentary approval notwithstanding , plans in the 1890s to lay a railway connection to Ullapool were unable to obtain sufficient funding .
There are scheduled flights from Stornoway , Benbecula and Barra airports both inter @-@ island and to the mainland . Barra 's airport is the only one in the world to have scheduled flights landing on a beach . At high water the runways are under the sea so flight times vary with the tide .
Bus services are operated by Bus na Comhairle , based in Stornoway , and by numerous other operators , which run the bulk of services .
= = = Shipwrecks = = =
The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide , and lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at locations from Barra Head in the south to the Butt of Lewis in the north . There are numerous sites of wrecked ships , and the Flannan Isles are the location of an enduring mystery that occurred in December 1900 , when all three lighthouse keepers vanished without trace .
Annie Jane , a three @-@ masted immigrant ship out of Liverpool bound for Montreal , Canada , struck rocks off the West Beach of Vatersay during a storm on Tuesday 28 September 1853 . Within ten minutes the ship began to founder and break up casting 450 people into the raging sea . In spite of the conditions , islanders tried to rescue the passengers and crew . The remains of 350 men , women and children were buried in the dunes behind the beach and a small cairn and monument marks the site .
The tiny Beasts of Holm of the east coast of Lewis were the site of the sinking of HMS Iolaire during the first few hours of 1919 , one of the worst maritime disasters in United Kingdom waters during the 20th century . Calvay in the Sound of Barra provided the inspiration for Compton MacKenzie 's novel Whisky Galore after the SS Politician ran aground there with a cargo of single malt in 1941 .
= = Religion , culture and sport = =
Christianity has deep roots in the Western Isles , but owing mainly to the different allegiances of the clans in the past , the people in the northern islands ( Lewis , Harris , North Uist ) have historically been predominantly Presbyterian , and those of the southern islands ( Benbecula , South Uist , Barra ) predominantly Roman Catholic .
At the time of the 2001 Census , 42 % of the population identified themselves as being affiliated with the Church of Scotland , with 13 % Roman Catholic and 28 % with other Christian churches . Many of this last group belong to the Free Church of Scotland , known for its strict observance of the Sabbath . 11 % stated that they had no religion . This made the Western Isles the Scottish council area with the smallest percentage of atheists in the population . There are also small Episcopalian congregations in Lewis and Harris and the Outer Hebrides are part of the Diocese of Argyll and The Isles in both the Episcopalian and Catholic traditions .
Gaelic music is popular in the islands and the Lewis and Harris Traditional Music Society plays an active role in promoting the genre . Fèis Bharraigh began in 1981 with the aim of developing the practice and study of the Gaelic language , literature , music , drama and culture on the islands of Barra and Vatersay . A two @-@ week festival , it has inspired 43 other feisean throughout Scotland . The Lewis Pipe Band was founded in 1904 and the Lewis and Harris Piping Society in 1977 .
Outdoor activities including rugby , football , golf , shinty , fishing , riding , canoeing , athletics , and multi @-@ sports are popular in the Western Isles . The Hebridean Challenge is an adventure race run in five daily stages , which takes place along the length of the islands and includes hill and road running , road and mountain biking , short sea swims and demanding sea kayaking sections . There are four main sports centres : Ionad Spors Leodhais in Stornoway , which has a 25 m swimming pool ; Harris Sports Centre ; Lionacleit Sports Centre on Benbecula ; and Castlebay Sports Centre on Barra . The Western Isles is a member of the International Island Games Association .
South Uist is home to the Askernish Golf Course . The oldest links in the Outer Hebrides , it was designed by Old Tom Morris . Although it was in use until the 1930s , its existence was largely forgotten until 2005 and it is now being restored to Morris 's original design .
I Know Where I 'm Going ! is a 1945 British drama / romance film set mostly in the Outer Hebrides , depicting local lifestyles and speech .
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= Cheap at Half the Price =
Cheap at Half the Price is a 1983 solo album by English guitarist , composer and improviser Fred Frith . It was Frith 's fifth solo album , and was originally released in the United States on LP record on The Residents ' Ralph record label . It was the third of three solo albums Frith made for the label .
Cheap at Half the Price was recorded by Frith at his home in New York City on a 4 @-@ track machine . He played all the instruments himself , with the exception of bass guitar on two tracks , and drums , for which he used tapes and samples previously recorded by other drummers . The record differed from Frith 's previous experimental albums in that it consisted largely of pop @-@ like songs , and he sang for the first time .
The LP 's release in 1983 caused a stir in progressive circles because of its " apparent simplicity " and its departure from the experimental music Frith had become known for . But a remastered version of the album released on CD in 2004 was better received by critics , who admitted that they had overlooked what Frith had been doing at the time .
= = Background and recording = =
Cheap at Half the Price was the third of a series of three solo albums Frith made for The Residents 's record label Ralph Records , the first being Gravity ( 1980 ) , an avant @-@ garde " dance " record that drew on rhythm and dance from folk music across the world , and the second being Speechless ( 1981 ) , a mixture of folk music , free improvisation , avant @-@ rock and noise . He had recorded with The Residents in the late 1970s and early 1980s , and appeared on several of their albums . Both Gravity and Speechless were well received by critics .
Frith recorded Cheap at Half the Price at his home in New York City on a 4 @-@ track machine . Unlike his two previous albums for Ralph Records , where he used backing bands , on this album Frith played all the instruments himself , with the exception of bass guitar on two tracks , and drums . Bill Laswell from Frith 's band Massacre played bass on " Same Old Me " , and Tina Curran played bass on " Too Much , Too Little " . For the drumming Frith used samples that had been previously recorded of drummers he had worked with , namely Frank Wuyts of Aksak Maboul , Fred Maher from Massacre , Paul Sears of The Muffins , and Hans Bruniusson from Samla Mammas Manna .
= = Composition = =
Cheap at Half the Price differed from Frith 's previous experimental albums in that it featured a collection of short songs and instrumentals in a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek pop vein " . He also played a " cheap " Casio @-@ 101 on all the tracks and sang for the first time . AllMusic described Frith 's singing on the album as " strange [ ly ] high @-@ pitched " , and the songs as " pop @-@ like ditties " with a " simple and repetitive " structure . Leonardo Digital Reviews said most of the tracks had a " happy @-@ go @-@ lucky " feel to them .
The lyrics on Cheap at Half the Price are politically oriented , set during US President Ronald Reagan 's first term of office , with socialist commentaries on , amongst other things , dogs and insects . Despite Frith 's apparent departure from his previous progressive albums , some the tracks on this album have ties to his earlier work . " Some Clouds Do " has a similar " driving rhythm " to Paul Sears ' drumming on " What a Dilemma " on Gravity . " Absent Friends " , a traditional Swedish melody arranged by Frith , has the same " fun and dance " feel that occurs at the end of " Don 't Cry for Me " , also on Gravity . " Absent Friends " is also the only track on Cheap at Half the Price that departs from the album 's " pop vein " .
In contrast to the high @-@ pitched singing on most of the songs , " Same Old Me " , one of the few " dark " tracks on the album , is a " gloomily introspective " song featuring some " rough lyrics " that have been slowed to a drawl over " angry riffing " and " relentless bass and percussion " . Leonardo Digital Reviews said that this and many of the other songs on the album had a complex structure beneath the apparent " carefree and beaming surface " .
= = Reception and influence = =
Followers of Fred Frith 's music generally had trouble coming to terms with Cheap at Half the Price . To them Frith was " progressive , genre @-@ bending music 's last great hope " , and on this album he appeared to have abandoned this role . When the album was released on LP in 1983 , Recommended Records , founded and run by Chris Cutler ( Frith 's band @-@ mate from Henry Cow ) , elected not to stock it because Cutler felt it was not " terribly good " . Trouser Press said that the quality of the record suffered from the lo @-@ fi experiment of recording " at home on a 4 @-@ track " .
In 1985 Michael Bloom of The Boston Phoenix wrote that Cheap at Half the Price " will never get the hearing it deserves " . He said that Frith was trying to shake off this " progressive " mould he had been cast in , and believed that the songs on the album should be judged on their own merit and not as " rarefied art rock " . One 1984 reviewer found the album " a very enjoyable recording " , and stated that Frith 's music " is changing the way many musicians look at the sounds that they take so seriously " . The New Gibraltar Encyclopedia of Progressive Rock described Cheap at Half the Price as Frith 's response to punk , a low @-@ tech approach to performing songs . It called the album a " twisted pop " record , saying that it is " as uncompromising as everything else Frith recorded " . François Couture in a review of Frith 's 2002 album , Prints called Cheap at Half the Price " the best tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek take at the New Wave " .
Despite the criticism the LP received at the time of its release , the remastered CD issued 21 years later was generally well received . In the 2004 Recommended Records catalogue , Cutler wrote that the album had " raised eyebrows at the time ( from , as Fred calls them ' progressive music snobs ' — of which I guess I was one ) for its apparent simplicity and departure from what was then thought of as Fred Style . " René van Peer of Leonardo Digital Reviews admitted in 2005 that he was " one of those snobs " and wrote " I am astonished and embarrassed to find how little I grasped back then of what Frith had put into it . " Looking at Frith 's projects after Cheap at Half the Price made it clear that what he did on the album was not a departure from his musical experiments , as people saw it at the time , but rather a part of it . Van Peer said ( in retrospect ) that Cheap at Half the Price " bursts with inventiveness , and eradiates [ sic ] the irrepressible joy of playful creativity " .
Frith 's exploration of song forms on this album was later developed further with Tom Cora in Skeleton Crew , where Frith and Cora played " deceptively simple catchy songs " , often using melodies derived from Scandinavian and Eastern European traditional music . Songs from Cheap at Half the Price appeared in several of Frith 's later projects . Step Across the Border ( 1990 ) , a film on Frith , and its accompanying soundtrack , featured three such songs , " Same Old Me " , " Evolution " and " Too Much Too Little " . Keep the Dog , a 1989 – 1991 Fred Frith review band , played a number of arrangements of songs from this album , including " Walking Song " , " Some Clouds Do " and " Instant Party " .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks by Fred Frith , except where noted .
= = = Original 1983 release = = =
= = = 1991 CD release = = =
= = Personnel = =
Fred Frith – guitar , 6 @-@ string bass , Casio @-@ 101 , violin , xylophone , homemade instruments , voice
Frank Wuyts – drums
Fred Maher – drums
Paul Sears – drums
Hans Bruniusson – drum samples
Tina Curran – bass guitar ( " Too Much , Too Little " )
Bill Laswell – bass guitar ( " Same Old Me " )
Aksak Maboul – clapping ( " Absent Friends " )
Sheena Dupuis – voice ( " True Love " )
George Cartwright – alto saxophone ( " Person To Person " )
= = = Recording and production = = =
Recorded in August 1983 at Fred Frith 's home in New York City by Frith on a 4 @-@ track recorder , except for " True Love " ( recorded at Noise in New York City ) and " Person To Person " ( recorded at BC Studio in New York City ) .
Fred Frith – engineer , producer ( except " True Love " , " Person To Person " )
Kramer – engineer ( " True Love " )
Martin Bisi – engineer ( " Person To Person " )
Paul Zinman – digital mastering
Peter Bäder – album cover layout
Busag , Zürich – album cover lithography
Tina Curran – album cover photography
= = CD reissues = =
In 1991 East Side Digital and RecRec Music re @-@ issued Cheap at Half the Price on CD with two additional tracks by Frith : " True Love " , from The 20th Anniversary of the Summer of Love ( 1987 ) by various artists ; and " Person to Person " , from North America ( 1985 ) by Curlew . In 2004 Fred Records , Frith 's own record label and an imprint of Recommended Records , issued a remastered version on CD of the original Cheap at Half the Price LP with no extra tracks .
= = = Cited works = = =
Milkowski , Bill ( 1983 ) . " The Frith Factor : Exploration in Sound " . Down Beat ( Maher Publications ) 50 ( 1 ) : 22 – 25 , 61 .
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= Eir =
In Norse mythology , Eir ( Old Norse " help , mercy " ) is a goddess and / or valkyrie associated with medical skill . Eir is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in skaldic poetry , including a runic inscription from Bergen , Norway from around 1300 . Scholars have theorized about whether these three sources refer to the same figure , and debate whether Eir may have been originally a healing goddess and / or a valkyrie . In addition , Eir has been theorized as a form of the goddess Frigg and has been compared to the Greek goddess Hygieia .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Fjölsvinnsmál , the watchman Fjölsviðr presents a list of the maidens that attend the lady of the keep — Menglöð — that includes Eir , and states that they all sit on the hill Lyfjaberg ( Old Norse " hill of healing " or " healing mountain " ) . The exchange between the hero Svipdagr and Fjölsviðr mentioning Eir is as follows :
After the exchange , Svipdagr asks if these figures will give aid if blóts are made to them . Fjölsviðr responds that Svipdagr is correct :
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur . High lists Eir third , and says no more about her other than noting that " she is an extremely good physician . " In chapter 75 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál Eir appears within a list of valkyrie names , but Eir is not included in the list of ásynjur in the same chapter .
= = = Skaldic poetry and runic inscription = = =
In skaldic poetry , the name Eir is frequent in kennings for women . A sample construction is Eir aura ( " Eir of riches " ) , occurring in Gísla saga . The name is already used in this way by the 10th century poets Kormákr Ögmundarson and Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld . Similarly , the name Eir is used in a woman kenning in a runic inscription inscribed on a stick from Bergen , Norway around the year 1300 . The stick records a common mercantile transaction followed by a verse from a displeased scribe ( edits applied per the translator 's notes ) :
'Wise Var of wire [ " woman of filigree , " meaning " wise bejeweled woman " ] makes ( me ) sit unhappy .
Eir [ woman ] of mackerels ' ground [ likely gold ] takes often and much sleep from me.'
Mindy Macleod and Bernard Mees posit that the first line of the inscription essentially means " women make me miserable " or potentially " marriage makes me miserable , " whereas the second line means " women often take a lot of sleep from me . "
The name remained frequently used in woman kennings in rímur poetry .
= = Theories = =
Regarding the seemingly three different , seemingly conflicting , mentions of Eir , Andy Orchard says that the etymology of the name Eir may appear to fit the role of Eir as a goddess and servant of Menglöð best , but that one should consider that the valkyries also have the ability to waken the dead . John Lindow is skeptical of there having been a belief in Eir as a goddess , stating that " whether we should trust Snorri and imagine the existence of a goddess Eir is problematic " . Rudolf Simek says that Eir may originally have been simply a valkyrie rather than a goddess , and lists the servant of Menglöð by the same name as a separate figure .
Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that " virtually nothing " is known about Eir outside of her association with healing , and points out that she is " singled out as one of the Norns who shape the lives of children " . Davidson adds that " no satisfactory conclusions " have been drawn from her name , and considers all mentions of Eir as of the same figure . Davidson says that , in reference to Eir 's appearance among Menglöð 's maidens , that the names of these maidens " suggest that they are guardian spirits , and [ they are ] said to ' shelter and save ' those who make offerings of them . They could be akin to protective spirits of the house , guarding both men and women . " She additionally draws a link between these spirits and Lyfjaberg :
Lyfjaberg is where the goddess sits surrounded by her helpful spirits . Although healing by a goddess — or indeed by a god either — has left little mark on Norse myths as they have come down to us , there is no doubt that the healing power of goddesses was of enormous importance in daily life in the pre @-@ Christian period , as was that of many women saints in Christian times . The goddess who presided over childbirth was held to possess power over life and death , and was revered as a lifegiver , both in the family home and in the courts of kings , though she might also pass sentence of death .
Henry Adams Bellows proposes a relationship between Eir and the place name Lyfjaberg , which he translates as " hill of healing " . Bellows notes that manuscripts vary about the spelling of the place name , and that he , like others , has followed 19th @-@ century scholar Sophus Bugge 's choice . Bellows states that the stanza mentioning Lyfjaberg " implies that Mengloth is a goddess of healing , and hence , perhaps an hypostasis of Frigg , as already intimated by her name [ ... ] . In stanza 54 , Eir appears as one of Mengloth 's handmaidens , and Eir , according to Snorri ( Gylfaginning , 35 ) is herself the Norse Hygeia . Compare this stanza to stanza 32 . "
= = In popular culture = =
Eir is portrayed by Alice Krige in the 2013 Marvel Studios film Thor : The Dark World . She is re @-@ imagined as an Asgardian physician .
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= Esbjerg =
Esbjerg ( / ˈɛsbjɜːr / , / ˈɛsbjɜːrɡ / ; Danish : [ ˈɛsb ̥ jæɐ ̯ ˀ ] ; West Jutish dialect : [ ˈɛsbʲæa ̯ ] ) is a seaport town and seat of Esbjerg Municipality on the west coast of the Jutland peninsula in southwest Denmark . By road , it is 71 kilometres ( 44 mi ) west of Kolding and 164 kilometres ( 102 mi ) southwest of Aarhus . With an urban population of 71 @,@ 618 ( as of 1 January 2016 ) , it is the fifth @-@ largest city in Denmark , and the largest in west Jutland .
Before a decision was made to establish a harbour ( now the second largest in Denmark ) at Esbjerg in 1868 , the area consisted of only a few farms . Esbjerg developed quickly with the population rising to 13 @,@ 000 by 1901 and 70 @,@ 000 by 1970 . In addition to its fishing and shipping activities , it also became an important centre for agricultural exports . Over the years , many of the city 's visitors have arrived by ferry from Harwich , Essex , England , but this service closed in September 2014 having run since 1875 . The harbour facilities are being expanded to answer the needs of the wind @-@ turbine industry and container shipping traffic . Esbjerg is served by Esbjerg Airport with flights to Aberdeen , Scotland and Stavanger , Norway .
The town has several notable museums and entertainment venues , including Esbjerg Art Museum , Esbjerg Museum and the privately owned Fisheries and Maritime Museum . The Esbjerg Performing Arts Centre was completed in 1997 to designs by Jan and Jørn Utzon . When approached by sea , the Man Meets the Sea is one of the prominent monuments , consisting of four 9 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 27 feet ) white @-@ coloured men , overlooking Sædding Beach . The sculpture was designed by Svend Wiig Hansen and installed in 1995 . It hosts branches of the University of Southern Denmark and Aalborg University , Esbjerg is increasingly recognized for its university facilities and sporting activities . It is home to the Danish football club Esbjerg fB , who play their home matches at Blue Water Arena , and also has an ice hockey division called Esbjerg Elite Ishockey , which plays at the Granly Hockey Arena .
= = History and economy = =
Esbjerg 's oldest existing house , on the corner of Kongensgade , was built around 1660 . The town itself was not established until 1868 when it was built as a replacement for the harbour in Altona , which had previously been Denmark 's most important North Sea port but came under German control after the Second Schleswig War in 1864 . At the time , Esbjerg consisted of only a few farms . Developed under royal decree from 1868 until 1874 , the harbour was officially opened in 1874 , with rail connections to Varde and to Fredericia , an important hub on the east coast of Jutland . Initial planning of the town was conducted by chartered surveyor H. Wilkens in 1870 with streets laid out in the form of a rectangular grid . The market square ( Torvet ) was positioned at the centre , midway between the harbour and the railway station . From only 400 inhabitants at the beginning of the 1870s , the town and its population grew rapidly , with 1529 residents mentioned in 1880 , and 4 @,@ 211 in 1890 .
In 1893 , Esbjerg became a municipality in its own right ( initially known as Esbjerg Ladeplads ) , receiving the status and privileges of a market town in 1899 and incorporating the parish of Jerne ( east of the centre ) in 1945 . A number of institutions and facilities were soon established , including the courthouse and town hall ( 1891 ) , the gas and waterworks ( 1896 ) and the power plant ( 1907 ) . From the beginning of the 20th century , Esbjerg prospered not only as a fishing port but became one of the country 's major export centres . Established in 1895 by nine local dairies , the butter @-@ packaging factory , Dansk Andels Smørpakkeri , employed some 150 workers until 1920 , packing and dispatching butter for the London market . It was later extended to include egg marketing under the name Dansk Andels Ægeksport . Ultimately , it handled produce from 140 dairies spread across the whole of Jutland . After the Second World War , the town developed several agricultural industries , especially meat processing and packaging with a plant employing over 300 . The slaughterhouse and meat packaging facility , Esbjerg Andels @-@ Slagteri , established in 1887 , became Denmark 's sixth largest by 1962 . It later became part of Vestjyske Slagterier in 1986 , and in 2001 , it was acquired by Danish Crown .
Once Denmark 's principal fishing port , the Port of Esbjerg is still a driving force for the town 's economy . While it has a long history of ferry services to England , the town is by no means a tourist destination . Lonely Planet remarked that " nobody comes to Esbjerg for a holiday , in fact , as with many industrial ports , most visitors rush through as quickly as possible " . Esbjerg is the main town for Denmark 's oil and offshore activities , with companies like Maersk , Ramboll , Stimwell Services , ABB , Schlumberger , COWI and Atkins all having offshore @-@ related activities in the town . Halliburton has an office in Esbjerg . The port has served the Danish offshore industry since oil and gas were first extracted from the North Sea in the early 1970s . More recently , it has become a centre for shipping offshore wind turbines . In addition to handling 65 percent of all Danish wind turbines , which supply 3 gigawatts ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 hp ) of offshore wind power , components have been shipped to various British wind farms . In order to cope with enormous future increases in Danish offshore wind power , 12 companies , including DONG Energy and Bluewater Energy Services are already planning the establishment of a Green Offshore Centre in Esbjerg . In connection with this , in June 2013 , the port was significantly expanded with the opening of the Østhavn ( East Harbour ) , covering an area of 650 @,@ 000 m2 ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
Historically , in addition to its success as a fishing port , Esbjerg established its position as one of the country 's major export centres . Before World War II , there was a large butter factory , Dansk Andels Smørpakkeri , employing some 150 workers while after the war the town developed agricultural industries , especially for meat processing and packaging with a plant employing over 300 . Latterly owned by Danish Crown and employing 500 , the plant closed in May 2012 .
More recently , Esbjerg has grown into an important centre for education with campuses belonging to the University of Southern Denmark ( 1998 ) and Aalborg University ( 1995 ) . The town holds an annual music festival spanning two weekends ( nine days ) in mid @-@ August . It is focused around the central Torvet Square which hosts the main stage . The music includes everything from church concerts to opera and pop .
= = Geography = =
The town is situated on the southwestern coast of Denmark , and is a port on the North Sea . By road , it is 71 kilometres ( 44 mi ) west of Kolding , 164 kilometres ( 102 mi ) southwest of Aarhus , 298 kilometres ( 185 mi ) west of Copenhagen and 274 kilometres ( 170 mi ) southwest of Aalborg . By sea , it is situated roughly 380 miles ( 610 km ) northeast of Harwich , England . As a result of planned development , the older sections of the town look like a chessboard with long , wide streets with rectangular corners .
The high ground of Esbjerg stretches along the east coast of the Wadden Sea ( now a UNESCO World Heritage Site ) between the rivers of Varde and Sneum , encompassing the coastal area of Ho Bugt and the seaside district of Hjerting to the north . Opposite Esbjerg , across Fanø Bay , is the island of Fanø , 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) by 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , with Nordby as its principal settlement , connected to Esbjerg by ferry . To the west of Esbjerg , the town boundary is defined by a number of small streams . The highest point is some 25 m ( 82 ft ) above sea level . The town is located on top of steep slopes leading down to the flatlands of the harbour area . The built @-@ up area itself is not very hilly but there are considerable differences in terrain . Apart from the cliff in the town park overlooking the harbour , the valley of Fourfelt Bæk , 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) in length , is the main feature of the landscape , resulting in differences of up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) with the surroundings .
= = = Climate = = =
= = Demographics and administration = =
As of 1 January 2014 , Esbjerg has a population of 71 @,@ 618 , making it the fifth @-@ largest city in Denmark , and the largest in west Jutland . Until the harbour was developed in the 1860s , the area was sparsely inhabited with just a few farms . Thereafter , it grew rapidly : by 1880 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants , rising to some 13 @,@ 000 by 1901 when it was already larger than neighbouring Varde and Ribe . By the end of the 1950s , with almost 60 @,@ 000 inhabitants , it had become Denmark 's fifth @-@ largest city . By 1970 , Esbjerg had seen a fivefold increase in population since 1901 , reaching some 70 @,@ 000 . After 1970 , the increase in population slowed , reaching a maximum of 18 @,@ 023 in 1998 .
In contrast to Denmark 's four largest cities ( Copenhagen , Aarhus , Aalborg and Odense ) where there were substantial increases in population between the first quarter of 2013 and the first quarter of 2014 , Esbjerg Municipality experienced an increase of only 44 inhabitants ( from 115 @,@ 051 to 115 @,@ 095 ) over the same period . In May 2014 , Esbjerg was noted to be one of the least attractive of Denmark 's top 20 cities for house purchases and apartment rentals , dropping to 19th place , along with Herning .
Esbjerg 's city council for the period January 2014 to December 2017 consists of 31 members , 15 of whom are Venstre , Liberal Party of Denmark and nine , Social Democrats . The mayor , also from the Venstre , Liberal Party , is Johnny Søtrup , who has been major of both the former municipality in the period 1994 to 2006 and subsequently in the expanded municipality since the beginning of 2007 . There are also eight special committees which prepare the work of the council covering the areas of finance , labour market , health , children & family , culture & leisure , planning & environment , social services , and technology & supply .
= = = Mayors of Esbjerg since 1898 = = =
Mayors of Esbjerg since 1898 :
= = Landmarks = =
The Courthouse on the main square was designed by Hans Christian Amberg and completed in 1892 when the town had only 4 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The red @-@ brick building with stepped gables , round @-@ arched windows and a tower reaching 30 m ( 98 ft ) in height resembles a medieval castle . After comprehensive renovation work in 2010 , it is now used as a venue for weddings and houses the tourist office .
Man Meets the Sea ( Mennesket ved Havet ) is a monument of four 9 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 27 feet ) white @-@ coloured men located to the west of Esbjerg , overlooking Sædding Beach . One of the area 's major tourist attractions , the sculpture was designed by Svend Wiig Hansen and installed on 28 October 1995 . It was funded by the Esbjerg Municipality authorities , the Kunstfond arts foundation and private sponsors to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the municipality in 1994 . The monument can be seen by ferry leaving or entering Esbjerg .
The water tower from 1895 was designed by Christian Hjerrild Clausen who had been inspired by Nuremberg 's medieval Nassauer Haus . Standing at the top of a cliff , it commands excellent views of the city and the harbour from its platform which is open to the public . The imposing old Courthouse Building on the central square with its tall tower and stepped gables has recently been fully renovated . A bronze equestrian statue of Christian IX , the founder of Esbjerg , stands at the centre of the square .
The largest hotel in Esbjerg is Hotel Britannica . Other hotels include Danhostel Esbjerg in a former high school about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the northwest of the city , and Hotel Ansgar on Skolegade . Most of the restaurants in Esbjerg are to the east of Torvet . Of particular note are Sand 's Restaurant which serves Danish cuisine such as smørrebrød , meatballs , smoked eels and the fried beef patty pariserbof , and the Paddy Go Easy Irish pub near the main square . Housed in a listed building on the main square , Dronning Louise serves everything from full meals to sandwiches and occasionally offers live music .
= = = Churches = = =
The first church to be built in Esbjerg was the red @-@ brick Church of Our Saviour designed by Axel Møller , which was completed in 1887 . In 1896 , it was expanded with transepts and galleries on either side of the nave , doubling the seating capacity . Several more churches were established after the Second World War when there was a marked increase in the city 's population . The first of these , the yellow @-@ brick Trinity Church with its large triangular stained @-@ glass windows , was designed to accommodate a large congregation while offering additional facilities for both young and old . Breaking with tradition , its square @-@ shaped nave was built directly adjacent to lower ancillary buildings including a hall with a stage , meeting rooms and a kitchen . The bell tower stands alone , quite separate from the church .
St Nikolaj is a Roman Catholic church , built in 1969 . Unusual for a church , it is built of aerated concrete . Its innovative square @-@ shaped design by Johan Otto von Spreckelsen served as a basis for his Grande Arche in Paris . The dimensions of the inner cube of St Nikolaj Church are very close to those of the " holy of holies " in Solomon 's Temple as described in Ezekiel 40 : 5 .
The modern red @-@ brick Grundtvig 's Church , southeast of the town centre , was designed by Ole Nielsen . With its strangely shaped , red @-@ tiled roof , it was completed in 1969 . Inside , the large wall surfaces are broken only by 12 narrow windows on the east side , creating a contrast with the much brighter tower room which opens into the chancel with light entering from a window high on the east side of the tower .
Designed by Inger and Johannes Exner , Sædden Church with wave @-@ like folds in its red @-@ brick walls was inaugurated in 1978 . Daylight focusing on the altar is supplemented by 803 electric light bulbs . Gjesing Church , a red @-@ brick building north of the city centre , was completed 1983 . Like many other modern churches in the area , it has a free @-@ standing bell tower as well as a church hall and meeting rooms . Other churches include Zion 's Church and Jerne Church .
Also built in a style akin to the Neo @-@ Gothic architecture of churches , the Bethania Mission House opposite the Church of our Saviour was completed in 1906 by Clausen .
= = = Museums and theatres = = =
The municipality has a number of museums , libraries and music and drama venues . The Esbjerg Performing Arts Centre ( Musikhuset Esbjerg ) is a complex with two auditoriums . Its concert hall , with seating for over 1 @,@ 100 , can also be adapted for theatrical productions . Completed in 1997 to designs by Jan Utzon and his father , it hosts classical concerts , opera , family shows and drama productions . Located in the City Park close to the harbour , it forms part of a complex which includes the Esbjerg Art Museum ( Esbjerg Kunstmuseum ) displaying works from artists including Asger Jorn . The museum also regularly hosts temporary international exhibitions .
The privately owned Fisheries and Maritime Museum , which opened in 1968 , consists of a saltwater aquarium and a sealarium as well as indoor and outdoor exhibitions on Danish fisheries and shipping . Esbjerg Museum in the city centre has permanent collections covering the history of the city and the surrounding region . It includes displays from the Iron Age and the Viking Period as well as a large exhibition of amber . The Printing Museum traces the history of the art of printing from the beginning of the 20th century until it was replaced by modern technology . The collection includes a variety of machines and equipment used to print books and newspapers , mainly from Germany and Denmark . The Lightship Museum ( Museumsfyrskib ) in the harbour is open to the public on board the Horns Rev lightship . Dating from 1912 , the Horns Rev , also known as Motorfyrskibet Nr. I , is the world 's oldest and best preserved motor lightship . It houses an impressive exhibition of life and work on board .
= = Education and sport = =
Esbjerg is one of the towns hosting the University of Southern Denmark . It also houses a branch of Aalborg University and IT Academy West . The main branch of Profession School – University College West ( Danish : Professionshøjskolen University College Vest ) and the Esbjerg section of the Academy of Music and Dramatic Arts , housed in a former power station , are also located in the city . The town is served by the Southwest Jutland Hospital ( Sydvestjysk Sygehus ) which also has a branch in Brande and treats over 42 @,@ 000 patients annually , with over 500 beds and a staff of about 2 @,@ 500 employees .
Esbjerg is home to the Danish football club Esbjerg fB , established in 1924 and known as EfB for short . The club has won the Danish Championship five times , in 1961 , 1962 , 1963 , 1965 and 1979 . Esbjerg fB play their home matches at Blue Water Arena . Esbjerg also has an ice hockey division called Esbjerg Elite Ishockey which plays at the Granly Hockey Arena . Granly Hockey Arena was built in 1976 and has a seating capacity for 3417 people . In 2011 the arena was the venue for the 2011 Capital One World Women 's Curling Championship .
Rugby in Esbjerg is represented by Esbjerg RK , who play at Guldager Idrætscenter . Esbjerg also has its own Speedway team , which were crowned Danish League Champions in 2012 .
= = Transport = =
The port town of Esbjerg is a large transport hub for both rail and road traffic , and an important port for Danish North Sea oil offshore activity . It is also served by Esbjerg Airport with flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger , while the nearby Billund Airport offers additional travel options .
Esbjerg Station is operated by Danish State Railways . The station is the western terminus of InterCity trains from Copenhagen ( operating once an hour ) , with a journey time of about three hours . DSB also operates local trains to Fredericia . Arriva operates the Vestbanen with local trains travelling south to Ribe and Tønder and north to Struer .
Ferry services connect Esbjerg via Ho Bugt to Nordby on the island of Fanø via Danske Færger . From 1875 until 2014 a passenger service operated over the North Sea to the English port of Harwich via DFDS Seaways , formerly Scandinavian Seaways . The MS Winston Churchill began service between the two ports in 1967 , and served until 1978 when it was transferred to the River Tyne to Gothenburg service . The crossings were discontinued at the end of September 2014 although a freight service is still available on the route from Esbjerg to Immingham . DFDS cited " dwindling demand and high costs " as the chief reasons for the closure of the route .
Esbjerg Harbour is the second largest harbour in Denmark ( after Aarhus ) . It serves Maersk Drilling headquarters , and the regional commuter Esbjerg – Fanø – Esbjerg . For those arriving by pleasure craft , there is a marina along Pier No. 1 with 198 mooring places . The 650 @,@ 000 square metres ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) Østhavn ( “ East Harbour ” ) opened in June 2013 , while construction of a new freight terminal in the Sydhavn section of the harbour is scheduled for 2014 .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Esbjerg is twinned with :
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= Amanita gemmata =
Amanita gemmata , commonly known as the gemmed Amanita or the jonquil Amanita , is an agaric mushroom of the family Amanitaceae and genus Amanita . The fruit body has a cap that is a dull to golden shade of yellow , and typically 2 @.@ 5 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter . The cap surface is sticky when moist , and characterized by white warts , which are easily detached . It is initially convex , and flattens out when mature . The flesh is white and does not change colour when cut . Gills are white and closely spaced . The stem is pale yellow , and measures 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The partial veil that covers the young fruit body turns into the ring on the stem at maturity . The spore print is white , while the spores are roughly elliptical , and measure 8 – 10 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm .
This species is a mycorrhizal fungus , widespread in the Americas and Europe . It can grow either singly , scattered , or in groups . It prefers habitats like coniferous and mixed forests and alongside paths , where it fruits in summer and fall . It is a toxic mushroom that has muscarine , the same toxin as Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina as well as many species in the Clitocybe and Inocybe genera . It is often confused with various other European species . A. gemmata resembles the false death cap , tawny grisette and panther cap mushrooms . Its cap is brighter in color than the former , and more yellow than the latter two .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically by Swedish mycologist and botanist Elias Magnus Fries as Agaricus gemmatus in 1838 . It was transferred to the genus Amanita in 1866 by the French statistician Louis Bertillon . The species has been transferred to several genera in its history , resulting in a number of synonyms , including Amanita muscaria var. gemmata ( 1886 , Lucien Quélet ) , Amanitopsis gemmata ( 1887 , Pier Andrea Saccardo ) , Amanitaria gemmata ( 1940 , Jean @-@ Edouard Gilbert ) , and Venenarius gemmatus ( 1948 , William Murrill ) . Amanita authority Rodham E. Tulloss considers A. amici ( published by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1891 ) to be synonymous with A. gemmata , as the macroscopic characteristics of the former fall within the limits of the range expected for the latter .
Within the genus Amanita , A. gemmata is classified in subgenus Amanita , section Amanita , subsection Gemmatae , and series Gemmatae . Tulloss places the species in a stirps ( an informal ranking above species level ) with A. russuloides and A. viscidolutea . Some mycologists believe that A. gemmata is not different from A. russuloides . Two molecular studies based on sequences of the large ribosomal subunit RNA gene ( nLSU @-@ rDNA ) and the mitochondrial small ribosomal subunit RNA gene ( mtSSU @-@ rDNA ) show that A. gemmata is part of a clade within Amanita with its close relatives A. muscaria , A. farinosa and A. roseitincta .
The mushroom is commonly known as the " gemmed Amanita " , the " jonquil Amanita " , or the " European gemmed Amanita " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies are colored yellow overall . The fresh cap , ranging in color from dull creamy yellow to golden yellow to buff , is sticky when moist . White warts adorn the cap surface , but they are usually flimsy and easily washed away by rain . They are placed randomly , but tend to be more concentrated in the center . The cap is typically 2 @.@ 5 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter , and initially convex before flattening out in maturity . The flesh is white , and shows no change when sliced .
The gills are adnate to adnexed , and white ; they are close together , with little intervening space . The pale yellowish stem is 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , and either roughly equal in width throughout , or slightly thicker at the base . Young mushrooms have a membranous partial veil extending from the upper stem to the cap margin ; as the mushroom grows , the partial veil tears to leave a flimsy , skirt @-@ like , easily lost ring on the stem . At the base of the stem is a white volva ( a remnant of the universal veil that covered the immature mushroom ) that usually forms a small , free rim . Spore prints are white . There is no distinctive odour .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Amanita gemmata has ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid spores measuring 8 – 10 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm with an average Q @-@ ratio ( the fraction of length / width ) of 1 @.@ 35 ; they are not amyloid . The spores are smooth , thin @-@ walled , and they contain one to several small oil droplets . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells of the hymenium ) are usually four @-@ spored , club shaped , and measure 30 – 40 by 8 – 11 µm .
The gill tissue is divergent , meaning that the cells are more or less parallel near the center of the gill , but bend outwards near the end of the gill . The hyphae in this tissue are cylindrical to inflated , thin walled , hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish , and measure 2 @.@ 2 – 9 µm wide ; the hyphae in the central strand are narrower and typically cylindrical . The hyphae of the subhymenium ( a layer of tissue directly under the hymenium ) are interwoven . These hyphae are branched , cylindrical to slightly inflated , hyaline , and 6 – 9 µm wide . The hyphae of the cap cuticle are filamentous , interwoven , and radially arranged . They are cylindrical , 2 @.@ 7 – 4 µm wide , thin @-@ walled , hyaline to yellowish , and gelatinize when mounted in potassium hydroxide . The cap tissue is also interwoven , with hyphae that are cylindrical to somewhat inflated , 3 @.@ 7 – 14 @.@ 6 µm wide , thin @-@ walled , branched , and hyaline to yellowish . Caulocystidia are abundant on the apex of the stem ; they are club @-@ shaped to cylindrical , thin @-@ walled , hyaline , and measure 3 – 9 µm wide . The annulus tissue comprises interwoven cylindrical hyphae measuring 3 – 9 µm wide . Sphaerocysts ( inflated , spherical cells ) are also present in the annulus tissue ; they are club shaped to ellipsoidal , with dimensions of 29 – 55 by 30 – 70 µm . The warts on the cap surface ( remnants of the universal veil ) comprise loosely interwoven cylindrical to inflated thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 3 @.@ 5 – 8 µm wide . Sphaerocysts in this tissue are 58 @.@ 5 – 70 @.@ 2 by 17 @.@ 5 – 40 µm , ellipsoidal , and hyaline . The volval tissue is interwoven , with cylindrical , hyaline hyphae that are 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 3 µm wide . The sphaerocysts here are ellipsoidal to roughly spherical , hyaline , and measure 35 – 70 by 20 – 35 µm . In A. gemmata , where they are most abundant in the region just below the cap cuticle , these refractive cells are scattered , and have a width of 3 @.@ 7 – 6 µm . Clamp connections are rare in the hyphae of A. gemmata ; they are present in the annulus , gill tissue , subhymenium , and cap tissue .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are numerous forms in North America that tend to intergrade with A. pantherina . In 2005 , mycologist Rod Tulloss described Amanita aprica , a species that has been confused with A. gemmata several times in the past . According to mycologists Pierre Neville and Serge Poumarat , the Mediterranean species A. amici ( synonymous with A. gemmata f. amici ) is similar in appearance to A. gemmata but is larger . According to Tulloss however , their measurements of the cap and stem dimensions of A. amici fell within the range expected for A. gemmata , and for this reason , the two taxa should be considered conspecific . Neville and Poumarat suggest that the name A. gemmata still persists for Mediterranean collections because of its frequent historical misapplication to the native Italian species A. gioiosa , which had not been described as a distinct species until 2004 . A. orientigemmata , a mushroom ranging from Japan to China , is a lookalike , but has clamps , unlike A. gemmata . Other differences between the two species include the slightly smaller spores of A. orientigemmata , and differences in the microstructure of the cap warts .
= = Toxicity = =
Toxicity is suspected to be due to the presence of muscimol and ibonetic acid .
Generally , symptoms of poisoning appear within three hours of ingestion of the mushroom as visual hallucinations , nausea , vomiting , stomach pain , diarrhea , irregular and slow heart beat and agitation . Severe cases involving coma , convulsions , or death are extremely rare .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Amanita gemmata is a mycorrhizal fungus , meaning it forms a mutually beneficial relationship with the roots of compatible host plants . Through the association , the plant provides the fungus with a carbon source , and the fungus provides the plant with several benefits such as nutrients and protection from pathogens . Largent and collaborators ( 1980 ) document mycorrhizal associations of A. gemmata with Manzanita ( Arctostaphylos spp . ) and Lodgepole Pine ( Pinus contorta ) , and Nieto and Carbone with Maritime Pine ( Pinus pinaster ) in Spain . The fungus favours sandy and slightly acidic soils , and is often found in association with Norway Spruce ( Picea abies ) . The mushroom grows either singly , scattered , or in groups in coniferous and mixed forests , especially along paths and roads .
The species is distributed in areas of Asia , the Americas , and Europe . It fruits in summer and fall ( fall and winter in California ) . It is widely distributed ( as a species cluster ) in North America , where it has been found as far south as Ixtlán de Juárez , Mexico . The species has been reported from the Dominican Republic . In South America , it is known from Chile . In Asia , the mushroom has been collected from Iran and China .
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= HMS Zealous ( 1864 ) =
HMS Zealous was one of the three ships ( the others being HMS Royal Alfred and HMS Repulse ) forming the second group of wooden steam battleships selected in 1860 for conversion to ironclads . This was done in response to the perceived threat to Britain offered by the large French ironclad building programme . The ship was ordered to the West Coast of Canada after she was completed to represent British interests in the Eastern Pacific Ocean . Zealous became the flagship for the Pacific Station for six years until she was relieved in 1872 . She was refitted upon her arrival and subsequently became the guard ship at Southampton until she was paid off in 1875 . The ship was in reserve until she was sold for scrap in 1886 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Zealous was given a straight stem and a rounded stern , but her hull was otherwise unmodified from her original form ; it had been found that lengthening the hull , as was done in the earlier Prince Consort class , led to longitudinal weakness . Her conversion to a central battery ironclad therefore cost less than that of any of her contemporaries , though this was offset with a shorter battery and therefore a less effective broadside . She also carried less armour than the earlier class , and was nearly a knot slower ; however , as she was built to serve in distant waters , and not expected to face opposing ships of significant force , these shortcomings were thought acceptable .
Zealous was 252 feet ( 76 @.@ 8 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 7 inches ( 17 @.@ 9 m ) . The ship had a draught of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) forward and 25 feet 9 inches ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) aft . She displaced 6 @,@ 096 long tons ( 6 @,@ 194 t ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Zealous had a simple horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single four @-@ bladed , 19 @-@ foot @-@ 1 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by eight rectangular boilers at a working pressure of 22 psi ( 152 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced 3 @,@ 623 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 702 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials in November 1866 which gave the ship a maximum speed of 11 @.@ 7 knots ( 21 @.@ 7 km / h ; 13 @.@ 5 mph ) . Zealous carried a maximum of 660 long tons ( 670 t ) of coal . She was ship rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 29 @,@ 200 square feet ( 2 @,@ 710 m2 ) . Her best speed with the propeller disconnected and under sail alone was 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
All of the available 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) and 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns had already been earmarked for other , more powerful ships . Zealous therefore received an armament of 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) guns , which were deemed adequate for her expected service activity , and which , indeed , she retained for the whole of her active career . She was the only battleship ever to have a uniform armament of this calibre , and she , and her half sister HMS Repulse , were the only Victorian ironclads to retain their original armament unchanged through their entire active careers .
Zealous was armed with twenty 7 @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Four of these guns were mounted on the upper deck as chase guns , two each fore and aft . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
Zealous had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and tapered to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick at the bow and stern . From the level of the main deck , it reached 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . The guns on the main deck amidships were protected by a section of 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armour , 103 feet ( 31 @.@ 4 m ) long , with 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end which left the chase guns unprotected . The armour was backed by the sides of the ship which consisted of 30 @.@ 5 inches ( 770 mm ) of teak . The total weight of her armour was 790 long tons ( 800 t ) .
= = Service history = =
HMS Zealous was laid down on 26 October 1859 as a wooden two @-@ deck , 90 @-@ gun ship of the line by Pembroke Royal Dockyard , but her construction was suspended pending experience with the conversion of her half @-@ sisters of the Prince Consort class to broadside ironclads . The Admiralty ordered on 2 July 1862 that she be cut down one deck and converted to an armoured frigate for the price of £ 239 @,@ 258 . The ship was launched on 7 March 1864 and commissioned in September 1866 , but was not completed until 4 October 1866 .
In order to match the French deployment of armored corvettes of the Belliqueuse and Alma classes in the Pacific Ocean the Admiralty ordered Zealous to sail for the west coast of Canada shortly after she was completed . Upon her arrival the ship became the flagship , and reached her operational base at Esquimalt in July 1867 ( Esquimalt was the headquarters of the Pacific Station ) ; she remained moored there , at the end of a telegraph link with Britain , until April 1869 . During this time her only sea service was for gunnery practice on two days every quarter . In January 1870 she picked up a fresh crew at Panama brought out by the two @-@ decker HMS Revenge . After six years on station she was relieved by Revenge as flagship and started for home . Her bottom had not been cleaned since she had left Great Britain and she could only make a maximum of 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) under sail or steam so her return voyage took five months . Zealous struck a rock while sailing through the Straits of Magellan , but was only slightly damaged . She was refitted in Plymouth in April 1873 and then became guard ship at Southampton until 1875 , when she was paid off . The ship was placed in reserve in Portsmouth until sold for scrap in September 1886 .
As coal was extremely expensive on the West Coast of the Americas , HMS Zealous generally used her sails and covered more miles under sail than any of the other Victorian sailing ironclads , and in her whole career never once travelled in company with another ironclad . She was also the first British ironclad to sail further from Britain than the Mediterranean .
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= M. P. Bajana =
Manek Pallon Bajana ( 14 September 1886 – 28 April 1927 ) was an Indian amateur cricketer who played 55 first @-@ class cricket matches between 1911 and 1920 . Originally a member of the Indian team which toured England in 1911 , he remained in the country and joined Somerset County Cricket Club , for which he played as an opening batsman until 1920 . During his nine @-@ year first @-@ class cricket career , Bajana scored 1 @,@ 975 runs at an average of 20 @.@ 78 . He scored three centuries , and made his highest score in 1920 , scoring 115 runs against Cambridge University .
= = Early life and Indian tour = =
Manek Pallon Bajana was born on 14 September 1886 in India . Leading up to 1911 , he was employed in India by Maharaja Nripendra Narayan of Cooch Behar , and early that year , Bajana travelled as part of the Maharajah 's retinue to England , where Narayan was attending the coronation of King George V. In England , he joined up with the touring Indian cricket team , as one of seven Parsi players in the side . The 1911 tour was the first by a representative Indian team , and included a mix of Hindus , Parsis , Muslims , and two members of the untouchable Chamar caste . Bajana appeared in seven matches during the tour , of which four had first @-@ class status . The team did not fare very well in their contests ; the captain of the side , Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala , only played three matches and spent the rest of his time socialising with the British high society , and there were rumours of sectarianism between the Parsi and Hindu members of the team . In twenty @-@ three matches , they won six and lost fifteen , the remaining two being drawn . Bajana was one of four batsmen to score a first @-@ class century for the Indians ; he struck 108 against Somerset at Taunton . On his first @-@ class debut , Bajana suffered the ignominy of a pair – dismissed without scoring in both innings . During the tour , Bajana made it known that he was looking to remain in England and play county cricket . His century against Somerset drew the attention of that county , and he joined them in 1912 .
= = County cricketer = =
At the time of Bajana 's arrival in the Somerset team , the county were struggling to compete in the County Championship , and were making a financial loss . In three of the four years prior to 1912 , Somerset had finished bottom of the championship table , and there was little improvement in the final three years before the First World War , each of which resulted in a bottom @-@ three finish . The Somerset cricket historian , David Foot , records that at this time , the county 's recruitment policy was " susceptible to exotic grandeur and haughty lineage , " and suggested that a player 's cricketing ability was often a secondary consideration to their social standing . Bajana made his debut for Somerset in May 1912 , opening the batting for the county against Sussex . He scored twenty @-@ two and seven in a six @-@ wicket victory for his county . In the subsequent match , against Hampshire , Bajana scored his first half @-@ century in county cricket , hitting 71 runs in the second innings ; the highest score of any Somerset batsman in the match . He passed 50 on three further occasions that year , and along with Len Braund and Ernie Robson , was ever @-@ present in the Somerset team that season . His year 's aggregate of 575 runs in the County Championship , and his score of 95 , made against Worcestershire in August , were both the county 's best that season , in a year in which no player scored a century for Somerset .
Bajana appeared less frequently for Somerset in 1913 , playing ten matches for the county . He only scored one half @-@ century , accruing 78 runs against Derbyshire . His batting average of 19 @.@ 75 in 1913 placed him fourth in the Somerset batting averages . He did not play for Somerset in 1914 , and the outbreak of the First World War suspended county cricket until 1919 . During the war Bajana played , and captained , a number of matches for the Indian Gymkhana Cricket Club , and scored a century for the team against a New Zealand APS side in 1918 .
In 1919 , Bajana returned to the Somerset team , playing in six of their twelve County Championship matches . His batting average of 27 @.@ 55 in that competition was the second @-@ highest amongst his team , bettered only by Jack MacBryan . Bajana hit two half @-@ centuries during the season , scoring 77 against Derbyshire , and 59 against Essex . The following 1920 season was Bajana 's last with Somerset . He appeared fifteen times for the county in first @-@ class cricket , averaging just over twenty . In a match against Cambridge University , he achieved his highest first @-@ class score , hitting 14 fours on his way to a total of 115 runs in 135 minutes . In his next match , he scored a second century for Somerset , and his only one in the County Championship , scoring 106 runs against Warwickshire . Bajana played his final first @-@ class match against Middlesex in August 1920 , scoring six and a duck . In all , Bajana scored 1 @,@ 975 first @-@ class runs at an average of 20 @.@ 78 . He scored three centuries and seven half @-@ centuries in 96 innings . He was rarely used as a bowler , and took four wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 00 .
= = Personal and later life = =
In his history of Somerset cricket , David Foot describes Bajana as a " smallish solidly built opening bat " . During his time at Somerset , he was known as " Pyjamas " , which sounds similar to his surname . He played for Shepherd 's Bush Cricket Club from his arrival in England , and was part of a strong batting line @-@ up for the club . For a time , he ran an antiques and art dealership in Bayswater , London with Constantine Diamandis , but they dissolved their partnership in early 1920 . After the conclusion of his first @-@ class cricket career , he continued to play for Indian Gymkhana , including matches at Lord 's against the Marylebone Cricket Club in each of 1922 , 1923 and 1924 . He died in Bethnal Green , London on 28 April 1927 at the age of 40 .
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= Rosecroft Raceway =
Rosecroft Raceway , nicknamed the " Raceway by the Beltway " for being close to Interstate 495 , is a harness racing track in Fort Washington , Maryland . It first opened in 1949 and was owned by William E. Miller , a horse trainer and breeder . Rosecroft quickly became Prince George 's County 's political and social center , drawing thousands of people there each racing day . In the early 1950s , average attendance was more than 7 @,@ 000 per day . After Miller died in 1954 , his son John owned Rosecroft until his death in 1969 . Rosecroft hosted memorial stake races annually for both William and John until 1995 . Following the death of John Miller , Earle Brown controlled operations until he moved to a different position in 1980 ; William E. Miller II took over following Brown .
Rosecroft was sold to Mark Vogel in 1987 . Vogel made several mistakes that hurt the horse racing industry in Maryland . Three years later , he was arrested for possession of cocaine , and his company went into bankruptcy . Rosecroft was sold to Weisman 's Colt Enterprises in 1991 . In that same year , the grandstand caught fire and was reconstructed in 1993 for $ 3 @.@ 6 million . In 1995 , after losing millions , the relatives of Weisman sold Rosecroft to Cloverleaf Enterprises . In the 2000s , Cloverleaf attempted to sell Rosecroft multiple times , but due to lawsuits and politics , all the potential buyers became uninterested . Nearby states legalized casinos to help their racetracks . Money generated from the casinos was used to increase the purses and handle ( daily betting turnover ) , and Rosecroft was unable to produce the same amount of money . After filing for bankruptcy once again , Rosecroft Raceway closed down in 2010 . The next year , Penn National Gaming purchased the racetrack with the hope to make it a racino , and Rosecroft reopened in 2011 .
Throughout Rosecroft 's history , it has featured notable races . From 1984 to 1988 , it hosted segments of the Breeders Crown . Starting in 1990 and ending in 1995 , the racetrack hosted the Messenger Stakes , the second leg of the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers . Rosecroft hosted the Potomac Stakes , Maryland most successful harness race , from 1990 to 1992 . Rosecroft features the Maryland Sire Stakes , which showcases the best standardbred horses in Maryland . Besides the races , Rosecroft has had famous people and horses work and race at the track . John Wager , Maryland 's all @-@ time most winning driver , has been working at Rosecroft since 1974 . Several famous people — Lyndon B. Johnson , Elizabeth Taylor , and Nancy Pelosi , among others — have visited Rosecroft . Cam 's Card Shark raced at Rosecroft in 1994 and challenged the single @-@ season record for most money won in a season by winning over $ 2 million , and Robust Hanover set a track record while winning the Breeders Crown in 1985 .
= = History = =
= = = Miller family : 1947 – 1987 = = =
In September 1947 , a meeting was held about bringing a harness racetrack to Maryland , specifically Prince George 's County , and Rosecroft was chosen to be the site . William E. Miller — a future harness racing Immortal and horse breeder — founded Rosecroft Raceway in 1949 . It was the first raceway to be owned by horse owners , horse trainers , and jockeys . Rosecroft was originally the WE Miller Stables and was located next to the Rosecroft Stock Farm , where horses were bred . The racetrack cost $ 800 @,@ 000 to construct and was " first class in every respect " . The Washington Post estimated a crowd of 12 @,@ 000 on its opening day of May 26 , 1949 , but rain cancelled the races . Rosecroft 's first night of racing was May 27 , 1949 when 6 @,@ 000 people showed up and $ 164 @,@ 501 was wagered . The handle was the second @-@ highest ever recorded for a night trotting track on an opening night .
For years , Rosecroft Raceway held an annual sale of yearling Standardbred horses . It hosted the annual Maryland Sire Stake Races to promote the best of Maryland @-@ bred horses . When Rosecroft opened , it became the political and social center for Prince George 's County , Maryland . Each year during the Miller era , several thousand people traveled from across the country to wager on and watch the horses . In 1953 , Rosecroft 's attendance of 192 @,@ 585 was the highest among all harness tracks in Maryland . Owners , trainers , and drivers from across the United States moved their farms to Maryland in the 1950s following the opening of Rosecroft , hoping to compete with the best horses .
In 1954 , William E. Miller died from a heart attack while driving a horse at Harrington Raceway . After Miller 's death , Rosecroft hosted the William E. Miller Memorial race . Over the years , this race attracted several notable horses , including Cam 's Card Shark , the 1994 Horse of the Year . John W. Miller , William 's son , owned Rosecroft until his death in 1969 . In 1961 , the owners of Rosecroft resurfaced and regraded the track . Following John , Earle Brown owned the racetrack . John Wager , Maryland 's all @-@ time most winning driver , started to work at Rosecroft in 1974 . Earle Brown moved to a different position at the racetrack in 1980 and William E. Miller II , William E. Miller 's grandson , took over operations .
In 1984 , the Hambletonian Society created the Breeders Crown , a traveling series of races to showcase the best 2 @-@ year @-@ old and 3 @-@ year @-@ old horses throughout North American and Canada . In the inaugural year , Rosecroft was awarded with a race . Rosecroft hosted the 2 @-@ Year @-@ Old Pace of the 1985 Breeders Crown , where Robust Hanover won .
= = = Mark Vogel : 1987 – 1990 = = =
Mark Vogel , a Maryland real estate agent , purchased both Rosecroft and Ocean Downs Racetrack in 1987 for $ 6 million in cash plus $ 5 @.@ 5 million in debt . Rosecroft was awarded another Breeders Crown race in 1988 , making it their fifth straight — but final — year of hosting them . Vogel had three main goals when he became owner : to construct a $ 10 million grandstand , simulcast Rosecroft races at other racetracks throughout Maryland to attract a larger market , and have more racing days . In 1989 , Vogel purchased Freestate Raceway . Freestate was sold to a development firm the next year , and Rosecroft was awarded more racing days .
According to The Washington Times writer Rick Snyder , Vogel did not know the horse racing business and made mistakes that negatively affected the industry in Maryland . The year @-@ round racing Rosecroft was awarded lowered the excitement for the locals . Rosecroft was not capable of attracting a new market , and attendance figures declined . He never focused on marketing or daily operations of Rosecroft . Instead , Vogel focused more on his real estate business . As a result , the attendance dropped . Vogel took out money from the betting pools to help his real estate business . Lower betting pools mean smaller payouts for the bettors and less profit for the racetrack owners . Vogel never formed political ties to help pass legislation used to help harness racing , more specially to allow off @-@ track betting and to lower the state tax on betting pools .
Starting in 1990 , Rosecroft Raceway hosted the Messenger Stakes , one of the races for the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers . Rosecroft attracted the Potomac Stakes , Maryland 's most successful race , starting in that year . The Potomac Stakes was previously held at Freestate Raceway and generated one @-@ million @-@ dollar @-@ plus handles on several occasions . On a September 1990 night , $ 1 @,@ 195 @,@ 681 was wagered by bettors , becoming the then @-@ largest handle in Rosecroft 's history . This record was broken on May 3 , 2003 when $ 1 @,@ 564 @,@ 150 was wagered . Vogel was arrested in September 1990 for possession of cocaine , and his company filed for bankruptcy protection .
= = = Weisman 's Colt Enterprises : 1991 – 1995 = = =
In 1991 , two people were interested in buying the track : Fred Weisman , a California businessman , and former National Football League player Mark May . Weisman out @-@ bid May and purchased Rosecroft out of bankruptcy for $ 18 @.@ 2 million . On November 23 of the same year , the grandstand caught fire a few hours before live racing began . In Weisman 's first full season of operations , Rosecroft experienced a 10 @.@ 5 percent increase in handle and an 8 @.@ 3 percent increase in attendance . In 1992 , Western Hanover , the richest horse of that year , won two of the three Triple Crown races , including the Messenger Stakes at Rosecroft . Rosecroft Raceway went into the record books on October 10 , 1992 , when a three @-@ horse dead heat occurred in the seventh race . It was the 17th time in harness @-@ racing history and the first time in Maryland history .
The new grandstand was completed for $ 3 @.@ 6 million in 1993 . Since Rosecroft had expanded its simulcasting rights , the new grandstand incorporated large @-@ screen televisions and betting windows . For the 1993 season , Rosecroft 's officials decided to stop hosting the five stake races — The Potomac , the Lady Baltimore , The Terrapan , The Turtle Dove , and The North American — inherited when Freestate Raceway closed . The handle was decreasing , and the officials could not afford the purses for the races . To help increase the handle , Maryland racetrack officials voted to allow inter @-@ track simulcasting between all Maryland tracks and authorized off @-@ track betting parlors throughout the state .
In September 1994 , Weisman died from pancreatic cancer in Los Angeles , California , and his relatives took over the racetrack . Although attendance and handle were increasing , the owners were losing money . Reports by independent auditors stated Rosecroft and Ocean Downs combined to lose $ 1 @.@ 1 million in fiscal year ( FY ) 1992 , $ 1 @.@ 4 million in FY 1993 , and $ 6 @.@ 2 million in FY 1994 . According to Rosecroft 's racing official Allan Levey , Weisman 's relatives did not want to operate the track and their only goal was to sell it . For the 1995 season , Rosecroft could not afford the payment to host five stake races — including the Messenger Stakes — and dropped them from the racing schedule .
= = = Cloverleaf Enterprises : 1995 – 2010 = = =
Throughout 1995 , Rosecroft was forced to cut costs . Its owners lowered the amount of purse money , eliminated stake races , and reduced the number of racing days . They decided to sell both Rosecroft and Ocean Downs to Cloverleaf Enterprises , a horseman 's organization , in mid @-@ 1995 for $ 11 million . Weisman 's Colt Enterprises reported that if the racetrack could not be sold , the company would have to file for bankruptcy . Cloverleaf accepted a $ 10 @.@ 6 million loan from Bally Entertainment in hopes that a casino would be allowed at Rosecroft .
In 1994 , the Delaware General Assembly approved slot machines for the state 's three racetracks , and the first racino opened in December 1995 . This helped the horse racing industry in Delaware , as approximately 10 percent of all gross revenue is used to increase the purses . This drew competition away from Maryland . Rosecroft could not fill up a 12 @-@ race card for its opening night during the 1996 season . An estimated $ 80 million in wagering was lost in 1996 from the effect of Delaware 's casinos . Throughout the years , various politicians tried to bring slot machines or table games to Rosecroft , but all were unsuccessful .
In the 2000s , Cloverleaf tried to sell Rosecroft multiple times . In mid @-@ 2002 , several buyers became interested in the track , but Cloverleaf was involved in lawsuits , so the track could not be sold . One bidder was Peter Angelos , the owner of the Baltimore Orioles , but he withdrew in 2005 . All the lawsuits were resolved in 2006 , and only one remaining bidder was left — Penn National Gaming . Maryland passed a casino bill in 2007 , but Rosecroft was not one of the locations sanctioned for expanded gambling by the law . As a result , Penn National lost its interest in Rosecroft and decided not to purchase the track . From the gambling revenue , 7 percent goes to the horse @-@ racing industry .
Cloverleaf announced Rosecroft would close on July 1 , 2010 . Live racing ended in 2009 , and the track only had simulcasts as revenue from off @-@ track betting . After several of the surrounding states legalized casinos , Rosecroft was unable to continue as a successful business . Cloverleaf Enterprises filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in June 2009 . Mark Vogel loaned the track $ 350 @,@ 000 and offered to buy the track , but a bankruptcy court judge refused to approve the plan . Rosecroft officials had hoped that the Maryland General Assembly would approve legislation allowing casino @-@ style gambling at Rosecroft , but that did not occur . In early June 2010 , Cloverleaf filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy .
= = = Penn National Gaming : 2011 – 2016 = = =
In January 2011 , Penn National Gaming bought Rosecroft for $ 10 @.@ 25 million . Penn National said it planned to return live racing and simulcast wagering to the track as well as pushing for changes in Maryland gaming laws allowing slots and table games . Penn National said it was hoping to convince the state to allow slot machines at the track , even though voters did not approve Prince George 's County as a gambling location . On July 28 , 2011 , the Maryland Racing Commission agreed to allow Penn National Gaming to secure a $ 1 @.@ 4 million line of credit to cover operating losses at Rosecroft for fiscal years 2011 and 2012 . Penn National said it was likely to incur $ 2 @.@ 3 million in losses through 2013 .
Penn National wanted Rosecroft to begin simulcasting races in late August 2011 . Disputes between tracks and simulcasters about revenues , however , led to a delay in reaching new agreements on broadcast rights . In the 2011 , the Maryland legislature passed a bill that required all parties to enter into mediation . If mediation was not successful by October 1 , 2011 , then an arbitrator was required to help . To resolve a conflict of interest , Penn National sold its financial stake in the Maryland Jockey Club 's in July 2011 . In August 2011 , Rosecroft made public its plans for adding a casino at Rosecroft . It planned to destroy the grandstand and build a casino with approximately 4 @,@ 700 slot machines alongside the track .
An agreement on simulcasting of harness and quarter horse races was reached in August allowing Rosecroft to reopen on August 25 , 2011 . Rosecroft owed $ 1 @.@ 24 million in unpaid disbursements under its previous simulcast license , and the parties were negotiating about how much of this debt Penn National would pay . Rosecroft drew 400 to 500 patrons on its opening day . Penn National also announced its intent to spend $ 1 million in the coming year to renovate the property , which would include razing old horse barns , putting a new roof on the betting parlors , and upgrading the HVAC system .
A bill was introduced into the Maryland General Assembly in 2012 which would allow a casino in Prince George 's County . The two likely spots were National Harbor or Rosecroft . The bill passed the Senate , but the House did not vote on it . The bill was passed and signed by the Governor in August 2012 to allow a casino in Prince George 's County , which was passed via referendum in November 2012 . After one season of live racing , Penn National and Cloverleaf reached an agreement to extend live racing at Rosecroft for the next two years . The only exception is if National Harbor becomes the location for the Prince George 's County casino .
= = = Stronach Group : 2016 @-@ present = = =
In May 2016 , the Stronach Group purchased Rosecroft Raceway for an undisclosed sum . The purchase was scheduled to close in mid @-@ summer , pending approval by the Maryland Racing Commission . Stronach Group said it would make some cosmetic improvements to the racing facilities , and then begin an evaluation to see what long @-@ term improvements it might make .
= = Non @-@ horse racing activities = =
Besides horse racing , Rosecroft has allowed other activities . The Old School Boxing Gym is located there , and the track has hosted amateur boxing matches for several years . The gym served as a refuge to children in the area . Before his heavyweight championship tenure , George Foreman beat Sylvester Dullaire at Rosecroft on July 14 , 1969 . Then @-@ undefeated boxer Seth Mitchell also fought at Rosecroft in 2009 . Rosecroft made news when it decided to host an all @-@ female night of boxing in 2009 . In 1974 , Rosecroft Raceway hosted professional motorcycle races . In 2012 , Rosecroft hosted the 46th Annual Cherry Blossom Rugby Tournament . The area also serves large banquets . Other community activities include an annual Senior Citizen Day , hosting flea markets , fundraising for politicians , and hosting Governor 's Day .
= = Construction = =
Rosecroft was built in 1949 on 125 acres ( 51 ha ) . There are 2 @,@ 500 parking spaces including main parking by the main entrance . It is nicknamed the " Raceway by the Beltway " for being close to Interstate 495 . The track is 5 / 8 @-@ mile long and has a 700 @-@ foot home stretch . The current grandstand has been there since 1993 . It is 53 @,@ 000 square feet and is beside the 96 @,@ 000 square foot , 3 @-@ story club house . Inside the club house is the terrace dining room , which holds up to 1 @,@ 100 people . Each table in the dining room has its own television , which can be used to watch horse racing — either from Rosecroft or other tracks around the world .
= = Prominent visitors = =
Thomas D 'Alesandro , former United States House of Representatives
Zsa Zsa Gabor , Hungarian actress
George Foreman , retired champion boxer
Parris Glendening , former Governor of Maryland
Lyndon B. Johnson , former president of the United States
Nancy Pelosi , former Speaker of the US House of Representatives , current House Minority Leader
Jennings Randolph , former United States Senator
Elizabeth Taylor , British actress
= = Track records = =
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= Rainbow ( Mariah Carey album ) =
Rainbow is the seventh studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on November 2 , 1999 , by Columbia Records . The album followed the same pattern as Carey 's previous album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) , in which she began her transition into the R & B market . Rainbow contains a mix of hip @-@ hop @-@ influenced R & B jams , as well as a variety of slow ballads . On the album , Carey worked with David Foster and Diane Warren , who , as well as Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , replaced Walter Afanasieff , the main balladeer Carey worked with throughout the 90s . As a result of her separation from her husband , Tommy Mottola , Carey had more control over the musical style of this album , so she collaborated with several artists such as Jay @-@ Z , Usher , and Snoop Dogg , as well as Missy Elliott , Joe , Da Brat , Master P , Eve , Lil ' Kim , 98 ° , Phil Collins and Mystikal .
On Carey 's previous album , Butterfly , she began incorporating several other genres , including R & B , soul and hip @-@ hop , into her musical repertoire . In order to further push her musical horizons , Carey featured Jay @-@ Z on the album 's lead single , the first time in her career that another artist was featured on one of her lead singles . Carey wrote ballads that were closer to R & B than pop for this album , and worked with Snoop Dogg and Usher on songs such as " Crybaby " and " How Much " , both of which featured strong R & B beats and grooves . Several of the ballads that Carey wrote during this period , including " Thank God I Found You " ( written with Terry Lewis ) and " After Tonight " ( written with Diane Warren ) , mirrored sentiments she experienced in her personal life .
Upon release , Rainbow received mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics . While many celebrated Carey 's continued musical departure from her adult contemporary past , some felt the album was not as strong or as distinct as Butterfly . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , with first week sales of 323 @,@ 000 . It was her first album in years to not reach number one . Rainbow was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of three million copies within the United States . Outside the US , the album debuted atop the charts in France , and within the top five in Australia , Austria , Belgium , the Netherlands , Germany , Japan , and Switzerland . In Europe , Rainbow was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of one million copies throughout the continent . As of 2004 , the album has sold in excess of seven million copies worldwide .
Five singles were released from the album . The album 's lead single , " Heartbreaker " featuring Jay @-@ Z , became Carey 's fourteenth number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , and topped the charts in Canada , New Zealand , France and Spain . " Thank God I Found You " , featuring Joe and 98 Degrees , also topped the Hot 100 , but achieved moderate international charting . The next two singles , " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) and " Crybaby " featuring Snoop Dogg , were released as a double A @-@ side . The songs were at the center of a public feud in between Carey and Sony due to Sony 's alleged weak promotion of the singles . Carey 's cover of Phil Collins " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " with Westlife peaked at number one in Brazil , Ireland and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
Since her debut in 1990 , Carey 's career was heavily calculated and controlled by her husband and head of her label Sony Music Entertainment , Tommy Mottola . For years , Carey 's albums had consisted of slow and meaningful ballads , devoid of any guest appearances or hip @-@ hop . In January 1995 , as she recorded Daydream , Carey began taking more control over her musical style and genre influences . She enlisted the production skills and rap styles of Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who was featured on the remix of her song " Fantasy " . While Mottola was hesitant at first , Carey 's influence paid off : the song became an international chart topper , with critics calling their joint performance one of the pioneering songs of pop and R & B musical collaborations .
During the recording and production of Carey 's Butterfly in 1997 , the couple separated , leaving Carey an extended amount of control over the unfinished album . Following their separation , Carey began working with younger hip @-@ hop and R & B producers and songwriters , aside from her usual work with balladeers Walter Afanasieff and Kenneth Edmonds . While the album incorporated several different genres and components that were not present in Carey 's previous releases , Butterfly also included a balance of her classic ballads and newer R & B @-@ infused jams . While Sony accepted Carey 's new collaborations with writers and producers such as P. Diddy and Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony , they continued to focus their promotion on the ballads . After " Honey " , the debut single from Butterfly , was released in August 1997 , Sony halted the release of the succeeding R & B @-@ influenced jams , and released the ballad " My All " as the second worldwide single . Rainbow followed in its predecessors ' footsteps , becoming even more drenched in modern hip @-@ hop and R & B.
= = Writing and recording = =
During the spring of 1999 , Carey began working on the final album of her record contract with Sony , her ex @-@ husband 's label . Carey 's lover at the time , Luis Miguel , was in the midst of a European tour . In order to spend more time with him , she opted to record the album on the secluded island of Capri , Italy , figuring the seclusion would also help her complete the album sooner . During this time , Carey 's strained relationship with Sony affected her work with writing partner Afanasieff , who had worked extensively with Carey throughout the first half of her career . Aside from their growing creative differences , Mottola had given Afanasieff more opportunities to work with other artists . She felt Mottola was trying to separate her from Afanasieff , in hopes of keeping their relationship permanently strained . Due to the pressure and the awkward relationship Carey had now developed with Sony , she completed the album in a period of three months in the summer of 1999 , quicker than any of her other albums . In an interview with Blitz TV , Carey spoke of her decision to record the album in Capri :
I love New York . But if I 'm there , I want to go out , friends come to the studio , the phone rings constantly . But in Capri , I am in a remote place , and there is no one I can run into . I felt that in Capri I would be able to effectively finish the album on a shorter schedule . And I did . I made it in three months , I was like ' Get me off this label ! ' I couldn 't take it . The situation there [ Sony ] was becoming increasingly difficult .
Like her previous releases , Carey co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the album 's material , working with several hip @-@ hop and R & B producers such as Jay @-@ Z , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , Usher , Snoop Dogg , Missy Elliott , Jermaine Dupri , and Brian Michael Cox . For the album 's debut single release , Carey collaborated with Jay @-@ Z and DJ Clue . During the spring of 1999 , Carey began working with Clue on several hooks and melodies for the lead single . After a few hours , they decided to include a hip @-@ hop star on the track , which eventually led to Jay @-@ Z. Carey 's longtime friend and back @-@ up vocalist Trey Lorenz , who was featured on her remake of the Jackson 5 song " I 'll Be There " , added " some soft male [ back @-@ up ] vocals . " Carey worked with Lewis and Jam on the ballad " Thank God I Found You " . She had already been in the studio with the duo several times when she contacted them to meet her at the studio , where she told them that she had come up with the title , hook , and melody . Usually , when Carey was writing the songs for Rainbow , James " Big Jim " Wright would play the organ or piano and assist Carey to find the " right melody " . However , since Wright was not present , Lewis played the organ while Carey directed him with her lower registers , providing the chord progression . They composed the song and recorded Carey 's vocals . Knowing she wanted to introduce a male vocalist on the track , Lewis brought R & B singer Joe and pop group 98 Degrees into the studio . After a few hours , the group and Joe had recorded all their vocals and the song was complete . In an interview with Bronson , Lewis discussed the night Carey wrote " Thank God I Found You : "
It all happened that night . She told us the title of the song , the concept and sang us the melody . We usually have Big Jim Wright sit in on those kind of sessions to work out the chords. he wasn 't there so I had to work on the chord myself . So I was playing and there was a part where I said ' Man , what chord am I supposed to do here ? ' and Mariah has such a good ear that she sang me the chord .
While the album was immersed further into mainstream R & B territory , Carey included some of her classic ballads and tender love songs on the album , working with writers and producers such as David Foster and Diane Warren . The idea to work with Warren was suggested by Foster , who thought that the two would be able to " hammer out one hell of a ballad " together . The two wrote and produced the song titled " After Tonight " . Carey felt the song was a perfect metaphor for her relationship with Miguel , describing their romance in Capri . While the song was deemed a success by both parties , they described their working relationship with mixed feelings . According to Foster , who was involved in the writing session , Carey and Warren would not always agree on the lyrics and melodious structure of the song . He described it as a " give and take relationship " ; Warren would offer lyrics and Carey would not like them ; she wanted something more intricate and detailed . Carey would produce a hook or lyrics that Warren did not feel were a perfect fit . In the end , Foster felt that they worked " well together " . After recording the song , Carey invited Miguel to record the song with her as a duet . However , after recording his verses several times , Foster and Carey realized that the song would not turn out the way they planned . Foster said the song 's key was " too high for him " ; the voices did not harmonize well . Carey did not have time to re @-@ record her vocals in a lower key to accommodate Miguel 's verses . Miguel , furious over the failed collaboration , later sent a cut @-@ up tape of the demo to Foster . Carey , Warren , and Foster also wrote " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " , one of the other ballads featured on Rainbow .
= = Music and lyrics = =
As with Butterfly , songs for Rainbow were chosen to solidify Carey 's reputation as a multi @-@ genre artist . Throughout the first phase of her career , Carey 's albums predominantly consisted of pop and adult contemporary ballads . Rainbow mixed hip hop and R & B @-@ flavored upbeat songs with softer and lyrically intense ballads resembling those that Carey had previously recorded . " Heartbreaker " , Carey 's first collaboration with Jay @-@ Z , used a sample from " Attack of the Name Game " , recorded by Stacy Lattisaw , as its hook . The loop originated from " The Name Game " by Shirley Ellis ; Ellis and co @-@ writer Lincoln Chase are credited as songwriters on the track . Carey incorporated the hook into the song 's melody , and added instrumentation . Lyrically , the song chronicles the heartbreak the protagonist feels after learning of her lover 's infidelity . " Thank God I Found You " features vocals from Joe and 98 Degrees , as well as songwriting and production from Carey and Lewis . According to Carey , the song reflects on events in her own life at the time , with the lyrics describing the completion the protagonist feels after " finding " their lover . Joe provides the main male vocal throughout each verse , and 98 Degrees sing the background vocals and the bridge .
Prior to the album 's recording , Mariah and her sister , Alison Carey had a falling out in their relationship . Alison had contracted AIDS in 1988 , when she was 27 , and in 1994 she blamed Mariah for many of her problems and heartbreaks throughout the years . Her children were taken away while she received treatment for AIDS and for mental health issues . Carey wrote a song titled " Petals " , which she describes as the most honest lyrics she has ever written . The song tells of Carey 's feelings for her sister , while illustrating the pain Allison 's betrayal and suffering have caused . In an interview with Bronson , Carey described the meaning of the lyrics of " Petals " :
It is a great outlet for me to go into the studio and write a song like ' Petals ' , which is one of my most personal songs and remains one of my favorites . I think [ it had the most ] honest lyrics I 've ever written . The song chronicles a lot of past emotions I 've felt to certain people close to me , and the way I feel towards them and how their actions have impacted me personally . For that reason , I sang in my lower registers , trying to add that breathy effect to go hand in hand with the song 's composition .
" After Tonight " was a song Carey wrote with David Foster and Diane Warren . Carey had strong feelings about the song , as she wrote it about her relationship with Luis Miguel . The song was compared instrumentally to " My All " from Butterfly , which features traces of Latin and guitar instrumentation . In the lyrics , the protagonist asks her lover if he will still love her and come back to her " after tonight " . Carey 's cover of the Phil Collins song " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " was originally intended to be a solo ballad . The song was re @-@ done after the album was released , with music by the Irish band Westlife replacing the song 's instrumental bridge . " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " was one of the album 's most uplifting ballads , lyrically serving as an anthem for fans and listeners . The message , Carey said , was a personal theme of hers growing up , of not letting others " bring her down " and not allowing them to take away the light inside her . " How Much " is a duet with Usher and features a sample from Tupac Shakur 's " Me and My Girlfriend " .
= = Conflict with Sony = =
As with Butterfly two years earlier , Rainbow became the center of conflict between Carey and her label . After her divorce from Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola , Carey 's working relationship with the label deteriorated . She intended for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " to be the third single from Rainbow , as it held very personal lyrical content . However , Sony made it clear that they intended the third single should be a more upbeat and urban track . The difference in opinion led to a very public feud , as Carey began posting messages on her webpage in early and mid @-@ 2000 , telling fans inside information on the dispute , as well as instructing them to request " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " on radio stations . One of the messages Carey left on her page read :
Basically , a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive . It 's been really , really hard . I don 't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don 't know if they want you to hear this . I 'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people . But I am not willing to give up .
Carey 's actions were given mixed reception , with critics and executives commending her bold actions regarding a song she felt needed to be heard , while others criticized her for publicizing the dispute further . Soon after , Sony stripped Carey 's webpage of messages and began negotiations . Fearing to lose their label 's highest seller and the best @-@ selling artist of the decade , Sony chose to release the song . Carey , initially content with the agreement , soon found out that the song had only been given a very limited and low @-@ promotion release , which meant the song failed to chart on the official US chart , and made international charting extremely difficult and unlikely .
= = Critical reception = =
Rainbow garnered mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics . The album 's main criticism was its lack of originality , as it failed to improve upon her previous opus , Butterfly . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic awarded the album three out of five stars , complimenting it as " the first Carey album where she 's written personal lyrics , and allusions to her separation from Mottola . " He called the lyrics " true " and " deep " , but criticized the lack of originality . Erlewine alluded to Rainbow as " ballad @-@ heavy " and " repetitious " , writing how the album followed the formula of Carey 's previous album too precisely . Erlewine ended his review on a mixed note , writing " Rainbow proves that she can still pull off that difficult balancing act , but it 's hard not to be a little disappointed that she 'd didn 't shake the music up a little bit more – after all , it would have been a more effective album if the heartbreak , sorrow , and joy that bubbles underneath the music were brought to the surface . "
Arion Berger , an editor from Rolling Stone , also gave the album three out of five stars . He felt Rainbow was a genuine R & B and hip @-@ hop album , calling it a " sterling chronicle of the state of accessible hip @-@ hop balladeering at the close of 1999 . " Aside from calling some of the ballads " banal " , Berger concluded his review with " Rainbow is at its best — and Carey at her most comfortable — when urbane hip @-@ hop stylings and faux R & B coexist in smooth middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road harmony . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a two @-@ star honorable mention ( ) , indicating a " likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy . " Christgau cited " Heartbreaker " and " Crybaby " as highlights and quippedly called Carey " not a ' real ' r & b thrush , but good enough to fake it . " Amy Linden from Vibe was unimpressed with the album , writing " I don 't care about it anymore . " While complimenting the album 's genre influences and featured musical guests , Linden felt Rainbow was not original . She concluded her review with " ' Rainbow ' will garner her even more adoration . As for me ? I 'll be okay . " Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly gave Rainbow a B + , and concluded " what began on Butterfly as a departure ends up on Rainbow a progression – perhaps the first compelling proof of Carey 's true colors as an artist . " Elysa Gardner from the Los Angeles Times gave Rainbow three and a half out of four stars . She complimented the album 's strong blend of breezy R & B cuts , as well as the lyrically , vocally , and melodically strong ballads . " Exhibiting an emotional authority to match her technical prowess , Carey gives us a vision of love that 's dynamic without being ostentatious , " she wrote . Steve Jones from USA Today gave Rainbow three out of four stars , calling it " colorful " and " some of her most compelling work . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Rainbow debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart with 323 @,@ 000 units sold , the highest first @-@ week sales of Carey 's career at that time . In its second week , the album stayed at number two , selling an additional 228 @,@ 000 copies , barred from the top by Faith Hill 's Breathe . In its eighth week , Rainbow experienced its highest weekly sales — during the Christmas week of 1999 — selling 369 @,@ 000 copies , while placing at number nine . It became Carey 's first studio album since Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) to not reach the top position in the United States . In total , Rainbow stayed in the top twenty for ten weeks and on the chart for thirty @-@ five , making one re @-@ entry . It was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of three million copies throughout the United States . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album 's sales in the US are estimated at 2 @,@ 968 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , Rainbow debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart , and was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . Sales in Canada are estimated at 300 @,@ 000 units .
Rainbow debuted at number three on the Australian Albums Chart , staying within the chart for seven weeks . The album was platinumby the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album experienced strong success , debuting atop the albums chart and remaining inside the top forty for thirty @-@ four weeks . The album was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , with estimated sales of 900 @,@ 000 copies . In Germany , Rainbow peaked at number three , and received a platinum certification from the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units. in the United Kingdom Rainbow debuted at number eight and stayed within the top 100 for 20 weeks . Rainbow was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units . Additionally , Rainbow received triple @-@ platinum certification in Brazil , with 800 @,@ 000 copies , platinum in New Zealand , triple @-@ platinum in Spain , platinum in Argentina , gold in Belgium , platinum in the Netherlands , and gold in Switzerland . The album has sold 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
Five singles were released from Rainbow ; two were worldwide international releases and three were limited promotional releases . " Heartbreaker " , the album 's first worldwide release , became Carey 's fourteenth chart topper in the United States . Aside from staying atop the US chart for two weeks , the song reached the chart 's summit in Canada and New Zealand . Elsewhere , " Heartbreaker " achieved high charting , peaking within the top five in France and the United Kingdom , and within the top ten in Australia , Belgium , the Netherlands , Germany , and Switzerland . The song received mixed reviews from critics . Arion berger from Rolling Stone called the song Carey 's " most insinuating : nasal , silken , declarative , riding the percolating beat . " However , while dismissing some of the song 's vocals and the incorporation of the hook , he complimented its marriage of pop and hip @-@ hop through Jay @-@ Z 's verses . Robert Christgau named the song one of his favorites from Rainbow , calling it " real R & B " . The song 's music video became one of the most expensive music videos of all time , costing an estimated $ 2 @.@ 5 million . The video features Carey visiting a movie theater with her friends , where she finds her lover with another woman . " Thank God I Found You " was released as the second worldwide single from the album . While becoming Carey 's fifteenth chart topper in the US , the song achieved moderate chart success in Europe and other territories . Berger called it a " gospel soar " and complimented Carey 's vocals , as well as the harmonies by 98 Degrees . The music video features footage from a live concert with Carey and the band performing the song .
" Crybaby " and " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " were released simultaneously as a double A @-@ side , with very limited promotion from Sony . These two songs , especially the latter , became the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label , due to their alleged low promotion of the album . " Crybaby " was chosen as one of the album 's top songs by Christgau , who called it the album 's best attempt at R & B. Carey and Snoop Dogg were featured in the music video for " Crybaby " , with Carey playing an anxious woman who can 't sleep at night due to her lover 's infidelity . A music video for " Can 't Take That Away " was released around the same time , which features Carey on a rooftop garden . Carey sings during a rain storm , and towards the video 's conclusion , the sun arises , bring forth a " new day " . The final single from Rainbow , " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " , was given a limited release as well . After performing moderately around the world , a new version of the song , featuring Westlife , was released in Ireland and the United Kingdom . It became successful there , peaking at number one in both territories , and became Carey 's second UK chart topper . The song 's video features Carey and Westlife on a boat in Capri . Scenes of the group exploring the island are cut with scenes of them in the studio , though Carey never re @-@ recorded her vocals from the original version .
= = Promotion = =
Prior to the album 's release , Carey made an appearance on Pavarotti & Friends for Guatemala and Kosovo , performing " My All " and " Hero " alongside Luciano Pavarotti in a live duet . The concert benefit was filmed live in Modena , Italy , during the summer of 1999 and was released for sale on September 21 , with funds being donated to relief efforts for natural disasters in Guatemala and Kosovo . Carey made several live television and award show appearances at this time , and recorded her own Fox Broadcasting Company special , titled The Mariah Carey Homecoming Special . A mini @-@ concert filmed at Carey 's old high school in Huntington , New York , the special aired on Fox on December 21 , 1999 . Carey performed " Heartbreaker " and its accompanying remix at the MTV European Music Awards , held on November 11 , 1999 , in Dublin , Ireland . Additionally , the song was performed on The Oprah Winfrey Show , the British music chart program Top of the Pops , and The Today Show , which included a performance of " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " and " Hero " . " Thank God I Found You was performed live at the 2000 American Music Awards as well as on several European programs , including Top of the Pops and Friday Night 's All Wright in the United Kingdom , NRJ and Soulier d 'Or in France , Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , and Quelli che ... il Calcio in Italy . The album 's final two releases , " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " and " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " , were performed on The View and at the 2000 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards .
In order to promote Rainbow , Carey embarked of her fourth headlining and third worldwide tour . Titled the Rainbow World Tour , it included nineteen shows : six in Europe , four in Asia , eight in the United States , and one in Canada . For Carey 's previous two tours , she had only visited Europe and Asia , due to the mixed reception of her debut stateside tour in 1993 . However , after achieving record @-@ breaking ticket sales throughout Asia and instant sellouts in Europe , Carey felt secure enough to once again tour her native country . The set list featured songs from most of Carey 's previous studio albums , as well as some tracks from Rainbow . Missy Elliott and Da Brat served as opening acts for the US leg of the tour . Ticket sales were very strong ; the entire US leg sold out in a matter of days . The Asian and European leg mirrored the commercial success of her previous two tours . Reviews for the tour varied from positive to mixed . Some critics and fans reproached her of having a " tired and hoarse voice " , while others commented on Carey 's choice of wardrobe . Several critics and many concert @-@ goers praised the tour , calling it an intense celebration of Carey 's career .
= = Track listing = =
" Heartbreaker " contains a sample of " Attack of the Name Game " by Stacy Lattisaw .
" How Much " contains a sample of " Me and My Girlfriend " by Makaveli .
" Heartbreaker ( Remix ) " contains a sample of " Ain 't No Fun ( If The Homies Can 't Have None ) " by Snoop Dogg .
" Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " is a cover of " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " by Phil Collins .
" Crybaby " contains samples of " Piece of My Love " by Guy and " Georgy Porgy " by Toto .
" Did I Do That ? " Contains a sample of " It Ain 't My Fault 2 " by Silkk The Shocker .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= San Giorgio @-@ class cruiser =
The San Giorgio class consisted of two armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the first decade of the 20th century . The second ship , San Marco , was used to evaluate recently invented steam turbines in a large ship and incorporated a number of other technological advances . The ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , although San Giorgio was under repair for most of the war . San Marco supported ground forces in Libya with naval gunfire and helped them to occupy towns in Libya and islands in the Dodecanese . During World War I , the ships ' activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines , although they did bombard Durazzo , Albania in 1918 .
San Giorgio spent several years in the Far East and Italian Somaliland after the war and became a training ship in 1931 . After a brief deployment to Spain in 1936 , she was reconstructed to better serve her role as a training ship . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented when she was deployed to Tobruk , Libya to reinforce the port 's defenses after Italy declared war on Britain in May 1940 . San Giorgio was scuttled in early 1941 when Allied forces were poised to capture the port . Her wreck was salvaged in 1952 , but sank while under tow . San Marcos was converted into a target ship in the early 1930s and was found sunk at the end of the war . She was scrapped in 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
The San Giorgio class was ordered almost immediately after the preceding Pisa @-@ class ships , and was an improved version of that design . The forecastle was extended to improve seaworthiness , turret armor was increased , habitability was improved and the propulsion machinery was redistributed . San Marco was given the first steam turbines fitted in a large Italian ship for comparative purposes with San Giorgio , which retained the traditional vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines ( VTE ) . San Marco was a very innovative ship as she was the first turbine @-@ powered ship in any navy to have four propeller shafts , the first with a gyroscopic compass , the first with antiroll tanks , and the first not to use wood in any way .
The San Giorgio @-@ class ships had a length between perpendiculars of 131 @.@ 04 meters ( 429 ft 11 in ) and an overall length of 140 @.@ 89 meters ( 462 ft 3 in ) . They had a beam of 21 @.@ 03 meters ( 69 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 35 – 7 @.@ 76 meters ( 24 ft 1 in – 25 ft 6 in ) . The ships displaced 10 @,@ 167 – 10 @,@ 969 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 006 – 10 @,@ 796 long tons ) at normal load , and 11 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 900 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 100 – 11 @,@ 700 long tons ) at deep load . The ships had a complement of 32 officers and 666 to 673 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The machinery installation of this class was changed in comparison to that of the Pisa class , with the engines amidships with the 14 mixed @-@ firing water @-@ tube boilers fore and aft of the engines . Their exhausts were trunked together into two widely spaced pairs of funnels . Designed for a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) , the two ships were given different types of propulsion machinery for evaluation . San Giorgio 's two shafts , pair of 19 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) VTE steam engines and Blechynden boilers differed only slightly from those used by the Pisas . In contrast , San Marco 's four shafts , each driven by a license @-@ built Parsons steam turbine , was a first for the Regia Marina . The turbines used steam provided by Babcock & Wilcox boilers at a working pressure of 210 psi ( 1 @,@ 448 kPa ; 15 kgf / cm2 ) to reach their designed output of 23 @,@ 000 shp ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) . Both ships exceeded their designed speeds , with San Giorgio reaching 23 @.@ 2 knots ( 43 @.@ 0 km / h ; 26 @.@ 7 mph ) and San Marco 23 @.@ 75 knots ( 43 @.@ 99 km / h ; 27 @.@ 33 mph ) during their sea trials . The biggest difference between the sisters was that the turbines of San Marco proved to be significantly less economical in service ( a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 2 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 590 km ; 2 @,@ 850 mi ) at 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) ) compared to San Giorgio 's VTE steam engines ( 6 @,@ 270 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 610 km ; 7 @,@ 220 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 2 @,@ 640 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 890 km ; 3 @,@ 040 mi ) at 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the San Giorgio @-@ class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254 / 45 A Modello 1907 guns in electrically powered , twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The turrets had an arc of fire of 260 ° . The 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) gun fired 204 @.@ 1 – 226 @.@ 8 @-@ kilogram ( 450 – 500 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 870 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 850 ft / s ) . At maximum elevation of + 25 ° , the guns had a range of about 25 @,@ 000 meters ( 27 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships mounted eight Cannone da 190 / 45 A Modello 1908 in four electrically powered twin @-@ gun turrets , two in each side amidships , as their secondary armament . Their arc of fire was 160 ° . These Armstrong Whitworth 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) guns fired 90 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 200 lb ) AP shells at 864 – 892 m / s ( 2 @,@ 835 – 2 @,@ 927 ft / s ) . At maximum elevation of + 25 ° , the guns had a range of about 22 @,@ 000 meters ( 24 @,@ 000 yd ) .
For defense against torpedo boats , the San Giorgios mounted 18 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . Eight of these were mounted in embrasures in the sides of the hull and the rest in the superstructure . The ships were also fitted with a pair of QF 40 @-@ caliber 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The San Giorgio @-@ class ships were equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . During World War I , eight of the 76 mm guns were replaced by six 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and one torpedo tube was removed .
= = = Protection = = =
The ships were protected by an armored belt that was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) at the bow and stern . The belt was 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 ft 3 in ) high , of which 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) was below the waterline . The armored deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the conning tower armor was 254 mm thick . The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 200 mm of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
San Giorgio ran aground in August 1911 off Naples @-@ Posillipo ; heavily damaged , she was under repair until June 1912 , missing most of the Italo @-@ Turkish War . San Marco supported the occupations of Benghazi and Derna , Libya during the war and bombarded the fortifications defending the entrance to the Dardanelles . She also supported the forces occupying the island of Rhodes in May 1912 . In February 1913 , San Giorgio cruised the Aegean Sea and made a port visit to Salonica , Greece , the next month . She ran aground again on 21 November in the Strait of Messina , but was only slightly damaged .
During World War I , the activities of the ships were restricted by the threat of submarine attack after the armored cruisers Giuseppe Garibaldi and Amalfi were sunk by submarines shortly after Italy joined the war in May 1915 , although the ships did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo , Albania in late 1918 .
After the war , San Giorgio was deployed to the Far East while San Marcos played a minor role in the Corfu incident in 1923 . San Giorgio , escorted by San Marco , ferried Crown Prince Umberto to South America in July – September 1924 , and then supported operations in Italian Somaliland in 1925 – 26 . The ship was disarmed and converted into a radio @-@ controlled target ship in 1931 – 35 ; her old boilers were replaced by four oil @-@ burning ones which reduced her maximum speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied La Spezia on 9 September 1943 ; San Marcos was found at the end of the war half @-@ sunk in the harbor there and was broken up in 1949 .
From 1930 to 1935 , San Giorgio was based in Pola as a training ship , and was sent to Spain after the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 to protect Italian interests . In 1937 – 38 she was reconstructed to serve as a dedicated training ship for naval cadets at the Arsenale di La Spezia : six boilers were removed and the remaining eight were converted to burn fuel oil which reduced her speed to 16 – 17 knots ( 30 – 31 km / h ; 18 – 20 mph ) . Each pair of funnels was trunked together and her 76 / 40 guns were replaced by 47 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in four twin turrets abreast the funnels . Her torpedo tubes were also removed while she received a light AA suite for the first time , with the addition of six 54 @-@ caliber Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , a dozen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Breda Model 35 autocannon and four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda Model 31 machine guns in two twin mounts .
Prior to her being sent to reinforce the defenses of Tobruk in early May 1940 , a fifth 100 / 47 gun turret was added on the forecastle and five more twin 13 @.@ 2 mm machine gun mounts were added to better suit her new role as a floating battery . Two days after Italy declared war on Britain on 10 June , the British light cruisers Gloucester and Southampton bombarded Tobruk and attacked San Giorgio , which was not hit during the engagement . A British submarine fired two torpedoes at San Giorgio on 19 June , but these detonated before reaching the ship . The ship 's guns engaged Allied aircraft attacking Tobruk many times , destroying several . She was scuttled in shallow water on 22 January 1941 to prevent her capture during the Battle of Tobruk . San Giorgio was awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valour ( Medaglia d 'Oro al Valore Militare ) for her performance at Tobruk . Her wreck was refloated in 1952 , but sank under tow en route to Italy .
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= Oxford United F.C. =
Oxford United Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of Oxford , Oxfordshire , England . The team play in League One , the third tier of English football . The chairman is Darryl Eales , the head coach is Michael Appleton and the team captain is John Lundstram .
Founded in 1893 as Headington United , Oxford United adopted their current name in 1960 . They joined the Football League in 1962 after winning the Southern Football League , reaching the Second Division in 1968 . After relegation in 1976 , between 1984 and 1986 the club earned successive promotions into the First Division , and won the League Cup in 1986 . Oxford were unable to enter the 1987 UEFA Cup because of the UEFA ban on English clubs in European competitions . Relegation from the top flight in 1988 began an 18 @-@ year decline which saw the club relegated to the Conference in 2006 . This was the first time in the history of English football that a team that had won a major trophy was relegated from the Football League . After four seasons , Oxford were promoted to League Two in 2010 via the playoffs , and six seasons later were promoted to League One , after finishing 2nd in League Two in 2016 .
Ron Atkinson holds the club record for the most overall appearances with 560 , John Shuker holds the record for the most appearances in the Football League with 478 and Ron 's brother Graham Atkinson holds the record for the most goals scored with 107 . In total , nineteen players have made international appearances while playing for the club . United 's home ground is the Kassam Stadium in Oxford and has a capacity of 12 @,@ 500 . United moved to the stadium in 2001 after leaving the Manor Ground , their home for 76 years . Swindon Town is the club 's main rival .
= = History = =
= = = Headington United = = =
Oxford United were formed as Headington in 1893 , adding the suffix United in 1911 after merging with Headington Quarry . The club was founded by Rev. John Scott @-@ Tucker , the vicar at Saint Andrew 's Church in Headington , and a local doctor named Robert Hitchings . A football team was a way for the cricketers of Headington Cricket Club to maintain their fitness during the winter break . The first football match played was against Cowley Barracks . Headington had no regular home until 1913 , when they were able to purchase Wootten 's Field on London Road , but this was redeveloped in 1920 , forcing the club to move . A permanent home was found in 1925 , when they purchased the Manor Ground site on London Road . The facility was used as a cricket pitch in the summer , and a football pitch in the winter . In 1899 , six years after their formation , Headington United joined the Oxfordshire District League Second Division , where they competed until the outbreak of the First World War ; the Second Division was renamed the Oxfordshire Junior League after the resumption of football in 1919 . In 1921 the club was admitted into the Oxon Senior League . The first season included a 9 – 0 victory , with eight of those goals coming from P. Drewitt . This remains a record for the highest number of goals scored by an Oxford player in a first @-@ team match . At this time a small rivalry existed with Cowley F.C. , who were based a few miles south of Headington . During a league game on May Day , the referee gave two penalties to Cowley ; supporters broke past security and players , resulting in the referee being " freely baited " . The first FA Cup tie played was in 1931 , against Hounslow F.C. in the Preliminary Round , ending in an 8 – 2 defeat for Headington . United spent two seasons in the Spartan League in 1947 and 1948 , finishing fifth and fourth respectively . It was around this time that the cricket team left the Manor and moved to new premises near Cowley Barracks .
A move into professional football was first considered during the 1948 – 49 season . Vic Couling , the president at the time , had applied for Headington to become a member of a new Second Division in the Southern League . Other teams that applied included Weymouth , Kettering Town and future league side Cambridge United . Although the plans were postponed , the First Division was going to be expanded by two clubs ; Weymouth and Headington were elected . It was later discovered that Llanelli had just one vote fewer than Headington . Oxford played its first season in the Southern League in 1949 , the same year they turned professional . Former First Division forward Harry Thompson was hired as manager . In 1950 , Headington United became the first professional club in Britain to install floodlights , and used them on 18 December against Banbury Spencer . They initially played in orange and blue shirts , but changed to yellow home shirts for the 1957 – 58 season . The reason for the change is unknown . In 1960 , Headington United was renamed Oxford United , to give the club a higher profile .
= = = Football League rise = = =
Two years later , in 1962 , the club won the Southern League title for the second successive season and was elected to the Football League Fourth Division , occupying the vacant place left by bankrupt Accrington Stanley . Two successive eighteenth @-@ place finishes followed , before promotion to the Third Division was achieved in 1965 . A year before the promotion , Oxford became the first Fourth Division club to reach the sixth round of the FA Cup , but have not progressed that far in the competition since . Oxford won the Third Division title in 1967 – 68 , their sixth season as a league club , but after eight years of relative stability the club was relegated from the Second Division in 1975 – 76 .
In 1982 , as a Third Division side , Oxford United faced closure because of the club 's inability to service the debts owed to Barclays Bank , but were rescued when businessman Robert Maxwell took over the club . In April 1983 , Maxwell proposed merging United with neighbours Reading , to form a new club called the Thames Valley Royals , to play at Didcot . Jim Smith would have managed the club and been assisted by Reading boss Maurice Evans . The merger was called off as a result of fans of both clubs protesting against the decision . Furthermore , the Reading chairman stepped down and was replaced by an opponent of the merger . Maxwell also threatened to fold the club if the merger did not go through . Oxford won the Third Division title after the 1983 – 84 season under the management of Jim Smith , who also guided them to the Second Division title the following year . This meant that Oxford United would be playing First Division football in the 1985 – 86 season , 23 years after joining the Football League . Smith moved to Queens Park Rangers shortly after the promotion success , and made way for chief scout Maurice Evans , who , several seasons earlier , had won the Fourth Division title with Reading .
= = = First Division and cup success = = =
Oxford United finished eighteenth in the 1985 – 86 First Division , avoiding relegation on the last day of the season after defeating Arsenal 3 – 0 . They also won the Football League Cup , known at the time as the Milk Cup under a sponsorship deal . As winners , Oxford would have qualified for the following season 's UEFA Cup , had it not been for the ban on English teams that had resulted from the previous year 's Heysel Stadium disaster . After beating fellow First Division side Aston Villa in the semi @-@ final 4 – 3 on aggregate , Oxford faced Queens Park Rangers in the final , which was held at Wembley Stadium on 20 April 1986 . The game finished 3 – 0 with goals from Trevor Hebberd , Ray Houghton and Jeremy Charles . After the match long @-@ serving physiotherapist , 72 @-@ year @-@ old Ken Fish , collected one of the winners medals , instead of manager Maurice Evans . Evans felt that Fish deserved the medal for his service to the club , and so gave him his , in what was seen as an " unprecedented gesture " . It was the last time the League Cup was played under the name " Milk Cup " , with sponsors Littlewoods taking over the following season . The 1986 – 87 season saw Oxford United narrowly survive relegation and stay in the First Division . Robert Maxwell resigned as chairman in May 1987 , to take over at Derby County , handing the club to his son Kevin . Maurice Evans was sacked in March 1988 with Oxford bottom of the First Division .
Former Liverpool defender Mark Lawrenson was named as Oxford 's new manager , but was unable to prevent relegation to the Second Division . He was sacked three months into the 1988 – 89 Second Division campaign after a dispute with the chairman over the £ 1 million sale of striker Dean Saunders to Derby County ; Derby were owned by Robert Maxwell , father of the then Oxford United chairman , Kevin Maxwell . Following Robert Maxwell 's death in 1991 , his personal estate , including the club , became insolvent . After a long search for a new owner , during which BioMass Recycling Ltd took over the club , Brian Horton was named as Oxford 's new manager . He remained in charge until September 1993 , when he moved to Manchester City in the recently formed FA Premier League . Horton led United to mid @-@ table finishes during his management spell , apart from a 21st @-@ place finish at the end of the 1991 – 92 season . A 2 – 1 win over Tranmere Rovers , and a win for Blackburn Rovers over Plymouth Argyle , meant United survived relegation by two points . Oxford , now in the renamed Football League Division One , briefly restored Maurice Evans as manager , before turning to Bristol City manager Denis Smith . Despite Smith 's efforts , Oxford was relegated to Division Two at the end of the 1993 – 94 season , with just four wins in the last eleven games .
= = = Financial problems = = =
Denis Smith brought in two strikers who were experienced in the top division : Southampton 's Paul Moody and Nottingham Forest 's Nigel Jemson . Oxford finished seventh in 1994 – 95 season , and in the following season gained promotion by finishing runners @-@ up to rivals Swindon Town , despite not winning an away game till the end of January . Robin Herd , co @-@ owner of the March Racing Team , took control of the club in 1995 . In June of that year , the board of directors unveiled plans for a new 16 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium at Minchery Farm , to replace the dilapidated Manor Ground . The club had hoped to move into the new stadium near the Blackbird Leys housing estate by the start of the 1998 – 99 season , but construction was suspended during the preceding season , because construction company Taylor Woodrow had not been paid for the work already undertaken .
= = = Dropping through the divisions = = =
The 1996 – 97 season saw Oxford finish seventeenth , and included the sale of Scottish international defender Matt Elliott to Leicester City . Despite Smith 's departure to West Bromwich Albion in December 1997 , United finished twelfth the following season under his successor , and former captain , Malcolm Shotton . Shotton was previously the assistant manager of the Barnsley side that gained promotion to the Premier League . During October 1998 , the backroom staff at the club went unpaid , due to United 's financial situation with the new stadium , and the threat of administration caused a group of fans to set up a pressure group called Fighting for Oxford United 's Life ( FOUL ) . The group began to publicise the club 's plight through a series of meetings and events , including a ' Scarf of Unity ' , which was a collection of scarfs from various clubs which was long enough to stretch around the perimeter of the pitch . Chairman Robin Herd stepped down to concentrate on his engineering projects , and in April 1999 Firoz Kassam bought Herd 's 89 @.@ 9 % controlling interest in Oxford United for £ 1 , with which he also inherited the club 's estimated £ 15 million debt . Kassam reduced the £ 9 million of the debt to just £ 900 @,@ 000 , by virtue of a Company Voluntary Arrangement , by which unsecured creditors who were owed over £ 1 @,@ 000 were reimbursed with 10p for every pound they were owed . Secured creditors were paid off when Kassam sold the Manor to another of his companies , for £ 6 million . Kassam set about completing the unfinished stadium , gaining planning permission for a bowling alley , multiplex cinema and hotel next to the stadium , following a series of legal battles which were eventually all settled . The season ended with relegation back to the Second Division .
Oxford 's poor form continued into the 1999 – 2000 season and , with the team in the relegation zone , Shotton resigned in late October . After a few months with Mickey Lewis as player @-@ manager , former manager Denis Smith returned to the club , managing a twentieth @-@ place finish , one place clear of relegation . Smith 's second spell didn 't last long , and he was replaced by David Kemp a few weeks into the following campaign . At the end of the 2000 – 01 season , Oxford were relegated back to the Third Division after a 35 @-@ year absence , with 100 goals conceded . They suffered 33 league defeats , the second @-@ highest number of league defeats ever endured by a league club in a single season .
= = = Division Three years = = =
Oxford began the next season with a new manager and a new stadium , with the relocation to the Kassam Stadium completed after six years of speculation . Former Liverpool and England defender Mark Wright was given the manager 's job , but resigned in late November , after being accused of making racist remarks to referee Joe Ross . Wright 's successor , Ian Atkins , was unable to make an immediate impact and Oxford finished in 21st position in the league , at the time their lowest @-@ ever league position . United missed out on the play @-@ off places the following season , by one place and one point . Fifteen wins at the start of the 2003 – 04 season saw Oxford top of the table at the end of January . However , Ian Atkins was sacked in March after agreeing to take charge at rivals Bristol Rovers . His replacement , Graham Rix , could only manage a ninth @-@ place finish at the end of the season , and was sacked the following November . Oxford replaced him with Argentine Ramón Díaz , who managed the team to a mid @-@ table finish . Diaz and his team of assistants left the club at the beginning of May 2005 , after being banned from the ground by the chairman due to failed negotiations . During his time at the club , Diaz brought in a number of South American players including his own sons , and Juan Pablo Raponi . Ex @-@ England midfielder and former West Bromwich Albion manager Brian Talbot signed a two @-@ year contract to replace Rix . Talbot found little success and was sacked in March 2006 , with the club in 22nd place . He was replaced by youth team coach Darren Patterson .
On 21 March 2006 , Firoz Kassam sold the club for approximately £ 2 million , including the club 's debts , to Florida @-@ based businessman Nick Merry , who had played for United 's youth team in the mid @-@ 1970s . Merry immediately made changes to the club , including the hiring of former manager Jim Smith in his second spell . Despite signing five new players on his first day in charge , Smith was unable to prevent relegation at the end of the 2005 – 06 season . After 44 years in English league football , Oxford were relegated to the Conference National after finishing in 23rd place , becoming the first former winners of a major trophy to be relegated from the league . Coincidentally , Accrington Stanley , the side who went bankrupt in 1962 allowing United to be elected into the League , were one of the two teams promoted to replace them .
= = = Non @-@ league football = = =
Jim Smith was retained as manager for the following season , and it started positively for Oxford , with 14 wins and 8 draws from the opening 25 games . A run of eleven league games without a win followed , and saw United drop to second , where they remained until the end of the season . On Boxing Day 2006 , a crowd of 11 @,@ 065 watched United draw 0 – 0 with Woking at the Kassam Stadium , the largest @-@ ever attendance for a Conference match ( excluding play @-@ offs ) . Oxford qualified for the play @-@ offs by finishing second , but lost on penalties in the semi @-@ final to Exeter City .
On 9 November 2007 , Jim Smith resigned as manager and first @-@ team coach Darren Patterson returned as manager . In a lacklustre season which included defeats to Droylsden and Tonbridge Angels , camouflaged by a belated run of eight wins in the last eleven games , Oxford finished 9th in the Conference National in 2007 – 08 , 10 points off the last play @-@ off place .
On 2 October 2008 , Nick Merry stepped down as chairman to be replaced by Kelvin Thomas , who had been part of the management team at the time of Merry 's takeover . Just under two months later , Patterson was sacked after a poor run of form , and was replaced by former Halifax Town manager Chris Wilder . Following Wilder 's arrival , the team won 15 of the remaining 21 league matches that season . A 5 @-@ point deduction for fielding an unregistered player resulted in a seventh @-@ place finish , four points and two places short of the play @-@ offs .
Oxford led the table for most of the first half of the 2009 – 10 season , but dropped into the play @-@ off places after a poor run of form , finishing third . They beat Rushden & Diamonds over two legs to advance to the play @-@ off final against York City on 16 May 2010 . Oxford won the final 3 – 1 , to return to the Football League for the 2010 – 11 season . The attendance was 42 @,@ 669 , a new record for the final , with around 33 @,@ 000 being United fans .
= = = Return to the Football League = = =
Oxford 's first game back in the Football League was away to Burton , which finished in a 0 – 0 draw ; their first League win was on 4 September against Morecambe at the Kassam Stadium , with James Constable scoring a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 victory . They finished the season in 12th place .
The team spent much of the 2011 – 12 season in or around the playoff places , and achieved the double over rivals ( and eventual champions ) Swindon Town for the first time since the 1973 – 74 season . However , they failed to win any of their last seven matches and finished the season in 9th place , two places and four points outside the play @-@ offs .
Chairman Kelvin Thomas stepped down during the 2012 close season , to be replaced by owner Ian Lenagan . The 2012 – 13 season was blighted by injuries and patchy form : after opening the season with three wins and briefly heading the table , United lost their next six games , a pattern of inconsistency that was to continue throughout the season . United finished outside the play @-@ offs for the third consecutive season , but manager Chris Wilder was given a further one @-@ year contract in April 2013 . Some Oxford fans were unhappy about the decision to renew Wilder 's contract , having pressed for his sacking during the second half of the 2012 – 13 season .
After another bright start , Oxford led the table several times in the first half of the 2013 – 14 season . On 25 January 2014 , with the club faltering though still in the play @-@ off places , Wilder resigned as manager to take up the reins at relegation @-@ threatened Northampton . Mickey Lewis subsequently became the caretaker manager for a second time for the club . On 22 March 2014 , Gary Waddock was appointed the head coach of the club after a lengthy interview process , leaving his job as Head of Coaching at MK Dons . Under Lewis and Waddock , Oxford slipped out of the play @-@ off places in the final few weeks of the season , finishing a disappointing eighth in the table , nine points off the last playoff place .
In July 2014 , Waddock 's contract was terminated after a change of ownership and he was replaced by Michael Appleton . Waddock 's surprise sacking ensured he had the worst record of any Oxford manager , winning only once and losing seven times in his eight games in charge of the club . After an indifferent first season under Appleton , Oxford achieved promotion to League One in his second year in charge , finishing the 2015 – 16 season in 2nd place with 86 points .
= = Stadia = =
Oxford United had no regular home until 1913 , switching between the Quarry Recreation Ground , Wootten 's Field , Sandy Lane and Britannia Field , all in Headington . In 1913 they were able to purchase Wootten 's Field on London Road , however , this was redeveloped in 1920 before a stadium could be built . Having purchased the Sandy Lane site , the club developed and played at the Manor Ground between 1925 and 2001 . The ground was originally shared with Headington Cricket Club until 1949 , when they moved to Cowley Barracks . The capacity at closure was 9 @,@ 500 , but hosted United 's record crowd of 22 @,@ 750 against Preston North End in an FA Cup sixth @-@ round match on 29 February 1964 . The four stands were named after the roads they were positioned on : The North , East , South and West stands were called Cuckoo Lane , Osler Road , London Road and Beech Road respectively . In the 1990s , the Taylor Report was published calling for the improvement of football stadiums . The Manor Ground 's terracing was becoming redundant and redeveloping the ground was too costly , so the club decided to move to a purpose @-@ built all @-@ seater stadium on the outskirts of the city , costing in the region of £ 15 million . Construction work began in the early part of 1997 , but was suspended later that year due to the club 's financial problems . Construction of the new stadium resumed in 1999 following a takeover deal and the last league match at the Manor on 1 May 2001 saw a 1 – 1 draw with Port Vale . The site was sold for £ 12 million and the stadium was later demolished . The land is now occupied by a private hospital .
Since 2001 , Oxford United have played at the Kassam Stadium . The all @-@ seater stadium has a capacity of 12 @,@ 500 and has only three stands instead of the usual four ; when first planned in 1995 it was originally going to have a 16 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity , but by the time the stadium opened Oxford was playing in a lower division , so the smaller capacity was deemed adequate . Construction of the fourth stand is not expected to take place for several years , although foundations have already been put in place . The record attendance is 12 @,@ 243 , which was achieved in the final game of the 2005 – 06 season , when a defeat against Leyton Orient condemned them to relegation from the Football League . The average attendance in the previous season was 7 @,@ 415 , which was the second highest in League Two and the thirty @-@ fourth highest in the whole Football League . The average attendance was highest in the Conference in two out of the four years the team spent in the division , with the average in the other two years placing second , behind Exeter City and Cambridge United respectively . The stadium has also hosted rugby union matches , a woman 's international football match ( England v Sweden ) , an Under @-@ 17 international football tournament and music concerts .
= = Crest and colours = =
The club crest depicts an ox above a representation of a ford to symbolise the location . It reflects the name and history of the city , as Oxford was originally a market town situated near to a ford on the River Isis , which was used by cattle . In 2008 , a bronze statue of an ox was unveiled outside of what would have been the west stand . It was subsequently vandalised in January 2011 , being covered in pink paint and the club used the opportunity to raise money for a breast cancer charity . The shape and design of the crest has changed numerous times since it was first produced . When playing as Headington and during the early years of Oxford United , the crest included a full ox crossing the ford , as well as the initials H.U.F.C. ( pre @-@ 1962 ) or the name Oxford United ( post name @-@ change ) . Between 1972 and 1980 , the crest became circular , showing just the ox 's head on a yellow and black background . The words ' Oxford United Football Club ' were placed around the ox . For the next 17 years , the crest was simply the ox 's head coloured blue , with various combinations of wording surrounding it . For example , in the 1987 – 88 season , the wording 25th Anniversary was placed under the crest . In 1996 , the crest had a shield shape and contained the ox 's head over the ford , on a yellow background . This version was retained until the move to the Kassam Stadium in 2001 , when club steward Rob Alderman designed the current version . It has a similar design to the preceding crest , but the ox and ford are contained in a circle with a yellow background , with the remainder of the crest being coloured blue .
While playing as Headington United , orange and blue striped shirts were worn with navy shorts and socks . The design of the shirt changed regularly , with the stripes being changed every few seasons . After joining the Southern League , the blue stripes were lost for good and a lighter shade of orange was used for the shirt . The yellow kit was first worn during the 1957 – 58 season , with black shorts and yellow socks . During the late 1970s and early 1980s , the black shorts were first replaced with yellow ones , and then with light blue shorts . Since the early 1990s , the strip has been composed of the yellow shirt and navy coloured shorts and socks . A large variety of away kits has been used over the years , ranging from red and black stripes on the shirts , to a fully white kit . The first sponsor to appear on the shirt was Sunday Journal , a local newspaper , in 1982 . Between 1983 and 1985 , there were three sponsors : BPCC , Pergamon and the Sunday People . Following those were Wang Laboratories ( 1985 to 1989 ) , Pergamon ( 1989 to 1991 ) , Unipart ( 1991 to 2000 ) , Domino ( 2000 to 2001 ) and Buildbase ( from the move to the Kassam Stadium in 2001 to 2010 ) . Following the return to the Football League , Bridle Insurance were announced as new shirt sponsors . The Bridle deal ended after the conclusion of the 2012 – 13 season . The home sponsor for the 2013 – 14 season was announced as Animalates , with the away kit being sponsored by Isinglass Consulting for that same season after winning an innovative prize draw . That one @-@ year deal with Isinglass was extended for the 2014 – 15 season , again featuring on the away kits only .
= = Supporters and rivals = =
Oxford have a number of independent supporters ' clubs and groups such as OxVox ( the Oxford United Supporters ' Trust ) with a current membership of over 400 , and the Oxford United Exiles . OxVox was formed in 2002 , to replace the disbanded FOUL group , which broke up after the immediate future of the club was secured . It was the fiftieth supporters trust created under the Supporters ' trust banner . The club itself also runs a Juniors club , aimed at younger fans and offering a number of bonuses to the club 's members such as birthday cards and a free T @-@ shirt . The official matchday programme for home games costs £ 3 and was voted best Conference Premier Programme of the Year for the 2007 – 08 season . A number of songs are sung during home games , such as " Yellow Submarine " ( with adapted lyrics ) and songs relating to the old Manor Ground .
The club have a number of celebrity supporters , including Richard Branson , Timmy Mallett , Tim Henman and Jim Rosenthal . The club 's mascot is Ollie the Ox . United were the best @-@ supported club in the Conference National before Luton Town joined the division . The home match between Oxford and Luton , which drew a crowd of 10 @,@ 600 , was used to highlight the passion for English football during the 2018 World Cup bid . In 2009 , a " 12th man fund " was set up by a group of supporters in order to provide additional transfer funds to the club . As a result , the number 12 shirt was retired at the start of the 2009 – 10 season . The fund raised over £ 40 @,@ 000 and resulted in the signings of Mehdi Kerrouche ( on loan ) and Jamie Cook , amongst others .
Oxford 's main rivals are Swindon Town , with Reading seen as the other rival team . To a lesser extent , Wycombe Wanderers and Luton Town are also seen as rivals . The rivalry with Swindon stems from the clubs ' close proximity , as well as the fact they have played each other 55 times since 1962 . Oxford ( Headington ) and Swindon met a few times in non @-@ competitive fixtures before 1962 . The earliest match on record was a friendly in the 1950 – 51 season at Headington . They also played each other in 1954 – 55 both home and away , and at Headington during 1958 – 59 . All programmes are fairly scarce , with the single sheet issued at Swindon being very rare . The 1962 – 63 game was a testimonial , with the first league meetings coming in 1965 – 66 . During the height of football hooliganism , trouble flared up between the sets of fans . In 1998 , 19 Swindon supporters were arrested during a match at the County Ground , while in 2002 there was an incident between supporters after Oxford fans returned from an away fixture . In 2011 , vandals burned the initials STFC into the Kassam Stadium 's pitch . Oxford fans use nicknames when talking about Swindon such as moonraker , in reference to the myth that they tried to rake the reflection of the moon out of a pond . The rivalry with Reading was heightened during the chairmanship of Robert Maxwell , because of his desire to merge the two clubs . This was met with strong opposition from both sets of fans , with United supporters staging a " sit @-@ in " on the pitch before a game against Wigan in protest . Despite being the second team in the city , there is less rivalry with Oxford City because of their lower position in the pyramid system ( there have been no competitive matches between the two since 1959 ) .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 20 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Development squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Backroom staff = =
The board
Owners : Ian Lenagan and Darryl Eales
Chairman : Darryl Eales
Chief Executive : Mark Ashton
Non @-@ Executive Director : Mike O 'Leary
Non @-@ Executive Director : Frank Waterhouse
Club officials
Club Secretary : Mick Brown
Marketing Manager : Gerald Kelly
Communications Manager : Chris Williams
Coaching and medical staff
Head Coach : Michael Appleton
Assistant Head Coach : Derek Fazackerley
First Team Coach : Chris Allen
Goalkeeping Coach : Wayne Brown
Academy Manager : Les Taylor
Youth Team Coach : Andy Whing
Head of Sports Science : Scott Daly
Head Physio : Andrew Proctor
Sport Therapist : Jon Elliot
Video Analysis : Dan Bond
Head of Performance and Recruitment analysis : Mark Thomas
= = Managerial history = =
The first manager appointed was Harry Thompson in July 1949 , soon after the club turned professional . In a nine @-@ year spell he led the team to the Southern League title in 1953 , as well as the Southern League Cup in 1953 and 1954 . He was replaced by Arthur Turner in 1958 , who would become the longest @-@ serving manager in the club 's history , serving more than a decade in charge . Turner led United to back @-@ to @-@ back Southern League titles , of which the second , in 1962 , resulted in their election to the Football League . Promotion followed from the Fourth Division in 1965 , and the club were crowned Third Division champions three years later . Turner left the club nine months after this success . Over the next thirteen years , five managers took charge . Ron Saunders was in charge for only a dozen games , moving to Norwich City at the end of the 1968 – 69 season . Gerry Summers was manager for six years , before being replaced by Mick Brown . During Brown 's four @-@ year run , United were relegated back to the Third Division after spending eight years in the Second .
Jim Smith started his first spell as manager in 1981 , and led Oxford into the top tier of English football after consecutive promotions as champions in 1984 and 1985 . However , he moved to Queens Park Rangers before the 1985 – 86 season . New manager , former chief scout Maurice Evans , had immediate success winning the 1986 League Cup , beating his predecessor 's new club in the final . For the next 24 years , the only manager to guide the club to promotion was Denis Smith , who won promotion from the Second Division in 1996 . Ramón Díaz , the club 's first and only non @-@ British manager , took charge for five months between December 2004 and May 2005 . Jim Smith returned as manager in 2006 , the year that Oxford United were relegated to the Football Conference after 44 years in the Football League . Having missed out on promotion in the 2006 – 07 season , Smith resigned and Darren Patterson was promoted to the post on 9 November 2007 . Patterson was sacked over a year later and was replaced by Chris Wilder , who lead the club back into the Football League by winning the 2010 Conference playoff Final and remained with the club for five years before resigning in January 2014 . Gary Waddock was appointed head coach on 22 March 2014 , but was sacked on 4 July 2014 following a change of shareholding in the club , to be replaced by Michael Appleton .
Since turning professional , the club has had 23 full @-@ time managers , of whom three ( Jim Smith , Denis Smith and Darren Patterson ) have had more than one spell in the post , and nine periods of caretaker @-@ management .
= = Honours = =
Southern League
Premier Division Champions : 1952 – 53 , 1960 – 61 , 1961 – 62
Premier Division Runners @-@ up : 1953 – 54 , 1959 – 60
Southern League Cup
Winners : 1952 – 53 , 1953 – 54
Football League
Before the Premier League
Second Division : Champions 1984 – 85
Third Division : Champions 1967 – 68 , 1983 – 84
Fourth Division : Promoted ( 3rd ) 1964 – 65
After the formation of the Premier League
Division Two : Runners @-@ up 1995 – 96
League Two : Runners @-@ up 2015 – 16
Football Conference
Conference National Play @-@ off winners : 2009 – 10
League Cup
Winners : 1985 – 86
Football League Trophy
Runners @-@ up : 2015 – 16
= = Records = =
The largest recorded home attendance was during a match against Preston North End in the sixth round of the FA Cup , at the Manor Ground , on 29 February 1964 . The attendance was 22 @,@ 750 , which exceeded the stadium 's capacity , so scaffolding was needed in order to create temporary stands for the additional supporters . The largest attendance at the Kassam Stadium for a football match was 12 @,@ 243 during the final game of the 2005 – 06 League Two season against Leyton Orient . Oxford 's largest @-@ ever scoreline was a 9 – 1 win in the FA Cup first round versus Dorchester Town on 11 November 1995 . In the league , their largest win was 7 – 0 versus Barrow in Division Four . Their largest defeat was 7 – 0 away to Sunderland in 1998 . Their longest unbeaten run in the league was 20 matches in 1984 . John Shuker holds the record for the most league appearances with 478 between 1962 and 1977 . John Aldridge holds the record for most league goals scored in a season in the 1984 – 85 season , scoring 30 . Graham Atkinson holds the record for the most league goals with 97 , as well as most overall goals with 107 . The most capped player in internationals is Jim Magilton , with 18 caps for Northern Ireland . The largest amount of money Oxford have received by selling a player was an estimated £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for Kemar Roofe 's transfer to Leeds United in July 2016 . The largest transfer fee Oxford have paid was £ 470 @,@ 000 for Dean Windass ' transfer from Aberdeen in August 1998 . Oxford are also the only team in history to be promoted consecutively from Division Three to the First Division as Champions .
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= You and Me ( Lifehouse song ) =
" You and Me " is a song by American alternative rock band Lifehouse . It is the first single released from their eponymous third studio album , Lifehouse ( 2005 ) . The track was written by lead singer Jason Wade and American record producer Jude Cole . It was recorded and produced by John Alagía at his home studio in Easton , Maryland . The song was first released via digital download on January 28 , 2005 . It was then solicited to mainstream radio on March 15 , 2005 . An extended wedding version of the song was then released on July 26 , 2005 . Musically , " You and Me " is a melodic pop rock song which , by today 's standards , has a notably high emphasis on acoustics . It also contains influences of adult alternative .
The song received positive reviews from critics , who noted that the song was more mellow and stripped @-@ down than their previous singles . It became a commercial success , charting in the top five in the United States and also charting in Australia and New Zealand . On May 19 , 2005 , the song was certified Gold by the RIAA for selling more than 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States . In 2005 , it became the ninth most downloaded song , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Because of its success , it appeared as the number one song on Billboard 's list of Top 40 Adult Pop Songs from 1996 – 2011 on March 16 , 2011 . A music video for the song premiered on MTV.com on March 21 , 2005 , and features a couple as Wade sings in a train station . " You and Me " has appeared on many television shows , including Smallville , Grey 's Anatomy , The Vampire Diaries , Cold Case and Gavin & Stacey .
= = Background and release = =
The song was written by Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade and American record producer Jude Cole . It was recorded and produced by John Alagía at his home studio in Easton , Maryland . In an interview with MTV , Wade explained his experience working with Alagía , and said , " When we walked into John 's house , we didn 't know what to expect , and we get in there and the mixing board is in the living room , the B3 [ organ ] is in the kitchen and the piano is over there . And he 's so nonchalant about all his stuff — there 'd be a triple @-@ platinum Dave Matthews Band plaque sticking out from under the bed . " " You and Me " was first released via digital download on January 28 , 2005 . It was then solicited to mainstream radio on March 15 , 2005 . An extended wedding version of the song was released on July 26 , 2005 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" You and Me " was described as a pop rock song with influences of adult alternative . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout described the song as " a tender acoustic love ballad " noting how the song was " noticeably more mellow and stripped @-@ down than the band 's previous singles . " Ultimate Guitar called the song " a tender love @-@ ballad " and noted how it would be " a perfect soundtrack for a wedding . " Alternative Addiction said that the song was embraced by fans in the same way " Hanging by a Moment " was when Lifehouse started as a band . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in 6 / 8 time with a " slow " tempo of 46 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of G major with Wade 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of C3 to the high @-@ note of E4 . The song has a basic chord progression of G5 – G5 / C – G5 / F ♯ – G5 / B – Em7 – Dsus4 – C.
= = Chart performance = =
" You and Me " debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of February 12 , 2005 . It stayed on the chart for 62 non @-@ consecutive weeks , and eventually peaked at number five . On the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , the song debuted at number 29 for the week of July 23 , 2005 . It eventually peaked at number one after it stayed on the chart for 34 non @-@ consecutive weeks . The song debuted at number 29 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart for the week of February 19 , 2005 . After moving around the chart for 39 consecutive weeks , the song peaked at number one for nine non @-@ consecutive weeks . Because of its success on the chart , " You and Me " became the number one song on Billboard 's list of the Top 40 Adult Pop Songs from 1996 – 2011 on March 16 , 2011 . On the Billboard Digital Songs chart , the song debuted at number 38 for the week of April 23 , 2005 . After moving around the chart for 31 non @-@ consecutive weeks , the song eventually peaked at number three . " You and Me " debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart during the week of May 21 , 2005 . It eventually peaked at number four after it spent 26 consecutive weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Radio Songs chart , the track debuted at number 74 during the week of May 21 , 2005 . It proceeded to move around the chart for 26 consecutive weeks , until it eventually peaked at number nine . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " You and Me " was the ninth top selling digital song of 2005 . On May 19 , 2005 , " You and Me " was certified Gold by the RIAA for selling more than 500 @,@ 000 units of the song .
The song also managed to achieve international success . In Australia , the song debuted at number 30 on the ARIA Charts for the week of May 29 , 2005 . That later became its peak after it spent four weeks on the chart . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " You and Me " debuted at number 39 , which later became its peak after it spent only one week on the chart during the week of October 31 , 2005 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Television appearances = =
On April 20 , 2005 , Lifehouse made an appearance in the Smallville episode " Spirit " and performed " You and Me " among other songs . It also appeared in the The 4400 episode " Life Interrupted " on July 17 , 2005 . Several months later , " You and Me " also made an appearance in the Grey 's Anatomy 's episode " Much Too Much " that premiered on November 27 , 2005 . The song appeared in the Everwood episode " Getting to Know You " on December 8 , 2005 and in the Cold Case episode " One Night " on March 19 , 2006 . On May 13 , 2007 , the song appeared in the pilot episode of Gavin & Stacey .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video , directed by Bill Yukich , premiered on MTV.com on March 21 , 2005 . It was then released on iTunes for digital download on March 30 , 2005 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts with a woman exiting the taxi and going to the Los Angeles Union Station . A man exits a car and follows her . Wade then plays the first verse and first chorus in the waiting area of the L. A. Union Station . As the band plays the second verse , they are shown playing at the rooftop with Iron Mountain clearly visible . When the chorus plays again , they are shown at the roof with lights from the buildings of Los Angeles at night . When Wade sings the bridge , he is on the roof of the Roosevelt Hotel in Hollywood Boulevard . The man and the woman are also seen running in the boarding area of the Los Angeles Union Station . They later meet up and kiss in one of the boarding platforms of the station in front of a train which later starts to move . The video ends with the band sitting down in the waiting hall .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Jason Wade , Jude Cole
Production – John Alagía
Mixing – Jeff Juliano
Engineering – Pete Hanlon , Jeff Juliano , Nathaniel Kunkel
Source : Allmusic
= = Chart performance = =
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= No. 86 Wing RAAF =
No. 86 Wing is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport and air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling wing . Coming under the control of Air Mobility Group , it is headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The wing comprises No. 33 Squadron , operating Airbus KC @-@ 30 tanker @-@ transports , No. 36 Squadron , operating Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports , No. 38 Squadron , operating Beech King Air 350 light transports , and the Australian Army 's 68 Ground Liaison Section . Its aircraft support Australian military and humanitarian operations worldwide .
Formed in the last year of World War II to undertake ground attack missions with de Havilland Mosquitos and Bristol Beaufighters in the South West Pacific theatre , No. 86 Wing was reorganised in 1946 as a transport formation headquartered at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . It relocated to RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , in 1949 and began operating Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules in 1958 . Disbanded in 1964 , the wing was re @-@ established at Richmond in 1987 , flying Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports as well as the Hercules . No. 36 Squadron converted to Globemasters in 2006 . No. 33 Squadron retired its 707s in 2008 , and did not become operational with the KC @-@ 30 until 2013 . Having previously flown de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous , No. 38 Squadron converted to the King Airs in 2009 . The Hercules were transferred to No. 84 Wing in 2010 . No. 86 Wing headquarters relocated from Richmond to Amberley in January 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Attack formation ( 1945 – 46 ) = = =
Established in March 1945 under the command of Group Captain J.M. Whyte , No. 86 ( Attack ) Wing comprised two flying units , No. 1 Squadron operating de Havilland Mosquitos and No. 93 Squadron operating Bristol Beaufighters . The wing was initially based on the island of Morotai in the South West Pacific theatre , as part of the Australian First Tactical Air Force . Its order of battle for Operation Oboe Six , the assault on north @-@ west Borneo commencing in June , included Nos. 1 and 93 Squadrons , No. 84 Operational Base Unit , No. 30 Air Stores Park , No. 29 Medical Clearing Station , and No. 1 Repair and Servicing Unit — a total of over 1 @,@ 400 personnel . Delays getting the aircraft operational at their forward base on Labuan meant that the wing only completed three combat missions before the end of the Pacific War , conducting rocket and machine @-@ gun attacks on targets in Sarawak during August 1945 . No. 1 Squadron took part in one operation and No. 93 Squadron in two ; each unit lost one aircraft in action .
No. 86 Wing was originally to have been augmented by a third combat unit , No. 94 Squadron , flying Mosquitos . Formed in May 1945 , the squadron was still undergoing training when the war ended , and it was disbanded at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , in January 1946 . In December 1945 , shortly after the end of the Pacific War , the commanding officer of No. 93 Squadron , Squadron Leader D.K.M. Gulliver , crashed his Beaufighter on takeoff at Labuan , colliding with two P @-@ 51 Mustangs of No. 77 Squadron parked at the airfield ; Gulliver and five people on the ground died in the accident , including the then @-@ Officer Commanding No. 86 Wing , Group Captain L.C.M. Holswich . Between January and March 1946 , the Beaufighters escorted Mustangs of No. 81 Wing to Japan for service as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . In August that year , Nos. 1 and 93 Squadrons disbanded at Narromine , New South Wales .
= = = Initial transport formation ( 1946 – 64 ) = = =
Re @-@ formed at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , in July 1946 , No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing was assigned control of Nos. 36 , 37 , and 38 Squadrons , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The wing was augmented by No. 386 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , formed in August . The Dakotas initially flew supply missions to the Australian @-@ administered Territory of Papua and New Guinea , as well as three @-@ times weekly courier flights to Japan in support of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . The latter schedule continued until December 1947 , when the service was taken over by Qantas Avro Lancastrians . No. 37 Squadron disbanded in February 1948 . In August that year , crews from Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons departed for Europe to take part in the Berlin Airlift , a commitment that lasted almost a year . The Australians were responsible for delivering over 16 million tons of supplies , and almost 8 @,@ 000 passengers . No. 386 Squadron disbanded in March 1949 and re @-@ formed as Station Headquarters at Schofields . On 22 June , No. 86 Wing , comprising Nos. 36 , 38 and 486 Squadrons , relocated to the nearby RAAF Station Richmond . Following the return of crews from Berlin , the wing was able to release No. 38 Squadron and its Dakotas to participate in the Malayan Emergency , under the control of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , commencing in June 1950 . Having airlifted more than 17 @,@ 000 passengers and evacuated over 300 injured troops , the squadron left Malaya in November 1952 and returned to No. 86 Wing at Richmond . A month earlier , the wing 's Dakotas had flown supply and observation flights in connection with the British atomic test on Montebello in Western Australia . No. 36 Squadron disbanded at Richmond on 9 March 1953 , re @-@ forming the next day from No. 30 Transport Unit at Iwakuni , Japan . Here it was part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which controlled the RAAF 's units during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . The squadron returned to Australia and the aegis of No. 86 Wing two years later , following the disbandment of No. 91 Wing .
In 1954 , No. 86 Wing relocated to Canberra to help satisfy the Federal government 's VIP transport needs . It returned to Richmond four years later , leaving behind its VIP contingent , No. 34 Flight , which in July 1959 was re @-@ formed as No. 34 Squadron and left the control of No. 86 Wing to become an independent unit directly administered by Home Command and tasked by RAAF Canberra . Having earlier augmented its complement of Dakotas with Convair 440 Metropolitans , in December 1958 the wing began operating Lockheed Hercules medium transports , when No. 36 Squadron took delivery of the first of twelve C @-@ 130As . They remained in service for twenty years , clocking up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . When No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing and its two squadrons of CAC Sabres deployed to RAAF Base Butterworth between October 1958 and February 1959 , seven Dakotas were required to ferry the staff and equipment of No. 3 Squadron from Australia to Malaya , compared to two Hercules for No. 77 Squadron . In 1962 , Air Movements and Training Flight ( AMTF ) , previously under No. 38 Squadron and responsible for developing and imparting new techniques in aerial transport , came directly under the control of No. 86 Wing headquarters . That December , the Hercules made their first troop @-@ carrying flights into a combat zone , when one of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130s joined a Commonwealth airlift from Singapore to Borneo at the commencement of the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia ; similar missions would be undertaken for a further five years .
No. 38 Squadron received the RAAF 's first de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transports in April 1964 , replacing its Dakotas . The first six Caribous were despatched that August to South East Asia for service in the Vietnam War as RAAF Transport Flight Vietnam ( RTFV ) . The same month , No. 86 Wing was disbanded . Because the Caribous were primarily for support of the Australian Army , an overarching wing headquarters for the Caribous and Hercules was now considered inappropriate . No. 486 Squadron was also disbanded and its equipment and staff divided between Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons , which along with AMTF became independently operating units under the command of Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond . Following the re @-@ establishment at Richmond of No. 37 Squadron in February 1966 , flying C @-@ 130E Hercules , No. 486 Squadron was re @-@ formed to provide maintenance for both Hercules squadrons . As No. 36 Squadron 's tasking was mainly tactical and No. 37 Squadron 's strategic ( owing to the longer range of its C @-@ 130Es ) , forming the Hercules units into a new wing was not deemed necessary . Continuing to be based at Richmond , the Hercules provided long @-@ range transport and medical evacuation services to and from South East Asia during the Vietnam War . No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130As were replaced by C @-@ 130H models in 1978 . RTFV was re @-@ formed as No. 35 Squadron in June 1966 , and continued to serve in Vietnam until Australian forces were withdrawn in 1972 ; it was then based in Richmond until 1976 , when it relocated to RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland . No. 38 Squadron meanwhile continued to operate Caribous out of Richmond until 1992 , when it transferred to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . In the Vietnam and post @-@ Vietnam eras , along with their military transport duties , the Hercules and Caribou undertook disaster relief operations throughout Australia and the Pacific .
= = = Current transport formation ( 1987 – ) = = =
No. 86 Wing re @-@ formed at Richmond on 2 February 1987 , under the newly established Air Lift Group ( ALG ) , which replaced Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond . Commanded by Group Captain G.I. Lumsden , the wing 's flying units consisted of No. 33 Squadron , operating Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports , and Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons , operating C @-@ 130H and C @-@ 130E Hercules , respectively ; No. 486 Maintenance Squadron and Air Movements Training and Development Unit ( AMTDU ) , which had evolved from AMTF in 1965 , were also under its control . No. 486 Squadron was responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance of the 707s as well as the Hercules . No. 34 Squadron , the VIP transport unit based at RAAF Base Fairbairn in Canberra , and No. 32 Squadron , flying Hawker Siddeley HS 748 air navigation trainers at RAAF Base East Sale in Victoria , became part of No. 86 Wing in June 1988 and July 1989 , respectively . In 1992 , the Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons clocked up a grand total of 500 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours ; Lockheed presented No. 86 Wing with a trophy to commemorate the milestone . During 1994 – 95 , the wing was commanded by Group Captain ( later Air Chief Marshal ) Angus Houston , who in 2005 was appointed Chief of the Defence Force , only the third RAAF officer to be raised to the top position in the Australian armed services . By mid @-@ 1996 , No. 32 Squadron had been transferred to No. 84 Wing , which was also controlled by ALG . In 1998 , No. 86 Wing received the Duke of Gloucester Cup as the most proficient wing in RAAF Air Command . No. 486 Squadron was disbanded in October that year , after transferring its functions to Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons . By then , Nos. 35 and 38 Squadrons , flying Caribous out of RAAF Bases Townsville and Amberley , respectively , had joined the Hercules squadrons and AMTDU under the aegis of No. 86 Wing , while Nos. 33 and 34 Squadrons had been transferred to No. 84 Wing , now also headquartered at Richmond . Later , AMTDU became part of No. 85 Wing at Richmond . No. 37 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Es were replaced by C @-@ 130J models in 1999 . No. 35 Squadron transferred its Caribous to No. 38 Squadron in 2000 , and was " formally deactivated " in March 2002 . RAAF C @-@ 130 operations were concentrated in No. 37 Squadron in November 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to re @-@ equipping with the Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports and relocating to Amberley . No. 38 Squadron 's Caribous were retired at the end of 2009 , and replaced by Beech King Air 350 light transports . No. 37 Squadron was transferred to No. 84 Wing in October 2010 .
The aircraft operated by No. 86 Wing became well known to the general public through their involvement in disaster relief and emergency transport in Australia and the region , along with their participation in overseas peacekeeping efforts . Hercules and 707s were employed by the Federal government to provide air transport during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines in 1989 , evacuated Australian nationals from the Middle East during the first Gulf War in 1990 – 91 , and transported Australian troops to and from Somalia as part of Operation Solace in 1993 . Since the end of the Vietnam War , much of the RAAF 's transport tasking had been relatively routine in nature , or involved humanitarian relief ; the Somalia operation marked the beginning of a shift for No. 86 Wing towards a more combat @-@ ready or " operational " focus . Six Hercules evacuated over 450 civilians from Cambodia following the coup in July 1997 . Two detachments from the wing , one of Hercules and one of Caribous , supported INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2001 . Wing operations staff accompanied Hercules of Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons on relief efforts following the Bali Bombings in October 2002 . In February 2003 , a rotating detachment of three Hercules deployed to the Persian Gulf to support the Australian contribution to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , amassing 20 @,@ 000 operational flying hours by March 2010 . From July 2003 to July 2004 , Caribous undertook reconnaissance and transport missions during the Solomon Islands intervention . No. 36 Squadron Hercules took part in Operation Sumatra Assist in the wake of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami . The RAAF 's contribution to Operation Papua New Guinea Assist , following Cyclone Guba in November 2007 , included a Globemaster , two Hercules , and three Caribous . In September 2008 , a Globemaster undertook the type 's first aeromedical evacuation in RAAF service , transporting five injured Australian troops to Amberley from Tarin Kowt in Afghanistan . Globemasters , Hercules and King Airs were all employed for flood relief in Queensland and Victoria early in 2011 . In February that year , Globemasters and Hercules transported medical staff and equipment to aid victims of the Christchurch earthquake . The following month , a Globemaster flew 23 sorties in Japan supporting relief efforts after the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , while two other Globemasters delivered a water cannon to help contain damage at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant .
On 1 January 2012 , No. 86 Wing headquarters relocated from Richmond to Amberley . ALG was renamed Air Mobility Group on 1 April 2014 . No. 86 Wing 's current complement is : No. 33 Squadron , which became operational with the Airbus KC @-@ 30 tanker @-@ transport after receiving the fourth of its aircraft in March 2013 ; No. 36 Squadron , which took delivery of its eight and last Globemaster in November 2015 ; No. 38 Squadron , operating King Airs ; and the Australian Army 's 68 Ground Liaison Section . All units are based at Amberley , with the exception of No. 38 Squadron , located at Townsville .
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= John von Neumann =
John von Neumann ( / vɒn ˈnɔɪmən / ; Hungarian : Neumann János Lajos , pronounced [ ˈnɒjmɒn ˈjaːnoʃ ˈlɒjoʃ ] ; December 28 , 1903 – February 8 , 1957 ) was a Hungarian @-@ American pure and applied mathematician , physicist , inventor , computer scientist , and polymath . He made major contributions to a number of fields , including mathematics ( foundations of mathematics , functional analysis , ergodic theory , geometry , topology , and numerical analysis ) , physics ( quantum mechanics , hydrodynamics and quantum statistical mechanics ) , economics ( game theory ) , computing ( Von Neumann architecture , linear programming , self @-@ replicating machines , stochastic computing ) , and statistics .
He was a pioneer of the application of operator theory to quantum mechanics , in the development of functional analysis , and a key figure in the development of game theory and the concepts of cellular automata , the universal constructor and the digital computer . He published 150 papers in his life : 60 in pure mathematics , 20 in physics , and 60 in applied mathematics . His last work , an unfinished manuscript written while in the hospital , was later published in book form as The Computer and the Brain .
His mathematical analysis of the structure of self @-@ replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA . In a short list of facts about his life he submitted to the National Academy of Sciences , he stated " The part of my work I consider most essential is that on quantum mechanics , which developed in Göttingen in 1926 , and subsequently in Berlin in 1927 – 1929 . Also , my work on various forms of operator theory , Berlin 1930 and Princeton 1935 – 1939 ; on the ergodic theorem , Princeton , 1931 – 1932 . "
During World War II he worked on the Manhattan Project , developing the mathematical models behind the explosive lenses used in the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . After the war , he served on the General Advisory Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , and later as one of its commissioners . He was a consultant to a number of organizations , including the United States Air Force , the Army 's Ballistic Research Laboratory , the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Along with theoretical physicist Edward Teller , mathematician Stanislaw Ulam , and others , he worked out key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb .
= = Early life and education = =
Von Neumann was born Neumann János Lajos to wealthy Jewish parents of the Haskalah ( in Hungarian the family name comes first and his given names equate to John Lewis in English ) . His Hebrew name was Yonah . Von Neumann 's place of birth was Budapest in the Kingdom of Hungary which was then part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . He was the eldest of three children . He had two younger brothers : Michael , born in 1907 , and Nicholas , who was born in 1911 . His father , Neumann Miksa ( English : Max Neumann ) was a banker , who held a doctorate in law . He had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s . Miksa 's father and grandfather were both born in Ond ( now part of the town of Szerencs ) , Zemplén County , northern Hungary . John 's mother was Kann Margit ( English : Margaret Kann ) ; her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels . Three generations of the Kann family lived in spacious apartments above the Kann @-@ Heller offices in Budapest ; von Neumann 's family occupied an 18 @-@ room apartment on the top floor .
In 1913 , his father was elevated to the nobility for his service to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire by Emperor Franz Joseph . The Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Margittai , meaning of Marghita . The family had no connection with the town ; the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret , as was those chosen coat of arms depicting three marguerites . Neumann János became Margittai Neumann János ( John Neumann of Marghita ) , which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann .
Formal schooling did not start in Hungary until the age of ten . Instead , governesses taught von Neumann , his brothers and his cousins . Max believed that knowledge of languages other than Hungarian was essential , so the children were tutored in English , French , German and Italian . By the age of 8 , von Neumann was familiar with differential and integral calculus , but he was particularly interested in history , reading his way through Wilhelm Oncken 's 46 @-@ volume Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen . A copy was contained in a private library Max purchased . One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room , with bookshelves from ceiling to floor .
Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangelikus Gimnázium in 1911 . This was one of the best schools in Budapest , part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite . Under the Hungarian system , children received all their education at the one gymnasium . Despite being run by the Lutheran Church , the majority of its pupils were Jewish . The school system produced a generation noted for intellectual achievement , that included Theodore von Kármán ( b . 1881 ) , George de Hevesy ( b . 1885 ) , Leó Szilárd ( b . 1898 ) , Eugene Wigner ( b . 1902 ) , Edward Teller ( b . 1908 ) , and Paul Erdős ( b . 1913 ) . Collectively , they were sometimes known as Martians . Wigner was a year ahead of von Neumann at the Lutheran School . When asked why the Hungary of his generation had produced so many geniuses , Wigner , who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 , replied that von Neumann was the only genius .
Although Max insisted von Neumann attend school at the grade level appropriate to his age , he agreed to hire private tutors to give him advanced instruction in those areas in which he had displayed an aptitude . At the age of 15 , he began to study advanced calculus under the renowned analyst Gábor Szegő . On their first meeting , Szegő was so astounded with the boy 's mathematical talent that he was brought to tears . Some of von Neumann 's instant solutions to the problems in calculus posed by Szegő , sketched out on his father 's stationery , are still on display at the von Neumann archive in Budapest . By the age of 19 , von Neumann had published two major mathematical papers , the second of which gave the modern definition of ordinal numbers , which superseded Georg Cantor 's definition . At the conclusion of his education at the gymnasium , von Neumann sat for and won the Eötvös Prize , a national prize for mathematics .
Since there were few posts in Hungary for mathematicians , and those were not well @-@ paid , his father wanted von Neumann to follow him into industry and therefore invest his time in a more financially useful endeavor than mathematics . Von Neumann and his father decided that the best career path was to become a chemical engineer . This was not something that von Neumann had much knowledge of , so it was arranged for him to take a two @-@ year non @-@ degree course in chemistry at the University of Berlin , after which he sat the entrance exam to the prestigious ETH Zurich , which he passed in September 1923 . At the same time , von Neumann also entered Pázmány Péter University in Budapest , as a Ph.D. candidate in mathematics . For his thesis , he chose to produce an axiomatization of Cantor 's set theory . He passed his final examinations for his Ph.D. soon after graduating from ETH Zurich in 1926 . He then went to the University of Göttingen on a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to study mathematics under David Hilbert .
= = Early career and private life = =
Von Neumann 's habilitation was completed on December 13 , 1927 , and he started his lectures as a privatdozent at the University of Berlin in 1928 . By the end of 1927 , von Neumann had published twelve major papers in mathematics , and by the end of 1929 , thirty @-@ two papers , at a rate of nearly one major paper per month . His reputed powers of memorization and recall allowed him to quickly memorize a column from the telephone book and recite the names . In 1929 , he briefly became a privatdozent at the University of Hamburg , where the prospects of becoming a tenured professor were better , but in October of that year a better offer presented itself when he was invited to Princeton University in Princeton , New Jersey .
On New Year 's Day in 1930 , von Neumann married Mariette Kövesi , who had studied economics at the Budapest University . Before his marriage he was baptized a Catholic . Max had died in 1929 . None of the family had converted to Christianity while he was alive , but afterwards they all did . Von Neumann and Mariette had one child , a daughter , Marina , who as of 2015 is a distinguished professor of business administration and public policy at the University of Michigan . The couple divorced in 1937 . In October 1938 , von Neumann married Klara Dan , whom he had met during his last trips back to Budapest prior to the outbreak of World War II .
In 1933 , von Neumann was offered a lifetime professorship on the faculty of the Institute for Advanced Study when the institute 's plan to appoint Hermann Weyl fell through . He remained a mathematics professor there until his death , although he announced his intention to resign and become a professor at large at the University of California shortly before . His mother , brothers and in @-@ laws followed von Neumann to the United States in 1939 . Von Neumann anglicized his first name to John , keeping the German @-@ aristocratic surname of von Neumann . His brothers changed theirs to " Neumann " and " Vonneumann " . Von Neumann became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1937 , and immediately tried to become a lieutenant in the United States Army 's Officers Reserve Corps . He passed the exams easily , but was ultimately rejected because of his age . His prewar analysis of how France would stand up to Germany is often quoted . He said : " Oh , France won 't matter . "
The von Neumanns , Klara and John , were active socially within the Princeton academic community . His white clapboard house at 26 Westcott Road was one of the largest in Princeton . He took great care over his clothing , and would always wear formal suits , once riding down the Grand Canyon astride a mule in a three @-@ piece pin @-@ stripe . Hilbert is reported to have asked at von Neumann 's 1926 doctoral exam : " Pray , who is the candidate 's tailor ? " as he had never seen such beautiful evening clothes .
Von Neumann liked to eat and drink ; his wife , Klara , said that he could count everything except calories . He enjoyed Yiddish and " off @-@ color " humor ( especially limericks ) . He was a non @-@ smoker . At Princeton he received complaints for regularly playing extremely loud German march music on his gramophone , which distracted those in neighbouring offices , including Albert Einstein , from their work . Von Neumann did some of his best work in noisy , chaotic environments , and once admonished his wife for preparing a quiet study for him to work in . He never used it , preferring the couple 's living room with its television playing loudly . Despite being a notoriously bad driver , he nonetheless enjoyed driving — frequently while reading a book — occasioning numerous arrests , as well as accidents . When Cuthbert Hurd hired him as a consultant to IBM , Hurd often quietly paid the fines for his traffic tickets .
Von Neumann 's closest friend in the United States was mathematician Stanislaw Ulam . A later friend of Ulam 's , Gian @-@ Carlo Rota , wrote : " They would spend hours on end gossiping and giggling , swapping Jewish jokes , and drifting in and out of mathematical talk . " When von Neumann was dying in hospital , every time Ulam would visit he would come prepared with a new collection of jokes to cheer up his friend . He believed that much of his mathematical thought occurred intuitively , and he would often go to sleep with a problem unsolved , and know the answer immediately upon waking up .
= = Mathematics = =
= = = Set theory = = =
The axiomatization of mathematics , on the model of Euclid 's Elements , had reached new levels of rigour and breadth at the end of the 19th century , particularly in arithmetic , thanks to the axiom schema of Richard Dedekind and Charles Sanders Peirce , and geometry , thanks to Hilbert 's axioms . But at the beginning of the 20th century , efforts to base mathematics on naive set theory suffered a setback due to Russell 's paradox ( on the set of all sets that do not belong to themselves ) . The problem of an adequate axiomatization of set theory was resolved implicitly about twenty years later by Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel . Zermelo – Fraenkel set theory provided a series of principles that allowed for the construction of the sets used in the everyday practice of mathematics , but they did not explicitly exclude the possibility of the existence of a set that belongs to itself . In his doctoral thesis of 1925 , von Neumann demonstrated two techniques to exclude such sets — the axiom of foundation and the notion of class .
The axiom of foundation proposed that every set can be constructed from the bottom up in an ordered succession of steps by way of the principles of Zermelo and Fraenkel . If one set belongs to another then the first must necessarily come before the second in the succession . This excludes the possibility of a set belonging to itself . To demonstrate that the addition of this new axiom to the others did not produce contradictions , von Neumann introduced a method of demonstration , called the method of inner models , which later became an essential instrument in set theory .
The second approach to the problem of sets belonging to themselves took as its base the notion of class , and defines a set as a class which belongs to other classes , while a proper class is defined as a class which does not belong to other classes . Under the Zermelo – Fraenkel approach , the axioms impede the construction of a set of all sets which do not belong to themselves . In contrast , under the von Neumann approach , the class of all sets which do not belong to themselves can be constructed , but it is a proper class and not a set .
With this contribution of von Neumann , the axiomatic system of the theory of sets avoided the contradictions of earlier systems , and became usable as a foundation for mathematics , despite the lack of a proof of its consistency . The next question was whether it provided definitive answers to all mathematical questions that could be posed in it , or whether it might be improved by adding stronger axioms that could be used to prove a broader class of theorems . A strongly negative answer to whether it was definitive arrived in September 1930 at the historic mathematical Congress of Königsberg , in which Kurt Gödel announced his first theorem of incompleteness : the usual axiomatic systems are incomplete , in the sense that they cannot prove every truth which is expressible in their language . Moreover , every consistent extension of these systems would necessarily remain incomplete .
Less than a month later , von Neumann , who had participated at the Congress , communicated to Gödel an interesting consequence of his theorem : that the usual axiomatic systems are unable to demonstrate their own consistency . However , Gödel had already discovered this consequence , now known as his second incompleteness theorem , and he sent von Neumann a preprint of his article containing both incompleteness theorems . Von Neumann acknowledged Gödel 's priority in his next letter . He never thought much of " the American system of claiming personal priority for everything . "
= = = Ergodic theory = = =
Von Neumann made foundational contributions to ergodic theory , in a series of articles published in 1932 . Of the 1932 papers on ergodic theory , Paul Halmos writes that even " if von Neumann had never done anything else , they would have been sufficient to guarantee him mathematical immortality " . By then von Neumann had already written his famous articles on operator theory , and the application of this work was instrumental in the von Neumann mean ergodic theorem .
= = = Operator theory = = =
Von Neumann introduced the study of rings of operators , through the von Neumann algebras . A von Neumann algebra is a * -algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space that is closed in the weak operator topology and contains the identity operator . The von Neumann bicommutant theorem shows that the analytic definition is equivalent to a purely algebraic definition as an algebra of symmetries . The direct integral was introduced in 1949 by John von Neumann . One of von Neumann 's analyses was to reduce the classification of von Neumann algebras on separable Hilbert spaces to the classification of factors .
= = = Measure theory = = =
In measure theory , the " problem of measure " for an n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn may be stated as : " does there exist a positive , normalized , invariant , and additive set function on the class of all subsets of Rn ? " The work of Felix Hausdorff and Stefan Banach had implied that the problem of measure has a positive solution if n |
= 1 or n =
2 and a negative solution ( because of the Banach – Tarski paradox ) in all other cases . Von Neumann 's work argued that the " problem is essentially group @-@ theoretic in character " : the existence of a measure could be determined by looking at the properties of the transformation group of the given space . The positive solution for spaces of dimension at most two , and the negative solution for higher dimensions , comes from the fact that the Euclidean group is a solvable group for dimension at most two , and is not solvable for higher dimensions . " Thus , according to von Neumann , it is the change of group that makes a difference , not the change of space . "
In a number of von Neumann 's papers , the methods of argument he employed are considered even more significant than the results . In anticipation of his later study of dimension theory in algebras of operators , von Neumann used results on equivalence by finite decomposition , and reformulated the problem of measure in terms of functions . In his 1936 paper on analytic measure theory , he used the Haar theorem in the solution of Hilbert 's fifth problem in the case of compact groups . In 1938 , he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis .
= = = Lattice theory = = =
Between 1937 and 1939 , Von Neumann worked on lattice theory , the theory of partially ordered sets in which every two elements have a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound . Von Neumann provided an abstract exploration of dimension in completed complemented modular topological lattices ( properties that arise in the lattices of subspaces of inner product spaces ) : " Dimension is determined , up to a positive linear transformation , by the following two properties . It is conserved by perspective mappings ( " perspectivities " ) and ordered by inclusion . The deepest part of the proof concerns the equivalence of perspectivity with " projectivity by decomposition " — of which a corollary is the transitivity of perspectivity . " Garrett Birkhoff writes : " John von Neumann 's brilliant mind blazed over lattice theory like a meteor " .
Von Neumann founded the field of continuous geometry based on lattice theoretic principles . Earlier , Menger and Birkhoff had axiomatized complex projective geometry in terms of the properties of its lattice of linear subspaces . Von Neumann , following his work on rings of operators , weakened those axioms to describe a broader class of lattices , the continuous geometries . While the dimensions of the subspaces of projective geometries are a discrete set ( the non @-@ negative integers ) , the dimensions of the elements of a continuous geometry can range continuously across the unit interval [ 0 @,@ 1 ] . Von Neumann was motivated by his discovery of von Neumann algebras with a dimension function taking a continuous range of dimensions , and the first example of a continuous geometry other than projective space was the projections of the hyperfinite type II factor .
Additionally , " [ I ] n the general case , von Neumann proved the following basic representation theorem . Any complemented modular lattice L having a " basis " of n ≥ 4 pairwise perspective elements , is isomorphic with the lattice ℛ ( R ) of all principal right @-@ ideals of a suitable regular ring R. This conclusion is the culmination of 140 pages of brilliant and incisive algebra involving entirely novel axioms . Anyone wishing to get an unforgettable impression of the razor edge of von Neumann 's mind , need merely try to pursue this chain of exact reasoning for himself — realizing that often five pages of it were written down before breakfast , seated at a living room writing @-@ table in a bathrobe . "
= = = Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics = = =
Von Neumann was the first to establish a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics , known as the Dirac – von Neumann axioms , with his 1932 work Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics . After having completed the axiomatization of set theory , he began to confront the axiomatization of quantum mechanics . He realized , in 1926 , that a state of a quantum system could be represented by a point in a ( complex ) Hilbert space that , in general , could be infinite @-@ dimensional even for a single particle . In this formalism of quantum mechanics , observable quantities such as position or momentum are represented as linear operators acting on the Hilbert space associated with the quantum system .
The physics of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the mathematics of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them . For example , the uncertainty principle , according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa , is translated into the non @-@ commutativity of the two corresponding operators . This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger . When Heisenberg was informed von Neumann had clarified the difference between an unbounded operator that was a self @-@ adjoint operator and one that was merely symmetric , Heisenberg replied " Eh ? What is the difference ? "
Von Neumann 's abstract treatment permitted him also to confront the foundational issue of determinism versus non @-@ determinism , and in the book he presented a proof that the statistical results of quantum mechanics could not possibly be averages of an underlying set of determined " hidden variables , " as in classical statistical mechanics . In 1966 , John S. Bell published a paper arguing that the proof contained a conceptual error and was therefore invalid . However , in 2010 , Jeffrey Bub argued that Bell had misconstrued von Neumann 's proof , and pointed out that the proof , though not valid for all hidden variable theories , does rule out a well @-@ defined and important subset . Bub also suggests that von Neumann was aware of this limitation , and that von Neumann did not claim that his proof completely ruled out hidden variable theories .
In any case , the proof inaugurated a line of research that ultimately led , through the work of Bell in 1964 on Bell 's theorem , and the experiments of Alain Aspect in 1982 , to the demonstration that quantum physics either requires a notion of reality substantially different from that of classical physics , or must include nonlocality in apparent violation of special relativity .
In a chapter of The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics , von Neumann deeply analyzed the so @-@ called measurement problem . He concluded that the entire physical universe could be made subject to the universal wave function . Since something " outside the calculation " was needed to collapse the wave function , von Neumann concluded that the collapse was caused by the consciousness of the experimenter ( although this view was accepted by Eugene Wigner , the Von Neumann – Wigner interpretation never gained acceptance amongst the majority of physicists ) .
Though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve to this day , there is a basic framework for the mathematical formalism of problems in quantum mechanics which underlies the majority of approaches and can be traced back to the mathematical formalisms and techniques first used by von Neumann . In other words , discussions about interpretation of the theory , and extensions to it , are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations .
= = = Quantum logic = = =
In a famous paper of 1936 with Garrett Birkhoff , the first work ever to introduce quantum logics , von Neumann and Birkhoff first proved that quantum mechanics requires a propositional calculus substantially different from all classical logics and rigorously isolated a new algebraic structure for quantum logics . The concept of creating a propositional calculus for quantum logic was first outlined in a short section in von Neumann 's 1932 work , but in 1936 , the need for the new propositional calculus was demonstrated through several proofs . For example , photons cannot pass through two successive filters that are polarized perpendicularly ( e.g. , one horizontally and the other vertically ) , and therefore , a fortiori , it cannot pass if a third filter polarized diagonally is added to the other two , either before or after them in the succession , but if the third filter is added in between the other two , the photons will , indeed , pass through . This experimental fact is translatable into logic as the non @-@ commutativity of conjunction <formula> . It was also demonstrated that the laws of distribution of classical logic , <formula> and <formula> , are not valid for quantum theory .
The reason for this is that a quantum disjunction , unlike the case for classical disjunction , can be true even when both of the disjuncts are false and this is , in turn , attributable to the fact that it is frequently the case , in quantum mechanics , that a pair of alternatives are semantically determinate , while each of its members are necessarily indeterminate . This latter property can be illustrated by a simple example . Suppose we are dealing with particles ( such as electrons ) of semi @-@ integral spin ( angular momentum ) for which there are only two possible values : positive or negative . Then , a principle of indetermination establishes that the spin , relative to two different directions ( e.g. , x and y ) results in a pair of incompatible quantities . Suppose that the state ɸ of a certain electron verifies the proposition " the spin of the electron in the x direction is positive . " By the principle of indeterminacy , the value of the spin in the direction y will be completely indeterminate for ɸ . Hence , ɸ can verify neither the proposition " the spin in the direction of y is positive " nor the proposition " the spin in the direction of y is negative . " Nevertheless , the disjunction of the propositions " the spin in the direction of y is positive or the spin in the direction of y is negative " must be true for ɸ . In the case of distribution , it is therefore possible to have a situation in which <formula> , while <formula> .
Von Neumann replaced classical logic with a logic constructed in orthomodular lattices ( isomorphic to the lattice of subspaces of the Hilbert space of a given physical system ) .
= = = Game theory = = =
Von Neumann founded the field of game theory as a mathematical discipline . Von Neumann proved his minimax theorem in 1928 . This theorem establishes that in zero @-@ sum games with perfect information ( i.e. in which players know at each time all moves that have taken place so far ) , there exists a pair of strategies for both players that allows each to minimize his maximum losses , hence the name minimax . When examining every possible strategy , a player must consider all the possible responses of his adversary . The player then plays out the strategy that will result in the minimization of his maximum loss .
Such strategies , which minimize the maximum loss for each player , are called optimal . Von Neumann showed that their minimaxes are equal ( in absolute value ) and contrary ( in sign ) . Von Neumann improved and extended the minimax theorem to include games involving imperfect information and games with more than two players , publishing this result in his 1944 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior ( written with Oskar Morgenstern ) . Morgenstern wrote a paper on game theory and thought he would show it to von Neumann because of his interest in the subject . He read it and said to Morgenstern that he should put more in it . This was repeated a couple of times , and then von Neumann became a coauthor and the paper became 100 pages long . Then it became a book . The public interest in this work was such that The New York Times ran a front @-@ page story . In this book , von Neumann declared that economic theory needed to use functional analytic methods , especially convex sets and topological fixed @-@ point theorem , rather than the traditional differential calculus , because the maximum @-@ operator did not preserve differentiable functions .
Independently , Leonid Kantorovich 's functional analytic work on mathematical economics also focused attention on optimization theory , non @-@ differentiability , and vector lattices . Von Neumann 's functional @-@ analytic techniques — the use of duality pairings of real vector spaces to represent prices and quantities , the use of supporting and separating hyperplanes and convex sets , and fixed @-@ point theory — have been the primary tools of mathematical economics ever since .
= = = Mathematical economics = = =
Von Neumann raised the intellectual and mathematical level of economics in several stunning publications . For his model of an expanding economy , von Neumann proved the existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium using his generalization of the Brouwer fixed @-@ point theorem . Von Neumann 's model of an expanding economy considered the matrix pencil A − λB with nonnegative matrices A and B ; von Neumann sought probability vectors p and q and a positive number λ that would solve the complementarity equation
<formula>
along with two inequality systems expressing economic efficiency . In this model , the ( transposed ) probability vector p represents the prices of the goods while the probability vector q represents the " intensity " at which the production process would run . The unique solution λ represents the growth factor which is 1 plus the rate of growth of the economy ; the rate of growth equals the interest rate .
Von Neumann 's results have been viewed as a special case of linear programming , where von Neumann 's model uses only nonnegative matrices . The study of von Neumann 's model of an expanding economy continues to interest mathematical economists with interests in computational economics . This paper has been called the greatest paper in mathematical economics by several authors , who recognized its introduction of fixed @-@ point theorems , linear inequalities , complementary slackness , and saddlepoint duality . In the proceedings of a conference on von Neumann 's growth model , Paul Samuelson said that many mathematicians had developed methods useful to economists , but that von Neumann was unique in having made significant contributions to economic theory itself .
Von Neumann 's famous 9 @-@ page paper started life as a talk at Princeton and then became a paper in German , which was eventually translated into English . His interest in economics that led to that paper began as follows : When lecturing at Berlin in 1928 and 1929 he spent his summers back home in Budapest , and so did the economist Nicholas Kaldor , and they hit it off . Kaldor recommended that von Neumann read a book by the mathematical economist Léon Walras . Von Neumann found some faults in that book and corrected them , for example , replacing equations by inequalities . He noticed that Walras 's General Equilibrium Theory and Walras ' Law , which led to systems of simultaneous linear equations , could produce the absurd result that the profit could be maximized by producing and selling a negative quantity of a product . He replaced the equations by inequalities , introduced dynamic equilibria , among other things , and eventually produced the paper .
= = = Linear programming = = =
Building on his results on matrix games and on his model of an expanding economy , von Neumann invented the theory of duality in linear programming , after George Dantzig described his work in a few minutes , when an impatient von Neumann asked him to get to the point . Then , Dantzig listened dumbfounded while von Neumann provided an hour lecture on convex sets , fixed @-@ point theory , and duality , conjecturing the equivalence between matrix games and linear programming .
Later , von Neumann suggested a new method of linear programming , using the homogeneous linear system of Gordan ( 1873 ) , which was later popularized by Karmarkar 's algorithm . Von Neumann 's method used a pivoting algorithm between simplices , with the pivoting decision determined by a nonnegative least squares subproblem with a convexity constraint ( projecting the zero @-@ vector onto the convex hull of the active simplex ) . Von Neumann 's algorithm was the first interior point method of linear programming .
= = = Mathematical statistics = = =
Von Neumann made fundamental contributions to mathematical statistics . In 1941 , he derived the exact distribution of the ratio of the mean square of successive differences to the sample variance for independent and identically normally distributed variables . This ratio was applied to the residuals from regression models and is commonly known as the Durbin – Watson statistic for testing the null hypothesis that the errors are serially independent against the alternative that they follow a stationary first order autoregression .
Subsequently , Denis Sargan and Alok Bhargava extended the results for testing if the errors on a regression model follow a Gaussian random walk ( i.e. , possess a unit root ) against the alternative that they are a stationary first order autoregression .
= = = Fluid dynamics = = =
Von Neumann made fundamental contributions in exploration of problems in numerical hydrodynamics . For example , with Robert D. Richtmyer he developed an algorithm defining artificial viscosity that improved the understanding of shock waves . When computers solved hydrodynamic or aerodynamic problems , they tried to put too many computational grid points at regions of sharp discontinuity ( shock waves ) . The mathematics of artificial viscosity smoothed the shock transition without sacrificing basic physics . Other contributions to fluid dynamics included the classic flow solution to blast waves , and the co @-@ discovery of the ZND detonation model of explosives .
= = = Mastery of mathematics = = =
Stan Ulam , who knew von Neumann well , described his mastery of mathematics this way : " Most mathematicians know one method . For example , Norbert Wiener had mastered Fourier transforms . Some mathematicians have mastered two methods and might really impress someone who knows only one of them . John von Neumann had mastered three methods . " He went on to explain that the three methods were :
A facility with the symbolic manipulation of linear operators ;
An intuitive feeling for the logical structure of any new mathematical theory ;
An intuitive feeling for the combinatorial superstructure of new theories .
Edward Teller wrote that " Nobody knows all science , not even von Neumann did . But as for mathematics , he contributed to every part of it except number theory and topology . That is , I think , something unique . "
= = Nuclear weapons = =
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
Beginning in the late 1930s , von Neumann developed an expertise in explosions — phenomena that are difficult to model mathematically . During this period von Neumann was the leading authority of the mathematics of shaped charges . This led him to a large number of military consultancies , primarily for the Navy , which in turn led to his involvement in the Manhattan Project . The involvement included frequent trips by train to the project 's secret research facilities in Los Alamos , New Mexico .
Von Neumann 's principal contribution to the atomic bomb was in the concept and design of the explosive lenses needed to compress the plutonium core of the Fat Man weapon that was later dropped on Nagasaki . While von Neumann did not originate the " implosion " concept , he was one of its most persistent proponents , encouraging its continued development against the instincts of many of his colleagues , who felt such a design to be unworkable . He also eventually came up with the idea of using more powerful shaped charges and less fissionable material to greatly increase the speed of " assembly " .
When it turned out that there would not be enough uranium @-@ 235 to make more than one bomb , the implosive lens project was greatly expanded and von Neumann 's idea was implemented . Implosion was the only method that could be used with the plutonium @-@ 239 that was available from the Hanford Site . He established the design of the explosive lenses required , but there remained concerns about " edge effects " and imperfections in the explosives . His calculations showed that implosion would work if it did not depart by more than 5 % from spherical symmetry . After a series of failed attempts with models , this was achieved by George Kistiakowsky , and the construction of the Trinity bomb was completed in July 1945 .
In a visit to Los Alamos in September 1944 , von Neumann showed that the pressure increase from explosion shock wave reflection from solid objects was greater than previously believed if the angle of incidence of the shock wave was between 90 ° and some limiting angle . As a result , it was determined that the effectiveness of an atomic bomb would be enhanced with detonation some kilometers above the target , rather than at ground level .
Along with four other scientists and various military personnel , von Neumann was included in the target selection committee responsible for choosing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the first targets of the atomic bomb . Von Neumann oversaw computations related to the expected size of the bomb blasts , estimated death tolls , and the distance above the ground at which the bombs should be detonated for optimum shock wave propagation and thus maximum effect . The cultural capital Kyoto , which had been spared the bombing inflicted upon militarily significant cities , was von Neumann 's first choice , a selection seconded by Manhattan Project leader General Leslie Groves . However , this target was dismissed by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson .
On July 16 , 1945 , with numerous other Manhattan Project personnel , von Neumann was an eyewitness to the first atomic bomb blast , code named Trinity , conducted as a test of the implosion method device , at the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield , 35 miles ( 56 km ) southeast of Socorro , New Mexico . Based on his observation alone , von Neumann estimated the test had resulted in a blast equivalent to 5 kilotons of TNT ( 21 TJ ) but Enrico Fermi produced a more accurate estimate of 10 kilotons by dropping scraps of torn @-@ up paper as the shock wave passed his location and watching how far they scattered . The actual power of the explosion had been between 20 and 22 kilotons . It was in von Neumann 's 1944 papers that the expression " kilotons " appeared for the first time . After the war , Robert Oppenheimer remarked that the physicists involved in the Manhattan project had " known sin " . Von Neumann 's response was that " sometimes someone confesses a sin in order to take credit for it . "
Von Neumann continued unperturbed in his work and became , along with Edward Teller , one of those who sustained the hydrogen bomb project . He collaborated with Klaus Fuchs on further development of the bomb , and in 1946 the two filed a secret patent on " Improvement in Methods and Means for Utilizing Nuclear Energy " , which outlined a scheme for using a fission bomb to compress fusion fuel to initiate nuclear fusion . The Fuchs – von Neumann patent used radiation implosion , but not in the same way as is used in what became the final hydrogen bomb design , the Teller – Ulam design . Their work was , however , incorporated into the " George " shot of Operation Greenhouse , which was instructive in testing out concepts that went into the final design . The Fuchs – von Neumann work was passed on to the Soviet Union by Fuchs as part of his nuclear espionage , but it was not used in the Soviets ' own , independent development of the Teller – Ulam design . The historian Jeremy Bernstein has pointed out that ironically , " John von Neumann and Klaus Fuchs , produced a brilliant invention in 1946 that could have changed the whole course of the development of the hydrogen bomb , but was not fully understood until after the bomb had been successfully made . "
For his wartime services , von Neumann was awarded the Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award in July 1946 , and the Medal for Merit in October 1946 .
= = = Atomic Energy Commission = = =
In 1950 , von Neumann became a consultant to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group ( WSEG ) , whose function was to advise the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the United States Secretary of Defense on the development and use of new technologies . He also became an adviser to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) , which was responsible for the military aspects on nuclear weapons . Over the following two years , he became a consultant to the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , a member of the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission , a consultant to the newly established Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , and a member of the Scientific Advisory Group of the United States Air Force .
In 1955 , von Neumann became a commissioner of the AEC . He accepted this position and used it to further the production of compact hydrogen bombs suitable for Intercontinental ballistic missile delivery . He involved himself in correcting the severe shortage of tritium and lithium 6 needed for these compact weapons , and he argued against settling for the intermediate range missiles that the Army wanted . He was adamant that H @-@ bombs delivered into the heart of enemy territory by an ICBM would be the most effective weapon possible , and that the relative inaccuracy of the missile wouldn 't be a problem with an H @-@ bomb . He said the Russians would probably be building a similar weapon system , which turned out to be the case . Despite his disagreement with Oppenheimer over the need for a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb , he testified on the latter 's behalf at the 1954 Oppenheimer security hearing , at which he asserted that Oppenheimer was loyal , and praised him for his helpfulness once the program went ahead .
Shortly before his death , when he was already quite ill , von Neumann headed the United States government 's top secret ICBM committee , and it would sometimes meet in his home . Its purpose was to decide on the feasibility of building an ICBM large enough to carry a thermonuclear weapon . Von Neumann had long argued that while the technical obstacles were sizable , they could be overcome in time . The SM @-@ 65 Atlas passed its first fully functional test in 1959 , two years after his death . The feasibility of an ICBM owed as much to improved , smaller warheads as it did to developments in rocketry , and his understanding of the former made his advice invaluable .
= = = Mutual assured destruction = = =
Von Neumann is credited with the equilibrium strategy of mutual assured destruction , providing the deliberately humorous acronym , MAD . ( Other humorous acronyms coined by von Neumann include his computer , the Mathematical Analyzer , Numerical Integrator , and Computer — or MANIAC ) . He also " moved heaven and earth " to bring MAD about . His goal was to quickly develop ICBMs and the compact hydrogen bombs that they could deliver to the USSR , and he knew the Soviets were doing similar work because the CIA interviewed German rocket scientists who were allowed to return to Germany , and von Neumann had planted a dozen technical people in the CIA . The Russians considered that bombers would soon be vulnerable , and they shared von Neumann 's view that an H @-@ bomb in an ICBM was the ne plus ultra of weapons ; they believed that whoever had superiority in these weapons would take over the world , without necessarily using them . He was afraid of a " missile gap " and took several more steps to achieve his goal of keeping up with the Soviets :
He modified the ENIAC by making it programmable and then wrote programs for it to do the H @-@ bomb calculations verifying that the Teller @-@ Ulam design was feasible and to develop it further .
Through the Atomic Energy Commission , he promoted the development of a compact H @-@ bomb that would fit in an ICBM .
He personally interceded to speed up the production of lithium @-@ 6 and tritium needed for the compact bombs .
He caused several separate missile projects to be started , because he felt that competition combined with collaboration got the best results .
Von Neumann 's assessment that the Soviets had a lead in missile technology , considered pessimistic at the time , was soon proven correct in the Sputnik crisis .
Von Neumann entered government service ( Manhattan Project ) primarily because he felt that , if freedom and civilization were to survive , it would have to be because the US would triumph over totalitarianism from Nazism , Fascism and Soviet Communism . During a Senate committee hearing he described his political ideology as " violently anti @-@ communist , and much more militaristic than the norm " . He was quoted in 1950 remarking , " If you say why not bomb [ the Soviets ] tomorrow , I say , why not today ? If you say today at five o 'clock , I say why not one o 'clock ? "
On February 15 , 1956 , von Neumann was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Dwight D. Eisenhower . His citation read :
Dr. von Neumann , in a series of scientific study projects of major national significance , has materially increased the scientific progress of this country in the armaments field .
Through his work on various highly classified missions performed outside the continental limits of the United States in conjunction with critically important international programs , Dr. von Neumann has resolved some of the most difficult technical problems of national defense .
= = Computing = =
Von Neumann was a founding figure in computing . Donald Knuth cites von Neumann as the inventor , in 1945 , of the merge sort algorithm , in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged . Von Neumann wrote the sorting program for the EDVAC in ink , which was 23 pages long ; traces can still be seen on the first page of the phrase " TOP SECRET " , which was written in pencil and later erased . He also worked on the philosophy of artificial intelligence with Alan Turing when the latter visited Princeton in the 1930s .
Von Neumann 's hydrogen bomb work was played out in the realm of computing , where he and Stanislaw Ulam developed simulations on von Neumann 's digital computers for the hydrodynamic computations . During this time he contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method , which allowed solutions to complicated problems to be approximated using random numbers . His algorithm for simulating a fair coin with a biased coin is used in the " software whitening " stage of some hardware random number generators . Because using lists of " truly " random numbers was extremely slow , von Neumann developed a form of making pseudorandom numbers , using the middle @-@ square method . Though this method has been criticized as crude , von Neumann was aware of this : he justified it as being faster than any other method at his disposal , writing that " Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is , of course , in a state of sin . " Von Neumann also noted that when this method went awry it did so obviously , unlike other methods which could be subtly incorrect .
While consulting for the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania on the EDVAC project , von Neumann wrote an incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC . The paper , whose premature distribution nullified the patent claims of EDVAC designers J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly , described a computer architecture in which the data and the program are both stored in the computer 's memory in the same address space . This architecture is to this day the basis of modern computer design , unlike the earliest computers that were " programmed " using a separate memory device such as a paper tape or plugboard . Although the single @-@ memory , stored program architecture is commonly called von Neumann architecture as a result of von Neumann 's paper , the architecture 's description was based on the work of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly , inventors of the ENIAC computer at the University of Pennsylvania .
John von Neumann consulted for the Army 's Ballistic Research Laboratory , most notably on the ENIAC project , as a member of its Scientific Advisory Committee . The electronics of the new ENIAC ran at one @-@ sixth the speed , but this in no way degraded the ENIAC 's performance , since it was still entirely I / O bound . Complicated programs could be developed and debugged in days rather than the weeks required for plugboarding the old ENIAC . Some of von Neumann 's early computer programs have been preserved . The next computer that von Neumann designed was the IAS machine at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey . He arranged its financing , and the components were designed and built at the RCA Research Laboratory nearby . John von Neumann recommended that the IBM 701 , nicknamed the defense computer include a magnetic drum . It was a faster version of the IAS machine and formed the basis for the commercially successful IBM 704 .
Stochastic computing was first introduced in a pioneering paper by von Neumann in 1953 . However , the theory could not be implemented until advances in computing of the 1960s . He also created the field of cellular automata without the aid of computers , constructing the first self @-@ replicating automata with pencil and graph paper . The concept of a universal constructor based on the von Neumann cellular automaton was fleshed out in his posthumous work Theory of Self Reproducing Automata . The von Neumann neighborhood , in which each cell in a two @-@ dimensional grid has the four orthogonally adjacent grid cells as neighbors , continues to be used for other cellular automata . Von Neumann proved that the most effective way of performing large @-@ scale mining operations such as mining an entire moon or asteroid belt would be by using self @-@ replicating spacecraft , taking advantage of their exponential growth . His rigorous mathematical analysis of the structure of self @-@ replication ( of the semiotic relationship between constructor , description and that which is constructed ) , preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA . Beginning in 1949 , von Neumann 's design for a self @-@ reproducing computer program is considered the world 's first computer virus , and he is considered to be the theoretical father of computer virology .
Von Neumann 's team performed the world 's first numerical weather forecasts on the ENIAC computer ; von Neumann published the paper Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation in 1950 . Von Neumann 's interest in weather systems and meteorological prediction led him to propose manipulating the environment by spreading colorants on the polar ice caps to enhance absorption of solar radiation ( by reducing the albedo ) . thereby inducing global warming . Noting that the Earth was only 6 ° F ( 3 @.@ 3 ° C ) colder during the last glacial period , he said that the burning of coal and oil would result in " a general warming of the Earth by about one degree Fahrenheit . "
= = Cognitive abilities = =
Von Neumann 's ability to instantaneously perform complex operations in his head stunned other mathematicians . Eugene Wigner wrote that , seeing von Neumann 's mind at work , " one had the impression of a perfect instrument whose gears were machined to mesh accurately to a thousandth of an inch . " Paul Halmos states that " von Neumann 's speed was awe @-@ inspiring . " Edward Teller admitted that he " never could keep up with him " . Teller also said " von Neumann would carry on a conversation with my 3 @-@ year @-@ old son , and the two of them would talk as equals , and I sometimes wondered if he used the same principle when he talked to the rest of us . Most people avoid thinking if they can , some of us are addicted to thinking , but von Neumann actually enjoyed thinking , maybe even to the exclusion of everything else . "
Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim described von Neumann as the " fastest mind I ever met " , and Jacob Bronowski wrote " He was the cleverest man I ever knew , without exception . He was a genius . " George Pólya , whose lectures at ETH Zürich von Neumann attended as a student , said " Johnny was the only student I was ever afraid of . If in the course of a lecture I stated an unsolved problem , the chances were he 'd come to me at the end of the lecture with the complete solution scribbled on a slip of paper . " Halmos recounts a story told by Nicholas Metropolis , concerning the speed of von Neumann 's calculations , when somebody asked von Neumann to solve the famous fly puzzle :
Two bicyclists start twenty miles apart and head toward each other , each going at a steady rate of 10 mph . At the same time a fly that travels at a steady 15 mph starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one , then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again , and continues in this manner till he is crushed between the two front wheels . Question : what total distance did the fly cover ? The slow way to find the answer is to calculate what distance the fly covers on the first , northbound , leg of the trip , then on the second , southbound , leg , then on the third , etc . , etc . , and , finally , to sum the infinite series so obtained . The quick way is to observe that the bicycles meet exactly one hour after their start , so that the fly had just an hour for his travels ; the answer must therefore be 15 miles . When the question was put to von Neumann , he solved it in an instant , and thereby disappointed the questioner : " Oh , you must have heard the trick before ! " " What trick ? " asked von Neumann , " All I did was sum the geometric series . "
Eugene Wigner told a similar story , only with a swallow instead of a fly , and says it was Max Born who posed the question to von Neumann in the 1920s .
Herman Goldstine wrote :
One of his remarkable abilities was his power of absolute recall . As far as I could tell , von Neumann was able on once reading a book or article to quote it back verbatim ; moreover , he could do it years later without hesitation . He could also translate it at no diminution in speed from its original language into English . On one occasion I tested his ability by asking him to tell me how A Tale of Two Cities started . Whereupon , without any pause , he immediately began to recite the first chapter and continued until asked to stop after about ten or fifteen minutes .
Ulam noted that von Neumann 's way of thinking might not be visual , but more of an aural one .
" I have sometimes wondered whether a brain like von Neumann 's does not indicate a species superior to that of man " , said Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe of Cornell University . " It seems fair to say that if the influence of a scientist is interpreted broadly enough to include impact on fields beyond science proper , then John von Neumann was probably the most influential mathematician who ever lived , " wrote Miklós Rédei in " Selected Letters . " James Glimm wrote : " he is regarded as one of the giants of modern mathematics " . The mathematician Jean Dieudonné said that von Neumann " may have been the last representative of a once @-@ flourishing and numerous group , the great mathematicians who were equally at home in pure and applied mathematics and who throughout their careers maintained a steady production in both directions " , while Peter Lax described him as possessing the " most scintillating intellect of this century " .
= = Death = =
In 1955 , von Neumann was diagnosed with what was either bone or pancreatic cancer .
He invited a Roman Catholic priest , Father Anselm Strittmatter , O.S.B. , to visit him for consultation . Von Neumann reportedly said in explanation that Pascal had a point , referring to Pascal 's Wager . Father Strittmatter administered the last rites to him . Some of von Neumann 's friends ( such as Abraham Pais and Oskar Morgenstern ) said they had always believed him to be " completely agnostic . " " Of this deathbed conversion , Morgenstern told Heims , " He was of course completely agnostic all his life , and then he suddenly turned Catholic — it doesn 't agree with anything whatsoever in his attitude , outlook and thinking when he was healthy . " Father Strittmatter recalled that von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it , as he still remained terrified of death .
On his deathbed , Von Neumann entertained his brother by reciting , by heart and word @-@ for @-@ word , the first few lines of each page of Goethe 's Faust . He died at age 53 on February 8 , 1957 at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington , D.C. under military security lest he reveal military secrets while heavily medicated . He was buried at Princeton Cemetery in Princeton , Mercer County , New Jersey .
= = Honors = =
The John von Neumann Theory Prize of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences ( INFORMS , previously TIMS @-@ ORSA ) is awarded annually to an individual ( or group ) who have made fundamental and sustained contributions to theory in operations research and the management sciences .
The IEEE John von Neumann Medal is awarded annually by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) " for outstanding achievements in computer @-@ related science and technology . "
The John von Neumann Lecture is given annually at the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics ( SIAM ) by a researcher who has contributed to applied mathematics , and the chosen lecturer is also awarded a monetary prize .
The crater von Neumann on the Moon is named after him .
The John von Neumann Center in Plainsboro Township , New Jersey , was named in his honour .
The professional society of Hungarian computer scientists , John von Neumann Computer Society , is named after John von Neumann . It was closed in April 1989 .
On May 4 , 2005 the United States Postal Service issued the American Scientists commemorative postage stamp series , a set of four 37 @-@ cent self @-@ adhesive stamps in several configurations designed by artist Victor Stabin . The scientists depicted were von Neumann , Barbara McClintock , Josiah Willard Gibbs , and Richard Feynman .
The John von Neumann Award of the Rajk László College for Advanced Studies was named in his honour , and has been given every year since 1995 to professors who have made an outstanding contribution to the exact social sciences and through their work have strongly influenced the professional development and thinking of the members of the college .
= = Selected works = =
1923 . On the introduction of transfinite numbers , 346 – 54 .
1925 . An axiomatization of set theory , 393 – 413 .
1932 . Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics , Beyer , R. T. , trans . , Princeton Univ . Press . 1996 edition : ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 02893 @-@ 1 .
1937 @.@ von Neumann , John ( 1981 ) . Halperin , Israel , ed . Continuous geometries with a transition probability . Memoirs of the American Mathematical Society 34 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8218 @-@ 2252 @-@ 4 . MR 634656 .
1944 . Theory of Games and Economic Behavior , with Morgenstern , O. , Princeton Univ . Press , online at archive.org. 2007 edition : ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 13061 @-@ 3 .
1945 . First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC TheFirstDraft.pdf
1948 . " The general and logical theory of automata , " in Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior : The Hixon Symposium , Jeffress , L.A. ed . , John Wiley & Sons , New York , N. Y , 1951 , pp. 1 – 31 , MR 0045446 .
1960 @.@ von Neumann , John ( 1998 ) . Continuous geometry . Princeton Landmarks in Mathematics . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 05893 @-@ 1 . MR 0120174 .
1963 . Collected Works of John von Neumann , Taub , A. H. , ed . , Pergamon Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 08 @-@ 009566 @-@ 6
1966 . Theory of Self @-@ Reproducing Automata , Burks , A. W. , ed . , University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 598 @-@ 37798 @-@ 0
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= Great spotted kiwi =
The great spotted kiwi , great gray kiwi , or roroa ( Apteryx haastii ) is a species of kiwi endemic to the South Island of New Zealand . The great spotted kiwi , as a member of the ratites , is flightless . It is the largest of the kiwi . The rugged topography and harsh climate of the high altitude , alpine , part of its habitat render it inhospitable to a number of introduced mammalian predators , which include dogs , ferrets , cats and stoats . Because of this , populations of this species have been less seriously affected by the predations of these invasive species compared to other kiwi . Nonetheless , there has been a 43 % decline in population in the past 45 years , due to these predators and habitat destruction . This has led it to be classified as vulnerable . There are less than 16 @,@ 000 great spotted kiwis in total , almost all in the more mountainous parts of northwest Nelson , the northwest coast , and the Southern Alps . A minority live on island reserves .
This kiwi is highly aggressive , and pairs will defend their large territories ( 49 acres ) against other kiwi . Great spotted kiwi are nocturnal , and will sleep during the day in burrows . At night , they feed on invertebrates and will also eat plants . Great spotted kiwi breed between June and March . The egg is the largest of all birds in proportion to the size of the bird . Chicks take 75 to 85 days to hatch , and after hatching , they are abandoned by their parents .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
This large kiwi is one of five species of kiwis residing in New Zealand . The other four are the tokoeka ( Apteryx australis ) , Okarito brown kiwi ( Apteryx rowi ) , little spotted kiwi ( Apteryx owenii ) , and North Island brown kiwi ( Apteryx mantelli ) . Great spotted kiwis are related most closely to the little spotted kiwi . The kiwi genus , Apteryx , is endemic to New Zealand , 44 % of the bird species native to New Zealand are endemic . Kiwis are placed in the ratite family , which also includes the emu , ostrich , rhea , and cassowary . All ratites are flightless . Kiwi are closely related to the extinct moa bird that once inhabited New Zealand .
Relationships in the genus Apteryx
Before the great spotted kiwi was known to science , several stories circulated about the existence of a large kiwi called the Maori roaroa . In 1871 , two specimens were brought to the Canterbury Museum , where they were identified as a new species and were named after the museum 's curator , Dr. Haast .
The great spotted kiwi was first described as Apteryx haastii by Thomas Potts , in 1872 , based on a specimen from Westland , New Zealand . It is a monotypic species .
The genus name , Apteryx , comes from the Ancient Greek words a " without " or " no " , and pteryx , " wing " and haasti is the Latin form of the last name of Sir Julius von Haast .
= = Description = =
Great spotted kiwis are the largest of the kiwis ; the male is 45 cm ( 18 in ) tall , while the female is 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall . Bill length ranges from 9 to 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) , while weight ranges between 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 6 kg ( 2 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 7 lb ) for males and 1 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 3 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 and 7 @.@ 3 lb ) for females . The body is pear @-@ shaped , while the head and neck is small with a long slender ivory bill . The great spotted kiwi , along with the other kiwi species , is the only bird with nostrils at the end of its bill . The eyes are small and do not see well , as it relies mostly on its sense of smell . The legs are short , with three toes per foot . It has a plumage composed of soft , hair @-@ like feathers , which have no aftershafts . The plumage can range from charcoal gray to light brown . They have large vibrissae around the gape , and they have no tail , only a small pygostyle . The common name of this bird comes from black spots on its feathers . They use their powerful legs and claws for defense against predators like stoats or ferrets . Kiwis are flightless birds , and hence lack hollow bones , lack a keel to which wing muscles anchor , and have tiny wings . This species also has a low body temperature compared to other birds . Average lifespan is 30 to 40 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Greater spotted kiwis once lived in numerous areas throughout the South Island , but because of predation by invasive species , the remaining kiwi are now restricted to three localities . These kiwi live in higher altitude areas . Populations are present from northwestern Nelson to the Buller River , the northwest coast ( Hurunui River to Arthur 's Pass ) , and the Paparoa Range , as well as within the Lake Rotoiti Mainland Island . The Southern Alps population is particularly isolated . Great spotted kiwis reside in complex , maze @-@ like burrows that they construct . Up to fifty burrows can exist in one bird 's territory . They will often move around , staying in a different burrow every day . Bird 's Nest Fungus sometimes grows in these burrows . Their habitat ranges in elevation from sea level to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) , but the majority are concentrated in a range from 700 to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 2 @,@ 300 – 3 @,@ 600 ft ) in a subalpine zone . These kiwis will live in tussock grasslands , scrubland , pasture , and forests .
= = = Conservation = = =
The great spotted kiwi population started declining when European settlers first arrived in New Zealand . Before settlers arrived , about 12 million great spotted kiwis lived in New Zealand . This bird is often preyed upon by invasive pigs , dogs , ferrets and stoats , leading to a 5 % chick survival rate . It has more of an advantage than other kiwi species over these predators because it lives in high altitude areas , where the wet upland population thrives . However , there has been a decrease in population of 43 % in the past 45 years , and has declined 90 % since 1900 . Humans have also endangered the species by destroying their habitat by logging forests and building mines . Previously , humans hunted these kiwis for feathers and food . In 1988 , the species was listed as Least Concern species . It is currently classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species . This kiwi has an occurrence range of 8 @,@ 500 km2 ( 3 @,@ 300 sq mi ) , and in 2000 an estimated 22 @,@ 000 adult birds remained . They have been trending down about 5 @.@ 8 % a year . The main threat is from invasive predators including mustelids , brush @-@ tailed possum Trichosurus vulpecula , feral cats , dogs and pigs The most threatened populations are in the southern areas of the species ' range . Less than 16 @,@ 000 great spotted kiwis remain . Movements for saving the kiwi are in place , and sanctuaries for the great spotted kiwi have been made . Thanks to intensive trapping and poisoning efforts the chick survival rate has been raised to about 60 % in areas where mammalian pest control is undertaken .
= = Behaviour = =
The great spotted kiwi is nocturnal in behavior . If the kiwis live in an area lacking predators , they will come out in the day . At night , they come out to feed . Like other species of kiwi , they have a good sense of smell , which is unusual in birds . Males are fiercely territorial . At most , four to five kiwis live in a square kilometer . One pair 's territory can be 25 hectares ( 62 acres ) in size . It is not known how they defend such a large territory in proportion to their size . They will call , chase , or fight intruders out . Vocalisations of the great spotted kiwi include growls , hisses , and bill snapping . Great spotted kiwi males have a call that resembles a warbling whistle , while the female call is harsh raspy , and also warbling .
= = = Diet = = =
In the ground , they dig for earthworms and grubs , and they search for beetles , cicada , crickets , flies , weta , spiders , caterpillars , slugs and snails on the ground . They will also feed on berries and seeds . To find prey , the great spotted kiwi use their scenting skills or feel vibrations caused by the movement of their prey . To do the latter , a kiwi would stick its beak into the ground , then use its beak to dig into the ground . As they are nocturnal , they do not emerge until thirty minutes after sunset to begin the hunt . Kiwis will also swallow small stones , which aid in digestion .
= = = Predation = = =
Because adult great spotted kiwis are large and powerful , they are able to fend off most predators that attack them , such as stoats , ferrets , weasels , pigs , brush possums and cats , all of which are invasive species in New Zealand . However , dogs are able to kill even adults . Stoats , ferrets , possums , cats and dogs will feed on the eggs and chicks , meaning most chicks die within their first five months of life . Before the arrival of mammalian predators , the great spotted kiwi 's natural predators would have been birds of prey like the extinct Haast 's eagle and Eyles ' harrier and the extant Swamp harrier .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Great spotted kiwis are monogamous , with pairings sometimes lasting twenty years . Nests are made in burrows . The breeding season begins in June and ends in March , as this is when food is plentiful . Males reach sexual maturity at 18 months in captivity , while females are able to lay eggs after three years . In the wild , sexual maturity for both sexes is between ages three and five . Great spotted kiwi males chase females around until the females either run off or mate . The pair mates about two to three times during peak activity . The gestation period is about a month . Females do not eat during this period , as the eggs will take up a fourth of a kiwi 's body mass . The yolk takes up 65 % of the egg . In most bird eggs , the yolk takes up about 35 to 40 % of the egg . This makes the kiwi egg the largest in proportion to the body . Females must rely on fat stored from the previous five months to survive . Because of the large size of the egg , gestation is uncomfortable for the female , and they do not move much . To relieve the pain , females soak themselves in water when they come out of the burrows by dipping their abdomens into puddles . The egg @-@ laying season is between August and January .
After the female lays the egg , the male incubates the egg while the female guards the nest . Males only leave the nest for a few hours to hunt , and during this time , the female takes over . It takes 75 to 85 days for the egg to hatch . The kiwi chick takes 2 to 3 days simply to get out of its egg . Kiwi chicks are precocial , and are abandoned by their parents after hatching . After ten days , chicks venture out of the burrow to hunt . Most chicks are killed by predators in the first six months of their life . Great spotted kiwis reach full size at year six . Unlike most birds , female great spotted kiwis have two ovaries . Most birds have only one . Great spotted kiwis are distinguishable from other kiwi species by the fact that they can only produce one egg a year , as it takes so much energy to produce the massive egg .
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= Potamon fluviatile =
Potamon fluviatile is a freshwater crab found in or near wooded streams , rivers and lakes in Southern Europe . It is an omnivore with broad ecological tolerances , and adults typically reach 50 mm ( 2 in ) in size during their 10 – 12 year lifespan . They inhabit burrows and are aggressive , apparently outcompeting native crayfish .
P. fluviatile has been harvested for food since classical antiquity , and is now threatened by overexploitation . Many of the island populations are particularly vulnerable , and the Maltese subspecies has become a conservation icon . A population in Rome may have been brought there before the founding of the Roman Empire .
= = Description = =
Adult Potamon fluviatile may reach a carapace length of 50 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) , with females being generally smaller than males . As with other crabs , the body is roughly square , with the reduced abdomen tucked beneath the thorax . The thorax bears five pairs of legs , the first of which is armed with large claws .
The life span of P. fluviatile is typically 10 – 12 years . Moulting does not occur in winter . Mating lasts between 30 min and 21 hours , with spawning usually taking place in August . Females carry the eggs on their pleopods ( appendages on the abdomen ) until they hatch directly into juvenile crabs , having passed through the larval stages inside the egg .
Potamon fluviatile is edible , as indicated by its alternative specific epithet edulis , and was known to the ancient Greeks ; it is probably this species which they depicted on medals found at Agrigento , Sicily . More recently , the species was depicted on the 5 ¢ coin in the last series of Maltese coins before the introduction of the Euro there in 2007 .
= = Ecology = =
Potamon fluviatile has a generalist diet , feeding on vegetable debris , scraping algae from surfaces , or preying on frogs , tadpoles , and various invertebrates , such as insect larvae , snails or worms . No predator seems to specialise on P. fluviatile , but a number of animals take it opportunistically , including rats , foxes , weasels , birds of prey and jays . The most significant predator may be mankind , with individual prospectors able to catch 3 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 in one season .
Adults occupy burrows , while smaller individuals shelter under stones . The entrances to the burrows may be more than 5 m ( 16 ft ) from the stream 's edge and are always above water level . The burrows may be more than 80 cm ( 31 in ) long , and probably serve to protect the crabs from extreme cold .
Potamon fluviatile is an aggressive species , mostly attacking with the larger right claw , since 90 % of individuals are right @-@ handed .
In the Tosco @-@ Emilian Apennines , P. fluviatile is only found south of the watershed , in contrast with the crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes , which occurs on both sides on the mountains . Although their ranges overlap , the two species do not inhabit the same water courses , apparently because the crab outcompetes the crayfish , which is therefore forced to live in less favourable locations where the crab cannot survive . Non @-@ indigenous crayfish may pose a greater threat to P. fluviatile than native crayfish , although the greatest threats remain pollution , overfishing and the draining of wetlands .
= = Distribution = =
The natural range of Potamon fluviatile is highly fragmented , and covers parts of many countries with a Mediterranean coastline . It is found in mainland Italy and on the Balkan Peninsula from Dalmatia to the Axios River in Greece . It is also found on a number of islands , including Sicily , Malta and Gozo , the Ionian Islands , Aegean Islands , Sporades and Andros in the Cyclades . Although the species as a whole is widespread , it is declining in numbers , and these insular populations are particularly vulnerable .
= = = Italy = = =
Potamon fluviatile is widely distributed in much of mainland Italy , especially in the provinces of Trento , Lombardy , Veneto , Liguria , Tuscany , Umbria , Lazio , Campania , Apulia , and Calabria , as well as on the island of Sicily . Although it used to be found as far north as Lake Garda , P. fluviatile no longer occurs north of the River Po .
In 1997 a population of P. fluviatile was discovered under the ruins of Trajan 's Forum in the heart of Rome , living in canals built by the Etruscans which connect to the Cloaca Maxima . Based on a genetic analysis , which demonstrated that these crabs were similar to those in Greece , researchers believe that they had been brought by the Greeks before the founding of the city , some 3000 years ago . The crabs ' unusual size , up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , and longevity ( up to 15 years ) are also interpreted as evidence of a long @-@ established population , by analogy with island gigantism .
= = = Malta = = =
On the island of Malta , Potamon fluviatile is rare and restricted to a few locations in the west of the island . On Gozo , there is a single population which inhabits a stretch of river only 700 metres ( 770 yd ) long .
= = = Balkans = = =
In the Balkan Peninsula , Potamon fluviatile is known to occur in Croatia , Montenegro , the Republic of Macedonia , Albania and Greece . There are four species of Potamon in the Balkans , and P. fluviatile is replaced by Potamon ibericum in northeastern Greece . In mainland Greece , P. fluviatile is found in the drainages of the Axios , Thyamis , Aheron and Arachthos , Pineiós , Piros @-@ Tethreas , Pamisos and Evrotas rivers .
In the Ionian Islands , P. fluviatile is known to occur at only one site on Corfu , as well as on Kefalonia , Lefkada and Zakynthos . In the Aegean Islands , it is found on Skiathos and Skopelos ( Sporades ) , on Euboea and Skyros , and at a single site on Andros in the Cyclades .
= = Taxonomy = =
Potamon fluviatile is at the western distributional limit of the genus Potamon . Other species in the genus occur through Eastern Europe and the Middle East , and across Central Asia as far east as northwestern India . The populations of P. fluviatile on the Peloponnese , Kefalonia , and Zakynthos may represent a separate , cryptic species , and the population from the Peloponnese was described in 2010 as P. pelops .
P. fluviatile was formerly divided into three subspecies : P. f. algeriense , P. f. berghetripsorum and P. f. fluviatile . The first two of these live in North Africa , and were later combined and separated from P. fluviatile as the species Potamon algeriense . By 1983 , the nominate subspecies ( equivalent to the current circumscription of the species P. fluviatile ) had been divided into six nationes , or " tribes " . Natio fluviatilis was found in northern Italy , natio tarantium in southern Italy , and nationes thessalonis , kühnelti and laconis were found in parts of Greece . The geographical distribution of natio leucosis was not reported , and it was suggested that a further ( undescribed ) tribe inhabited the Greek island of Andros . Despite this wealth of infraspecific taxa , they are rarely used by scientists , and some have questioned directly the value of defining infraspecific taxa within P. fluviatile . In 1990 , the population on Malta was described as a separate subspecies , Potamon fluviatile lanfrancoi , and that taxon has become a conservation icon in Malta following its legal protection in 1993 , although not all scientists recognise the taxon .
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= BGM @-@ 75 AICBM =
The ZBGM @-@ 75 Advanced Intercontinental Ballistic Missile , also known as Weapons System 120A ( WS @-@ 120A ) , was a program to develop an intercontinental ballistic missile ( ICBM ) , proposed by the United States Air Force in the 1960s as a replacement for the LGM @-@ 30 Minuteman as the Air Force 's standard ICBM . Funding was not allocated for the program and the project was cancelled in 1967 .
= = Background = =
The Department of Defense began the STRAT @-@ X study on 1 November 1966 to evaluate a new ballistic missile proposal from the Air Force , which was designated the Advanced Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ( AICBM ) . The project was intended to provide a successor to the LGM @-@ 30 Minuteman ICBM then in United States Air Force service . The program was officially launched in April 1966 , and in June the project received the designation ZBGM @-@ 75 , the " Z " prefix indicating a project in the planning stage .
The specifications for the ZBGM @-@ 75 called for a large solid @-@ fuel @-@ powered missile , which would be fitted with between 10 and 20 multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles ( MIRVs ) . The missiles would be based in silo launchers , which were specified to be hardened by a factor of 10 over the existing silos used by Minuteman missiles . In addition , there was also a plan to develop a railroad @-@ based deployment system for the AICBM . Improvements in accuracy over existing missiles , combined with penetration aids under development to enhance the effectiveness of each missile , were expected to make the AICBM capable of defeating existing and projected Soviet anti @-@ ballistic missile systems .
= = Cancellation = =
Ultimately , the Navy won the STRAT @-@ X competition with the design that would become the Ohio @-@ class ballistic missile submarines . Nevertheless , the final report , issued in August 1967 , recommended that the ZBGM @-@ 75 also be developed . Accordingly , the Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara that the ZBGM @-@ 75 be funded starting in Fiscal Year ( FY ) 1969 , with a projected entry into service by 1973 . This recommendation came after the Air Force had completed the preliminary studies on the missiles and the new , hardened silos . McNamara instead kept the missile in " advanced development " , which stopped all work on the project . Only development of the new super @-@ hardened silos was approved for funding ; these would be used by the Minuteman missiles . As a result , the missile 's development was cancelled . McNamara 's rationale for cancelling the program was the destabilizing influence of the new missile , which could have rendered existing Soviet anti @-@ ballistic missile defenses ineffective . McNamara saw relative parity between the two powers — the strategic basis for mutually assured destruction — as the best method to keep the Soviet Union in a position where it must negotiate with the United States .
After the cancellation of WS @-@ 120A , the Air Force made no further development of new ICBMs until 1972 . In that year the M @-@ X project was begun , which resulted in the development of the LGM @-@ 118 Peacekeeper . The Peacekeeper entered service in the mid @-@ 1980s and served until 2005 ; the Minuteman III is still in service , and has outlasted both of its planned replacements .
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= Lactarius sanguifluus =
Lactarius sanguifluus , commonly known as the bloody milk cap , is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae . First described from France in 1811 , the species was given its current name by Elias Fries in 1838 when he transferred it to Lactarius . Found in Asia , Mediterranean Africa , and Europe , fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) grow scattered or in groups on the ground under conifers , especially Douglas fir . When bruised or cut , the fruit bodies ooze a blood @-@ red to purple latex that slowly turns greenish upon exposure to air . The caps are orangish to reddish @-@ brown , and become funnel @-@ shaped with age . The gills are pinkish to purplish . Different forms have been described from Italy , but these are not universally accepted as distinct . L. sanguifluus mushrooms are edible , and sold in rural markets of Europe and Asia . Fruit bodies grown in polluted soil , including roadsides subject to heavy traffic , can bioaccumulate toxic heavy metals . Several sterols and pigment have been isolated and identified from the mushrooms .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described by French mycologist Jean @-@ Jacques Paulet as Hypophyllum sanguifluum in 1811 . It was given its current name by Elias Magnus Fries when he transferred it to Lactarius in his 1838 work Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici . In 1892 , Otto Kuntze called it a Lactifluus , a genus that until 2010 was considered a synonym of Lactarius . Because Paulet 's 1811 type illustration of the species did not represent the typical morphology of the fruit bodies , Jorinde Nuytinck and Annemieke Verbeken designated an epitype in 2005 .
Giovanni Pacioni and Giorgio Lalli described the forms roseus and vinosus from Italy in 2003 ; roseus has a greyish @-@ whitish cap discolouration , while f. vinosus has a less clearly zonate cap that lacks green tones , and gills with a lilac @-@ pinkish sheen . However , form vinosus , originally described by Lucien Quélet as a variety ( Lactarius sanguifluus var. vinosus ) in 1881 , was invalid , because Quélet 's basionym was an illegitimate nomenclatural synonym of a species named in 1855 by Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla . Later authors did not agree with the delimitation of these forms as distinct taxa , suggesting that the alternations in appearance represent normal morphological variations brought about by differences in age , and environmental factors such as levels of sunlight and humidity . Lactarius vinosus has often been considered as a variety of L. sanguifluus , but morphological ( especially macroscopic characters and spore @-@ ornamentation ) and molecular evidence ( based on internal transcribed spacer @-@ sequencing ) has confirmed that they are separate species .
Lactarius sanguifluus is classified in the section Dapetes of the genus Lactarius . This section , which also includes other popular edible species such as L. deliciosus , and the less popular L. deterrimus , is characterized by mushrooms with orange or red latex that often impart a greenish stain on the flesh and gills , an often sticky cap , and association with conifers . The specific epithet sanguifluus is derived from the Latin words sanguis ( " blood " ) and fluus ( " flowing " ) .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies have convex caps with a central depression , reaching a diameter of 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) . The cap surface is smooth and sticky , and the margins are curved downward , even as the mushroom matures . Its color is pinkish @-@ buff to orangish , sometimes with patches of grayish or pale greenish @-@ gray , especially where the surface has been bruised . The somewhat crowded gills have an adnate to slightly decurrent attachment to the stipe . They are pale vinaceous with a pale pinkish @-@ buff edge . The cylindrical stipe measures 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) long by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Its smooth surface is colored pale pinkish @-@ buff to pale greyish @-@ buff , sometimes with brownish irregular dots . The flesh ranges from firm to fragile : in the stipe , it is soft and pale pinkish buff ; under the cap cuticle it is brick colored , or brownish @-@ red just above the gills . Its taste ranges from mild to slightly bitter , and it lacks any significant odor .
The spores are roughly spherical to ellipsoidal , measuring 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 5 by 8 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 8 µm . They feature surface ornamentations up to 0 @.@ 8 µm high and an almost complete reticulum comprising broad , rounded ridges . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are somewhat cylindrical , four @-@ spored , and measure 50 – 70 by 9 – 11 µm . The cap cuticle is an ixocutis ( made of gelatinous hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface ) up to 60 µm thick , with hyphae that are 2 – 6 wide that are usually branched and interwoven .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lactarius vinosus , formerly considered a variety of L. sanguifluus , is quite similar in appearance . In general , L. vinosus can be distinguished by the more vinaceous @-@ red color ( lacking orange tones ) of its cap , stipe , and gills , the more distinctly downwards @-@ tapered stipe , and the more intense staining of the latex on the cap tissue . The two species can also be distinguished microscopically by differences in the ornamentation of their spore surfaces . L. vinosus has an incomplete reticulum on the spore surface , with ridges that have a wider degree of variation in thickness . Another potential lookalike , L. semisanguifluus , has a characteristic orange latex that turns wine @-@ red in 5 – 10 minutes after exposure to air . Compared to L. sanguifluus , the fruit bodies of L. semisanguifluus are smaller , have tinges of violet in the cap , and develop a greenish discolouration with age .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
An ectomycorrhizal species , Lactarius sanguifluus fruit bodies grow on the ground in association with pine trees on calcareous soils . L. sanguifluus is widely distributed in Himachal Pradesh in India , where it has been noted to grow in mixed coniferous forests , usually under the fern Onychium contiguum . It is widespread in Southern Europe , where it fruits between September and November ( extending to December in the southernmost regions of the continent ) . In the Netherlands , it was found in calcareous dunes , growing in a warm , sunny and sheltered place at the edge of a woods dominated in pine species . From Europe , it has also been recorded in Belgium , Estonia , Greece , Cyprus , France , Germany , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Poland , Russia , Spain , Slovakia , Sweden , and Switzerland . In Africa , the species has been collected in Morocco ; in Asia , it occurs in Vietnam and China . It is listed in the Red Data Book of the Ukraine , and appeared in a draft red list for Spain as an endangered edible species considered vulnerable due to uncontrolled commercial picking . To illustrate , a September 1998 newspaper report was cited , which reported that 82 @.@ 5 kg ( 182 lb ) of L. sanguifluus mushrooms picked in Poligny were seized from a van .
= = = Edibility = = =
The fruit bodies of Lactarius sanguifluus are edible , and choice . This was noted by Paulet in his original description of the species , who wrote : " This fungus is highly prized for use by those who are acquainted with it , it keeps well : I kept them for a whole year , it hardens without spoiling , then it takes on a taste of morels . The best way to eat is to cook it in the frying pan or on the grill with oil or butter & salt : it does not take long to cook " . The mushrooms are sold in rural markets in France , Spain , Turkey , and Yunnan Province , China . They are also collected by locals in the upper valley of the Serchio River in central Italy . In Spain , where the mushroom is esteemed as a culinary delicacy in Catalonian cuisine , it is known as niscalos or rovello . In Cyprus , it is known as γαιματάς ( meaning " the bloody one " ) and it is widely collected by the locals , but considered inferior to the saffron milk cap ( Lactarius deliciosus ) . In India , young specimens are consumed along with L. deliciosus ; and some consider L. sanguifluus to have a better flavor than its more well @-@ known relative . Its English common name is the " bloody milkcap " .
Fruit bodies can bioaccumulate heavy metals , including toxic ones , from polluted soil . For this reason , consuming mushrooms harvested from potentially contaminated sites — such as near roadsides subject to heavy traffic — is not recommended . In a Turkish study of various edible mushroom species collected from lawns , near roads , and the inner parts of forests , the fruit bodies of L. sanguifluus were determined to have accumulated high levels of zinc , manganese , nickel , cobalt , cadmium , and lead .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Lactarius sanguifluus contains a mixture of sterols . The predominant sterol is ergosterol ( 56 @.@ 6 % of total sterols ) , with lesser amounts of ergosterol derivatives , including ergost @-@ 7 @-@ en @-@ 3β @-@ ol , ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 3β @-@ ol , and ergosta @-@ 5 @,@ 7 @-@ dien @-@ 3β @-@ ol .
The latex contains sesquiterpene pigments with guaiane skeletons ; these include the compounds given the common names lactaroviolin and sangol . Some of these chemicals are thought to undergo enzymatic conversions when the fruit body becomes injured . Fruit body extracts have been shown to have some antimicrobial activity against Gram @-@ positive and Gram @-@ negative bacteria .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Dugan FM . ( 2011 ) . " Conspectus of World Ethnomycology " . St. Paul , Minnesota : American Phytopathological Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89054 @-@ 395 @-@ 5 .
Heilmann @-@ Clausen J , Verbeken A , Vesterholt J ( 2000 ) . The Genus Lactarius . Fungi of Northern Europe 2 . Denmark : Svampetryk . ISBN 978 @-@ 87 @-@ 983581 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 .
Nuytinck J , Verbeken A ( 2005 ) . " Morphology and taxonomy of the European species in Lactarius sect . Deliciosi ( Russulales ) " . Mycotaxon 92 : 125 – 68 .
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= Lily Cole =
Lily Luahana Cole ( born 27 December 1987 ) [ n 1 ] is an English actress and entrepreneur .
Cole pursued a modelling career as a teenager and was listed in 2009 by Vogue Paris as one of the top 30 models of the 2000s . She was booked for her first British Vogue cover at age 16 , named " Model of the Year " at the 2004 British Fashion Awards , and worked with many well @-@ known brands , including Alexander McQueen , Chanel , Louis Vuitton , Jean Paul Gaultier and Moschino . Her advertising campaigns have included Longchamp , Anna Sui , Rimmel and Cacharel .
Cole 's first leading role as an actress was as Valentina in the 2009 film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus . Her other film work includes Passages , a short directed by Shekhar Kapur and There Be Dragons , directed by Roland Joffé . In 2013 Cole founded impossible.com , a website that hosts wishes and requests for assistance .
= = Early life and education = =
Cole was born in Torquay , Devon to Patience Owen , an artist and writer , and Chris Cole , a fisherman and boat builder . She and her sister were raised by their mother in London .
Cole attended Hallfield Primary School , the Sylvia Young Theatre School , and St Marylebone School . At Latymer Upper School , where she completed her sixth form studies , she achieved A grades in her A @-@ levels in English , politics , and philosophy and ethics .
She gained a place to read Social and Political Sciences at King 's College , Cambridge in 2006 , deferring entry twice . In 2008 she switched to history of art and graduated in 2011 with a double first .
= = Modelling = =
= = = Magazines and fashion shows = = =
Cole was photographed in 2001 at age 13 by fashion photographer Mariano Vivanco . According to the Evening Standard in 2004 , her modelling career began in 2003 when she was approached in the street by Benjamin Hart of Storm Models . She signed with Storm and in 2003 was photographed by Steven Meisel for Italian Vogue . Her distinctive red hair attracted significant media attention . At the 2004 British Fashion Awards , she was named " Model of the Year " .
Cole worked with many prominent photographers , including Craig McDean , Nick Knight , Juergen Teller , Arthur Elgort , Irving Penn and Tim Walker . She has appeared on the covers of Playboy in France , Vogue , Citizen K , and V , among others . She featured on Vogue 's " best dressed " list in December 2005 , and had cover appearances on Numéro and Interview .
She modelled on the international runway circuit and at many fashion shows on behalf of Chanel , Shiatzy Chen , DKNY , Jean Paul Gaultier , Versace , Alexander McQueen , Jasper Conran , John Galliano and Louis Vuitton . She was nominated , for the second time , for the " Model of the Year " award at the 2007 British Fashion Awards . In December 2009 she was listed by Vogue Paris as one of the top 30 models of the 2000s . Cole made a cover appearance on the January 2010 issue of the Canadian Elle and opened Hermès 's winter 2010 / 2011 collection at Paris Fashion Week in March . Towards the end of 2010 , she featured in a documentary chronicling the career of Rolf Harris in which he painted her dressing up as Titania from A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
During the Closing Ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics , Cole was one of the British models wearing fashions created by British designers specifically for the event .
= = = Advertising = = =
Cole has appeared in advertising campaigns for Chanel , Christian Lacroix , Hermès , Longchamp , Cacharel , Topshop and Anna Sui cosmetics , as well as being the face for Moschino 's perfume " I Love Love " . In September 2007 , Cole was announced as the follow @-@ up model for Accessorize , taking the place of Claudia Schiffer , also designing a line of handbags for the collection .
Cole has been modelling for cosmetics company Rimmel London since October 2009 , as well as featuring in advertisements for jewellers Tiffany & Co . Along with Twiggy and others , Cole became a " face " of Marks and Spencer clothes advertising campaign , making her the youngest model to become involved in a campaign for the line .
She launched a campaign in June 2010 at Gatwick Airport for modelling agency , Storm Model Management . The campaign aims to find new modelling talent from people passing through the airport , with the agency hoping to re @-@ create the discovery of Kate Moss , who was spotted at JFK Airport in 1988 by the agency 's founder .
In March 2012 The Body Shop launched its Beauty With Heart campaign , naming Cole as its first ambassador .
= = Acting = =
= = = Films = = =
Cole made her acting debut as Polly in the 2007 comedy St. Trinian 's , a rework of the black and white films of the 1950s and ' 60s , alongside Rupert Everett , Colin Firth , Russell Brand , Jodie Whittaker and Stephen Fry .
Her first leading role came in Terry Gilliam 's 2009 fantasy film , The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus , playing Valentina , the teenage daughter of Christopher Plummer 's title character , Dr Parnassus , whom Parnassus has promised to the Devil ( Tom Waits ) upon her 16th birthday . Acting alongside Heath Ledger ( who died before filming had finished ) , Cole , in an interview for the Daily Telegraph admitted that , at times , she felt out of her depth in the role- saying “ I ’ d only done a couple of films and here I was surrounded by amazing actors like Christopher Plummer and Heath Ledger , and it was intimidating at times , ” also describing the role as " the biggest role I ’ ve ever done " .
Gilliam said of Cole : “ She has an amazing look and grasps what is required so very quickly . If she wants a career as an actress , she has a brilliant future ” . According to Mark Olsen of The Los Angeles Times , writing as Parnassus was released in the United States , " Cole brings a surprising well of emotional tenderness to her part as Valentina " , while Ryan Michael Painter wrote of the film on ' inthisweek.com ' that " all of the performances are delightful , particularly Cole 's as Valentina , proving that the haute couture model has more to offer this world than a pretty face " .
Cole appeared at the 34th Toronto International Film Festival in December 2009 to promote Parnassus . She was featured as herself in one episode of the online series T Takes , a series of short , improvised films published by The New York Times . Cole appeared as " Lettuce Leaf " , a celebrity supermodel in the 2009 film , Rage , directed by Sally Potter . Cole also played " Aline " in the 2011 film There Be Dragons .
In January 2010 , Cole gave an interview to the Canadian edition of Elle in which she expressed her desire to focus more on acting than on her modelling career , saying she " wouldn 't want to treat acting as a convenient thing to do now and again " , going on to mention her roles in the upcoming films There Be Dragons and Phantasmagoria : The Visions of Lewis Carroll and saying of her modelling " I 've been doing modelling for years and I feel like I 've taken out of it what I need to and I 'm ready for new things " and that " film asks for a much bigger emotional and intellectual commitment . " Cole had a part in Mary Harron 's The Moth Diaries , which was released in 2012 .
= = = Other roles = = =
Cole made a minor appearance in the music video for the Girls Aloud / Sugababes cover of " Walk This Way " in aid of the British telethon charity Comic Relief , in which she struts up and down a catwalk in " hilarious ways " , interspersed by the bands and several well @-@ known British television personalities . Cole had another minor role in Primal Scream 's 2008 video " Can ’ t Go Back " , in which she and other models featured in a horror @-@ style video based on the films of Dario Argento . The models , including Cole , are graphically " murdered " and " meet their ends in rather striking ways " with the aim of looking " hot even when dead " . Cole again starred in a music video for Sir Paul McCartney 's song Queenie Eye featuring a number of actors and musicians including Gary Barlow , James Corden , Jude Law and Johnny Depp .
It was reported in October 2009 that Cole would make her stage debut at the Old Vic Theatre in London 's West End at the theatre 's annual " 24 Hour Plays " held in November , but " scheduling commitments " forced her to pull out . Cole ultimately made her stage début at the ADC Theatre in Cambridge , as Nina in a student production of The Seagull .
She appeared in " The Curse of the Black Spot " , the third episode of the sixth series of science fiction series Doctor Who , in May 2011 . She played a Sea Siren .
Cole stars in the music video for Yeah Yeah Yeahs 2013 single " Sacrilege " as a woman burned alive by the many men and women that she 's had affairs with .
= = Charity work = =
= = = Overview = = =
Cole supports a variety of humanitarian and environmental causes . She is an ambassador for children 's charity Global Angels . She also supports the charity WaterAid , speaking for the organisation 's " End Water Poverty " campaign , and the Environmental Justice Foundation Cole has modelled a T @-@ shirt with the slogan " Save the Future " to fight child labour in the fashion industry for the Environmental Justice Foundation . Most recently Cole put a plaster cast bust of her torso on the auction site eBay to raise money for British telethon charity Comic Relief .
In December 2009 , Cole attended a party , hosted by Elton John for which guests were asked to design their ideal bar with the designs then sold at auction in aid of the Elton John AIDS Foundation .
In October 2010 , she helped launch the World Land Trust ’ s Emerald for Elephant Exhibition , which was designed to create awareness and raise important funds for the protection of the critically endangered Asian elephant .
In August 2012 , she was part of the judging panel at the Festival of Code , held at the culmination of Young Rewired State 2012 .
In 2013 , PETA cited her efforts to make consumers aware of animal products in cosmetics and declared her to be one of the " Sexiest Vegetarians " of the year .
= = = Environmental campaigning = = =
In 2005 Cole announced she would no longer model for De Beers after being alerted to the situation of the Kalahari Bushmen being evicted from their lands in Botswana .
Cole wrote the foreword for Tamsin Blanchard 's 2007 book Green Is The New Black , a guide to being fashionable while remaining eco @-@ friendly .
In 2013 it was announced that Cole would receive the Doctor of Letters for her " outstanding contribution to humanitarian and environmental causes " from the chancellor of Glasgow Caledonian University , Professor Muhammad Yunus .
Cole was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party 's Caroline Lucas at the 2015 general election .
= = Business activities = =
Cole is the founder of socially networked gift economy website , impossible.com ; a website that promotes requests for and offering of gifts and assistance . Cole is also part @-@ owner of a London bookshop .
Cole was involved in creating an environmentally friendly knitwear company , The North Circular , which launched in 2009 . The North Circular products are hand knit in the UK with British yarns , from which 5 % of all profits , and all of Cole 's , are donated to the Environmental Justice Foundation . She launched a womenswear range for the company in February 2010 .
= = Personal life = =
On 28 February 2015 , Cole announced she was expecting her first child with partner Kwame Ferreira . Cole announced on 11 September 2015 that she had given birth to a daughter .
= = Filmography = =
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= Gyromitra infula =
Gyromitra infula , commonly known as the hooded false morel or the elfin saddle , is a fungus in the family Helvellaceae . The dark reddish @-@ brown caps of the fruit bodies develop a characteristic saddle @-@ shape in maturity , and the ends of both saddle lobes are drawn out to sharp tips that project above the level of the fruit body . The stipe is white or flushed pale brown , smooth on the outside , but hollow with some chambers inside . It is found in the Northern Hemisphere , usually in the late summer and autumn , growing on rotting wood or on hard packed ground . G. infula is considered inedible as it contains the toxic compound gyromitrin , which , when metabolized by the body , is converted into monomethylhydrazine , a component of some rocket fuels . The toxin may be removed by thorough cooking . Gyromitra fungi are included in the informal category " false morels " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first described in 1774 by German mycologist Jacob Christian Schäffer as Helvella infula ( the original genus spelling was Elvela ) . In 1849 , Elias Magnus Fries established the genus Gyromitra , distinguishing it from Helvella based on a gyrose hymenium ( marked with wavy lines or convolutions ) ; the genus was based on the type species Gyromitra esculenta . Later , in 1886 , French mycologist Lucien Quélet transferred the species to Gyromitra . The next few decades witnessed some lingering confusion as to the correct taxonomical placement of these fungi . In 1907 , Jean Boudier moved both G. esculenta and H. infula into a newly created genus he called Physomitra ; he retained the genus Gyromitra but " based it on an entirely different character so as to exclude from the genus the very species on which it was founded " . In an attempt to reconcile the confusion surrounding the naming and identity of the two mushrooms , Fred J. Seaver proposed that both were synonymous , representing variable forms of the same species . His suggestion was not adopted by later mycologists , who identified various differences between the two species , including fruiting time as well as macroscopic and microscopic differences .
The genus name is derived from the Greek words gyros / γυρος " round " and mitra / μιτρα " headband " ; the specific epithet is from the Latin infǔla , a heavy band of twisted wool worn by Roman officiants at sacrifices . It is known more commonly as the elfin saddle or the hooded false morel . Additionally , G. infula is a member of a group of fungi collectively known as " false morels " , so named for their resemblance to the highly regarded edible true morels of the genus Morchella . This group includes other species of the genus Gyromitra , such as G. esculenta ( brain mushroom ) , G. caroliniana ( beefsteak mushroom ) and G. gigas ( snow morel ) .
= = Description = =
The cap of the fruit body ( technically an apothecium ) is up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) high by 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide and is reddish brown , and somewhat saddle @-@ shaped with 2 – 4 lobes . It frequently develops blackish @-@ brown spots on the surface . During the development of the mushroom , the periphery of the cap grows into the stipe below , to form a hollow , roughly bell @-@ shaped structure with the fertile spore @-@ bearing surface ( the hymenium ) on the outside ; as the surface growth of the hymenium continues to expand even after joining to the stipe , the hymenium can no longer follow and it arches up into folds and pads . The stipe , typically between 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) high and 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , can be various colors from reddish brown to whitish or even bluish , but is typically lighter colored than the cap . The stipe is minutely tomentose – covered with a layer of very fine hairs . The context is thin ( 1 – 2 mm ) and brittle . G. infula does not have any appreciable odor or taste .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Ascospores are ellipsoidal in shape , hyaline , smooth , thin @-@ walled , with dimensions of 17 – 22 by 7 – 9 µm . They are also biguttulate , containing two large oil droplets at either end . The spore @-@ producing cells , the asci , are roughly cylindrical , eight @-@ spored , operculate ( opening by an apical lid to discharge the spores ) and have dimensions of 200 – 350 by 12 – 17 | µm . The diameter of the club @-@ shaped paraphyses is 7 – 10 µm at the apex .
= = = Edibility = = =
This fungus is inedible , as it contains the toxic compound gyromitrin , which when digested is metabolized into monomethylhydrazine , a major component of rocket fuel . Although much of the gyromitrin may be removed by parboiling with generous volumes of water , consumption is not advisable due to possible long @-@ term health effects — there is evidence that even small doses of gyromitrin may have a cumulative carcinogenic effect .
= = = Similar species = = =
Gyromitra esculenta has a wrinkled surface ( similar to brainlike convolutions ) , not wavy or bumpy like G. infula . Gyromitra ambigua is very similar in appearance , and although it is usually not possible to discern between the two species without examining microscopic characteristics , G. ambigua is said to have more pronounced purple tints in the stipe . G. ambigua has larger spores that are about 22 – 30 µm long . The saddle @-@ shaped cap of G. infula might also lead to confusion with some species of Helvella , but these latter fungi typically have grayer colors and thinner , fluted stipes .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
This fungus can be found growing singly to scattered in or near coniferous woodland in autumn , often on rotten wood . It is also commonly found on packed ground , such as beside country roads , or in campgrounds . Associated conifers include Picea glauca , Picea mariana , Picea sitchensis , Pinus contorta , Pinus banksiana , Pinus monticola , Abies balsamea , Abies grandis , Pseudotsuga menziesii , Tsuga heterophylla , Larix occidentalis , Thuja plicata , as well as the deciduous tree species Populus balsamifera , Populus tremuloides , Acer macrophyllum , Alnus species , and Betula papyrifera .
Gyromitra infula is widely distributed throughout boreal , montane and coastal forests in North America . The North American range extends north to Canada and south to Mexico . It has also been reported from South America , Europe , and Asia .
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= Obscene Publications Act 1959 =
The Obscene Publications Act 1959 ( c . 66 ) is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom Parliament that significantly reformed the law related to obscenity in England and Wales . Prior to the passage of the Act , the law on publishing obscene materials was governed by the common law case of R v Hicklin , which had no exceptions for artistic merit or the public good . During the 1950s , the Society of Authors formed a committee to recommend reform of the existing law , submitting a draft bill to the Home Office in February 1955 . After several failed attempts to push a bill through Parliament , a committee finally succeeded in creating a viable bill , which was introduced to Parliament by Roy Jenkins and given the Royal Assent on 29 July 1959 , coming into force on 29 August 1959 as the Obscene Publications Act 1959 . With the committee consisting of both censors and reformers , the actual reform of the law was limited , with several extensions to police powers included in the final version .
The Act created a new offence for publishing obscene material , repealing the common law offence of obscene libel which was previously used , and also allows Justices of the Peace to issue warrants allowing the police to seize such materials . At the same time it creates two defences ; firstly , the defence of innocent dissemination , and secondly the defence of public good . The Act has been used in several high @-@ profile cases , such as the trials of Penguin Books for publishing Lady Chatterley 's Lover and Oz for the Schoolkids OZ issue .
= = Background and passage = =
Obscene publications were , historically , something for the canon law ; the first prosecution in a court of common law was not until 1727 . Prior to the passing of the 1959 Act , the publication of obscene materials within England and Wales was governed by the common law and the Obscene Publications Act 1857 . The common law , as established in R v Hicklin [ 1868 ] 3 QB 360 , set the test of " obscenity " as " whether the tendency of the letter published is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influence and into whose hands the publication might fall " , while the 1857 Act allowed any stipendiary magistrate or any two Justices of the Peace to issue a warrant authorising the police to search for , seize and destroy any obscene publications . It was generally accepted that the existing law was heavily flawed , for several reasons . Firstly , the so @-@ called " Hicklin test " from R v Hicklin was both unduly narrow and unyielding ; it did not , for example , take into account the intentions of the defendant . Secondly , the test meant that individual sections of a published work could by analysed and the entire work declared obscene , even if the rest of the work was fairly mild . Thirdly , there was no defence based on the public good , and no opportunity to submit evidence showing the artistic merits of the work , and fourthly , works could be destroyed without the author or publisher even being informed and given an opportunity to speak .
During the 1950s , efforts started to attempt reform of the law . Following the prosecution of several notable publishers , the Society of Authors formed a committee ( with Norman St John @-@ Stevas as legal advisor ) to recommend reform of the existing law , submitting their proposals and a draft bill to the Home Office in February 1955 . Instead of the wholesale reform the Society hoped for , the government instead chose limited reform through the Children and Young Persons ( Harmful Publications ) Act 1955 dealing with horror comics , which kept the Hicklin test but required that the work as a whole be examined . The Society and sympathetic Members of Parliament then attempted to introduce a Private Member 's Bill , but this was quashed by the ensuing general election . Another Private Member 's Bill was successfully introduced in March 1957 and sent to a committee . Composed of a mix of censors and reformers , the committee 's recommendations were mixed , consisting of both conservative ( further powers of search and seizure for the police ) and liberal ( the use of expert evidence attesting to the work 's artistic merit ) proposals .
The committee 's proposals were published in March 1958 , and a new bill was introduced under the Ten Minute Rule , failing to gain the requisite support . After A. P. Herbert stood for Parliament on a platform of obscenity reform , the Home Office had a change of heart and introduced a new bill through Roy Jenkins in 1959 , a compromise between the aims of the campaigners and the goals of the Home Office . It was introduced to the House of Lords by Lord Birkett , received the Royal Assent on 29 July 1959 , and came into force on 29 August 1959 as the Obscene Publications Act 1959 .
= = Act = =
The Act is relatively short , divided into 5 sections , the fifth covering the extent of the Act and its commencement date . Section 1 covers the test to determine if something is obscene ; an article is taken to be obscene if the entire article " is , if taken as a whole , such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely , having regard to all relevant circumstances , to read , see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it " . The test is based on " persons " ; DPP v Whyte [ 1972 ] AC 849 established that it was not sufficient for an individual to be depraved or corrupted , it must be that a significant number of people likely to read it would become corrupt . " article " is defined within Section 1 as anything containing material that is read or looked at , any sound recordings and any film or other picture record . A publisher , as used in the Act , is also defined in Section 1 ; " publisher " is taken to mean anyone who " distributes , circulates , sells , lets on hire , gives , or lends it , or who offers it for sale or for letting on hire " , or " in the case of an article containing or embodying matter to be looked at or a record , shows , plays or projects it " . The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 amended this section to include the transmission of the article electronically .
Section 2 covers the actual prohibition of publishing " obscene material " . Section 2 ( 1 ) creates a new offence , " publishing an obscene article " , which replaces the common law misdemeanour of " obscene libel " which was previously the crime . Somebody can be found guilty of this regardless of if it was done for profit or not . Where the article is a film , the consent of the Director of Public Prosecutions is required before a prosecution can commence . Section 2 ( 4 ) states that , where an article is obscene , no other common law charges should be brought , and it should instead be dealt with through the 1959 Act , intended to limit prosecutions to those crimes found in this Act . Section 2 ( 5 ) creates a defence of " innocent dissemination " ; if the publisher can prove that they did not anticipate any obscenity problems , and did not examine the article in question for such issues , they cannot be convicted .
Powers of search and seizure are covered by Section 3 , which also repealed the Obscene Publications Act 1857 . This section allows a Justice of the Peace , if satisfied that there are reasonable grounds to believe obscene publications are kept on certain premises for profit , to issue a warrant for that location . This warrant allows a police officer to enter the premises , search them and remove any suspect publications ; if such publications are found , the officer can also take records relating to the businesses trade . The articles must then be brought before a magistrate and either forfeited by the owners or returned . The owner , author or publisher of the articles , or the person from whom they were seized , may appear before the magistrate to argue why they should not be forfeited .
Section 4 creates the defence of public good , which applies both to prosecutions for publication of obscene materials and to the forfeiture proceedings described in Section 3 . This allows for a valid defence if the defendant can show that the publication of the materials was justifiable as for the " public good " , which is defined as " in the interests of science , literature , art or learning , or of other objects of general concern " . Experts and their testimony are admissible for determining the value of such publications . This section was initially treated very strictly by trial judges , but this attitude was reversed after the 1976 trial of the book Inside Linda Lovelace , where the jury found the publishers not guilty despite the judge saying that " if this isn 't obscene , members of the jury , you may think that nothing is obscene " . Three years later the Williams Committee recommended that restrictions on written pornography be lifted , and these restrictions have been largely abandoned .
= = Notable prosecutions under the Act = =
= = = Lady Chatterley 's Lover trial = = =
The first noted prosecution under the Obscene Publications Act was of Penguin Books in R v Penguin Books Ltd . [ 1960 ] for publishing Lady Chatterley 's Lover . The book , which contained the use of the words " fuck " and " cunt " multiple times , along with sexual scenes , was banned completely in England and Wales until the conclusion of the trial ; by the mid @-@ 1980s , it was on the school syllabus . Penguin Books relied on Section 4 's " public good " defence , with academics and literary critics such as E. M. Forster and Helen Gardner testifying at the trial that the book was one of literary merit . The trial at the Old Bailey eventually ended with a not guilty verdict , allowing the book to be openly published and sold in England and Wales for the first time since it was published in 1928 . This trial and its verdict is seen as heralding " a new wave of sexual ' morality ' for which the 1960s is now famous " . Graham Lord wrote that the case " was the first trumpet call of the permissive society , the moment many believe that British morality , manners and family life began seriously to deteriorate " .
= = = Schoolkids Oz trial = = =
In 1971 the editors of Oz were tried for publishing obscene materials , specifically the Schoolkids Oz issue . Oz was an underground magazine with a circulation of 40 @,@ 000 which aimed to challenge the " older generation 's outdated beliefs and standards of behaviour and morality " . For its 28th issue , 20 teenagers were invited to contribute and edit it . The published version was 48 pages long , with the front consisting of a sheet from the French erotic book Desseins Erotiques , which depicted four naked women licking each other and performing sex acts . Inside were articles about homosexuality , lesbianism , sadism and a cartoon strip which showed Rupert Bear " ravaging " a " gipsy granny " . John Mortimer acted for the defence , and after the longest obscenity trial in English legal history the defendants were convicted . After a three @-@ day hearing in the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , this conviction was overturned ; the Court of Appeal recognised 14 errors of law and a large number of errors of fact in the trial judge 's summing up to the jury .
= = = Later cases = = =
Later cases have included :
1976 : the Inside Linda Lovelace obscenity trial ( found not guilty )
1991 : David Britton 's " Lord Horror " prosecution ( not prosecuted - banned under the act , but later overturned )
2009 : R v Walker where Darryn Walker was found not guilty under the Obscene Publications Act for posting a story entitled " Girls ( Scream ) Aloud " , a fictional written account on an internet erotic story site describing the kidnap , rape and murder of pop group Girls Aloud .
2010 : Gavin Smith who was charged after discussing his fantasies about spanking children . After the Crown Prosecution Service appealed the judge 's original ruling that there was no case to answer , he was subsequently convicted in 2012 .
2012 : R v Peacock where a man was unsuccessfully prosecuted for selling DVDs featuring BDSM , fisting and urolagnia .
= = Impact and assessment = =
The Act was found deficient in a variety of ways . Firstly , the test meant that " sting " operations where the police purchased " obscene " materials were not considered sufficient evidence of publication , since the police were not considered easy to " corrupt " due to their regular exposure to the materials . It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase , as those who actively sought out such material were deemed not likely to be corrupted by it . Secondly , the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication , since it was merely an invitation to treat . Thirdly , the courts held in Straker v DPP [ 1963 ] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to publish them , regardless of their obscene nature . As a result , the Act was amended by the Obscene Publications Act 1964 , which created the offence of " possessing obscene articles for publication or sale " and also extended " obscene materials " to cover photograph negatives . Another criticism levelled at both Acts was that they failed to define " obscene " properly , relying on the old , common law definition and giving no help to the judge or jury as to how to apply it properly . The National Campaign for the Repeal of the Obscene Publications Acts ( NCROPA ) was set up in 1976 by the actor David Webb ; it operated until the late 1990s .
= = = Current situation = = =
In 1996 there were 562 cases brought , in which 324 individuals were convicted . Even with this small number of trials , a third of convictions resulted in prison sentences , and only a small number of cases went to jury trials . The number of prosecutions has fallen , from 309 in 1994 , 131 in 1999 , 39 in 2003 to 35 in 2005 . This decline may be partly due to the behaviour of modern jurors , who are less likely to consider material as depraving and corrupting , and are reluctant to convict defendants for the private use of material amongst consenting adults . Another reason for the decline may be the range of alternative legislation which can now often be used in place of the Act . Suggestions given by the Crown Prosecution Service include :
Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 ( " extreme pornography " )
Protection of Children Act 1978
Video Recordings Act 1984 and 2010
Indecent Displays ( Control ) Act 1981
Customs Consolidation Act 1876 , Amendment Act 1887 ( Importation of Indecent and Obscene Material )
Children and Young Persons ( Harmful Publications ) Act 1955 .
The Act continues to have a significant impact in English law , as its precedents serve to provide a definition of obscenity that is used in other legal contexts . For instance , anything deemed likely to contravene the Act is prohibited from videos awarded an R18 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification . A list of the categories of material most commonly prosecuted under the Act is published by the Crown Prosecution Service .
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= Luis Daoíz y Torres =
This name uses Spanish naming customs ; the first or paternal family name is Daoíz and the second or maternal family name is Torres .
Luis Daoíz y Torres ( Seville , 10 February 1767 – Madrid , 2 May 1808 ) was a Spanish artillery officer and one of the leaders of the Dos de Mayo Uprising that signalled the start of the Spanish War of Independence . Daoíz 's surname is derived from the town of Aoiz in Navarre and he was descended from a long line of Spanish gentry with soldiering associations dating to the Reconquista . Daoíz 's great grandfather married the daughter of the Count of Miraflores de los Angeles and Daoíz spent much of his early life in palaces owned by the family . He was born in Seville and , after receiving a Catholic education , trained at the Royal School of Artillery in Segovia . Daoíz saw action against the Moors in Spanish North Africa , where he was commended for his bravery and promoted to lieutenant . He also served against the French in the short @-@ lived War of the Roussillon where he was captured . After refusing to serve in the French army , he was imprisoned .
After his release he served on secondment to the Spanish Navy during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War , participating in the Defence of Cadiz and on convoy duty to the Americas , for which he was rewarded with promotion to captain . He tired of the sea and rejoined his artillery regiment . His subsequent duties included assisting in the manufacture of new guns for the horse artillery , attending the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau with France and participating in the 1807 invasion of Portugal . He returned to Madrid in 1808 and was a leader of the Dos de Mayo Uprising in which he assisted civilians resisting French efforts to remove the royal family from Spain . His defence of the barracks at Monteleón was the only action that day in which the Spanish army fought the French and , although ultimately unsuccessful , it inspired the Spanish War of Independence . He died in the fighting and has been commemorated as a national hero .
= = Ancestry = =
Luis 's oldest known ancestor is Don Berenguer D 'Aoiz , who was named for the town of Aoiz in Navarre and fought in the Reconquista of Spain from the Moors . Members of the family subsequently served in the militia , including Don García Garcés D ´ Aoiz who fought at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 , a decisive Christian victory and a turning point in the Reconquista . Other ancestors fought in the 15th century Granada War , the 16th century conquest of Naples and in 17th century Flanders . Luis 's great grandfather , Joaquín D ´ Aoiz , was sheriff of Gibraltar in the mid @-@ 17th century when he was forced to hand the territory over to the British , the family subsequently moving to El Puerto de Santa María and changing their surname to Daoíz . Joaquín 's grandson Martin married Francisca Torres Ponce de León , daughter of the Count of Miraflores de los Angeles , in 1766 and their son Luis was born in a palace owned by the Miraflores family in Calle del Horno , Seville .
= = Early life = =
Luis Daoíz was born on 10 February 1767 and baptised the same day as " Luis Gonzaga Guillermo Escolástica Manuel José Joaquín Ana y Juan de la Soledad Daoíz Torres " . Daoíz lived for much of his childhood at the palace in Calle del Horno , spending some of his summers at a house in Calle Iglesia ( now renamed Calle de Daoíz ) in Mairena del Alcor . He was educated at the Colegio de San Hermenegildo Jesuit college in Seville up to the age of 15 , when his parents decided that he would become an officer in the Spanish Army , which their families considered a career suitable for a gentleman . Daoíz 's father was able to arrange the necessary paperwork for him to enter the elitist artillery corps which only permitted noblemen to take commissions .
Daoíz entered the Royal School of Artillery at Segovia as a cadet on 10 February 1782 and graduated as an ensign on 9 February 1787 . According to his entrance report he had a dark complexion , brown hair , large eyes and a small stature , being less than five feet tall . At the school Daoíz excelled at mathematics and sports , in particular saber fencing and was able to speak French , English , Italian and Latin in addition to his native Spanish . After graduation Daoíz was assigned to the Real Regimiento de Artillería ( Royal Regiment of Artillery ) at Puerto de Santa Maria . He was able to use a considerable private income from property and farms owned by his family around Gibraltar to supplement his official salary .
= = Army career = =
Daoíz volunteered to help defend Ceuta against the Moors in 1790 and was given command of an artillery battery . He remained in North Africa to assist with the defence of Oran in 1791 , spending part of the time with a unit of miners . Daoíz was commended by his superiors , including artillery Brigadier Andres Aznar , for his courage and zeal in the battles and was promoted to lieutenant on 28 February 1792 . After Spain joined the First Coalition against Revolutionary France , Daoíz participated in the War of Roussillon , in the Pyrenees , from March 1794 but was captured in a French counterattack on 25 November 1794 . He was held as a prisoner of war at Toulouse where he turned down an offer of freedom and a commission in the French Army , which was short of artillery officers . After the Peace of Basel ended the war between France and Spain on 22 July 1795 , Daoíz was released and made his way back to El Puerto de Santa Maria .
Spain signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1796 , allying itself with France against Great Britain and beginning the Anglo @-@ Spanish War . On 11 July 1797 Daoíz was placed in charge of a gunboat in the Defence of Cadiz , commanded by Admiral Jose de Mazarredo y Salazar , against the British blockading squadron . During the defence his gunboat , No. 5 , was involved in an attack on the British third @-@ rate HMS Powerful . Later that year he was seconded to the Spanish Navy , which was short of trained officers , for service aboard the 74 gun ship San Ildefonso . Daoíz sailed twice with the vessel to the Americas , escorting galleons . During this time he assisted the ship 's captain , Jose de Iriarte , by acting as a translator during negotiations with foreign officials and found time to write a short treatise on the instruction of soldiers and sailors . Whilst with the ship in Havana , Cuba , in November 1800 Daoíz was reading back issues of a gazette and was surprised to find that he had been promoted to captain on 4 March 1800 , whilst at sea . He did not enjoy the long trips away from Spain and requested a land based posting , serving initially as a lieutenant in the infantry before joining the newly formed 3rd Artillery Regiment of Seville on 7 July 1802 . Had he stayed aboard the San Ildefonso Daoíz may have seen action with the ship at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
On 2 December 1803 Daoíz was ordered by General Godoy to be seconded to the Royal Bronze Foundry . There he sat on a committee , headed by Brigadier Maria Vicente Maturana , to decide the design and oversee the production of new light guns for the horse artillery . Daoíz agreed to wed a noblewoman from Utrera in 1807 , the marriage ceremony taking place in spring the next year . In 1807 Daoíz was commander of the Spanish artillerymen that attended the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau , an agreement between Spain and France to split up Portugal into three smaller states , and was part of the Franco @-@ Spanish force that invaded Portugal to enforce that treaty . He moved with his regiment to Madrid in 1808 and took command of a battery of the 2nd company ( some sources say 3rd company ) at the former palace of the Duke of Monteleón . He became known to the men under his command as " el Abuelo " ( " the grandfather " ) due to his relative age and good temperament .
= = Dos de Mayo = =
As part of the Treaty of Fontainebleau , French troops began to arrive in Spain and occupy strategic points . Marshal Joachim Murat was ordered to Madrid with 30 @,@ 000 troops and began taking control of the main palaces and barracks of the city , which had just 2 @-@ 4 @,@ 000 Spanish troops in its garrison . The presence of a French garrison was resented by much of the populace and Daoíz himself had to be restrained from fighting a duel with a French soldier he overheard insulting Spain in a tavern . On 2 May a crowd , hearing of French plans to send members of the Spanish royal family away to France , gathered outside the Royal Palace in Madrid to protest . It is not known how the fighting started , but the British consul , John Hunter , recorded that by 11 am French troops were firing musket volleys into the crowded square and fighting had spread across Madrid . French troops were dispatched to take possession of the Spanish barracks to secure their arms and ammunition .
Daoíz , the highest @-@ ranking officer at the Monteleón barracks found himself in command of just 4 officers , 3 NCOs and 10 men . He sought reinforcements at his regimental headquarters and returned with the 3rd company of the 2nd Battalion , a further 33 men and 2 officers . Daoíz 's orders from the local junta were to remain in the barracks and co @-@ operate with French forces but , after conferring with Captain Pedro Velarde y Santillán , he decided that the French troops were hostile to Spain and that they would defend the barracks against any French interference . By this time a large crowd of civilians had gathered at the barracks , requesting weapons with which to oppose the French , and Daoíz ordered the armoury opened to them . With 9 cannon , and 120 soldiers and armed civilians under his command , Daoíz now made arrangements for the defence of the barracks . A battery of 24 pounder guns were placed at the main gate facing into the street and were loaded with canister shot by their military and civilian crews . A small detachment of French stationed near the barracks were captured by Verlarde and their weapons and ammunition distributed to civilians .
According to Hunter , when the first French troops advanced up the street to take possession of the barracks they were fired upon and several were killed before they halted to await reinforcements and occupy neighbouring buildings . Soon the French commanding officer , General Joseph Lagrange , had around 2 @,@ 000 men in the area . French battalions , including a unit of Imperial Grenadiers , made two assaults on the guns , but both were repulsed , and the Spaniards captured a French colonel . A third wave of French troops reached the artillery lines and fired into the barracks , killing many of the defenders including Velarde , before charging with fixed bayonets . Hunter claimed that Daoíz , who had been shot in the hip , continued to issue orders despite his wound and was wounded twice more whilst fighting the French with his sabre . Daoíz is said to have been stabbed in the back with a bayonet and killed whilst approaching a French officer waving a white flag of truce . The dying Daoíz was dragged away by his men , who continued to fight within the barracks buildings before surrendering at the request of Spanish Captain @-@ General the Marquis de San Simón . The Spanish at Monteleón had held out against superior French numbers for around three hours . Daoíz was 41 years old when he died , and had over 26 years of continuous service in the Spanish Army .
= = Aftermath = =
The French surgeon is said to have insisted on treating Daoíz before tending to his own men , but his efforts were in vain and Daoíz was buried in the Church of St Martin alongside his men . Velarde , who spearheaded the uprising alongside Daoíz , was also killed , but another artillery officer , Lieutenant Ruiz , managed to escape . Members of the Junta went around the city asking for resistance to stop , and by 2am the next morning calm had been restored .
Marshal Murat convened a military tribunal , chaired by General Emmanuel Grouchy , that morning to summarily try and sentence anyone found in possession of a potential weapon . Many Spaniards lost their lives , and artist Francisco Goya , who witnessed the aftermath of the executions , painted his famous painting The Third of May 1808 to commemorate this event . The fighting and executions claimed at least 154 French and 409 Spanish lives and inspired resistance to the French across the country , signalling the start of the Spanish War of Independence . After Doaiz 's death his wife entered a convent in Seville .
= = Legacy = =
Daoíz is commemorated as a leader of the initial resistance against French rule in Spain and , along with Velarde , is remembered in many monuments across the country . The ashes of Daoíz and Velarde , with those of others involved in the Dos de Mayo uprising , were transferred to the Monumento a los Caidos por España in Madrid after its construction in 1840 . The monument originally served as a memorial to those who lost their lives on the Dos de Mayo but on 22 November 1985 King Juan Carlos I redesignated it in memory of all Spaniards who died in war and it now serves as Spain 's national Tomb of the Unknown Soldier .
In 1852 a plaque was erected on the spot where Daoíz 's house stood in Seville , being replaced in 1869 by a twice lifesize statue depicting the pivotal moment of the Dos de Mayo when Daoíz decided to disobey his orders and resist the French . A monument commemorating the " Martyrs of Liberty " who died on 2 and 3 May stands on the spot of Murat 's executions and contains representations of both Daoíz and Velarde . A monument to Daoíz also stands in Segovia , where he studied at the artillery academy and in Madrid the two statues of lions that stand outside of the Spanish Congress of Deputies building are popularly known as Daoíz and Velarde . The Premio Daoíz military honour is awarded once every five years to an artillery officer in the Spanish Army . The award in memory of Daoíz is for services to the nation in the preceding five years and the honorary sabre is presented by the monarch in a ceremony held at the Alcázar of Segovia on 2 May .
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= Never 7 : The End of Infinity =
Never 7 : The End of Infinity is a visual novel video game developed by KID . It was originally published by KID on March 23 , 2000 , for the PlayStation under the name Infinity , and has since been released on multiple platforms . The game is the first title in the Infinity series , and is followed by Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity , Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity , 12Riven : The Psi @-@ Climinal of Integral , and Code _ 18 .
In the game , the player takes the role of Makoto Ishihara , a college student who attends a seminar camp on an island together with three other students ; he also befriends three other people who he meets on the island . The game takes place over the course of a week , and consists of the player reading the story , occasionally making choices that affect the direction of the plot ; on the sixth day , one of the female characters dies , and the game moves back in time to the beginning , letting the player use knowledge from the first set of six days to make new choices , to try to prevent the character 's death .
The game was directed by Takumi Nakazawa , planned and written by Kotaro Uchikoshi , and composed for by Takeshi Abo . Uchikoshi included science fiction elements in the game , but was unable to make heavy use of use them , as his superiors at KID thought that the game needed to focus on cute female characters in order to sell . Abo composed music based on his first impressions of reading the game 's story , with a focus on its " emotional flow " . Because of the science fiction and theoretical themes , he composed " geometric music " .
A reviewer at RPGFan praised the game for its plot , its intimate scope , and its music , while a writer for Famitsu found the game 's mood to be boring . As the science fiction elements were well received , later entries in the series gradually moved away from the dating theme and became more focused on science fiction . The PlayStation Portable version of the game was the 967th best selling video game of the year in Japan in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
Never 7 is a visual novel in which the player reads the story , and presses a button to advance through the text . At certain points , the player gets to make choices which affect the direction the plot proceeds in ; these choices involve choosing what location to move to , and what the player character should say , as well as subtler choices such as whether to look a girl in the eyes or to take her hand . The game is presented from a first @-@ person perspective , with pre @-@ rendered backgrounds and 2D character portraits accompanying the text . The visuals mostly consist of still images , but with characters often changing their expression while talking .
After six days have passed in the game 's story , the game moves back in time to the beginning , allowing the player to make new choices based on the knowledge they have gained through the first six days to try to prevent certain events . Depending on the choices the player makes , the game either ends on a " bad ending " on the sixth day , or continues into a " good ending " on the seventh day . When replaying parts of the game , the player is able to use a fast forward function to move past sections of text that they have already read . After finishing the game , a picture gallery and a music test are made available in an omake mode . The game also includes an " Append Story " mode in which the player can play new scenarios that are downloaded from the developer 's website .
In the Dreamcast version of the game , a meter on the system 's Visual Memory Unit shows how the player is doing with the female characters : it shows three blocks , which have hearts inside if the player is doing well . In the PlayStation Portable version , the player has access to a glossary , which explains various key words used in the game . In the Android version , players get points throughout the game , which can be used to unlock applications such as a calculator , a calendar , and mini @-@ games .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Never 7 takes place in the week of April 1 – 7 , 2019 . Makoto Ishihara , the protagonist , is a college student and truant who rarely attends his classes . As a result , he is forced to attend a seminar camp being held on a remote island in order to be allowed to pass to his next grade . Three other students are at the camp : Yuka Kawashima , the leader of the group ; Haruka Higuchi , a quiet girl who is an ace student ; and Okuhiko Iida , a wealthy playboy who is the heir of the Iida Financial Group . Makoto also meets three girls unrelated to the seminar camp : a wealthy girl named Saki Asakura ; and the sisters Kurumi and Izumi Morino , who are temporarily running the café Lunabeach on the island . The seven find they cannot leave the island due to a tropical cyclone that makes the boats unable to leave for a whole week , and become friends during the week .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins on April 1 , with Makoto awakening from a nightmare of a girl dying on April 6 with a bell in her hand . As the week goes on , he occasionally experiences premonitions of the future , all of which come true . Depending on the player 's choices , Makoto ends up getting close to one of the girls , and on April 5 , the story branches into different routes focusing on one of them . In each route , the girl Makoto was close to dies on April 6 with a bell in her hand . Afterwards , Makoto finds that he has traveled back in time to April 1 , retaining the memories of the previous six days . Concluding that he is trapped in an infinite loop , he vows to keep the girl alive and break free of the loop . He does so by rebuilding his relationships with her while dealing with the emotional problem troubling her . On April 6 , the girl ends up in a situation similar to when she died in the last loop , but Makoto saves her , breaking free of the loop and becoming her boyfriend .
After finishing Yuka , Haruka , Saki , and Kurumi 's routes , the player gets access to the Izumi Cure route , in which Makoto learns that Izumi and Okuhiko had deceived him into thinking that his premonitions were true . Makoto confronts Izumi , after which both he and Izumi fall off a cliff . They travel back in time , retaining their memories of the past six days . Makoto accepts that he has traveled through time , and Izumi reveals that she is the professor in charge of the seminar camp , and that the events of the past week were a science experiment ; she attempted to test the phenomenon known as Curé Syndrome , where if multiple people believe in a delusion and the delusion is spread to others , the delusion becomes reality . Makoto was the test subject of the experiment , which was meant to involve him having the delusion that he could have premonitions ; unexpectedly , he turned out to have real premonitions .
Izumi suggests that in the first six days , Makoto had been deceived by her and Okuhiko , but rather than believing in premonitions had believed he had traveled back in time . When Izumi died on April 6 , and Makoto had desired to travel back in time , Curé Syndrome manifested . She suggests that while he had thought that he was traveling back in time , he had only imagined a different past where events played out differently , as part of a delusion , and that he had given himself partial memories in the form of premonitions in each loop ; in the last loop , he would have given himself all his memories , other than the knowledge that he is experiencing a delusion . She says that once Makoto succeeds in saving her , he will break out of the delusion , and the six days in his delusion will become reality . Makoto refuses to believe her , claiming that everything around him is reality , but starts to doubt throughout the week . Depending on the player 's choices , the route branches into two endings . In one , the delusions appear to be changing reality , but are revealed to be a chain of coincidences . In the other , the delusions do change reality , and Makoto wakes up at the bottom of the cliff he fell down at the end of the last loop , badly wounded from having protected Izumi during the fall . It is left ambiguous as to what is real and what is a delusion , and whether Makoto has escaped to reality or still is trapped in his delusion .
= = Development = =
The game was directed by Takumi Nakazawa , while Kotaro Uchikoshi was the planner and scenario writer . Development began immediately after Uchikoshi 's first visual novel , Memories Off , was finished . He was unable to make heavy use of science fiction themes in Never 7 , as his superiors at KID told him that the game needed to include cute girl characters in order to sell ; he kept science fiction themes light , and the game was designed with a focus on dating game elements , with the main focus being to develop a relationship with a girl . The Dreamcast version included new scenarios not available in the PlayStation version .
The development team depicted reality in the world of Never 7 as subjective and relative rather than absolute . As such , for each route , that route 's history is the only one Makoto knows and the only one that is real to him ; the Curé syndrome only exists to him in the routes where it is mentioned . The bells were used as symbols for reality being relative , and were described by the development team as " vague existences " , saying that one cannot know if they exist or not . In the bad ending to Izumi 's route , the bells , which " should be fictional " remain while something that should exist disappears ; this was a metaphor for the idea that delusions become reality while reality becomes a delusion . The game 's title comes from how Makoto is unable to escape the infinite loop and reach April 7 , and how most of the seven characters die at some point during the game . It is also based on the belief that 7 is a lucky number . The development team did not want to confirm or deny whether the game 's world was connected to that of the Memories Off series , saying that while characters with similar names may appear , they wanted to leave the player to decide for themselves what the answer would be .
The game 's soundtrack was composed by Takeshi Abo , and features " geometric music " because of the game 's theoretical and science fiction elements . Prior to composing the music , he read through the game 's story , to understand the setting and each character 's personality as much as possible . He would write his impressions of the plot , with a focus on the " emotional flow " and the events that occur throughout the story ; he valued his first impressions as very important for this . According to Abo , this method takes longer time , but allows him to make better music with a stronger relation to the game 's world than if he had just designated different songs to different points of the game . Because he enjoyed the story , the music strongly reflects Abo 's own musical tastes . The opening and ending themes of the PlayStation Portable version , titled " Sen Oku no Hoshikuzu Furasu Yoru no Sora " and " Hokorobishi Hana " , respectively , were performed by the band Asriel .
= = Release = =
The game was originally released by KID for PlayStation under the title Infinity on March 23 , 2000 . A Neo Geo Pocket version titled Infinity Cure was released on November 23 , 2000 , also by KID . On December 21 , 2000 , KID released a Dreamcast version titled Never 7 : The End of Infinity ; this version was also released for Microsoft Windows on October 26 , 2001 , and for PlayStation 2 on May 22 , 2003 . On March 3 , 2005 , it was released for Macintosh computers through the " GameX for Mac " service . Cyberfront released it for PlayStation Portable on March 12 , 2009 , for Android on August 28 , 2012 , and for iOS on September 11 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
In reviews around the time of the game 's release , reviewers appreciated the science fiction themes of the game . Neal Chandran at RPGFan called the plot excellent , and appreciated how the game 's story is a " personal , character @-@ driven , emotive , human tale based around gentle romance " rather than an apocalyptic " beat @-@ the @-@ bad @-@ guy kind of story " . He also liked how the game 's interactivity is on a more personal scope than in adventure games and role @-@ playing games he had played . He found the game 's pacing and writing quality to be good , and liked the music , finding it to complement the mood of the game well . While he thought the game 's graphics were not " anything special " , he was impressed by the character designs , especially that of the character Haruka . A writer at Famitsu , however , called the game 's mood boring from start to end in their review of the PlayStation version .
The PlayStation Portable version was the 967th best selling video game of the year in Japan in 2009 , with 4 @,@ 250 copies sold .
= = = Legacy = = =
After Never 7 , four more Infinity games were made : Ever 17 : The Out of Infinity , Remember 11 : The Age of Infinity , 12Riven : The Psi @-@ Climinal of Integral , and Code _ 18 ; Nakazawa worked on Ever 17 and Remember 11 , and Uchikoshi worked on all except Code _ 18 . As the science fiction elements of Never 7 had been positively received by critics , Uchikoshi gradually focused more on science fiction and less on dating with each title , with Remember 11 not featuring any dating elements at all . Originally , Never 7 was not intended to be part of a series , but during the development of Ever 17 , it was decided to connect the worlds of the two games .
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= The Boat Race 1956 =
The 102nd Boat Race took place on 24 March 1956 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former rower Kenneth Payne , Cambridge won by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 18 minutes 36 seconds , the fourth quickest time in the history of the event . The victory took the overall record to 56 – 45 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1955 race by sixteen lengths , and led overall with 55 victories to Oxford 's 45 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by H. H. Almond ( who had rowed for the Light Blues twice , in the 1950 and 1951 races ) , J. R. F. Best , C. B. M. Lloyd ( three @-@ time Light Blue between 1949 and 1951 ) , J. R. Owen ( who took part in the race in 1959 and 1960 ) and H. R. N. Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) . Oxford 's coaches were A. G. S. Bailey , T. R. M. Bristow , Hugh Edwards ( who had rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1930 races ) , P. Gladstone ( who rowed in 1950 and 1952 ) and A. D. Rowe ( who represented the Dark Blues in the 1948 and 1949 races ) . The race was umpired for the fifth time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
Both crews experienced a reasonable build @-@ up to the race in favourable conditions . According to the rowing correspondent of The Times , Oxford made gains on Cambridge during this time , although he conceded " it is unlikely that Cambridge are , as yet , unduly worried about the future " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 2 @.@ 5 lb ( 83 @.@ 5 kg ) , 7 @.@ 5 pounds ( 3 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew had two rowers with Boat Race experience , including bow E. V. Vine and number two J. G. McLeod , both of whom were taking part in their third consecutive race . Similarly , Cambridge saw two participants return in M. G. Baynes and K. A. Masser ( who was rowing in his third consecutive race ) . Three of the race participants were registered as non @-@ British , all representing Oxford : Vine , McLeod and Roderick Carnegie were all Australian .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . In a south @-@ easterly wind and drizzle , the race was started by umpire Kenneth Payne at 11 : 30 a.m. Oxford out @-@ rated their opposition for the first minute , averaging 40 strokes per minute to Cambridge 's 37 , yet after a minute the Light Blues held a half @-@ length lead . With the Dark Blues continuing to stroke faster , the deficit was reduced to a quarter @-@ length by Craven Steps , which was passed in record time . By the Mile Post , and despite pushes from Oxford , the Light Blues were about half a length ahead .
A spurt at Harrods Furniture Depository saw them gain an extra half @-@ length before they passed under Hammersmith Bridge a length and a half ahead of Oxford . Although the Dark Blues were on the outside of the long bend in the river , they kept in touch , and prevented Cambridge from extending their lead . The Light Blues passed Chiswick Steps still with a length and a half lead as both crews faced a head wind going into Corney Reach . Along Dukes Meadow Cambridge started to tire and Oxford began to gain ; passing through the arches of Barnes Bridge , the Light Blues held a four @-@ second lead . Increasing their rate to 34 strokes per minute , Oxford 's stroke Mawer tried to pull them back into contention yet just as the boats began to overlap , Cambridge pushed on again to win by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 18 minutes 36 seconds . It was the fastest winning time since the 1934 race and the fourth fastest time in the history of the Boat Race , yet the narrowest winning margin since the 1952 race . It was the Light Blues ' second consecutive win , their third win in four years and took the overall record in the race to 56 – 45 in their favour .
According to the rowing correspondent of The Times , it was " one of the greatest battles in the history of the race " . Cambridge 's boat club president Masser said " I cannot speak too highly Oxford 's magnificent row . We had planned to build up an early lead and then row clean away ... but hard as we tried we could not shake Oxford off our tail . "
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= Charles Scherf =
Charles Curnow Scherf , DSO , DFC & Bar ( 17 May 1917 – 13 July 1949 ) was an Australian flying ace of the Second World War . Born in New South Wales , Scherf was working on his father 's grazing property when he enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force in 1941 . On graduating as a pilot , he was sent to the United Kingdom for service in the European theatre . Flying de Havilland Mosquitos with No. 418 Squadron RCAF , Scherf was credited with the destruction of 7 ½ aircraft in the air and on the ground , and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . Afterward , he was posted for duties with Headquarters Air Defence Great Britain . He nevertheless returned occasionally to No. 418 Squadron and flew operational sorties with the unit , destroying a further 16 aircraft and earning two more decorations . By the end of the war , Scherf had achieved 14 ½ aerial victories in 38 operational sorties . He was also credited with destroying nine aircraft on the ground , and with damaging seven others .
= = Early life = =
Scherf was born at Emmaville , New South Wales , on 17 May 1917 , the son of Charles Henry Scherf , a grazier , and his Cornish wife Susan Jane ( née Curnow ) . An active sportsman , Scherf attended the local school where he obtained an Intermediate Certificate . In 1934 , he enlisted in the Citizens Military Force and was allotted to the 12th Light Horse Regiment as a private . He rose to the rank of corporal , before taking his discharge in 1939 . On 23 August 1939 , Scherf married Florence Hope O 'Hara in an Anglican ceremony at the Holy Trinity Church , Glen Innes ; the couple would have a son and three daughters . By this time he was working as a grazier on his father 's property .
= = Second World War = =
On 12 September 1941 , Scherf enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service during the Second World War . Posted for flight training at No. 10 Empire Flight Training School , Temora , and later No. 6 Service Flying Training School , Mallala , he graduated as a pilot with an " above average " rating on 2 July 1942 . Commissioned as a pilot officer on 17 September , Scherf embarked from Sydney bound for the United Kingdom the following month . Following a six @-@ week voyage , he disembarked on 27 November and was attached to Royal Air Force training units for " advanced flying and operational training " . He was promoted to flying officer during this time . On completion , Scherf was posted to No. 418 Squadron RCAF on 13 July 1943 , flying de Havilland Mosquito light bombers .
In August 1943 , Scherf commenced flying operational sorties against Axis airfields in France . On 15 September , he flew as an escort to a group of eight Lancaster bombers during a low level attack on the Dortmund @-@ Ems Canal , Germany . He was promoted to acting flight lieutenant on 29 December . During this time , Scherf took part in several night operations and was credited with damaging a variety of targets as well as shooting down four German aircraft at night . Praised for his " exceptional keenness and ... courage " , Scherf was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his night time exploits . The announcement and accompanying citation for the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 4 April 1944 .
During late February 1944 , Scherf took part in a sortie over Axis occupied territory with Squadron Leader Howie Clevelend ; Scherf flew the leading aircraft of the two . The pair attacked an Axis airfield at St Yan , France , and successfully destroyed three aircraft on the ground . Soon after , the two pilots spotted a Heinkel He 111Z twin @-@ fuselage glider tug towing two Gotha Go 242 gliders . Scherf and Clevelend attacked the party , with Clevelend firing first and destroying one of the gliders . Scherf then destroyed the second glider , before the pair assaulted the Heinkel . In the first pass , Scherf set the starboard engine ablaze while Clevelend hit the starboard side . Scherf made a second firing pass , before the Heinkel spiralled to the ground with three of its five engines on fire . This action was Scherf 's final sortie of his tour . The pair were consequently credited with shooting down three aircraft for their efforts in the operation , with an additional three others damaged or destroyed on the ground .
On 13 March 1944 , Scherf was promoted to acting squadron leader and , with his operation tour at an end , was posted to Headquarters Air Defence Great Britain as a controller of Intruder operations . By the time of this posting , Scherf had destroyed seven airborne or grounded German aircraft , with an additional shared victory . Despite his new position , Scherf 's " impatient spirit was far from satisfied with a staff position " , and he occasionally returned to No. 418 Squadron when he was off duty , taking part in operational sorties with the unit . On 5 April , Scherf joined the squadron in a sortie over Northern France . During the engagement , Scherf shot down two Axis aircraft in the air and damaged three more on the ground . For his actions on the two operations in February and April , Scherf was awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Flying Cross . The citation for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 12 May 1944 , reading :
Air Ministry , 12th May , 1944
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy —
Bar to Distinguished Flying Cross
Acting Flight Lieutenant Charles Curnow SCHERF , DFC ( Aus 413671 ) , Royal Australian Air Force , No 418 ( RCAF ) Squadron .
Since being awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , this officer has taken part in numerous sorties and has continued to display the highest qualities of gallantry and skill . Towards the end of February , 1944 , he flew the leading aircraft of two detailed for a sortie far in enemy occupied territory . During the operation three enemy aircraft were shot down , and three others damaged on the ground . During another sortie over Northern France in April , 1944 , Flight Lieutenant Scherf destroyed two enemy aircraft in the air and damaged three others on the ground at an airfield . These 2 sorties were a fitting climax to an outstanding tour . This officer has destroyed at least 9 enemy aircraft , successes which pay an excellent tribute to his great fighting qualities and resolution .
On 2 and 16 May 1944 , Scherf took part in two further daylight sorties with No. 418 Squadron into " well @-@ defended areas far into Germany " . Leading a section of Mosquito aircraft in action against Luftwaffe bases in the Baltic area and over northern Germany , Scherf was ultimately credited with shooting down six aircraft in aerial combat , and damaging an additional three on the ground over the two operations . Commended for his " great skill , enterprise and fearlessness " , Scherf was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Order . The notification and accompanying citation for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 27 June 1944 .
On 10 July 1944 , Scherf embarked from the United Kingdom to return to Australia . Arriving in Brisbane two months later , he was briefly posted to RAAF Station Sandgate . During October , Scherf was posted to No. 5 Operational Training Unit , Williamtown , as chief flying instructor . He served in this position until late December , when he was posted for duties with RAAF Base Richmond and later RAAF Bradfield Park . On 11 April 1945 , Scherf transferred to Royal Australian Air Force Reserve and returned to his home in Emmaville ; thus ending his wartime service . By this time , Scherf had been officially credited with shooting down 14 ½ Axis aircraft in aerial combat , as well as nine aircraft destroyed on the ground and a further seven damaged from a total of 38 operational sorties .
= = Later life = =
On 16 February 1946 , Scherf attended an investiture ceremony at Government House , Sydney , where he was presented with his Distinguished Service Order , Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar by the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . Scherf was discharged from the Royal Australian Air Force Reserve on 1 July 1947 .
Scherf found it difficult to re @-@ adjust to civilian life , and began to have nightmares about the Germans he had shot down and killed during the war . This consequently led him to drink heavily . On 13 July 1949 , Scherf was driving his car along the Inverell road approximately 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from Emmaville when he struck a tree and the vehicle overturned ; he died later that day from his injuries sustained during the crash . Survived by his wife , their three daughters and son , Scherf was buried in the local cemetery .
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= Madoc ( poem ) =
Madoc is an 1805 epic poem composed by Robert Southey . It is based on the legend of Madoc , a supposed Welsh prince who fled internecine conflict and sailed to America in the 12th century . The origins of the poem can be traced to Southey 's schoolboy days when he completed a prose version of Madoc 's story . By the time Southey was in his twenties , he began to devote himself to working on the poem in hopes that he could sell it to raise money to fulfill his ambitions to start a new life in America , where he hoped to found Utopian commune or " Pantisocracy " . Southey finally completed the poem as a whole in 1799 , at the age of 25 . However , he began to devote his efforts into extensively editing the work , and Madoc was not ready for publication until 1805 . It was finally published in two volumes by the London publisher Longman with extensive footnotes .
The first half of the poem , Madoc in Wales , describes Madoc , a young Welsh nobleman , whose family breaks down into a series of bloody disputes over royal succession . Madoc , unwilling to participate in the struggle , decides to journey to America to start a new life . When he reaches America , he is witness to the bloody human sacrifices that the Aztec nation demands of the surrounding tribes in Aztlan . Madoc , believing it is a defiance against God , leads the Hoamen , a local tribe , into warfare against the Aztecs . Eventually , Madoc conquers them and he is able to convert the Americans to Christianity before returning to Wales to find more recruits for his colony . In the second part , Madoc in Aztlan , Madoc returns to find that the Aztecs have returned to their human sacrifices . After long and bloody warfare , Madoc is able to defeat the Aztecs and force them out of their homeland and into exile .
The poem contains Southey 's bias against superstition , whether Catholic , Protestant , or pagan . He believed that the work itself was more historical than epic , and it contained many of Southey 's political views . Critics gave the work mixed reviews , with many saying that there were beautiful scenes , but many feeling that the language fell short of being adequate for the subject matter . One review went so far to mock Southey 's reliance on Welsh and Aztec names .
= = Background = =
The basis for Southey wishing to write an epic poem came from his private reading of literature while attending Westminster School as a boy . In particular , the subject was suggested by a school friend that claimed to be a descendant of Madoc 's brother , Rhodri , and Southey began to write a prose version of the story in 1789 . In 1794 , the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Southey was attempting to publish works to raise money to support himself and Samuel Taylor Coleridge in an expedition to America to establish a Pantisocracy , a democratic form of government that the two invented . One of the poems he sought to publish was Madoc , which was an epic that he started working on while at school but he never finished . Southey and Coleridge were able to complete the poem Joan of Arc by summer 1795 while Southey worked on Madoc . However , in his notebook he claimed on 22 February 1797 . " This morning I began the study of law , this evening I began Madoc . " During 1797 , Southey had given up his ideas of Pantisocracy and was studying to become a lawyer . He spent the rest of his time working on other publications , such as a translating part of Jacques Necker 's On the French Revolution . Southey continued to work on Madoc through 1798 , and started his mornings by working on the poem .
It was not until mid @-@ 1799 that Southey was able to finish composing Madoc , and soon after began to work on Thalaba . Afterwards he travelled to Portugal , where he continued to work on Madoc for two more years to polish up the language . After Portugal went to war with France and Spain , Southey returned to England . While there , he travelled to Wales to get more information for his epic . He continued to travel in 1801 , and worked on the epic during this time . In May 1804 , Southey took the beginning of the poem to the publisher Longman , and he began to finish the second section in October . It was finished and published in two parts early in 1805 , with footnotes and a preface explaining Southey 's purpose . The work cost a lot of money to publish , which prompted Southey to write " By its high price , one half the edition is condemned to be furniture in expensive libraries , and the other to collect cobwebs in the publisher 's warehouses . I foresee that I shall get no solid pudding by it " .
= = Poem = =
= = = Part one : Madoc in Wales = = =
Southey intended Madoc to be a combination of the Bible , the works of Homer , and James Macpherson 's Ossian poems . The story deals with Madoc , a legendary Welsh prince who supposedly colonised the Americas in the 12th century . The book is divided into two parts , which represent a reversed division between the Iliad and the Odyssey . The work focuses on colonisation , but starts in Wales during King Henry II 's reign of England . This section is loosely based on the historical events following the death of Owain Gwynedd , supposedly Madoc 's father , in the late 12th century . The work begins as " Owen Gwynned " is crowned king of North Wales after removing his nephew Cynetha from power . After Gwynned dies , one of his sons , David , takes the throne after killing or exiling his siblings . The youngest sibling , Madoc , leaves Britain to settle in a new land . He joins with Cadwallon , the son of Cynetha , and other Welshmen to start their journey . After discovering America , they return to recruit people to help form a new colony . Madoc stays long enough to witness fighting between his living siblings and determines that he must leave immediately .
The story follows Madoc 's journey as they travel West again , contending with problems such as storms and dissent among the crew . Eventually , they reach America and are received by the natives . Madoc takes on one of the natives , Lincoya , as his guide when they begin to explore the area of the Mississippi River . As they continue to travel , they soon come to Aztlan , the original homeland of the Aztec nation , and Madoc discovers that the Aztecs require human sacrifices for their gods . Madoc decides to interfere with tribal affairs and stop two children from being taken by the Aztecs to be sacrificed . Following this , he encourages a peaceful tribe , the Hoamen , to take up arms against the Aztecs . To further protect the Hoamen , Madoc goes to the Aztec capital to deal with their king . While there , he is shown by the king how great the Aztecs are and how no one could stand against them . Madoc witnesses among the buildings and monuments piles of skulls and corpses along with other horrific scenes .
Unwilling to allow the Aztecs to continue their practices , Madoc instigates war between the Aztecs and the much smaller Hoamen nation . While the Aztecs bring a large army , Madoc is able to use Welsh technology and superior tactics to overcome them . The Hoamen are able to take many prisoners while the Aztec king contracts a mortal illness . Following the battle Madoc shocks the Aztecs by releasing the prisoners instead of sacrificing them , and provides leeches to help the Aztec king recover from his disease . This leads to a treaty between the Aztecs and the Hoamen which abolishes human sacrifice . The Aztec priests fear to stop the practice , so the Aztec king decides that his people will abandon their religion and take up a monotheistic religion based on a God of love .
The rest of the story involves Madoc returning to Wales to recruit more settlers for his colony . During this time , he meets with Owen Cyveilioc , a poet who tells Madoc to discuss the matter with the Congress of Bards . During the meeting , a young bard prophesies that Madoc would be like Merlin in America and that he is trying to recreate an Arthurian greatness . Afterward , he meets with Llewelyn , an individual trying to reclaim his title as Prince of Wales . Madoc tries and fails to convince him to come to America . Madoc returns to his original home , and there he stops an attempt to remove the body of Gwynned from a grave on holy ground . Instead , Madoc offers to take the corpse back with him to America where it could be buried without any worry . The rest of Madoc 's time back in Wales is spent trying to get his brother David , the king , to free another brother , Rodri , whom he has imprisoned . However , Rodri escapes after his release was promised . As Madoc sets out to return to the colony , they are met by Rodri 's boat . Rodri informs Madoc that he is working with Llewelyn to overthrow David and restore the rightful king . Although Madoc is upset by the potential warfare , he leaves with the promise by Llewlyn that Britain will be fine .
= = = Part two : Madoc in Aztlan = = =
The second part of the poem parallels the Iliad and follows the events in America after the first part . Madoc returns to America from Wales and finds that Caermadoc , the colony , is doing well . However , there are struggles with his people and the Aztecs because the Aztecs have turned back to their pagan gods . As such , the peace between the two groups ends while a shaman of the Hoamen people starts to convince the people to also worship pagan gods . The Hoamen begin to sacrifice children for their god by feeding them to a large snake . Madoc , angry , accuses a priest leading the sacrifices of being a traitor before killing both the priest and the snake . This feat brings the Hoamen back to Christianity .
The Aztec high priest , Tezozomoc , tells the people that they will not have the favour of their gods unless they kill the foreigners . Two warriors volunteer to capture a child to please their gods , and they return with Madoc and the child Hoel . Madoc is forced to fight other condemned men , until Madoc 's Welsh allies attack the city , allowing a woman , Coatel , to free Madoc and Hoel . At the same time the Aztec warrior Amalahta attacks Caermadoc , but is defeated by the Welsh women . When Madoc returns , he joins the Welsh and Hoamen forces , and the battle continues until Madoc kills the Aztec king , Coanocotzin .
The battle is followed by the Welshmen destroying the pagan temples while the Aztecs gather to appoint a new king . Games and events are established and follow after the battle . During the various events , a temple becomes covered in flames and idols to the pagan gods appear once again . This is followed by the Aztecs telling the Welsh to leave before attacking them . A battle takes place in the water surrounding the Aztec city on boats , and the superior Welsh ships are able to win . The Aztecs , unwilling to stop , turn to superstitious rituals and priests travel to a sacred mountain to make sacrifices . However , a sudden lava eruption kills the priests . This causes the Aztecs to believe that they do not have the support of their gods and they cease their fighting . Admitting defeat , the Aztecs leave the area and head south for Mexico .
= = Themes = =
During his time in Portugal , Southey cultivated a strong anti @-@ Catholic bias , and saw Catholic rituals as superstitious and pagan @-@ like . However , he did not limit his feelings to only Catholics , and he believed that Methodists and Calvinists were also superstitious and a political threat . He distrusted religious enthusiasm and any alteration of the mind away from reason . Southey wrote that Madoc , in following these beliefs , was about a " gentle tribe of savages delivered from priestcraft . " With such an intent , Southey also believed that he was dealing closely with history and scholarship . The footnotes within Madoc reinforce such an intent . He did not call it an epic like some of his other works . Instead , he argued that there was evidence that the story had a historical basis . The story , according to Southey , was that Madoc came from Britain to America to replace paganism with Christianity .
In terms of politics , Southey believed that war with the post @-@ revolution France was inappropriate when he first started composing Madoc . By the time the poem was finished , Southey was an advocate for a war against Napoleon 's government . Instead of supporting his own government in return , he was opposed to the government of Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger . The poem is also heavily grounded in Southey 's ideas on Pantisocracy , and it includes an earlier version of his democratic ideal within a mythic form . The connection between Wales and America within the poem alludes to Southey 's own plans to travel from Wales to settle in America to start a new societal system .
The endings of the two poems are the same but have opposite results : they both have a sunset and an exodus from the country , but the first deals with Wales and the second with the Aztec lands . The first is messianic and heralds a return of Wales 's greatness , and the second deals with a new country being created .
= = Reception = =
Southey intended Madoc to rival the works of Homer , and Coleridge believed that the poem would be better than the Aeneid . However , Madoc received mixed reviews from critics ; while one critic believed it was comparable to John Milton 's Paradise Lost , another felt that it was unreadable . In letter written by William Wordsworth on 3 June 1805 , he claimed that he was " highly pleased with it ; it abounds in beautiful pictures and descriptions happily introduced , and there is an animation diffused through the whole story though it cannot perhaps be said that any of the characters interest you much , except perhaps young Llewllyn whose situation is highly interesting , and he appears to me the best conceived and sustained character in the piece [ ... ] The Poem fails in the highest gifts of the poet 's mind Imagination in the true sense of the word , and knowledge of human Nature and human heart . There is nothing that shows the hand of the great Master " . He followed this with a letter on 29 July 1805 saying " Southey 's mind does not seem strong enough to draw the picture of a Hero . The character of Madoc is often very insipid and contemptible [ ... ] In short , according to my notion , the character is throughout languidly conceived " . Dorothy Wordsworth , William 's sister , wrote on 11 June 1805 to claim that " We have read Madoc with great delight [ ... ] I had one painful feeling throughout , that I did not care as much about Madoc as the Author wished me to do , and that the characters in general are not sufficiently distinct to make them have a separate after @-@ existence in my affection . "
A review by John Ferriar in the October 1805 Monthly Review argued , " It has fallen to the lot of this writer to puzzle our critical discernment more than once [ ... ] He has no contrived to manufacture a large quarto , which he has styled a poem , but of what description it is no easy matter to decide [ ... ] The poem of Madoc is not didactic , nor elegiac , nor classical , in any respect [ ... ] Respecting the manners , Mr. Southey appears to have been more successful than in his choice of the story . He has adhered to history where he could discover any facts adapted to his purpose ; and when history failed him , he has had resource to probability . " Ferriar continued with an attack on the Welsh names that appear within the poem : " we own that the nomenclature of his heroes has shocked what Mr. S. would call our prejudices . Georvyl and Rird and Rodri and Llaian may have charms for Cambrian ears , but who can feel an interest in Tezozomoc , Tlalala , or Ocelopan [ ... ] how could we swallow Yuhidthiton , Coanocotzin , and , above all , the yawnings jaw @-@ dislocating Ayayaca ? — These torturing words , particularly the latter , remind us so strongly of the odious cacophony of the Nurse and Child , that they really are not to be tolerated . "
An anonymous review in the Imperial Review in November 1805 stated , " something should be said of the language . This undoubtedly is not its chief excellence . The style , in many places , is trailing , flat , and uninteresting , — deficient both in strength and animation . The author seldoms avails himself of any artificial ornaments [ ... ] Though we feel ourselves compelled to make these observations , it is hardly necessary to add , that upon the whole we think very highly of this performance . " The review continues by comparing Madoc to Paradise Lost : " were the style adorned by a little artificial colouring , and enriched with all the allowable decorations of poetry , Madoc would hardly yield to Paradise Lost . As it stands , it is certainly the second heroic production in the English language . Its leading characteristics are not fire and sublimity , but tenderness and humanity . Milton astonishes the head — Southey touches the heart . The first we may admire — the last we can love . "
Jack Simmons , in his 1945 biography , believed that the poem was " the longest , the least successful , the most tedious " of Southey 's poems . In 1972 , Ernest Bernhardt @-@ Kabisch argued " Southey would perhaps have done well to have ended the poem here [ at the end of part one ] . In its larger framework of Welsh history , the American adventure and its clash of culture is interesting and is comparable in purpose and proportion , if not in power and dramatic nuance , to Odysses ' exotic flashback narrative at the court of Phaeacia . The Welsh narrative [ ... ] appeals to a variety of Romantic interests – patriotic and picturesque , sentimental and libertarian . And though , as always , thought tends to be commonplace and pathos shortwinded , the quality of the writing is almost uniformly high , and there are memorable and moving passages of description and rhetoric , as well as suggestive images " . He continued adding that " Southey 's epic thereby becomes , in fact , the crowning effort of eighteenth @-@ century English literature to deal poetically with the American Indian " .
In 1990 Northern Irish poet Paul Muldoon published his long poem Madoc : a Mystery , inspired by Southey 's work and the events surrounding it . Muldoon 's work takes as its premise the idea that Southey and Coleridge actually came to America to found their ideal state , and offers a multi @-@ layered poetic exploration of what might have happened . It won the 1992 Geoffrey Faber Memorial Prize .
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= 1865 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1865 Atlantic hurricane season included two landfalling hurricanes , with one that caused over 325 deaths . The first storm was reported on May 30 by ships in the western Caribbean . A month later , a storm hit southern Texas , and in late August , a storm paralleled the coastline of the Carolinas . The fourth storm of the season was also the longest @-@ lasting , forming east of the Lesser Antilles before hitting Guadeloupe and eventually moving ashore in Louisiana . In both of its major landfalls , the storm left many houses destroyed . There was confusion whether or not the fifth storm of the season was separate from the fourth storm , as both systems struck Louisiana in September . Another hurricane occurred in late September , before the final storm of the season developed north of Panama . The final hurricane struck Cuba and Key West , Florida before dissipating north of Bermuda on October 25 .
At one time , one hurricane researcher identified a tropical storm over Cuba in late August , although there was no evidence the storm actually existed . There was also a report of a hurricane over Louisiana on October 22 , although it is unknown if it was related to other storms in the season . There may have been additional unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms were missed from the official database , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
On May 30 , a tropical storm in the western Caribbean Sea wrecked a ship named the " Golden Rule " , which was sailing from New York to the east coast of Nicaragua . The ship first encountered the storm on May 29 , reporting high winds and heavy rainfall . After the wreck , the crew sailed to a nearby island , where they were rescued by two United States ships after 10 days . The winds were estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , although the entire track of the storm is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
The second known storm of the season was reported near Brownsville , Texas on June 30 . Its existence is known based on a newspaper report in the New Orleans Times . The winds were estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) ; however , it is a potentially unreliable estimate due to a lack of significant population providing observations . The entire track of the storm is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
A ship off the coast of Hatteras , North Carolina sustained damage from a storm on August 20 . Further ship reports indicated the tropical storm maintained a general northeast track off the North Carolina coastline . On August 22 the storm made its closest approach to the state , and while remaining offshore it produced winds of around 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) along the coast . Around that time , the storm attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) over the ocean . On August 23 , high waves from the storm left one ship 's cargo a complete wreck . It was last observed on August 24 to the southeast of Nantucket .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The fourth tropical cyclone of the season , also the longest @-@ lasting , was first observed on September 6 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . A small cyclone , it tracked westward and struck Guadeloupe as a fully developed hurricane . Many residents in the small nearby island of Marie @-@ Galante evacuated to Guadeloupe , but some died in the attempt . In Îles des Saintes , the hurricane destroyed all but two buildings . Damage was similarly heavy in Basse @-@ Terre . The overall death toll was estimated at 300 , including 36 on Marie @-@ Galante . After moving through the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane moved through the Caribbean Sea , passing between Jamaica and Haiti and bypassing Cuba to the south . It curved northward in the Gulf of Mexico , moving ashore on September 13 near the border between Texas and Louisiana with an estimated atmospheric pressure of 969 millibars ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
Upon moving ashore , the hurricane produced high tides as far east as the mouth of the Mississippi River , in addition to as far inland as Calcasieu Lake , Louisiana . Three towns were destroyed , causing two of them to be abandoned . Across the state , there were 25 deaths , many of them in Leesburg . In neighboring Texas , damage was greatest in Orange , where 196 homes were destroyed out of the 200 in the town . The hurricane capsized 19 boats in the Sabine River , causing multiple deaths . The hurricane weakened over Louisiana and dissipated over Arkansas on September 14 . It was also known as the " Sabine River @-@ Lake Calcasieu Storm " .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
A tropical storm struck the south @-@ central Louisiana coast on September 7 , while the previous system was located over the Caribbean . The storm wrecked a ship , and its winds were estimated around 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The track was incomplete , and there was a possibility that the storm was misreported as the previous hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
On September 28 , a ship encountered a hurricane to the northeast of the Turks and Caicos islands . The winds in the hurricane extended far to the northwest , and high waves affected the southeast United States coast from Charleston , South Carolina to Cape Hatteras . The hurricane 's track is unknown .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
The final tropical cyclone of the season formed on October 18 , just north of the coast of Panama . The storm brushed the country 's coast with high waves for several days , causing $ 300 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1865 USD ) . Moving north @-@ northwestward , the storm intensified into a hurricane by October 21 over the western Caribbean . After turning more to the north , it struck Cuba , producing strong winds that destroyed the roof of the Belen College Observatory in Havana . In the city , the hurricane destroyed several boats and houses . A station on the island recorded a pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 78 inHg ) , suggesting winds of about 80 mph ( 135 km / h ) .
After crossing the island , the hurricane intensified further over the Florida straits until striking Key West , Florida , where peak winds were estimated around 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Its pressure was estimated at 969 millibars ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) , and the hurricane either sunk or washed every boat ashore at the harbor in Key West . Rainfall totaled 4 @.@ 10 in ( 104 mm ) over a three @-@ day period . In nearby Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas , the hurricane destroyed one building and damaged several others , killing one person . It later moved across the Florida mainland , weakening slightly . About a dozen ships encountered the hurricane across the western Atlantic , before the storm was last observed on October 25 north of Bermuda .
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= Emigrant Trail in Wyoming =
The path followed by the Oregon Trail , California Trail and Mormon Trail ( collectively referred to as the Emigrant Trail ) spans 400 miles ( 640 km ) through the U.S. state of Wyoming . The trail entered from Nebraska on the eastern border of the state near the present day town of Torrington and exited on the western border near the towns of Cokeville and Afton . An estimated 350 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 settlers traveled on the trail through Wyoming between 1841 and 1868 . All three trails follow the same path through most of the state . The Mormon Trail splits at Fort Bridger and enters Utah , while the Oregon and California Trails continue to Idaho .
= = North Platte River = =
In the eastern plains , the Emigrant Trail follows the North Platte River into Wyoming . The trail follows the river upstream to Fort Laramie , a prominent military and trading post in the region . Prior to 1850 the northern side of the river was thought to be impassable beyond Fort Laramie , so the wagon trains that were traveling on the northern side of the river through Nebraska had to undertake a dangerous crossing at the fort . After crossing , trains on the main trail to the south of the river had to cross the North Platte again 100 miles ( 160 km ) upstream . In 1850 several wagon trains successfully blazed a path along the northern side of the river . This new route , which reduced the risk and expense of crossing the river twice , was preferred for all subsequent traffic on the northern side of the river . The northern route is sometimes called Child 's Route after Andrew Child who describe it in a guide book published in 1852 . Above Fort Laramie , Child 's Route follows the North Platte River through the present day town of Douglas , and near the site of Fort Fetterman which was built in 1867 . This is the point at which the Bozeman Trail turned north to the gold fields of Montana in the 1860s .
The southern route also follows the river along the edge of the Laramie Mountains to an area near the current towns of Casper and Glenrock . In 1847 , during the first Mormon emigration , Brigham Young established a ferry near present day Casper known as Mormon Ferry . The next year the ferry was moved a few miles downriver . The ferry was free for Latter Day Saints , but charged a toll for other users . The ferry was manned by groups of Mormons every summer from 1848 until 1852 . In 1853 John Baptiste Richard built a toll bridge near the ferry site , which would eventually put all ferries on the North Platte out of business . In 1859 , Louis Guinard built the Platte Bridge near the site of the original Mormon Ferry . Guinard also built a trading post at one end of the bridge which eventually became Fort Caspar .
Famous landmarks along the southern route included Ayres Natural Bridge and Register Cliff , one of a number of locations along the trail in Wyoming where settlers carved their names .
= = Sweetwater River = =
Continuing upstream from Casper , the North Platte bends to the south . The original trail proceeded several miles along the river to Red Buttes , where a bend in the river formed a natural amphitheater dominated by red cliffs on the hill above . The river was easier to ford here for those who were unwilling or unable to pay to cross at one of the ferries downstream . This was the last good camp spot before leaving the river and entering the waterless stretch between the North Platte and the Sweetwater River . From here the settlers entered a difficult portion called Rock Avenue which moved from spring to spring across mostly alkaline soil and steep hills until it reached the Sweetwater River . Later settlers who had crossed to the northern side of the river at Casper would come to favor a route through a small valley called Emigrant Gap which headed directly to Rock Avenue , bypassing Red Buttes .
Upon arrival in the Sweetwater valley , the trail encounters one of the most important landmarks on the trail , Independence Rock . Independence Rock was named because settlers tried to reach it by July 4 ( Independence Day in the United States ) in order to help ensure that they will be at their destinations in California or Oregon before the winter snows come . Many of the travelers left their names on the rock , either carved or painted on with axle grease . It is estimated that more than 50 @,@ 000 signatures were inscribed on Independence Rock . Other notable landmarks along the Sweetwater valley include Split Rock , Devil 's Gate and Martin 's Cove , where , in November 1856 , the Martin Handcart Company was stranded by heavy snow until a rescue party from Salt Lake City arrived .
The trail continues west along the Sweetwater River eventually crossing the meandering river nine times , including three times within a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section through a narrow canyon in the Rattlesnake Hills . Prior to the 6th crossing , the trail crossed an unusual location known as Ice Slough . A covering of peat like vegetation grew over a small stream . The stream froze in winter and didn 't thaw until early summer due to the insulating layer of vegetation . The ice was a welcome treat for settlers who were enduring temperatures over 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) in July . The trail crosses the Sweetwater three more times and encounters a large hill known as Rocky Ridge on the northern side of the river . This barren and rocky section lasted almost 12 miles ( 19 km ) , and was considered a major obstacle in the trail . The same storm in November 1856 that debilitated the Martin Handcart Company also stranded the Willie Handcart Company on the eastern side of the ridge . Before rescuers could arrive , 21 people died in freezing temperatures . Following Rocky Ridge , the trail descends one more time into the Sweetwater valley to the ninth and final crossing of the Sweetwater at Burnt Ranch .
In 1853 , a new route named Seminoe cutoff was established on the southern side of the river . It was named after trapper Basil LaJeunesse who was referred to as Seminoe by the Shoshone Indians . The Seminoe cutoff split from the main trail at the 6th crossing and rejoined it at Burnt Ranch , bypassing both Rocky Ridge and four of the river crossings , which was an advantage in the early spring and summer during high runoff . The route was used extensively in the 1850s , especially by the Mormon companies .
Immediately after crossing the Sweetwater at Burnt Ranch the trail crosses the continental divide at South Pass , unarguably the most important landmark on the entire trail . South Pass itself is an unimpressive open saddle between the Wind River Range to the north and the Antelope Hills to the south , but it represented a major milestone in the trip . In 1848 , Congress created the Oregon Territory which included all the territory in Wyoming west of the Continental Divide . Crossing South Pass meant that the settlers had truly arrived in the Oregon Territory , though their ultimate destination was still a great distance away . Nearby Pacific Springs offered the first water since the trail had left the Sweetwater River and marked the beginning of a relatively dry stretch of trail until the settlers reached the Green River more than 40 miles ( 64 km ) away .
= = Sandy River = =
Leaving Pacific Springs , the trail moves southwest alongside Pacific Creek for a short distance until it swoops to the west to intersect Dry Sandy creek , a small stream that is a tributary of the Little Sandy River which in turn flows into the Big Sandy River . True to its name , the water level on the Dry Sandy varied depending on the time of year and was often dry . South of the Dry Sandy ford , the trail split into two major sections , the main route which continues south to Fort Bridger , and the Sublette cutoff , which proceeds west directly to the Green River and Bear River valleys , bypassing Fort Bridger . The point at which the trails diverge is known as Parting of the Ways . 11 miles ( 18 km ) south the main trail fords the Little Sandy . Here , a secondary path to the Sublette cutoff leads from the Little Sandy Pony Express station that was based here during the emigration period . The main trail goes on to ford the Big Sandy near the present day town of Farson . The trail proceeds along the northern side of the Big Sandy to its confluence with the Green River . Fording the Green River was very risky , so most travelers used one of a number of ferries operating on the Green River , including the Lombard Ferry and the Robinson Ferry .
= = Fort Bridger = =
Continuing toward Fort Bridger from the Green River , the main trail crosses Hams Fork near Granger and followed Blacks Fork to Fort Bridger . Established in 1842 by legendary frontiersman Jim Bridger and his partner Louis Vasquez , Fort Bridger was a vital refueling post and a welcome rest after the particularly difficult journey from South Pass . Even after the Sublette cutoff was established , settlers destined for Oregon who were low on livestock and supplies would bypass the cutoffs and make the longer trip to Fort Bridger to restock . Fort Bridger is the point at which the Mormon Trail splits from the Oregon Trail and California Trail for good . The Mormon Trail continues southwest , fording the Bear River and crossing into Utah south of the current town of Evanston . The other trails turn and proceed northwest , crossing the Bear River Divide and into the Bear River valley on the western side of the state . The trail meets the Sublette cutoff near Cokeville and the rejoined trails follow the Bear River upstream and into Idaho , heading for Fort Hall .
= = Sublette @-@ Greenwood Cutoff = =
The Sublette @-@ Greenwood Cutoff was opened in 1844 by the Stephens @-@ Townsend @-@ Murphy Party led by mountain men Caleb Greenwood and Isaac Hitchcock . Hitchcock , an old trapper and one of the first of his kind to have been in California in 1832 , recommended that the wagon trail go due west from the Little Sandy and cross 40 miles ( 64 km ) of desert territory to the Green River and from there cross the ridge into the Bear River Valley , completely bypassing Fort Bridger and the crossing of Bear River Ridge . The route shaved about 85 miles ( 137 km ) and 7 days off the main route , but the decision to cross nearly 45 waterless miles before reaching the Green River was not one to be taken lightly . Settlers had to decide between time and the health of their livestock . A traveler in 1846 wrote :
We lay by preparing to Crossing the Cut off to Green river a distance of 40 miles without Wood or Water set out on the Journey at 3AM and landed on Green river the distance aforesaid at 3'Oclock of the 19th it being 24 hours drive
The route reached the height of popularity during the California Gold Rush of the 1850s when a desire to speed to the California gold fields outweighed the risks . The route was named the Sublette cutoff by Joseph Ware in his popular 1849 guide book to the trail after an individual named Solomon Sublette who told him about the route , and not William Sublette as is popular myth . The popularity of the guide book during the 1850s cemented the name , though most scholars today call it the Sublette @-@ Greenwood Cutoff after its original discoverer .
As on the main route , several ferries operated where the cutoff crossed the Green River near the present day town of La Barge . Early settlers crossed the Names Hill Ford , which was barely passable when the water was low . Later The Names Hill Ferry offered a safer alternative . The nearby Mormon Ferry was located a mile upstream , and the Mountain Man Ferry operated during the Gold Rush days . West of the ford is its namesake , Names Hill , which is a prominent emigrant " recording area " with signatures and other carvings . One notable signature is James Bridger , 1844 , Trapper . It is unclear if the signature is authentic , since Bridger was known to be illiterate . The hill also features native American pictographs .
A secondary cutoff named the Slate Creek or Kinney Cutoff breaks from the main trail near the Lombard Ferry on the Green River , and meets the Sublette cutoff on Slate Creek Ridge at Emigrant Springs . This route was slightly longer than the Sublette , but had the advantage of only 10 waterless miles rather than the 45 endured on the Sublette trail .
= = Lander Cutoff = =
The Lander Road , located further north than the main trail to Fort Hall , also bypassed Fort Bridger and was about 85 miles ( 137 km ) shorter to Fort Hall . It was built under the supervision of Frederick W. Lander by federal contractors in 1858 — one of the first federally sponsored roads in the west . Lander 's Road officially was called the Fort Kearney , South Pass and Honey Lake Road and was a federally funded attempt to improve the Oregon and California trails . The little used Honey Lake part of the proposed route near the present states of Nevada and California border was improved in 1859 under Lander 's direction but did not go much beyond improving some watering holes — work ceased in 1860 . The " Lander Road " was the first section of the federally funded road through the future states of Wyoming and Idaho . Expeditions under the command of Frederick W. Lander surveyed a new route starting at Burnt Ranch following the last crossing of the Sweetwater River before it turned west over South Pass . The Lander Road followed the Sweetwater River further north , skirting the Wind River Range before turning west and crossing the continental divide north of South Pass .
The road crossed the Green River ( Utah ) near the present town of Big Piney , Wyoming and then passing over 8 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) Thompson Pass in the Wyoming Range near the head of the Grey 's River and then crosses another high pass across the Salt River Range before descending into Star Valley ( Wyoming ) . The trail entered Star Valley about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south of the present town of Smoot , Wyoming . From Smoot , the road then continued north about 20 miles ( 32 km ) down Star Valley west of the Salt River before turning almost due west at Stump Creek near the present town of Auburn , Wyoming and passing into the present state of Idaho and following the Stump Creek valley about ten miles ( 16 km ) northwest over the Caribou Mountains ( Idaho ) ( this section of the trail is now accessible only by US Forest Service path as the main road ( Wyoming Highway 34 ) now goes through Tincup canyon to get across the Caribous . ) After crossing the Caribou Range the road split , turning almost ninety degrees and progressing southwest to Soda Springs , Idaho or alternately heading almost due west and passing south of Grays Lake ( now part of the Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge ) to Fort Hall Idaho . The Lander Road had good grass , fishing , water and wood but was high , rough and steep in many places . Later , after 1869 , it was mostly used by ranchers moving their stock to and from summer grazing and / or markets . For maps of the Lander road in Wyoming and Idaho see NPS National Trail Map For more information visit Afton , Wyoming to see its Lander and Pioneer Museum .
By crossing the lush Wyoming and Salt River Ranges instead of circling via the deserts to the south , the route provided ample wood , grass and water for the travelers , and cut nearly 7 days off the total travel time for wagon trains going to Fort Hall . Despite the better conditions for livestock , the mountainous terrain and unpredictable weather made passage sometimes difficult and required continuing federally funded maintenance on the mountainous road — not a sure thing just before , during and after the American Civil War . Funds were appropriated in 1858 and 115 men ( hired in Utah ) completed the road in Wyoming and Idaho in 90 days , clearing timber and moving about 62 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 47 @,@ 000 m3 ) of earth . The Lander 's road or cutoff opened in 1859 when it was extensively used . Records after 1859 are lacking and its use after that period are assumed to sharply decrease since the Sublette Cutoff , the Central Overland Route and other cutoffs were just about as fast or faster and were much less strenuous . Today the Lander cutoff road ( s ) are roughly followed by a series of county and Forest Service roads .
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= SMS Grosser Kurfürst ( 1913 ) =
SMS Grosser Kurfürst was the second battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . Grosser Kurfürst ( or Großer Kurfürst ) served in the German Imperial Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in October 1911 and launched on 5 May 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 30 July 1914 , days before the outbreak of war between Germany and the United Kingdom . Her name means Great Elector , and refers to Frederick William I , the Prince @-@ elector of Brandenburg . Grosser Kurfürst was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Along with her three sister ships , König , Markgraf , and Kronprinz , Grosser Kurfürst took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The ship was subjected to heavy fire at Jutland , but was not seriously damaged . She shelled Russian positions during Operation Albion in September and October 1917 . Grosser Kurfürst was involved in a number of accidents during her service career ; she collided with König and Kronprinz , grounded several times , was torpedoed once , and hit a mine .
After Germany 's defeat and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Grosser Kurfürst and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and limited to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike her sister ships , Grosser Kurfürst was raised in 1938 for scrapping and subsequently broken up in Rosyth .
= = Construction and design = =
Grosser Kurfürst was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and built at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 4 . Her keel was laid in October 1911 and she was launched on 5 May 1913 . At her launching ceremony , Prince Oskar of Prussia christened the ship . Due to the heightening political tensions in Europe in mid @-@ 1914 , the final construction work was accelerated , so the first set of dockyard trials were conducted on 15 July , and fitting @-@ out work was completed by the 30th , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . Grosser Kurfürst cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks .
Grosser Kurfürst displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines , each of which drove a propeller shaft and developed 44 @,@ 483 shp ( 33 @,@ 171 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 3 km / h ; 24 @.@ 4 mph ) . Steam was supplied by three oil @-@ fired and 12 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers operating at up to 16 atmospheres of pressure . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 095 enlisted sailors .
She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns for surface use and four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in July 1914 , Grosser Kurfürst underwent sea trials in the Baltic . The ship 's first combat operation was the Raid on Yarmouth on 2 – 3 November 1914 . The raid was conducted by the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group . Grosser Kurfürst and the other dreadnoughts sailed in distant support of Hipper 's force . After a brief bombardment , the German fleet withdrew back to port . On 7 December , Grosser Kurfürst sustained no damage when she accidentally rammed her sister König .
Her second operation , the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , followed on 15 – 16 December . On the evening of the 15th , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the fleet commander , that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back toward Germany .
On 22 January 1915 , Grosser Kurfürst and the rest of III Squadron were detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . They returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank . Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank , the Kaiser removed von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet . Grosser Kurfürst then took part in several sorties into the North Sea . On 29 March , she sailed with the fleet out to Terschelling without any contact with the enemy . Another fleet advance occurred on 22 April , again without result . On 23 April , III Squadron returned to the Baltic for another round of exercises lasting until 10 May .
Grosser Kurfürst participated in a fleet advance into the North Sea from 29 until 31 May which ended without combat . The ship covered a minelaying operation on 11 – 12 September off Texel . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October . Grosser Kurfürst ended the year with a two @-@ week training cruise in the Baltic , which lasted from 5 to 20 December . Another round of exercises in the Baltic followed on 18 – 23 January 1916 . Grosser Kurfürst went into drydock in Wilhelmshaven for periodic maintenance on 12 February . Work lasted until 3 March ; two days later the ship sailed for a sweep into the Hoofden , though this again failed to encounter any British forces . The fleet conducted another sortie on 23 March to the Amrun Bank , followed by another a month later to Horns Reef on 21 – 22 April .
On 24 – 25 April , Hipper 's battlecruisers conducted another bombardment of the English coast ; Grosser Kurfürst and the rest of the High Seas Fleet sailed in support . The battlecruisers left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 CET , and the rest of the High Seas Fleet followed at 13 : 40 . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Grosser Kurfürst was present during the fleet operation on 31 May and 1 June 1916 that resulted in the Battle of Jutland . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Grosser Kurfürst was the second ship in the German line , behind her sister König and followed by Markgraf and Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .
Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that resulted the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Grosser Kurfürst engaged the battlecruiser HMS Princess Royal at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yd ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Simultaneously , her secondary guns fired on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . The faster British ships began to pull away from their pursuers , and at 18 : 00 Grosser Kurfürst was forced to shift fire from Princess Royal to the battleship Valiant , though by 18 : 16 Valiant too had moved out of range . Grosser Kurfürst 's shells straddled Valiant four times and her gunners incorrectly claimed a hit on the British ship . The ship did not escape unscathed herself though ; at 18 : 09 she was hit by a 15 in ( 380 mm ) shell from either the battleships Malaya or Warspite . The shell struck the water some 30 to 60 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 to 18 @.@ 3 m ) from the ship and either ricocheted or exploded , impacting the hull approximately 85 ft ( 26 m ) from the bow . The hit caused no significant damage . During this period , she claimed three hits from her 15 cm battery on a destroyer , which was most likely Moorsom . At 18 : 22 , the ship briefly fired her secondary guns at the destroyer HMS Moresby at extreme range , without scoring a hit . At the same time , Grosser Kurfürst came back into range of the battleship Valiant , and engaged her with her two forward turrets . The ship fired for eight minutes , though her shots all fell short of their target .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to maneuver his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . Grosser Kurfürst and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . Grosser Kurfürst fired a pair of salvos at extremely close range from her main guns at the armored cruiser Defence , which , under heavy fire from several German capital ships , exploded and sank at 19 : 19 . Observers aboard the ship noted that both salvos hit Defence , though did not ascribe credit for the latter 's destruction to the hits . Grosser Kurfürst then shifted fire to the armored cruiser Warrior , which was heavily damaged and forced to withdraw . Warrior foundered on the trip back to port the following morning .
By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet , commanded by Admiral John Jellicoe . Shortly thereafter , four British light cruisers from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron resumed the attacks on the crippled Wiesbaden ; the leading German battleships , including Grosser Kurfürst , opened fire on the cruisers in an attempt to drive them off . Grosser Kurfürst began firing at 20 : 07 , at ranges between 10 @,@ 000 and 18 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 100 and 16 @,@ 500 m ) . Despite the heavy fire , the British cruisers managed to escape without serious damage . At around the same time , the British fleet came back into range and seven battleships took the V Division under heavy fire . Grosser Kurfürst was hit seven times , four hits occurring at 20 : 18 and 20 : 19 . Three of the hits were from the 13 @.@ 5 in ( 34 cm ) guns of Marlborough , though her gunners incorrectly claimed a fourth hit . The remaining four hits came from the 15 @-@ inch guns of Barham or Valiant . One of the 15 @-@ inch shells destroyed the No. 2 port @-@ side 15 cm gun , and another struck the main belt and burst on impact . Though it did not penetrate the belt , it forced the plating in by as much as 13 in ( 33 cm ) for a length of some 26 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . Damage control teams managed to temporarily stop the resulting flooding , after approximately 800 t ( 790 long tons ; 880 short tons ) of water had entered the ship . The flooding caused a list of 4 ° , though counter @-@ flooding efforts reduced it to less than a degree . As the battle continued , the flooding worsened , and by the time Grosser Kurfürst reached Helgoland the following morning , an estimated 3 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 950 long tons ; 3 @,@ 310 short tons ) of water had entered the ship . More hits were sustained , but these shells burst on impact and caused relatively minor damage .
The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away ; this turn reversed the order of the fleet and placed Grosser Kurfürst toward the end of the line . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 15th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships . Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line ; Grosser Kurfürst spotted six unidentified destroyers in the darkness . She engaged them with her 15 cm and 8 @.@ 8 cm guns while turning away to avoid any torpedoes that might have been launched . Grosser Kurfürst scored one 15 cm hit on the destroyer Nessus at a range of about 2 @,@ 200 yd ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) , disabling one of Nessus 's boilers . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw .
The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . Off Helgoland , Grosser Kurfürst had taken in so much water that she was forced to reduce speed . She fell out of formation , but later rejoined the fleet outside the Schillig roadstead . Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Grosser Kurfürst went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . Repair work was completed by 16 July . In the course of the battle , Grosser Kurfürst fired a total of 135 shells from her main battery and 216 rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by eight large @-@ caliber shells , which killed fifteen men and wounded ten .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Following completion of the repair work , Grosser Kurfürst conducted training maneuvers in the Baltic until 4 August . Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the original Jutland plan on 18 – 19 August . The battlecruiser squadron , however , had been reduced to only two operational ships — Von der Tann and Moltke — so Grosser Kurfürst , Markgraf , and the newly commissioned Bayern were temporarily transferred to the squadron . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . The British submarine J1 torpedoed Grosser Kurfürst some 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) northwest of Horns Reef . The torpedo destroyed the port @-@ side rudder and flooded the rudder rooms , though the ship maintained a speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . She returned to the AG Vulcan dockyard , where she was repaired from 10 November to 9 February . That same day , while in transit to Kiel , the ship ran aground off Krautsand in the Elbe river . Damage was minimal and the ship proceeded to unit training in the Baltic , but on the return to the North Sea on 4 March , she accidentally rammed Kronprinz . Her bow was pushed in , necessitating repairs in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven until 22 April .
Grosser Kurfürst rejoined the fleet on 23 April and conducted training with the rest of III Squadron in the Baltic from 17 May to 8 June . After returning to the North Sea the ship was assigned to security duties in the German Bight . Another round of exercises in the Baltic followed on 11 – 23 September . She then sailed to Putziger Wiek to prepare for Operation Albion , the planned conquest of the islands off Riga . On 12 October , Grosser Kurfürst took up a position in Tagga Bay off Cape Ninnast . But she struck a mine while maneuvering into firing position , which allowed around 280 t ( 280 long tons ; 310 short tons ) of water into the ship . Despite the mine damage , the ship continued with the bombardment of Russian coastal guns on the Cape . She was detached from the invasion force later that day ; she sailed to Wilhelmshaven via Kiel , where repairs were completed by 1 December .
Upon her return to service , Grosser Kurfürst resumed picket duties in the Bight . She was present during the abortive anti @-@ convoy operation on 23 – 25 April 1918 . While entering the lock outside Wilhelmshaven following the conclusion of the operation , the ship was damaged . She was back in dock for repairs from 27 April to 2 May . At the end of the month , Grosser Kurfürst ran aground just off the Helgoland 's north harbor . The ship 's port @-@ side propeller shaft was bent , necessitating repairs at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel from 2 – 9 June and 21 – 31 July . She finally rejoined the fleet on 12 August .
= = = Fate = = =
Grosser Kurfürst and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . On the 31st , Scheer ordered the fleet dispersed ; Grosser Kurfürst and the rest of III Squadron was sent to Kiel . On 4 November , the ship 's crew joined the general mutiny and hoisted the red flag of the Socialists . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . When informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that escorted the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Grosser Kurfürst sank at 13 : 30 ; unlike her sisters , she was ultimately raised on 29 April 1938 and sold for scrapping in Rosyth . Her bell was sold and was used for many years as a garden ornament . It was sold at auction in March 2014 and was bought by the National Museum of the Royal Navy , Portsmouth , Hampshire .
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= Battle of Tripoli ( 1825 ) =
The Battle of Tripoli was a battle between the navies of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Vilayet of Tripoli on 26 September 1825 during the Sardinian @-@ Tripolitanian war of the same year . In order to resist Tripolitanian demands for increased tribute , the Sardinian king sent a squadron to force Tripoli to a favorable peace treaty . The Tripolitanians refused to change their demands and as a result the Sardinian squadron assaulted the city of Tripoli , sinking several vessels and landing a force to attack the city . Suffering heavy naval losses the Tripolitanian government quickly agreed to a favorable peace treaty with Sardinia , thus ending the war on favorable terms for the Sardinians .
= = Background = =
In August 1825 , the ruler of Tripoli , Yusuf Karamanli , had become enraged when the new Sardinian consul arrived without bringing tribute with him , as had previously been the custom . When learning that Sardinia 's King Charles Felix refused to give in and pay the request sum , the Tripolitanians expelled his consul and declared war on the Sardinian government on 7 August . Karamanli then began sending his corsairs out cruising against Sardinian merchant ships . To bring the Tripolitanians to terms , Charles Felix ordered a naval squadron to Tripoli under Francesco Sivori in his flagship , the frigate Commercio , along with Captain Luigi Sefra 's frigate Cristina , Giuseppe Zicavo 's corvette Tritone , and Maurizio Antonio Villarey 's brig Neriede . Sivori left and after being delayed due to poor weather at Tunis , arrived at Tripoli on 25 September .
Once his squadron arrived in Tripoli , Silvori sent the Tritone into the harbor under a flag of truce in order to begin negotiations with Karamanli 's government . With assurances from the resident British consul that they would be safe , Silvori went ashore on the 26th and met the Tripolitanian envoy , General Haggi Mohammed . Although negotiations at first seemed to be going well , the next day Karamanli sent a note with suggested terms that essentially abrogated the peace treaty that British Admiral Edward Pellew had negotiated on Sardinia 's behalf after the Bombardment of Algiers in 1816 . Seeing that Karamanli had no intention of offering acceptable terms , Sivori decided his best course of action would be to attack Tripoli . Before returning to his squadron Sivori managed to get the British consul to take under his protection what Sardinians remained in Tripoli . Salvori 's force had a significant advantage over the Tripolitanian fleet , which only had a 12 @-@ gun brig and a pair of 6 @-@ gun schooners defending the harbor . Despite the disadvantage in naval power , Karamanli had significant forces ashore and several forts and shore batteries defending the harbor . Upon returning to his vessel , Salvori gave Karamanli a four @-@ hour ultimatum that he would bombard the city unless better peace terms were offered by the Tripolitanians .
= = Battle = =
The four hours passed with no reply , and Salvori began formulating his plan of attack against Tripoli . Though the Sardinian commander had initially wished to use his squadron 's frigates in the assault on the city , the seas were too rough to ensure their safety close to shore , so he instead made plans to attack Tripoli using several boats from his squadron 's vessels . Sivori placed 260 men in ten boats separated into three divisions under the command of Commercio 's Lieutenant Giorgio Mamelli . One division would attack the Tripolitanian brig , another the schooners , and the third group of boats would assault the city 's dockyard and customs house to ensure no reinforcements could enter the harbor .
When the boats first started for the port , the Tripolitanians began firing upon them with their shore batteries . The shelling lasted until 11 : 00 PM and delayed the assault until 1 : 00 AM when the Nerid began escorting the boats in closer to shore . Though at first the second Sardinian attack was unnoticed by the Tripolitanians , a sentry sighted the approaching force at 2 : 30 AM . Despite resistance from the Tripolitanian fleet and forces ashore , Mamelli pushed his force onward through grapeshot and musket fire . He soon reached the Tripolitanian brig and had his force board her , killing its officers and captain as well as a large portion of its crew . A second section of boats assaulted the schooners , taking them by boarding . At the same time , the third section of Sardinian boats managed to force their way ashore despite heavy opposition , capturing the dockyard and routing its Tripolitanian defenders . At 3 : 30 AM Mamelli fired off two rockets to signal a retreat , and burned the Tripolitanian ships his force had captured .
= = Aftermath = =
By the end of the action the Tripolitanians had lost their three largest vessels and suffered heavy casualties , while the Sardinians only had two dead and five wounded . Later in the day while Sivori was making preparations for another attack on the city , a Dutch brig sailed out of port saluting him and signaling that it wished to communicate with him . Upon contacting the squadron , the brig 's captain sent Sivori the congratulatory remarks of the British consul at Tripoli . The Sardinian commander sent the Dutch vessel back into port with a message to Karamanli that if he did not commence negotiations , further military action would be taken against the city . Rather than suffer continued action from the Sardinians , Karamanli acceded to the Sardinian requests and sent an envoy out to the Sardinian squadron .
Upon negotiating with the Tripolitanian envoy , Sivori was able to get an agreement restoring the diplomatic situation to as it had been prior to the events that had sparked the hostilities . In order to ensure that Karamanli would abide by the terms of the treaty , the Sardinians included a provision that if the treaty were not ratified within four hours of its signing , Sardinian hostilities against Tripoli would recommence . Karamanli promptly acceded to the treaty upon receiving it and had the Sardinian consulate 's national colors raised and saluted by his forces . The next day Sivori upon invitation arrived at Karamanli 's palace , where he and his force were greeted with great respect and honor by the monarch . Though a stipulation was included in the peace treaty that required Sardinia to pay Tripoli 7 @,@ 000 gold francs , it was canceled and as a result the long practice of Sardinian tributary payments to the Tripolitanians finally ended .
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= Jackie Evancho =
Jacqueline Marie " Jackie " Evancho ( / iːˈveɪŋkoʊ / ee @-@ VAYNG @-@ koh ; born April 9 , 2000 ) is an American classical crossover singer who gained wide recognition at an early age and , since 2009 , has issued an EP and five albums , including a platinum and gold album and three Billboard 200 top 10 debuts . She has made three solo Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) specials .
Between 2008 and 2010 , Evancho entered several talent competitions ; made singing appearances , including the US national anthem at a Pittsburgh Pirates baseball game and in concerts with Tim Janis and David Foster ; issued an independent album , Prelude to a Dream ; and attracted interest on YouTube . In 2010 , at the age of ten , she gained wider popularity with her 2nd @-@ place finish in the fifth season of America 's Got Talent . With the 2010 holiday release of her O Holy Night EP , Evancho became the best @-@ selling debut artist of 2010 , the youngest top @-@ 10 debut artist in US history and the youngest solo artist ever to go platinum in the US . She performed at the 2010 National Christmas Tree lighting in Washington , D.C. In 2011 , her first full @-@ length album , Dream With Me , produced by Foster , debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 chart , and she became the youngest top @-@ 5 debut artist in UK history . Billboard ranked Evancho the top Classical Albums Artist for 2011 . Later that year , Evancho released another album , Heavenly Christmas , and became the youngest person ever to give a solo concert at Lincoln Center in New York City as part of her Dream With Me Tour .
Evancho is the ambassador for Mission : Humane , a US Humane Society program that encourages children to help protect animals . A national cotillion organization listed her as one of the " ten best @-@ mannered people of 2011 " . From late 2012 to 2014 , she toured the US , performing songs from her 2012 album , Songs from the Silver Screen , which was Evancho 's third top @-@ ten album debut . In 2013 she headlined benefit concerts at Carnegie Hall , the LDS Conference Center and with Cirque du Soleil in Las Vegas for the One Drop Foundation . She also appeared in the 2013 Robert Redford film The Company You Keep and modelled for Guess Kids clothing . Evancho 's 2014 album , Awakening , was her fifth consecutive No. 1 release on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . Since then she has toured in support of Awakening and released several singles and collaborations in between her public school studies . She is expected to release a new album in 2016 .
= = Family and early life = =
Evancho 's parents are Lisa and Michael Evancho . Her father operated a video security business until 2010 . She has an older sister Juliet , a younger brother Zachary , and a younger sister Rachel . She and her family are Catholic and reside in a suburb of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Evancho began her education in the Pine @-@ Richland School District public schools , but in 2010 , because of her touring schedule , she switched to cyber schooling . In 2014 she returned to public school . Evancho 's interests include playing the violin and piano , sewing , swimming , playing with her pets , drawing and archery .
Evancho saw the film version of the musical The Phantom of the Opera and liked it so much that her mother purchased the DVD ; Evancho began singing the songs around the family home . Her parents have said that they did not recognize that her voice was unusual until her first talent competition , which she entered just before her 8th birthday . In the competition , Kean Idol , Evancho finished in second place to a 20 @-@ year @-@ old opera singer . She began taking voice lessons , and her parents began receiving requests for her to sing at various events , churches and nursing homes , mostly in Pennsylvania . She also started a YouTube channel , sang in the Children 's Festival Chorus of Pittsburgh during its 2008 – 09 season , and performed the title role in a 2009 school musical version of Little Red Riding Hood .
In January 2009 , Evancho competed in Las Vegas in the 15th annual U.S.A. World Showcase Talent Competition , where she also finished in second place . She entered the 2009 Kean Idol contest and was again runner @-@ up . In 2009 talent contests , she won the Golden Ribby Award – WonderworldTV and the Talent Quest TV Show ( both in Massachusetts ) . Also in 2009 , she sang " Ave Maria " in composer and conductor Tim Janis 's PBS television special " Celebrate America " and performed in other concerts and TV shows with Janis , who sought her out after seeing her on YouTube . She made various singing appearances around Pennsylvania in 2009 and 2010 .
= = Career = =
= = = David Foster and Prelude to a Dream = = =
Evancho first caught record producer David Foster 's attention in 2009 . After sending a video to him , she was selected for the regional semifinals of his “ Hitman Talent Search Contest ” , finishing as runner @-@ up , and in October 2009 she sang in the " David Foster & Friends " concert at the Prudential Center in Newark , New Jersey .
In November 2009 , Evancho released her independent debut album , Prelude to a Dream . The album featured mainly covers of classical crossover songs such as " Con te partirò " , " The Prayer " , " To Where You Are " , " Concrete Angel " and " Amazing Grace " . It debuted on the Billboard 200 at No. 121 , and at No. 2 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart , in August 2010 , after Evancho 's first performance on America 's Got Talent . Evancho 's parents withdrew the album later in the same month , citing Evancho 's vocal progress since its release . Since Evancho 's success on America 's Got Talent , the album has become a collector 's item .
= = = America 's Got Talent = = =
After two earlier unsuccessful auditions for the show , Evancho was accepted as a contestant on the fifth season of the America 's Got Talent TV show ( AGT ) by placing first in its 2010 YouTube competition . On August 10 , 2010 , Evancho performed the aria " O mio babbino caro " in the show 's quarter @-@ final round . She received a standing ovation after her performance and was awarded a family trip to Universal Studios Florida for receiving the most fan votes of all the YouTube submissions to the show . Judge Howie Mandel said in his critique that the show sought to " find that one moment , that one gem , that one star from a place we 've never looked before . ... This is the moment . You 're the star . " After Evancho 's performance , commentators queried whether her performance had been lip @-@ synched . On the next evening 's live show , Evancho sang an impromptu voice exercise to demonstrate that the broadcast was of her live voice . In an interview , Mandel addressed the issue : " what people are ... really saying [ is ] that it 's really too good to be true . You are so perfect and so wonderful that people have never heard a talent like this . ... You 've got to take that as a compliment . ... Even if you don 't love that kind of music , you can 't deny that [ it ] is perfection . "
Her semifinal performance was " Time to Say Goodbye " , on August 31 , 2010 . She advanced to the Top 10 round where , on September 7 , 2010 , she performed " Pie Jesu " from Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Requiem and was voted into the Final 4 . Pittsburgh leaders declared the following week " Jackie Evancho Week " in appreciation " for her positive representation of our city " showing " poise and determination well beyond her years " . Her final competition performance was of Gounod 's " Ave Maria " on September 14 . The following evening at the AGT season finale , Evancho sang " Time to Say Goodbye " together with guest artist Sarah Brightman ; then Evancho was announced as the runner @-@ up , finishing second to singer Michael Grimm . Many viewers and commentators felt that Evancho should have won , and even Grimm expressed surprise . The show brought Evancho wide exposure to American audiences , as up to 16 million viewers watched her performances each week . The finale show was AGT 's highest @-@ rated episode in three years . Evancho became one of the two most successful AGT alumni . She was a guest on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno a week after the finale , where she sang and gave her first late @-@ night interview with Jay Leno . Evancho was subsequently profiled and interviewed in the 2013 book Inside AGT : The Untold Stories of America 's Got Talent .
Evancho performed in 10 of the 25 cities in the America 's Got Talent : Live Tour from October 1 to November 5 , 2010 . On October 8 , 2010 , Evancho signed a record deal with SYCO music and Columbia Records . One week later , she performed in Las Vegas with David Foster . From June 2010 until mid @-@ 2011 , Evancho was coached by voice teacher Yvie Burnett , a mezzo @-@ soprano from Scotland , who has worked with many of the singers appearing on AGT . Tim Janis scheduled Evancho to perform in his show at Carnegie Hall in New York City on December 2 , 2010 , where she would have been the venue 's youngest female vocal soloist . During the AGT tour , however , her parents withdrew her from the Carnegie Hall event ; by the time of that event , Evancho had begun making promotional appearances for Columbia Records .
= = = O Holy Night = = =
Evancho 's first release on a major record label was a Columbia Records EP entitled O Holy Night . It was released on November 16 , 2010 and entered the Billboard 200 at No. 2 , making Evancho the top @-@ selling debut artist for 2010 and the youngest solo artist ever to debut in the top 10 . It also launched at No. 1 on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart . It was No. 2 on Billboard 's Holiday Albums Chart . The album sold 239 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . On December 10 , 2010 , the album was certified platinum by the RIAA , shipping in excess of a million copies in the US , making Evancho the youngest solo artist ever to go platinum in the US .
Evancho promoted the album on TV beginning with The Oprah Winfrey Show on October 19 , 2010 , where she sang " Pie Jesu " . Among several other talk shows , QVC appearances and holiday singing appearances , Evancho performed songs from the album and was interviewed on The Today Show and Fox & Friends , The View and Martha Stewart Living . In November 2010 , Evancho sang " O Holy Night " in the My Macy 's Holiday Parade in Pittsburgh and again on NBC 's Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree lighting special , Christmas in Rockefeller Center , where she also duetted with Katherine Jenkins , singing " Silent Night " . Such a duet had been anticipated since Piers Morgan commented on the similar appearance of the two singers . On December 9 , 2010 , Evancho performed at the National Christmas Tree lighting in Washington , D.C. , singing " O Holy Night " , where she met President Obama and his family . Also in December , she returned to the Tonight Show and performed at the 27th annual Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade , on ABC television .
In its 2011 year @-@ end charts ( including releases from November 2010 ) , Billboard ranked O Holy Night at No. 1 on its Classical Albums chart . It also ranked the album as the No. 15 best @-@ selling album of 2011 in the US . O Holy Night also ranked as the No. 31 Canadian Album of 2011 .
= = = Dream with Me = = =
Evancho 's second full @-@ length feature album ( her first on a major label ) , Dream with Me , produced by David Foster for Sony and Syco Music , was released on June 14 , 2011 . The album debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 chart , reached No. 1 on Billboard 's Classical Albums Chart , and was certified gold by the RIAA . The album also performed well internationally , with Evancho becoming the youngest artist ever to debut in the UK in the top 5 . The album includes 14 tracks ranging from popular songs ( " Angel " ) to classical arias ( " Ombra mai fu " ) , and original songs , including the title track , for which Evancho contributed to the lyrics . Evancho sings duets with Barbra Streisand ( " Somewhere " ) and Susan Boyle ( " The Prayer " ) . A deluxe edition of Dream with Me available only at the Target website includes four bonus tracks : " Someday " , " Mi Mancherai " , " The Impossible Dream " and " A Time For Us " . Allmusic gave the album 3 @-@ 1 / 2 stars out of a possible five , commenting : " Dream with Me hits all of the right notes , though there are few surprises or big moments to be found ... resulting in a solid " official " debut from a rising star at the dawn of her career . " USA Today rated the album 2 @-@ 1 / 2 stars out of four : " [ Evancho 's ] sweet , unblemished vocal tone and slow , careful vibrato hardly betray her young age . ... But Dream 's predictable and often bombastic odes to love and faith can undermine the tween 's most appealing quality : innocence . I 'd have preferred a little less pomp and Puccini and more youthful wonder . "
Evancho promoted the album on talk shows and at concerts in the US and in Toronto . She recorded a solo concert television special for the 2011 PBS Great Performances series that includes nearly the same songs as the album . The special , titled Dream With Me In Concert , was the most broadcast program of the year on the PBS network . Evancho was the youngest person ever to have a special on the series . It " became one of the most viewed specials in the 38 @-@ year @-@ history of the Great Performances series [ and ] raised record amounts of money for PBS stations . " The concert was co @-@ hosted by David Foster , who played the piano in the orchestra for many of the selections , while Conrad Tao played piano and violin , respectively , for two songs . The special was shown on PBS stations beginning in June 2011 and was released as a CD / DVD set in September 2011 , Dream With Me In Concert , reaching No. 1 on Billboard 's Top Music Video chart . Allmusic noted : " the concert version ... sounds nearly identical ( outside of the waves of applause ) to the studio album ... but the accompanying DVD , which features the heavily choreographed performance , as well as an extensive photo gallery and interviews with both Evancho and Foster , should provide enough eye and ear candy to appease fans of the gifted young vocalist until a proper follow @-@ up appears . " The Sun wrote that the " classical crossover set ... showcases the extraordinary beauty of the child 's pipes . "
In July 2011 , the singer began her first solo tour across the United States , to promote the album . It consisted of 18 performances with symphony orchestras , beginning with eight stops in the US during 2011 , including one with her hometown Pittsburgh Opera on October 16 . Evancho made her New York City solo concert debut at Avery Fisher Hall in November 2011 , becoming the youngest person ever to sing a solo concert at Lincoln Center . Her last appearance in 2011 was in Las Vegas on December 29 , 2011 , where Evancho headlined a concert with David Foster and Kenny G , featuring mostly songs from Dream With Me . In 2012 , she continued her US tour to promote the album , together with tenor Josh Page , who sang a duet of " The Prayer " with her and performed two solos to break up Evancho 's sets . After a concert in Tokyo in January 2012 with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra , she made seven concert stops from January to March 2012 in California and Utah . Evancho 's three February tour stops constituted the tenth top @-@ grossing tour reported by Billboard for the relevant week . In June 2012 , Evancho concluded the tour with performances on the East Coast .
On its 2011 year @-@ end charts , Billboard ranked Dream With Me as the No. 2 best @-@ selling Classical Album for the year and as the No. 45 US album of 2011 . Dream With Me was listed on the Billboard 200 for 28 weeks and the Classical Albums chart for a total of 74 weeks . Billboard ranked Dream With Me In Concert the No. 21 music video album of 2011 and the No. 16 music video album of 2012 . Dream With Me In Concert was ranked on the Billboard.biz Top Music Video chart for 64 weeks . Dream With Me , and Foster 's production of the album , are discussed in detail in the 2013 Ph.D. dissertation of Evancho 's uncle , composer Matthew Evancho .
= = = Heavenly Christmas = = =
Evancho 's 2011 Christmas album , Heavenly Christmas , has twelve tracks and was produced by Rob Mounsey , who conducts the Orchestra of St. Luke 's on the album . The selections include traditional Christmas carols like " The First Noël " and " O Little Town of Bethlehem " , standards like " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " and " White Christmas " , and newer songs , such as " Walking in the Air " ( from the 1982 animated film The Snowman ) and " Believe " ( from the 2004 movie The Polar Express ) . The album was released on November 1 , 2011 , exclusively at Walmart in the US and at other US retailers in October 2012 .
The album entered the Billboard Classical Albums chart at No. 1 , the Holiday Albums chart at No. 3 , and the Billboard 200 at No. 16 , peaking at No. 11 . It peaked at No. 9 on the Canadian Albums chart . Allmusic 's review gives the album three stars , commenting , " Evancho 's vocals are impressive as always , and the arrangements are mostly tasteful , with only occasional moments of bombast " . The Salt Lake City Tribune rated the album " A- " , writing : " some of us are still taken aback when we hear such a strong , womanly voice float out of an 11 year @-@ old child . ... Her best offering is the cherubic ' Believe ' . " Christopher John Farley of The Wall Street Journal wrote , " when she sings , she sounds like she ’ s channeling a past life , a future self , or possibly an actual angel . "
As with her previous albums , Evancho made talk show appearances on all major television networks to promote Heavenly Christmas , singing " The First Noël " on The View and The Talk , and " Believe " on The Tonight Show . She gave concerts that featured songs from the album in December 2011 in Buffalo , New York ; Atlantic City , New Jersey ; and Pittsburgh , all with duet partner tenor Christopher Dallo . As of January 2012 , more than 300 @,@ 000 copies of Heavenly Christmas had been sold in the US . On its 2011 year @-@ end charts , Billboard ranked Dream With Me as the No. 4 best @-@ selling Classical Album of the year . It ranked the album No. 41 on the 2012 year @-@ end Canadian Albums chart .
= = = Songs from the Silver Screen = = =
Evancho 's fourth full @-@ length album , Songs from the Silver Screen , was released on October 2 , 2012 . The album is composed of 12 songs used in popular films , arranged by Bill Ross . The tracks range from the whimsical ( " Pure Imagination " from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory ) to Disney songs ( " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " from The Lion King and " I See the Light " from Tangled ) to inspirational anthems ( " My Heart Will Go On " from Titanic , featuring Joshua Bell , violin ) , to romantic standards ( " Some Enchanted Evening " from South Pacific ) . Other collaborations on the album are " The Summer Knows " from Summer of 42 , featuring Chris Botti , trumpet , and " Come What May " Moulin Rouge ! , featuring The Canadian Tenors . An Allmusic review awarded the album 3 @-@ 1 / 2 stars out of five , stating that the CD " finds Evancho more than up to the task , displaying maturity and poise . "
A PBS Great Performances special called Jackie Evancho : Music of the Movies , filmed at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles , features nearly the same selections as the album . It was directed and co @-@ produced by David Horn and Humberto Gatica , and conducted and arranged by Bill Ross . The special aired on PBS stations beginning on August 11 , 2012 . A review of the special commented that the songs fit Evancho 's classical crossover style .
Evancho began a live 42 @-@ stop tour to promote the album in August 2012 , giving her first solo concert featuring songs from the album in Japan with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra . She continued the tour in the US , appearing first with The Chamber Orchestra of Philadelphia . The first leg of the tour included concerts in two dozen North American cities between September 2012 and June 2013 . Evancho also appeared on television shows on NBC , ABC , CBS , Fox and CNN in October and November 2012 , where she sang songs from the album and was interviewed . She resumed touring from October 2013 to January 2014 , with appearances in a dozen more cities , and the last six concerts in the series were from April to August 2014 .
The album debuted at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 , No. 1 on the Classical Albums chart and No. 22 on the Canadian Albums chart . The debut made the 12 @-@ year @-@ old the second artist who ever " amassed three top 10 albums [ on the Billboard 200 ] at such a young age . " The album remained on the Billboard 200 for 13 weeks and appeared on the Billboard Classical Albums chart in 72 weeks . Songs from the Silver Screen was the No. 4 Classical Album of 2013 and the No. 36 Classical Album of 2014 .
= = = Awakening = = =
Evancho released her fifth full @-@ length studio album , Awakening , on September 23 , 2014 on Sony Masterworks ' Portrait Records label . Evancho promoted the album with a concert tour that began in November 2014 and continued into 2016 , and a third PBS special based on the album that debuted the same month . The album consists of 12 tracks , including a mix of classical pieces , like Rachmaninoff 's " Vocalise " , the art song " Dormi Jesu " and the Vavilov version of " Ave Maria " ; classical crossover covers of more contemporary pieces like U2 's " With or Without You " , Ennio Morricone 's " Your Love " , Lara Fabian 's " Je t 'aime " and Within Temptation 's " Memories " ; and several original songs . Walmart offered a deluxe edition with six bonus holiday songs . Evancho 's cover of " My Immortal " by Evanescence was included as a bonus track exclusively on the version of the album sold in Japan .
In June 2014 , Evancho released her first single from the album , a cover of " The Rains of Castamere " from Game of Thrones . A writer for the Orlando Sentinel said of the song that Evancho 's " mature voice sounds stunning . " Evancho released a shadow @-@ art video for the single in July 2014 . She offered a second track , " Think of Me " from The Phantom of the Opera , in July 2014 . A video for the song was released , together with a feature piece on Evancho , by People , in September 2014 . The same month , Evancho released a digital download of a track called " Go Time " promoting Justice clothing stores , which displayed it on their website , made it available for free download to their shoppers , and played it in their stores on the video monitors . In September , Billboard streamed Evancho 's third single from the album , " Your Love " , which became available on the day of the album 's release . A last single and corresponding video from the album of " Ave Maria " was released in November 2014 .
Evancho began her television promotions of the album with a return to America 's Got Talent as a guest artist , singing " Think of Me " at Radio City Music Hall , in September 2014 during the show 's ninth season . Other September television performances included The Today Show , where she sang " Your Love " . Among other television and media appearances , she performed on The Queen Latifah Show and was profiled on the Oprah Winfrey Network , both in October . Evancho made a third PBS special to promote the album : Awakening : Live in Concert . The special was filmed at Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania and began airing on PBS stations on November 29 , 2014 ; Cheyenne Jackson co @-@ hosts and sings " Say Something " as a duet with Evancho . The special includes all of the songs from Awakening , as well as " My Immortal " , and two additional songs ( " Say Something " and " O Mio Babbino Caro " ) . Evancho appeared on the Dr. Phil show in December , singing " Ave Maria " .
Her Awakening : Live in Concert tour began in November 2014 . It included stops across the U.S. and one concert in each of Costa Rica and Canada . For this tour , for the first time , Evancho usually used an ensemble of about a dozen live musicians enhancing a pre @-@ recorded soundtrack , although a few stops used a larger orchestra .
Awakening debuted at No. 17 on the Billboard 200 chart and No. 1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . This was Evancho 's fifth consecutive release at No. 1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . Markos Papadatos of Digital Journal gave Evancho 's album an A rating , calling it " stunning from start to finish thanks to her warm classical vocals . " He called her renditions of the songs " ethereal " , " crystalline " and " haunting " . On its 2014 year @-@ end charts , Billboard ranked Awakening as the No. 11 best @-@ selling Classical Album of the year , and in 2015 ranked it as the No. 3 best @-@ selling Classical Album of the year . The album remained on the Billboard Classical Albums chart for a consecutive 72 weeks .
= = = Other music performances and philanthropy = = =
2009 to 2011
Evancho performed the American national anthem at various events in 2009 and 2010 , including the September 2009 memorial ceremony for the victims of United Flight 93 , the Pittsburgh Pirates baseball team 's 2010 home opener , and the NHL Winter Classic on January 1 , 2011 , at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh . In January 2011 , she performed Nella Fantasia at the Beverly Hills Chefs for Seals event in support of efforts to end the annual Canadian seal hunt . The event was sponsored by the Humane Society of the United States , of which Evancho is the ambassador for Mission : Humane , a program that encourages children to help protect animals . In February 2011 , she performed her first full @-@ length concert as a headliner , in Houston Texas with the Houston Chamber Choir . In March , she sang at the 2011 Festival of the Arts Boca , along with young stars of the Metropolitan Opera . Evancho sang at Muhammad Ali 's " Celebrity Fight Night " charity event to battle Parkinson 's Disease , in Phoenix , Arizona , later the same month . She also sang the introduction to " Somewhere Over the Rainbow " on Oprah 's farewell special broadcast on May 25 , 2011 .
In June 2011 , Evancho performed as a guest artist at the season finale of Britain 's Got Talent . After touring over the summer , in September , she returned to America 's Got Talent as a guest artist , performing " Nessun dorma " during the finale of the sixth season . She recorded a duet with Tony Bennett of the song " When You Wish upon a Star " , which appears as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of his 2011 album Duets II and she lent her voice to a " happy birthday " tribute to Bennett as part of a 2011 Target advertisement . She also sings " Pie Jesu " on the 2011 album Hit Man Returns : David Foster & Friends ( 2011 ) . The album was recorded live in Las Vegas in October 2010 , and PBS broadcast the concert , including Evancho 's " Pie Jesu " and " O Mio Babbino Caro " , beginning in March 2011 . Her recording of " Silent Night " is included in the 2011 Sony album 30 Stars of Christmas . She sang in two David Foster & Friends concerts in October 2011 , in Tokyo , where she also appeared in several Japanese television interviews .
2012 to 2013
Evancho returned to Japan to participate in the newly reopened Bunkamura Orchard Concert Hall 's program , called " Musical meets Symphony " , and to give her own concert there with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in January 2012 . While there , she sang for the Imperial family . In February 2012 , Evancho sang at the US National Prayer Breakfast before President Obama and congressional and international leaders . In April , Evancho appeared on Dancing with the Stars . She sang " Ave Maria " and " Dark Waltz " to accompany two dance teams . She performed as a guest star on the May 2012 season finale of Canada 's Got Talent . In June , she sang in Russia at the opening ceremonies of the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum . The outdoor concert in Palace Square , billed as a " Bouquet of Opera " , also featured Dmitry Hvorostovsky and Sumi Jo .
Evancho sang in August 2012 at the annual So The World May Hear Gala to benefit the Starkey Hearing Foundation , which supplies hearing aids to people in need in the US and other countries . She sang in Hiroshima , Japan , later in August , in the " Peace for World " concert , with Christopher Cross and others . At the end of the month , Evancho performed together with Tony Bennett at the Ironstone Amphitheatre in Murphys , California , where she was accompanied by members of the Stockton Symphony . In October , she performed with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra as part of the opening celebrations for Klyde Warren Park in Dallas , Texas . In late 2012 , Evancho partnered with WhyHunger , philosophy.com and Sephora to offer a bath product , to believe , inspired by the lyrics of her song " To Believe " . All net proceeds from the product support WhyHunger 's efforts to end world hunger .
Evancho participated with over 200 Cirque du Soleil performers and others at Bellagio in Las Vegas in March 2013 in the event " One Night for One Drop on World Water Day " . Evancho 's water and aerial performances benefited the One Drop Foundation 's worldwide clean water access and education programs . Robin Leach wrote : " 12 @-@ year @-@ old superstar singer Jackie [ Evancho ] stole the night with her " Bridge Over Troubled Water " sung barefoot in the water of the giant stage alone except for the background pianist . She also dominated the fantastic finale flying in as an angel on a harness from the theater rooftop . " The following month , she sang in concert in Taiwan with José Carreras . She performed another concert with Tony Bennett in May , in Alpharetta , Georgia , with the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra . Of performing with Evancho , Bennett said : " She ’ s just wonderful ... my own reaction is , ' How the heck am I going to follow that ? ' " On July 4 , Evancho was a featured performer in the televised annual show A Capitol Fourth , singing the national anthem and ' " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " , from her album Songs from the Silver Screen .
Evancho headlined a benefit concert , called Jackie Evancho & Friends : We are Hope , at the LDS Conference Center in Salt Lake City in November 2013 , for the Muzart World Foundation 's programs to encourage the teaching of music and art in US public schools . She sang the US national anthem on Thanksgiving Day , at the Green Bay Packers vs. Detroit Lions football game , broadcast on Fox . She headlined a Christmas @-@ themed benefit concert at Carnegie Hall produced by her old mentor , Tim Janis , and featuring James Galway , in December .
2014 to present
Evancho was the performer for Susan G. Komen 's Perfect Pink Party in Palm Beach , Florida , in January 2014 , to benefit breast cancer research . In March , Evancho headlined a concert with the San Bernardino Symphony Orchestra at Citizens Business Bank Arena in Ontario , California , to benefit the Loma Linda University Children 's Hospital . She appeared in May 2014 at the annual gala to benefit Chicago 's WTTW television and WFMT radio stations and in Washington DC at the 2014 National Memorial Day Concert , broadcast by PBS . Evancho performed at the Songwriters Hall of Fame 2014 awards dinner in June singing " Over the Rainbow " . In September 2014 , Evancho performed at a David Foster Foundation concert to benefit families with children who need a major organ transplant . In November , she sang a " touching rendition " of John Lennon 's song " Imagine " at the United Nations to introduce the UNICEF # Imagine program . Also in 2014 , Evancho recorded the Leonard Cohen song " Hallelujah " with Peter Hollens for his self @-@ titled album , and the two released a video for the song . A reviewer for Mashable called it " a gift from the a cappella gods " .
In 2015 , Evancho made a video to support the Humane Society 's fight against seal hunting . In April of that year , she joined Andrea Bocelli as a guest in his concert in Thailand . The English @-@ language newspaper The Nation commented : " If there 's anything on Earth close to the sound of an angel , it must be the heavenly voice of Jackie Evancho " . In August 2015 , she participated in a " David Foster and Friends " concert in Malaysia . The same month , she released a new video and corresponding video covering Ed Sheeran 's , " All of the Stars " , supporting acceptance of LGBT people . In September , Evancho participated in a concert with David Foster and Andrea Bocelli in Forte dei Marmi , Italy , to benefit the Celebrity Fight Night Foundation . The same month , she performed at the World Meeting of Families in Philadelphia as part of the celebration of Pope Francis 's visit to that city . In October 2015 , Evancho performed at a benefit for the Global Lyme Alliance in New York City . In December , she sang the US national anthem at the Pittsburgh Steelers game against the Indianapolis Colts and released the first single on her own JE Touring label , a cover of Taylor Swift 's " Safe & Sound " . A video of the single was also released . The single is expected to be part of Evancho 's upcoming 2016 album .
In January 2016 , Evancho appeared at the Mending Broken Hearts With Hope luncheon to benefit The Shelter for Abused Women & Children in Naples , Florida . The same month , she released another single and video on JME Touring , a cover of Sam Smith 's " Writing 's on the Wall " . This was followed by another single and video in March , Skylar Grey 's " Coming Home ( Part II ) " . In April Evancho sang the national anthem at the Pittsburgh Pirates ' 2016 opening home game . She also released an original pop song by Peter Zizzo , " Apocalypse " , which is expected to be included on her upcoming 2016 album . Billboard wrote that she " has found a brand @-@ new sound . The 16 @-@ year @-@ old singer ... is taking a step outside the classical world that made her famous " , but Evancho told Billboard : " I 'm not going to get rid of my classical voice , because that 's my roots , that 's what I love the most . " She also released a video of the song and performed it on the Today show and Live ! with Kelly and Michael later in April .
Evancho provided the entertainment at the 2016 Project Sunshine benefit gala in May and returned to Washington , DC , to participate in the 2016 broadcast and live performance of A Capitol Fourth . She headlined a concert at Festa Italiana at the BMO Harris Pavilion in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , later in July 2016 . She expects to perform more concerts in the Northeast US in November .
= = = Acting and modeling = = =
Evancho had some early theatre experience performing in High School Musical with Pittsburgh Musical Theater in 2007 and musical theatre versions of A Christmas Carol and Little Red Riding Hood , in which she played the title role in 2009 . She also appeared briefly as an extra in the 2010 film She 's Out of My League . Her first featured television appearance was in the 2011 episode " Back To Max " from the Disney Channel series Wizards of Waverly Place where she sang " America the Beautiful " to work off school detention .
Evancho appears in the feature film The Company You Keep , a political thriller that premiered at film festivals in 2012 . The film played in foreign markets and in the US beginning in April 2013 . Evancho played Isabel , the eleven @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a widowed attorney turned fugitive , Jim Grant , played by Robert Redford , who also directed the film . When Grant 's true identity as a former Weather Underground militant is uncovered , he is pursued across the US by the FBI and by an ambitious journalist ( Shia LaBeouf ) . To be reunited with Isabel , Grant must clear his name . Jon Weisman wrote that Evancho " showed she 's more than a singing prodigy with her earnest sweetness as the daughter of Robert Redford 's character " . Redford cast Evancho only days before filming began . Evancho said in 2012 : " I don 't think I want to act full time . I think I might like to do something with a Disney special or make a movie once in a while that would give me enough time to sing and record , but that 's about it . "
Evancho modelled for GUESS Kids in 2012 and for Justice Girls Clothing in 2014 , and she occasionally has appeared in other product advertisements and public service announcements .
= = Reception and reputation = =
= = = Earliest assessments = = =
After Evancho 's performance of " Ave Maria " on America 's Got Talent , judge Piers Morgan said : " I have never seen an act , on this show or the British show or any of the other talent shows in the world , with more potential than Jackie Evancho . That was perfection . Perfection ! " Christopher Hahn , General Director of the Pittsburgh Opera , commented of Evancho 's performance of " O mio babbino caro " on AGT , " It 's very unusual for a young child to have a voice that sounded so rich and developed . " " I thought she was just lovely , sweetly compelling " , said Hahn . " It is quite unusual to hear a young girl with that level of warmth and roundness . " Hahn particularly praised Evancho 's phrasing .
Composer Tim Janis commented in 2010 that Evancho " takes a classical piece and makes it friendly and accessible . ... Her voice is so pure and natural , there 's no flaw in it . People say ' I can hear her potential coming , ' but no , it 's here , it 's now . " Critic Tim Page disagreed , writing of Evancho 's AGT performance of " O mio babbino caro " that Evancho " has many years of work ahead of her before she becomes any sort of musician . " Claudia Benack , Assistant Professor of musical theatre at Carnegie Mellon University , said that Evancho " has an unusually adult feel for the repertoire . ... She sings to the important part of the phrase , and then backs off . That 's instinctual . ... She takes breaths sometimes where an adult would not , but that 's just because she 's young and little . ... She sings from the healthy part of her voice . " Doctor Clark Rosen , director of the University of Pittsburgh Voice Center , commented that Evancho 's talent is made possible by how her brain coordinates her body for singing : " Very few people are gifted enough to have that naturally , or with subsequent learning , to create a voice we 'd love to hear . "
A review of Evancho 's 2011 concert with Pittsburgh Opera noted that " what was most impressive ... was how musical she was ... her focus on phrasing and an understanding of the emotion in the ... musical numbers . " The review also praised " her reverberant chest voice [ and ] her head voice , hitting the highest register with intonation and purity " and echoed Janis : " That she continues to be greeted with skepticism is unfair . ... Yes , the concert showed that Jackie is a young girl , yet one with artistry to be appreciated now without debating about what her future might hold . " Antony Walker , Pittsburgh Opera 's music director , said : " she has a very sincere way of singing . ... Her voice has a lovely quality to it . It 's very simple singing but it comes from the heart . You rarely hear someone so young with such a beautiful voice " . Nekesa Mumbi Moody , writing for Associated Press and ABC News , commented that , although " there is a youthful quality in Jackie 's voice , it 's hardly childlike : It 's a soprano that deftly traverses the musical scales " . Bob Boilen of NPR wrote , " I simply couldn 't believe my eyes and ears . Seeing Jackie Evancho sing for the first time is nearly beyond belief . " He called her voice " beyond @-@ beautiful " when she performed " for a stunned audience at the NPR Music offices . She clearly is a very happy girl with an amazing musical gift . " A review of her 2011 Sun Valley concert stated that " Evancho transported [ her audience ] with pure , joyous , unaffected notes " .
The Los Angeles Times commented in June 2011 , reviewing Dream With Me , that " her voice has matured quite a lot over the past 10 months . " The paper continued , " what makes us feel like she will survive the journey from child star to adult performer is her magnificent sense of pitch , her natural ability to shape phrases and the ease with which she performs . This is what makes her a joy to listen to . Since she 's still a kid , and we all have affectations when we 're learning , we 'll pretend we didn 't notice the Brightman arms . " In reviewing her 2011 Pittsburgh Opera concert , the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review called her voice " beautifully in tune and well supported . ... Evancho 's sincerity of delivery was affecting " . A reviewer from The New York Times wrote of her 2011 Avery Fisher Hall concert that : " In the first half of the show Ms. Evancho often receded , but toward the end of the night she found purpose , delivering ' A Time for Us ' with punch , and closing out Sarah McLachlan ’ s ' Angel ' with what felt like real yearning " . The Wall Street Journal called Evancho 's 2011 performance of the song " Angel " on the Tonight Show " moving " .
= = = 2012 and later = = =
A San Francisco Chronicle review of a 2012 concert judged her singing " an impressive thing to witness , and Evancho 's technical precision and enormous range only serve to make it seem less fluky . The girl can sing " , but felt that " every selection sounded alike " . Another reviewer wrote that Evancho " displayed her famous combo of poise and articulation " , but he noted " the burden of being a kid soprano , a true phenomenon . People pay a lot to see you and orchestras line up to get you on their stage . But still folks wonder if you really comprehend your life ; if you shouldn ’ t be home ... eating ice cream instead of in Denver . ... And yet they rise to their feet , yet again , as you finish . " A Naples Daily News review stated : " Her poise . Her control . Her range . ... Her voice and her performance exhausted all of the superlatives in the dictionary . " In 2013 , a reviewer commented : " Her pure and well @-@ formed vowel sounds touched the hearts of everyone at the concert . Every year her voice seems to get better and better . " A reviewer for The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution called Evancho " awesomely talented " and " technically flawless " , commenting : " Evancho possesses the voice of an angel . " The Buffalo News reporter wrote : " there is a poignancy to the sound of this mature voice coming out of this child . Her high notes are a joy . "
In 2014 , a reviewer for Billboard magazine commented : " Evancho ’ s stratospheric vocals are of course impressive for someone her age , though pipes like this are incredible for just about anyone . " in 2015 , the reviewer for Digital Journal wrote : " The control she displays over her voice is tremendous , and she tackles the high notes ... effortlessly , showcasing her angelic vocals and piercing pipes . ... Evancho 's voice is an eighth world wonder " . Robin Leach wrote of Evancho 's January 2015 concert in Las Vegas : " She ’ s still got the voice of an angel . It ’ s remarkable , and her power is growing as she grows up . [ She ] had the audience on its feet with wild applause at the end of every song " . A review of a later 2015 concert in The Washington Post called her voice a " bell @-@ like instrument , devoid of any messy human emotions [ with ] an ethereally floating tone . ... But imagine what Evancho can achieve once she stops obsessing over just sounding pretty , and actually listens to the words she ’ s singing . " In the 2016 book , Voicing Girlhood in Popular Music : Performance , Authority , Authenticity , a chapter by Dana Gorzelany @-@ Mostak , Assistant Professor of Music at Georgia College , is devoted to analyzing Evancho 's career and influence . Gorzelany @-@ Mostak writes :
With her embodiment of both sheltered innocence ... and hyperability ... [ Evancho ] expands the fan base for classical crossover , dethrones elitist conceptions of opera , challenges conventions of the classical canon , and forges a new path for the next cohort of girl performers who have the courage to follow in her footsteps .
= = = Honors = = =
Evancho appeared on the National League of Junior Cotillions ' list of " Ten Best @-@ Mannered People of 2011 " for " demonstrating humility and politeness as a young performer . " She was honored on April 13 , 2012 by the Senator John Heinz History Center at its 20th Annual History Makers Award Dinner as one of five " distinguished Pittsburghers ... recognized for their exceptional contributions to the history of Western Pennsylvania , the nation , and the world " . Evancho was the youngest person ever to be so honored . The Kean Quest Talent Search , since 2011 , has given an annual " Jackie Evancho Award " to a contestant who " exemplifies courage and motivation and pushes through to follow their dreams . " In both 2011 and 2012 , Billboard magazine named Evancho to its list of " 21 Under 21 : Music 's Hottest Minors " .
= = Discography = =
Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 1 Classical Albums Artist of 2011 , as she released three of the top four albums on the Billboard 2011 year @-@ end Classical Albums chart . Billboard also ranked her as the No. 10 Billboard 200 Artist of 2011 , and the No. 3 Internet Albums Artist . Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 2 Classical Albums Artist of 2012 , as three of her albums ranked in the top seven albums on the Billboard 2012 year @-@ end Classical Albums chart . Billboard also ranked her as the No. 37 Billboard 200 Artist of 2012 .
Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 5 Classical Albums Artist of 2013 , even though she did not release any new albums during the year . Evancho 's 2014 album Awakening was Evancho 's fifth consecutive release at No. 1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 7 Classical Albums Artist of 2014 and the No. 4 Classical Albums artist of 2015 , as Awakening was the No. 3 classical album of 2015 .
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= Sognsvann Line =
The Sognsvann Line ( Norwegian : Sognsvannsbanen ) is a rapid transit line on the Oslo Metro of Norway . It branches from the Common Tunnel at Majorstuen and runs 6 @.@ 0 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to Sognsvann . After Ullevål stadion , the Ring Line branches off . The Sognsvann Line serves the northwestern and northern neighborhoods of Oslo , mostly within the borough of Nordre Aker . The line is owned and maintained by Kollektivtransportproduksjon and has nine stations . The western end of line 5 serves the entire line . Line 4 and the eastern end of line 5 serve the southern part of the line up to Ullevål stadion before branching off and continuing along the Ring Line . This gives an average five @-@ minute headway on the southern part and an average fifteen @-@ minute headway on the northern part of the line .
The line opened on 10 October 1934 as a light rail . In 1993 , it was upgraded to metro standard as the first light rail west of Oslo , with two stations being closed . The Ring Line opened in 2003 . Forskningsparken has transfer to the Oslo Tramway and serves Rikshospitalet . Forskningsparken and Blindern both serve the University of Oslo , while Ullevål stadion serves Norway 's largest football venue . North of there the line mainly serves residential areas . Sognsvann serves the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences and the recreational area Nordmarka .
= = History = =
The first plans for a light rail along the route of the Sognsvann Line were launched by Holmenkolbanen in 1904 . They called for a branch from Gaustad Station on the Holmenkoll Line to Geitmyren and onwards to Sagene . The next proposal for a line was launched in 1917 , when Aker Municipality established the company Akersbanerne . It started work planning the Østensjø Line as well as the Sognsvann Line . The neighborhoods of Sogn and Tåsen were being built , and the municipality wanted to establish a good transport system to make the areas more attractive . Holmenkolbanen stated that they should be prioritized to build the system , since they already had a line in the area , but the municipality wanted to have political control over the development of the area .
In 1920 , Holmenkolbanen applied to build a branch from Frøen via Tåsen to Nydalen and Grefsen , along what is today the Ring Line . This proposal included a branch to Sognsvann . The Ministry of Labour granted the concession to Akersbanerne , who started construction in January 1922 . However , due to a labor conflict , the work was put on hold in 1924 . In 1924 , the Røa Line ( at the time called the Smestad Line ) was taken over by Akersbanerne , but Holmenkolbanen retained the operation . After the first part of the Common Tunnel , from Majorstuen to Nationaltheatret , opened in 1928 , Holmenkolbanen was in financial distress , and in 1932 Akersbanerne took over the majority of the shares of Holmenkolbanen . At the same time , the Røa and Sognsvann Lines were merged into Holmenkolbanen .
Work commenced again in 1933 and the line opened on 10 October 1934 . At first the line was built with double track from Frøen to Østhorn and single track to Sognsvann . Between 1937 and 1939 , the upper section was converted to double track . The construction spurred a massive residential construction along the line giving a good foundation for ridership .
After the municipal merger between Oslo and Aker in 1948 , Akersbanerne was merged into Oslo Sporveier , although Holmenkolbanen remained a partially owned subsidiary . In 1973 , Oslo Sporveier bought the remaining shares , and two years later the operations were transferred to Oslo Sporveier , with Holmenkolbanen remaining a pure real estate company . The municipal take @-@ over resulted in an upgrade to both the track and the rolling stock . New overhead wires and new and heavier track were laid . From 1978 , the T1300 trains were taken into use . With the take @-@ over , the lines were numbered , and the Sognsvann Line designated 81 , although this was quickly changed to 13 .
During the 1980s , the city decided to connect the four suburban lines west of the city center with the Oslo Metro . The Sognsvann Line was selected as the first line to be upgraded , so the two systems would become compatible . The line was upgraded to metro standard by replacing the overhead wire with a third @-@ rail power supply and installing automatic train protection . All the stations were rebuilt , with platforms lengthened from fitting two @-@ car to fitting four @-@ car trains , and the platform height increased . The third rail required all level crossings to be removed , resulting in the line being rebuilt several places to allow the road to underpass or overpass . The light rail permitted passengers to cross the lines at the stations , but this was made impossible with metro standard . Because of this , underpasses or overpasses were built at the stations .
Frøen Station was rebuilt so only the trains on the Holmenkollen Line would stop there , while Nordberg Station was closed . All the stations , except Ullevål stadion , were built in the same architectural style . They are constructed in concrete with steel columns and wooden sheds and fences . All platforms have a shed ; Ullevål stadion has a larger weather cover and has a design inspired by football . The upgrade also included the installation of third @-@ rail from Majorstuen to Stortinget in the Common Tunnel . From 10 January 1993 , the Sognsvann Line re @-@ open , and from 4 April , the line started operating through the Common Tunnel and connected to the Lambertseter Line . The new service became operated with T1000 rolling stock .
Following the 1991 decision to build a new Rikshospitalet at Gaustad , it was decided to extend the Ullevål Hageby Line of the tramway there , which would pass under the Sognsvann Line . Plans called for a transfer station at Blindern , but this was later discarded in favor of a new station , Forskningsparken . It would replace Vestgrensa , which was considered too far away to be a suitable transfer point . Forskningsparken would also serve the northern part of the Blindern campus . Not until 1998 were the necessary political agreements in place to allow construction to start . The new light rail started services on 1 June 1999 , and the rapid transit station opened on 22 August . With the opening , Line 4 of the metro was extended from Blindern , via Forskningsparken , to Ullevål stadion . There were complaints from local residents that the increased traffic on the line was causing too much noise , and neighbors demanded that noise shields be built .
In 1991 , Oslo Sporveier presented plans to connect the Sognsvann Line to the Grorud Line with a new Ring Line . The company also considered building the ring as part of the tramway , and have combined operation with both tram and metro on the Sognsvann Line . This was later discarded , despite the higher investment costs with a metro , since the tramway would give higher operating costs and longer travel time . A detailed suggestion was presented by Oslo Sporveier in August 1996 . It became clear that Berg would not be served by the Ring Line . Many neighbors to the Sognsvann Line complained about the proposal , stating that they had hoped that the section from Majorstuen to Berg would have been rebuilt as a tunnel . They also argued that it was irrational that the line was running at @-@ grade in densely populated areas , while it would run in a tunnel through the then mostly unpopulated Nydalen . To compensate , Oslo Sporveier stated that they would build noise screens along the line .
The city council voted in favor of building the Ring Line on 25 June 1997 , against the votes of the Progress Party . Financing was partially ensured in December , when a political agreement was reached for Oslo Package 2 , a financing plan for investments in public transport in Oslo and Akershus between 2002 and 2011 . Construction started in June , with the Agency for Road and Transport of the municipality responsible for construction . The first section opened from Ullevål stadion via Nydalen to Storo on 20 August 2003 . With the opening , and Line 4 was extended from Ullevål stadion to Storo . On 20 August 2006 , the final section opened , from Storo via Sinsen to Carl Berners plass .
In 2002 , the Sognsvann Line was closed during the summer vacations due to improvements of the track and third rail . In 2008 , the line was closed for approximately one week , due to leaves that had covered the tracks . The operation of the line was replaced by buses that served temporary stops in Nordbergveien and Sognsveien . In 2010 , a truck was stuck under the train bridge between Holstein and Kringsjå over Carl Kjeldsens vei . The bridge was damaged , and allowed for only one @-@ way @-@ traffic for two weeks . Half the trains had to stop at Berg in the meantime .
= = Route = =
The line branches off from the Common Tunnel after Majorstuen , and heads northwards through the borough of Nordre Aker . The first two stations , Blindern and Forskningsparken , serve the Blindern campus of the University of Oslo . At Forskningsparken , there is transfer to the Ullevål Hageby Line of the Oslo Tramway , which allows connection with the two largest hospitals in the country : Rikshospitalet and Ullevål University Hospital . Ullevål stadion serves Norway 's largest sports venue , Ullevål Stadion , the home ground of Norwegian Premier League side Vålerenga and the national football team .
North of Ullevål stadion , just before reaching Berg , the Ring Line with services 3 and 4 branches off . The Ring Line serves three stations , Nydalen , Storo and Sinsen before reaching the Grorud Line . From Berg to Tåsen , the line runs parallel to the motorway Ring 3 . North of Berg , the Sognsvann Line mainly serves residential areas , including student dormitories at Sogn and Kringsjå . The Norwegian School of Sport Sciences and the National Archival Services of Norway is served by Sognsvann Station . The station also serves the recreational area Nordmarka and the lake Sognsvann .
= = Service = =
The Sognsvann Line is served by lines 4 and 5 of the Oslo Metro . Half of line 5 trains operate the full length of the Sognsvann Line , while line 4 and the other half of the line 5 trains branch off after Ullevål stadion and serve the Ring Line . All services operate with a fifteen @-@ minute headway , except during late evenings and weekend mornings . This gives the stations Blindern , Forskningsparken and Ullevål stadion an average five @-@ minute headway to the city center and all stations in the Common Tunnel , and an average ten @-@ minute headway to Nydalen and Storo . On the east side of the city , Line 5 connects with the Ring Line , and makes a full loop before it leaves Oslo on the Grorud Line . Line 4 connects with the Lambertseter Line . Travel time from Stortinget to Sognsvann is 18 minutes . The Oslo Metro is operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
Transfer to the Kolsås , Røa and Holmenkollen Lines is possible at Majorstuen . Transfer to Oslo Central Station , which serves all mainline trains in Eastern Norway , is available at Jernbanetorget . Most west @-@ bound mainline trains can also be reached at Nationaltheatret . The Oslo Tramway can be reached from Majorstuen and Forskningsparken , as well as in the city center from Jernbanetorget , Stortinget and Nationaltheatret .
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= Tris Speaker =
Tristram E. Speaker ( April 4 , 1888 – December 8 , 1958 ) , nicknamed " The Grey Eagle " , was an American baseball player . Considered one of the best offensive and defensive center fielders in the history of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) , he compiled a career batting average of .345 ( sixth all @-@ time ) . His 792 career doubles represent an MLB career record . His 3 @,@ 514 hits are fifth in the all @-@ time hits list . Defensively , Speaker holds career records for assists , double plays , and unassisted double plays by an outfielder . His fielding glove was known as the place " where triples go to die . "
After playing in the minor leagues in Texas and Arkansas , Speaker debuted with the Boston Red Sox in 1907 . He became the regular center fielder by 1909 and led the Red Sox to World Series championships in 1912 and 1915 . In 1915 , Speaker 's batting average dropped to .322 from .338 the previous season ; he was traded to the Cleveland Indians when he refused to take a pay cut . As player @-@ manager for Cleveland , he led the team to its first World Series title . In ten of his eleven seasons with Cleveland , he finished with a batting average greater than .350 . Speaker resigned as Cleveland 's manager in 1926 after he and Ty Cobb faced game fixing allegations ; both men were later cleared . During his managerial stint in Cleveland , Speaker introduced the platoon system in the major leagues .
Speaker played with the Washington Senators in 1927 and the Philadelphia Athletics in 1928 , then became a minor league manager and part owner . He later held several roles for the Cleveland Indians . Late in life , Speaker led a short @-@ lived indoor baseball league , ran a wholesale liquor business , worked in sales and chaired Cleveland 's boxing commission . He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937 . He was named 27th in the Sporting News 100 Greatest Baseball Players ( 1999 ) and was also included in the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team .
= = Early life = =
Speaker was born on April 4 , 1888 , in Hubbard , Texas , to Archie and Nancy Poer Speaker . As a youth , Speaker broke his arm after he fell from a horse ; the injury forced him to become left @-@ handed . In 1905 , Speaker played a year of college baseball for Fort Worth Polytechnic Institute . Newspaper reports have held that Speaker suffered a football injury and nearly had his arm amputated around this time ; biographer Timothy Gay characterizes this as " a story that the macho Speaker never disspelled [ sic ] . " He worked on a ranch before beginning his professional baseball career .
Speaker 's abilities drew the interest of Doak Roberts , owner of the Cleburne Railroaders of the Texas League , in 1906 . After losing several games as a pitcher , Speaker converted to outfielder to replace a Cleburne player who had been struck in the head with a pitch . He batted .318 for the Railroaders . Speaker 's mother opposed his participation in the major leagues , saying that they reminded her of slavery . Though she relented , for several years Mrs. Speaker questioned why her son had not stayed home and entered the cattle or oil businesses .
He performed well for the Texas League 's Houston Buffaloes in 1907 , but his mother stated that she would never allow him to go to the Boston Americans . Roberts sold the youngster to the Americans for $ 750 or $ 800 ( equal to $ 19 @,@ 047 or $ 20 @,@ 317 today ) . Speaker played in seven games for the Americans in 1907 , with three hits in 19 at bats for a .158 average . In 1908 , Boston Americans owner John I. Taylor changed the team 's name to the Boston Red Sox after the bright socks in the team 's uniform . That year , the club traded Speaker to the Little Rock Travelers of the Southern League in exchange for use of their facilities for spring training . Speaker batted .350 for the Travelers and his contract was repurchased by the Red Sox . He logged a .224 batting average in 116 at bats .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Speaker became the regular starting center fielder for Boston in 1909 and light @-@ hitting Denny Sullivan was sold to the Cleveland Naps . Speaker hit .309 in 143 games as the team finished third in the pennant race . Defensively , Speaker was involved in 12 double plays , leading the league 's outfielders , and had a .973 fielding percentage , third among outfielders . In 1910 the Red Sox signed left fielder Duffy Lewis . Speaker , Lewis and Harry Hooper formed Boston 's " Million @-@ Dollar Outfield " , one of the finest outfield trios in baseball history . Speaker was the star of the Million @-@ Dollar Outfield . He ran fast enough that he could stand very close to second base , effectively giving the team a fifth infielder , but he still caught the balls hit to center field . In 1910 and 1911 , Boston finished fourth in the American League standings .
Speaker 's best season came in 1912 . He played every game and led the American League ( AL ) in doubles ( 53 ) and home runs ( 10 ) . He set career highs with 222 hits , 136 runs , 580 at @-@ bats , and 52 stolen bases . Speaker 's stolen base tally was a team record until Tommy Harper stole 54 bases in 1973 . He batted .383 and his .567 slugging percentage was the highest of his dead @-@ ball days . Speaker set a major league single @-@ season record with three hitting streaks of twenty or more games ( 30 , 23 , and 22 ) . He also became the first major leaguer to hit 50 doubles and steal 50 bases in the same season . In August , Speaker 's mother unsuccessfully attempted to convince him to quit baseball and come home . In Fenway Park 's first game , Speaker drove in the winning run in the 11th inning , giving Boston the 7 – 6 win .
The 1912 Red Sox won the AL pennant , finishing 14 games ahead of the Washington Senators and 15 games ahead of the Philadelphia Athletics . In the 1912 World Series , Speaker led the Red Sox to their second World Series title by defeating John McGraw 's New York Giants . After the second game was called on account of darkness and ended in a tie , the series went to eight games . The Red Sox won the final game after Fred Snodgrass dropped an easy fly ball and later failed to go after a Speaker pop foul . After the pop foul , Speaker tied the game with a single . The Red Sox won the game in the bottom of the tenth inning . He finished the series with a .300 batting average , nine hits and four runs scored . Speaker was named the AL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) for 1912 . Though he did not lead the league in any offensive categories in 1913 , Speaker finished fourth in AL MVP voting .
Speaker batted .338 and tied his career high of 12 double plays as an outfielder in 1914 . He hit .322 in 1915 . The Red Sox beat the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1915 World Series . The Red Sox were led by pitcher Babe Ruth , who was playing in his first full season . Ruth won 18 games and hit a team @-@ high four home runs . Speaker got five hits , including a triple , in 17 at @-@ bats during the series . He scored twice but did not drive in any runs .
= = = Traded to the Indians = = =
After 1915 , Red Sox president Joseph Lannin wanted Speaker to take a pay cut from about $ 15 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 350 @,@ 872 today ) to about $ 9 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 210 @,@ 523 today ) because of the drop in his batting average ; Speaker refused and offered $ 12 @,@ 000 ( $ 280 @,@ 697 today ) . On April 8 , 1916 , Lannin traded Speaker to the Cleveland Indians . In exchange , Boston received Sad Sam Jones , Fred Thomas and $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 087 @,@ 309 today ) . The angry Speaker held out until he received $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 217 @,@ 462 today ) of the cash that Boston collected . With an annual salary of $ 40 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 869 @,@ 847 today ) , Speaker was the highest paid player in baseball . Speaker hit over .350 in ten of his eleven years with Cleveland . In 1916 , he led the league in hits , doubles , batting average , slugging percentage and on @-@ base percentage . Cobb had won the previous nine consecutive AL batting titles ; Speaker outhit him with a .386 batting average compared to Cobb 's .371 .
The center field fence at Cleveland 's Dunn Field was 460 feet from home plate until it was shortened to 420 feet in 1920 . Even so , Speaker played so shallow in the outfield that he was able to execute six career unassisted double plays at second base , catching low line drives on the run and then beating baserunners to the bag . At least once he was credited as the pivot man in a routine double play . He was often shallow enough to catch pickoff throws at second base . At one point , Speaker 's signature move was to come in behind second base on a bunt and make a tag play on a baserunner who had passed the bag .
While in Cleveland , Speaker participated in diverse activities off the baseball field . Speaker enrolled in an aviator training program in 1918 . Though World War I ended less than two months after he enrolled , Speaker completed his training and served in the naval reserves for several years . He also owned a ranch in Texas and competed in roping events during the baseball offseason .
= = = Stint as player @-@ manager = = =
From the day that Speaker arrived in Cleveland , manager Lee Fohl rarely made an important move without consulting him . George Uhle recalled an incident from 1919 during his rookie year with the Indians . Speaker often signaled to Fohl when he thought that a pitcher should be brought in from the bullpen . One day , Fohl misread Speaker 's signal and brought in a different pitcher than Speaker had intended . To avoid the appearance of overruling his manager , Speaker let the change stand . Pitcher Fritz Coumbe lost the game , Fohl resigned that night and Speaker became manager . Uhle said that Speaker felt bad for contributing to Fohl 's departure .
Speaker guided the 1920 Indians to their first World Series win . In a crucial late season game against the second @-@ place White Sox , Speaker caught a hard line drive hit to deep right @-@ center field by Shoeless Joe Jackson , ending the game . On a dead run , Speaker leaped with both feet off the ground , snaring the ball before crashing into a concrete wall . As he lay unconscious from the impact , Speaker still held the baseball . In the 1920 World Series against Brooklyn , Speaker hit an RBI triple in the deciding game , which the Indians won 3 – 0 . Cleveland 's 1920 season was also significant due to the death of Ray Chapman on August 17 . Chapman died after being hit in the head by a pitch from Carl Mays . Chapman had been asked about retirement before the season , and he said that he wanted to help Speaker earn Cleveland 's first World Series victory before thinking of retirement .
During that championship season , Speaker is credited with introducing the platoon system , which attempted to match right @-@ handed batters against left @-@ handed pitchers and vice versa . Sportswriter John B. Sheridan was among the critics of the system , saying , " The specialist in baseball is no good and won 't go very far ... The whole effect of the system will be to make the players affected half men ... It is farewell , a long farewell to all that player 's chance of greatness ... It destroys young ball players by destroying their most precious quality – confidence in their ability to hit any pitcher , left or right , alive , dead , or waiting to be born . " Baseball Magazine was supportive , pointing out that Speaker had results that backed up his system .
The 1921 Indians remained in a tight pennant race all year , finishing 4 1 ⁄ 2 games behind the Yankees . The Indians did not seriously contend for the pennant from 1922 through 1925 . Speaker led the league in doubles eight times , including every year between 1920 and 1923 . He led the league 's outfielders in fielding percentage in 1921 and 1922 . On May 17 , 1925 , Speaker became the fifth member of the 3 @,@ 000 hit club when he hit a single off pitcher Tom Zachary of the Washington Senators . Only Napoleon Lajoie had previously accomplished the feat as a member of the Indians .
AL President Ban Johnson asked Speaker and Detroit manager Cobb to resign their posts after a scandal broke in 1926 . Pitcher Dutch Leonard claimed that Speaker and Cobb fixed at least one game between Cleveland and Detroit . In a newspaper column published shortly before the hearings were to begin , Billy Evans characterized the accusations as " purely a matter of personal revenge " for Leonard . The pitcher was said to be upset with Cobb and Speaker after a trade ended with Leonard in the minor leagues . When Leonard refused to appear at the January 5 , 1927 hearings to discuss his accusations , Commissioner Landis cleared both Speaker and Cobb of any wrongdoing . Both were reinstated to their original teams , but each team declared its manager free to sign elsewhere . Speaker did not return to big league managing and he finished his MLB managerial career with a 617 – 520 record .
At the time of his 1926 resignation , news reports described Speaker as permanently retiring from baseball to pursue business ventures . However , Speaker signed to play with the Washington Senators for 1927 . Cobb joined the Philadelphia Athletics . Speaker joined Cobb in Philadelphia for the 1928 season ; he played part @-@ time and finished with a .267 average . Prior to that season , Speaker had not hit for a batting average below .300 since 1908 .
Speaker 's major league playing career ended after 1928 . He retired with 792 doubles , an all @-@ time career record as of 2014 . Defensively , Speaker holds the all @-@ time career records ( as of 2013 ) for assists as an outfielder and double plays as an outfielder . He remains the last batter to hit 200 triples in a career .
= = Later life = =
In 1929 Speaker replaced Walter Johnson as the manager of the Newark Bears of the International League . In two seasons with Newark , he also appeared as a player in 59 games . When Speaker resigned during his second season , the Bears were in seventh place after a sixth @-@ place finish in 1929 . In January 1933 he became a part owner and manager of the Kansas City Blues . By May , Speaker had been replaced as manager but remained secretary of the club . By 1936 , he had sold his share of the team . In 1937 , Speaker was voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame during its second year of balloting . He was honored at the hall 's first induction ceremony in 1939 .
After his playing and managing days , Speaker was an entrepreneur and salesman . By 1937 , Speaker had opened a wholesale liquor business and worked as a state sales representative for a steel company . He chaired Cleveland 's boxing commission between 1936 and 1943 . Newspaper coverage credited Speaker with several key reforms to boxing in Cleveland , including the recruitment of new officials and protections against fight fixing . Under Speaker , fight payouts went directly to boxers rather than managers . Speaker sorted out a scheduling conflict for a 1940 boxing match in Cleveland involving former middleweight champion Teddy Yarosz . Yarosz defeated Jimmy Reeves in ten rounds and the fight attracted over 8 @,@ 300 spectators .
In 1937 , Speaker sustained a 16 @-@ foot fall while working on a flower box near a second @-@ story window at his home . Upon admission to the hospital , he underwent facial surgery . He was described as having " better than an even chance to live " and was suffering from a skull fracture , a broken arm and possible internal injuries . He ultimately recovered .
In 1939 , Speaker was president of the National Professional Indoor Baseball League . The league had teams in New York , Brooklyn , Philadelphia , Boston , Cleveland , Chicago , Cincinnati and St. Louis . The league shut down operations due to poor attendance only two months after its formation . Speaker was one of the founders of Cleveland 's Society for Crippled Children and he helped to promote the society 's rehabilitation center , Camp Cheerful . Speaker served as vice president of the society , ran fundraising campaigns and received a distinguished service award from the organization . He became seriously ill with pneumonia in 1942 . Speaker ultimately recovered , but Gay characterized Speaker 's condition as " touch @-@ and @-@ go for several days " .
In 1947 , Speaker returned to baseball as " ambassador of good will " for Bill Veeck and the Cleveland Indians . He remained in advisory , coaching or scouting roles for the Indians until his death in 1958 . In an article in the July 1952 issue of SPORT , Speaker recounted how Veeck hired him in 1947 to be a coaching consultant to Larry Doby , the first black player in the AL and the second in the major leagues . Before the Indians had signed Doby , he was the star second baseman of the Newark Eagles of the Negro Leagues . A SPORT photograph that accompanied the article shows Speaker mentoring five members of the Indians : Luke Easter , Jim Hegan , Ray Boone , Al Rosen and Doby . Speaker was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame in 1951 . Texas was the first state to establish a state sports hall of fame and Speaker was in its inaugural induction class .
= = Death = =
Speaker died of a heart attack on December 8 , 1958 , at the age of 70 , at Lake Whitney , Texas . He collapsed as he and a friend were pulling their boat into the dock after a fishing trip . It was his second heart attack in four years . Speaker was buried at Fairview Cemetery in Hubbard , Texas .
After Speaker 's death , Cobb said , " Terribly depressed . I never let him know how much I admired him when we were playing against each other ... It was only after we finally became teammates and then retired that I could tell Tris Speaker of the underlying respect I had for him . " Lajoie said , " He was one of the greatest fellows I ever knew , both as a baseball player and as a gentleman . " Former Boston teammate Duffy Lewis said , " He was a team player . As great a hitter as he was , he wasn 't looking out for his own average ... Speaker was the bell cow of our outfield . Harry Hooper and I would watch him and know how to play the hitters . "
= = Legacy = =
Immediately after Speaker 's death , the baseball field at the city park in Cleburne , Texas was renamed in honor of Speaker . In 1961 , the Tris Speaker Memorial Award was created by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America to honor players or officials who make outstanding contributions to baseball . In 1999 , he ranked number 27 on the Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players . He was named to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . Speaker is mentioned in the poem " Line @-@ Up for Yesterday " by Ogden Nash .
In 2008 , former baseball players ' union chief Marvin Miller , trying to defend the recently retired catcher Mike Piazza against claims that he should not be elected to the Hall of Fame because of association with the use of steroids , on the basis that the Hall of Fame has various unsavory people in it , opined that Speaker should be removed from the Hall of Fame because of alleged membership in the Ku Klux Klan . Miller said , " Some of the early people inducted in the Hall were members of the Ku Klux Klan : Tris Speaker , Cap Anson , and some people suspect Ty Cobb as well . I think that by and large , the players , and certainly the ones I knew , are good people . But the Hall is full of villains . " Miller 's comment about Anson has no basis , other than speculating that he could have been a Klansman since he was a racist during his playing career , which ended in 1897 , although he was umpiring games with black players by 1901 , including featuring the all @-@ black Columbia Giants . Miller , age 91 at the time the 2008 article appeared , is the earliest source for declaring that it is factual that Anson was a member of the Klan , based purely on an Internet search of sources that try to link Anson to the Klan . By contrast , Speaker @-@ Cobb @-@ Rogers Hornsby biographer Charles C. Alexander , a Klan expert in his general history writings , told fellow baseball author Marty Appel , apparently referring to the 1920s ( Anson died in 1922 ) , “ As I ’ ve suggested in the biographies , it ’ s possible that they [ Speaker , Cobb and Hornsby ] were briefly in the Klan , which was very strong in Texas and especially in Fort Worth and Dallas . The Klan went all out to recruit prominent people in all fields , provided they were native born , Protestant and white . ”
Baseball historian Bill James does not dispute this claim in apparently referring to Speaker and possibly Cobb , but says that the Klan had toned down its racist overtures during the 1920s and pulled in hundreds of thousands of non @-@ racist men , including Hugo Black . James adds that Speaker was a staunch supporter of Doby when he broke the American League color barrier , working long hours with the former second baseman on how to play the outfield .
= = Regular season statistics = =
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= HMS Hardy ( 1936 ) =
HMS Hardy was the flotilla leader for the H @-@ class destroyers , built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Hardy was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , in October 1939 to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. After returning to the United Kingdom in early 1940 , the ship became flagship of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla assigned to the Home Fleet . During the Norwegian campaign of 1940 , Hardy participated in the First Battle of Narvik where she sank one German destroyer . As the British ships were withdrawing , they were discovered by two other German destroyers that so badly damaged Hardy that she had to be run aground to stop her from sinking . The ship was lifted by a rising tide and eventually capsized .
= = Description = =
Hardy displaced 1 @,@ 455 long tons ( 1 @,@ 478 t ) at standard load and 2 @,@ 053 long tons ( 2 @,@ 086 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 337 feet ( 102 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 34 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 38 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 28 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hardy carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 175 officers and men .
The ship mounted five 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hardy had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were carried originally , but this was increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Hardy was laid down by Cammell Laird and Company at Birkenhead on 30 May 1935 , launched on 7 April 1936 and commissioned on 11 December 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 278 @,@ 482 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hardy patrolled Spanish waters from 1937 through 1939 during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . After the destroyer HMS Hunter struck a mine off Almeria on 13 May 1937 , Hardy stood by in case Hunter needed further assistance . Hardy was berthed in Palma , Majorca on 23 May 1937 when that port was bombed by the Spanish Republican Air Force , but was not damaged . After the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939 , she began a refit in Devonport Dockyard between 2 June and 29 July . The ship was in Malta when World War II began in September .
In October Hardy ( pennant no . H87 ) was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. The ship and her half @-@ sisters HMS Hostile , HMS Hereward , and HMS Hasty rendezvoused with the battlecruiser HMS Renown , the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal , and the light cruiser HMS Neptune on 17 December . They refuelled in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil before proceeding to the estuary of the River Plate in case the damaged German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee attempted to escape from Montevideo , Uruguay , where she had taken refuge after losing the Battle of the River Plate . She was given a brief overhaul at Devonport between 25 January and 12 February 1940 and was then transferred to Greenock , Scotland for convoy escort duties . The ship rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet in Scapa Flow on 9 March and became its flagship .
On 6 April Hardy and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the shipment of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers then joined the battlecruiser HMS Renown and her escorts .
The Admiralty ordered Captain Warburton @-@ Lee to attack German shipping in Narvik , Norway on 9 April . The following morning Hardy led four of her half @-@ sisters down Ofotfjord in a surprise dawn attack on Narvik harbour during a blinding snowstorm . A torpedo from Hardy blew off the stern of the German flagship , Z21 Wilhelm Heidkamp , and killed the German flotilla commander , Commodore Friedrich Bonte . Heidkamp sank the next day . Another hit a merchant ship in the stern . A second salvo of four torpedoes was fired at two other German destroyers , but missed and badly damaged the ore docks . After regrouping , Captain Warburton @-@ Lee led another attack on the harbour later that morning , but inflicted little additional damage due to poor visibility .
As the British destroyers completed their second attack , they were engaged by three more German destroyers . The British destroyers attempted to withdraw to the west , but were pursued by the German ships . Two additional German destroyers crossed the T of the British ships and quickly knocked out Hardy 's forward guns . More hits to the ship 's bridge and superstructure set her on fire , mortally wounded Captain Warburton @-@ Lee and killed or wounded all of the other officers on the bridge except Paymaster Lieutenant G.H. Stanning , the Captain 's Secretary . Although badly wounded , he took command and after several more hits disabled her boilers ordered her run aground at Vidrek . The First Lieutenant , who had not been present on the bridge , assumed command and ordered the ship abandoned . Some of the crew delayed doing so until the last torpedo was fruitlessly fired at a German ship and No. 4 gun fired until it was out of ammunition .
Captain Warburton @-@ Lee was brought ashore but died after an hour from his head wounds . 139 other men managed to get ashore , although 26 were seriously wounded . Captain Warburton @-@ Lee was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross . Hardy was lifted off the beach at high tide and drifted to the head of Skjomen fjord where she capsized in shallow waters . The wreck was still visible as late as 1963 .
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= Vaan =
Vaan ( ヴァン , Van ) is a fictional character in the Final Fantasy series from Square Enix . Created by Yasumi Matsuno and designed by Akihiko Yoshida , he first appeared in Itadaki Street Special and then appeared in Final Fantasy XII as the protagonist . Final Fantasy XII establishes Vaan as an orphaned teenager from Rabanastre who dreams of becoming a sky pirate . He and his best friend Penelo join Dalmasca Princess Ashe in her fight against the tyranny of the Archadian Empire . Vaan also takes a more active role in the sequel Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings and has also been featured in few Final Fantasy crossover games .
Vaan was conceptualized as the main character for Final Fantasy XII in order to contrast the older hero from Square 's previous title Vagrant Story as a result of negative feedback received by fans . Critical reception to Vaan 's character has been mixed as a result of his lack of involvement with the Final Fantasy XII 's plot although various video game publications still found him likable .
= = Appearances = =
Vaan was first introduced in the 2004 crossover board game Itadaki Street Special for the PlayStation 2 . He also appears in Itadaki Street Portable for the PlayStation Portable .
The protagonist of Final Fantasy XII , Vaan is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old orphaned street urchin who lost his parents in a plague when he was 12 years old . His only brother , Reks , died two years prior to the start of the game , during the Archadian invasion of Dalmasca . He makes a living as Migelo 's assistant , running various errands for him , while at the same time pickpocketing from Archadian soldiers while claiming to take back what is Dalmasca 's . He is a cheerful and energetic boy . Vaan dreams of someday becoming a sky pirate in command of his own airship . He trains to meet this goal by killing dire rats in the sewers of Rabanastre on a daily basis , for which Dalan gave him the nickname " Vaan Ratsbane . " Despite nominally being the protagonist , the majority of the game focuses on the events and conflicts of the world as a whole and of Ashe , rather than Vaan 's individual problems , with his character instead used as a narrative device to allow the player to follow the events as an outside observer . During the course of the game , Vaan comes to understand that he has spent his time running from his problems and blaming the Archadian empire for them , rather than moving on with his life after his brother and parents ' deaths . Vaan ends the game as a sky pirate , traveling the world along with Penelo . He also reprises his role from Final Fantasy XII in the manga adaptation by Gin Amou .
During the events of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , Vaan becomes captain of the Airship Galbana and uses it to travel to Lemurés , meeting old friends while making new ones . By Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Vaan 's and Penelo 's adventures take them to the Jylland region of Ivalice , where they get caught up in events surrounding Clan Gully and a boy from another world named Luso Clemens , eventually joining up with the clan for a time .
Vaan also appears in the PlayStation Portable fighting game , Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy . His inclusion in such title met difficulties due to the fact Kouhei Takeda was busy with other works to voice him . However , following a Japanese popularity survey , the staff in charge hired Kenshō Ono to replace Takeda as fans wanted him to appear in Dissidia 012 . He is featured in his Final Fantasy XII design , while alternative ones depict him as in Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , a new one by Yoshitaka Amano and another one featuring him as sea pirate by Akihiko Yoshida . He is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as the main character representing Final Fantasy XII .
= = Concept and creation = =
Yasumi Matsuno added Vaan and Penelo to be male and female avatar characters for the player in Final Fantasy XII . They would see and learn about Ivalice in sync with the player over the course of the game but would not be deeply connected to the story . The development team explained that their previous game , Vagrant Story , which featured a " strong man in his prime " as the protagonist had been unsuccessful and unpopular ; the change regarding Final Fantasy XII from a " big and tough " protagonist to a more effeminate one was thus decided after targeting demographics were considered . Although originally conceived as more " rugged " , Vaan was changed during development of the game to be more effeminate after " taking into consideration the target demographic " . He was designed by character designer Akihiko Yoshida to look Asian . In response to criticism from Western fans regarding Vaan 's design executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu noted that while several members from the development team were not feeling Vaan was the right main character owing to his young age , it was common for Japanese RPG to start with an inexperienced characters who grow across the game . Motomu Toriyama , the writer and director of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , picked Vaan as his favourite character in the game .
Vaan was voiced in Final Fantasy XII by Bobby Edner in English and by Kouhei Takeda in Japanese . With the casting of Takeda for the voice acting and motion capture , Vaan became a little less feminine and more " active , upbeat bright and positive " than planned . When asked how he compares to other Final Fantasy protagonists , Hideo Minaba stated that due in part to being designed by a different character designer than before , he did not feel he could be compared to any other Final Fantasy character .
= = Reception = =
The similarities between the design of Vaan and Tetsuya Nomura 's have been criticized , which artist Akihiko Yoshida noted was likely due to the similar colours used . In the book Final Fantasy and Philosophy : The Ultimate Walkthrough , he is described by Greg Littmann as a pick pocket and , unlike many of Final Fantasy 's protagonists , lacking in a " sense of honesty and justice " . GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin described Vaan as the " token androgynous male lead " , also describing him as an " Aladdin @-@ type " . G4 TV editor Greg Orlando described him as " eminently likable " due to the game 's focus on " political intrigue " and Vaan trying to understand it all . Cyril Lachel of GamingNexus.com stated that while he was not a fan of Vaan , he was surprised by how his story turned out . 1UP.com editor Andrew Pfister stated that while everyone was expecting to hate what he describes as an " angsty teen " , this is " tempered by the presence of Balthier and Basch " , two fellow characters .
His lessened involvement with the plot compared to protagonists from preceding Final Fantasy titles was met with mixed reception . Destructoid editor Aaron Linde described him as " arguably the most uninspiring character in the game " . Play.tm editor Andrew Macarthy described Vaan as an " undescribing figure " . Eurogamer editor Rob Fahey stated that while " players may initially be somewhat dismayed to find themselves largely following around the cheerful prettyboy Vaan " , the game introduces new characters who " fill out the cast superbly " . PSX Extreme editor Cavin Smith commented that due to the game not focusing on just one character , Vaan " spends the entire game as an observer of the events unfolding in front of him " , adding that it is a " far different take on the protagonist compared to Nomura 's egocentric tendencies " . PALGN editor Phil Larsen called him a " rogue @-@ ish bad boy with a heart of gold " , adding that " while this may seem clichéd at first , Vaan is always presented as extremely young and never tries to control every situation " , citing Tidus as an example of someone who does . Worthplaying editor Agustin described the set @-@ up as being " Dragon Quest @-@ like " , and that while he acts as a vehicle for players to view the plot through , he compared him to critically acclaimed characters Crono and Link from the Chrono Trigger and The Legend of Zelda series respectively .
Bobby Edner 's portrayal of Vaan has been met with mostly positive reception . Cavin Smith praised his acting , stating that he sounds like an actual teenager without sounding whiny . Agustin praised the developers for giving Vaan a voice actor , commenting that it prevents any awkward silences from a silent protagonist . He added however that Vaan is " decidedly quiet " , owing to many of the conversations not requiring his input , which Agustin called a " brilliant interactive storytelling device " . His design change from Final Fantasy XII to Revenant Wings was criticized by RPGFan editor Patrick Gann , for going from a teenage design to what appears to be the design of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old Vaan .
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= Juan Davis Bradburn =
Juan Davis Bradburn ( 1787 – April 20 , 1842 ) , born John Davis Bradburn , was a brigadier general in the Mexican Army . His actions as commandant of the garrison at Anahuac in Mexican Texas in 1831 and 1832 led to the events known as the Anahuac Disturbances .
Born and raised in the United States , Bradburn 's first career was as a merchant and slave trader . He likely first entered Mexico in 1812 as part of the Gutiérrez @-@ Magee Expedition fighting Spanish control of Texas . When the expedition was quashed , Bradburn moved to Louisiana , where he served in the Louisiana militia during the Battle of New Orleans . After his discharge , Bradburn spent several years fighting for Mexican independence . Spain relinquished its hold on Mexico in 1821 , and Bradburn became an officer in the new Mexican army . He served as a courier for Mexican emperor Agustín de Iturbide .
In 1830 , Bradburn established a new military and customs post , Anahuac , in Texas . The local settlers resented Bradburn 's efforts to withhold land titles from those who had squatted in unauthorized areas . They were further angered by his attempts to enforce customs laws which had been largely ignored . The hard feelings escalated when Bradburn , following Mexican law , refused to return runaway slaves to their owners in the United States . After receiving a hoax letter claiming that armed men were marching on Anahuac to retrieve runaway slaves , Bradburn arrested local lawyers William Barret Travis , Patrick Churchill Jack . Settlers were outraged that Travis did not receive some of the protections offered by the United States Bill of Rights , even though these rights were not guaranteed in Mexico . A large force of Texians marched on Anahuac to secure Travis 's release . The resulting confrontation forced Bradburn 's expulsion from Texas and encouraged other immigrants to take armed action against Mexican soldiers . As a result of his actions , Bradburn was " one of the most maligned men in historical accounts of " Texas in the 19th century .
= = Early years = =
John Davis Bradburn was born in 1787 in Virginia . His father was probably William C. Bradburn , and John likely had an elder brother , also named William . At some point after 1800 , the family moved to Christian County , Kentucky . As a young adult , Bradburn became a merchant in nearby Springfield , Tennessee . He trafficked in slaves and was once jailed in Natchez , Mississippi over a disputed slave sale .
It is likely that Bradburn participated in the 1812 Gutiérrez @-@ Magee Expedition , which intended to establish independent Mexican control of Spanish Texas . The rebels were initially successful , taking Nacogdoches , Goliad , and provincial capital San Antonio de Béxar . After the execution of Governor Manuel María de Salcedo , many Americans left the movement in disgust . The remaining members of the expedition were decisively defeated by royalist forces at the Battle of Medina in August 1813 ; a small number of Americans escaped to Louisiana .
By 1814 , Bradburn resided in Louisiana . Rumors abounded that British troops were preparing to invade New Orleans . After the December call for volunteers to help defend the state , Bradburn enrolled in the Eighteenth Louisiana Regiment and was elected third lieutenant . His unit arrived in New Orleans on January 24 , just after the Battle of New Orleans , and remained until martial law ended March 11 .
= = Mexican War of Independence = =
Following his discharge from the militia , Bradburn remained in New Orleans . The Mexican War of Independence was raging , and many filibusters — men planning unauthorized military expeditions — gathered in the city to plan the liberation of Texas from Spanish control . Bradburn became a sergeant major in the movement led by Juan Pablo Anaya and Henry Perry . When Perry 's forces entered Texas in early 1816 , Bradburn was initially stationed in Nacogdoches to direct recruits and supplies to the main body of the expedition . In June , Bradburn joined Perry at his headquarters , a bluff along the Trinity River which became known as Perry 's Point . Little activity occurred over the next few months .
In November 1816 , another filibuster , Francisco Javier Mina , arrived with additional men and supplies . Mina planned to invade Tampico and assist the revolutionary army in the Mexican interior . Bradburn allied himself with Mina , whose plan was better @-@ developed than Perry 's , and was soon appointed second @-@ in @-@ command of the American troops , under Colonel Gilford Young . The filibusters traveled to Fort Sombrero , an insurgent stronghold in Guanajuato province . Rebel supplies dwindled when the fort was besieged by Spanish royalist troops . Mina attempted to negotiate a surrender , but the Spanish offered safe passage only to native Mexicans ; Americans and other foreigners were required to surrender at discretion . As the filibusters pondered this development , Young was killed , leaving Bradburn in sole command of the American troops . On August 19 , he ordered a retreat . Spanish cavalrymen attacked , and less than one @-@ quarter of the Americans escaped .
Bradburn remained in Mexico and soon joined the forces led by Vicente Guerrero . Despite Guerrero 's reputation for cruelty , the two men developed a close relationship . At least once , Bradburn countermanded Guerrero 's orders , refusing to allow the execution of captured Spanish officers . His action impressed Agustín de Iturbide , the commander of the Spanish forces fighting Guerrero . In December 1820 , Bradburn left the insurgent army to join Iturbide . Most Mexican historians believe his defection was due to a weariness with the conflict ; at least one historian speculates that Bradburn joined the Spanish army as Guerrero 's spy . Within a month , Bradburn had been appointed intermediary between Iturbide and Guerrero .
Iturbide defected from the Spanish army , intending to place himself at the head of a new independent Mexico . He recruited his forces from both the Spanish and rebel armies , offering all who joined him an equal or higher rank in his new organization . Bradburn was appointed a colonel .
= = Independent Mexico = =
In August 1821 , Mexico officially received its independence from Spain . The following year Iturbide became emperor of Mexico and sent Bradburn as an envoy to the United States . Bradburn returned with news that the United States was prepared to recognize the Mexican republic as an independent country . Later that year , Iturbide arranged Bradburn 's marriage to a well @-@ connected Mexican woman , Maria Josefa Hurtado de Mendoza y Caballero de los Olivos . Her brother , Agustin Hurtado , was the 9th Count of the Valley of Orizaba . Bradburn and his wife had one son , who entered the priesthood as a young man .
Iturbide was overthrown in 1823 . The new government was based on federalist principles , and Bradburn , a staunch centralist , kept a discreet distance from politics over the next few years . He reappears in Mexican records in 1828 , when he was granted a monopoly on steamboat traffic on the Rio Grande from the Gulf of Mexico through Coahuila . His charter was revoked in 1830 when he was unable to meet its terms .
= = Texas = =
The new federalist government officially authorized immigration from the United States to Mexican Texas in 1824 . The resulting mass influx of settlers , combined with failed attempts by the United States government to purchase the territory , concerned Mexican authorities , who feared that the United States wished to forcibly take Texas . In response , on April 6 , 1830 the Mexican government enacted a series of laws restricting immigration from the United States . The laws also called for the establishment of customs houses within Texas to begin enforcing customs duties . On October 4 , 1830 , Bradburn was ordered to create the first customs post , to be located at Galveston Bay . He was chosen for the assignment partly because he was bilingual and would be able to communicate with both the immigrants from the United States and the native Mexicans and partly due to his knowledge of the area and its terrain .
Bradburn and his men arrived at Galveston Bay on October 26 and established a post atop the same 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bluff where Bradburn had camped with Perry . As ordered , Bradburn named the fort Anahuac after the Anahuac Valley , the ancient capital of the Aztecs . The soldiers erected two large kilns to produce bricks to build a more permanent fort . When the kilns were operational , however , Bradburn sold the bricks to settlers who wished to live near the fort . The town grew quickly and by June 1 the population had reached 300 civilians and 170 military personnel . At this point , Bradburn redirected his attention to building a permanent fort . The soldiers , who had been largely idle while the kilns produced bricks for settlers , were angry that they were now expected to do significant physical labor . Their displeasure was augmented by Bradburn 's high standards ; he often forced the men to tear down and rebuild sections that did not meet his benchmark for quality . Many soldiers deserted .
Bradburn also angered the colonists . The Mexican Constitution of 1824 prohibited immigrants from settling with 26 miles ( 42 km ) of the coast , and many foreigners had established homes close to the coast . In January 1831 , a new state land commissioner , Jose Francisco Madero , arrived to grant land titles to people who had settled in the area before 1830 . Bradburn believed that only the federal government had the authority to grant titles in the area near the coast , and that as the representative of the federal government he was the only individual who could authorize surveys of the land .
Bradburn arrested Madero and his assistant , José María Jesús Carbajal . Within 10 days , Bradburn received orders from his superiors to release the men . Madero issued deeds as quickly as he could . Madero then established an official council , an ayuntamiento , for the residents in the disputed area . The new community , " Villa de la Santissima Trinidad de la Libertad " , is now known as Liberty , Texas . Although Bradburn believed that Liberty was created illegally , as the town was too close to the coast , he made no attempt to interfere with its establishment . On December 9 , however , Bradburn 's superior , commandant general Manuel Mier y Teran , ordered Bradburn to dismantle the town and establish the ayuntamiento at Anahuac .
= = = Tariffs = = =
The Mexican government had granted specific tariff exemptions to the first group of immigrants to Texas . Known as the Old Three Hundred , this initial colony had been established by empresario Stephen F. Austin . Most Texas colonists , including those who settled in Austin 's other land grants , erroneously assumed the exemption applied to all settlers . With Bradburn 's arrival , tariff collections began . After hearing complaints from ship captains , Bradburn 's influence helped the law be amended to curtail some excessive charges . Nevertheless , colonists were angry that their goods were more expensive . Many of the settlers in Austin 's colony also refused to accept that their exemption had expired and were vocal in their dislike of the tariffs and Bradburn . To keep the peace , Bradburn appointed local men to collect fees near Austin 's colony ; these men did not try to enforce the law rigidly , and tensions cooled .
In an effort to resolve the issues , Stephen F. Austin wrote Bradburn seeking help in getting the tariffs repealed throughout Texas . Bradburn promptly forwarded the letter up the chain of command . Bradburn 's commander sent Austin a sharply @-@ worded letter which , according to Bradburn 's biographer Margaret Swett Henson , " remind [ ed ] the empresario that tariff was collected by every nation in the world but that only in Brazoria did it cause rioting " . Austin blamed Bradburn for the reprimand .
= = = Anahuac Disturbances = = =
In January 1832 , Bradburn received a letter listing 10 men in his jurisdiction who favored separating Texas from Mexico . From that point on , according to Henson , " Bradburn became increasingly obsessed about the Anglo @-@ Americans and their intentions , believing that every event was part of a conspiracy to detach Texas " . Several months later , local men organized a militia , supposedly to protect the settlement from Indian attacks . Mexican law forbade residents from creating militias , so Bradburn arrested the ringleader , Patrick Jack . Although citizens were outraged , few were willing to intervene . An exception was Robert " Three @-@ Legged Willie " Williamson — his threat to kill Bradburn resulted in Jack 's release .
Bradburn was also worried about the intentions of Jack 's law partner , William Barret Travis . The previous year , Bradburn had granted asylum to two men who had escaped slavery in Louisiana . Travis represented the men 's owner in a series of failed attempts to return the former slaves to the United States . In May 1832 , Bradburn received a letter warning that 100 armed men were stationed 40 miles ( 64 km ) away , intent on reclaiming the slaves . After realizing the letter was a hoax , Bradburn arrested Travis for questioning . He intended to send Travis to Matamoros for a military trial on charges of attempted insurrection . Conviction on this charge would have led to Travis 's execution . The settlers were outraged that the arrest did not require a warrant , a statement of charges , or trial by jury . Most were unfamiliar with Mexican law and assumed that the United States Bill of Rights still applied to them .
Jack threatened Bradburn , who angrily rearrested him . Colonists had reached their limit , and men began marching towards Anahuac from various Texas settlements . By early June , over 150 Texians had gathered . They elected Frank W. Johnson as commander . Without firing a shot , Johnson 's group soon captured Bradburn 's 19 cavalry officers , who had been trying to reconnoiter the Texian position . This left Bradburn with only 80 soldiers ; the rest had deserted .
On June 10 , the insurgents occupied buildings in northern Anahuac and began negotiations to peacefully end the dispute . Mexican officers agreed to release their prisoners into civilian custody if the Texians would release the captured cavalry officers and then withdraw from the town to Turtle Bayou . Although most of the rebels left Anahuac , 15 to 30 men remained scattered through the town . Bradburn believed this violated their agreement and in retaliation threatened to fire on the village within 2 hours . Most of the Texians believed that Bradburn had never intended to follow the agreement .
Fearing imminent cannon fire , the women and children of Anahuac fled . Mexican soldiers briefly engaged the men who remained , leading to the deaths of 5 Mexican soldiers and 1 Texan . After the skirmish , the remaining Texians gathered at Turtle Bayou to await the arrival of cannons that were stored at Brazoria . Taking advantage of the civil war currently engulfing the Mexican interior , the Texians drafted the Turtle Bayou Resolutions . In this document , they declared themselves federalists who supported rebellious Mexican general Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and decried " the present dynasty " which gave them military order instead of civil authority .
While the Texians waited for their artillery , Bradburn sent messages to Colonel Piedras , stationed at Nacogdoches ( 200 miles ( 320 km ) north ) , and Colonel Elosúa at San Antonio ( 300 miles ( 480 km ) to the west ) . On June 19 , Piedras and about 100 of his men set out to reinforce Bradburn . Unsure how many Texians he actually faced , Piedras was eager to defuse the conflict without violence . At his urging , Bradburn agreed to relinquish his authority , but his chosen successor , Lieutenant Colonel Felix Maria Subarán , refused to take his place . Piedras agreed to take temporary command of the garrison . On July 2 , he transferred the prisoners to civilian authorities ; within a week they were all released with no charges filed . Piedras left for Nacogdoches on July 8 ; three days later , the bulk of the Anahuac troops declared themselves federalists . Only Bradburn and a few others remained committed to the centralist cause .
= = Later life = =
After an aborted assassination attempt — widely attributed to Travis — Bradburn resolved to leave Texas . None of the local ship captains would allow him passage . On July 13 , Subarán announced that he would not guarantee the safety of any officers who still supported the centralist government . That night , Bradburn left Anahuac on foot . Years later , Anahuac carpenter William B. Scates related that after Bradburn 's departure , locals gathered up the other centralist officers and tarred and feathered them before taking them into the water and " scour [ ing ] them with corn cobs to scrub their Bradburn sins off " .
On August 6 , Bradburn arrived in New Orleans and sought refuge with the Mexican consul . Many New Orleans residents had a highly unfavorable view of Bradburn ; ten days earlier the local paper had published a letter from Travis describing Bradburn as a " tyrant " and claiming that Travis had been jailed solely for his political opinions . Bradburn quickly booked passage to Matamoros . On arriving in Mexico , he learned that he had been officially relieved of his duties in Anahuac on June 29 , before his superiors had learned of the armed conflict .
Bradburn remained in the army , fighting for the centralist government . Acting president Anastasio Bustamante promoted Bradburn to brigadier general after his bravery in a large battle on September 18 . For the next few months , Bradburn commanded a regiment near Reynosa . In December , Bustamante and Santa Anna negotiated an end to the war . Bradburn 's forces were merged with that of the federalist general operating in the same area , Lorenzo Cortina . Cortina commanded the joint regiment , and Bradburn retired from military service . For several years , Bradburn raised vegetables near Matamoros . Henson related that " a Texas visitor noted that [ Bradburn ] had the respect of the foreign community in the city , even the Anglo merchants " .
When the Texas Revolution erupted in 1835 , Bradburn rejoined the military under General Jose de Urrea on the condition that he was not required to fight in eastern Texas . Urrea 's forces eradicated opposition along the Texas Gulf Coast , and Bradburn was left to command the small port at Copano , just north of the Nueces River . In April 1836 , Santa Anna ( now president of Mexico ) was captured at the Battle of San Jacinto and all Mexican troops were ordered to retreat beyond the Rio Grande . Bradburn remained at Copano to intercept Mexican supply vessels before they could fall into the hands of the Texians . In mid @-@ May , he was ordered to retreat south to Refugio and wait for the arrival of a specific supply ship . His force was reduced to five men . After two deserted and the remainder fell ill , Bradburn set out alone and on foot for Mexico . He reached Matamoros in ill health on June 13 .
Bradburn again served in the army during the federalist war in 1838 , but by the end of 1840 he had retired to Matamoros . He died on April 20 and was buried on his ranch , likely east of present @-@ day Mission . The property is now the home of the La Lomita Seminary , but there is no record of the location of Bradburn 's grave .
= = Legacy = =
Bradburn 's death was announced in Texas newspapers in a very neutral manner . The Telegraph and Texas Register said simply that " Gen. Bradburn , who had long been in the Mexican service , and formerly commanded the garrison of Anahuac , lately died at Matamoros " . However , the history books of the time did not speak kindly of his actions . In his 1841 book Texas and the Texans ; or , Advance of the Anglo @-@ Americans to the South @-@ West Henry Stuart Foote described Bradburn as an " evil spirit , hovering , with gloomy and malignant aspect , in the rear of Santa Anna 's army " . Henson posits that Bradburn was " one of the most maligned men in historical accounts of that period " , partially because he had no descendants to try to " preserv [ e ] his name and reputation in Texas " .
Many of Bradburn 's contemporaries appeared to share Stephen F. Austin 's belief that : " The fact is [ Bradburn ] is incompetent to such a command and is half crazy part of his time . " His actions " appeared arbitrary and authoritarian to the colonists , who were ignorant about the power traditionally exercised by the Mexican military " . Texians were further disgusted that Bradburn , who shared their American roots , often sided against American immigrants . However , according to historian J. R. Edmondson , colonists " would probably have resented any officer — Anglo or not — sent among them to initiate the collection of customs " . Few Texans in the 19th century understood that Bradburn was following orders and attempting to enforce the national laws of Mexico , and that he was no longer bound by the laws of the United States . Even as late as the 20th century , historians often described Bradburn as a " petty tyrant " .
Historian William C. Davis believes that Bradburn " overreacted and made heroes of two local malcontents whose actions their own people otherwise had not been much inclined to sanction " . The resulting Turtle Bayou Resolutions empowered other Texians to follow a similar course of action . Many communities began declaring in favor of Santa Anna , and in August Piedras and his troops were driven from Nacogdoches . Their retreat into the Mexican interior temporarily left eastern Texas free of Mexican military control , encouraging the colonists to increase their political activity . Shortly thereafter , colonists organized the Convention of 1832 , which marked the first attempt to gather Texians from each of the colonies to discuss their common goals .
Shortly after Bradburn left Texas , the garrison at Anahuac was dismantled . With no troops to purchase supplies , the civilians in the area soon dispersed . The fort was not regarrisoned until January 1835 , when Captain Antonio Tenorio arrived with 40 men . His command was no more successful than Bradburn 's ; within months Travis led a group of insurgents to overthrow Tenorio in the second of the Anahuac Disturbances .
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= Hooded crow =
The hooded crow ( Corvus cornix ) ( also called hoodie ) is a Eurasian bird species in the Corvus genus . Widely distributed , it is also known locally as Scotch crow , Danish crow , and grey crow ( in Slavic languages , Ireland and Denmark ) . Found across Northern , Eastern , and Southeastern Europe , as well as parts of the Middle East , it is an ashy grey bird with black head , throat , wings , tail , and thigh feathers , as well as a black bill , eyes , and feet . Like other corvids , it is an omnivorous and opportunistic forager and feeder .
It is so similar in morphology and habits to the carrion crow ( Corvus corone ) , for many years they were considered by most authorities to be geographical races of one species . Hybridization observed where their ranges overlapped added weight to this view . However , since 2002 , the hooded crow has been elevated to full species status after closer observation ; the hybridisation was less than expected and hybrids had decreased vigour . Within the hooded crow species , four subspecies are recognized , with one , the Mesopotamian crow , possibly distinct enough to warrant species status itself .
= = Taxonomy = =
The hooded crow was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th @-@ century work Systema Naturae and it bears its original name of Corvus cornix . The binomial name is derived from the Latin words Corvus , " raven " , and cornix , " crow " . It was subsequently considered a subspecies of the carrion crow for many years , hence known as Corvus corone cornix , due to similarities in structure and habits .
It is locally known as a hoodie in Scotland and Northern Ireland .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Four subspecies of the hooded crow are now recognised ; previously , all were considered subspecies of Corvus corone . A fifth , C. c. sardonius ( Trischitta , 1939 ) has been listed though it has been alternately partitioned between C. c. sharpii ( most populations ) , C. c. cornix ( Corsican population ) , and the Middle Eastern C. c. pallescens .
C. c. cornix , the nominate race , occurs in the British Isles ( principally Scotland and Ireland ) and Europe , south to Corsica .
C. c. pallescens ( Madarász , 1904 ) is found in Turkey and Egypt , and is a paler form as its name suggests .
C. c. sharpii ( Oates , 1889 ) is named for English zoologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe . This is a paler grey form found from western Siberia through to the Caucasus region and Iran .
C. c. capellanus ( P.L. Sclater , 1877 ) is known as the Mesopotamian crow or Iraqi pied crow . This distinctive form occurs in Iraq and southwestern Iran . It has very pale grey plumage which looks almost white from a distance . It is possibly distinct enough to be considered a separate species .
= = = Genetic difference from carrion crows = = =
The hooded crow ( Corvus cornix ) and carrion crow ( Corvus corone ) are two closely related species whose geographical distribution across Europe is illustrated in the accompanying diagram . It is believed that this distribution might have resulted from the glaciation cycles during the Pleistocene , which caused the parent population to split into isolates which subsequently re @-@ expanded their ranges when the climate warmed causing secondary contact . Poelstra and coworkers sequenced almost the entire genomes of both species in populations at varying distances from the contact zone to find that the two species were genetically identical , both in their DNA and in its expression ( in the form of RNA ) , except for the lack of expression of a small portion ( < 0 @.@ 28 % ) of the genome ( situated on avian chromosome 18 ) in the hooded crow , which imparts the lighter plumage colouration on its torso . Thus the two species can viably hybridize , and occasionally do so at the contact zone , but the all @-@ black carrion crows on the one side of the contact zone mate almost exclusively with other all @-@ black carrion crows , while the same occurs among the hooded crows on the other side of the contact zone . It is therefore clear that it is only the outward appearance of the two species that inhibits hybridization . The authors attribute this to assortative mating ( rather than to ecological selection ) , the advantage of which is not clear , and it would lead to the rapid appearance of streams of new lineages , and possibly even species , through mutual attraction between mutants . Unnikrishnan and Akhila propose , instead , that koinophilia is a more parsimonious explanation for the resistance to hybridization across the contact zone , despite the absence of physiological , anatomical or genetic barriers to such hybridization .
= = Description = =
Except for the head , throat , wings , tail , and thigh feathers , which are black and mostly glossy , the plumage is ash @-@ grey , the dark shafts giving it a streaky appearance . The bill and legs are black ; the iris dark brown . Only one moult occurs , in autumn , as in other crow species . The male is the larger bird , otherwise the sexes are alike . Their flight is slow and heavy and usually straight . Their length varies from 48 to 52 cm ( 19 to 20 in ) . When first hatched , the young are much blacker than the parents . Juveniles have duller plumage with bluish or greyish eyes and initially a red mouth . Wingspan is 98 cm ( 39 in ) and weight is on average 510 g .
The hooded crow , with its contrasted greys and blacks , cannot be confused with either the carrion crow or rook , but the kraa call notes of the two are almost indistinguishable .
= = Distribution = =
The hooded crow breeds in northern and eastern Europe , and closely allied forms inhabit southern Europe and western Asia . Where its range overlaps with carrion crow , as in northern Britain , Germany , Denmark , northern Italy , and Siberia , their hybrids are fertile . However , the hybrids are less well @-@ adapted than purebred birds , and this is one of the reasons this species was split from the carrion crow . Little or no interbreeding occurs in some areas , such as Iran and central Russia .
In the British Isles , the hooded crow breeds regularly in Scotland , the Isle of Man , and the Scottish Islands . It also breeds widely in Ireland . In autumn , some migratory birds arrive on the east coast of Britain . In the past , this was a more common visitor .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Diet = = =
The hooded crow is omnivorous , with a diet similar to that of the carrion crow , and is a constant scavenger . It drops molluscs and crabs to break them after the manner of the carrion crow , and an old Scottish name for empty sea urchin shells was " crow 's cups " . On coastal cliffs , the eggs of gulls , cormorants , and other birds are stolen when their owners are absent , and this crow will enter the burrow of the puffin to steal eggs . It will also feed on small mammals , scraps , smaller birds , and carrion . The crow has the habit of hiding food , especially meat or nuts , in places such as rain gutters , flower pots , or in the earth under bushes , to feed on it later , sometimes on the insects that have meanwhile developed on it . Other crows often watch if another one hides food and then search this place later when the other crow has left .
= = = Nesting = = =
Nesting occurs later in colder regions : mid @-@ May to mid @-@ June in northwest Russia , Shetland , and the Faroe Islands , and late February in the Persian Gulf region . In warmer parts of the British Isles , the clutch is laid in April . The bulky , stick nest is normally placed in a tall tree , but cliff ledges , old buildings , and pylons may be used . Nests are occasionally placed on or near the ground . The nest resembles that of the carrion crow , but on the coast , seaweed is often interwoven in the structure , and animal bones and wire are also frequently incorporated . The four to six brown @-@ speckled blue eggs are 4 @.@ 3 cm × 3 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in × 1 @.@ 2 in ) in size and weigh 19 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 70 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The altricial young are incubated for 17 – 19 days by the female alone , that is fed by the male . They fledge after 32 to 36 days . Incubating females have been reported to obtain most of their own food and later that for their young .
The typical lifespan is unknown , but that of the carrion crow is four years . The maximum recorded age for a hooded crow is 16 years , and 9 months .
This species is a secondary host of the parasitic great spotted cuckoo , the European magpie being the preferred host . However , in areas where the latter species is absent , such as Israel and Egypt , the hooded crow becomes the normal corvid host .
This species , like its relative , is seen regularly killed by farmers and on grouse estates . In County Cork , Ireland , the county 's gun clubs shot over 23 @,@ 000 hooded crows in two years in the early 1980s .
= = Status = =
The IUCN Red List does not distinguish the hooded crow from the carrion crow , but the two species together have an extensive range , estimated at 10 million km2 ( 3 @.@ 8 million mi2 ) , and a large population , including an estimated 14 to 34 million individuals in Europe alone . They are not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , so are evaluated as Least Concern . The carrion crow / hooded crow hybrid zone is slowly spreading northwest , but the hooded crow has on the order of three million territories in just Europe ( excluding Russia ) .
= = Cultural significance = =
In Celtic folklore , the bird appears on the shoulder of the dying Cú Chulainn , and could also be a manifestation of the Morrígan , the wife of Tethra , or the Cailleach . This idea has persisted , and the hooded crow is associated with fairies in the Scottish highlands and Ireland ; in the 18th century , Scottish shepherds would make offerings to them to keep them from attacking sheep . In Faroese folklore , a maiden would go out on Candlemas morn and throw a stone , then a bone , then a clump of turf at a hooded crow – if it flew over the sea , her husband would be a foreigner ; if it landed on a farm or house , she would marry a man from there , but if it stayed put , she would remain unmarried .
The old name of Royston crow originates from the days when this bird was a common winter visitor to southern England , the sheep fields around Royston , Hertfordshire , providing carcasses on which the birds could feed . The local newspaper , founded in 1855 , is called The Royston Crow , and the hooded crow is also featured on the crest of the North Hertfordshire District Council .
The hooded crow is one of the 37 Norwegian birds depicted in the Bird Room of the Royal Palace in Oslo . Jethro Tull mentions the hooded crow on the song " Jack Frost and the hooded crow " as a bonus track on the digitally remastered version of Broadsword and the Beast and on their The Christmas Album .
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= Booze Cruise ( The Office ) =
" Booze Cruise " is the eleventh episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's seventeenth episode overall . Written by Greg Daniels and directed by Ken Kwapis , the episode first aired in the United States on January 5 , 2006 on NBC . The episode featured Rob Riggle and Amy Adams as guest stars .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) brings the office on a booze cruise and plans on doing some " motivational " speaking . After he learns that the captain of the boat has other plans , a power struggle emerges . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) and Roy 's ( David Denman ) previously stagnant relationship blossoms , while Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Katy 's ( Amy Adams ) begins to falter .
The story for " Booze Cruise " was inspired by a friend of B. J. Novak 's who had gone on a booze cruise . Novak told Daniels about the trip , and Daniels then proceeded to write an episode about it . The episode featured the third and final appearance of Katy , portrayed by Amy Adams . The filming of the episode was a departure from the norm of the series ; filming took place on an actual boat and because of this , many cast members got sea sick . " Booze Cruise " received largely positive reviews from critics . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 5 in the 18 – 49 demographic and was viewed by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
The Dunder Mifflin crew goes on a cruise on a Lake Wallenpaupack ship Princess — in January . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) plans to use the cruise as both a party and a leadership training exercise . However , " Captain Jack " ( Rob Riggle ) keeps preventing him from giving a business lecture .
The captain puts Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) in charge of a prop wheel , which Dwight thinks is real . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , who has brought his girlfriend Katy ( Amy Adams ) on the cruise with him , and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) share an awkward moment alone on the deck away from their significant others . Michael continually tries to take charge of the event by standing next to the captain and interrupting everything he says . After Michael falsely declares that the ship is sinking , sending the passengers into a panic and causing one passenger to grab a life vest and jump off the ship , the captain temporarily detains him by zip tying him to the railing on the deck outside .
Just before Roy talks to the captain , Michael asks Jim who he would save on a sinking ship . Jim covers up in saying that he would save the customer , but makes it clear afterwards that he would save the receptionist . He approaches Pam to perhaps tell her his feelings at the same time that Roy is hearing a war story from the captain . A drunken Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) is inspired to announce a date for his wedding with Pam , just before Jim can reach her . Jim is crushed and breaks up with Katy , realizing that he does not want to be with her . He confesses to Michael his feelings for Pam , which surprises Michael , who claims he has a " radar for things like that " . As Jim is seemingly ready to give up on Pam , Michael , in an uncharacteristically serious moment , encourages him to pursue her . Jim 's facial expression indicates that Michael 's endeavors to motivate him in some way might have actually succeeded . Afterwards , Michael finally informs Dwight the wheel he has been steering is not real . It is evident in deleted scenes that Jim , in giving his toast , intended to make an emotional speech about his close relationship with Pam , but is swiftly cut off by Dwight .
= = Production = =
" Booze Cruise " was written by Greg Daniels , making it his fourth writing credit , and his second season two credit , after " Halloween " earlier in the year . The episode was directed by Ken Kwapis , making it his sixth directing credit for the series . Greg Daniels referred to this episode as " our Scranton version of James Cameron 's Titanic . " The idea came from B. J. Novak because a friend of his went on a booze cruise . Novak told Daniels about the trip , and Daniels then proceeded to write an episode about it .
" Booze Cruise " featured the third and final appearance of Katy , portrayed by Amy Adams . Adams thoroughly enjoyed her work on the show . In an interview with Advocate.com , she said , " [ The Office ] was the best work experience . I loved that show and that cast so much . I don ’ t know if they believe me , but every time I see them I ’ m like , ' Oh my gosh , I ’ ll do anything to come back . ' "
Shooting for the episode was a departure from the norm of the series , due to the fact that filming was not on the Dunder Mifflin set . Furthermore , the episode was not filmed during the day , but rather during the night , from 6pm to 6am . Principal filming took place in Long Beach Harbor , California . Because the episode took place on an actual boat , many cast members got sea sick . Rainn Wilson got especially nauseated on the second night ; Jenna Fischer and David Denman felt nauseated on the last night of shooting . During the final sound mixing for the episode , Greg Daniels recalls yelling at the shot of Jim and Pam on deck . He noted that he had " seen it many , many times , but I was yelling , ' Do it , you idiot ! Kiss her ! ' "
= = Cultural references = =
During the conference room scene , Michael asks if anyone has seen the 1997 film Titanic . Pam and Jim pretend that they 've never heard of the movie , and Pam suggests that Michael is thinking of the 1990 movie The Hunt for Red October . Upon boarding , Michael soon stands at the front of the boat and yells , " I 'm the king of the world ! " in reference to the famous scene in Titanic .
When the employees are boarding the boat , Michael sings the " Ballad of Gilligan 's Island " , the theme from the 1964 television series Gilligan 's Island . Michael assigns the following roles : Pam is Mary Ann , Jim is The Professor , Katy is Ginger , Angela is Mrs. Howell , Kelly is a " native " , Stanley is one of the Harlem Globetrotters , Michael is The Skipper , and Dwight is Gilligan .
= = Reception = =
" Booze Cruise " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 5 , 2006 . The episode received a 4 @.@ 5 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . At the time , this was the best 18- 49 rating that the show had had . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . Furthermore , the series retained 87 percent of its My Name is Earl lead @-@ in audience . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 27 , 2006 , received a 1 @.@ 8 / 6 rating and was viewed by over 4 @.@ 1 million viewers .
" Booze Cruise " received largely positive reviews from critics . M. Giant of Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A " . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad stated " This sitcom gets better every week " and that " What made this one quite good was that they didn 't rely on Dwight too much , although the bits with him ' driving ' the boat were good . " Monique Marcil of Zap2it said that the " 28 seconds of silence between co @-@ workers Jim and Pam capture all the awkwardness and longing of unspoken love better than any words could . And it 's these private moments caught on film by the unseen documentary crew that give this otherwise tart sitcom its sweetness . " John Krasinski stated that " Booze Cruise " included two of his favorite scenes to film : Jim 's conversation with Pam , and Jim 's conversation with Michael . He later called both of the shots " beautiful " and noted that it was " nothing short of an honor " to film them with Fischer and Carell , respectively . TV Fanatic reviewed several of the episodes quotes ; Steve Marsi rated Jim 's quote , " You know what ? I would save the receptionist . Just wanted to clear that up " a 3 out of 5 . Marsi also rated Jim and Michael 's conversation about Pam a 5 out of 5 .
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= Cosas del Amor ( song ) =
" Cosas del Amor " ( " Things About Love " ) is a song by American recording artist Vikki Carr and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Ana Gabriel . It was released as the lead single from Carr 's studio album Cosas del Amor ( 1991 ) . Written by Roberto Livi and Rudy Pérez , the song portrays the relationship between two friends and confidences between both due to marital problems of one of them .
The song became commercially successful when it reached the top of the Billboard Latin Songs chart , the first for Carr and the fifth number @-@ one single for Gabriel . " Cosas del Amor " has been widely covered by several artists including Ana Bárbara , Milly Quezada , Jenni Rivera , Olga Tañón , and Yuri , among others . The accompanying music video portrays Carr and Gabriel discussing the situation described in the song and witnessing a solar eclipse . The track earned awards such as a Lo Nuestro for Best Pop Song and the Single of the Year mention by the Radio y Música journal .
= = Background = =
" Cosas del Amor " was written by Roberto Livi and Rudy Pérez , performed by American singer Vikki Carr and included on the album of the same title , Carr 's fourteenth Spanish language studio album and thirty @-@ third overall . Carr was already a well known singer in the United States and the United Kingdom when she decided to record her first Spanish language album in 1972 , Vikki Carr , En Español . Thirteen years later Carr was awarded her first Grammy Award for Simplemente Mujer , an album recorded with mariachi and produced by Pedro Ramírez . Carr recorded Cosas del Amor under the guidance of Roberto Livi in 1991 , and was released a year after her duet album with Mexican singer Vicente Fernández which gave the singer her second top ten single in the Billboard Latin Songs chart with " Dos Corazones " ( " Two Hearts " ) peaking at number ten . The first single released was recorded in a duet with Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Ana Gabriel , who was also signed on Carr 's record label Sony Music . About singing in Spanish , Carr stated : " for business I 'm very American , but my heart is totally Latin . "
= = Chart performance and awards = =
The song debuted in the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart ( formerly Hot Latin Tracks ) chart at number 21 in the week of July 27 , 1991 , climbing to the top ten the following week . " Cosas del Amor " peaked at number @-@ one in August 31 , 1991 , replacing " Todo , Todo , Todo " by Mexican singer Daniela Romo and being succeeded ten weeks later by " Por Qué Será " by Venezuelan singer @-@ songwriter Rudy La Scala . During six consecutive weeks Ana Gabriel also held the runner @-@ up position on the chart with " Ahora " , the lead single from her studio album Mi México . " Cosas del Amor " ended 1991 as the fourth best performing Latin single of the year in the United States . The song became the fifth number @-@ one single for Gabriel following " Ay Amor " ( 1988 ) , " Simplemente Amigos " ( 1989 ) , " Quién Como Tú " and " Es Demasiado Tarde " ( both 1990 ) , and the first ( and to date only ) for Carr .
" Cosas del Amor " earned a Lo Nuestro Award for Pop Song of the Year and was named Single of the Year by the journal Radio y Música . For the parent album Carr received a Grammy Award for Best Latin Performance and in Venezuela was awarded the " Album of the Year " ( the ' Grammy ' equivalent of the country ) . The album also peaked at number @-@ one in Ecuador , Colombia , Costa Rica , Puerto Rico , the Billboard Latin Pop Albums in the United States , and Venezuela .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Cosas del Amor " was filmed in Cuernavaca , Morelos on July 11 , 1991 , and presents Carr arriving at a house where Gabriel is waiting for her . Upon entering the house , Gabriel begins to discuss the situation described in the song . The video is interspersed with scenes of both singers performing the song and some scenes where they witness a solar eclipse . The video concludes with Carr comforting Gabriel for her love situation . The video received a Billboard Music Award nomination for Latin Duo or Group Video of the Year .
= = Legacy and cover versions = =
In November 1999 , " Cosas del Amor " was labeled as one of the " hottest tracks " for Sony Discos in a list including the most successful songs released by the label since the launching of the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in 1986 . The song was also included in the compilation album Free to Be created by Jaime Ikeda and released by Right Stuff Records in order to create an all inclusive musical collection targeting the homosexual demographic . Only four Spanish language recorded songs were added to the album : " Tres Deseos " and " Lo Que Son Las Cosas " by Ednita Nazario , " Un Amor Como el Mío " by Lunna , and " Cosas del Amor " . Argentinean duo Pimpinela recorded the song for their album Pimpinela ' 92 . Mexican singers Yuri and Ana Bárbara included their version on Yuri 's self @-@ titled album in 2004 . The song was performed live for the first time by the singers at the " AcaFest2005 " held in Acapulco , Mexico . José Feliciano and Rudy Pérez performed a duet on Feliciano 's album , José Feliciano y Amigos .
Puerto @-@ Rican American singer Olga Tañón recorded a cover version of the track on Éxitos en 2 Tiempos ( 2007 ) , the first album by Tañon to include covers of songs previously recorded by other artists . The song was performed in a duet with Dominican singer Milly Quezada for the pop version and with American singer Jenni Rivera for the Regional / Mexican version , and upon released as a single peaked at number 40 in the Billboard Latin Songs and at number 20 in the Latin Pop Songs chart , respectively . This version was nominated for Tropical Airplay Song of the Year , Female at the 2009 Latin Billboard Music Awards. which was ultimately won by Ivy Queen and " Dime " . Margarita Vargas " La Diosa de la Cumbia " ( " The Goddess of Cumbia " ) joined Mariana Seoane on a recording of " Cosas del Amor " included on Seoane 's fourth studio album Está de Fiesta ... Atrévete ! ! ! ( 2007 ) . Mexican singers María José and Edith Márquez recorded " Cosas del Amor " for José 's studio album Amante de lo Ajeno in 2009 . Carr was awarded the Latin Recording Academy Lifetime Achievement Award at the 9th Latin Grammy Awards in 2008 . Carr attended the ceremony and performed " Cosas del Amor " with Olga Tañón and Jenni Rivera , in a presentation described as " boring " by Carlos Reyes of the magazine Club Fonograma .
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= South Jordan , Utah =
South Jordan is a city in the U.S. state of Utah . The city lies in the Salt Lake Valley between the 9 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) peaks of the Oquirrh Mountains and the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) peaks of the Wasatch Mountains and is part of the Salt Lake City metropolitan area . The Jordan River flows through the middle of the valley and the city has a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) section of the Jordan River Parkway that contains fishing ponds , trails , parks and natural habitat . Salt Lake County fair grounds and equestrian park , 67 @-@ acre ( 27 ha ) Oquirrh Lake and 27 other parks are located inside the city . As of the 2010 Census , its population was 50 @,@ 418 .
The city was founded 18 miles ( 29 km ) south of Salt Lake City along the banks of the Jordan River in 1859 by Mormon settlers . An agrarian town for most of its history , today it is a rapidly growing bedroom community of Salt Lake City . Kennecott Land , a land development company , has recently begun construction on the master @-@ planned Daybreak Community for the entire western half of South Jordan . Daybreak could potentially double South Jordan 's population . South Jordan is the first city in the world with two temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( Jordan River Utah Temple and Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple ) . The city has two TRAX light rail stops , as well as one commuter rail stop on the FrontRunner .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ European = = =
The first known inhabitants were members of the Desert Archaic Culture who were nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers . From 400 A.D. to around 1350 A.D. , the Fremont people settled into villages and farmed corn and squash . Changes in climatic conditions to a cooler , drier period and the movement into the area of ancestors of the Ute , Paiute , and Shoshone , led to the disappearance of the Fremont people . When European settlers arrived , there were no permanent Native American settlements in the Salt Lake Valley , but the area bordered several tribes – the territory of the Northwestern Shoshone to the north , the Timpanogots band of the Utes to the south in Utah Valley , and the Goshutes to the west in Tooele Valley .
The only recorded trapper to lead a party through the area was Étienne Provost , a French Canadian . In October 1824 , Provost 's party was lured into an Indian camp somewhere along the Jordan River north of Utah Lake . The people responsible for the attack were planning revenge against Provost 's party for an earlier unexplained incident involving other trappers . Provost escaped , but his men were caught off @-@ guard and fifteen of them were killed .
= = = Early Mormon settlement = = =
On July 22 , 1847 , an advanced party of the first Mormon pioneers entered the valley and immediately began to irrigate land and explore the area with a view to establishing new settlements . Alexander Beckstead , a blacksmith from Ontario , Canada , moved his family to the West Jordan area in 1849 , and became the first of his trade in the south Salt Lake Valley . He helped dig the first ditch to divert water from the Jordan River , powering Archibald Gardner 's flour mill . In 1859 , Beckstead became the first settler of South Jordan by moving his family along the Jordan River where they lived in a dugout cut into the west bluffs above the river . The flood plain of the Jordan was level , and could be cleared for farming if a ditch was constructed to divert river water along the base of the west bluff . Beckstead and others created the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) " Beckstead Ditch " , parts of which are still in use as of 2010 .
In 1863 , the South Jordan LDS Branch was organized as a branch of the West Jordan Ward , giving South Jordan its name . The Branch consisted of just nine families . A school was built in 1864 out of adobe and also served as the LDS Meetinghouse for the South Jordan Branch . As South Jordan grew , a new and larger building was constructed in 1873 on the east side of the site of the present @-@ day cemetery . It had an upper and lower entrance with a granite foundation using left @-@ over materials brought from the granite quarry at the mouth of Little Cottonwood Canyon . The upper story was made of oversized adobe bricks . The main hall had curtains which could be pulled to section off the hall for classes . The meetinghouse also served as the " ward " school when it was held during the fall and winter months . It came to be known as the " Mud Temple " , and was in use until 1908 .
In 1876 , work was completed on the South Jordan Canal which took water out of the Jordan River in Bluffdale and brought it above the river bluffs for the first time . As a result of the new canal , most of the families moved up away from the river onto the " flats " above the river which they could now irrigate . In 1881 , the Utah and Salt Lake Canal was completed . It runs parallels to the west side of today 's Redwood Road . With the completion of the canal system , greater acreage could be farmed , which led to the area 's population increasing .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
In the late 1890s , alfalfa hay was introduced and took the place of tougher native grasses which had been used up to that point for feed for livestock . In good years , alfalfa could produce three crops that were stored for winter . Sugar beets were introduced to South Jordan around 1910 . Farmers liked sugar beets because they could be sold for cash at the Utah @-@ Idaho Sugar Company factory in West Jordan . Sugar beet farming became so integral to the region , that the region 's high school ( Jordan High School ) mascot was named the " beetdigger " .
A big celebration was held on January 14 , 1914 , to commemorate the arrival of electrical power , the addition of a water tank and supply system for indoor pumping and a new park for South Jordan . By the 1930s , the area needed a water tank to store water for residents living further west . The only way to get a federal grant was to incorporate and become a city . Citizens voted to incorporate on November 8 , 1935 , and immediately issued bonds to obtain money for the water tank . The city was initially governed by a Town Board with responsibilities over parks , water and the cemetery . In 1978 , the city moved to a mayor @-@ council form of government and assumed local supervision of police , fire , road and building inspections from Salt Lake County .
One of the worst school bus accidents in United States history occurred on December 1 , 1938 . A bus loaded with 38 students from South Jordan , Riverton , and Bluffdale crossed in front of an oncoming train that was obscured by fog and snow . The bus was broadsided killing the bus driver and 23 students . The concern about bus safety from the South Jordan accident led to changes in state and eventually federal law mandating that buses stop and open the doors before proceeding into a railroad crossing . The same railroad crossing was the site of many other crashes in the following years with the last deadly crash occurring on December 31 , 1995 , when three teens died while crossing the tracks in their car . The crossing was finally closed , but not until crashes occurred in 1997 and 2002 .
In 1950 , Salt Lake County had 489 @,@ 000 acres ( 198 @,@ 000 ha ) devoted to farming . But by 1992 , due to increasing population , land devoted to farming had decreased to 108 @,@ 000 acres ( 44 @,@ 000 ha ) . As a result of this urbanization , South Jordan 's economy went from agrarian to being a bedroom community of Salt Lake City . Kennecott Land began a development in 2004 called Daybreak , which is a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) planned community that will contain more than 20 @,@ 000 homes and includes commercial and retail space . In 1981 , the LDS Jordan River Utah Temple was completed . In 2009 , the LDS Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple was completed and became the second temple to be built in South Jordan . South Jordan is the first city in the world to have two LDS Temples , Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple and the Jordan River Utah Temple , the second city being Provo , Utah .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 22 @.@ 1 square miles ( 57 km2 ) , of which , 0 @.@ 08 square miles ( 0 @.@ 21 km2 ) , 0 @.@ 34 percent , is water . South Jordan is located in the southwestern portion of the Salt Lake Valley . The city lies between the Oquirrh Mountains to the west , West Jordan to the north , the Jordan River and Sandy to the east , Draper to the southeast , Riverton to the south , and Herriman to the southwest .
The relative flatness of South Jordan is due to lacustrine sediments of a pleistocene lake called Lake Bonneville . Lake Bonneville existed from 75 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 years ago and its peak some 30 @,@ 000 years ago , the lake reached an elevation of 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) above sea level and had a surface area of 19 @,@ 800 square miles ( 51 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The elevation of South Jordan ranges from approximately 4 @,@ 300 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) near the Jordan River in the east and rises gently to the foothills of the Oquirrh Mountains at 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) . A notable exception is a bluff at the western edge of the Daybreak Community which is an old sandbar of Lake Bonneville .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 census , there were 50 @,@ 418 people residing in 14 @,@ 333 households . The population density was 2 @,@ 278 people per square mile ( 880 / km ² ) . There were 14 @,@ 943 housing units at an average density of 675 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 260 @.@ 8 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 91 @.@ 5 % White , 0 @.@ 2 % African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 2 @.@ 6 % Asian , 0 @.@ 9 % Pacific Islander , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 @.@ 0 % of the population . The racial makeup of Salt Lake County was 81 @.@ 2 % White , 1 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 9 % Native American , 3 @.@ 1 % Asian , 1 @.@ 4 % Pacific Islander , and 1 @.@ 9 % from two or more races . Hispanic of any race was 16 @.@ 4 % . The racial makeup of Utah was 92 @.@ 9 % White , 1 @.@ 3 % African American , 1 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 3 % Asian , 1 @.@ 5 % Pacific Islander , and 3 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . Hispanic of any race was 17 @.@ 1 % .
There were 14 @,@ 433 households out of which 46 @.@ 8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 76 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 6 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 14 @.@ 1 % were non @-@ families . 11 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 4 @.@ 3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 3 @.@ 83 compared to 2 @.@ 94 for Salt Lake County and 3 @.@ 03 for Utah .
In the city , the population was spread out with 37 @.@ 8 % under the age of 20 , 6 @.@ 0 % from 20 to 24 , 25 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 7 % from 45 to 64 , and 7 @.@ 1 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 29 @.@ 9 years . For every 100 females there were 100 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 97 @.@ 3 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 91 @,@ 199 , Salt Lake County was $ 58 @,@ 004 and Utah was $ 56 @,@ 330 . Males had a median income of $ 65 @,@ 722 versus $ 41 @,@ 171 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 28 @,@ 387 . About 1 @.@ 6 % of families and 2 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 2 @.@ 7 % of those under age 18 and 2 @.@ 4 % of those age 65 or over . In Salt Lake County , 10 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line and 10 @.@ 8 % of the population in Utah was below the poverty line . Of those people 25 years and older in the city , 96 @.@ 8 % were high school graduates compared to 86 @.@ 8 % in Salt Lake County and 87 @.@ 7 % in Utah . Those attaining a college degree were 36 @.@ 4 % of South Jordan 's population .
There were 22 @,@ 368 people employed over the age of 16 with 17 @,@ 258 people working in the private sector , 2 @,@ 744 in the government sector , 1 @,@ 186 self @-@ employed and 32 unpaid family workers . The mean travel time to work of 23 @.@ 8 minutes . There were 4 @,@ 153 people employed in educational services , health care and social assistance . There were 2 @,@ 862 people employed in professional , scientific , management , administrative and waste management services . There were 2 @,@ 420 people employed in finance , insurance , real estate and rental and leasing . There were 2 @,@ 316 people employed in retail trade , 1 @,@ 633 in construction and 2 @,@ 050 in manufacturing .
= = = Crime = = =
For the year 2010 , the city had 27 violent crimes reported to law enforcement , and 1 @,@ 050 reports of property crimes . The violent crime rate was 48 per 100 @,@ 000 people compared to a national average of 404 and 213 for Utah . The property crime rate was 1 @,@ 858 per 100 @,@ 000 compared to a national rate of 2 @,@ 942 and 3 @,@ 180 for the State . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) defines violent offenses to include forcible rape , robbery , murder , non @-@ negligent manslaughter , and aggravated assault . Property crimes are defined to include arson , motor vehicle theft , larceny , and burglary .
Statistics published by the Utah Department of Public Safety 's Bureau of Criminal Identification showed a steady trend in the South Jordan crime rate between 2000 and 2008 . The rate for index crimes , a group comprising the combined violent offenses and property crimes stated above , was 2 @,@ 269 per 100 @,@ 000 in 2000 and 2 @,@ 277 per 100 @,@ 000 in 2008 . The 2008 rate for index crimes in Salt Lake County was 5 @,@ 290 per 100 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 529 per 100 @,@ 000 for the entire State of Utah .
In 2010 , South Jordan had a total of 57 total law enforcement employees for a rate of 1 @.@ 13 employees per 1 @,@ 000 residents . City police officers made a total of 910 arrests . Total crimes reported were 3 @,@ 810 . Total crimes contain 22 categories that include everything from murder , rape and assault to drug offenses , larceny and prostitution .
= = Parks and recreation = =
The city has 27 municipal parks and playgrounds ranging in size from 0 @.@ 39 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 16 ha ) Bolton Park in the north @-@ west part of the city to the 59 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) Riverfront Park along the Jordan River and the 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) City Park along Redwood Road . City Park includes baseball and softball fields , football , soccer , and lacrosse fields , volleyball courts , tennis courts and a skate park . Riverfront Park includes two fishing ponds stocked with rainbow trout and catfish by the Division of Wildlife Resources and 22 acres ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) of natural habitat . Other recreational facilities owned by South Jordan City include the Aquatic and Fitness center , Community Center providing the senior programs , Mulligan 's two miniature golf and two nine @-@ hole executive golf cources and an outdoor ice skating rink next to City Hall .
Two trails meander through South Jordan . The Bingham Creek Trail starts in the northwest part of the city and travels 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) North @-@ East until it reaches the West Jordan border . A 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) section of the Jordan River Parkway trail runs through the city from northern edge of the city all the way to the southern edge . The trail has a combined bike and jogging path , plus an equestrian path .
Salt Lake County operates the 120 @-@ acre ( 49 ha ) Equestrian Park that sits adjacent to South Jordan City Park . The park grounds contain a horse racing track , a polo and dressage field , indoor arenas and stables . The Salt Lake County Fair is held every August at the park .
The 67 @-@ acre ( 27 ha ) Oquirrh Lake sits inside 137 acres ( 55 ha ) of park and wetlands located at the Daybreak Community . Recreational opportunities include fishing , sail boating , kayaking and canoeing . The lake has been stocked with trout , bigmouth bass , channel catfish , bluegill , and fathead minnows . Of the fish they catch , anglers can only keep trout . The lake and the surrounding park land are privately owned , but open to the public , with future plans to turn it over to South Jordan City . In addition to the lake , the Daybreak community includes 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , community gardens , tennis courts , basketball courts , pocket parks and community @-@ only swimming pools .
Privately owned , but open to the public , Glenmoor Golf course is inside city limits . Salt Lake County @-@ owned Mountain View Golf Course is 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) north in West Jordan and Sandy @-@ owned River Oaks Golf Course borders the Jordan River in Sandy .
= = Government = =
South Jordan has a council @-@ manager form of government . The council , the city 's legislative body , consists of five members and a mayor , each serving a four @-@ year term . The council sets policy , and the city manager oversees day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The current mayor is David L. Alvord . The city council meets the first and third Tuesdays of each month at 6 : 00 PM .
Mia Love , a Republican , represents South Jordan as part of Utah 's 4th congressional district of the United States House of Representatives . Aaron Osmond , a Republican , represents South Jordan as part of the 10th Utah Senate District in the Utah Senate and has announced he will step down in December , 2015 . Rich Cunningham , a Republican , represents South Jordan as part of 50th Utah House District of the Utah House of Representatives and is hoping to replace Osmond in the Senate .
= = Education = =
South Jordan lies within Jordan School District . The district has six elementary schools , two middle schools ( South Jordan Middle and Elk Ridge Middle ) and four high schools ( Bingham High School , Herriman High School , Itineris Early College High School and Valley High ( an alternative school ) ) serving the students of South Jordan . In addition , there is Paradigm public charter high school , Early Light Academy public charter elementary and three private schools ( American Heritage , Mountain Heritage Academy and Stillwater Academy ) .
Salt Lake Community College 's Jordan Campus is located on the boundary between of South Jordan and West Jordan . The Jordan Campus offers general education classes as well as all of the college 's health science courses . Jordan School District 's Applied Technology Center and Itineris Early College High School are also located on campus . Salt Lake Community College 's Miller Campus is located in Sandy next to the border with South Jordan and is home to the college 's Culinary Institute , Miller Business Resource Center for corporate training programs , and training facilities for the Utah Department of Public Safety . The private university in South Jordan is the Roseman University of Health Sciences , which houses schools of pharmacy , dentistry , and an online accelerated nursing program .
= = Transportation = =
Interstate 15 , a twelve @-@ lane freeway , is located on the eastern edge of the city and provides two interchanges inside city limits at 10600 South and 11400 South . Bangerter Highway ( State Route 154 ) , a six @-@ lane expressway , traverses the center of the city with interchanges at 9800 South , 10400 South and 11400 South . The Mountain View Corridor , an eventual ten @-@ lane freeway , is located on the western edge of the Daybreak Community .
South Jordan is served by the Utah Transit Authority ( UTA ) bus system and UTA 's TRAX light rail Red Line . The Red Line connects the TRAX line running to downtown Salt Lake City and the University of Utah . Two TRAX stations , with park and ride lots , are located inside the Daybreak Community . The Daybreak North Station is located at approximately 10600 South and has 400 shared park and ride spaces . The Daybreak South Station is located at 11400 South and has 600 park and ride spaces . Two other stations are located inside West Jordan at the city boundary with South Jordan , the 5600 West Station and the 4800 West Station . The travel time between the Daybreak South Station to downtown Salt Lake City is approximately 60 minutes .
UTA 's FrontRunner commuter rail system has a station at South Jordan 's eastern edge at 10200 South . The FrontRunner extends north to Pleasant View and south to Provo .
= = Infrastructure = =
Electric service to South Jordan residents is provided by Rocky Mountain Power . Natural gas service is provided by Questar Corporation . Qwest Communications handles local telephone service ; long @-@ distance service is available from several providers . Comcast and Qwest both offer high @-@ speed Internet connections .
South Jordan city owns the water distribution system . Drinking water is provided by Jordan Valley Water Conservancy District . Secondary water , a non @-@ potable water used for landscaping , is provided from the canals running through the city . South Valley Sewer District owns and bills for the sewer system . South Jordan City contracts out to Allied Waste Industries for curbside pickup of household garbage ; recyclables are picked up once a week .
The Intermountain Riverton Hospital , owned by Intermountain Healthcare , is a 58 @-@ bed , full @-@ service hospital in Riverton that also includes a satellite facility for Primary Children 's Medical Center . Jordan Valley Medical Center , owned by Iasis Healthcare , is a 183 @-@ bed , full @-@ service hospital located in West Jordan .
= = Economy = =
= = = Principal employers = = =
According to South Jordan 's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the principal employers in the city are :
= = Notable people = =
Current resident Apolo Anton Ohno was a short track speed skating athlete . Ohno is the most decorated American Winter Olympic athlete of all time with eight medals . Current resident Edward J. Fraughton is a sculptor of western themes and inventor . Fraughton invented technology used in Automatic dependent surveillance @-@ broadcast ( ADS @-@ B ) . ADS @-@ B is used for tracking and finding aircraft positions using satellites . Nfl player Star Lotulelei also lives in south Jordan . Keven Curtis is a former resident who , as of 2010 , is a wide receiver for the NFL Kansas City Chiefs . Curtis graduated from Bingham High School where he played football and basketball . Denise Parker is a former resident who is a three time Summer Olympic competitor in Archery . Parker was the youngest member of the 1988 U.S Summer Olympic team at age 14 where she won a bronze medal . As of 2010 , Parker is Chief Executive Officer for USA Archery , the national governing body for the sport of archery .
Current resident Samantha Gordon is a girl football player whose highlight video of her football season was viewed 5 million times in just three days . She is the first female football player to make the cover of the Wheaties box . She had been interviewed on Good Morning America , ESPN 's Sports Center , Katie Couric , Conan O 'Brien , Steve Harvey , Fox and friends , and more . Sam was also in a NFL commercial and a Super Bowl commercial and was invited to the Super Bowl by NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell . In South Jordan December 18 is Sam Gordon Day .
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= Subwoofer =
A subwoofer ( or sub ) is a woofer , or a complete loudspeaker , which is dedicated to the reproduction of low @-@ pitched audio frequencies known as bass . The typical frequency range for a subwoofer is about 20 – 60 Hz for consumer products , below 100 Hz for professional live sound , and below 80 Hz in THX @-@ approved systems . Subwoofers are intended to augment the low frequency range of loudspeakers covering higher frequency bands .
Subwoofers are made up of one or more woofers mounted in a loudspeaker enclosure — often made of wood — capable of withstanding air pressure while resisting deformation . Subwoofer enclosures come in a variety of designs , including bass reflex ( with a port or passive radiator in the enclosure ) , infinite baffle , horn @-@ loaded , and bandpass designs , representing unique tradeoffs with respect to efficiency , bandwidth , size and cost . Passive subwoofers have a subwoofer driver and enclosure and they are powered by an external amplifier . Active subwoofers include a built @-@ in amplifier .
The first subwoofers were developed in the 1960s to add bass response to home stereo systems . Subwoofers came into greater popular consciousness in the 1970s with the introduction of Sensurround in movies such as Earthquake , which produced loud low @-@ frequency sounds through large subwoofers . With the advent of the compact cassette and the compact disc in the 1980s , the easy reproduction of deep and loud bass was no longer limited by the ability of a phonograph record stylus to track a groove , and producers could add more low frequency content to recordings . As well , during the 1990s , DVDs were increasingly recorded with " surround sound " processes that included a Low @-@ frequency effects ( LFE ) channel , which could be heard using the subwoofer in home theater systems . During the 1990s , subwoofers also became increasingly popular in home stereo systems , custom car audio installations , and in PA systems . By the 2000s , subwoofers became almost universal in sound reinforcement systems in nightclubs and concert venues .
= = History = =
In September 1964 Raymon Dones , of El Cerrito , CA , received a US Patent ( numbered US3150739 ) which was the first for a subwoofer specifically designed to omni @-@ directionally augment the low frequency range of modern stereo systems . Able to reproduce distortion @-@ free low frequencies down to 15 cycles per second , a specific objective of Dones ’ invention was to provide portable sound enclosures which provide for high fidelity reproduction of @-@ low frequency sound waves without giving an audible indication of the portion of the room from which they emanate . Dones ' loudspeaker was marketed in the US under the trade name " The Octavium " from the early 60s to the mid @-@ 1970s . The Octavium was utilized by several recording artists of that era , most notably the Grateful Dead , bassist Monk Montgomery , bassist Nathan East , and the Pointer Sisters . The Octavium speaker and Dones ' subwoofer technology was also utilized , in a few select theaters , to reproduce low pitch frequencies for the 1974 blockbuster movie " Earthquake " . During the late 1960s Dones ’ Octavium was favorably reviewed by audiophile publications including Hi @-@ Fi News and Audio Magazine .
Another early subwoofer enclosure made for home and studio use was the separate bass speaker for the Servo Statik 1 , by New Technology Enterprises . Designed as a prototype in 1966 by physicist Arnold Nudell and airline pilot Cary Christie in Nudell 's garage , the design used a second winding around a custom Cerwin Vega 18 @-@ inch ( 45 cm ) driver to provide servo control information to the amplifier , and it was offered for sale at $ 1795 , some 40 % more expensive than any other complete loudspeaker listed at Stereo Review . In 1968 , the two found outside investment and reorganized as Infinity . The subwoofer was reviewed positively in Stereophile magazine 's Winter 1968 issue as the SS @-@ 1 by Infinity . The SS @-@ 1 was reviewed very highly in 1970 by High Fidelity magazine .
One of the first subwoofers was developed during the late 1960s by Ken Kreisel , the former president of the Miller & Kreisel Sound Corporation in Los Angeles . When Kreisel 's business partner , Jonas Miller , who owned a high @-@ end audio store in Los Angeles , told Kreisel that some purchasers of the store 's high @-@ end electrostatic speakers had complained about a lack of bass response in the electrostatics , Kreisel designed a powered woofer that would reproduce only those frequencies that were too low for the electrostatic speakers to convey . Infinity 's full range electrostatic speaker system that was developed during the 1960s also used a woofer to cover the lower frequency range that its electrostatic arrays did not handle adequately .
The first use of a subwoofer in a recording session was in 1973 for mixing the Steely Dan album Pretzel Logic when recording engineer Roger Nichols arranged for Kreisel to bring a prototype of his subwoofer to Village Recorders . Further design modifications were made by Kreisel over the next ten years , and in the 1970s and 1980s by engineer John P. D 'Arcy ; record producer Daniel Levitin served as a consultant and " golden ears " for the design of the crossover network ( used to partition the frequency spectrum so that the subwoofer would not attempt to reproduce frequencies too high for its effective range , and so that the main speakers would not need to handle frequencies too low for their effective range ) .
Subwoofers received a great deal of publicity in 1974 with the movie Earthquake which was released in Sensurround . Initially installed in 17 U.S. theaters , the Sensurround system used large subwoofers which were driven by racks of 500 watt amplifiers which were triggered by control tones printed on one of the audio tracks on the film . Four of the subwoofers were positioned in front of the audience under ( or behind ) the film screen and two more were placed together at the rear of the audience on a platform . Powerful noise energy in the range of 17 Hz to 120 Hz was generated at the level of 110 – 120 decibels of sound pressure level , abbreviated dB ( SPL ) . The new low frequency entertainment method helped the film become a box office success . More Sensurround systems were assembled and installed . By 1976 there were almost 300 Sensurround systems leapfrogging through select theaters . Other films to use the effect include the WW II naval battle epic Midway in 1976 and Rollercoaster in 1977 . Deep @-@ Bass speakers were once an exotic commodity and are now much more popular with different sizes and capabilities of sound output .
For owners of 33 rpm LPs and 45 singles , loud and deep bass was limited by the ability of the phonograph record stylus to track the groove . Some hi @-@ fi aficionados solved the problem by using reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape players which were capable of delivering accurate , naturally deep bass from acoustic sources , or synthetic bass not found in nature . With the popular introduction of the compact cassette and the CD , it became possible to add more low frequency content to recordings , and satisfy a larger number of consumers . Home subwoofers grew in popularity , as they were easy to add to existing multimedia speaker setups and they were easy to position or hide .
= = Construction and features = =
= = = Loudspeaker and enclosure design = = =
Subwoofers use speaker drivers ( woofers ) typically between 8 " ( 20 cm ) and 21 " ( 53 cm ) in diameter . Some uncommon subwoofers use larger drivers , and single prototype subwoofers as large as 60 " ( 152 cm ) have been fabricated . On the smaller end of the spectrum , subwoofer drivers as small as 4 " ( 10 cm ) may be used , depending on the design of the loudspeaker enclosure , the desired sound pressure level , the lowest frequency targeted and the level of permitted distortion . The most common subwoofer driver sizes used for sound reinforcement are 10 " , 12 " , 15 " and 18 " models ( 25 cm , 30 cm , 40 cm , and 45 cm respectively ) . The largest available sound reinforcement subwoofers , 21 " ( 53 cm ) drivers , are less commonly seen .
The efficiency of a speaker driver is given by :
<formula>
Where the variables are Thiele / Small parameters . Deep low frequency extension is a common goal for a subwoofer and small box volumes are also considered desirable . Hofmann 's Iron Law therefore mandates low efficiency under those constraints , and indeed most subwoofers require considerable power , much more than other individual drivers .
So for the example of a sealed speaker box , the box volume to achieve a given Qts is proportional to Vas :
<formula> Where : <formula>
Therefore , a decrease in box volume and the same F3 will decrease the efficiency of the sub woofer . Similarly the F3 of a speaker is proportional to Fs :
<formula>
As the efficiency is proportional to Fs3 , small improvements in low frequency extension with the same driver and box volume will result in very significant reductions in efficiency . For these reasons , subwoofers are typically very inefficient at converting electrical energy into sound energy . This combination of factors accounts for the higher power output of subwoofer amplifiers , and the requirement for greater power handling for subwoofer drivers . Enclosure variations ( e.g. , bass reflex designs ) are sometimes used for subwoofers to increase the efficiency of the driver / enclosure system , helping to reduce the amplifier power requirement .
Subwoofers have been designed using a number of enclosure approaches : bass reflex , acoustic suspension , infinite baffle , horn loaded , tapped horn , transmission line and bandpass . Each enclosure type has advantages and disadvantages in efficiency increase , bass extension , cabinet size , distortion , and cost . Subwoofers are typically constructed by mounting one or more woofers in a cabinet of medium @-@ density fibreboard ( MDF ) , oriented strand board ( OSB ) , plywood , fiberglass , aluminum or other stiff materials . Because of the high air pressure they produce in the cabinet , subwoofer enclosures often require internal bracing to distribute the resulting forces .
The smallest subwoofers are typically those designed for desktop multimedia systems . The largest common subwoofer enclosures are those used for concert sound reinforcement systems or dance club sound systems . An example of a large concert subwoofer enclosure is the 1980s @-@ era ElectroVoice MT @-@ 4 " Bass Cube " system , which used four 18 " ( 45 cm ) drivers . An example of a subwoofer that uses a bass horn is the Bassmaxx B @-@ Two , which loads an 18 " ( 45 cm ) driver onto an 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) long folded horn . Folded horn @-@ type subwoofers can typically produce a deeper range with greater efficiency than the same driver in an enclosure that lacks a horn . Some experimental fixed @-@ installation subwoofer horns have been constructed using brick and concrete to produce a very long horn that allows a very deep sub @-@ bass extension .
Subwoofer output level can be increased by increasing cone surface area or by increasing cone excursion . Since large drivers require undesirably large cabinets , most subwoofer drivers have large excursions . Unfortunately , high excursion , at high power levels , tends to produce more distortion from inherent mechanical and magnetic effects in electro @-@ dynamic drivers ( the most common sort ) . The conflict between assorted goals can never be fully resolved ; subwoofer designs are necessarily compromises . Hofmans 's Iron Law ( the efficiency of a woofer system is directly proportional to its cabinet volume and to the cube of its cutoff frequency ) applies to subwoofers just as to all loudspeakers .
= = = Frequency range and frequency response = = =
The frequency response specification of a speaker describes the range of frequencies or musical tones a speaker can reproduce , measured in hertz ( Hz ) . The typical frequency range for a subwoofer is between 20 – 200 Hz . Professional concert sound system subwoofers typically operate below 100 Hz , and THX @-@ approved systems operate below 80 Hz . Subwoofers vary in terms of the range of pitches that they can reproduce , depending on a number of factors such as the size of the cabinet and the construction and design of the enclosure and driver ( s ) . Specifications of frequency response depend wholly for relevance on an accompanying amplitude value — measurements taken with a wider amplitude tolerance will give any loudspeaker a wider frequency response . For example , the JBL 4688 TCB Subwoofer System , a now @-@ discontinued system which was designed for movie theaters , had a frequency response of 23 – 350 Hz when measured within a 10 @-@ decibel boundary ( 0 dB to -10 dB ) and a narrower frequency response of 28 – 120 Hz when measured within a six @-@ decibel boundary ( ± 3 dB ) .
Subwoofers also vary in regard to the sound pressure levels achievable and the distortion levels they can produce over their range . Some subwoofers , such as " The Abyss " by MartinLogan for example can reproduce pitches down to around 18 Hz ( which is about the pitch of the lowest rumbling notes on a huge pipe organ with 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) -16 Hz @-@ bass pipes ) to 120 Hz ( ± 3 dB ) . Nevertheless , even though the Abyss subwoofer can go down to 18 Hz , its lowest frequency and maximum SPL with a limit of 10 % distortion is 35 @.@ 5 Hz and 79 @.@ 8 dB at 2 meters . This means that a person choosing a subwoofer needs to consider more than just the lowest pitch that the sub can reproduce .
= = = Amplification = = =
'Active subwoofers ' include their own dedicated amplifiers within the cabinet . Some also include user @-@ adjustable equalization that allows boosted or reduced output at particular frequencies ; these vary from a simple " boost " switch , to fully parametric equalizers meant for detailed speaker and room correction . Some such systems are even supplied with a calibrated microphone to measure the subwoofer 's in @-@ room response , so the automatic equalizer can correct the combination of subwoofer , subwoofer location , and room response to minimize effects of room modes and improve low frequency performance .
'Passive subwoofers ' have a subwoofer driver and enclosure , but they do not include an amplifier . They sometimes incorporate internal passive crossovers , with the filter frequency determined at the factory . These are generally used with third @-@ party power amplifiers , taking their inputs from active crossovers earlier in the signal chain . Inexpensive Home Theatre in a Box packages often come with a passive subwoofer cabinet that is amplified by the multi @-@ channel amplifier . While few high @-@ end home @-@ theater systems use passive subwoofers , this format is still popular in the professional sound industry .
= = = Equalization = = =
Equalization can be used to adjust the in @-@ room response of a subwoofer system . Designers of active subwoofers sometimes include a degree of corrective equalization to compensate for known performance issues ( e.g. , a steeper than desired low end roll @-@ off rate ) . In addition , many amplifiers include an adjustable low @-@ pass filter , which prevents undesired higher frequencies from reaching the subwoofer driver . For example , if a listener 's main speakers are usable down to 80 Hz , then the subwoofer filter can be set so the subwoofer only works below 80 . Typical filters involve some overlap in frequency ranges ; a steep filter is not generally desired for subwoofers . The crossover section may also include a high @-@ pass " infrasonic " or " subsonic " filter which prevents the subwoofer driver from attempting to reproduce frequencies below its safe capabilities .
Some systems use parametric equalization in an attempt to correct for room frequency response irregularities . Equalization is often unable to achieve flat frequency response at all listening locations in part because of the resonance ( i.e. , standing wave ) patterns at low frequencies in nearly all rooms . Careful positioning of the subwoofer within the room can also help flatten the frequency response . Multiple subwoofers can manage a flatter general response since they can often be arranged to excite room modes more evenly than a single subwoofer , allowing equalization to be more effective .
= = = Phase control = = =
Changing the relative phase of the subwoofer with respect to the woofers in other speakers may or may not help to minimize unwanted destructive acoustic interference in the frequency region covered by both subwoofer and main speakers . It may not help at all frequencies , and may create further problems with frequency response , but is even so generally provided as an adjustment for subwoofer amplifiers . Phase control circuits may be a simple polarity reversal switch or a more complex continuously variable circuits .
Continuously variable phase control circuits are common in subwoofer amplifiers , and may be found in crossovers and as do @-@ it @-@ yourself electronics projects . Phase controls allow the listener to change the arrival time of the subwoofer sound waves relative to the same frequencies from the main speakers ( i.e. , at and around the crossover point to the subwoofer ) . A similar effect can be achieved with the delay control on many home theater receivers . The subwoofer phase control found on many subwoofer amplifiers is actually a polarity inversion switch . It allows users to reverse the polarity of the subwoofer relative to the audio signal it is being given . This type of control allows the subwoofer to either be in phase with the source signal , or 180 degrees out of phase .
The subwoofer phase can still be changed by moving the subwoofer closer to or further from the listening position , however this may not be always practical .
= = = Servo subwoofers = = =
Some active subwoofers use a servo feedback mechanism based on cone movement which modifies the signal sent to the voice coil . The servo feedback signal is derived from a comparison of the input signal to the amplifier versus the actual motion of the cone . The usual source of the feedback signal is a few turns of voice coil attached to the cone or a microchip @-@ based accelerometer placed on the cone itself . An advantage of a well @-@ implemented servo subwoofer design is reduced distortion making smaller enclosure sizes possible . The primary disadvantages are cost and complexity .
Servo controlled subwoofers are not the same as Servodrive subwoofers whose primary mechanism of sound reproduction avoids the normal voice coil and magnet combination in favor of a high @-@ speed belt @-@ driven servomotor . The Servodrive design increases output power , reduces harmonic distortion and virtually eliminates the loss of loudspeaker output that results from an increase in voice coil impedance due to overheating of the voice coil ( called power compression . ) This feature allows high power operation for extended periods of time . Intersonics was nominated for a TEC Award for its Servo Drive Loudspeaker ( SDL ) design in 1986 and for the Bass Tech 7 model in 1990 .
= = Applications = =
= = = Home audio = = =
The use of a subwoofer augments the bass capability of the main speakers , and allows them to be smaller without sacrificing low frequency capability . A subwoofer does not necessarily provide superior bass performance in comparison to large conventional loudspeakers on ordinary music recordings due to the typical lack of very low frequency content on such sources . However , there are recordings with substantial low frequency content that most conventional loudspeakers are ill @-@ equipped to handle without the help of a subwoofer , especially at high playback levels , such as music for pipe organs with 32 ' ( 9 @.@ 75 meter ) bass pipes ( 16 Hz ) , very large bass drums on symphony orchestra recordings and electronic music with extremely low synth bass parts , such as bass tests or bass songs .
Frequencies which are sufficiently low are not easily localized by humans , hence many stereo and multichannel audio systems feature only one subwoofer channel and a single subwoofer can be placed off @-@ center without affecting the perceived sound stage , since the sound produced will be difficult to localize . The intention in a system with a subwoofer is often to use small main speakers ( of which there are two for stereo and five or more for surround sound or movie tracks ) and to hide the subwoofer elsewhere ( e.g. behind furniture or under a table ) , or to augment an existing speaker to save it from having to handle woofer @-@ destroying low frequencies at high levels . This effect is possible only if the subwoofer is restricted to quite low frequencies , usually taken to , say , 100 Hz and below — still less localization is possible if restricted to even lower maximum frequencies . Higher upper limits for the subwoofer ( e.g. , 125 Hz ) are much more easily localized , making a single subwoofer impractical .
Some users add a subwoofer because high levels of low bass are desired , even beyond what is in the original recording , as in the case of house music enthusiasts . Thus , subwoofers may be part of a package that includes satellite speakers , may be purchased separately , or may be built into the same cabinet as a conventional speaker system . For instance , some floor standing tower speakers include a subwoofer driver in the lower portion of the same cabinet . Physical separation of subwoofer and " satellite " speakers not only allows placement in an inconspicuous location , but since sub @-@ bass frequencies are particularly sensitive to room location ( due to room resonances and reverberation ' modes ' ) , the best position for the subwoofer is not likely to be where the " satellite " speakers are located .
For greatest efficiency and best coupling to the room 's air volume , subwoofers can be placed in a corner of the room , far from large room openings , and closer to the listener . This is possible since low bass frequencies have a long wavelength ; hence there is little difference between the information reaching a listener 's left and right ears , and so they cannot be readily localized . All low frequency information is sent to the subwoofer . However , unless the sound tracks have been carefully mixed for a single subwoofer channel , it 's possible to have some cancellation of low frequencies if bass information in one channel is out of phase with another .
The physically separate subwoofer / satellite arrangement has been popularized by multimedia speaker systems such as Bose Acoustimass Home Entertainment Systems , Polk Audio RM2008 Series and Klipsch Audio Technologies ProMedia , among many others . Low @-@ cost " home theater in a box " systems advertise their integration and simplicity .
Particularly among low cost " Home Theater in a Box " systems and with " boom boxes " , however , inclusion of a subwoofer may be little more than a marketing device . It is unlikely that a small woofer in an inexpensively @-@ built compact plastic cabinet will have better bass performance than well @-@ designed conventional ( and typically larger ) speakers in a plywood or MDF cabinet . Mere use of the term " subwoofer " is no guarantee of good or extended bass performance . Many multimedia " subwoofers " might better be termed " bass drivers " as they are too small to produce deep bass .
Further , poorly designed systems often leave everything below about 120 Hz ( or even higher ) to the subwoofer , meaning that the subwoofer handles frequencies which the ear can use for sound source localization , thus introducing an undesirable subwoofer " localization effect " . This is usually due to poor crossover designs or choices ( too high crossover point or insufficient crossover slope ) used in many computer and home theater systems ; localization also comes from port noise and from typically large amounts of harmonic distortion in the subwoofer design . Home subwoofers sold individually usually include crossover circuitry to assist integration into an existing system .
= = = Car audio = = =
Automobiles are not well suited for the " hidden " subwoofer approach due to space limitations in the passenger compartments . It is not possible , in most circumstances , to fit such large drivers and enclosures into doors or dashboards , so subwoofers are installed in the trunk or back seat space . Some car audio enthusiasts compete to produce very high sound pressure levels in the confines of their vehicle 's cabin ; sometimes dangerously high . The " SPL wars " have drawn much attention to subwoofers in general , but subjective competitions in sound quality ( " SQ " ) have not gained equivalent popularity . Top SPL cars are not able to play normal music , or perhaps even to drive normally as they are designed solely for competition . Many non @-@ competition subwoofers are also capable of generating high levels in cars due to the small volume of a typical car interior . High sound levels can cause hearing loss and tinnitus if one is exposed to them for an extended period of time .
In the 2000s , several car audio manufacturers have produced subwoofers using non @-@ circular shapes from manufacturers including Boston Acoustic , Kicker , Sony , Bazooka , and X @-@ Tant . These shapes typically carry some sort of distortion penalties . In situations of limited mounting space they provide a greater cone area and assuming all other variables are constant , greater maximum output . An important factor in the " square sub vs round sub " argument is the effects of the enclosure used . In a sealed enclosure , the maximum displacement is determined by
<formula>
where
Vd stands for volume of displacement ( in m3 )
xmax to the amount of linear excursion the speaker is mechanically capable of ( in m )
Sd to the cone area of the sub woofer ( in m2 ) .
These are some of the Thiele / Small parameters which can either be measured or found with the driver specifications .
= = = Cinema sound = = =
After the introduction of Sensurround , movie theater owners began installing permanent subwoofer systems . Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track was a six channel film sound format introduced in 1976 that used two subwoofer channels for stereo reproduction of low frequencies . In 1981 , Altec introduced a dedicated cinema subwoofer model tuned to around 20 Hz : the 8182 . Starting in 1983 , THX certification of the cinema sound experience quantified the parameters of good audio for watching films , including requirements for subwoofer performance levels and enough isolation from outside sounds so that noise did not interfere with the listening experience . This helped provide guidelines for multiplex cinema owners who wanted to isolate each individual cinema from its neighbors , even as louder subwoofers were making isolation more difficult . Specific cinema subwoofer models appeared from JBL , Electro @-@ Voice , Eastern Acoustic Works , Kintek , Meyer Sound Laboratories and BGW Systems in the early 1990s . In 1992 , Dolby Digital 's six @-@ channel film sound format incorporated a single LFE channel , the " point one " in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound .
Tom Horral , a Boston @-@ based acoustician , blames complaints about modern movies being too loud on subwoofers . He says that before subwoofers made it possible to have loud , relatively undistorted bass , movie sound levels were limited by the distortion in less capable systems at low frequency and high levels .
= = = Sound reinforcement = = =
Professional audio subwoofers used in rock concerts in stadiums , DJ performances at EDM festivals and similar events must be capable of very high output levels with low distortion . This is reflected in the design attention given in recent years to the subwoofer applications for sound reinforcement , public address systems , dance club systems and concert systems . Consumer applications ( as in home use ) are considerably less demanding due to much smaller listening space and lower playback levels . Subwoofers are now almost universal in professional sound applications such as live concert sound , churches , nightclubs , and theme parks . Movie theatres certified to the THX standard for playback always include high capability subwoofers . Some professional applications require subwoofers designed for very high sound levels , using multiple 12 " , 15 " , 18 " or 21 " drivers ( 30 cm , 40 cm , 45 cm , 53 cm respectively ) . Drivers as small as 10 " ( 25 cm ) are occasionally used , generally in horn loaded enclosures .
The number of subwoofer enclosures used in a concert depends on a number of factors , including the size of the venue , whether it is indoors or outdoors , the amount of low @-@ frequency content in the band 's sound , the desired volume of the concert , and the design and construction of the enclosures ( e.g. , direct @-@ radiating versus horn @-@ loaded . A small bar may use a single direct @-@ radiating 15 @-@ inch ( 40 cm ) sub cabinet . A large dance club may have a row of four or five twin 18 @-@ inch ( 45 cm ) subwoofer cabinets , or more ) . In the largest stadium venues , there may be a very large number of subwoofer enclosures . For example , the 2009 – 2010 U2 360 ° Tour uses 24 Clair Brothers BT @-@ 218 subwoofers ( a double 18 " ( 45 cm ) box ) around the perimeter of the central circular stage , and 72 proprietary Clair Brothers cardioid S4 subwoofers placed underneath the ring @-@ shaped " B " stage which encircles the central main stage .
The main speakers may be ' flown ' from the ceiling of a venue on chain hoists , and ' flying points ' ( i.e. , attachment points ) are built into many professional loudspeaker enclosures . Subwoofers can be flown or stacked on the ground near the stage . There can be more than 50 double @-@ 18 @-@ inch ( 45 cm ) cabinets in a typical concert system . Just as consumer subwoofer enclosures can be made of Medium @-@ density fibreboard ( MDF ) , Oriented strand board ( OSB ) , plywood , plastic or other dense material , professional subwoofer enclosures can be built from the same materials . MDF is commonly used to construct subwoofers for permanent installations as its density is relatively high and weatherproofing is not a concern . Other permanent installation subwoofers have used very thick plywood : the Altec 8182 ( 1981 ) used 7 @-@ ply 28 mm birch @-@ faced oak plywood . Touring subwoofers are typically built from 18 – 20 mm thick void @-@ free Baltic birch ( Betula pendula or Betula pubescens ) plywood from Finland , Estonia or Russia ; such plywood affords greater strength for frequently transported enclosures . Not naturally weatherproof , Baltic birch is coated with carpet , thick paint or spray @-@ on truck bedliner to give the subwoofer enclosures greater durability .
Touring subwoofer cabinets are typically designed with features that facilitate moving the enclosure ( e.g. , wheels , a " towel bar " handle and recessed handles ) , a protective grill for the speaker ( in direct radiating @-@ style cabinets ) , metal or plastic protection for the cabinets to protect the finish as the cabinets are being slid one on top of another , and hardware to facilitate stacking the cabinets ( e.g. , interlocking corners ) and for " flying " the cabinets from stage rigging .
In the 2000s , many small @-@ to mid @-@ size subwoofers designed for bands ' live sound use and DJ applications are " powered subs " ; that is , they have an integrated power amplifier . These models typically have a built @-@ in crossover . Some models have a metal @-@ reinforced hole in which a speaker stand can be mounted for full @-@ range cabinets .
= = = = Full @-@ range system = = = =
In professional concert sound system design , subwoofers can be incorporated seamlessly with the main speakers into a stereo or mono full @-@ range system by using an active crossover . Such a system receives its signal from the main mono or stereo mixing console mix bus and amplifies all frequencies together in the desired balance . If the main sound system is stereo , the subwoofers can also be in stereo . Otherwise , a mono subwoofer channel can be derived within the crossover from a stereo mix , depending on the crossover make and model .
= = = = Aux @-@ fed subwoofers = = = =
Instead of being incorporated into a full @-@ range system , concert subwoofers can be supplied with their own signal from a separate mix bus on the mixing console ; often one of the auxiliary sends ( " aux " or " auxes " ) is used . This configuration is called " aux @-@ fed subwoofers " , and has been observed to significantly reduce low frequency " muddiness " that can build up in a concert sound system which has on stage a number of microphones each picking up low frequencies and each having different phase relationships of those low frequencies . The aux @-@ fed subs method greatly reduces the number of sources feeding the subwoofers to include only those instruments that have desired low frequency information ; sources such as kick drum , bass guitar , samplers and keys . This simplifies the signal sent to the subwoofers and makes for greater clarity and low punch . Aux @-@ fed subs can even be stereo , if desired , using two auxiliary mix buses .
= = = = Directional bass = = = =
| thumb | Cardioid dispersion pattern of two end @-@ fire subwoofers placed one in front of the other . The enclosure nearest the listener is delayed by a few milliseconds . In order to keep low frequency energy focused on the audience area and not on the stage , and to keep low frequencies from bothering people outside of the event space , a variety of techniques have been developed in concert sound to turn the naturally omnidirectional radiation of subwoofers into a more directional pattern . These techniques include setting up subwoofers in a vertical array ; using combinations of delay and polarity inversion ; and setting up a delay @-@ shaded system .
= = = = = Vertical array = = = = =
Stacking or rigging the subwoofers in a vertical array focuses the low frequencies forward to a greater or lesser extent depending on the physical length of the array . Longer arrays have a more directional effect at lower frequencies . The directionality is more pronounced in the vertical dimension , yielding a radiation pattern that is wide but not tall . This helps reduce the amount of low frequency sound bouncing off the ceiling indoors and assists in mitigating external noise complaints outdoors .
= = = = = Rear delay array = = = = =
Another cardioid subwoofer array pattern can be used horizontally , one which takes few channels of processing and no change in required physical space . This method is often called " cardioid subwoofer array " or " CSA " even though the pattern of all directional subwoofer methods is cardioid . The CSA method reverses the enclosure orientation and inverts the polarity of one out of every three subwoofers across the front of the stage , and delays those enclosures for maximum cancellation of the target frequency on stage . Polarity inversion can be implemented electronically , by reversing the wiring polarity , or by physically positioning the enclosure to face rearward . This method reduces forward output relative to a tight @-@ packed , flat @-@ fronted array of subwoofers , but can solve problems of unwanted low frequency energy coming into microphones on stage . Compared to the end @-@ fire array , this method has less on @-@ axis energy but more even pattern control throughout the audience , and more predictable cancellation rearward . The effect spans a range of slightly more than one octave .
A second method of rear delay array combines end @-@ fire topology with polarity reversal , using two subwoofers positioned front to back , the drivers spaced one @-@ quarter wavelength apart , the rear enclosure inverted in polarity and delayed by a few milliseconds for maximum cancellation on stage of the target frequency . This method has the least output power directed toward the audience , compared to other directional methods .
= = = = = End @-@ fire array = = = = =
The end @-@ fire subwoofer method , also called " forward steered arrays " , places subwoofer drivers co @-@ axially in one or more rows , using destructive interference to reduce emissions to the sides and rear . This can be done with separate subwoofer enclosures positioned front to back with a spacing between them of one @-@ quarter wavelength of the target frequency , the frequency that is least wanted on stage or most desired in the audience . Each row is delayed beyond the first row by an amount related to the speed of sound in air ; typically a few milliseconds . The arrival time of sound energy from all the subwoofers is near @-@ simultaneous from the audience 's perspective , but is canceled out to a large degree behind the subwoofers because of offset sound wave arrival times . Directionality of the target frequency can achieve as much as 25 dB rear attenuation , and the forward sound is coherently summed in line with the subwoofers . The positional technique of end @-@ fire subwoofers came into widespread use in European live concert sound in 2006 .
The end @-@ fire array trades a few decibels of output power for directionality , so it requires more enclosures for the same output power as a tight @-@ packed , flat @-@ fronted array of enclosures . Sixteen enclosures in four rows were used in 2007 at one of the stages of the Ultra Music Festival , to reduce low frequency interference to neighboring stages . Because of the physical size of the end @-@ fire array , few concert venues are able to implement it . The output pattern suffers from comb @-@ filtering off @-@ axis , but can be further shaped by adjusting the frequency response of each row of subwoofers .
= = = = = Delay @-@ shaded array = = = = =
A long line of subwoofers placed horizontally along the front edge of the stage can be delayed such that the center subs fire several milliseconds prior to the ones flanking them , which fire several milliseconds prior to their neighbors , continuing in this fashion until the last subwoofers are reached at the outside ends of the subwoofer row ( beamforming ) . This method helps to counteract the extreme narrowing of horizontal dispersion pattern seen with a horizontal subwoofer array . Such delay shading can be used to virtually reshape a loudspeaker array .
= = = = = Directional enclosure = = = = =
Some subwoofer enclosure designs rely on drivers facing to the sides or to the rear in order to achieve a degree of directionality . End @-@ fire drivers can be positioned within a single enclosure that houses more than one driver .
= = = Bass instrument amplification = = =
In rare cases , sound reinforcement subwoofer enclosures are also used for bass instrument amplification by electric bass players and synth bass players . For most bands and most small- to mid @-@ size venues ( e.g. , nightclubs and bars ) , standard bass guitar speaker enclosures or keyboard amplifiers will provide sufficient sound pressure levels for onstage monitoring . Since a regular electric bass has a low " E " ( 41 Hz ) as its lowest note , most standard bass guitar cabinets are only designed with a range that goes down to about 40 Hz . However , in some cases , performers wish to have extended sub @-@ bass response that is not available from standard instrument speaker enclosures , so they use subwoofer cabinets . Just as some electric guitarists add huge stacks of guitar cabinets mainly for show , some bassists will add immense subwoofer cabinets with 18 " woofers mainly for show , and the extension sub cabinets will be operated at a lower volume than the main bass cabinets .
Bass guitar players who may use subwoofer cabinets include performers who play with extended range basses that include a low " B " string ( about 31 Hz ) ; bassists who play in styles where a very powerful sub @-@ bass response is an important part of the sound ( e.g. , funk , Latin , gospel , R & B , etc . ) ; and / or bass players who perform in stadium @-@ size venues or large outdoor venues . Keyboard players who use subwoofers for on @-@ stage monitoring include electric organ players who use bass pedal keyboards ( which go down to a low " C " which is about 33 Hz ) and synth bass players who play rumbling sub @-@ bass parts that go as low as 18 Hz . Of all of the keyboard instruments that are amplified onstage , synthesizers can produce some of the lowest pitches , because unlike a traditional electric piano or electric organ , which have as their lowest notes a low " A " and a low " C " , respectively , a synth does not have a fixed lowest octave . A synth player can add lower octaves to a patch by pressing an " octave down " button , which can produce pitches that are at the limits of human hearing .
Several concert sound subwoofer manufacturers suggest that their subs can be used for bass instrument amplification . Meyer Sound suggests that its 650 @-@ R2 Concert Series Subwoofer , a 14 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 3 m2 ) enclosure with two 18 @-@ inch drivers ( 45 cm ) , can be used for bass instrument amplification . While performers who use concert sound subwoofers for onstage monitoring may like the powerful sub @-@ bass sound that they get onstage , sound engineers may find the use of large subwoofers ( e.g. , two 18 " drivers ( 45 cm ) ) for onstage instrument monitoring to be problematic , because it may interfere with the " Front of House " sub @-@ bass sound .
= = Bass shakers = =
Since subsonic bass is felt , sub @-@ bass can be augmented using tactile transducers . Unlike a typical subwoofer driver , which produces audible vibrations , tactile transducers produce low @-@ frequency vibrations that are designed to be felt by individuals who are touching the transducer or indirectly through a piece of furniture or a wooden floor . Tactile transducers have recently emerged as a device class , called variously " bass shakers " , " butt shakers " and " throne shakers " . They are attached to a seat , for instance a drummer 's stool ( " throne " ) or gamer 's chair , car seat or home theater seating , and the vibrations of the driver are transmitted to the body then to the ear in a manner similar to bone conduction . They connect to an amplifier like a normal subwoofer . They can be attached to a large flat surface ( for instance a floor or platform ) to create a large low frequency conduction area , although the transmission of low frequencies through the feet is not as efficient as the seat .
The advantage of tactile transducers used for low frequencies is that they allow a listening environment that is not filled with loud low frequency waves . This helps the concert drummer to monitor his or her kick drum performance without " polluting " the stage with powerful low frequency waves from a 15 " ( 40 cm ) subwoofer monitor . By not having a subwoofer monitor , a bass shaker also enables a drummer to lower the sound pressure levels that he is exposed to during a performance . For home cinema or videogame use , bass shakers help the user avoid disturbing others in nearby apartments or rooms , because even powerful sound effects such as explosion sounds in a war videogame or the simulated rumbling of an earthquake in an adventure film will not be heard by others . However , some critics argue that the felt vibrations are disconnected from the auditory experience , and they claim that that music is less satisfying with the " butt shaker " than sound effects . As well , critics have claimed that the bass shaker itself can rattle during loud sound effects , which can distract the listener .
= = World record claims = =
With varying measures upon which to base claims , several subwoofers have been said to be the world 's largest , loudest or lowest .
= = = Matterhorn = = =
The Matterhorn is a subwoofer model completed in March 2007 by Danley Sound Labs in Gainesville , Georgia after a U.S. military request for a loudspeaker that could project infrasonic waves over a distance . The Matterhorn was designed to reproduce a continuous sine wave from 15 to 20 Hz , and generate 94 dB at a distance of 250 meters ( 820 ft ) , and more than 140 dB for music playback measured at the horn mouth . It can generate a constant 15 Hz sine wave tone at 140 dB for 24 hours a day , seven days a week with extremely low harmonic distortion . The subwoofer has a flat frequency response from 15 to 80 Hz , and is down 3 dB at 12 Hz . It was built within an intermodal container 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long and 8 by 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m × 2 @.@ 4 m ) square . The container doors swing open to reveal a tapped horn driven by 40 long @-@ throw 15 @-@ inch ( 40 cm ) MTX speaker drivers each powered by its own 1000 @-@ watt amplifier . The manufacturer claims that 53 13 @-@ ply 18 mm 4 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m × 2 @.@ 4 m ) sheets of plywood were used in its construction , though one of the fabricators wrote that double @-@ thickness 26 @-@ ply sheets were used for convenience .
A diesel generator is housed within the enclosure to supply electricity when external power is unavailable . Of the constant tone output capability , designer Tom Danley wrote that the " target 94 dB at 250 meters is not the essentially fictional ' burst ' or ' peak SPL ' nonsense in pro sound , or like the ' death burp ' signal used in car sound contests . " At the annual National Systems Contractors Association ( NSCA ) convention in March 2007 , the Matterhorn was barred from making any loud demonstrations of its power because of concerns about damaging the building of the Orange County Convention Center . Instead , using only a single 20 amp electrical circuit for safety , visitors were allowed to step inside the horn of the subwoofer for an " acoustic massage " as the fractionally powered Matterhorn reproduced low level 10 – 15 Hz waves .
= = = Royal Device custom installation = = =
Another subwoofer claimed to be the world 's biggest is a custom installation in Italy made by Royal Device primarily of bricks , concrete and sound @-@ deadening material consisting of two subwoofers embedded in the foundation of a listening room . The horn @-@ loaded subwoofers each have a floor mouth that is 2 @.@ 2 square meters ( 24 sq ft ) , and a horn length that is 9 @.@ 5 meters ( 31 ft ) , in a cavity 1 meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) under the floor of the listening room . Each subwoofer is driven by eight 18 @-@ inch subwoofer drivers with 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) voice coils . The designers assert that the floor mouths of the horns are additionally loaded acoustically by a vertical wooden horn expansion and the room 's ceiling to create a 10 Hz " full power " wave at the listening position .
= = = Concept Design 60 @-@ inch = = =
A single 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) diameter subwoofer driver was designed by Richard Clark and David Navone with the help of Dr. Eugene Patronis of the Georgia Institute of Technology . The driver was intended to break sound pressure level records when mounted in a road vehicle , calculated to be able to achieve more than 180 dBSPL . It was built in 1997 , driven by DC motors connected to a rotary crankshaft somewhat like in a piston engine . The cone diameter was 54 inches ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) and was held in place with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) surround . With a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) peak @-@ to @-@ peak stroke , it created a one @-@ way air displacement of 6 @,@ 871 cubic inches ( 112 @,@ 600 cm3 ) . It was capable of generating 5 – 20 Hz sine waves at various DC motor speeds — not as a response to audio signal — it could not play music . The driver was mounted in a stepvan owned by Tim Maynor but was too powerful for the amount of applied reinforcement and damaged the vehicle . MTX 's Loyd Ivey helped underwrite the project and the driver was then called the MTX " Thunder 1000000 " ( one million ) .
Still unfinished , the vehicle was entered in an SPL competition in 1997 at which a complaint was lodged against the computer control of the DC motor . Instead of using the controller , two leads were touched together in the hope that the motor speed was set correctly . The drive shaft broke after one positive stroke which created an interior pressure wave of 162 dB . The Concept Design 60 @-@ inch was not shown in public after 1998 .
= = = MTX Jackhammer = = =
The heaviest production subwoofer intended for use in automobiles is the MTX Jackhammer by MTX Audio , which features a 22 @-@ inch ( 560 mm ) diameter cone . The Jackhammer has been known to take upwards of 6000 watts sent to a dual voice coil moving within a 900 @-@ ounce ( 26 kg ) strontium ferrite magnet . The Jackhammer weighs in at 369 pounds ( 167 kg ) and has an aluminum heat sink . The Jackhammer has been featured on the television show Pimp My Ride .
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= The Boat Race 2013 =
The 159th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on 31 March 2013 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Cambridge crew featured the first rower from the Czech Republic to compete in the event . Umpired by former Olympic medallist and former Oxford rower Matthew Pinsent , Oxford won by a margin of one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 17 minutes and 27 seconds .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis defeated Cambridge 's Goldie , and Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the disrupted 2012 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , and led overall with 81 victories to Oxford 's 76 , with one " dead heat " . The race was sponsored for the second consecutive year by BNY Mellon .
Following the disruption caused by a protestor in the previous year 's race , Royal Marines provided support to the security arrangements surrounding the race . Race director David Searle urged nobody to repeat the disruption of 2012 , saying " What I would say to anybody thinking of doing that , is that it 's unbelievably dangerous ... We had practised emergency stops and it worked " . The manner of any potential restart was modified to allow the race re @-@ commence as soon as practicable . The Metropolitan Police had made contact with the protestor , Trenton Oldfield , to assist him making a more peaceful protest should he wish to do so , but he declined the offer and did not attend the race in any capacity .
Oxford announced that they had named their boat Acer in honour of former cox Acer Nethercott who had died two months earlier from brain cancer . Nethercott , an Olympic silver medallist in Beijing , had coxed Oxford in the 2003 , 2004 and 2005 races .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 6 pounds ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than Cambridge . For the second consecutive year , Cambridge 's crew featured just one British rower . Cambridge was coached by Steve Trapmore for the third time , and declared " It 's the best crew I 've had in my time at Cambridge " . Oxford 's Sean Bowden who was coaching the university for an eighteenth time , was " very satisfied " with his crew . Milan Bruncvík was the first Czech rower in the history of the Boat Race . Three medallists from the 2012 Summer Olympics featured : Cambridge 's George Nash won a bronze for Great Britain in the coxless pair , Oxford 's Constantine Louloudis won bronze for Great Britain in the men 's eight and his crew @-@ mate Malcolm Howard won silver for Canada in the same event .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . The weather conditions were adverse , with a " brisk wind " and snow flurries prior to the race . The race commenced at 4 @.@ 31 pm , and despite a good start from Cambridge , Oxford quickly moved to hold a half @-@ length lead . With blades nearly overlapping , Umpire Pinsent issued warnings to both coxes to avoid a clash , and approaching Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford 's lead extended to nearly a length . Cambridge kept in touch despite a push from Oxford , but by Barnes Bridge , Oxford were two lengths clear , and according to James Cracknell , they were " the fastest eight in the world right now . " Oxford passed the finishing post one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths clear , in a time of 17 minutes 27 seconds .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis defeated Cambridge 's Goldie by one third of a length , the smallest margin of victory ever recorded in the reserves race . Oxford won the 68th Women 's Boat Race by one @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths .
= = Reaction = =
Olympic gold medallist Katherine Grainger presented Oxford with the trophy . Winning cox Zorilla said " It was fun , tough but that was what we expected . We had a plan and we stuck to it ruthlessly . " His Light Blue counterpart , Fieldman , remarked : " I asked a lot of the guys and they gave it me every time . Unfortunately it wasn 't quite enough . ”
The BBC apologised for broadcasting Zorilla 's repeated swearing . A microphone in the Oxford boat picked up the " bad language " during the latter half of the race which was subsequently broadcast live on both BBC One and the BBC World News channel . Further swearing from Zorilla was broadcast as he emerged from the Thames after the customary soaking of the victorious cox .
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= Effects of Hurricane Isabel in New Jersey =
The effects of Hurricane Isabel in New Jersey in 2003 were overall moderate , limited to fallen trees , two deaths , and $ 50 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 59 million 2008 USD ) . Hurricane Isabel formed from a tropical wave on September 6 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania the next day . Several days before Isabel made landfall , there existed uncertainty in where the hurricane would strike . At least one computer model predicted a landfall on New Jersey , and as a result services across the state thoroughly prepared for the hurricane .
Isabel passed 215 miles ( 350 km ) southwest of the state , though its large wind core produced tropical storm force winds across much of the state . The winds downed hundreds of trees and power lines , leaving hundreds of thousands without power . A falling tree killed one person . Hurricane Isabel produced rough waves and a moderate storm surge along the coastline . One person was killed from the rough waves , and at least 50 locations along the Jersey Shore reported beach erosion from the hurricane .
= = Preparations = =
44 hours before Hurricane Isabel made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina , the National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm watch for the coastline from Little Egg Inlet southward into the Mid @-@ Atlantic . A day later , the watch was extended northward to Sandy Hook . When Isabel was 26 hours from making landfall , the watches were changed to tropical storm warnings , and 10 hours before it struck land the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for the remainder of the New Jersey coastline . The National Hurricane Center also briefly issued a hurricane watch for the New Jersey coastline . While over the western Atlantic Ocean as a Category 5 hurricane , forecasters predicted Isabel would move northwestward and within five days be at a position 170 miles ( 275 km ) south of Cape May as a 115 @-@ mph ( 185 @-@ km / h ) major hurricane . By four days before the hurricane struck land , at least one computer model predicted Isabel would strike New Jersey .
News stations were stationed with crews along the Jersey shore several days in advance of Isabel to provide breaking news and live conditions . Many residents prepared their houses by boarding windows and purchasing emergency supplies . The Sussex County chapter of the American Red Cross advised local high schools to be on stand @-@ by as potential shelters in the event evacuation occurred . Emergency coordinators in several counties were on alert , though none issued evacuations . In preparation for anticipated power outages , the Jersey Central Power and Light company arranged to receive more electrical crews from its parent company , FirstEnergy . Other utility workers from various locations as far as Canada left for the state in the event of power outages .
Several flights in and out of the state were delayed or canceled , and the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry canceled travel across the Delaware Bay during the duration of Isabel . In Atlantic City , casino workers prepared for coastal flooding by placing sandbags at boardwalk entrances . New Jersey Transit workers secured its buses , railways , and light rail equipment . To ensure service would remain accessible during and after the hurricane , NJ Transit prepared backup generators , pumps , and chainsaws , with workers inspecting trains and the paths of the lines . FEMA mobilized and dispatched an Urban Search and Rescue Task Force of 28 people to the state for possible rescue duty . Days before the storm made landfall , the Salvation Army prepared food and aid for potentially affected citizens . In anticipation for the effects of Isabel , Governor Jim McGreevey declared a state of emergency , which allowed the Federal Emergency Management Agency to deal with the situation .
= = Impact = =
Isabel produced a storm surge along the New Jersey coastline of up to 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 m ) in Cape May . Higher amounts occurred along the Delaware River , peaking in the state at 10 @.@ 6 feet ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) in Burlington . At its closest approach , Isabel passed within about 215 miles ( 350 km ) of the state , and as a result the outer rainbands produced light rainfall . Wildwood along the southeast coast reported 1 @.@ 3 inches ( 33 mm ) of rain , while Lincoln Park in the northern portion of the state recorded 2 @.@ 07 inches ( 52 mm ) of precipitation . The large wind field of the hurricane produced moderate winds across the state . A shoal in the Delaware Bay experienced sustained winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) with gusts to 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) . Cape May reported tropical storm force winds with gusts to 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) , while Newark in the northern portion of the state experienced gusts to 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) .
Hurricane Isabel produced slightly above normal tides and rough surf along the Jersey shore , killing one surfer off of Wildwood Crest . The combination of gusty winds and the heavy surf produced moderate beach erosion along much of the coastline , primarily to beaches facing southeastward . In the Delaware Bay and River area , no significant erosion was reported , though coastal flooding from the hurricane washed out a road and destroyed the deck of a house in Baypoint . In Cape May County waves eroded the beaches by up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in Ocean City and Avalon , with several cities experiencing a loss of dunes and geotubes in Whale Beach being exposed . Waves from Isabel in Atlantic County resulted in light damage , minor coastal flooding , and slight beach erosion . The beaches of southern Ocean County experienced a loss of 3 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 2 m ) of sand , while locations further to the north experienced only minor erosion . Most coastal areas of Monmouth County reported eroded beaches by up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , with Union Beach losing about 5 @,@ 000 sq. feet ( 465 sq. m ) of sand .
Moderate wind gusts throughout the state downed hundreds of trees , tree limbs , and power lines . Over 382 @,@ 000 people were without power , one of the worst power outages on record for area utilities . Downed trees and power lines closed major streets and schools in Union County . One downed tree greatly damaged a house in Middletown , and in Hudson County several trees fell onto and damaged cars . A downed tree in Englewood injured a woman when she was struck , and a woman in Independence Township was killed when a fallen tree landed on the vehicle she was driving . Strong winds from Isabel blew out the windows in an office building in East Rutherford , causing injuries to two women when they were struck . Throughout the state , damage totaled to about $ 50 million ( 2003 USD , $ 59 million 2008 USD ) .
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= Decade of Aggression =
Decade of Aggression is a double live album by Slayer , released on October 22 , 1991 through Def American Records ( later renamed to American Recordings ) and produced by Rick Rubin . The album was recorded in three separate places on three separate dates . Its working title was Decade of Decadence until Mötley Crüe registered the name . Three of the album 's tracks were included in the box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse . The album 's reception was generally positive , with Entertainment Weekly and Robert Christgau both giving the album a positive rating . The album reached number 55 in the Billboard 200 and also charted on two other charts .
= = Conception = =
While touring on the Clash of the Titans tour to promote the 1990 studio album Seasons in the Abyss , separate sections of the Decade of Aggression album were recorded on October 14 , 1990 , March 8 , 1991 , and July 13 , 1991 , however , AllMusic said that Rick Rubin 's production " seems to be in terms of shaping the live sound to make it sound like this is all one gig . " Although it had a working title of Decade of Decadence , it would be released as Decade of Aggression after Mötley Crüe copyrighted the name on their 1991 greatest hits album . It was released through Def American Recordings on October 22 , 1991 .
The release was intended to give them time to decide what their next album 's style would be . Text in the book The Great Rock Discography said that it was released after the band had gained popularity , saying " Slayer had finally made it into the metal big league and summing up the first blood @-@ soaked chapter of their career , the group duly released the live double set . " It was also released to commemorate their 10th anniversary .
The album does not feature an overdub of guitars . In The Rough Guide To Rock , it was said to be " intense " and " put studio favorites through the live shredder in a brutal and definitive manner . " Most of the tracks were a selection from South of Heaven , Reign in Blood , and Seasons in the Abyss . The album 's total duration is one hour , twenty @-@ five minutes , and twenty @-@ eight seconds ( 85 : 28 ) . Three of the album 's tracks were included in the box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse .
The album booklet includes a photo gallery with pictures dating back to 1982 . The majority of the photos come from Kevin Estrada , who has said :
= = Reception = =
Thom Jurek , a staff writer for AllMusic , gave the album a rating of three out of five stars . Jurek gave notice to the album 's sound quality , telling readers that it does not " capture the sheer overblown intensity of the unit in a concert setting , " but that it comes closer than one may imagine . Jurek also gave note to how Rick Rubin made the two @-@ discs sound like it were recorded at one gig , writing " Producer Rick Rubin stays out of the way ; his production seems to be in terms of shaping the live sound to make it sound like this is all one gig . " Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne said that it was an " accurate aural snapshots of what it 's like to be part of a crowd craning to see the action on a stage that seems two miles away . " Browne also said that " they 're perfect examples of the sad current state of the once @-@ proud live rock album . " Robert Christgau gave the album a star ( " Honorable Mention is a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like . " ) , saying , " praise the Lord--I can hardly understand a word they 're singing ( Hell Awaits ) . " Joel McIver , author of The Bloody Reign of Slayer said that it was regarded as one of the best live albums released by a heavy metal band .
The album charted on three different charts . On November 9 , 1991 , it peaked at number 55 on the Billboard 200 . On January 13 , 1992 , the album entered the Media Control Charts , where it peaked at number 77 . It maintained a number on the chart until February 2 , 1992 , giving it a total of three weeks on the chart . On December 2 , 1991 it entered the UK Album Charts , peaking at number 29 . It stayed on the chart for two weeks .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Standard edition = = =
= = = = Disc one = = = =
All songs recorded at the Lakeland Coliseum in Lakeland , Florida on July 13 , 1991 .
= = = = Disc two = = = =
Tracks 3 @-@ 6 and 8 @-@ 10 recorded at the Orange Pavilion , San Bernardino , California , March 8 , 1991 .
Tracks 1 , 2 and 7 recorded at the Wembley Arena , London , England , October 14 , 1990 .
= = = Limited edition = = =
Disc one track listing remains the same .
Disc two track listing 1 @-@ 6 remains the same .
= = Credits = =
The album 's credits and personnel can be obtained from AllMusic .
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= H.M.S. Pinafore =
H.M.S. Pinafore ; or , The Lass That Loved a Sailor is a comic opera in two acts , with music by Arthur Sullivan and a libretto by W. S. Gilbert . It opened at the Opera Comique in London , on 25 May 1878 and ran for 571 performances , which was the second @-@ longest run of any musical theatre piece up to that time . H.M.S. Pinafore was Gilbert and Sullivan 's fourth operatic collaboration and their first international sensation .
The story takes place aboard the ship HMS Pinafore . The captain 's daughter , Josephine , is in love with a lower @-@ class sailor , Ralph Rackstraw , although her father intends her to marry Sir Joseph Porter , the First Lord of the Admiralty . She abides by her father 's wishes at first , but Sir Joseph 's advocacy of the equality of humankind encourages Ralph and Josephine to overturn conventional social order . They declare their love for each other and eventually plan to elope . The captain discovers this plan , but , as in many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise disclosure changes things dramatically near the end of the story .
Drawing on several of his earlier " Bab Ballad " poems , Gilbert imbued this plot with mirth and silliness . The opera 's humour focuses on love between members of different social classes and lampoons the British class system in general . Pinafore also pokes good @-@ natured fun at patriotism , party politics , the Royal Navy , and the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority . The title of the piece comically applies the name of a garment for girls and women , a pinafore , to the fearsome symbol of a naval warship .
Pinafore 's extraordinary popularity in Britain , America and elsewhere was followed by the similar success of a series of Gilbert and Sullivan works , including The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado . Their works , later known as the Savoy operas , dominated the musical stage on both sides of the Atlantic for more than a decade and continue to be performed today . The structure and style of these operas , particularly Pinafore , were much copied and contributed significantly to the development of modern musical theatre .
= = Background = =
In 1875 , Richard D 'Oyly Carte , who was then managing the Royalty Theatre for Selina Dolaro , brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to write their second show , a one @-@ act opera entitled Trial by Jury . This proved a success , and in 1876 D 'Oyly Carte assembled a group of financial backers to establish the Comedy Opera Company , which was devoted to the production and promotion of family @-@ friendly English comic opera . With this theatre company , Carte finally had the financial resources , after many failed attempts , to produce a new full @-@ length Gilbert and Sullivan opera . This next opera was The Sorcerer , which opened in November 1877 . It too was successful , running for 178 performances . Sheet music from the show sold well , and street musicians played the melodies .
Instead of writing a piece for production by a theatre proprietor , as was usual in Victorian theatres , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte produced the show with their own financial support . They were therefore able to choose their own cast of performers , rather than being obliged to use the actors already engaged at the theatre . They chose talented actors , most of whom were not well @-@ known stars and did not command high fees , and to whom they could teach a more naturalistic style of performance than was commonly used at the time . They then tailored their work to the particular abilities of these performers . The skill with which Gilbert and Sullivan used their performers had an effect on the audience ; as critic Herman Klein wrote : " we secretly marvelled at the naturalness and ease with which [ the Gilbertian quips and absurdities ] were said and done . For until then no living soul had seen upon the stage such weird , eccentric , yet intensely human beings . ... [ They ] conjured into existence a hitherto unknown comic world of sheer delight . "
The success of The Sorcerer paved the way for another collaboration by Gilbert and Sullivan . Carte agreed on terms for a new opera with the Comedy Opera Company , and Gilbert began work on H.M.S. Pinafore before the end of 1877 . Gilbert 's father had been a naval surgeon , and the nautical theme of the opera appealed to him . He drew on several of his earlier " Bab Ballad " poems ( many of which also have nautical themes ) , including " Captain Reece " ( 1868 ) and " General John " ( 1867 ) . Some of the characters also have prototypes in the ballads : Dick Deadeye is based on a character in " Woman 's Gratitude " ( 1869 ) ; an early version of Ralph Rackstraw can be seen in " Joe Go @-@ Lightly " ( 1867 ) , with its sailor madly in love with the daughter of someone who far outranks him ; and Little Buttercup is taken almost wholesale from " The Bumboat Woman 's Story " ( 1870 ) . On 27 December 1877 , while Sullivan was on holiday on the French Riviera , Gilbert sent him a plot sketch accompanied by the following note :
I have very little doubt whatever but that you will be pleased with it . ... there is a good deal of fun in it which I haven 't set down on paper . Among other things a song ( a kind of ' Judge 's Song ' ) for the First Lord – tracing his career as office @-@ boy ... clerk , traveller , junior partner and First Lord of Britain 's Navy . ... Of course there will be no personality in this – the fact that the First Lord in the Opera is a Radical of the most pronounced type will do away with any suspicion that W. H. Smith is intended .
Despite Gilbert 's disclaimer , audiences , critics and even the Prime Minister identified Sir Joseph Porter with W. H. Smith ( a politician who had recently been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty despite having neither military nor nautical experience ) . Sullivan was delighted with the sketch , and Gilbert read a first draft of the plot to Carte in mid @-@ January .
Following the example of his mentor , T. W. Robertson , Gilbert strove to ensure that the costumes and sets were as realistic as possible . When preparing the sets for H.M.S. Pinafore , Gilbert and Sullivan visited Portsmouth in April 1878 to inspect ships . Gilbert made sketches of H.M.S. Victory and H.M.S. St Vincent and created a model set for the carpenters to work from . This was far from standard procedure in Victorian drama , in which naturalism was still a relatively new concept , and in which most authors had very little influence on how their plays and libretti were staged . This attention to detail was typical of Gilbert 's stage management and would be repeated in all of his Savoy Operas . Gilbert 's focus on visual accuracy provided a " right @-@ side @-@ up for topsy @-@ turvydom " , that is , a realistic point of reference that serves to heighten the whimsicality and absurdity of the situations . Sullivan was " in the full swing " of work on the piece by the middle of April 1878 . The bright and cheerful music of Pinafore was composed during a time when Sullivan suffered from excruciating pain from a kidney stone . The cast began music rehearsals on 24 April , and at the beginning of May 1878 , the two collaborators worked closely together at Sullivan 's flat to finalise the piece .
In Pinafore , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte used several of the principal cast members that they had assembled for The Sorcerer . As Gilbert had suggested to Sullivan in December 1877 , " Mrs. Cripps [ Little Buttercup ] will be a capital part for Everard ... Barrington will be a capital captain , and Grossmith a first @-@ rate First Lord . " However , Mrs Howard Paul , who had played Lady Sangazure in The Sorcerer , was declining vocally . She was under contract to play the role of Cousin Hebe in Pinafore . Gilbert made an effort to write an amusing part for her despite Sullivan 's reluctance to use her , but by mid @-@ May 1878 , both Gilbert and Sullivan wanted her out of the cast ; unhappy with the role , she left . With only a week to go before opening night , Carte hired concert singer Jessie Bond to play Cousin Hebe . Since Bond had little experience as an actress , Gilbert and Sullivan cut the dialogue out of the role , except for a few lines in the last scene , which they turned into recitative . Other new cast members were Emma Howson and George Power in the romantic roles , who were improvements on the romantic soprano and tenor in The Sorcerer .
Gilbert acted as stage director for his own plays and operas . He sought realism in acting , just as he strove for realistic visual elements . He deprecated self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience and insisted on a style of portrayal in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity but were coherent internal wholes . Sullivan conducted the music rehearsals . As was to be his usual practice in his later operas , Sullivan left the overture for the last moment , sketching it out and entrusting it to the company 's music director , in this case Alfred Cellier , to complete . Pinafore opened on 25 May 1878 at the Opera Comique .
= = Roles = =
The Rt. Hon. Sir Joseph Porter , KCB , First Lord of the Admiralty ( comic baritone )
Captain Corcoran , Commander of H.M.S. Pinafore ( lyric baritone )
Ralph Rackstraw , Able Seaman ( tenor )
Dick Deadeye , Able Seaman ( bass @-@ baritone )
Bill Bobstay , Boatswain 's Mate ( baritone )
Bob Becket , Carpenter 's Mate ( bass )
Josephine , The Captain 's Daughter ( soprano )
Cousin Hebe , Sir Joseph 's First Cousin ( mezzo @-@ soprano )
Mrs. Cripps ( Little Buttercup ) , A Portsmouth Bumboat Woman ( contralto )
Chorus of First Lord 's Sisters , His Cousins , His Aunts , Sailors , Marines , etc .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Act I = = =
The British warship H.M.S. Pinafore is at anchor off Portsmouth . The sailors are on the quarterdeck , proudly " cleaning brasswork , splicing rope , etc . "
Little Buttercup , a Portsmouth " bumboat woman " ( dockside vendor ) – who is the " rosiest , roundest , and reddest beauty in all Spithead " – comes on board to sell her wares to the crew . She hints that she may be hiding a dark secret under her " gay and frivolous exterior " . Ralph Rackstraw , " the smartest lad in all the fleet " , enters , declaring his love for the Captain 's daughter , Josephine . His fellow sailors ( excepting Dick Deadeye , the grim and ugly realist of the crew ) offer their sympathies , but they can give Ralph little hope that his love will ever be returned .
The gentlemanly and popular Captain Corcoran greets his " gallant crew " and compliments them on their politeness , saying that he returns the favour by never ( " well , hardly ever " ) using bad language , such as " a big , big D " . After the sailors leave , the Captain confesses to Little Buttercup that Josephine is reluctant to consider a marriage proposal from Sir Joseph Porter , the First Lord of the Admiralty . Buttercup says that she knows how it feels to love in vain . As she leaves , the Captain remarks that she is " a plump and pleasing person " . Josephine enters and reveals to her father that she loves a humble sailor in his crew , but she assures him that she is a dutiful daughter and will never reveal her love to this sailor .
Sir Joseph comes on board , accompanied by his " admiring crowd of sisters , cousins and aunts " . He recounts how he rose from humble beginnings to be " ruler of the Queen 's Navee " through persistence , although he has no naval qualifications . He then delivers a humiliating lesson in etiquette , telling the Captain that he must always say " if you please " after giving an order ; for " A British sailor is any man 's equal " – excepting Sir Joseph 's . Sir Joseph has composed a song to illustrate that point , and he gives a copy of it to Ralph . Shortly afterwards , elated by Sir Joseph 's views on equality , Ralph decides that he will declare his love to Josephine . This delights his shipmates , except Dick Deadeye , who contends that " when people have to obey other people 's orders , equality 's out of the question " . Shocked by his words , the other sailors force Dick to listen to Sir Joseph 's song before they exit , leaving Ralph alone on deck . Josephine now enters , and Ralph confesses his love in terms surprisingly eloquent for a " common sailor " . Josephine is touched , but although she has found Sir Joseph 's attentions nauseating , she knows that it is her duty to marry Sir Joseph instead of Ralph . Disguising her true feelings , she " haughtily rejects " Ralph 's " proffered love " .
Ralph summons his shipmates ( Sir Joseph 's female relatives also arrive ) and tells them that he is bent on suicide . The crew expresses sympathy , except for Dick , who provides a stark counterpoint of dissent . Ralph puts a pistol to his head , but as he is about to pull the trigger , Josephine enters , admitting that she loves him after all . Ralph and Josephine plan to sneak ashore to elope that night . Dick Deadeye warns them to " forbear , nor carry out the scheme " , but the joyous ship 's company ignores him .
= = = Act II = = =
Later that night , under a full moon , Captain Corcoran reviews his concerns : his " kindly crew rebels " , his " daughter to a tar is partial " , his friends seem to desert him , and Sir Joseph has threatened a court @-@ martial . Little Buttercup offers sympathy . He tells her that , if it were not for the difference in their social standing , he would have returned her affection . She prophesies that things are not all as they seem and that " a change " is in store for him , but he does not understand her cryptic warning .
Sir Joseph enters and complains that Josephine has not yet agreed to marry him . The Captain speculates that she is probably dazzled by his " exalted rank " and that if Sir Joseph can persuade her that " love levels all ranks " , she will accept his proposal . They withdraw , and Josephine enters , still feeling guilty about her planned elopement with Ralph and fearful of giving up a life of luxury . When Sir Joseph makes the argument that " love levels all ranks " , a delighted Josephine says that she " will hesitate no longer " . The Captain and Sir Joseph rejoice , but Josephine is now more determined than ever to marry Ralph .
Dick Deadeye intercepts the Captain and tells him of the lovers ' plans to elope . The Captain confronts Ralph and Josephine as they try to leave the ship . The pair declare their love , justifying their actions because " He is an Englishman ! " The furious Captain is unmoved and blurts out , " Why , damme , it 's too bad ! " Sir Joseph and his relatives , who have overheard this oath , are shocked to hear swearing on board a ship , and Sir Joseph orders the Captain confined to his cabin .
When Sir Joseph asks what had provoked the usually polite officer 's outburst , Ralph replies that it was his declaration of love for Josephine . Furious in his turn at this revelation , and ignoring Josephine 's plea to spare Ralph , Sir Joseph has the sailor " loaded with chains " and taken to the ship 's dungeon . Little Buttercup now comes forward to reveal her long @-@ held secret . Many years ago , when she " practised baby @-@ farming " , she had cared for two babies , one " of low condition " , the other " a regular patrician " . She confesses that she " mixed those children up . ... The wellborn babe was Ralph ; your Captain was the other . "
Sir Joseph now realises that Ralph should have been the Captain , and the Captain should have been Ralph . He summons both , and they emerge wearing one another 's uniforms : Ralph as Captain , in command of the Pinafore , and Corcoran as a common sailor . Sir Joseph 's marriage with Josephine is now " out of the question " in his eyes : " love levels all ranks ... to a considerable extent , but it does not level them as much as that . " He hands her to Captain Rackstraw . The former Captain 's now @-@ humble social rank leaves him free to marry Buttercup . Sir Joseph settles for his cousin Hebe , and all ends in general rejoicing .
= = Musical numbers = =
Overture
Act I
1 . " We sail the ocean blue " ( Sailors )
2 . " Hail ! men @-@ o ' -war 's men " ... " I 'm called Little Buttercup " ( Buttercup )
2a . " But tell me who 's the youth " ( Buttercup and Boatswain )
3 . " The nightingale " ( Ralph and Chorus of Sailors )
3a . " A maiden fair to see " ( Ralph and Chorus of Sailors )
4 . " My gallant crew , good morning ... I am the Captain of the Pinafore " ( Captain and Chorus of Sailors )
4a . " Sir , you are sad " ( Buttercup and Captain )
5 . " Sorry her lot who loves too well " ( Josephine )
5a . Cut song : " Reflect , my child " ( Captain and Josephine )
6 . " Over the bright blue sea " ( Chorus of Female Relatives )
7 . " Sir Joseph 's barge is seen " ( Chorus of Sailors and Female Relatives )
8 . " Now give three cheers ... I am the Monarch of the sea " ( Captain , Sir Joseph , Cousin Hebe and Chorus )
9 . " When I was a lad " ( Sir Joseph and Chorus )
9a . " For I hold that on the sea " ( Sir Joseph , Cousin Hebe and Chorus )
10 . " A British tar " ( Ralph , Boatswain , Carpenter 's Mate and Chorus of Sailors )
11 . " Refrain , audacious tar " ( Josephine and Ralph )
12 . Finale , Act I ( Ensemble )
" Can I survive this overbearing ? "
" Oh joy , oh rapture unforeseen "
" Let 's give three cheers for the sailor 's bride "
" A British tar " ( reprise )
Act II
( Entr 'acte )
13 . " Fair moon , to thee I sing " ( Captain )
14 . " Things are seldom what they seem " ( Buttercup and Captain )
15 . " The hours creep on apace " ( Josephine )
16 . " Never mind the why and wherefore " ( Josephine , Captain and Sir Joseph )
17 . " Kind Captain , I 've important information " ( Captain and Dick Deadeye )
18 . " Carefully on tiptoe stealing " ( Soli and Chorus )
18a . " Pretty daughter of mine " ( Captain and Ensemble ) and " He is an Englishman " ( Boatswain and Ensemble )
19 . " Farewell , my own " ( Ralph , Josephine , Sir Joseph , Buttercup and Chorus )
20 . " A many years ago " ( Buttercup and Chorus )
20a . " Here , take her , sir " ( Sir Joseph , Josephine , Ralph , Cousin Hebe and Chorus ) 1
21 . Finale : " Oh joy , oh rapture unforeseen " ( Ensemble ) 2
1See discussion of versions , below .
2Includes reprises of several songs , concluding with " For he is an Englishman " .
= = Productions = =
Pinafore opened on 25 May 1878 at the Opera Comique , before an enthusiastic audience , with Sullivan conducting . Soon , however , the piece suffered from weak ticket sales , generally ascribed to a heat wave that made the Opera Comique particularly uncomfortable . Historian Michael Ainger questions this explanation , at least in part , stating that the heat waves in the summer of 1878 were short and transient . In any case , by mid @-@ August , Sullivan wrote to his mother that cooler weather had arrived , which was good for the show . In the meantime , the four partners of the Comedy Opera Company lost confidence in the opera 's viability and posted closing notices . Carte publicised the piece by presenting a matinee concert performance on 6 July 1878 at the enormous Crystal Palace .
In late August 1878 , Sullivan used some of the Pinafore music , arranged by his assistant Hamilton Clarke , during several successful promenade concerts at Covent Garden that generated interest and stimulated ticket sales . By September , Pinafore was playing to full houses at the Opera Comique . The piano score sold 10 @,@ 000 copies , and Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces .
Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan now had the financial resources to produce shows themselves , without outside backers . Carte persuaded the author and composer that a business partnership among the three would be to their advantage , and they hatched a plan to separate themselves from the directors of the Comedy Opera Company . The contract between Gilbert and Sullivan and the Comedy Opera Company gave the latter the right to present Pinafore for the duration of the initial run . The Opera Comique was obliged to close for drain and sewer repairs , and was renovated and redecorated by E. W. Bradwell , from Christmas 1878 to the end of January 1879 . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte believed that this break ended the initial run , and , therefore , ended the company 's rights . Carte put the matter beyond doubt by taking a six @-@ month personal lease of the theatre beginning on 1 February 1879 , the date of its re @-@ opening , when Pinafore resumed . At the end of the six months , Carte planned to give notice to the Comedy Opera Company that its rights in the show and the theatre had ended .
Meanwhile , numerous versions of Pinafore , unauthorised by its creators , began playing in America with great success , beginning with a production in Boston that opened on 25 November 1878 . Pinafore became a source of popular quotations on both sides of the Atlantic , such as the exchange :
" What , never ? "
" No , never ! "
" What , never ? "
" Well , hardly ever ! "
In February 1879 , Pinafore resumed operations at the Opera Comique . The opera also resumed touring in April , with two companies crisscrossing the British provinces by June , one starring Richard Mansfield as Sir Joseph , the other W. S. Penley in the role . Hoping to join in on the profits to be made in America from Pinafore , Carte left in June for New York to make arrangements for an " authentic " production there to be rehearsed personally by the author and composer . He arranged to rent a theatre and auditioned chorus members for the American production of Pinafore and a new Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be premiered in New York , and for tours .
Sullivan , as had been arranged with Carte and Gilbert , gave notice to the partners of the Comedy Opera Company in early July 1879 that he , Gilbert and Carte would not be renewing the contract to produce Pinafore with them and that he would be withdrawing his music from the Comedy Opera Company on 31 July . In return , the Comedy Opera Company gave notice that they intended to play Pinafore at another theatre and brought a legal action against Carte and company . They offered the London and touring casts of Pinafore more money to play in their production , and although some choristers accepted their offer , only one principal player , Mr Dymott , accepted . They engaged the Imperial Theatre but had no scenery . On 31 July , they sent a group of thugs to seize the scenery and props during Act II of the evening performance at the Opera Comique . Gilbert was away , and Sullivan was recovering from an operation for kidney stones . Stagehands and cast members managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery , although the stage manager , Richard Barker , and others , were injured . The cast went on with the show until someone shouted " Fire ! " George Grossmith , playing Sir Joseph , went before the curtain to calm the panicked audience . The police arrived to restore order , and the show continued . Gilbert sued to stop the Comedy Opera Company from staging their rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore . The court permitted the production to go on at the Imperial , beginning on 1 August 1879 , and it transferred to the Olympic Theatre in September . Pauline Rita was one of a series of Josephines . The production received good notices and initially sold well but was withdrawn in October after 91 performances . The matter was eventually settled in court , where a judge ruled in Carte 's favour about two years later .
After his return to London , Carte formed a new partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan to divide profits equally after the expenses of each of their shows . Meanwhile , Pinafore continued to play strongly . On 20 February 1880 , Pinafore completed its initial run of 571 performances . Only one other work of musical theatre in the world had ever run longer , Robert Planquette 's operetta Les cloches de Corneville .
= = = Taking Pinafore to the United States = = =
Approximately 150 unauthorised productions of Pinafore sprang up in the United States in 1878 and 1879 , and none of these paid royalties to the authors . Gilbert and Sullivan called them " pirated " , although the creators did not have any international copyright protection . The first of these productions , opening at the Boston Museum on 25 November 1878 , made such a splash that the piece was quickly produced in major cities and on tour by dozens of companies throughout the country . Boston alone saw at least a dozen productions , including a juvenile version described by Louisa May Alcott in her 1879 story , " Jimmy 's Cruise in the Pinafore " . In New York , different productions of the piece played simultaneously in eight theatres within five blocks of each other and in six theatres in Philadelphia .
These unauthorised performances took many forms , including burlesques , productions with men playing women 's roles and vice versa , spoofs , variety acts , Minstrel show versions , all @-@ black and Catholic productions , German , Yiddish and other foreign @-@ language versions , performances on boats or by church choirs , and productions starring casts of children . Few purported to play the opera as written . Sheet music arrangements were popular , there were Pinafore @-@ themed dolls and household items , and references to the opera were common in advertising , news and other media . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte brought lawsuits in the U.S. and tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , or at least to claim some royalties , without success . They made a special effort to claim American rights for their next work after Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance , by giving the official premiere in New York .
Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte met by 24 April 1879 to make plans for a production of Pinafore in America . Carte travelled to New York in the summer of 1879 and made arrangements with theatre manager John T. Ford to present , at the Fifth Avenue Theatre , the first authorised American production of Pinafore . In November , he returned to America with Gilbert , Sullivan and a company of strong singers , including J. H. Ryley as Sir Joseph , Blanche Roosevelt as Josephine , Alice Barnett as Little Buttercup , Furneaux Cook as Dick Deadeye , Hugh Talbot as Ralph Rackstraw and Jessie Bond as Cousin Hebe . To these , he added some American singers , including Signor Brocolini as Captain Corcoran . Alfred Cellier came to assist Sullivan , while his brother François remained in London to conduct Pinafore there .
Pinafore opened in New York on 1 December 1879 ( with Gilbert onstage in the chorus ) and ran for the rest of December . After a reasonably strong first week , audiences quickly fell off , since most New Yorkers had already seen local productions of Pinafore . This was unexpected and forced Gilbert and Sullivan to race to complete and rehearse their new opera , The Pirates of Penzance , which premièred with much success on 31 December . Shortly thereafter , Carte sent three touring companies around the United States East Coast and Midwest , playing Pinafore alongside Pirates .
= = = Children 's production = = =
The unauthorised juvenile productions of Pinafore were so popular that Carte mounted his own children 's version , played at matinees at the Opera Comique beginning on 16 December 1879 . François Cellier , who had taken over from his brother as Carte 's music director in London , adapted the score for children 's voices . Between its two Christmas seasons in London , the children 's production went on a provincial tour from 2 August 1880 to 11 December 1880 .
Carte 's children 's production earned enthusiastic reviews from critic Clement Scott and the other London critics , as well as the audiences , including children . However , Captain Corcoran 's curse " Damme ! " was uncensored , shocking such prominent audience members as Lewis Carroll , who later wrote : " a bevy of sweet innocent @-@ looking girls sing , with bright and happy looks , the chorus ' He said , Damn me ! He said , Damn me ! ' I cannot find words to convey to the reader the pain I felt in seeing those dear children taught to utter such words to amuse ears grown callous to their ghastly meaning ... How Mr. Gilbert could have stooped to write , or Sir Arthur Sullivan could have prostituted his noble art to set to music , such vile trash , it passes my skill to understand " .
= = = Subsequent productions = = =
After the opera became successful in London , Richard D 'Oyly Carte quickly sent touring companies into the British provinces . At least one D 'Oyly Carte company , and sometimes as many as three , played Pinafore under Carte 's aegis every year between 1878 and 1888 , including its first London revival in 1887 . The opera was then given a rest , returning to the touring repertory between 1894 and 1900 and again for most of the time between 1903 and 1940 . Gilbert directed all the revivals during his lifetime , and after his death , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company had exclusive performing rights to the Savoy operas until 1962 . It continued to hew closely to Gilbert 's directions throughout that period , as recorded in Gilbert 's prompt books , and it also required its licensees to follow them closely .
Until 1908 , revivals of the opera were given in contemporary dress , with ladies ' costumes executed by couture houses such as Redfern . After that , designers such as Percy Anderson , George Sheringham and Peter Goffin created Victorian costume designs . The 1887 set was designed by Hawes Craven . In the winter of 1940 – 41 , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company 's scenery and costumes for Pinafore and three other operas were destroyed by German bombs during World War II . The opera was revived in London in the summer of 1947 . It was then included in the D 'Oyly Carte repertory in every season from then on , until the company 's closure in 1982 . The D 'Oyly Carte company performed Pinafore before Queen Elizabeth II and the royal family at Windsor Castle on 16 June 1977 , during the queen 's Silver Jubilee year , the first royal command performance of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera since 1891 .
The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company did not allow any other professional company to present the Savoy operas in Britain until the copyrights expired at the end of 1961 , although it licensed many amateur and school societies to do so , beginning in the 19th century . After 1961 , other professional companies mounted productions of the opera in Britain . These have included Tyrone Guthrie 's 1960 production from Stratford , Ontario , seen on Broadway in 1960 and in London in 1962 and a New Sadler 's Wells Opera Company production first seen on 4 June 1984 at Sadler 's Wells Theatre , which was seen also in New York . Scottish Opera , Welsh National Opera and many of the other British opera companies have mounted productions , as did the reconstituted D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company between 1990 and its closure in 2003 . In recent years , the Carl Rosa Opera Company has produced Pinafore several times , including in 2009 , and Opera della Luna and other British companies continue to mount the piece .
The extraordinary initial success of Pinafore in America was seen first @-@ hand by J. C. Williamson . He soon made arrangements with D 'Oyly Carte to present the opera 's first authorised production in Australia , opening on 15 November 1879 at the Theatre Royal , Sydney . Thereafter , his opera company played frequent seasons of the work ( and the subsequent Savoy operas ) until at least 1963 . In the U.S. , the piece never lost popularity . The Internet Broadway Database links to forty productions on Broadway alone . Among the professional repertory companies continuing to present Pinafore regularly in the U.S. are Opera a la Carte , based in California , Ohio Light Opera and the New York Gilbert and Sullivan Players , which tours the opera annually and often includes it in its New York seasons . Pinafore is still performed around the world by opera companies such as the Royal Theatre , Copenhagen ; Australian Opera ( and Essgee Entertainment and others in Australia ) ; in Kassel , Germany ; and even Samarkand , Uzbekistan .
The following table shows the history of the D 'Oyly Carte productions ( excluding tours ) in Gilbert 's lifetime :
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial critical reception = = =
The early reviews were mostly favourable . The Era wrote :
Seldom indeed have we been in the company of a more joyous audience . ... [ Gilbert and Sullivan ] have on previous occasions been productive of such legitimate amusement , such novel forms of drollery , such original wit , and unexpected whimsicality , that nothing was more natural than for the audience to anticipate an evening of thorough enjoyment . The expectation was fulfilled completely . Those who believed in the power of Mr Gilbert to tickle the fancy with quaint suggestions and unexpected forms of humour were more than satisfied , and those who appreciate Mr Arthur Sullivan 's inexhaustible gift of melody were equally gratified ; while that large class of playgoers who are pleased with brilliant dresses and charming stage effects declared themselves delighted . The result , therefore , was " a hit , a palpable hit " ... there were some slight drawbacks [ such ] as the severe cold that affected Mr. Rutland Barrington [ the captain ] , and almost prevented his singing .
The Era also lavishly praised Emma Howson as Josephine . The Entr 'acte and Limelight commented that the opera was reminiscent of Trial by Jury and Sorcerer but found it diverting and called the music " very charming . To hear so @-@ called grand opera imitated through the medium of the most trifling lyrics , is funny " . The paper praised Grossmith as Sir Joseph , noting with amusement that he was made up to look like portraits of Horatio Nelson , " and his good introductory song seems levelled at " W. H. Smith . It opined , further , that " He Is an Englishman " is " an excellent satire on the proposition that a man must necessarily be virtuous to be English " . It found the piece , as a whole , well presented and predicted that it would have a long run .
Similarly , The Illustrated London News concluded that the production was a success and that the plot , though slight , served as a good vehicle for Gilbert 's " caustic humour and quaint satire " . It found that there was " much to call forth hearty laughter in the occasional satirical hits . ... Dr. Sullivan 's music is as lively as the text to which it is set , with here and there a touch of sentimental expression ... The piece is well performed throughout . " The Daily News , The Globe , The Times ( which particularly praised Grossmith , Barrington and Everard ) and The Standard concurred , the last commenting favourably on the chorus acting , which , it said , " adds to the reality of the illusion " . The Times also noted that the piece was an early attempt at the establishment of a " national musical stage " with a libretto free from risqué French " improprieties " and without the " aid " of Italian and German musical models .
The Daily Telegraph and the Athenaeum , however , greeted the opera with only mixed praise . The Musical Times complained that the ongoing collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan was " detrimental to the art @-@ progress of either " because , although it was popular with audiences , " something higher is demanded for what is understood as ' comic opera ' " . The paper commented that Sullivan had " the true elements of an artist , which would be successfully developed were a carefully framed libretto presented to him for composition " . It concluded , however , by saying how much it enjoyed the opera : " Having thus conscientiously discharged our duties as art @-@ critics , let us at once proceed to say that H.M.S. Pinafore is an amusing piece of extravagance , and that the music floats it on merrily to the end " . The Times and several of the other papers agreed that , while the piece was entertaining , Sullivan was capable of higher art . Only The Figaro was actively hostile to the new piece . Upon the publication of the vocal score , a review by The Academy joined the chorus of regret that Sullivan had sunk so low as to compose music for Pinafore and hoped that he would turn to projects " more worthy of his great ability " . This criticism would follow Sullivan throughout his career .
The many unauthorised American productions of 1878 – 79 were of widely varying quality , and many of them were adaptations of the opera . One of the more " authentic " ones was the production by the Boston Ideal Opera Company , which was first formed to produce Pinafore . It engaged well @-@ regarded concert singers and opened on 14 April 1879 at the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Boston Theatre . The critics agreed that the company fulfilled its goals of presenting an " ideal " production . The Boston Journal reported that the audience was " wrought up by the entertainment to a point of absolute approval " . The paper observed that it is a mistake to consider Pinafore a burlesque , " for while irresistibly comical it is not bouffe and requires to be handled with great care lest its delicate proportions be marred and its subtle quality of humor be lost " . The Journal described the opera as " classical " in method and wrote that its " most exquisite satire " lay in its " imitation of the absurdities " of grand opera . The company went on to become one of the most successful touring companies in America . The first children 's version in Boston became a sensation with both children and adult audiences , extending its run through the summer of 1879 . The Boston Herald wrote that " the large audience of children and their elders went fairly wild with delight ... shrieks of laughter were repeatedly heard " .
= = = Subsequent reception = = =
When Pinafore was first revived in London in 1887 , it was already treated as a classic . The Illustrated London News observed that the opera had not been updated with new dialogue , jokes and songs , but concluded that this was for the best , as the public would have missed the " time @-@ honoured jokes , such as ' Hardly Ever . ' The Savoy has once more got a brilliant success . " The Theatre concurred , stating that since the opera " has been heard in almost every part of this habitable globe and been enjoyed everywhere , there is not much occasion to descant " . It called the revival a " most brilliant " success and predicted another long run .
Reviewing the 1899 revival , The Athenaeum managed to praise the piece while joining in the musical establishment 's critique of Sullivan . On the one hand , " The Pinafore ... sounds fresher than ever . The musical world has become serious – very serious – and it is indeed refreshing to hear a merry , humorous piece , and music , unassuming in character ... it is delicately scored , and in many ways displays ability of a high order " . On the other hand , it wrote that if Sullivan had pursued the path of composing more serious music , like his symphony , " he would have produced still higher results ; in like manner Pinafore set us wondering what the composer would have accomplished with a libretto of somewhat similar kind , but one giving him larger scope for the exercise of his gifts " .
In 1911 , H. L. Mencken wrote : " No other comic opera ever written – no other stage play , indeed , of any sort – was ever so popular . ... Pinafore ... has been given , and with great success , wherever there are theaters – from Moscow to Buenos Aires , from Cape Town to Shanghai ; in Madrid , Ottawa and Melbourne ; even in Paris , Rome , Vienna and Berlin . " After the deaths of Gilbert and Sullivan , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company retained exclusive rights to perform their operas in Great Britain until 1962 , touring throughout Britain for most of the year and , beginning in 1919 , often performing in London for a season of about four months . The Times gave the company 's 1920 London production an enthusiastic review , saying that the audience was " enraptured " , and regretting that Pinafore would be played for only two weeks . It praised the cast , singling out Leo Sheffield as the Captain , Henry Lytton as Sir Joseph , Elsie Griffin as Josephine , James Hay as Ralph , Bertha Lewis as Little Buttercup and the " splendid " choral tone . It concluded that the opera made a " rollicking climax to the season " . Two years later , it gave an even more glowing report of that season 's performances , calling Derek Oldham an " ideal hero " as Ralph , noting that Sydney Granville " fairly brought down the house " with his song , that Darrell Fancourt 's Deadeye was " an admirably sustained piece of caricature " and that it was a " great pleasure " to hear the returning principals . A 1961 review of the company 's Pinafore is much the same .
In 1879 , J. C. Williamson acquired the exclusive performing rights to Pinafore in Australia and New Zealand . His first production earned public and critical acclaim . Williamson played Sir Joseph , and his wife , Maggie Moore played Josephine . Praising the production and all the performers , the Sydney Morning Herald noted that the production though " abounding in fun " was dignified and precise , that many numbers were encored and that laughter and applause from the " immense audience ... was liberally bestowed " . Williamson 's company continued to produce Pinafore in Australia , New Zealand and on tour into the 1960s with much success . As Williamson said , " If you need money , then put on G & S " . Meanwhile , Pinafore continued to garner praise outside Britain . The 1950s Danish version in Copenhagen , for example , was revived repeatedly , playing for well over 100 performances to " packed houses " . Translations into German , Yiddish and many other languages , and professional productions in places as remote as Samarkand in Uzbekistan have been successful .
In the U.S. , where Gilbert and Sullivan 's performance copyright was never in force , Pinafore continued to be produced continuously by both professional and amateur companies . The New York Times , in a 1914 review , called a large @-@ scale production at the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ seat New York Hippodrome a " royal entertainment " that " comes up smiling " . The opera had been turned into a " mammoth spectacle " at with a chorus of hundreds and the famous Hippodrome tank providing a realistic harbour . Buttercup made her entrance to the three @-@ masted Pinafore rowing into sight , and Dick Deadeye was later thrown overboard with a real splash . The Times praised the hearty singing but noted that some subtlety is lost when the dialogue needs " fairly to be shouted " . The production took some liberties , including interpolating music from other Sullivan works . The paper concluded , " the mild satire of Pinafore is entertaining because it is universal " . The same paper deemed Winthrop Ames ' popular Broadway productions of Pinafore in the 1920s and 1930s " spectacular " . Modern productions in America continue to be generally well received . The New York Times review of The New York Gilbert and Sullivan Players ' 2008 season at New York City Center commented , " Gilbert 's themes of class inequality , overbearing nationalism and incompetent authorities remain relevant , however absurdly treated . But the lasting appeal of Pinafore and its ilk is more a matter of his unmatched linguistic genius and Sullivan 's generous supply of addictive melodies . "
With the expiry of the copyrights , companies around the world have been free to produce Gilbert and Sullivan works and to adapt them as they please for almost 50 years . Productions of Pinafore , both amateur and professional , range from the traditional , in the D 'Oyly Carte vein , to the broadly adapted , such as that of the very successful Essgee Entertainment ( formed by Simon Gallaher ) in Australia and Opera della Luna in Britain . Since its original production , H.M.S. Pinafore has remained one of Gilbert and Sullivan 's most popular comic operas . Productions continue in large numbers around the world . In 2003 alone , The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company rented 224 sets of orchestra parts , mostly for productions of Pinafore , Pirates and Mikado . This does not take into account other rental companies and the theatre companies that borrow scores or have their own , or that use only one or two pianos instead of an orchestra . Hundreds of productions of Pinafore are presented every year worldwide .
= = Analysis = =
Theatre historian John Bush Jones wrote that Pinafore has " everything a musical theatregoer could ask for . An engaging and even relatively suspenseful story is populated with varied and well @-@ drawn characters who speak and sing witty , literate , and often outrageously funny dialogue and lyrics [ and ] has a score that ... has plenty of tunes for the audience to go away humming " . Sir George Power , the tenor who created the role of Ralph Rackstraw , opined in later life that the secret of the success of the Savoy operas is the way in which " Sullivan entered into the spirit of Gilbert 's topsy @-@ turvy humour , and was pompous when Gilbert was sprightly , or , when Gilbert 's satire was keenest and most acid , consciously wallowed in sentiment . " Another commentator has suggested that the opera 's enduring success lies in its focus on " mirth and silliness " . Even the title of the piece is silly , applying the name of a little girl 's garment , a pinafore , to the fearsome symbol of a naval warship , which usually bore names like Victory , Goliath , Audacious and Minotaur .
= = = Satiric and comic themes = = =
Biographer Jane Stedman wrote that Pinafore is " satirically far more complex " than The Sorcerer . She commented that Gilbert uses several ideas and themes from his Bab Ballads , including the idea of gentlemanly behaviour of a captain towards his crew from " Captain Reece " ( 1868 ) and the exchange of ranks due to exchange at birth from " General John " ( 1867 ) . Dick Deadeye , based on a character in " Woman 's Gratitude " ( 1869 ) , represents another of Gilbert 's favorite ( and semi @-@ autobiographical ) satiric themes : the misshapen misanthrope whose forbidding " face and form " makes him unpopular although he represents the voice of reason and common sense . Gilbert also borrows from his 1870 opera , The Gentleman in Black which includes the device of baby @-@ switching .
Historian H. M. Walbrook wrote in 1921 that Pinafore " satirizes the type of nautical drama of which Douglas Jerrold 's Black @-@ Eyed Susan is a typical instance , and the ' God 's Englishman ' sort of patriotism which consists in shouting a platitude , striking an attitude , and doing little or nothing to help one 's country " . G. K. Chesterton agreed that the satire is pointed at the selfishness of " being proud of yourself for being a citizen " of one 's country , which requires no virtuous effort of will to resist the " temptations to belong to other nations " but is merely an excuse for pride . In 2005 , Australian opera director Stuart Maunder noted the juxtaposition of satire and nationalism in the opera , saying , " they all sing ' He is an Englishman ' , and you know damn well they 're sending it up , but the music is so military ... that you can 't help but be swept up in that whole jingoism that is the British Empire . " In addition , he argued that the song ties this theme into the main satire of class distinctions in the opera : " H.M.S. Pinafore is basically a satire on ... the British love of the class system . ... [ O ] f course [ Ralph ] can marry [ the Captain 's ] daughter , because he 's British , and therefore he 's great ' " . Jacobs notes that Gilbert is lampooning the tradition of nautical melodrama in which the sailor 's " patriotism guarantees his virtue " .
One of Gilbert 's favourite comic themes is the elevation of an unqualified person to a position of high responsibility . In The Happy Land ( 1873 ) , for example , Gilbert describes a world in which government offices are awarded to the person who has the least qualification to hold each position . In particular , the one who has never heard of a ship is appointed to the cabinet post of First Lord of the Admiralty . In Pinafore , Gilbert revisits this theme in the character of Sir Joseph , who rises to the same position by " never go [ ing ] to sea " . In later Gilbert and Sullivan operas , the characters Major @-@ General Stanley in Pirates , and Ko @-@ Ko in The Mikado , are similarly appointed to high office though lacking the necessary qualifications . Gilbert also pokes fun at party politics , implying that when Sir Joseph " always voted at [ his ] party 's call " , he sacrificed his personal integrity . The " commercial middle class " ( which was Gilbert 's main audience ) is treated as satirically as are social climbers and the great unwashed . In addition , the apparent age difference between Ralph and the Captain , even though they were babies nursed together , satirises the variable age of Thaddeus in The Bohemian Girl . The Times wrote , in reviewing the 1929 production , that Pinafore was quintessentially Gilbertian in that the absurdities of a " paternal " Captain and the " ethics ... of all romanticism " are accepted " unflinchingly " and taken to their logical conclusion : " It is the reference to actuality that is essential ; without it , the absurdity will not stand starkly out " .
A theme that pervades the opera is the treatment of love across different social ranks . In the previous Gilbert and Sullivan opera , The Sorcerer , a love potion causes trouble by inducing the villagers and wedding guests to fall in love with people of different social classes . In Pinafore , the captain 's daughter , Josephine , loves and is loved by a common sailor , but she dutifully tells him , " your proffered love I haughtily reject " . He expresses his devotion to her in a poetic and moving speech that ends with " I am a British sailor , and I love you " . It finally turns out that he is of a higher rank than she . This is a parody of the Victorian " equality " drama , such as Lord Lytton 's The Lady of Lyons ( 1838 ) , where the heroine rejects a virtuous peasant who makes a similarly moving speech , ending with " I am a peasant ! " It then turns out that he has become her social superior . Furthermore , in Pinafore , Sir Joseph assures Josephine that " love levels all ranks " . In Tom Taylor 's The Serf , the heroine again loves a worthy peasant who turns out to be of high rank , and she declares happily at the end that " love levels all " . In a satire of the libertarian traditions of nautical melodrama , Sir Joseph tells the crew of the Pinafore that they are " any man 's equal " ( excepting his ) , and he writes a song for them that glorifies the British sailor . Conversely , he brings the proud captain down a notch by making him " dance a hornpipe on the cabin table " . Jones notes that the union between Ralph and Josephine " becomes acceptable only through the absurd second @-@ act revelation of Buttercup 's inadvertent switching of the infants " and concludes that Gilbert is a " conservative satirist [ who ] ultimately advocated preserving the status quo ... [ and ] set out to show [ that ] love definitely does not level all ranks " .
There is a divide among Gilbert and Sullivan scholars as to whether Gilbert is , as Jones argues , a supporter of the status quo whose focus is merely to entertain or , on the other hand , predominantly to satirise and protest " against the follies of his age " . Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther posits that this disagreement arises from Gilbert 's " techniques of inversion – with irony and topsyturvydom " , which lead to " the surface meaning of his writings " being " the opposite of their underlying meaning " . Crowther argues that Gilbert desires to " celebrate " society 's norms while , at the same time , satirising these conventions . In Pinafore , which established many patterns for the later Savoy operas , Gilbert found a way to express his own conflict that " also had tremendous appeal to the general public " . He creates " a highly intelligent parody of nautical melodrama ... [ though ] controlled by the conventions it mocks " . While nautical melodrama exalts the common sailor , in Pinafore Gilbert makes the proponent of equality , Sir Joseph , a pompous and misguided member of the ruling class who , hypocritically , cannot apply the idea of equality to himself . The hero , Ralph , is convinced of his equality by Sir Joseph 's foolish pronouncements and declares his love for his Captain 's daughter , throwing over the accepted " fabric of social order " . At this point , Crowther suggests , the logic of Gilbert 's satiric argument should result in Ralph 's arrest . But to satisfy convention , Gilbert creates an obvious absurdity : the captain and Ralph were switched as babies . By an " accident of birth " , Ralph is suddenly an appropriate husband for Josephine , and both the social order and the desire for a romantic happy ending are satisfied at once . Crowther concludes , " We have an opera which uses all the conventions of melodrama and ridicules them ; but in the end it is difficult to see which has won out , the conventions or the ridicule . " Thus , Pinafore found broadbased success by appealing to the intellectual theatregoer seeking satire , the middle @-@ class theatre @-@ goer looking for a comfortable confirmation of the " existing social order " and the working @-@ class audience who saw a satisfying melodramatic victory for the common man .
= = = Songs and musical analysis = = =
According to musicologist Arthur Jacobs , Gilbert 's plot " admirably sparked off Sullivan 's genius " . Sullivan embraces the nautical setting ; in " We Sail the Ocean Blue " , for example , he " presents his twist on a traditional sea shanty " . In the Captain 's opening song , " I am the Captain of the Pinafore " , he admits that his gentlemanliness " never ... well , hardly ever " gives way to swearing at his men , and although he has experience at sea , he " hardly ever " suffers from seasickness . Sullivan " unerringly found the right musical setting for the key phrase ' What never ? ' ... cunningly sharpened ... through the chromatic touch on the bassoon . " Audrey Williamson argued that the music of Pinafore is quintessentially English and free of European influences throughout most of the score , from the " glee " for Ralph , the Boatswain and the Carpenter , to " For He Is an Englishman " .
The best @-@ known songs from the opera include " I 'm called Little Buttercup " , a waltz tune introducing the character , which Sullivan repeats in the entr 'acte and in the Act II finale to imprint the melody on the mind of the audience ; and " A British tar " ( a glee for three men describing the ideal sailor ) , composed by Sir Joseph " to encourage independent thought and action in the lower branches of the service , and to teach the principle that a British sailor is any man 's equal , excepting mine " . Sullivan 's voicing advances the satiric lyric , which mocks the " equality " plays while underlining the hypocrisy of Sir Joseph . Another popular number is Sir Joseph 's song " When I was a Lad " , recounting the meteoric rise of his career , which bears similarities to that of W. H. Smith , the civilian news entrepreneur who had risen to the position of First Lord of the Admiralty in 1877 .
In Pinafore , Sullivan exploits minor keys for comic effect , for instance in " Kind Captain , I 've important information " . Further , he achieves a musical surprise when he uses the subdominant minor in " Sorry her lot " . Biographer Gervase Hughes was impressed with the introduction to the opening chorus which includes " a rousing nautical tune ... in a key of no nonsense , C major ... a modulation to the mediant minor , where to our surprise a plaintive oboe gives us the first verse of " Sorry her lot " in 2 / 4 [ time ] . After this closes on the local dominant B major the violins ( still in 2 / 4 ) introduce us to Little Buttercup ... meeting her under these conditions one would hardly expect her to blossom out later as a queen of the waltz . " He continues , " the bassoon and basses ... assert vigorously who is the Captain of the Pinafore ... in the improbable key of A flat minor . ... Buttercup makes a last despairing attempt to make herself heard in D flat minor , but the others have never known that such an outlandish key existed . So in a flash they all go back to C major on a good old 6 / 4 " .
According to Jacobs , " Ralph , Captain Corcoran , Sir Joseph and Josephine all live in their interactive music ( particularly ' Never mind the why and wherefore ' ) , and almost as much musical resource is lavished on two characters parodied from opera or melodrama , Little Buttercup with ' gypsy blood in her veins ' and the heavy @-@ treading Dick Deadeye . " Jacobs also opined that the leading tone that begins " Never mind the why and wherefore " " serves to emphasize the phrase like a Johann Strauss @-@ ian grace @-@ note " . Sullivan scholar David Russell Hulme noted Sullivan 's parody of operatic styles , " particularly the Handelian recitatives and the elopement scene ( evocative of so many nocturnal operatic conspiracies ) , but best of all is the travesty of the patriotic tune in ' For he is an Englishman ! ' " Buttercup 's Act II song , in which she reveals the dark secret of the baby @-@ switching is preceded by a quote from Franz Schubert 's " The Erl @-@ King " and also parodies the opera Il Trovatore . Jacobs notes that Sullivan also adds his own humorous touches to the music by setting commonplace expressions in " Donizettian recitative " . But on the serious side , he enhances the moments of true emotional climax , as in Josephine 's Act II aria , and added musical interest to concerted numbers by " subtly shifting the rhythms and bar groupings . "
= = Revisions and cut material = =
= = = Ballad for Captain Corcoran , " Reflect , my child " = = =
During rehearsals for the original production , Gilbert added a ballad for Captain Corcoran in which he urged his daughter to forget the common sailor with whom she is in love , because " at every step , he would commit solecisms that society would never pardon . " The ballad was meant to be sung between No. 5 and No. 6 of the current score , but it was cut before opening night . The words survive in the libretto that was deposited with the Lord Chamberlain for licensing . Before 1999 , all that was known to survive of Sullivan 's setting was a copy of the leader violin part .
In April 1999 , Sullivan scholars Bruce I. Miller and Helga J. Perry announced that they had discovered a nearly complete orchestration – lacking only the second violin part – in a private collection of early band parts . These materials , with a conjectural reconstruction of the partially lost vocal lines and second violin part , were later published and professionally recorded . This piece has now been performed a number of times by amateur and professional companies , although it has not become a standard addition to the traditional scores or recordings .
= = = Dialogue for Cousin Hebe = = =
In the licensing copy of the libretto , Sir Joseph 's cousin Hebe had lines of dialogue in several scenes in Act II . In the scene that follows No. 14 ( " Things are seldom what they seem " ) , she accompanied Sir Joseph onstage and echoed the First Lord 's dissatisfaction with Josephine . After several interruptions , Sir Joseph urged her to be quiet , eliciting the response " Crushed again ! " Gilbert would later re @-@ use this passage for Lady Jane in Patience . Hebe was also assigned several lines of dialogue after No. 18 ( " Carefully on tiptoe stealing " ) and again after No. 19 ( " Farewell , my own " ) .
Late in rehearsals for the original production , Jessie Bond assumed the role of Hebe , replacing Mrs Howard Paul . Bond , who at this point in her career was known primarily as a concert singer and had little experience as an actress , did not feel capable of performing dialogue , and these passages were revised to cut Hebe 's dialogue . Hebe 's cut dialogue is occasionally restored in modern performances .
= = = Recitative preceding the Act II finale = = =
The dialogue preceding the Act II finale , starting with " Here , take her sir , and mind you treat her kindly " , was originally recitative . The music for this passage was printed in the first edition of the vocal score as No. 20a . Shortly after opening night , the recitative was dropped , and the lines thereafter were performed as spoken dialogue . In modern productions , the recitative is occasionally restored in place of the dialogue .
= = Recordings = =
There have been numerous recordings of Pinafore since 1907 . Ian Bradley counted seventeen recordings of the opera available on CD in 2005 .
The 1930 recording is notable for preserving the performances of the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company stars of the era . The 1960 D 'Oyly Carte recording , which contains all the dialogue , has been repeatedly praised by reviewers . The 1994 Mackerras recording , featuring grand opera singers in the principal roles , is musically well @-@ regarded . The 2000 D 'Oyly Carte recording also contains complete dialogue and the first recording of the " lost " ballad for Captain Corcoran , " Reflect , my child " , as a bonus track . A 1957 Danish @-@ language recording of the opera is one of the few foreign @-@ language professional recordings of Gilbert and Sullivan .
In 1939 , Pinafore was chosen by NBC as one of the earliest operas ever broadcast on American television , but no recording appears to have been saved . The 1973 D 'Oyly Carte video recording , directed by Michael Heyland , demonstrates the company 's staging of the period , but some reviewers find it dull . It is , however , one of only three video or film recordings of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . The 1982 video of Pinafore " is widely considered one of the worst " in the Brent Walker Productions series of Gilbert and Sullivan television productions . More recent professional productions have been recorded on video by the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival .
Selected recordings
1930 D 'Oyly Carte – London Symphony Orchestra ; Conductor : Malcolm Sargent
1958 Sargent / Glyndebourne – Pro Arte Orchestra , Glyndebourne Festival Chorus ; Conductor : Sir Malcolm Sargent
1960 D 'Oyly Carte ( with dialogue ) – New Symphony Orchestra of London ; Conductor : Isidore Godfrey
1972 G & S for All – G & S Festival Chorus & Orchestra ; Conductor : Peter Murray
1973 D 'Oyly Carte ( video ) – Conductor : Royston Nash
1981 Stratford Festival ( video ) – Conductor : Berthold Carrière ; Director : Leon Major
1987 New Sadler 's Wells Opera – Conductor : Simon Phipps
1994 Mackerras / Telarc – Orchestra and Chorus of the Welsh National Opera ; Conductor : Sir Charles Mackerras
1997 Essgee Entertainment ( video ; adapted ) – Conductor : Kevin Hocking
2000 D 'Oyly Carte ( with dialogue ) – Conductor : John Owen Edwards
= = Adaptations = =
H.M.S. Pinafore has been adapted many times . W. S. Gilbert wrote a 1909 children 's book called The Pinafore Picture Book , illustrated by Alice Woodward , which retells the story of Pinafore , in some cases giving considerable backstory that is not found in the libretto . Many other children 's books have since been written retelling the story of Pinafore or adapting characters or events from Pinafore .
Many musical theatre adaptations have been produced since the original opera . Notable examples include a 1945 Broadway musical adapted by George S. Kaufman , called Hollywood Pinafore , using Sullivan 's music . This was revived several times , including in London in 1998 . Another 1945 Broadway musical adaptation , Memphis Bound ! , was written by Don Walker and starred Bill Robinson and an all @-@ black cast . In 1940 , the American Negro Light Opera Association produced the first of several productions set in the Caribbean Sea , Tropical Pinafore . An early Yiddish adaptation of Pinafore , called Der Shirtz ( Yiddish for " apron " ) was written by Miriam Walowit in 1952 for a Brooklyn , New York Hadassah group , and they recorded 12 of the songs . In the 1970s , Al Grand was inspired by this recording and urged the Gilbert and Sullivan Long Island Light Opera Company to perform these songs . He later translated the missing songs and dialogue , with Bob Tartell , and the show has been toured widely under the name Der Yiddisher Pinafore . The group have continued to produce this adaptation for over two decades , in which " He is an Englishman " becomes " Er Iz a Guter Yid " ( " He is a good Jew " ) .
Essgee Entertainment produced an adapted version of Pinafore in 1997 in Australia and New Zealand that has been much revived . Another musical adaptation is Pinafore ! ( A Saucy , Sexy , Ship @-@ Shape New Musical ) , adapted by Mark Savage . It was first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles , California on 7 September 2001 , directed by Savage , where it ran with great success for nine months . It then played in Chicago and New York in 2003 . In this adaptation , only one character is female , and all but one of the male characters are gay . An original cast recording was issued in 2002 by Belva Records . Pinafore Swing is a musical with music arranged by Sarah Travis . It premiered at the Watermill Theatre in England in 2004 in a production directed by John Doyle . The adaptation , set in 1944 , changes the characters into members of a band entertaining the sailors on a World War II troop ship in the Atlantic . The reduced @-@ size acting cast also serve as the orchestra for the singing roles , and the music is infused with swing rhythms . Numerous productions in recent decades have been set to parody Star Trek or Star Wars .
= = Cultural impact = =
Among its other influences on popular culture , Pinafore had perhaps its most profound influence on the development of musical theatre . According to theatre historian John Kenrick , Pinafore " became an international sensation , reshaping the commercial theater in both England and the United States . " Music writer Andrew Lamb notes , " The success of H.M.S. Pinafore in 1879 established British comic opera alongside French opéra bouffe throughout the English @-@ speaking world " . Historian John Bush Jones opines that Pinafore and the other Savoy operas demonstrate that musical theatre " can address contemporary social and political issues without sacrificing entertainment value " and that Pinafore created the model for a new kind of musical theatre , the " integrated " musical , where " book , lyrics , and music combined to form an integral whole " . He adds that its " unprecedented ... popularity fostered an American audience for musical theatre , while the show itself became a model for form , content , and even intention of ... musicals ever since , especially socially relevant musicals . " Its popularity also led to the musical theatre adaptations of Pinafore described above , musicals in which the story line involves a production of Pinafore and other musicals that parody the opera or that use or adapt its music . The first such parody was a short @-@ lived burlesque presented at the Opera Comique in 1882 , called The Wreck of the Pinafore by H. Lingard and Luscombe Searelle ; the opera 's characters are shipwrecked on a desert island . It was described by The Era as " chiefly remarkable for its impudence " .
Likewise , the opera 's popularity has led to the widespread parody and pastiche of its songs in politics , literature and films , on television and in a variety of other media . Many comedians have used Pinafore songs for comic and satiric effect . For example , in his comedy album My Son , the Celebrity , Allan Sherman parodies " When I Was a Lad " from the point of view of a young man who goes to an Ivy League school and then rises to prominence in business . At the end of the song , he " thanks old Yale " , " thanks the Lord " and thanks his father , " who is chairman of the board " . Literary references to Pinafore songs include Harris 's attempt to sing " When I Was a Lad " in Jerome K. Jerome 's Three Men in a Boat . Another is found in the story " Runaround " from I , Robot by Isaac Asimov , where a robot sings part of " I 'm Called Little Buttercup " . Pinafore and its songs have been performed by rock musicians such as Todd Rundgren , Taj Mahal and Michele Gray Rundgren , who performed " Never Mind the Why and Wherefore " on Night Music ( Sunday Night ) in 1989 .
Political references include a 1996 satiric pastiche of " When I Was a Lad " aimed at Tony Blair by Virginia Bottomley , heritage secretary under John Major . Sporting references include a racehorse named " H.M.S. Pinafore " . Pinafore songs and images have been used extensively in advertising . According to Jones , " Pinafore launched the first media blitz in the United States " beginning in 1879 , and recent ads include a television campaign for Terry 's Chocolate Orange featuring a pastiche of " When I Was a Lad " . Pinafore @-@ themed merchandise includes trading cards that were created in the 1880s .
Film references In recent decades , songs from Pinafore have been used frequently to give period flavor to films . Prominent examples include the 1981 historical film Chariots of Fire , in which the protagonist , Harold Abrahams , and others from Cambridge University , sing " He Is an Englishman " . This song also features at the end of the 1983 BBC drama An Englishman Abroad . In the 2003 movie Peter Pan , the Darling family sings " When I Was a Lad " . In Wyatt Earp ( 1994 ) , the famed lawman meets his future wife when he sees her playing in an early production of Pinafore . A 1953 biopic , The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan , uses music from Pinafore .
Characters also sing songs from Pinafore in such popular films as Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) and Star Trek : Insurrection ( 1998 ) , where Captain Picard and Lt. Commander Worf sing part of " A British Tar " to distract a malfunctioning Lt. Commander Data . Likewise , in The Good Shepherd ( 2006 ) , which depicts an all @-@ male version of Pinafore at Yale University , the Matt Damon character plays Little Buttercup , singing her song in falsetto . Judy Garland sings " I Am the Monarch of the Sea " in the 1963 film , I Could Go On Singing . The soundtrack of the 1992 thriller The Hand that Rocks the Cradle prominently features songs and music from Pinafore , and the father and daughter characters sing " I Am the Captain of the Pinafore " together . An example of a film based on ideas from Pinafore is the 1976 animated film by Ronald Searle called Dick Deadeye , or Duty Done is based on the character and songs from Pinafore . In the 1988 drama Permanent Record , a high school class performs Pinafore .
Television references Television series that include substantial Pinafore references include The West Wing , for example in the 2000 episode " And It 's Surely to Their Credit " , where " He Is an Englishman " is used throughout and quoted ( or paraphrased ) in the episode 's title . Among other notable examples of the use of songs from Pinafore on television are several popular animated shows . In the " Cape Feare " episode of The Simpsons , Bart stalls his would @-@ be killer Sideshow Bob with a " final request " that Bob sing him the entire score of Pinafore . Similarly , the 1993 " HMS Yakko " episode of Animaniacs consists of pastiches of songs from H.M.S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance . In a Family Guy episode , " The Thin White Line " ( 2001 ) , Stewie sings a pastiche of " My Gallant Crew " . Stewie also sings " I Am the Monarch of the Sea " ( including the ladies ' part , in falsetto ) in " Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story " . A 1986 Mr. Belvedere episode , " The Play " , concerns a production of H.M.S. Pinafore , and several of the songs are performed . In the 2009 episode " Broken " of House , Dr. House must take a urine test and starts singing " He is an Englishman " to cover the sound . In 1955 , NBC broadcast a variety special including a 20 @-@ minute compressed jazz version , " H.M.S. Pinafore in Jazz " , produced and directed by Max Liebman , starring Perry Como , Buddy Hackett , Kitty Kallen , Bill Hayes , Pat Carroll and Herb Shriner .
= = Historical casting = =
The following tables show the most prominent cast members of significant D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company productions and tours at various times through to the company 's 1982 closure :
1 The Midshipmite , Tom Tucker , is traditionally played by a child . " Fitzaltamont " was likely a pseudonym used to protect the child 's identity , as the same name appears on programmes of several provincial touring companies . No names are listed for his role in later productions .
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= AJ Ahmed =
Amjad Jahangir " AJ " Ahmed is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Phaldut Sharma . The character made his first on @-@ screen appearance in the 4458th episode , which was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 9 July 2012 . Sharma filmed his final scenes before Christmas 2013 and the character 's final episode was broadcast on 10 January 2014 , being the 4783th episode .
AJ is an extension to the established Masood family , the younger brother of established character Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) . He is disliked by Masood 's wife Zainab ( Nina Wadia ) , but brings out a previously unseen fun side to his brother . AJ is portrayed as a mechanic who is cheeky , fun @-@ loving , irresponsible , annoying and spontaneous , though he makes decisions by flipping a coin . He has received mixed comments from critics , with Ally Ross from The Sun calling him " supposedly funny " and wanting him to " piss off " , Laura White from Inside Soap saying he is " the perfect tonic for a family almost constantly dogged with crisis " , and Anthony D. Langford from AfterElton.com praising the character but wondering if the writers knew what to do with him . His storylines have since included a feud with Derek Branning ( Jamie Foreman ) , divorcing his wife Aliyah Ahmed ( Ann Wenn ) and lending support to Masood through financial problems and his breakup with Zainab .
= = Storylines = =
After his arrival in Walford , AJ 's brother Masood ( Nitin Ganatra ) makes sure he avoids his ex @-@ wife Zainab ( Nina Wadia ) , because she dislikes him . AJ proves to be a bad influence on Masood when they damage Derek Branning 's ( Jamie Foreman ) car with a shopping trolley and AJ is punched by Derek . AJ discovers that Masood and Zainab are divorced and later tells Masood he came to Walford because his wife Aliyah ( Ann Wenn ) has left him . After Masood inspires AJ with his reunion with Zainab , AJ leaves to reconcile with his own wife . He returns a few weeks later saying that he and Aliyah are divorcing . Zainab contacts Aliyah to try to get her to take AJ back , and AJ says that Aliyah had an affair . Aliyah drops off AJ 's belongings and reveals that there was no affair . AJ then explains that he left Aliyah because she wants children and he does not . AJ moves in with Masood and his family . Zainab dislikes his laziness and she becomes annoyed when he brings Roxy Mitchell ( Rita Simons ) back after a drunken evening . Roxy stays the night but makes it clear that it was a one @-@ off .
AJ gets a job from Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) as a mechanic to help the family with their financial problems . He selfishly takes money from the family to buy a motorbike , but then sells it to help pay the mortgage . When Zainab says she will stop interfering in people 's lives , AJ uses the opportunity to annoy her . AJ and Aliyah receive their decree nisi . When Zainab has a job interview , AJ tells the interviewer she has short @-@ term memory loss . However , when he apologises via a Post @-@ It note , she returns the apology . AJ supports Masood when his relationship with Zainab ends . When AJ has to look after Masood 's young son Kamil Masood ( Arian Chikhlia ) , he admits that he is not good with children , and was scared when Aliyah wanted one , because he feels he cannot look after himself properly , let alone a child . However , he bonds well with his nephew . AJ is offered a job as an assistant manager at a garage in Birmingham . Although he initially wants to turn down the position , he eventually accepts the job offer . Shortly before he leaves Walford , AJ learns that his mother has died . Masood is angry with AJ when he explains that he cannot attend their mother 's funeral . AJ then leaves for Birmingham .
= = Character creation and development = =
= = = Casting and introduction = = =
Sharma was recommended for the part of AJ by Nitin Ganatra ( Masood ) after the character was described to him , because producers wanted AJ and Masood to be funny together . The two actors had previously performed in comedy together in short film The Drop , Channel 4 's Meet the Magoons and a programme called To Eat with Your Fingers , so Ganatra thought Sharma would be perfect for the role and he was the first person he thought of . Ganatra and the producers went through ideas of how a brother would affect Masood and what their relationship would be . Ganatra explained that he thought Masood only had one brother until he was told about AJ . When Sharma and Ganatra performed a scene together at Sharma 's audition , the dialogue came so naturally to them that producers thought they were improvising , but , as Ganatra explained , they " know each other 's style [ and ] have all these shortcuts . It 's like having a real brother . " Sharma was offered the part immediately after his interview . Sharma added in March 2013 : " I 've known Nitin for years and he really lobbied for me to get the role of AJ , and as soon as I finished my audition the producers offered me the part and asked if I wanted a cup of tea , to which I replied , ' Yes please , I 've waited 20 years for that cup of tea ' , but it 's been really nice to just jump onto a set with someone I 've already bonded with — it 's like having a pre @-@ built family to bounce off . " He had also previously worked with his co @-@ stars Nina Wadia ( Zainab ) and Marc Elliott ( Syed Masood ) , so felt it was " cool " and " familiar " to work with them . Sharma revealed in an interview with Inside Soap that his own mother always thought he should play Masood 's brother after watching EastEnders for many years . The first scene Sharma filmed was with Ganatra on the set outside The Queen Victoria public house , and he found it " really surreal " .
The character and Sharma 's casting were announced on 1 June 2012 . It was reported that AJ arrives in Albert Square hoping to reconnect with Masood and build bridges with his family , then AJ gets himself and Masood in trouble , so Masood wonders if AJ is running away from something . Sharma said " I think it 's a really fun , colourful and lively part and I can 't wait to see where it goes ! " Speaking of AJ 's arrival , Ganatra said that he felt " very confident , happy and excited about having a new character to play against " , especially a new member of the family , " because the Masoods are always about family . " AJ first appears in the episode originally broadcast in the UK on 9 July 2012 , which is EastEnders ' 4458th episode .
= = = Characterisation = = =
AJ is a mechanic , who is described as a chancer who " never misses an opportunity for excitement . " He is characterised as a free @-@ spirited , fun @-@ loving and carefree rebel , who does not always realise how his spontaneity affects other people . He is described as cheeky , irresponsible , a bad influence , a joker , a charmer and a talker . It is said that he does not plan or do what people expect of him , is fun to be around and could be running away from life . A writer for the BBC said that he lives " like there 's no tomorrow " , and makes decisions based on the results of a coin flip . The coin , described as " lucky " , is inspired by the Bollywood film Sholay , in which two friends make decisions based on the flip of a coin , though one friend does not know that both sides of the coin are the same . Ganatra stated in an interview on This Morning that he did not think that the two sides of AJ 's coin were the same . Sharma described AJ as " the clown who loves to play " and " a little bit of a hippy " , saying " he 's got a real wheeler @-@ dealer , Del Boy aspect to his character . " He has twice compared AJ to a puppy dog , because he is nice but annoying , and he is fun but a nuisance . Sharma , who was brought up in Newport , said that " the charm , humour and personality " of Welsh people he knew helped him to create the character of AJ .
Laura Morgan from All About Soap called AJ " mischievous " , and the magazine also called him " bothersome " and " crazy " . Nathan Bevan from Western Mail has called him " gregarious " , an " aggro @-@ magnet " , a " trouble @-@ magnet " , " wise @-@ cracking " and " wheeler @-@ dealing " . He has also been called " flighty " , a " tearaway " , " naughty " and " good @-@ for @-@ nothing " .
= = = Role within the Masood family = = =
AJ is a member of the Pakistani Masood family , headed by Masood Ahmed , played by Ganatra . Masood is married to Wadia 's character , Zainab Masood ( though at the time of AJ 's arrival they are divorced and planning to remarry ) , and they live with their children Syed Masood ( Elliott ) , Tamwar Masood ( Himesh Patel ) and Kamil Masood ( Arian Chikhlia ) . Masood and AJ also have an older brother , Inzamam Ahmed ( Paul Bhattacharjee ) . AJ is younger than Masood . AJ has been called " the black sheep " of the family and " a delinquent uncle " .
AJ and Masood had lost touch for three years prior to AJ 's arrival , and had fallen out because of an argument between Zainab and AJ 's wife Aliyah , said to be that Aliyah once made an obscene comment to her . AJ was described as " the polar opposite to his control freak sister @-@ in @-@ law [ Zainab ] " , and it was said that " sparks [ would ] fly in the Masood household as the battle lines are drawn [ between them ] . " Zainab thinks AJ is reckless and she has little time for him . Ganatra said that there is tension between AJ and Zainab , and although Zainab does not necessarily dislike AJ , she does not like that AJ gets Masood into trouble , and Zainab 's hatred for Aliyah does not help . Inside Soap called Zainab AJ 's arch rival and Jaci Stephen from the Daily Mail said AJ 's arrival was " Something else not to put a smile on Zainab 's face " though made it an " exciting week " for Masood .
AJ brings out a different side to Masood , which Ganatra said could " upset the status quo " . He said that AJ was brought in " to stir up Masood 's life , and that has exciting prospects " , and they would " get up to all sorts of shenanigans . " Presenter Kate Thornton , when interviewing Ganatra , said AJ was a " playmate " for Masood , while Wadia said that AJ brings the comedy back to Masood . Inside Soap 's Kate White called AJ " a world away from family man Masood " , while Soaplife said AJ is " not a good influence but he sure puts a smile on [ Masood 's ] face and a new spring in his step . " Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said that AJ 's influence on Masood is " infectious " . AJ 's arrival allows people to see what Masood was like before he married Zainab , as all that was known about him to that point was his life with her . Ganatra stated : " So by opening this door , you get to see what Masood was like in his childhood and as a teenager . Masood did have a naughty streak — he was in a band with his brother , and they got up to mischief . Masood [ ... ] has been put on the straight and narrow [ since ] . But prior to that , he was a teenager like any other — getting into trouble , and that was in cahoots with his brother AJ ! " Ganatra said that , as British Asians , Masood and AJ grew up going to clubs and getting into trouble with girls . Now , Masood sees AJ as somebody with " no responsibilities , no children and no stress of having to provide for a family " and as AJ suffers marrital problems , is feeling lonely and has no children , Ganatra said " they want each other 's lives , which is quite a nice dynamic to play . " He added that " AJ would love the stability of a family life like Masood 's , while Masood would love to pack his bags , get drunk and perhaps end up in a stranger 's bed . I 'm interested to see him bring out Masood 's naughty streak — and where that could take them ... " AJ is accepting of Syed 's homosexuality and his relationship with Christian Clarke ( John Partridge ) .
Sharma said that AJ would be an " unlikely saviour " for the Masood family when they find themselves in financial trouble . Although he called AJ the " family rebel " , he said that the character is " doing what he can to help out with the money problems [ because ] when the going gets tough , AJ will step in to help his loved ones — and while he will probably never take the conventional route , he 'll always get something sorted out in the end . " He gets a job , and then helps to lift the family 's spirits by organising a fireworks display , on which Sharma said , " AJ is just trying to help out his family in his own , dysfunctional way . " In November 2012 , Zainab makes a promise never to interfere in people 's lives , so AJ decides to use the opportunity to test her . Sharma explained : " He is ready to test her promise to the limits ! AJ knows exactly how to push all of Zainab 's buttons , and now he 's going to take full advantage of the fact that she won 't let herself be the control freak she normally likes to be ! " Jane Simon from the Daily Mirror said AJ is " thoroughly enjoying " testing Zainab 's new policy .
= = = Relationship with other characters = = =
In AJ 's first episode , he makes an enemy of Derek Branning when he and Masood crash a shopping trolley into his car . An insider said that AJ should be worried , explaining : " AJ is a bit of a talker and tries to blag his way out of the situation but that just makes things even worse . Derek is quick to rough him up a little to make him realise he 's not to be messed with . The confrontation really shocks AJ but he 's not going to be pushed around by some bullying bloke he 's just met . " The Daily Star said that " Derek is the one person AJ really shouldn 't make into an enemy " , while interviewer Phillip Schofield stated : " If you knock the wing mirror off Derek 's Jag you are in for trouble . "
On 11 September 2012 , it was reported that AJ would seduce Roxy Mitchell and they would spend the night together in Masood and Zainab 's house after an evening of drinking . At the time , it was unknown if it would be a one @-@ off or if a longer relationship would start . An insider from EastEnders told Inside Soap that Roxy and AJ are both looking for fun and they " hit it off " because she loves " a man who can make her laugh and AJ definitely ticks that box . " They added that they have " great chemistry " but said that as Roxy is sidetracked by another man , " AJ will have to fight for her affections " if he wants her . An insider also told the Daily Star that the two " can 't keep their hands off each other " and " Roxy is more than up for it . " They added that " Zainab would go mental if she knew what they were up to under her roof and it remains to be seen whether they can get away with it . Roxy is the last person who Zainab would want AJ to hook up with . [ ... ] Even Masood could not defend his brother this time as he had been pretty disrespectful . " Digital Spy also noted chemistry between AJ and Roxy , saying they " clearly enjoy each other 's company " . Tony Stewart from the Daily Mirror said the relationship between Roxy and AJ is " played for laughs " , contrasting with Roxy 's relationship with Michael Moon ( Steve John Shepherd ) .
Inside Soap expected AJ to be paired up with Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) , but actor Ricky Norwood , who plays Fatboy , spoke about his character 's rivalry with AJ over her in an interview with the magazine . He said , " There 's a little bit of rivalry building up between [ them ] . Fatboy can tell that AJ likes Denise . But at [ a party ] , AJ puts a [ song ] on for Denise , and it 's just totally wrong . [ ... ] Fatboy takes over and [ ... ] it gets a big response . " Inside Soap said that AJ does not know what makes Denise tick , while Sharma said " Denise isn 't a big fan of AJ at the moment ! " In 2013 , Inside Soap said they expected to see AJ paired with Bianca Jackson ( Patsy Palmer ) , saying , " He 's been trying his luck for some time , and surely there 's only so long Bianca can fend off AJ . If nothing else , he 'd be lots of fun around her kids , as AJ isn 't the most mature fella in Albert Square . " Vicky Prior from the Metro also hoped to see AJ find romance with Bianca .
= = = Departure = = =
On 24 September 2013 , it was announced that AJ , along with three other characters — Kirsty Branning ( Kierston Wareing ) , Poppy Meadow ( Rachel Bright ) and Carl White ( Daniel Coonan ) — had been axed from the series by the new executive producer Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins . It was reported that Treadwell @-@ Collins was " determined to get EastEnders back to its best " and a spokesperson confirmed the departures . Reports said that it was hoped the move would increase ratings , and a show source added that " [ Treadwell @-@ Collins ] didn 't feel the characters who are leaving fit with the direction he is taking the show so he quickly decided to write them out . He has only been in a month but he is already making big changes . He knows what he wants for EastEnders and is putting plans in place quickly . " Sharma filmed his final scenes before Christmas 2013 and the character 's final appearance was on 10 January 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Upon AJ 's arrival , Ally Ross of The Sun said : " New arrivals have included [ ... ] Masood 's supposedly funny and long @-@ lost brother AJ , who made the fatal mistake of arriving with the line : ' Do I look like a comedian ? ' No . You look like David Baddiel . Now kindly piss off " . Kay Ribeiro from Heat said , " We like new boy AJ . Not only is he a laugh [ ... ] but he 's providing light relief during [ Masood ] and [ Zainab ] ' s split , which is making us sad . " Laura Morgan from All About Soap hoped that AJ would become a permanent character after his initial appearances . In October 2012 , Allison Jones from Inside Soap said , " AJ has proved the perfect tonic for a family almost constantly dogged with crisis [ and ] his tenacious ability to wind up Zainab never fails to entertain ! AJ may have only been in Walford for a few months , but it already feels as if we 've known him for ages . " She also called Sharma and Ganatra , " a killer on @-@ screen pairing " . Nathan Bevan from Welsh newspaper Western Mail praised Sharma 's role in EastEnders , naming him as one of " 50 things you should look forward to in Wales " in 2013 , saying , " Anyone who injects a little sunshine into the ' Chekhov with a covered market ' drudgery of EastEnders should be automatically given an Outstanding Contribution to Broadcasting Award in our book . So well done Newport 's very own Phaldut Sharma who , since arriving in Walford as Masood Ahmed 's gregarious but aggro @-@ magnet brother AJ , has helped break up the unrelenting , bicker @-@ filled misery of Albert Square . " Bevan later said that Sharma has " shaken up the residents of Walford as the wise @-@ cracking , wheeler @-@ dealing AJ Ahmed " , adding , " He 's the gregarious , trouble @-@ magnet who 's brought some much needed sunshine to the sombre , squabble @-@ filled soapiness of Albert Square . " Anthony D. Langford from AfterElton.com said AJ was a " find " but thought the writers might not be sure what to do with the character . Vicky Prior from the Metro said AJ " has lit up the square with his gently laddish behaviour . "
After AJ and Derek fight in August 2012 , Emma Roberts from MSN Entertainment said it was one of the best fights of 2012 , scoring it 5 out of 5 and saying , " This is how soap fights should always be done ! It was like Walford turned into the wild west . " A writer from MSN TV said that AJ 's drunken kiss with Roxy was one of EastEnders ' 20 worst storylines of 2012 , asked if it was serious and said that it was only made a " little bit believable " because they were both drunk . In the episode broadcast on 2 November 2012 , AJ helps his family stand up to Danny Pennant ( Gary Lucy ) . Claire Crick from All About Soap called AJ the " highlight " of the episode , saying , " we never thought we 'd say this , but he 's really quite funny ! We loved how he rallied the family together to stand up to Danny " . AJ , who undertakes self @-@ defence classes in a storyline , was used as an example by a spokesperson for the show when EastEnders and other British soap operas were criticised in a study of 830 scenes over two weeks , made by Liverpool John Moores University Business School , who said that exercise was only shown or mentioned on four occasions .
Sharma has received two award nominations for his role of AJ : a British Soap Award for Sexiest Male , and an Inside Soap Award for Funniest Male , both in 2013 . He was not shortlisted for either award . After his departure was announced , James Lowe from All About Soap opined that he , and the other three characters cut from the show at the same time , were " the right people to go " . Yahoo ! TV UK said they were " a little bit disappointed " about AJ 's departure , because he " has been good value . "
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= Back to the Egg =
Back to the Egg is the seventh and final studio album by the British @-@ American band Wings , released in 1979 on Columbia Records in America , and on Parlophone in the UK . Co @-@ produced by Chris Thomas , the album reflects band leader Paul McCartney 's embracing of contemporary musical trends such as new wave and punk , and marked the arrival of new Wings members Laurence Juber and Steve Holley . Back to the Egg adopts a loose conceptual theme around the idea of a working band , and its creation coincided with a period of considerable activity for the group , which included making a return to touring and work on several television and film projects .
Recording for the album began in June 1978 and lasted for almost a year . The sessions took place at Spirit of Ranachan Studios in Scotland , Lympne Castle in Kent , London 's Abbey Road Studios , and Replica Studio – the last of which McCartney built as an exact replica of Abbey Road 's Studio Two when the latter became unavailable . Wings returned to Abbey Road in March 1979 to complete the album , before filming a series of promotional videos in Lympne and elsewhere , for what became the Back to the Egg TV special .
Back to the Egg received unfavourable reviews from the majority of critics , with Rolling Stone magazine deriding it as " the sorriest grab bag of dreck in recent memory " . Although the album charted in the top ten around the world and was certified platinum in the United States , it was viewed as a commercial failure relative to previous Wings releases , particularly in light of the generous financial terms under which McCartney had signed with CBS @-@ owned Columbia Records . Of its singles – " Old Siam , Sir " , " Getting Closer " and " Arrow Through Me " – only " Getting Closer " made the top twenty in Britain or America . The song " Rockestra Theme " , recorded with a cast of guest musicians from bands such as the Who , Led Zeppelin and Pink Floyd , won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 1980 .
Wings toured the UK in support of the album , but the planned world tour ended in January 1980 , when McCartney was arrested in Japan for possession of drugs . The group disbanded early the following year . Back to the Egg was reissued in 1993 , with bonus tracks , and in 2007 for iTunes , with the addition of Wings ' 1979 non @-@ album single " Goodnight Tonight " , in its extended form .
= = Background = =
Following the release of the album London Town ( 1978 ) , Wings band leader Paul McCartney hired two session musicians , drummer Steve Holly and lead guitarist Laurence Juber , to replace former members Joe English and Jimmy McCulloch . With the new line @-@ up – Wings ' sixth since its formation in 1971 – McCartney intended to record a raw rock and roll album and return to touring , for the band 's first concerts since their acclaimed Wings Over the World tour of 1975 – 76 . In addition , McCartney hoped to realise his longstanding plan of making a film adaptation of the Rupert the Bear cartoon series , for which he owned the commercial rights , and commissioned English playwright Willy Russell to write a feature film starring Wings .
Both Holly and Juber were recruited by Wings co @-@ founder and guitarist Denny Laine , who had appeared as a guest on The David Essex Show in 1977 when Juber was working as a guitarist in the house band . Holly , a neighbour of Laine 's , joined Wings in time to appear in the promotional video for London Town 's lead single , " With a Little Luck " , having turned down a position with Elton John 's band . According to Wings biographer Garry McGee , Juber and Holly each received a weekly sum equating to less than one @-@ fifth of that paid to McCartney , his wife Linda ( the band 's keyboard player ) and Laine .
For the new album , Back to the Egg , McCartney decided to collaborate in the studio with producer Chris Thomas , with whom he had begun working on the audio for two films documenting Wings ' last world tour : Wings Over the World , a television documentary , and the cinema release Rockshow ( 1980 ) . Thomas 's involvement would mark the first time that Wings had recorded with an outside producer since their 1973 single " Live and Let Die " , which George Martin had produced . Due to his recent work with the Pretenders and the Sex Pistols , Thomas brought a punk rock and new wave influence to Wings ' sound , matching McCartney 's desire to reflect contemporary musical trends .
= = Songs = =
Although London Town had featured a significant level of contribution from Laine as a songwriter , all bar one of the songs on Back to the Egg are credited to McCartney alone . The album was originally planned around a loose conceptual theme , about which authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write in their book Eight Arms to Hold You : " The idea was to have a theme of a working band , getting back on the road ... or ' back to the egg ' ( or protective shell ) of touring . " In the original LP format , the two album sides were labelled with the egg @-@ related titles " Sunny Side Up " and " Over Easy " .
= = = " Sunny Side Up " = = =
The album 's opening song is " Reception " , an instrumental , in which McCartney attempted to capture the effect of turning a radio dial and finding " about four stations at once " . The track features a guitar @-@ controlled synthesizer ( played by Juber ) over a funk @-@ inspired bassline , and spoken voices , including a reading of part of " The Poodle and the Pug " , from Vivian Ellis 's opera Big Ben ( 1946 ) . The next three songs – " Getting Closer " , " We 're Open Tonight " and " Spin It On " – adhere to the proposed album @-@ wide concept . Writing in Melody Maker in June 1979 , Mark Williams interpreted " Reception " as representing a radio being tuned in a car , whereby " the occupant is on his way to a gig , hence ' Getting Closer ' [ to the venue ] and , upon arrival , ' We 're Open Tonight ' " . The notion of live performance is then reflected in the sequencing of what Madinger and Easter term " heavier rock tracks such as ' Spin It On ' " .
McCartney had recorded a piano demo for " Getting Closer " in 1974 , at which point the song had a slower tempo . Author and Mojo contributor Tom Doyle describes Wings ' version as " power @-@ popping " and reminiscent of the English band Squeeze . The mellow " We 're Open Tonight " was written at the McCartneys ' farm in Campbeltown , Scotland , and was the album 's title track until Linda suggested Back to the Egg .
Another song composed in Scotland , the fast @-@ tempo " Spin It On " was an obvious acknowledgment of punk and new wave ; author Vincent Benitez terms it " McCartney @-@ esque whimsy on punk steroids " . Laine 's composition " Again and Again and Again " similarly has " echoes of the Clash " , according to McCartney biographer Howard Sounes . This song was originally two separate pieces , which Laine combined on McCartney 's recommendation .
Although credited to McCartney alone , " Old Siam , Sir " marked " the most collective band involvement " as regards songwriting , Madinger and Easter suggest . Similar in style to " Spin It On " , the song features a keyboard riff written by Linda and a Holly @-@ composed middle eight ; in addition , Laine helped McCartney complete the composition , an early version of which the previous incarnation of Wings had demoed in July 1976 . " Arrow Through Me " , a track more in keeping with McCartney 's melodic pop style , is a song written from the perspective of a rejected lover . With a musical arrangement that eschews guitar backing for synthesizer , Fender Rhodes piano and horns , Benitez views it as " reminiscent of the techno @-@ pop style of Stevie Wonder " .
= = = " Over Easy " = = =
Opening side two , " Rockestra Theme " was a composition that McCartney had first recorded in 1974 , on the same piano demo tape as " Getting Closer " . " Rockestra Theme " is an instrumental – except for the shouted line " Why haven 't I had any dinner ? " , which author Robert Rodriguez describes as a " deliberate evocation " of Glenn Miller 's 1940 single " Pennsylvania 6 @-@ 5000 " . Another rock track , " To You " includes a lyric aimed at a lover who has wronged the singer . The guitar solo on the recording provides an unusual aspect for a Wings song , in that Juber played the part through an Avonside harmonizer while McCartney simultaneously altered the harmonizer 's settings from the studio 's control room .
McCartney deemed the two gospel @-@ influenced pieces making up " After the Ball / Million Miles " as being of insufficient quality to merit inclusion as separate tracks ; " After the Ball " ends with a guitar solo , edited from parts played by McCartney , Laine and Juber , after which " Million Miles " consists of a performance by McCartney alone , on concertina . This is followed by another medley , " Winter Rose / Love Awake " , both portions of which McCartney had demoed at Rude Studio , his home studio at Campbeltown , in 1977 .
" The Broadcast " is another instrumental , designed to give the impression of several radio signals interlaced . Over a musical backing of piano , mellotron and gizmotron , it features readings taken from the plays The Sport of Kings by Ian Hay and The Little Man by John Galsworthy . As a return to the proposed working @-@ band concept , " So Glad to See You Here " , Rodriguez writes , " [ evokes ] the anticipation of a live act guaranteed to ' knock ' em dead ' " and so recalls Wings ' 1975 – 76 show @-@ opening medley " Venus and Mars / Rock Show " . During the outro , the band reprise a line from " We 're Open Tonight " . The album ends with a jazz @-@ inflected ballad , " Baby 's Request " , which McCartney wrote for American vocal group the Mills Brothers , after seeing them perform in the South of France during the summer of 1978 .
= = Production = =
The band first rehearsed material for Back to the Egg in London , at the offices of McCartney 's company MPL Communications in Soho Square , before carrying out further rehearsals in Scotland , in June 1978 . As on his other Wings recordings over 1978 – 79 , Thomas worked with Phil McDonald as his recording engineer , at McCartney 's insistence , rather than Bill Price , who was the producer 's preferred engineer .
= = = Recording and overdubbing = = =
= = = = June – July 1978 : Spirit of Ranachan Studios = = = =
The recording sessions for Back to the Egg began on 29 June 1978 at Spirit of Ranachan Studios – another , larger recording facility on the McCartneys ' Campbeltown farm – using equipment loaned from Mickie Most 's RAK Studio in London . The basic tracks were recorded with a spontaneity that had been absent in Wings ' past work , employing an approach that Juber has described as a " back @-@ to @-@ basics , garage band kind of feel " .
Sessions at Spirit of Ranachan lasted until 27 July , during which the band taped and added overdubs to " Arrow Through Me " , " Again and Again and Again " , " To You " , " Winter Rose " , " Old Siam , Sir " and " Spin It On " . Basic tracks were also completed for " Cage " , a song that remained in the proposed running order for the album until early in 1979 , " Crawl of the Wild " , " Weep for Love " , " Ballroom Dancing " and " Maisie " . These last three compositions would all appear on solo albums by members of Wings between 1980 and 1982 .
In addition , the band filmed a promotional video for the London Town single " I 've Had Enough " while in Scotland and , in early July , recorded demos of twelve pieces intended for the Rupert the Bear film soundtrack . In the case of the latter activity , none of these compositions were revisited for what became Rupert and the Frog Song ( 1984 ) .
= = = = September 1978 : Lympne Castle = = = =
After a break to allow for school summer holidays , recording recommenced on 11 September at Lympne Castle in Kent , using the RAK mobile recording equipment , as before . The choice of location was partly due to the castle 's proximity to the McCartneys ' property " Waterfall " , in Peasmarsh , East Sussex . During sessions lasting through to 29 September , the band recorded " We 're Open Tonight " , " Love Awake " , " After the Ball " , " Million Miles " , " Reception " and " The Broadcast " .
Recording took place mainly in the castle 's great hall , with Holly 's drum kit positioned in the fireplace . McCartney and Juber taped their acoustic guitar parts for " We 're Open Tonight " in a stairwell . Excerpted from books found in the library , the readings for " Reception " and " The Broadcast " were overdubbed in the kitchen and performed by the owners of Lympne Castle , Harold and Dierdre Margary .
= = = = October – December 1978 : Abbey Road Studios = = = =
Sessions moved to Abbey Road Studios in London on 3 October . That day , Wings joined with a supergroup of guest musicians , collectively known as " Rockestra " , to record the tracks " Rockestra Theme " and " So Glad to See You Here " . A camera crew led by Barry Chattington filmed the proceedings , and a 40 @-@ minute documentary , titled Rockestra , was later compiled from the footage . Equipment used for this session included 60 microphones , a pair of mixing consoles and a 16 @-@ track recording desk . James Honeyman @-@ Scott of the Pretenders , Hank Marvin of the Shadows , the Who 's Pete Townshend , Pink Floyd 's David Gilmour , Led Zeppelin 's John Paul Jones and John Bonham , and the Attractions ' Bruce Thomas all took part . Also among the line @-@ up was the horn section from Wings ' 1975 – 76 world tour , consisting of Howie Casey , Tony Dorsey , Thaddeus Richard and Steve Howard . Keith Moon was meant to participate , but he had died shortly before the session ; Jeff Beck and Eric Clapton were also scheduled to appear .
On 10 October , Wings taped " Getting Closer " at Abbey Road , along with a demo of " Baby 's Request " . McCartney had intended this recording of " Baby 's Request " for the Mills Brothers to use as a guide , but after they asked to be paid for recording the song , he instead included the demo on Back to the Egg . The band then continued with overdubs on these and other songs intermittently through October and November , finishing at Abbey Road on 1 December .
= = = = December 1978 – February 1979 : Replica Studio = = = =
Towards the end of the year , Wings also carried out overdubs at the newly built Replica Studio , located at MPL 's Soho Square offices . Frustrated at the impending unavailability of Abbey Road 's Studio Two – which studio owner and record company EMI needed for its other acts , besides Wings – McCartney had constructed an exact replica of Studio Two in the basement at MPL . Among the work done on Back to the Egg at Replica , the band replaced the final twenty seconds of " So Glad to See You Here " with what Madinger and Easter describe as " a reggae @-@ styled coda " , containing the " We 're Open Tonight " reprise .
Sessions continued there in January and February 1979 . During that time , the band recorded a non @-@ album single – the disco @-@ styled " Goodnight Tonight " , backed with " Daytime Nighttime Suffering " – as a release to coincide with the airing of the long @-@ delayed Wings Over the World special . While noting that McCartney and Laine 's relationship was beginning to unravel at this point , Sounes compares the freshness of these new recordings with the drawn @-@ out sessions for Back to the Egg and writes that the album " was now so overworked it might more aptly have been titled Over @-@ Egged " . Impatient at the amount of time being spent in the recording studio , Laine publicly admitted that he was " desperate " to go out on tour .
= = = Final overdubbing and mixing = = =
In March , Wings moved back to Abbey Road Studios to complete the album . Vocal overdubs were then added to " Winter Rose / Love Awake " and an orchestral @-@ sounding mellotron part to the end of " Getting Closer " . Having worked with the Black Dyke Mills Band in the 1960s , when he produced their 1968 single " Thingumybob " for Apple Records , McCartney invited the band down from Yorkshire to overdub brass accompaniment on " Winter Rose / Love Awake " .
While mixing the album during March , Wings finally discarded the song " Cage " , which had been sequenced as the second track , following " Reception " . The same alternative running order paired the Rockestra recordings at the end of side two , so that the album closed with the " We 're Open Tonight " coda . Holly later recalled that whereas beforehand the band had been confident that Back to the Egg would be a strong album , during the final mixing process " [ it ] dawned on us there might be problems " . At the last minute , " Baby 's Request " replaced " Cage " and the running order was revised , with the result that the working @-@ band concept became less pronounced .
= = Album artwork and promotional videos = =
The design for the album 's artwork was by Hipgnosis , the company responsible for previous Wings album covers such as Venus and Mars ( 1975 ) and the recent Wings Greatest compilation ( 1978 ) . The front cover depicts the five members of Wings in a room , looking down through space at Planet Earth through an open hatchway in the floor ; the picture was taken by photographer John Shaw at his London studio . Photos of the individual band members appeared on the back cover , credited to Linda and Paul McCartney .
Working with film company Keef & Co . , Wings filmed seven promotional videos for the album , which would later be compiled into the Back to the Egg TV special . Filming took place between 4 and 13 June , at locations including Lympne Castle 's main hall , a private airfield at Lympne , Camber Sands in East Sussex , and Keef & Co . ' s London studios . " Old Siam , Sir " , " Getting Closer " , " Spin It On " and " Arrow Through Me " were among the tracks for which videos were made .
= = Release = =
" Goodnight Tonight " had been issued on Columbia Records in America , marking McCartney 's break from EMI @-@ affiliated Capitol Records , although he and Wings remained with EMI 's Parlophone label in the UK . McCartney 's contract with Columbia made him the highest @-@ paid recording artist in the world . As an incentive for McCartney , Columbia 's parent company , CBS , had added to his publishing portfolio by giving him the highly profitable Frank Music catalogue – making McCartney the copyright holder to Guys and Dolls and other popular musicals by Frank Loesser .
Back to the Egg was released on 24 May 1979 in the US ( as Columbia FC @-@ 36057 ) , and on 8 June in the UK ( as Parlophone PCTC 257 ) . In Britain , " Old Siam , Sir " was the album 's first single , whereas " Getting Closer " was the choice in America ; in both cases , " Spin It On " was the B @-@ side . On 11 June , an album launch party took place inside Abbey Road 's Studio Two , which had been blacked @-@ out like a large frying pan , while tables carrying yellow parasols represented fried eggs sitting in the pan . Part of Chattington 's Rockestra documentary was screened during the event , the only public airing the film received .
The follow @-@ up singles , issued in August , were " Arrow Through Me " in the US and " Getting Closer " in the UK , the latter release a double A @-@ side with " Baby 's Request " . In some European countries , " Rockestra Theme " was released as a single .
Compared to the major commercial success of previous Wings albums , sales of Back to the Egg were disappointing , and none of its singles became significant hits . In the UK , " Old Siam , Sir " and " Getting Closer " climbed to number 35 and number 60 , respectively . On America 's Billboard Hot 100 chart , " Getting Closer " peaked at number 20 , and " Arrow Through Me " at number 29 . Back to the Egg reached number 6 in the UK and number 8 on the Billboard 200 , although US chart compilers Cashbox and Record World both listed it at number 7 . With heavy promotion from Columbia , the album sold over 1 million copies in America ; in Britain , retail outlets soon slashed its price in an attempt to dispense with their surplus of stock .
McCartney later reflected that for an act other than Wings , sales such as those for Back to the Egg would have been considered " very healthy " . Given CBS 's substantial investment in their new signing , Madinger and Easter write , the album 's apparent failure led to a period of " mutual finger @-@ pointing between Paul and Columbia Records " , lasting until his contract expired in 1985 .
= = Reception = =
Back to the Egg received predominantly negative reviews on release ; author Alan Clayson writes of the album receiving " a critical mauling as vicious as that for London Town " . In an especially unfavourable critique for Rolling Stone magazine , Timothy White described it as " the sorriest grab bag of dreck in recent memory " and lamented that none of the songs were " the least bit fleshed out " , with the listener instead given " an irritating display of disjointed images and unfocused musical snapshots " . After opining that , since 1970 , " this ex @-@ Beatle has been lending his truly prodigious talents ... to some of the laziest records in the history of rock & roll " , White wrote : " Who , one felt compelled to ask , is in charge here ? Back to the Egg provides the final , obvious answer : no one . "
Music critic Robert Christgau said of McCartney and the new Wings album : " When he 's on , Paulie 's abundant tunefulness passes for generosity . Here he 's just hoping something will stick . " In Melody Maker , Ray Coleman wrote that McCartney " seems to be on a treadmill of banality " . Coleman described " Rockestra Theme " and " So Glad to See You Here " as " creditable , rolling , raunchy and at least efficient , with Paul 's voice at its rocking best on the last named track " , but concluded : " This album gets Wings nowhere ... " Billboard 's reviewer gave Back to the Egg " Spotlight " status ( meaning " the most outstanding new product of the week 's releases and that with the greatest potential for top of the chart placement " ) and commented : " The music features typical McCartney fare of late with nothing here that will distinguish it as one of his classics . The arrangements , though , are interesting , encompassing a variety of styles . "
In a more positive assessment , for Creem magazine , Mitchell Cohen highlighted the album 's second side as " a collection of McCartney performances that string together like abbey roadwork " , and praised McCartney 's vocals relative to his past work , writing : " all of the current tracks are terser , sung better , have less of what I suppose would be called the recording artist 's equivalent of camera consciousness . " To NME critic Bob Woffinden , the attempt at an album @-@ wide concept was " a pretty half @-@ baked one " and Hipgnosis ' cover photo was " easily the album 's strongest point " . While identifying the songs as " particularly weak lyrically " , Woffinden concluded : " It was the familiar McCartney problem . He had every essential creative requirement , except the discipline required to knead the parts into a perfect whole . "
AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine views Back to the Egg as " a set of [ McCartney 's ] most undistinguished songs " that " have no spark whatsoever " , and bemoans " the weak sound of the record and Wings ' faceless performances " . Among McCartney biographers , Vincent Benitez writes that the songs are " uneven in quality " , and Howard Sounes describes the album as " a curate 's egg , good in parts , with token attempts at sounding contemporary " . Tom Doyle views " the new wave @-@ ish rockers " like " Spin It On " as " too smoothed out to be truly edgy " and the two spoken @-@ word tracks as " weird – and not in a good way " . Doyle considers that while Back to the Egg has its " moments of inspiration " , " There was too much material [ recorded during the sessions ] , and yet not enough of it to gel into a cohesive album . "
= = Aftermath and reissues = =
With the album falling well short of Columbia 's and McCartney 's expectations commercially , McCartney spent the remainder of summer 1979 recording in Peasmarsh and Campbeltown , without Wings , creating his solo album McCartney II ( 1980 ) . During November and December 1979 , US TV stations aired the 31 @-@ minute Back to the Egg special , as Wings undertook a nineteen @-@ show UK tour , the first leg of the proposed world tour . Among the songs in the setlist , they performed several tracks from Back to the Egg : " Getting Closer " , " Again and Again and Again " , " Old Siam , Sir " , " Spin It On " and " Arrow Through Me " .
The band were scheduled to tour Japan during January and February 1980 , but the concerts , together with their tour dates elsewhere in the world , were cancelled after McCartney was arrested for possession of drugs when entering the country . Around this time , " Rockestra Theme " won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance . Wings regrouped in October 1980 to finish off songs for the planned Cold Cuts album , a compilation that McCartney had suggested when CBS sought to recover part of its financial losses from Back to the Egg . The reunion with Wings was short @-@ lived and the band broke up in April 1981 .
On 20 June 1989 , by which time McCartney had returned to Capitol Records , Back to the Egg was released on CD in America . In August 1993 , Parlophone reissued the album as part of The Paul McCartney Collection with three bonus tracks : " Daytime Nighttime Suffering " , McCartney 's 1979 Christmas single " Wonderful Christmastime " , and the latter 's B @-@ side , " Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reggae " . Samples of " Reception " and " The Broadcast " appeared on the Fireman 's Strawberries Oceans Ships Forest ( 1993 ) album , a collaboration between McCartney and Youth . In 2007 , Back to the Egg was released on iTunes , with a remix of " Goodnight Tonight " as a bonus track .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Paul McCartney , except where noted .
= = = Original release = = =
Side one ( " Sunny Side Up " )
" Reception " – 1 : 08
" Getting Closer " – 3 : 22
" We 're Open Tonight " – 1 : 28
" Spin It On " – 2 : 12
" Again and Again and Again " ( Denny Laine ) – 3 : 34
" Old Siam , Sir " – 4 : 11
" Arrow Through Me " – 3 : 37
Side two ( " Over Easy " )
" Rockestra Theme " – 2 : 35
" To You " – 3 : 12
" After the Ball / Million Miles " – 4 : 00
" Winter Rose / Love Awake " – 4 : 58
" The Broadcast " – 1 : 30
" So Glad to See You Here " – 3 : 20
" Baby 's Request " – 2 : 49
= = = Reissues = = =
Bonus tracks
1993 The Paul McCartney Collection :
" Daytime Nighttime Suffering " – 3 : 23
" Wonderful Christmastime " – 3 : 49
" Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reggae " ( Johnny Marks ) – 1 : 48
2007 iTunes version :
" Goodnight Tonight " ( extended version ) – 7 : 16
= = Personnel = =
Wings and additional personnel per Benitez . Rockestra line @-@ up and production per sleeve .
Wings
Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals , bass , acoustic and electric guitars , keyboards , concertina on " Million Miles " , piano and harpsichord on " Winter Rose "
Linda McCartney – keyboards , backing vocals
Denny Laine – lead vocal on " Again and Again and Again " , electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals
Laurence Juber – electric and acoustic guitars , guitar synthesizer
Steve Holley – drums , percussion
Additional personnel
Black Dyke Mills Band – horns on " Love Awake "
Dierdre Margary , Harold Margary – book readings
Rockestra line @-@ up on " Rockestra Theme " and " So Glad to See You Here "
Denny Laine , Laurence Juber , David Gilmour , Hank Marvin , Pete Townshend – guitars
Steve Holly , John Bonham , Kenney Jones – drums
Paul McCartney , John Paul Jones , Ronnie Lane , Bruce Thomas – basses
Paul McCartney , Gary Brooker , John Paul Jones – pianos
Linda McCartney , Tony Ashton – keyboards
Speedy Acquaye , Tony Carr , Ray Cooper , Morris Pert – percussion
Howie Casey , Tony Dorsey , Steve Howard , Thaddeus Richard – horns
Production
Paul McCartney and Chris Thomas – producers
Phil McDonald – engineer
Mark Vigars – assistant engineer
John Shaw – front cover photo
Linda McCartney , Paul McCartney – back cover photos
Hipgnosis – design
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Victory Road ( 2008 ) =
Victory Road ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on July 13 , 2008 at the Reliant Arena in Houston , Texas . It was the fourth event under the Victory Road name and the seventh event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card , three of which were for championships .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , in which the champion Samoa Joe defended the title against the challenger Booker T. The match ended in a no @-@ contest after interference from Sting and various security personnel , thus causing Joe to retain the championship . A Six Man Tag Team Full Metal Mayhem match was also featured at Victory Road , pitting the team of A.J. Styles , Christian Cage , and Rhino against the team of Kurt Angle and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Angle and Team 3D were the victors in the contest . The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match at the show , in which the champions The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) defeated Beer Money Incorporated . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) to retain the title . The final two rounds of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament took place at Victory Road . The third round featured a Four Team Twelve Man Elimination Tag Team match , which Team TNA won . The final round was a Four Way Ultimate X match , in which Team Mexico 's Volador Jr. defeated Team International 's Daivari , Team TNA 's Kaz , and Team Japan 's Naruki Doi .
Victory Road is remembered for the closing of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament . 25 @,@ 000 was the reported figure of purchasers for the event by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Victory Road had an attendance of 3 @,@ 000 people . Bob Kapur of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show a 7 out of 10 , which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Chris Sokol .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The fourth installment under the Victory Road name was announced in January 2008 with a July 13 date attached . In May 2008 , TNA hoped to host a PPV event in Houston , Texas by the end of the year , the earliest timeframe being late summer . TNA issued a press release in late @-@ May 2008 revealing that Victory Road would be held at the Reliant Arena in Houston , Texas . Tickets for the show went on @-@ sale on May 30 . TNA released a poster to promote the event featuring the tagline " Houston , We Have a Problem " as well as Booker T and Samoa Joe . The final two rounds of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament were scheduled to take place at Victory Road . An online vote commenced at the start of the show to select a stipulation for a Six Man Tag Team match promoted for the show . The choices were Falls Count Anywhere match , Tables match , or Full Metal Mayhem .
= = = Storylines = = =
Victory Road featured eight professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Victory Road was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Samoa Joe and the challenger Booker T. Joe and Booker T previously fought at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 8 in a King of the Mountain match for the title , which Joe won to remain champion . On the June 12 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Booker T claimed that Joe did not beat him at the event due to interference from Joe 's mentor Kevin Nash . This led to Nash stating that Joe could not beat Booker T in a one @-@ on @-@ one match . After this segment , Joe announced that Booker T and he would face at Victory Road for the title . Since Houston is Booker T 's hometown , TNA promoted the match as him attempting to win the championship for the people of Houston . On the July 10 episode of Impact ! , Sting proclaimed that he did not know which of the two would win at Victory Road , but that he would be there to watch .
The predominate storyline heading into the event was the rivalry between A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle , both members of The Angle Alliance . On the February 14 episode of Impact ! , TNA held the scripted wedding of Angle 's real @-@ life wife Karen Angle and Styles despite Angle and Karen still being married on @-@ screen . Afterwards , Karen and Angle separated in the storyline on the March 13 episode of Impact ! . TNA continued to build the situation with Angle attempting to reconcile with Karen on the May 15 episode of Impact ! . Karen refused Angle 's request on the May 22 episode of Impact ! , leading to Angle turning on and assaulting Styles later in the episode due to his jealousy of the affection Karen showed for Styles . This led to a match between the two at Slammiversary which Styles won after a distraction by Karen . The two faced in a Lumberjack match on the June 12 episode of Impact ! , which Angle won before it ended in a brawl between Styles , Angle , Tomko , Christian Cage , Rhino , Abyss , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Afterwards , Team 3D and the team of Cage and Rhino became involved in the feud with Team 3D joining Angle , while Cage and Rhino sided with Styles . Team 3D then injured both Cage and Rhino in the narrative , with Rhino being knocked out on the June 19 episode of Impact ! , while on the June 26 episode of Impact ! Cage was slammed through a glass table by Brother Ray . Rhino returned from injury on the July 3 episode of Impact ! , challenging Team 3D and Angle to a Six Man Tag Team match at Victory Road , while teasing at adding Full Metal Mayhem rules to the bout . TNA promoted the match for the event afterwards .
The conclusion to the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament was held at Victory Road with two matches completing the final two rounds . The World X Cup was a tournament consisting of teams competing against each other for points . There were four teams each made up of four men , with three teams representing a country and one representing TNA . These teams were Team TNA ( Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Curry Man , and Kazarian ) , Team Japan ( Masato Yoshino , Milano Collection A.T. , Naruki Doi , and Puma ) , Team Mexico ( Averno , Rey Bucanero , Último Guerrero , and Volador Jr . ) , and Team International ( Alex Koslov , Daivari , Doug Williams , and Tyson Dux ) . The World X Cup began on the June 19 episode of Impact ! , with round one being tag team matches worth one point each . Round one concluded on the June 26 episode of Impact ! . Round two was standard wrestling matches worth two points each on the July 3 and July 10 episodes of Impact ! . The fourth round was announced on the June 19 episode of Impact ! to take place at Victory Road in an Ultimate X match . The The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that the third round of the tournament would be a multi @-@ man team elimination match consisting of the wrestlers not competing in the fourth round .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match by The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) against James Storm and Robert Roode . On the June 12 episode of Impact ! , Roode and Storm teamed to face LAX for the World Tag Team Championship . The match was originally won by Roode and Storm before being restarted due to interference . LAX won the restart to retain the championship . After the bout , Roode and Storm assaulted LAX and their manager Héctor Guerrero . Management Director Jim Cornette scheduled a title defense at Victory Road between LAX and Roode and Storm under " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack rules on the June 19 episode of Impact ! . TNA announced on the June 26 episode of Impact ! that a contest was being held with the winner getting a free trip to participate in the match as a lumberjack .
= = Event = =
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Victory Road featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast , with Frank Trigg providing commentary for the Full Metal Mayhem match only . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Velvet Sky , SoCal Val , Héctor Guerrero , Salinas , Jackie Moore , Raisha Saeed , Abyss , Johnny Devine , Sharmell , and Sting all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The show opened with the third round of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament . It was a Four Team Twelve Man Elimination Tag Team match between Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , and Curry Man of Team TNA , Masato Yoshino , Milano Collection A.T. , and Puma of Team Japan , Averno , Rey Bucanero , and Último Guerrero of Team Mexico , and Alex Koslov , Doug Williams , and Tyson Dux of Team International . The bout lasted 24 minutes and 16 seconds . The rules of this encounter involved only two wrestlers in the ring at all times , with any member of any team being allowed to tag in at any time . Members of each team were eliminated until only one team remained , that team was considered the winner and earned three points in the World X Cup . The match came down to Shelley of Team TNA and Yoshino of Team Japan . Shelley won the bout by pinning Yoshino after forcing Yoshino back @-@ first onto the mat with his signature Automatic Midnight maneuver .
The second match pitted Gail Kim against Angelina Love . Love was accompanied to the ring by Velvet Sky . The duration of the match was 6 minutes and 13 seconds . Early in the bout , Kim held Love in a Figure @-@ Four Leglock submission hold around a ringpost , which she was forced to release by the referee . Later , Kim slammed Love back @-@ first onto the mat with her signature Happy Ending maneuver and followed with the pinfall for the win .
Sonjay Dutt fought Jay Lethal in the next bout on the card . Lethal was accompanied to the ring by SoCal Val . The contest lasted 8 minutes and 24 seconds . Dutt was the victor in the encounter by using a roll @-@ up pinning maneuver on Lethal while he was distracted by Val .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match by LAX against James Storm and Robert Roode — now known as Beer Money Incorporated — in the fourth match of the show . LAX were accompanied to the ring by Salinas and Héctor Guerrero , while Storm and Roode were accompanied by Jackie Moore . In a " Fan 's Revenge " Lumberjack match , people are chosen from the audience to take part in the encounter by standing around the ring with straps , in which their primary purpose is to make sure all the participants remain in the ring . If the participants do not remain in the ring , then the fans that are chosen are supposed to hit them with the straps until they re @-@ enter . Roode was whipped twice during the encounter ; the first when he was thrown to the ringside area , while the second was when he fell to the outside . LAX won the match at 10 minutes and 6 seconds when Hernandez pinned Roode following LAX 's signature 5150 tag team maneuver .
The TNA Women 's Knockout Championship was defended by Taylor Wilde against Awesome Kong next in a bout that lasted 4 minutes and 51 seconds . Kong was accompanied by Raisha Saeed to the ring . Wilde won the match with a victory roll pin on Kong to retain the championship . After the bout , Kong and Saeed assaulted Wilde until Abyss came to her defense .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fourth and final round of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament was next involving one member of each respective team in a Four Way Ultimate X match . The encounter was between Daivari of Team International , Kaz of Team TNA , Naruki Doi of Team Japan , and Volador Jr. of Team Mexico . In an Ultimate X match , two steel cables are attached to four steel supports in such a way that they form an " X " above the ring . At the center of this " X " an item is hung , which must be retrieved by a participant to win the match . In this bout , the item hanging above the ring was an enlarged red " X " which symbolized four points in the World X Cup . During the encounter , Kaz ascended one of the steel supports before jumping off towards the center of the ring and slamming his leg onto Daivari , who was holding onto the cables . This action forced both of them to fall and crash onto the ring mat below . Afterwards , Volador Jr ascended the cables and retrieved the " X " to win the match and four points for Team Mexico at 10 minutes and 58 seconds . With this victory , Team Mexico won the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament with seven points , compared to six by Team TNA , and three by Team Japan and Team International , respectively . Team Mexico were awarded a trophy for their victory after the bout by Mike Tenay and TNA Spanish commentator Willie Urbina .
A Six Man Tag Team Full Metal Mayhem match followed pitting the team of Kurt Angle and Team 3D against A.J. Styles , Christian Cage , and Rhino . The duration of the contest was 15 minutes and 55 seconds . In this bout , the only way to win was by pinfall or submission , all weapons were legal and encouraged , and there were no disqualifications . Cage ascended the steel supports left behind from the Ultimate X match during the bout to jump off in an aerial splash onto both members of Team 3D and Angle . Each participant of the match was forced through a table during the bout except Angle . Rhino was the first by Team 3D , followed by Cage also by Team 3D . Each member of Team 3D were then forced through a table by Styles . After this , Johnny Devine interfered in the encounter on Team 3D 's behalf by attempting to hit Styles with a kendo stick , only to be kicked in the head by Styles . Later , Styles laid Angle on a table and ascended a ladder . At this time , Frank Trigg interfered by hitting Styles over the head with the kendo stick , allowing Angle to force Styles through the set @-@ up table with his signature Olympic Slam maneuver for the pinfall victory .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , in which then @-@ champion Samoa Joe defended the title against the challenger Booker T. Joe 's forehead was cut open during the match after being thrown into a pair of steel ring steps . Booker T also had his forehead cut open during the contest . Several referees were knocked out by Joe in the storyline throughout the encounter , to the point that security was sent down to the ring to restrain Joe . Booker T 's legitimate wife Sharmell then interfered in the bout , attempting to get someone to stop Joe as he applied his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold on Booker T. Sting then entered the arena and went to the ring to calm down Joe , who listened at first , before giving Sting the finger and continuing his assault on Booker T. Sting retaliated by bashing Joe in the gut and over the back with a baseball bat . Booker T then covered Joe , while Sharmell counted the pinfall before the two left the arena with the title belt , leaving the outcome a mystery before being ruled a no @-@ contest at 15 minutes and 14 seconds .
= = Reception = =
A total of 3 @,@ 000 people attended Victory Road , while the The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 25 @,@ 000 people bought the event . Canadian Online Explorer writer Bob Kapur rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 , which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Chris Sokol . The 7 out of 10 was higher than the 5 out of 10 given to the 2009 edition by Chris and Bryan Sokol . Victory Road 's rating was the same as the one received by Slammiversary the month prior by Jon Waldman . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) The Great American Bash PPV event on July 20 , Victory Road fared better as The Great American Bash received a 6 out of 10 from Dave Hillhouse .
Kapur discussed in his review how the main event of a show can impact the rest of the event . He stated that " a confusing , overbooked fustercluck " main event , such as the one at Victory Road , " can leave a bad taste in your mouth after it ’ s over , even if everything else was pretty solid . " He went on to say that based on the crowd reaction the " finish seemed to dampen the enthusiasm of what was otherwise a really good show , " and that it was " unfortunate , because everything leading up to that point was good to great . " Kapur gave the main event a 3 out of 10 , while the Full Metal Mayhem match and the World Tag Team Championship both received a 7 out of 10 . The third round of the 2008 TNA World X Cup Tournament was given a 9 out of 10 , while the final round received an 8 out of 10 .
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the event . He felt the main event had a " good start to what might have been a decent match " but stated that it was " far from a satisfying finish " for the price . Keller felt the Full Metal Mayhem bout was a " clustermess of a match , " but at the same time was " entertaining start to finish . " As for the World Tag Team Championship match , he said that it felt " anticlimactic " and that having the fans at ringside was more of a " distraction " than a " payoff . " Regarding the World X Cup , Keller said the third round bout was a dream match for some with " lots of cool spots from start to finish , " but that it had " little context early " and was more just a " bunch of spots . " He also said that the " last ten minutes was better without as many people tagging in and out somewhat indiscriminately . " As for the final round , Keller commented that " it had some spectacular ( and ridiculously dangerous looking ) spots , " but that it ended up " feeling short for a match of that caliber . "
James Caldwell , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter , reviewed the show live from the arena . He said the main event had a " terrible terrible finish " which " killed the crowd . " He also commented that it was one of the " worst finishes " he had " ever seen . " Caldwell stated that the Full Metal Mayhem match had " lots of crazy spots " and that A.J. Styles received a " superstar pop coming out to the ring " from the audience that " carried on throughout the match " . He felt the World Tag Team Championship match was an " OK tag match . " As for the World X Cup , Caldwell stated that the third round bout was " entertaining yet quite long " and that the " crowd was super into Sabin and Shelley . " He also said that after the match settled into " one @-@ on @-@ one action " it " turned into a pretty good match . " The final round was seen by Caldwell as " one of those rinse and repeat spot fest matches until Kaz busted out the big double foot stomp on Daivari that popped the crowd . " Overall , he called it a " one spot match . "
= = Aftermath = =
Brother Devon injured his ankle during the Full Metal Mayhem match , while Kaz injured his hip due to his jump during the Ultimate X match . Devon was later diagnosed with a deep sprain of the Achilles tendon .
Everyone used as lumberjacks in the TNA World Tag Team Championship bout were legitimate fans from the Houston area , while only the national winner from the promoted contest was not from Houston .
After Victory Road , Samoa Joe and Booker T continued their rivalry over the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 17 episode of Impact , Management Director Jim Cornette demanded that Booker T give the championship back to Joe , who was recognized as the official champion by TNA . Booker T refused this demand , while Joe also declined the offer as he felt he did not deserve to hold the title due to being pinned at the event . Due to these feelings , Cornette instead scheduled a rematch between the two for the championship at TNA 's next PPV event Hard Justice on August 10 . On the July 24 episode of Impact ! , Joe challenged Booker T to contest their rematch in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match , which Booker T accepted after adding that weapons would be allowed in the match . Joe defeated Booker T at the event to retain the championship .
A.J. Styles and Kurt Angle went on to face each other in a Last Man Standing match at Hard Justice . This bout was announced on the July 31 episode of Impact ! , when Styles challenged Angle to a match at Hard Justice to end their rivalry . This was due to Angle assaulting Styles from behind earlier in the episode . Styles defeated Angle at the event .
On the July 31 episode of Impact ! , Team 3D cost Cage and Rhino the chance to become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship in a match against Beer Money Incorporated . After the match , Cage challenged Team 3D to a New Jersey Street Fight at Hard Justice , which Team 3D accepted . Cage and Rhino were the victors in the contest at the event .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship went on to be defended by LAX at Hard Justice against Beer Money Incorporated . On the July 31 episode of Impact ! , Beer Money Incorporated defeated Cage and Rhino to become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the August 7 episode of Impact ! , Beer Money Incorporated forced Homicide through a glass table , injuring his eye in the storyline . Beer Money Incorporated defeated LAX to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship at the event .
After Victory Road , Sonjay Dutt and Jay Lethal had another match at Hard Justice , this time the match was promoted as Black Tie Brawl and Chain match . Lethal won the encounter at the event . Also featured at Hard Justice was a Six Woman Tag Team match , pitting the team of Gail Kim , Taylor Wilde , and ODB against the team of Awesome Kong and The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) . The team of Kim , Wilde , and ODB were the victors of the contest at the show .
= = Results = =
World X Cup Elimination match
1 . ^
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= Asama @-@ Sansō incident =
The Asama @-@ Sansō incident ( あさま山荘事件 , Asama sansō jiken ) was a hostage crisis and police siege in a mountain lodge near Karuizawa , Nagano prefecture , Japan that lasted from February 19 , 1972 to February 28 , 1972 . The police rescue operation on the final day of the standoff was the first marathon live television broadcast in Japan , lasting 10 hours and 40 minutes .
The incident began when five armed members of the United Red Army ( URA ) , following a bloody purge that left 14 members of the group plus one bystander dead , broke into a holiday lodge below Mount Asama , taking the wife of the lodge @-@ keeper as a hostage . A standoff between police and the URA radicals took place , lasting ten days . The lodge was a natural fortress , solidly constructed of thick concrete on a steep hillside with only one entrance , which , along with their guns , enabled the hostage @-@ takers to keep police at a distance .
On February 28 , the police stormed the lodge . Two police officers were killed in the assault , the hostage was rescued and the URA radicals were taken into custody . The incident contributed to a decline in popularity of leftist movements in Japan .
= = Background = =
Japan 's leftist student movement in the 1960s pervaded Japan 's universities , and , by late in the decade , had become very factionalized , competitive , and violent . After a series of incidents in which leftist student groups attacked and injured or killed law enforcement officials and the general public , Japan 's national police agency cracked down on the student groups , raiding their hideouts and arresting dozens in 1971 and 1972 . Attempting to conceal themselves from the police , a core group of radicals from the URA retreated to a compound in Gunma Prefecture during the winter of 1972 .
In the second week of February 1972 at the compound , URA 's chairman Tsuneo Mori and vice @-@ chairman Hiroko Nagata ( sometimes referred to as Yoko Nagata ) initiated a violent purge of the group 's members . In the purge , Nagata and Mori directed the deaths by beating of eight members and one non @-@ member who happened to be present . Six other members were tied to trees outside where they froze to death in the frigid mountain winter air . On February 16 , police arrested Mori , Nagata , and six other URA members at the compound or at a nearby village . Five others , armed with rifles and shotguns , managed to escape , fleeing on foot through the mountains towards Karuizawa in nearby Nagano prefecture . The five fugitives were Kunio Bandō , 25 , a graduate of Kyoto University , Masakuni Yoshino , 23 , a senior at Yokohama National University , Hiroshi Sakaguchi , 25 , a dropout of Tokyo Suisan University , Jirō Katō , 19 , and his brother Saburō Katō , 16 .
= = Incident = =
Sighting the police pursuit near the community of Karuizawa on February 19 , the five radicals took refuge in a vacation lodge called Asama Sansō ( Asama Mountain Villa ) owned by Kawai Musical Instruments Manufacturing . The radicals entered the lodge and discovered Yasuko Muta , the 31 @-@ year @-@ old wife of the lodge 's caretaker . She was the only person in the building , as her husband was walking the dog and the lodge 's guests had gone ice skating . The radicals took Muta hostage at gunpoint and barricaded the building .
The lodge 's structure made it a stronghold . The lodge , named after nearby Mount Asama , was a three @-@ story wood and concrete edifice built into the side of the hill atop an exposed base of steel @-@ reinforced concrete . The upper floor was slightly larger than the two below , giving the lodge a mushroom appearance . The building towered over the steep , snow @-@ covered slopes below and the lodge 's windows had heavy outer storm shutters . The building 's maze @-@ like floor plan and narrow staircases made it easy for the defenders to block off movement inside the building . The radicals would spend most of their time on the uppermost floor , which contained a kitchen , dining room , tatami @-@ mat sleeping room , and a commanding view of the surrounding valley and hills . The radicals placed large pieces of furniture and futon bedding around the doors and windows and secured them in place with wire . When Muta 's husband returned and saw the barricades he realized what had happened and quickly notified police . The police immediately set up roadblocks and surrounded the lodge to cut off any avenues of escape for the radicals inside .
The police decided to wait to see if the radicals would surrender on their own . After three days without a surrender offer from the hostage @-@ takers , the police shut off the electricity to the lodge and set up loudspeakers from which the parents of several of the radicals implored them to surrender , to no avail . One of the participating parents ' son had been killed in the purge incident , but both the police and the parent were unaware of this because the full extent of the purge had not yet become known .
On February 25 , the police began to prepare to assault the lodge . A wrecking ball crane with an armored driver 's compartment was positioned near the building and police armed themselves with ladders , heavy mallets , and chainsaws . Muta 's husband implored the radicals by loudspeaker to release his wife , but was ignored . On February 27 , the police used a baseball pitching machine to bombard the building with rocks to keep the hostage @-@ takers awake all night .
The police moved into position for the assault at 8 a.m. on February 28 and issued a final ultimatum an hour later , which went unheeded by the radicals . At 10 a.m. the wrecking @-@ ball crane began to batter the lodge 's walls . The police cautiously approached the building and began to break through the barricades . By noon , the police had occupied the two lower floors , isolating the radicals and Muta on the top floor .
The police experienced difficulty in breaching the radicals ' defenses on the top floor and hours later had not made much headway . The police directed high @-@ pressure water hoses at the top floor , gouging out large holes in the building 's walls and drenching the radicals and Muta with cold water . During this time , the radicals kept up continuous gunfire on the assaulting police and threw homemade bombs at them . Two policemen , Shigemitsu Takami , 42 , and Hisataka Uchida , 47 , were shot and killed and 15 other policemen were injured . A civilian observer who intruded into the area without police permission was also shot , reportedly by the radicals , and fatally wounded .
As darkness fell , the police breached the top floor 's barricades and captured one of the Katō brothers . The remaining four radicals burrowed into a pile of futon bedding and refused to surrender . As the police approached them , Kunio Bandō shot one of the policemen , Masahiro Endō , in the eye . Endō lost his eye but survived . Eventually , at 6 : 15 p.m. , 280 hours after the incident began , the remaining four radicals were taken into custody and Muta was rescued . Muta was cold but uninjured and told police that her captors had not mistreated her , although they had tied her to a bed during most of the standoff . That same evening , despondent over his son 's behavior , Kunio Bandō 's father hanged himself in his home in Ōtsu , a city near Kyoto .
= = Media coverage = =
Throughout the stand @-@ off , the incident was extensively covered by Japanese broadcast media , which gave frequent reports and updates . Muta 's photo was shown repeatedly on television .
At 9 : 40 a.m. on February 28 , public broadcaster NHK began live , continuous coverage of the siege that lasted until 8 : 20 p.m. that night . Ratings for NHK 's non @-@ stop coverage averaged 50 @.@ 8 % and peaked at 89 @.@ 7 % at 6 : 26 p.m. Vehicle traffic was noticeably lighter throughout the day in Tokyo .
= = Aftermath = =
The five radicals were charged on six counts : two murders , one attempted murder , obstructing police in the execution of their duties , violation of the Swords and Firearms Control Law , and illegal confinement . Four were sentenced to long prison terms and Hiroshi Sakaguchi was sentenced to death . On 24 June 2013 , the Supreme Court of Japan rejected an appeal from Sakaguchi for a retrial , leaving Sakaguchi on death row awaiting execution .
On August 8 , 1975 the Japanese government released Kunio Bandō and flew him to asylum in Libya in response to demands from Japanese Red Army members who had stormed the American and Swedish embassies in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia and taken 53 hostages . Bandō later is believed to have assisted in the hijacking of Japan Airlines Flight 472 from Paris to Tokyo in 1977 , forcing the jet to land in Dhaka . Bandō remains at large and reportedly spent time between 1997 and 2007 in Russia , China , the Philippines , and Japan .
Yasuko Muta remained in the Karuizawa area , working at another lodge . She refused to speak any further about her ordeal since her initial statements to the police and press after she was rescued .
The incident , along with the Lod Airport massacre which occurred several months later , and several hijackings , contributed to an intense social backlash among the population of Japan against radical student leftist groups . After the incident , the leftist movement in Japan greatly decreased in numbers and enjoyed much less popular support . A 2007 film by Kōji Wakamatsu about the incident titled United Red Army won the Japanese Eyes Best Picture award at the October 2007 Tokyo International Film Festival .
= = = Books = = =
Schreiber , Mark ( 1996 ) . Shocking Crimes of Postwar Japan . Tuttle Publishing . ISBN 4 @-@ 900737 @-@ 34 @-@ 8 .
= = = Movies = = =
Totsunyûseyo ! Asama sansô jiken ( The Choice of Hercules ) at the Internet Movie Database – Masato Harada ( 2002 )
Jitsuroku rengô sekigun : Asama sansô e no michi ( United Red Army - The Path to Asama Mountain Lodge ) at the Internet Movie Database - Kōji Wakamatsu ( 2007 )
= = = Web = = =
Japan Times ( October 31 , 1997 ) . " Death @-@ row convict wins libel case " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
Kyodo News ( May 26 , 1998 ) . " Court dismisses death @-@ row inmates ' translation appeals " . FindArticles . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Kyodo News ( February 27 , 2003 ) . " Wanted radical Kunio Bando was in Philippines in 2000 : sources " . BNet . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
Nakamura , Akemi ( February 1 , 2008 ) . " Film looks at ' 72 Asama ultraleftists " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 12 @-@ 24 .
Nakamura , Akemi ( March 20 , 2008 ) . " ' We did not leave anything positive , ' says ex @-@ radical " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
NHK . " Asama @-@ Sanso Incident " . 50 Years of NHK Television . NHK . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Pulvers , Roger ( February 11 , 2007 ) . " Mammon and myopia : Japan 's governing ' 70s legacy " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
Schilling , Mark ( March 20 , 2008 ) . " The final days of revolutionary struggle in Japan " . Japan Times . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 25 .
= = = Japanese Wikipedia = = =
坂口弘 Hiroshi Sakaguchi
永田洋子 Hiroko Nagata
森恒夫 Tsuneo Mori
坂東國男 Kunio Bandō
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= 2010 Sylvania 300 =
The 2010 Sylvania 300 was a stock car racing competition that took place on September 19 , 2010 . Held at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon , New Hampshire , the 300 @-@ lap race was the twenty @-@ seventh in the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series , as well as the first in the ten @-@ race Chase for the Sprint Cup , which ended the season . Clint Bowyer of the Richard Childress Racing team won the race ; Denny Hamlin finished second and Jamie McMurray came in third .
Brad Keselowski won the pole position , although he was almost immediately passed by Tony Stewart at the start of the race . Many Chase for the Sprint Cup participants , including Jimmie Johnson , Kurt Busch , and Hamlin , were in the top ten for most of the race , although some encountered problems in the closing laps . Stewart was leading the race with two laps remaining but ran out of fuel , giving the lead , and the win , to Bowyer . There were twenty @-@ one lead changes among eight different drivers , as well as eight cautions during the race .
The race was Bowyer 's first win in the 2010 season , and the third of his career . The result advanced Bowyer to second in the Drivers ' Championship , thirty @-@ five points behind Hamlin and ten ahead of Kevin Harvick , although he fell to twelfth in the standings after receiving a post @-@ race penalty . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , thirty @-@ two points ahead of Toyota and seventy @-@ four ahead of Ford , with nine races remaining in the season . Attendance was 95 @,@ 000 , while 3 @.@ 68 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
New Hampshire Motor Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks that hold NASCAR races . The standard track at New Hampshire Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn oval track , 1 @.@ 058 miles ( 1 @.@ 703 km ) long . Its banking in the turns varies from two to seven degrees , while the front stretch , the finish line , and the back stretch are all banked at one degree .
Before the race , Denny Hamlin led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 060 points , followed by Jimmie Johnson with 5 @,@ 050 . Kevin Harvick and Kyle Busch were tied for third place with 5 @,@ 030 points , and Kyle 's older brother Kurt Busch had 5 @,@ 020 points . Tony Stewart , with 5 @,@ 010 points , was tied with Greg Biffle , and Jeff Gordon , Carl Edwards , Jeff Burton , Matt Kenseth and Clint Bowyer rounded out the top twelve with 5 @,@ 000 points each . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 188 points , twenty @-@ nine points ahead of their rival Toyota . Ford , with 120 points , was fifteen points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third place . Mark Martin was the race 's defending champion .
A number of drivers competing in the 2010 Chase for the Sprint Cup entered the race optimistic about their chances of winning the championship . Biffle argued that he , Burton , or Stewart were " capable of winning it " . Johnson , who already had eighteen previous wins in the Chase , observed that " those 10 races in the Chase is its own world . The people act and react differently under pressure , and for the last four years we have done a great job in that environment . " Hamlin commented , " Reliability is the only thing we need to work on . It 's taken us out of the last three Chases , not being reliable . You have to have it to be the champion . " Ray Evernham also opined on Hamlin , " I think Denny knows that he has the talent to win the championship . I think that he 's got focus right now and a good , veteran crew chief in Mike Ford . If Toyota gives him the speed , he could be a threat . "
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , and the second 50 minutes . The final session lasted 60 minutes . During the first practice session , Stewart was fastest , placing ahead of Edwards in second and Marcos Ambrose in third . A. J. Allmendinger was scored fourth , and Kyle Busch placed fifth . David Ragan , Johnson , Brad Keselowski , Biffle , and Hamlin rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session .
Forty @-@ five drivers attempted to qualify ; due to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Keselowski clinched his first pole position in the Sprint Cup Series , with a time of 28 @.@ 515 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Bowyer . Stewart qualified third , Jamie McMurray took fourth , and Juan Pablo Montoya started fifth . Johnson , one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup , qualified twenty @-@ fifth , while Harvick was scored in twenty @-@ seventh . The two drivers who failed to qualify for the race were Jeff Green and Johnny Sauter . Once qualifying concluded Keselowski said , " I felt I got a shot at the pole before I qualified but you never really know . When I ran the lap I knew I gave up a little bit of time right in the middle of both corners but I had a plan going into it and stuck to it and it worked . I ’ m really proud of that lap . "
On Saturday morning , Stewart was fastest in the second practice session , ahead of Sam Hornish , Jr. in second , and McMurray in third . Ryan Newman was fourth quickest , and Bowyer took fifth . Kurt Busch , who ended up receiving a penalty for using extra tires , managed sixth . Mark Martin , Johnson , Kasey Kahne , and Montoya followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Hamlin was scored sixteenth fastest , while Harvick was scored in twenty @-@ fourth . McMurray paced the final practice session , with Jeff Gordon and Johnson following in second and third respectively . Stewart was fourth fastest , ahead of Montoya and Bowyer . Hamlin was scored seventh , Kahne eighth , Dale Earnhardt , Jr. ninth , and David Reutimann tenth . Other Chase drivers included Kyle Busch in twenty @-@ first and Kenseth in thirtieth .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the twenty @-@ seventh of a total of thirty @-@ six in the 2010 season , began at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on ESPN . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were partly cloudy with an air temperature around 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Jonathan DeFelice , president of St. Anselm College in Goffstown , New Hampshire , began pre @-@ race ceremonies with the invocation . Anthony Gargiula performed the national anthem , and Mark Corcoran , VP of Industrial and Commercial Sales for Sylvania , gave the command for drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , two drivers had to move to the rear of the grid due to unapproved changes : David Gilliland because of an engine change , and Andy Lally because of a transmission change .
Keselowski retained his pole position lead into the first corner , with Bowyer behind him . One lap later , Stewart passed Keselowski to become the new race leader ; Montoya passed Keselowski for the second position on the next lap . By lap eight , Stewart had a lead of over one second . After starting the race in twelfth , Kurt Busch moved up to ninth position by lap nine . Paul Menard , who started in eighth , fell to eleventh position by lap twelve . After losing two positions early , Bowyer moved back up into third position by passing Keselowski . By the nineteenth lap , Johnson had moved up eight positions to seventeenth , and Harvick had moved up seven positions to twentieth .
Earnhardt , who began the race in thirty @-@ second , had moved up ten positions to twenty @-@ second by lap 22 . Two laps later , Bowyer passed Montoya for second position . Scott Speed spun sideways and collided with the wall four laps later , causing the first caution of the race . On lap 28 , Robby Gordon moved into the lead for one lap , delaying his pit stop until lap 29 . Once the race resumed , Bowyer regained the lead followed by McMurray in second . McMurray led the next lap , but Bowyer reclaimed the lead on lap 32 . Three laps later , Kyle Busch , in seventh place , collided with the wall , but escaped with minor damage . A collision involving Ambrose and Menard occurred on lap 39 and prompted the second caution .
Most drivers stayed on the track during the caution , allowing Bowyer to remain the leader on the restart . On lap 48 , Michael McDowell drove to the garage because of engine problems . Five laps later , Bowyer led the race , with McMurray 1 @.@ 3 seconds behind him . Landon Cassill went to the garage due to failing brakes on lap 56 . Johnson moved into sixth , as Edwards passed McMurray five laps later for second . By lap 64 , Bowyer 's lead was over 3 @.@ 5 seconds .
Four laps later , Johnson passed Keselowski to claim fifth position . On the 81st lap , Earnhardt , Jr. moved into seventh after passing David Reutimann and Stewart . Two laps later , Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton passed Reutimann for ninth and tenth respectively . During lap 90 , Earnhardt passed Keselowski for sixth , as Johnson claimed fourth from McMurray . After 93 laps , Bowyer 's lead was over five seconds . Two laps later , green flag pit stops began , as Montoya was the first to pit . On lap 98 , Edwards became the new leader after Bowyer came into the pits . One lap later , Kurt Busch became the new leader , followed by Jeff Gordon and Robby Gordon . On lap 102 , Bowyer reclaimed the lead as the previous leaders made their stops . Bobby Labonte and Casey Mears were unable to continue the race after their pit stops .
On lap 113 , Burton moved up to sixth , while Jeff Gordon passed Earnhardt for eleventh . Allmendinger fell to twenty @-@ fifth after pit stops due to having run out of fuel on his way onto pit road . Three laps later , both Jeff Gordon and Earnhardt had passed Reutimann for tenth and eleventh respectively . By lap 120 , Bowyer had a lead of about four seconds over Edwards . Four laps later , Harvick passed Montoya for fourteenth . On lap 132 , Keselowski fell to ninth after being passed by Kurt Busch and Hamlin . On lap 147 , Bowyer 's lead of over seven seconds was reduced to nothing when the pace car moved on track . During the caution , which was caused by debris , most of the leaders made pit stops .
Bowyer maintained his lead on the restart . On lap 153 , Kyle Busch moved into tenth position by passing Jeff Gordon . Seven laps later , Burton claimed fourth . On the 162nd lap , Ryan Newman moved up to eleventh , as Keselowski fell to twelfth . Two laps later , Jeff Gordon passed Kyle Busch to move into ninth , while Stewart passed Burton for fourth . On lap 177 , Montoya passed Kyle Busch for tenth position . Afterward , Kyle Busch fell to twelfth after being passed by Newman . By lap 192 , Bowyer had a 3 @.@ 5 second lead over McMurray . One lap later , Montoya passed Kurt Busch for ninth . On lap 199 , Harvick moved into fifteenth position . Two laps later , Hamlin passed Jeff Burton to claim fifth .
On lap 206 , Martin 's car suffered a flat tire and the fourth caution was given as a result . Bowyer led on the restart , although he was passed by Stewart within one lap . On lap 213 , Hamlin spun sideways , prompting the fifth caution . Despite remaining undamaged , Hamlin fell from fourth to twenty @-@ second position . Stewart led on the restart , as Jeff Gordon claimed second from Bowyer . By lap 221 , a sixth caution came out as Kurt Busch , Johnson , and Kyle Busch all spun sideways . After the accident , Johnson fell to twenty @-@ fourth ; Stewart maintained his lead on the restart . Five laps later , Matt Kenseth spun out , causing the seventh caution . Stewart led the drivers back to the green flag , but was overtaken by McMurray one lap later .
On lap 241 , the pace car came out for the eighth and final caution , after Joey Logano collided with the outside wall . McMurray led on the restart , but Stewart reclaimed the lead on lap 247 . Seven laps later , Johnson was forced to pit due to a loose wheel . By lap 257 , Stewart had a lead of over one second . Five laps later , Hamlin claimed sixth from Harvick . During the 263rd lap , Bowyer passed McMurray for second . Four laps later , Newman passed Kyle Busch for tenth position . After 269 laps , Stewart lead was over Bowyer was 1 @.@ 6 seconds . Six laps later , Hamlin moved into fifth position after passing Earnhardt . During lap 290 , Hamlin passed McMurray for third . With two laps remaining , Stewart and Burton both ran out of fuel , handing the lead back to Bowyer . Bowyer maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2010 season . Hamlin finished second , ahead of McMurray in third , Earnhardt in fourth , and Harvick in fifth .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Bowyer appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first win of the season in front of 95 @,@ 000 people who attended the race . Bowyer also earned $ 248 @,@ 250 in race winnings . Stewart took his last @-@ minute loss of the race with good humor , saying , " We went down swinging . I think I ran me out of fuel . " In the subsequent post @-@ race press conference , Hamlin said , " First thing I asked is how many cars on the lead lap , because I wanted to see how bad our day was going to be . I set a goal ( of ) top 15 , and then it was top eight and then top six and , ' Holy cow , we can win this thing . ' We just made a heck of a charge at the end . " Bowyer was delighted with his victory : " [ Crew chief ] Shane [ Wilson ] built a brand new race car and we came here and we were fast right off the truck , and everybody had a lot of confidence , a pep in their step . And we showed it from the time we unloaded to qualifying , practice , we were one of the fastest cars here . That ’ s what it takes to run at this level , to be a part of that Chase , if we can go and continue to have as much fun as we did this weekend . I know it ’ s the key , I know it is to my success . "
Johnson was candid about his performance : " We had a decent car and ran in the top five and top 10 but just didn 't end up finishing there . " Harvick was somewhat more upbeat , saying , " We didn 't have a great day . We didn 't have a great weekend , honestly , and ( fifth ) says a lot about this team . If we keep doing that on our bad days , we will be in good shape . " The race result left Hamlin leading the Driver 's Championship with 5 @,@ 230 points . Bowyer , who finished first , moved to second on 5 @,@ 195 , ten points ahead of Harvick and twenty @-@ seven ahead of Kyle Busch . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 197 points . Toyota remained second with 165 points . Ford followed with 123 points , fourteen points ahead of Dodge in fourth . 3 @.@ 68 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , fifty @-@ eight minutes and twenty @-@ two seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 477 seconds .
Although Bowyer 's car passed initial inspection , NASCAR announced that they had " discovered issues with the car in a more thorough inspection at its research and development center " . Three days after the race , two teams were given penalties : Richard Childress Racing for Bowyer 's car , and Whitney Motorsports for McDowell 's car . Richard Childress Racing 's penalty , for unauthorized alterations to the rear bodywork of Bowyer 's car , included a $ 150 @,@ 000 fine and a six race suspension for Wilson , and the loss of 150 owner and driver points for Richard Childress and Bowyer respectively . RCR 's car chief , Chad Haney , was placed on probation until December 31 , 2010 , and suspended from NASCAR until November 3 , 2010 . Whitney Motorsports ' penalty was for engine exhaust valves that did not meet NASCAR 's weight requirements . The penalties for that included a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine and six race suspension for Jeremy Lafaver , while both McDowell and owner Dusty Whitney lost 50 driver and owner points respectively .
Childress and Bowyer were both upset with the penalties and almost immediately announced plans to appeal . Bowyer argued the penalties to be too severe , saying , " I don 't think the penalty fits the crime . Sixty @-@ thousandths of an inch , folks . Grab a quarter out of your pocket . Less than the thickness of that quarter right there is worth a 150 @-@ point fine ? " He also argued that his car could have been damaged slightly after the race as his car was pushed by a wrecker after it ran out of gas on its way to victory lane . " Is it possible that a two @-@ ton wrecker could bend the quarter @-@ panel 60 @-@ thousandths of an inch ? You have to ask yourself that . " The team lost the initial appeal , forcing them to make a final appeal to NASCAR National Commissioner John Middlebrook . As a result of the final appeal , Wilson 's fine was reduced to $ 100 @,@ 000 while he and Haney 's suspensions were reduced from six to four races ( they were allowed to work with the team during the appeal process ) ; however , the points penalty administered to Bowyer and his team was upheld .
Asked if he thought Bowyer could still win the championship after this setback , Stewart argued , " It 's possible for sure . The biggest thing is going to be going to the race track and having that stress of not having his crew chief , not having his car chief and those are two key people on a race weekend ... I can promise you that Childress has the resources to cover this ... it 's definitely possible , but everyone else is going to have to have trouble . " Bowyer did not lose the victory title for the race itself ; NASCAR vice president of competition , Robin Pemberton , commented , " We don 't consider taking away the win . If you ask some , they would consider a 150 @-@ point penalty with only nine races to go in the Chase a pretty hefty penalty . "
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Trapper Nelson =
Vince " Trapper " Nelson ( born Vincent Nostokovich or Natulkiewicz around 1909 ) was an American trapper , hunter , and zoo founder . Though he was born in New Jersey , and lived in Mexico and Texas , he is best known for establishing a homestead @-@ turned @-@ zoo on the shore of the Loxahatchee River in Florida . Filled with exotic and wild animals , his zoo was a popular tourist spot in the 1940s and 1950s , visited by local and national celebrities . Because of this , he became known locally as " Tarzan of the Loxahatchee " .
The zoo was eventually shut down by State health inspectors in 1960 . After his zoo was closed , Nelson became a hermit and suffered from undiagnosed health problems . In 1968 , he was found dead from a gunshot wound in his cabin by a friend . His death was ruled a suicide . Nelson 's campsite is now known as the Trapper Nelson Zoo Historic District in Jonathan Dickinson State Park , Hobe Sound , Florida .
= = Early life = =
Trapper Nelson was born Vincent Nostokovich ( or Natulkiewicz ) to Polish immigrant parents in Trenton , New Jersey , in 1908 or 1909 . As a boy , to earn money he began trapping animals such as muskrats in the marshes of New Jersey . His parents did not speak English , so Nelson would often assist them in translating to make sure they were not taken advantage of . However , when his mother died and his father remarried , Nelson ran away from home , heading west .
Hopping freight trains , Nelson first ended up in Colorado , then eventually in Mexico . While there , he was arrested by the Federales under suspicion of gunrunning . He spent time in a Mexican jail and was later released . Nelson later claimed his release was because he " wrecked their food budget . "
After his release Nelson headed back east with 10 cents to his name . He made money for food by gambling with other road bums until he made it to southern Florida , where he , his step brother Charles Nelson and friend John Dykas set up camp .
= = Settlement on the Loxahatchee = =
Nelson and his partners settled on the beach by the Jupiter Inlet in Palm Beach County , Florida , in the late 1920s . Bessie DuBois , wife of John DuBois , recalled seeing him for the first time in 1927 or 1928 . The DuBoises owned a restaurant that Nelson would frequent , and Bessie made note of his eccentric eating habits : " He would order a pie — not a piece of pie , mind you , but a pie — and he 'd eat the whole thing right in front of me . " He ate ice cream by the half @-@ gallon , and there were stories that he once ate 18 eggs for breakfast .
Things did not stay peaceful for long . On December 17 , 1931 , Charles Nelson shot partner John Dykas in the back , killing him . Trapper Nelson , angered by his step @-@ brother 's actions , testified against him at the trial for Dykas ' murder . Charles was given a 20 @-@ year sentence at Raiford Prison . Disillusioned with civilization , Nelson withdrew from the beach , settling deep in the woods on the Loxahatchee River that same December . Using what little money he had and money borrowed from his sister , he bought 800 acres .
Physically imposing at 6 ' 4 " and 240 pounds , he lived by trapping , hunting , and fishing in what was then wild country . He made money by selling the furs of the animals he trapped , and ate the meat , starting rumors that he ate everything from opossums to stray house cats . He acquired extensive land holdings , bidding on tax auctions during the Great Depression . He would on occasion bid against Judge C. E. Chillingworth , the judge who had handed down his step @-@ brother 's sentence , and the two eventually became friends . When Chillingworth was murdered in the 1950s , Charles Nelson was briefly considered a suspect .
Trapping could only bring Nelson income seasonally , and as south Florida became a popular tourist destination , he came up with a new way to earn money . He eventually developed a zoo on his property in the 1930s , calling it " Trapper Nelson 's Zoo and Jungle Gardens " . His camp and zoo became popular tourist attractions . Tours along the river from West Palm Beach would stop there for lunch and stretch breaks , and Nelson shared the profits with the boat captains . Locally prominent people and celebrities alike visited , including boxing champion Gene Tunney and actor Gary Cooper , to see his animals , watch Nelson wrestle alligators , and buy souvenirs .
With his new fame came notoriety . He was known locally as the " Tarzan of the Loxahatchee " , and cared for the locals ' exotic pets . He would trap troublesome wild animals , and provided others for parties and events . Rumors were started about his handsomeness , his eating habits ( Bessie DuBois denied he ate raw possum ) , and his romantic exploits . It was told that he courted heiresses and countesses from wealthy Palm Beach , and that one conquest was a direct descendant of President James Monroe .
Nelson finally married in 1940 in an attempt to avoid the draft for World War II . His plan failed and he was drafted anyway . He joined the Military Police in Texas , but while training , he tore a muscle in his leg and was transferred to Camp Murphy , which was very close to his land .
= = Decline = =
Upon his return to the Loxahatchee , Nelson discovered that his wife had a new lover . He divorced his wife , and after that Nelson bought cars for the women he wooed , paying for them in installments to ensure they would stay for at least a while .
Focusing again on his zoo , he found that property values were skyrocketing . Nelson got a subscription to the Wall Street Journal and added more and more land to his sprawling camp . Shortly after he began his forays into real estate , a health inspector declared his zoo unhygienic and demanded he install lavatories . Nelson did , but the Health Department found them " unsatisfactory " , and in 1960 he was forced to close his zoo . With no income , the taxes on the land became too much for him , and he ended up borrowing $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 800 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) to pay them .
Nelson already had a deep @-@ seated mistrust of the government , and the closing of his zoo was , to him , enough to confirm his paranoia . He became more and more closed off . He began to dam the river leading to his camp to keep boats away , and installed fences and padlocks to discourage land travelers . He put up signs around his land reading " Danger : Land Mines " . As added discouragement , he kept a 12 @-@ gauge shotgun with him at all times .
He began to develop severe stomach pains , refused to see a doctor . He distrusted them because his brother @-@ in @-@ law had died after having a pacemaker installed . It was speculated among friends that the pains were from cancer , but they could have been an acid condition .
By the 1960s Nelson had become so reclusive that he would not let even trusted friends visit him without first sending a postcard to ask his permission . He ventured into town once a week to check his mail at the post office , and would sometimes buy steaks , but for the most part he remained holed @-@ up in his cabin . Years later , his nephew recalled his uncle 's change in personality : " During the last 10 years , his eyes seemed to lose their sparkle . He became a lonely man , and a rather sick one . "
= = Death = =
In July 1968 , Nelson failed to appear for a planned meeting with an old friend . John DuBois , at whose house the meeting was supposed to take place , became worried and drove to Nelson 's camp . When he surveyed the campsite , everything appeared to be in order , until he got to Nelson 's chickee .
Nelson was found dead in his cabin from a shotgun blast to his stomach on July 30 , 1968 . The Coroner 's Office ruled it a suicide , and the Martin County Sheriff 's Office deemed it a " pretty clear @-@ cut case " . However , many Florida locals had their doubts . " If it were [ sic ] a suicide , why did [ n 't ] he do a head shot instead of a chest shot ? " asked Bessie DuBois . The theory was that he stuck the shotgun in the ground , leaned over and pulled the trigger , even though it would have taken considerable effort and flexibility on Nelson 's part .
It was undeniable that Nelson had enemies . Floridian trappers envied his skill and viewed him as an outsider because he was from New Jersey . The State wanted to develop his land into condominiums and golf courses . Shortly before his death , a man who repaired one of Nelson 's jeeps found out he was sick and had not seen a doctor in six months . The man took him to a doctor who prescribed him painkillers . A neighbor , and the last man to see Nelson alive , speculated : " I guess it would be possible for someone to sneak up on him . Ordinarily it would be impossible ... but if he were doped up , well that would be different . "
Some friends considered suicide a possibility , however . His stomach pains may have taken a substantial part in a decision to end his life . An executor of Nelson 's will said he had told his sister that he would " rather die than be an invalid . "
= = Legacy = =
A few months after Nelson 's death , the state traded land for Nelson 's estate , which became part of Jonathan Dickinson State Park . The site is now known as the Trapper Nelson Zoo Historic District . After the land was converted to a park , but still unopen to the public , the camp was often vandalized . One of Nelson 's tool sheds was burned down ; the arsonist attempted to burn other buildings but was unsuccessful .
In April 1984 , park rangers discovered Nelson 's " treasure " : a hiding place in his chimney held 5 @,@ 005 coins , totaling $ 1 @,@ 829 @.@ 46 . The coins ranged in date from the 1890s to the 1960s . A thorough search of the camp was conducted before revealing the find to the public , but nothing more was found .
The camp still stands today , with his cabin , a guest cabin , a chickee shelter , docks , a boathouse , and assorted cages from his zoo . There are also fruit trees that he planted , including surinam cherry , Java plum and wild almond .
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= Ontario Highway 70 =
King 's Highway 70 , commonly referred to as Highway 70 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario , which provided a shorter route from Highway 6 and Highway 21 in Springmount to Highway 6 in Hepworth . The route , which now forms part of Highway 6 , was 15 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 4 mi ) long and travelled in a southeast – northwest direction west of Owen Sound . The route followed an early trail blazed by deputy surveyor Charles Rankin in 1842 that was upgraded to a modern road in the 1920s . Highway 70 was designated in 1965 and renumbered as Highway 6 in 1997 . Another Highway 70 existed near Kenora between 1937 and 1959 before being renumbered as Highway 71 . This designation was applied along the newly opened Heenan Highway , shortly after the Department of Highways ( DHO ) began numbering routes in northern Ontario . However , a series of renumberings in 1960 led to the entire length becoming part of Highway 71 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 70 was a short highway that travelled in a northeast – southwest direction between the communities of Springmount , near Owen Sound , and Hepworth . The 15 @.@ 1 km ( 9 @.@ 4 mi ) route , now part of Highway 6 , passes through an equal mixture of farmland and forests , aside from the community of Shallow Lake , located at approximately the midpoint of the route . At its southern terminus is the only wrong @-@ way concurrency in Ontario , between Highway 6 and Highway 21 . The road continues south of the intersection between these highways as Grey County Road 18 , which serves as a bypass of Owen Sound . At its northern terminus , the route curves to the west and enters Hepworth ; Highway 70 ended at the intersection of Queen Street and Bruce Street . From there , Highway 6 continued north through the Bruce Peninsula .
= = History = =
Rainy River – Kenora
The Highway 70 designation was first used along the Heenan Highway , connecting the Rainy River region to Kenora to provide the first Canadian road link to an area previously accessible only from the United States . In 1922 , Kenora MPP Peter Heenan and Dr. McTaggart approached the government to lobby for construction of a road between Nestor Falls and Kenora . Nestor Falls was the northernmost point accessible by road from the Rainy River area . Heenan would become the Minister of Lands and Forests in Mitch Hepburn 's cabinet . This provided the impetus for construction to begin in 1934 . Unlike previously built roads in the area , the Fort Frances – Kenora Highway , as it was known prior to its opening , was constructed through the rugged terrain of the Canadian Shield . Rocks , forests , lakes , muskeg , and insects served as major obstacles during construction of the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) highway , which progressed from both ends . By late 1935 , the only remaining gap in the road was the Sioux Narrows Bridge . Construction on this bridge was underway by March 1936 ; it was rapidly assembled using Douglas fir from British Columbia as the main structural members . The bridge was completed on June 15 , 1936 , completing the link between Fort Frances and Kenora .
On July 1 , 1936 , premier Mitch Hepburn attended a ceremony in front of the Rainy Lake Hotel in Fort Frances . On a rainy afternoon , at 5 : 30 p.m. , Peter Heenan handed Hepburn a pair of scissors with which to cut the ribbon crossing the road and declare the highway open . Hepburn , addressing the crowd that was gathered , asked " What would you say if we call it the Heenan Highway , what would you think of that ? " . The crowd cheered and Hepburn cut the ribbon .
The Heenan Highway was assumed by the DHO shortly after its merger with the Department of Northern Development . Following the merger , the DHO begin assigning trunk roads throughout northern Ontario as part of the provincial highway network . The portion lying within Kenora District was designated as Highway 70 on September 1 , while the portion within Rainy River District was designated on September 29 .
The original route of Highway 70 split in two south of Finland ; Highway 70 turned east to Off Lake Corner , then south to Emo , while Highway 70A turned west to Black Hawk then south to Barwick . The northern end of the highway was also concurrent with Highway 17 for 21 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 5 mi ) into Kenora , and the southern end concurrent with Highway 71 for 37 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) between Emo and Fort Frances . During 1952 , the highway was extended south from its split to Highway 71 , midway between Barwick and Emo . By 1953 , the new road was opened and informally designated as the new route of Highway 70 . The old routes were decommissioned on February 8 , and the new route designated on March 10 , 1954 .
Throughout the mid to late 1950s , a new highway was constructed west from Thunder Bay towards Fort Frances . Initially this road was designated as Highway 120 . In 1959 , it was instead decided to make this new link a westward extension of Highway 11 ; a major renumbering took place on April 1 , 1960 : Highway 11 was established between Rainy River and Fort Frances , Highway 71 was truncated west of the Highway 70 junction , and the entirety of Highway 70 was renumbered as Highway 71 .
Bruce Peninsula
On April 22 , 1965 , the DHO recycled the Highway 70 designation , providing a shorter route for traffic between the Bruce Peninsula and Owen Sound . The new highway followed an existing Grey County road through Shallow Lake - the Southwest Diagonal . It was surveyed in 1854 by Ontario 's deputy surveyor , Charles Rankin , to provide a short route between the undeveloped Sydenham ( now Owen Sound ) and Hepworth townsites . This route passed through a large swamp and as a result remained an unimproved one lane trail up until the 1920s . By the time the road was designated as a provincial highway , it was a paved two lane route . On April 1 , 1997 , Highway 6 was decommissioned south of Hepworth to Highway 21 . The entire length of Highway 70 was subsequently renumbered Highway 6 to rectify the discontinuity .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 70 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . This table covers the routing of Highway 70 between 1965 and 1997 ; for the iteration near Kenora see Highway 71
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= Myrmecia nigrocincta =
Myrmecia nigrocincta , commonly known as the jumper ant or jumping jack , is an ant of the genus Myrmecia . The species was first described by Frederick Smith in 1858 . Colonies of this ant are abundant in eastern Australia . Ants of this species are known for their ability to jump several inches , and they also have a powerful , venomous sting . Rather than foraging on the ground , M. nigrocincta prefer to forage in trees where they are known to pollinate certain flowers .
This ant is a large species , some workers can grow to over 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) in length . They have a distinctive pattern of orange @-@ red and black which distinguishes them from other Myrmecia species . M. nigrocincta possess the gamergates gene which allows workers to reproduce , either in the presence of a queen or in a colony where the queen is missing . Life expectancy of a worker ant is over one year . They are known to enslave ants of other species as workers for their colony , and they are aggressive when attacking intruders .
= = Distribution = =
Abundant in eastern Australia , M. nigrocincta ants prefer temperate bushlands , and are usually located in dry to semi @-@ dry forests and sclerophyll woodlands . The species is found in the eastern states of Australia , mostly on the coastal plains where much suitable dry forest habitat can be found . They prefer tropical climates and warm temperatures . They can also be found in other types of habitat at elevations ranging from 80 - 1 @,@ 220 metres ( 262 ft - 4 @,@ 000 ft ) .
M. nigrocincta colonies have been recorded from Cairns , Atherton , Mackay , Mt . Tamborine , Brisbane , Blackall Range and Fletcher in Queensland . In New South Wales , this ant occurs in Lismore , Dorrigo , Armidale and Sydney ( notably in the suburbs of Heathcote and Como ) , while in Victoria it is found in Trafalgar and Millgrove . Several colonies have also been recorded in South Australia .
= = Taxonomy = =
M. nigrocincta was first identified by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 , after syntype workers were collected and described in his work Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum part VI . In a study on phylogenetic relationships among species group of the genus Myrmecia , four species with an occipital carina including M. nigrocincta were found to form a paraphyletic and basal assemblage , while other Myrmecia species lacking an occiptal carina were shown to have a supported monophyletic assemblage . The type specimen is located in the British Museum .
= = Description = =
Ants of genus Myrmecia are generally referred to as " bulldog ants " and M. nigrocincta , like other species in the genus , has elongated mandibles . M. nigrocincta ants are primarily black and orange @-@ red in colour . They have mandibles which are either black or yellow depending on where the ants are found . The gaster , head , legs and mesonotum are black while the pronotum , propodeum , petiole and post @-@ petiole are red . The ant has linear ridges along the front of its head . It also has apical spurs on the tibia of both its middle leg and hind leg . The legs are thin and become more slender away from the body . M. nigrocincta can be distinguished from other species in the Myrmecia genus by the bi @-@ coloured thorax and post @-@ petiole which are yellowish @-@ red and black and the yellowish @-@ red node .
The workers are 13 to 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) long , the males 16 to 17 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 67 in ) while the female ( queen ) is 17 to 19 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 67 to 0 @.@ 75 in ) . The development of the queen 's wings is rudimentary and the stubby , reduced wings render the queen flightless .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
M. nigrocincta is an accomplished jumper with leaps ranging from 3 to 4 inches ( 76 to 102 mm ) . It has good vision and can be observed running amongst plants and leaves , occasionally jumping from one branch to another . It is mostly found foraging on plants , trees , and other vegetation , but it sometimes forages on the ground . It propels its jumps by a sudden extension of its middle and hind legs .
M. nigrocincta ants are diurnal and do not hibernate . They are omnivores , and feed on other insects including caterpillars and spiders , as well as honey water . M. nigrocincta has been observed to prey on the larvae of imperial hairstreak butterflies , even jumping while carrying them . Predators of the M. nigrocincta ( and the Myrmecia genus as a whole ) includes spiders , birds , lizards , mammals and other predatory invertebrates , including assassin bugs and Redbacks . The ants have been recorded visiting flowers of Eucalyptus regnans and Senna acclinis and are considered as a possible pollination vector for E. regnans trees . Although Senna acclinis is self @-@ compatible , the inability of M. nigrocincta to appropriately release pollen would restrict capacity to effect pollination .
These ants live in nests in sandy soil which sometimes have a mound , which resembles a molehill . M. nigrocincta ants labor to conceal their nests using twigs and leaves . Depending on the type of habitat in which the colony is located , they decorate the nest with plant material and gravel . Other materials that are used to camouflage M. nigrocincta colonies include dry leaves , rocks , vegetation , and twigs . Nests are beside a clump of grass or bush or at the base of a tree .
The colonies of M. nigrocincta ants are monogyne , i.e. they have only one queen per colony . The queen is semi @-@ claustral , meaning that during the founding of the new colony , the queen has to forage so that she has enough food to raise her brood . Colonies have between 400 and 1200 individuals and are thus considered to be " large " colonies . M. nigrocinta is known to enslave Leptomyrmex and other species of ants .
The worker and scout M. nigrocincta ants use pheromones for communication . They are quick to defend their nests and may react aggressively even to a shadow crossing their nest . Wheeler ( 1922 ) describes the reaction of M. nigrocincta to the disturbance of their nest as " they bound out of their small mound nest in a series of short hops like Lilliputian cavalry galloping to battle . " The ants aggressively defend their colony , causing multiple bites and wilingly sacrificing themselves to protect the queen and the colony .
= = Life cycle = =
M. nigrocincta is a gamergate species , which allows female workers to be fertile , and these are then able to reproduce in both queenless and queenright ( colonies with a queen ) colonies . This means a colony which loses its queen can still thrive in the absence of the queen . In laboratory colonies of M. nigrocincta where there was no queen present , worker @-@ laid eggs were reared to mature males , showing that workers are highly fertile . The average life expectancy of an adult worker M. nigrocincta ant is 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 2 years , with a maximum expectancy of 1 @.@ 3 years ( 400 or more days ) . Larvae collected from M. nigrocincta are 4.7mm in length but increase to 9.7mm when matured .
= = Venom = =
M. nigrocincta ants have highly venomous stings which are painful and produce intense burning sensations . The sensations last for many days and the sting itches . If left untreated , the sting may develop into an ulcer . The venom of a closely related species , M. pilosula is amongst the strongest of the Formicidae and contains active ingredients such as acid and alkaline phosphatases , hyaluronidase , as well as phospholipases A2 and B. In a 2011 Australian ant allergy venom study , the objective of which was to determine what native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis , it was shown that 265 of the 376 participants taking part of the study reacted to the sting of several Myrmecia species . Of these , 176 reacted to the M. pilosula , 15 to M. nigrocincta , three to M. ludlowi , and 56 to other Myrmecia ants . The study concluded that four main groups of Australian ants were responsible for causing anaphylaxis . Besides Myrmecia species , these included the green @-@ head ant ( Rhytidoponera metallica ) .
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= Action of 31 July 1793 =
The Action of 31 July 1793 was an inconclusive engagement between a British Royal Navy frigate and French frigate off the New Jersey coastline in the first year of the French Revolutionary Wars . The British captain , George Courtenay of HMS Boston , had arrived off New York City on 28 May and deliberately disguised his ship as a French vessel , fooling a French officer into coming aboard and making him a prisoner of war . Courtenay then sent a message into New York , where he knew a French frigate lay at anchor , challenging the French captain to battle within the next three days . The challenge was accepted and widely disseminated throughout the city , so that when Captain Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ François Bompart of Embuscade sailed out to meet Courtenay on the morning of 31 July , the shore was crowded with thousands of sightseers .
The engagement between the ships was fiercely contested , but the smaller and more lightly armed Boston seemed to be taking the more serious damage when at 6 : 20 Captain Courtenay was thrown to the deck . What happened next has been subject to debate , with the second @-@ in @-@ command , Lieutenant John Edwards claiming that Courtenay had been killed and he was thrown overboard as was the custom at the time . However rumours subsequently circulated that Courtenay had only been knocked unconscious when Edwards gave the order to jettison him , a story that his family credited and was later taken up by the contemporary historian Edward Pelham Brenton , although historian William James subsequently defended Edwards ' actions . With Courtenay gone , Boston continued to suffer severe damage until just after 07 : 00 , when the remaining officers ordered all surviving sails set and the British ship attempted to escape . Although Bompart pursued , by 08 : 00 the strain had proved too much for his ship and he fell back . After a close encounter with French ships in the Delaware River , Boston eventually escaped to St John 's , Newfoundland while Embuscade refitted in New York .
= = Background = =
In February 1793 the newly formed French Republic declared war on Great Britain , extending the French Revolutionary Wars that had begun the year before on the continent . The French Navy was in a state of upheaval due to the social consequences of the French Revolution , and as a result found itself at a disadvantage to the Royal Navy , which had been preparing for war since June 1792 . In response , the French sent several frigate squadrons to sea , including their newest ships and best sailors and officers in an attempt to disrupt British commerce in the early stages of the war . One such squadron was sent in April 1793 to the United States , carrying the French ambassador to the United States , Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt . After the ambassador disembarked , the squadron , under the command of Captain Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ François Bompart , dispersed to raid British shipping along the coast , capturing or destroying more than 60 merchant vessels before retiring to American ports for repairs .
The French threat on the American Seaboard was met by Royal Navy frigates operating out of Halifax , Nova Scotia , under orders to watch and blockade French movements in American ports . One such ship was the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Boston , a small and old vessel under the command of Captain George Courtenay . Courtenay was under orders to watch New York City , where one of the frigates was known to be at anchor . On 28 June 1793 , Boston arrived off New York , Courtenay deliberately disguising his ship to resemble a French vessel by having the French @-@ speaking members of his crew talk loudly on the quarterdeck while an American pilot boat was within earshot . The French ship in New York was Bompart 's ship Embuscade , a large and powerful vessel that had been built less than three years before and carried a combined broadside weight of 240 pounds ( 108 @.@ 9 kg ) , 30 pounds ( 13 @.@ 6 kg ) more than that of Boston . Sighting the strange ship off the harbour , Bompart sent a boat with his lieutenant , an American from Boston named Whitynow , and twelve men to investigate . Although he was suspicious of the strange vessel , Whitynow was finally convinced that the ship was a French vessel after conferring with the pilots , and came aboard only to discover his error when Courtenay seized him and his men as prisoners of war .
Courtenay suggested to his prisoner that he would be keen to meet Bompart in battle , and he agreed to send a message into New York via the pilot boat with a challenge for Bompart to bring Embuscade out of the neutral harbour and meet Boston off Sandy Hook . The pilot was initially unable to locate the French captain , and so instead posted the challenge in a coffeehouse in the city , from where the news spread rapidly . Bompart came to learn of it , and spent the next two days preparing his warship ; historian Edward Pelham Brenton has claimed that Bompart was joined by 100 armed American volunteers , which he calls " a flagrant violation of the law of nations " . After a consultation among the French officers Embuscade sailed from New York on the night of 30 July , although Courtenay was almost forced to miss the rendezvous : on the afternoon of 30 July a large French battle squadron of the ships of the line Éole and Patriote , four frigates and six smaller vessels passed northwards along the New Jersey coast , heading for New York . In the face of such a powerful force Boston was temporarily forced to withdraw to open water , but the squadron did not deviate to investigate the frigate and had passed into New York harbour by nightfall , allowing Courtenay to return to his station .
= = Battle = =
At 03 : 00 on 31 May , lookouts on Boston reported a large ship approaching from the northeast . Courtenay readied his ship for battle and at 03 : 30 the ship passed at a distance of 3 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) and was shortly afterwards recognised as a frigate flying the French tricolour . Unsure of the newcomer 's identity , Courtenay raised the same flag and in response the strange ship raised a blue flag bearing a white cross , identifying itself as Embuscade , come to meet his challenge . At 04 : 00 both ships turned eastwards , continuing for 45 minutes until Boston slowed and raised British colours . As the British ship slowed the French vessel overtook at 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) distance and at 05 : 00 Boston tacked towards the French ship , Embuscade slowing so that Courtenay 's frigate passed along the starboard broadside . Boston fired first at 05 : 05 , followed immediately by a volley from Embuscade . Both ships then tacked again , by this time approximately 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) southeast of Navesink , New Jersey . News of the impending battle had spread rapidly through the countryside , and thousands of spectators had gathered on the New Jersey beaches to watch the engagement .
After fifteen minutes of combat , Boston lost its cross @-@ jack yard and by 05 : 45 had suffered significant damage to its rigging and sails , rendering the ship significantly less manoeuvrable than Embuscade . At 06 : 10 the main topmast was knocked over and the mizzen mast badly damaged , and ten minutes later , as he was exhorting his men to greater efforts , a cannonball struck the rail where Captain Courtenay and Royal Marine Lieutenant James Butler were standing . Butler was killed instantly and Courtenay fell to the deck unresponsive , possibly killed . Believing his commander to be dead , Lieutenant John Edwards assumed command and had the bodies thrown overboard in an effort to prevent his sailors losing morale from the death of their captain . Boston continued to suffer under the heavier guns of the French ship and by 06 : 40 the mizzen mast was close to collapse and much of the remaining rigging had been shot away . Casualties mounted , with Lieutenant Edwards and Alexander Kerr both badly wounded , the latter blinded and the former struck on the head and briefly rendered unconscious .
With their officers gone and their ship in an increasingly battered state , panic began to spread through the British crew . In response Edwards was assisted to the deck and assumed command . While confusion overtook Boston , Bompart remained in command of his ship despite heavy casualties and manoeuvred around to the British ship 's stern , intending to finish the battle with a raking broadside . With difficulty Edwards wore away from the threat and recognised that continued resistance would be futile , turning Boston towards the open sea away from Embuscade and setting all remaining sail to escape . At 07 : 07 , Bompart began in pursuit , but his ship was also damaged and could not match the speed of the smaller British vessel . At 08 : 00 , with Boston 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) ahead and stretching the distance , the French captain abandoned the chase and turned back towards New York .
= = Aftermath = =
So badly damaged was Bompart 's ship that he was not able to dock in New York until 2 August and repairs to his vessel , including the replacement of all three masts , were not completed until 9 October . Accounts of the battle in the American media claimed that Embuscade 's losses amounted to 50 men killed or wounded during the action from a crew of 340 men . Boston limped southwards in desperate need of repairs and initially attempted to anchor in the Delaware River . On taking on a pilot , Lieutenant Edwards was informed that the French frigates Concorde and Inconstante were anchored at Mud Fort . Aware that his ship would be rapidly overwhelmed by such a force , Edwards disembarked the pilot and sailed north , eventually bringing his battered vessel into St John 's , Newfoundland . Losses aboard Boston amounted to ten killed and 24 wounded from a crew of 204 , the dead including Captain Courtenay . In recognition of his service , Courtenay 's widow was presented with a pension of £ 500 ( the equivalent of £ 52 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) and his two children with £ 50 per annum . Edwards ' subsequent career was shortened by injury , but Bompart was presented with a gold medal on his return to France , and remained a prominent figure in the French Navy , serving at the Glorious First of June in 1794 and leading the French expeditionary force that unsuccessfully attempted to invade Ireland in 1798 and was destroyed at the Battle of Tory Island .
Edwards ' report contained his account of Courtenay 's death in battle , and it was widely accepted at the time . However rumours began circulating that Courtenay had not been killed but merely stunned by the blow , and that his death may have come as a result of Edwards order for him to be thrown overboard . This second account was accepted by Courtenay 's family and shortly after Edwards ' death in January 1823 from the effects of the wound he received in the action with Embuscade , the naval officer and historian Edward Pelham Brenton published his work Naval History of Great Britain from the Year 1783 to 1822 , in which he wrote that :
" The action soon began , and continued with great bravery on both sides , until the iron hammock @-@ rail of the quarter @-@ deck being struck by a shot , a part of it took Captain Courteney [ sic ] on the back of the neck , and he fell , but no blood followed . The first lieutenant immediately caused the body to be thrown overboard , lest , as he said , it should " dishearten the people ; " and , after this prudent precaution , hauled away from the enemy , who had no inclination to follow him " .
This version of events was refuted in 1827 by historian William James , who wrote in response to Brenton that " All we [ James ] can say to this extraordinary statement is , that our [ James ' ] account was taken chiefly from Boston 's log book , and we have not the least reason , from subsequent inquiries , to believe it to be incorrect . " Subsequent histories , including William Laird Clowes ' book of 1900 and Richard Woodman 's of 2001 follow James , but in his 1837 reprint Brenton defended the account and named Alexander Robert Kerr , second lieutenant of Boston during the action , as his source . In the same year a magazine article written by a niece of Captain Courtenay continued to repeat the allegations , stating that " the treacherous or – to say the least of it – the improper and unprofessional conduct of Lieutenant Edwards " had been responsible for his commander 's death .
After the battle , the ladies of Hallifax launched a subscription to celebrate the crew of HMS Boston . On the other hand , the population of New York had a golden medal made in honour of the crew of Embuscade ; Bompart accepted the medal on the condition he would not have to wear it , as the National Convention had banned medals .
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= Persistent carbene =
A persistent carbene ( also known as stable carbene ) is a type of carbene demonstrating particular stability . The best @-@ known examples and by far largest subgroup are the N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( NHC ) ( sometimes called Arduengo carbenes ) , for example diaminocarbenes with the general formula ( R2N ) 2C : , where the ' R 's are typically alkyl and aryl groups . The groups can be linked to give heterocyclic carbenes , such as those derived from imidazole , imidazoline , thiazole or triazole .
Traditionally carbenes are viewed as so reactive that were only studied indirectly , e.g. by trapping reactions . This situation has changed dramatically with the emergence of persistent carbenes . Although they are fairly reactive substances , i.e. , undergoing dimerization , many can be isolated as pure substances .
Persistent carbenes can exist in the singlet or the triplet states with the singlet state carbenes being more stable . The relative stability of these compounds is only partly due to steric hindrance by bulky groups . Some singlet carbenes are thermodynamically stable in the absence of moisture and ( in most cases ) oxygen , and can be isolated and indefinitely stored . Others are not thermodynamically stable and will dimerise slowly over days . The less stable triplet state carbenes have half @-@ lives measured in seconds , and therefore can be observed but not stored .
= = History = =
= = = Early evidence = = =
In 1957 , Ronald Breslow proposed that a relatively stable nucleophilic carbene , a thiazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene derivative , was involved in the catalytic cycle of vitamin B1 ( thiamine ) that yields furoin from furfural . In this cycle , the vitamin 's thiazolium ring exchanges a hydrogen atom ( attached to carbon 2 of the ring ) for a furfural residue . In deuterated water , the C2 @-@ proton was found to rapidly exchange for a deuteron in a statistical equilibrium .
This exchange was proposed to proceed via intermediacy of a thiazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene . In 2012 the isolation of the so @-@ called Breslow intermediate was reported .
In 1960 , Wanzlick and co @-@ workers conjectured that carbenes derived from dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene were produced by vacuum pyrolysis of the corresponding 2 @-@ trichloromethyl dihydroimidazole compounds with the loss of chloroform . They conjectured that the carbene existed in equilibrium with its dimer , a tetraaminoethylene derivative , the so @-@ called Wanzlick equilibrium . This conjecture was challenged by Lemal and co @-@ workers in 1964 , who presented evidence that the dimer did not dissociate ; and by Winberg in 1965 . However , subsequent experiments by Denk , Herrmann and others have confirmed this equilibrium , albeit in specific circumstances .
= = = Isolation of persistent carbenes = = =
In 1970 , Wanzlick 's group generated imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene carbenes by the deprotonation of an imidazolium salt . Wanzlick as well as Hoffmann , proposed that these imidazole @-@ based carbenes should be more stable than their 4 @,@ 5 @-@ dihydro analogues , due to Hückel @-@ type aromaticity . Wanzlick did not however isolate any imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene , but their coordination compounds with mercury and isothiocyanate :
In 1988 , Bertrand and others isolated phosphinocarbene . These species can be represented as either a λ3 @-@ phosphinocarbene or λ5 @-@ phosphaacetylene :
These compounds were called " push @-@ pull carbenes " in reference to the contrasting electron affinities of the phosphorus and silicon atoms . They exhibit both carbenic and alkynic reactivity . An X @-@ ray structure of this molecule has not been obtained and at the time of publication some doubt remained as to their exact carbenic nature .
In 1991 , a stable , isolated , and crystalline diaminocarbene , which can be represented as a carbene or a nitrogen carbon ylide , was obtained by Arduengo and co @-@ workers , by deprotonation of an imidazolium chloride with a strong base :
This carbene , the forerunner of a large family of carbenes with the imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene core , was found to be indefinitely stable at room temperature ( in the absence of oxygen and moisture ) , and melted at 240 – 241 ° C without decomposition . Another interesting chemical property of this ylidic compound was a characteristic resonance in the 13C NMR spectrum at 211 ppm for the carbenic atom . The X @-@ ray structure revealed longer N – C bond lengths in the ring of the carbene than in the parent imidazolium compound , indicating that there was very little double bond character to these bonds .
The first air @-@ stable ylidic carbene , a chlorinated member of the imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene family , was obtained in 1997 .
In 2000 , Bertrand obtained additional carbenes of the phosphanyl type , including ( phosphanyl ) ( trifluoromethyl ) carbene , stable in solution at -30 ° C and a moderately stable ( amino ) ( aryl ) carbene with only one heteroatom adjacent to the carbenic atom .
= = = Factors affecting stability of heteroatom @-@ stabilized carbenes = = =
The stability of Arduengo carbenes was initially attributed to the bulky N @-@ adamantyl substituents , which prevents the carbene from dimerising due to steric hindrance . However , Arduengo 's group later obtained an imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene in which the N @-@ adamantyl groups were replaced with methyl groups , showing that steric hindrance was not the predominant stabilising factor . Instead imidazole @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are thermodynamically stable .
It had been also conjectured that the double bond between carbons 4 and 5 of the imidazolium ring backbone , which gave aromatic character to that system , was important for the carbene 's stability . This conjecture was disproved in 1995 by Arduengo 's group , who obtained a derivative of dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene , lacking the double bond . The thermodynamical stability in this compound , and the role of steric protection in preventing dimerisation , has been a topic of some dispute .
The first acyclic persistent carbene was reported in 1996 , thus showing that a cyclic backbone was not necessary for their stability . Unlike the cyclic derivatives , the acyclic carbenes are flexible with respect to rotation of the bonds to the carbenic atom . By measuring the barrier to rotation of these bonds , the extent of their double bond character could be measured , and the ylidic nature of this carbene could be determined . Like the cyclic diaminocarbenes , unhindered variants tend to dimerise .
Until 1997 , all stable carbenes were stabilized by two nitrogen centers bound to the carbenic atom . This pattern was broken in 1997 – 1998 with the synthesis of a thiazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene derivative by Arduengo 's group and an aminothiocarbene and an aminooxycarbene . In these stable compounds , the carbenic atom lies between a nitrogen atom and either a sulfur or oxygen atom :
However , these carbenes are not thermodynamically stable as decomposition and dimerisation have been observed for unhindered examples .
A more radical development was the synthesis in 2006 of bis ( diisopropylamino ) cyclopropenylidene by Bertrand 's group . In this compound , which is stable at room temperature , the carbene atom is connected to two carbon atoms , in a three @-@ member ring that retains the aromaticity and geometry of the cyclopropenylidene ring . This example demonstrated that the presence of heteroatoms next to the carbene is not necessary for stability , either .
= = Classes of stable carbenes = =
The following are examples of the classes of stable carbenes isolated to date :
= = = Imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes = = =
The first stable carbenes to be isolated were based on an imidazole ring , with the hydrogen in carbon 2 of the ring ( between the two nitrogen atoms ) removed , and other hydrogens replaced by various groups . These imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are still the most stable and the most well studied and understood family of persistent carbenes .
A considerable range of imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes have been synthesised , including those in which the 1 @,@ 3 @-@ positions have been functionalised with alkyl , aryl , alkyloxy , alkylamino , alkylphosphino and even chiral substituents :
In particular , substitution of two chlorine atoms for the two hydrogens at ring positions 4 and 5 yielded the first air @-@ stable carbene . Its extra stability probably results from the electron @-@ withdrawing effect of the chlorine substituents , which reduce the electron density on the carbon atom bearing the lone pair , via induction through the sigma @-@ backbone .
Molecules containing two and even three imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene groups have also been synthesised .
Imidazole @-@ based carbenes are thermodynamically stable and generally have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 210 – 230 ppm for the carbenic carbon . Typically , X @-@ ray structures of these molecules show N @-@ C @-@ N bond angles of 101 – 102 ° .
= = = Triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes = = =
Another family of persistent carbenes are based on the 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 4 @-@ triazole ring , with the unfilled orbitals in carbon 5 of this ring . The triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes pictured below were first prepared by Enders and co @-@ workers by vacuum pyrolysis through loss of methanol from 2 @-@ methoxytriazoles . Only a limited range of these molecules have been reported , with the triphenyl substituted molecule being commercially available .
Triazole @-@ based carbenes are thermodynamically stable and have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 210 – 220 ppm for the carbenic carbon . The X @-@ ray structure of the triphenyl substituted carbene above shows an N @-@ C @-@ N bond angle of ca . 101 ° . The 5 @-@ methoxytriazole precursor to this carbene was made by the treatment of a triazolium salt with sodium methoxide , which attacks as a nucleophile . This may indicate that these carbenes are less aromatic than imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes , as the imidazolium precursors do not react with nucleophiles due to the resultant loss of aromaticity .
= = = Other diaminocarbenes = = =
Carbenes that formally derive from imidazole @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes by substitution of sulfur , oxygen , or other chalcogens for both α @-@ nitrogens are expected to be unstable , as they have the potential to dissociate into an alkyne ( R1C ≡ CR2 ) and a carbon dichalcogenide ( X1 = C = X2 ) . The two families above can be seen as special cases of a broader class of compounds which have a carbenic atom bridging two nitrogen atoms . A range of such diaminocarbenes have been prepared principally by Roger Alder 's research group . In some of these compounds , the N @-@ C @-@ N unit is a member of a 5 or 6 membered non @-@ aromatic ring , including a bicyclic example . In other examples , the adjacent nitrogens are connected only through the carbenic atom , and may or may not be part of separate rings .
Unlike the aromatic imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes or triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes , these carbenes appear not to be thermodynamically stable , as shown by the dimerisation of some unhindered cyclic and acyclic examples . Studies suggest that these carbenes dimerise via acid catalysed dimerisation ( as in the Wanzlick equilibrium ) .
Diaminocarbenes have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 230 – 270 ppm for the carbenic atom . The X @-@ ray structure of dihydroimidazole @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene shows a N @-@ C @-@ N bond angle of ca . 106 ° , whilst the angle of the acyclic carbene is 121 ° , both greater than those seen for imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes .
= = = Heteroamino carbenes = = =
There exist several variants of the stable carbenes above where one of the nitrogen atoms adjacent to the carbene center ( the α nitrogens ) has been replaced by an alternative heteroatom , such as oxygen , sulfur , or phosphorus . :
In particular , the formal substitution of sulfur for one of the nitrogens in imidazole would yield the aromatic heterocyclic compound thiazole . A thiazole based carbene ( analogous to the carbene postulated by Breslow ) has been prepared and characterised by X @-@ ray crystallography . Other non @-@ aromatic aminocarbenes with O , S and P atoms adjacent ( i.e. alpha ) to the carbene centre have been prepared , e.g. thio- and oxy @-@ iminium based carbenes have been characterised by X @-@ ray crystallography .
Since oxygen and sulfur are divalent , steric protection of the carbenic centre is limited especially when the N @-@ C @-@ X unit is part of a ring . These acyclic carbenes have diagnostic 13C NMR chemical shift values between 250 – 300 ppm for the carbenic carbon , further downfield than any other types of stable carbene . X @-@ ray structures have shown N @-@ C @-@ X bond angles of ca . 104 ° and 109 ° respectively .
= = = Non @-@ amino carbenes = = =
The reaction of carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) with electron deficient acetylene derivatives is proposed to give transient 1 @,@ 3 @-@ dithiolium carbenes ( i.e. where X1 |
= X2 =
S ) , which then dimerise to give derivatives of tetrathiafulvene . Thus it is possible that the reverse of this process might be occurring in similar carbenes .
= = = Bertrand 's carbenes = = =
In Bertrand 's persistent carbenes , the unsaturated carbon is bonded to a phosphorus and a silicon . However , these compounds seem to exhibit some alkynic properties , and when published the exact carbenic nature of these red oils was in debate .
= = = Other nucleophilic carbenes = = =
One stable N @-@ heterocyclic carbene has a structure analogous to borazine with one boron atom replaced by a methylene group . This results in a planar 6 @-@ electron compound .
= = = Cyclopropenylidenes = = =
Another family of carbenes is based on a cyclopropenylidene core , a three @-@ carbon ring with a double bond between the two atoms adjacent to the carbenic one . This family is exemplified by bis ( diisopropylamino ) cyclopropenylidene .
= = = Triplet state carbenes = = =
In 2001 , Hideo Tomioka and his associates were able to produce a comparatively stable triplet carbene ( bis ( 9 @-@ anthryl ) carbene , with a half @-@ life of 19 minutes ) , by taking advantage of resonance .
In 2006 a triplet carbene was reported with a half @-@ life of 40 minutes . This carbene is prepared by a photochemical decomposition of a diazomethane with expulsion of nitrogen gas at a wavelength of 300 nanometers in benzene .
Exposure to oxygen ( diradical ) converts this carbene to the corresponding benzophenone and the diphenylmethane compound is formed when it is trapped by 1 @,@ 4 @-@ cyclohexadiene . As with the other carbenes this species contains large bulky substituents , namely bromine and the trifluoromethyl groups , that shield the carbene and prevent or slow down the process of dimerisation to a 1 @,@ 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 2 @-@ tetra ( phenyl ) alkene .
Based on computer simulations , the distance of the divalent carbon atom to its neighbours is claimed to be 138 picometers with a bond angle of 158 @.@ 8 ° . The planes of the phenyl groups are almost at right angles to each other ( the dihedral angle being 85 @.@ 7 ° ) .
= = Mesoionic carbenes = =
Mesoionic carbenes ( MICs ) are similar to N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( NHCs ) except that canonical resonance structures with the carbene depicted cannot be drawn without adding additional charges . Mesoionic carbenes are also referred to as abnormal N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( aNHC ) or remote N @-@ heterocyclic carbenes ( rNHC ) . A variety of free carbenes can be isolated and are stable at room temperature . Other free carbenes are not stable and are susceptible to intermolecular decomposition pathways .
= = Chemical properties = =
= = = Basicity and nucleophilicity = = =
The imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are strong bases , having a pKa of ca . 24 for the conjugate acid in dimethyl sulfoxide ( DMSO ) :
However , further work showed that diaminocarbenes will deprotonate the DMSO solvent , with the resulting anion reacting with the resulting amidinium salt .
Reaction of imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes with 1 @-@ bromohexane gave 90 % of the 2 @-@ substituted adduct , with only 10 % of the corresponding alkene , indicating that these molecules are also reasonably nucleophilic .
pKa values for the conjugate acids of several NHC families have been examined in aqueous solution. pKa values of triazolium ions lie in the range 16 @.@ 5 - 17 @.@ 8 , around 3 pKa units more acidic than related imidazolium ions .
= = = Dimerisation = = =
At one time , stable carbenes were thought to reversibly dimerise through the so @-@ called Wanzlick equilibrium . However , imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes and triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes are thermodynamically stable and do not dimerise , and have been stored in solution in the absence of water and air for years . This is presumably due to the aromatic nature of these carbenes , which is lost upon dimerisation . In fact imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes are so thermodynamically stable that only in highly constrained conditions are these carbenes forced to dimerise .
Chen and Taton made a doubly tethered diimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene by deprotonating the respective diimidazolium salt . Only the deprotonation of the doubly tethered diimidazolium salt with the shorter methylene bridge ( -CH2- ) resulted in the dicarbene dimer :
If this dimer existed as a dicarbene , the electron lone pairs on the carbenic carbon would be forced into close proximity . Presumably the resulting repulsive electrostatic interactions would have a significant destabilising effect . To avoid this electronic interaction , the carbene units dimerise .
On the other hand , heteroamino carbenes ( e.g. R2N @-@ C : -OR or R2N @-@ C : -SR ) and non @-@ aromatic carbenes such as diaminocarbenes ( e.g. R2N @-@ C : -NR2 ) have been shown to dimerise , albeit quite slowly . This has been presumed to be due to the high barrier to singlet state dimerisation :
Diaminocarbenes do not truly dimerise , but rather form the dimer by reaction via formamidinium salts , a protonated precursor species . Accordingly , this reaction can be acid catalysed . This reaction occurs because unlike imidazolium based carbenes , there is no loss of aromaticity in protonation of the carbene .
Unlike the dimerisation of triplet state carbenes , these singlet state carbenes do not approach head to head ( " least motion " ) , but rather the carbene lone pair attacks the empty carbon p @-@ orbital ( " non @-@ least motion " ) . Carbene dimerisation can be catalyzed by both acids and metals .
= = = Reactivity = = =
The chemistry of stable carbenes has not been fully explored . However , Enders et al. have performed a range of organic reactions involving a triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidene . These reactions are outlined below and may be considered as a model for other carbenes .
These carbenes tend to behave in a nucleophilic fashion ( e and f ) , performing insertion reactions ( b ) , addition reactions ( c ) , [ 2 + 1 ] cycloadditions ( d , g and h ) , [ 4 + 1 ] cycloadditions ( a ) as well as simple deprotonations . The insertion reactions ( b ) probably proceed via deprotonation , resulting in the generation of a nucleophile ( − XR ) which can attack the generated salt giving the impression of a H @-@ X insertion .
The reported stable isothiazole carbene ( 2 ) derived from an isothiazolium perchlorate ( 1 ) was questioned , who were only able to isolate 2 @-@ imino @-@ 2H @-@ thiete ( 4 ) . The intermediate 3 was proposed through a rearrangement reaction . This carbene is no longer considered stable .
= = = Carbene complexation = = =
Imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes , triazol @-@ 5 @-@ ylidenes ( and less so , diaminocarbenes ) have been shown to co @-@ ordinate to a plethora of elements , from alkali metals , main group elements , transition metals and even lanthanides and actinides . A periodic table of elements gives some idea of the complexes which have been prepared , and in many cases these have been identified by single crystal X @-@ ray crystallography . Stable carbenes are believed to behave in a similar fashion to organophosphines in their co @-@ ordination properties to metals . These ligands are said to be good σ @-@ donors through the carbenic lone pair , but poor π @-@ acceptors due to internal ligand back @-@ donation from the nitrogen atoms adjacent to the carbene centre , and so are able to co @-@ ordinate to even relatively electron deficient metals . Enders and Hermann have shown that these carbenes are suitable replacements for phosphine ligands in several catalytic cycles . Whilst they have found that these ligands do not activate the metal catalyst as much as phosphine ligands they often result in more robust catalysts . Several catalytic systems have been looked into by Hermann and Enders , using catalysts containing imidazole and triazole carbene ligands , with moderate success . Grubbs has reported replacing a phosphine ligand ( PCy3 ) with an imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene in the olefin metathesis catalyst RuCl2 ( PCy3 ) 2CHPh , and noted increased ring closing metathesis as well as exhibiting " a remarkable air and water stability " . Molecules containing two and three carbene moieties have been prepared as potential bidentate and tridentate carbene ligands .
Legend
Carbene complex with element known
No carbene complex with element known
= = = Carbenes in organometallic chemistry & catalysis = = =
Carbenes can be stabilised as organometallic species . These transition metal carbene complexes fall into two categories :
Fischer carbenes in which carbenes are tethered to a metal and an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( usually a carbonyl ) ,
Schrock carbenes ; in which carbenes are tethered to a metal and an electron @-@ donating group . The reactions that such carbenes participate in are very different from those in which organic carbenes participate .
= = = Triplet state carbene chemistry = = =
Persistent triplet state carbenes are likely to have very similar reactivity as other non @-@ persistent triplet state carbenes .
= = Physical properties = =
Those carbenes that have been isolated to date tend to be colorless solids with low melting points . These carbenes tend to sublime at low temperatures under high vacuum .
One of the more useful physical properties is the diagnostic chemical shift of the carbenic carbon atom in the 13C @-@ NMR spectrum . Typically this peak is in the range between 200 and 300 ppm , where few other peaks appear in the 13C @-@ NMR spectrum . An example is shown on the left for a cyclic diaminocarbene which has a carbenic peak at 238 ppm .
Upon coordination to metal centers , the 13C carbene resonance usually shifts highfield , depending on the Lewis acidity of the complex fragment . Based on this observation , Huynh et al. developed a new methodology to determine ligand donor strengths by 13C NMR analysis of trans @-@ palladium ( II ) -carbene complexes . The use of a 13C @-@ labeled N @-@ heterocyclic carbene ligand also allows for the study of mixed carbene @-@ phosphine complexes , which undergo trans @-@ cis @-@ isomerization due to the trans effect .
= = Applications = =
NHCs are widely used as ancillary ligand in organometallic chemistry . One practical application is the ruthenium @-@ based Grubbs ' catalyst and NHC @-@ Palladium Complexes for cross @-@ coupling reactions . NHC @-@ metal complexes , specifically Ag ( I ) -NHC complexes have been widely tested for their biological applications .
= = Preparation methods = =
NHCs are often strongly basic ( the pKa value of the conjugate acid of an imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene was measured at ca . 24 ) and react with oxygen . Clearly these reactions are performed using air @-@ free techniques , avoiding compounds of even moderate acidity . Although imidazolium salts are stable to nucleophilic addition , other non @-@ aromatic salts are not ( i.e. formamidinium salts ) .
In these cases , strong unhindered nucleophiles are avoided whether they are generated in situ or are present as an impurity in other reagents ( e.g. , LiOH in BuLi ) .
Several approaches have been developed in order to prepare stable carbenes , these are outlined below .
= = = Deprotonation = = =
Deprotonation of carbene precursor salts with strong bases has proved a reliable route to almost all stable carbenes :
Imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes and dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes , e.g. Imes , have been prepared by the deprotonation of the respective imidazolium and dihydroimidazolium salts . The acyclic carbenes and the tetrahydropyrimidinyl based carbenes were prepared by deprotonation using strong homogeneous bases .
Several bases and reaction conditions have been employed with varying success . The degree of success has been principally dependent on the nature of the precursor being deprotonated . The major drawback with this method of preparation is the problem of isolation of the free carbene from the metals ions used in their preparation .
= = = = Metal hydride bases = = = =
One might believe that sodium or potassium hydride would be the ideal base for deprotonating these precursor salts . The hydride should react irreversibly with the loss of hydrogen to give the desired carbene , with the inorganic by @-@ products and excess hydride being removed by filtration . In practice this reaction is often too slow , requiring the addition of DMSO or t @-@ BuOH . These reagents generate soluble catalysts , which increase the rate of reaction of this heterogeneous system , via the generation of tert @-@ butoxide or dimsyl anion . However , these catalysts have proved ineffective for the preparation of non @-@ imidazolium adducts as they tend to act as nucleophiles towards the precursor salts and in so doing are destroyed . The presence of hydroxide ions as an impurity in the metal hydride could also destroy non @-@ aromatic salts .
Deprotonation with sodium or potassium hydride in a mixture of liquid ammonia / THF at -40 ° C has been reported for imidazole @-@ based carbenes . Arduengo and co @-@ workers managed to prepare a dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidene using NaH . However , this method has not been applied to the preparation of diaminocarbenes . In some cases , potassium tert @-@ butoxide can be employed without the addition of a metal hydride .
= = = = Alkyllithiums = = = =
The use of alkyllithiums as strong bases has not been extensively studied , and have been unreliable for deprotonation of precursor salts . With non @-@ aromatic salts , n @-@ BuLi and PhLi can act as nucleophiles whilst t @-@ BuLi can on occasion act as a source of hydride , reducing the salt with the generation of isobutene :
= = = = Amides bases = = = =
Lithium amides like the diisopropylamide ( LDA ) and the ( tetramethylpiperidide ( LiTMP ) ) generally work well for the deprotonation of all types of salts , providing that not too much LiOH is present in the n @-@ butyllithium used to make the lithium amide . Titration of lithium amide can be used to determine the amount of hydroxide in solution . The deprotonation of precursor salts with metal hexamethyldisilazides works very cleanly for the deprotonation of all types of salts , except for unhindered formamidinium salts , where this base can act as a nucleophile to give a triaminomethane adduct .
= = = Metal @-@ free carbene preparation = = =
The preparation of stable carbenes free from metal cations has been keenly sought to allow further study of the carbene species in isolation from these metals . Separating a carbene from a carbene @-@ metal complex can be problematic due to the stability of the complex . Accordingly , it is preferable to make the carbene free from these metals in the first place . Indeed , some metal ions , rather than stabilising the carbene , have been implicated in the catalytic dimerisation of unhindered examples .
Shown right is an X @-@ ray structure showing a complex between a diaminocarbene and potassium HMDS . This complex was formed when excess KHMDS was used as a strong base to deprotonate the formamidinium salt . Removing lithium ions resulting from deprotonation with reagents such as LDA can be especially problematic . Potassium and sodium salt by @-@ products tend to precipitate from solution and can be removed . Lithium ions may be chemically removed by binding to species such as cryptands or crown ethers .
Metal free carbenes have been prepared in several ways as outlined below :
= = = = Dechalcogenation = = = =
Another approach of preparing carbenes has relied on the desulfurisation of thioureas with potassium in THF . A contributing factor to the success of this reaction is that the byproduct , potassium sulfide , is insoluble in the solvent . The elevated temperatures suggest that this method is not suitable for the preparation of unstable dimerising carbenes . A single example of the deoxygenation of a urea with a fluorene derived carbene to give the tetramethyldiaminocarbene and fluorenone has also been reported :
The desulfurisation of thioureas with molten potassium to give imidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes or diaminocarbenes has not been widely used . The method was used to prepare dihydroimidazole carbenes .
= = = = Vacuum pyrolysis = = = =
Vacuum pyrolysis , with the removal of neutral volatile by @-@ products ( CH3OH , CHCl3 ) , has been used to prepare dihydroimidazole and triazole based carbenes :
Historically the removal of chloroform by vacuum pyrolysis of d adducts was used by Wanzlick in his early attempts to prepare dihydroimidazol @-@ 2 @-@ ylidenes but this method is not widely used . The Enders laboratory has used vacuum pyrolysis of a c adduct to generate a triazolium @-@ 5 @-@ ylidene c .
= = = = Bis ( trimethylsilyl ) mercury = = = =
Bis ( trimethylsilyl ) mercury ( CH3 ) 3Si @-@ Hg @-@ Si ( CH3 ) 3 reacts with chloro @-@ iminium and chloro @-@ amidinium salts to give a metal @-@ free carbene and elemental mercury . For example , ( CH3 ) 3Si @-@ Hg @-@ Si ( CH3 ) 3 + R2N = C ( Cl ) -NR2 + Cl − → R2N @-@ C : -NR2 + Hg ( l ) + ( CH3 ) 3Si @-@ Cl
= = = = Photochemical decomposition = = = =
Persistent triplet state carbenes have been prepared by photochemical decomposition of a diazomethane product via the expulsion of nitrogen gas , at a wavelength of 300 nm in benzene .
= = = Purification = = =
Stable carbenes are very reactive , and so the minimum amount of handling is desirable using air @-@ free techniques . However , provided rigorously dry , relatively non @-@ acidic and air @-@ free materials are used , stable carbenes are reasonably robust to handling per se . By way of example , a stable carbene prepared from potassium hydride can be filtered through a dry celite pad to remove excess KH ( and resulting salts ) from the reaction . On a relatively small scale , a suspension containing a stable carbene in solution can be allowed to settle and the supernatant solution pushed through a dried membrane syringe filter . Stable carbenes are readily soluble in non @-@ polar solvents such as hexane , and so typically recrystallisation of stable carbenes can be difficult , due to the unavailability of suitable non @-@ acidic polar solvents . Air @-@ free sublimation as shown right can be an effective method of purification , although temperatures below 60 ° C under high vacuum are preferable as these carbenes are relatively volatile and also could begin to decompose at these higher temperatures . Indeed , sublimation in some cases can give single crystals suitable for X @-@ ray analysis . However , strong complexation to metal ions like lithium will in most cases prevent sublimation .
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= Traumatic brain injury =
Traumatic brain injury ( TBI ) , also known as intracranial injury , occurs when an external force traumatically injures the brain . TBI can be classified based on severity , mechanism ( closed or penetrating head injury ) , or other features ( e.g. , occurring in a specific location or over a widespread area ) . Head injury usually refers to TBI , but is a broader category because it can involve damage to structures other than the brain , such as the scalp and skull .
TBI is a major cause of death and disability worldwide , especially in children and young adults . Males sustain traumatic brain injuries more frequently than do females . Causes include falls , vehicle accidents , and violence . Prevention measures include use of technology to protect those suffering from automobile accidents , such as seat belts and sports or motorcycle helmets , as well as efforts to reduce the number of automobile accidents , such as safety education programs and enforcement of traffic laws .
Brain trauma can occur as a consequence of a focal impact upon the head , by a sudden acceleration / deceleration within the cranium or by a complex combination of both movement and sudden impact . In addition to the damage caused at the moment of injury , brain trauma causes secondary injury , a variety of events that take place in the minutes and days following the injury . These processes , which include alterations in cerebral blood flow and the pressure within the skull , contribute substantially to the damage from the initial injury .
TBI can cause a host of physical , cognitive , social , emotional , and behavioral effects , and outcome can range from complete recovery to permanent disability or death . The 20th century saw critical developments in diagnosis and treatment that decreased death rates and improved outcome . Some of the current imaging techniques used for diagnosis and treatment include computed tomography and MRIs ( magnetic resonance imaging ) . Depending on the injury , treatment required may be minimal or may include interventions such as medications , emergency surgery or surgery years later . Physical therapy , speech therapy , recreation therapy , occupational therapy and vision therapy may be employed for rehabilitation . Counseling , supported employment , and community support services may also be useful .
= = Classification = =
Traumatic brain injury is defined as damage to the brain resulting from external mechanical force , such as rapid acceleration or deceleration , impact , blast waves , or penetration by a projectile . Brain function is temporarily or permanently impaired and structural damage may or may not be detectable with current technology .
TBI is one of two subsets of acquired brain injury ( brain damage that occur after birth ) ; the other subset is non @-@ traumatic brain injury , which does not involve external mechanical force ( examples include stroke and infection ) . All traumatic brain injuries are head injuries , but the latter term may also refer to injury to other parts of the head . However , the terms head injury and brain injury are often used interchangeably . Similarly , brain injuries fall under the classification of central nervous system injuries and neurotrauma . In neuropsychology research literature , in general the term " traumatic brain injury " is used to refer to non @-@ penetrating traumatic brain injuries .
TBI is usually classified based on severity , anatomical features of the injury , and the mechanism ( the causative forces ) . Mechanism @-@ related classification divides TBI into closed and penetrating head injury . A closed ( also called nonpenetrating , or blunt ) injury occurs when the brain is not exposed . A penetrating , or open , head injury occurs when an object pierces the skull and breaches the dura mater , the outermost membrane surrounding the brain .
= = = Severity = = =
Brain injuries can be classified into mild , moderate , and severe categories . The Glasgow Coma Scale ( GCS ) , the most commonly used system for classifying TBI severity , grades a person 's level of consciousness on a scale of 3 – 15 based on verbal , motor , and eye @-@ opening reactions to stimuli . In general , it is agreed that a TBI with a GCS of 13 or above is mild , 9 – 12 is moderate , and 8 or below is severe . Similar systems exist for young children . However , the GCS grading system has limited ability to predict outcomes . Because of this , other classification systems such as the one shown in the table are also used to help determine severity . A current model developed by the Department of Defense and Department of Veterans Affairs uses all three criteria of GCS after resuscitation , duration of post @-@ traumatic amnesia ( PTA ) , and loss of consciousness ( LOC ) . It also has been proposed to use changes that are visible on neuroimaging , such as swelling , focal lesions , or diffuse injury as method of classification . Grading scales also exist to classify the severity of mild TBI , commonly called concussion ; these use duration of LOC , PTA , and other concussion symptoms .
= = = Pathological features = = =
Systems also exist to classify TBI by its pathological features . Lesions can be extra @-@ axial , ( occurring within the skull but outside of the brain ) or intra @-@ axial ( occurring within the brain tissue ) . Damage from TBI can be focal or diffuse , confined to specific areas or distributed in a more general manner , respectively . However , it is common for both types of injury to exist in a given case .
Diffuse injury manifests with little apparent damage in neuroimaging studies , but lesions can be seen with microscopy techniques post @-@ mortem , and in the early 2000s , researchers discovered that diffusion tensor imaging ( DTI ) , a way of processing MRI images that shows white matter tracts , was an effective tool for displaying the extent of diffuse axonal injury . Types of injuries considered diffuse include edema ( swelling ) and diffuse axonal injury , which is widespread damage to axons including white matter tracts and projections to the cortex . Types of injuries considered diffuse include concussion and diffuse axonal injury , widespread damage to axons in areas including white matter and the cerebral hemispheres .
Focal injuries often produce symptoms related to the functions of the damaged area . Research shows that the most common areas to have focal lesions in non @-@ penetrating traumatic brain injury are the orbitofrontal cortex ( the lower surface of the frontal lobes ) and the anterior temporal lobes , areas that are involved in social behavior , emotion regulation , olfaction , and decision @-@ making , hence the common social / emotional and judgment deficits following moderate @-@ severe TBI . Symptoms such as hemiparesis or aphasia can also occur when less commonly affected areas such as motor or language areas are , respectively , damaged .
One type of focal injury , cerebral laceration , occurs when the tissue is cut or torn . Such tearing is common in orbitofrontal cortex in particular , because of bony protrusions on the interior skull ridge above the eyes . In a similar injury , cerebral contusion ( bruising of brain tissue ) , blood is mixed among tissue . In contrast , intracranial hemorrhage involves bleeding that is not mixed with tissue .
Hematomas , also focal lesions , are collections of blood in or around the brain that can result from hemorrhage . Intracerebral hemorrhage , with bleeding in the brain tissue itself , is an intra @-@ axial lesion . Extra @-@ axial lesions include epidural hematoma , subdural hematoma , subarachnoid hemorrhage , and intraventricular hemorrhage . Epidural hematoma involves bleeding into the area between the skull and the dura mater , the outermost of the three membranes surrounding the brain . In subdural hematoma , bleeding occurs between the dura and the arachnoid mater . Subarachnoid hemorrhage involves bleeding into the space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater . Intraventricular hemorrhage occurs when there is bleeding in the ventricles .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptoms are dependent on the type of TBI ( diffuse or focal ) and the part of the brain that is affected . Unconsciousness tends to last longer for people with injuries on the left side of the brain than for those with injuries on the right . Symptoms are also dependent on the injury 's severity . With mild TBI , the patient may remain conscious or may lose consciousness for a few seconds or minutes . Other symptoms of mild TBI include headache , vomiting , nausea , lack of motor coordination , dizziness , difficulty balancing , lightheadedness , blurred vision or tired eyes , ringing in the ears , bad taste in the mouth , fatigue or lethargy , and changes in sleep patterns . Cognitive and emotional symptoms include behavioral or mood changes , confusion , and trouble with memory , concentration , attention , or thinking . Mild TBI symptoms may also be present in moderate and severe injuries .
A person with a moderate or severe TBI may have a headache that does not go away , repeated vomiting or nausea , convulsions , an inability to awaken , dilation of one or both pupils , slurred speech , aphasia ( word @-@ finding difficulties ) , dysarthria ( muscle weakness that causes disordered speech ) , weakness or numbness in the limbs , loss of coordination , confusion , restlessness , or agitation . Common long @-@ term symptoms of moderate to severe TBI are changes in appropriate social behavior , deficits in social judgment , and cognitive changes , especially problems with sustained attention , processing speed , and executive functioning . Alexithymia , a deficiency in identifying , understanding , processing , and describing emotions occurs in 60 @.@ 9 % of individuals with TBI . Cognitive and social deficits have long @-@ term consequences for the daily lives of people with moderate to severe TBI , but can be improved with appropriate rehabilitation .
When the pressure within the skull ( intracranial pressure , abbreviated ICP ) rises too high , it can be deadly . Signs of increased ICP include decreasing level of consciousness , paralysis or weakness on one side of the body , and a blown pupil , one that fails to constrict in response to light or is slow to do so . Cushing 's triad , a slow heart rate with high blood pressure and respiratory depression is a classic manifestation of significantly raised ICP . Anisocoria , unequal pupil size , is another sign of serious TBI . Abnormal posturing , a characteristic positioning of the limbs caused by severe diffuse injury or high ICP , is an ominous sign .
Small children with moderate to severe TBI may have some of these symptoms but have difficulty communicating them . Other signs seen in young children include persistent crying , inability to be consoled , listlessness , refusal to nurse or eat , and irritability .
= = Causes = =
The most common causes of TBI in the U.S. include violence , transportation accidents , construction , and sports . Motor bikes are major causes , increasing in significance in developing countries as other causes reduce . The estimates that between 1 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 8 million traumatic brain injuries each year are a result of sports and recreation activities in the US . In children aged two to four , falls are the most common cause of TBI , while in older children traffic accidents compete with falls for this position . TBI is the third most common injury to result from child abuse . Abuse causes 19 % of cases of pediatric brain trauma , and the death rate is higher among these cases . Although men are twice as likely to have a TBI . Domestic violence is another cause of TBI , as are work @-@ related and industrial accidents . Firearms and blast injuries from explosions are other causes of TBI , which is the leading cause of death and disability in war zones . According to Representative Bill Pascrell ( Democrat , NJ ) , TBI is " the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . " There is a promising technology called activation database @-@ guided EEG biofeedback , which has been documented to return a TBI 's auditory memory ability to above the control group 's performance
= = Mechanism = =
= = = Physical forces = = =
The type , direction , intensity , and duration of forces all contribute to the characteristics and severity TBI . Forces that may contribute to TBI include angular , rotational , shear , and translational forces .
Even in the absence of an impact , significant acceleration or deceleration of the head can cause TBI ; however in most cases a combination of impact and acceleration is probably to blame . Forces involving the head striking or being struck by something , termed contact or impact loading , are the cause of most focal injuries , and movement of the brain within the skull , termed noncontact or inertial loading , usually causes diffuse injuries . The violent shaking of an infant that causes shaken baby syndrome commonly manifests as diffuse injury . In impact loading , the force sends shock waves through the skull and brain , resulting in tissue damage . Shock waves caused by penetrating injuries can also destroy tissue along the path of a projectile , compounding the damage caused by the missile itself .
Damage may occur directly under the site of impact , or it may occur on the side opposite the impact ( coup and contrecoup injury , respectively ) . When a moving object impacts the stationary head , coup injuries are typical , while contrecoup injuries are usually produced when the moving head strikes a stationary object .
= = = Primary and secondary injury = = =
A large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event ; rather than improving after being hospitalized , some 40 % of TBI patients deteriorate . Primary brain injury ( the damage that occurs at the moment of trauma when tissues and blood vessels are stretched , compressed , and torn ) is not adequate to explain this deterioration ; rather , it is caused by secondary injury , a complex set of cellular processes and biochemical cascades that occur in the minutes to days following the trauma . These secondary processes can dramatically worsen the damage caused by primary injury and account for the greatest number of TBI deaths occurring in hospitals .
Secondary injury events include damage to the blood – brain barrier , release of factors that cause inflammation , free radical overload , excessive release of the neurotransmitter glutamate ( excitotoxicity ) , influx of calcium and sodium ions into neurons , and dysfunction of mitochondria . Injured axons in the brain 's white matter may separate from their cell bodies as a result of secondary injury , potentially killing those neurons . Other factors in secondary injury are changes in the blood flow to the brain ; ischemia ( insufficient blood flow ) ; cerebral hypoxia ( insufficient oxygen in the brain ) ; cerebral edema ( swelling of the brain ) ; and raised intracranial pressure ( the pressure within the skull ) . Intracranial pressure may rise due to swelling or a mass effect from a lesion , such as a hemorrhage . As a result , cerebral perfusion pressure ( the pressure of blood flow in the brain ) is reduced ; ischemia results . When the pressure within the skull rises too high , it can cause brain death or herniation , in which parts of the brain are squeezed by structures in the skull . A particularly weak part of the skull that is vulnerable to damage causing extradural haematoma is the pterion , deep in which lies the middle meningeal artery , which is easily damaged in fractures of the pterion . Since the pterion is so weak , this type of injury can easily occur and can be secondary due to trauma to other parts of the skull where the impact forces spreads to the pterion .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis is suspected based on lesion circumstances and clinical evidence , most prominently a neurological examination , for example checking whether the pupils constrict normally in response to light and assigning a Glasgow Coma Score . Neuroimaging helps in determining the diagnosis and prognosis and in deciding what treatments to give .
The preferred radiologic test in the emergency setting is computed tomography ( CT ) : it is quick , accurate , and widely available . Follow @-@ up CT scans may be performed later to determine whether the injury has progressed .
Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) can show more detail than CT , and can add information about expected outcome in the long term . It is more useful than CT for detecting injury characteristics such as diffuse axonal injury in the longer term . However , MRI is not used in the emergency setting for reasons including its relative inefficacy in detecting bleeds and fractures , its lengthy acquisition of images , the inaccessibility of the patient in the machine , and its incompatibility with metal items used in emergency care . A variant of MRI since 2012 is High definition fiber tracking ( HDFT ) .
Other techniques may be used to confirm a particular diagnosis . X @-@ rays are still used for head trauma , but evidence suggests they are not useful ; head injuries are either so mild that they do not need imaging or severe enough to merit the more accurate CT . Angiography may be used to detect blood vessel pathology when risk factors such as penetrating head trauma are involved . Functional imaging can measure cerebral blood flow or metabolism , inferring neuronal activity in specific regions and potentially helping to predict outcome . Electroencephalography and transcranial doppler may also be used . The most sensitive physical measure to date is the quantitative EEG , which has documented an 80 % to 100 % ability in discriminating between normal and traumatic brain @-@ injured subjects .
Neuropsychological assessment can be performed to evaluate the long @-@ term cognitive sequelae and to aid in the planning of the rehabilitation . Instruments range from short measures of general mental functioning to complete batteries formed of different domain @-@ specific tests .
= = Prevention = =
Since a major cause of TBI are vehicle accidents , their prevention or the amelioration of their consequences can both reduce the incidence and gravity of TBI . In accidents , damage can be reduced by use of seat belts , child safety seats and motorcycle helmets , and presence of roll bars and airbags . Education programs exist to lower the number of crashes . In addition , changes to public policy and safety laws can be made ; these include speed limits , seat belt and helmet laws , and road engineering practices .
Changes to common practices in sports have also been discussed . An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI . Due to the possibility that repeatedly " heading " a ball practicing soccer could cause cumulative brain injury , the idea of introducing protective headgear for players has been proposed . Improved equipment design can enhance safety ; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk . Rules against dangerous types of contact , such as " spear tackling " in American football , when one player tackles another head first , may also reduce head injury rates .
Falls can be avoided by installing grab bars in bathrooms and handrails on stairways ; removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs ; or installing window guards and safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs around young children . Playgrounds with shock @-@ absorbing surfaces such as mulch or sand also prevent head injuries . Child abuse prevention is another tactic ; programs exist to prevent shaken baby syndrome by educating about the dangers of shaking children . Gun safety , including keeping guns unloaded and locked , is another preventative measure . Studies on the effect of laws that aim to control access to guns in the United States have been insufficient to determine their effectiveness preventing number of deaths or injuries .
Recent clinical and laboratory research by neurosurgeon Julian Bailes , M.D. , and his colleagues from West Virginia University , has resulted in papers showing that dietary supplementation with omega @-@ 3 DHA offers protection against the biochemical brain damage that occurs after a traumatic injury . Rats given DHA prior to induced brain injuries suffered smaller increases in two key markers for brain damage ( APP and caspase @-@ 3 ) , as compared with rats given no DHA . “ The potential for DHA to provide prophylactic benefit to the brain against traumatic injury appears promising and requires further investigation . The essential concept of daily dietary supplementation with DHA , so that those at significant risk may be preloaded to provide protection against the acute effects of TBI , has tremendous public health implications . ”
Furthermore , acetylcysteine has been confirmed , in a recent double @-@ blind placebo @-@ controlled trial conducted by the US military , to reduce the effects of blast induced mild traumatic brain and neurological injury in soldiers . Multiple animal studies have also demonstrated its efficacy in reducing the damage associated with moderate traumatic brain or spinal injury , and also ischemia @-@ induced brain injury . In particular , it has been demonstrated through multiple studies to significantly reduce neuronal losses and to improve cognitive and neurological outcomes associated with these traumatic events . Acetylcysteine has been safely used to treat paracetamol overdose for over forty years and is extensively used in emergency medicine .
= = Treatment = =
It is important to begin emergency treatment within the so @-@ called " golden hour " following the injury . People with moderate to severe injuries are likely to receive treatment in an intensive care unit followed by a neurosurgical ward . Treatment depends on the recovery stage of the patient . In the acute stage the primary aim of the medical personnel is to stabilize the patient and focus on preventing further injury because little can be done to reverse the initial damage caused by trauma . Rehabilitation is the main treatment for the subacute and chronic stages of recovery . International clinical guidelines have been proposed with the aim of guiding decisions in TBI treatment , as defined by an authoritative examination of current evidence .
= = = Acute stage = = =
Certain facilities are equipped to handle TBI better than others ; initial measures include transporting patients to an appropriate treatment center . Both during transport and in hospital the primary concerns are ensuring proper oxygen supply , maintaining adequate blood flow to the brain , and controlling raised intracranial pressure ( ICP ) , since high ICP deprives the brain of badly needed blood flow and can cause deadly brain herniation . Other methods to prevent damage include management of other injuries and prevention of seizures . Some data supports the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy to improve outcomes .
Neuroimaging is helpful but not flawless in detecting raised ICP . A more accurate way to measure ICP is to place a catheter into a ventricle of the brain , which has the added benefit of allowing cerebrospinal fluid to drain , releasing pressure in the skull . Treatment of raised ICP may be as simple as tilting the patient 's bed and straightening the head to promote blood flow through the veins of the neck . Sedatives , analgesics and paralytic agents are often used . Hypertonic saline can improve ICP by reducing the amount of cerebral water ( swelling ) , though it is used with caution to avoid electrolyte imbalances or heart failure . Mannitol , an osmotic diuretic , appears to be equally effective at reducing ICP . Some concerns ; however , have been raised regarding some of the studies performed . Diuretics , drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system , may be used to treat high intracranial pressures , but may cause hypovolemia ( insufficient blood volume ) . Hyperventilation ( larger and / or faster breaths ) reduces carbon dioxide levels and causes blood vessels to constrict ; this decreases blood flow to the brain and reduces ICP , but it potentially causes ischemia and is , therefore , used only in the short term . Administration of corticosteroids is associated with an increased risk of death , and so it is recommended that they not be given routinely .
Endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation may be used to ensure proper oxygen supply and provide a secure airway . Hypotension ( low blood pressure ) , which has a devastating outcome in TBI , can be prevented by giving intravenous fluids to maintain a normal blood pressure . Failing to maintain blood pressure can result in inadequate blood flow to the brain . Blood pressure may be kept at an artificially high level under controlled conditions by infusion of norepinephrine or similar drugs ; this helps maintain cerebral perfusion . Body temperature is carefully regulated because increased temperature raises the brain 's metabolic needs , potentially depriving it of nutrients . Seizures are common . While they can be treated with benzodiazepines , these drugs are used carefully because they can depress breathing and lower blood pressure . TBI patients are more susceptible to side effects and may react adversely or be inordinately sensitive to some pharmacological agents . During treatment monitoring continues for signs of deterioration such as a decreasing level of consciousness .
Traumatic brain injury may cause a range of serious coincidental complications that include cardiac arrhythmias and neurogenic pulmonary edema . These conditions must be adequately treated and stabilised as part of the core care for these patients .
Surgery can be performed on mass lesions or to eliminate objects that have penetrated the brain . Mass lesions such as contusions or hematomas causing a significant mass effect ( shift of intracranial structures ) are considered emergencies and are removed surgically . For intracranial hematomas , the collected blood may be removed using suction or forceps or it may be floated off with water . Surgeons look for hemorrhaging blood vessels and seek to control bleeding . In penetrating brain injury , damaged tissue is surgically debrided , and craniotomy may be needed . Craniotomy , in which part of the skull is removed , may be needed to remove pieces of fractured skull or objects embedded in the brain . Decompressive craniectomy ( DC ) is performed routinely in the very short period following TBI during operations to treat hematomas ; part of the skull is removed temporarily ( primary DC ) . DC performed hours or days after TBI in order to control high intracranial pressures ( secondary DC ) has not been shown to improve outcome in some trials and may be associated with severe side @-@ effects .
= = = Chronic stage = = =
Once medically stable , people may be transferred to a subacute rehabilitation unit of the medical center or to an independent rehabilitation hospital . Rehabilitation aims to improve independent function at home and in society and to help adapt to disabilities and has demonstrated its general effectiveness , when conducted by a team of health professionals who specialise in head trauma . As for any person with neurologic deficits , a multidisciplinary approach is key to optimising outcome . Physiatrists or neurologists are likely to be the key medical staff involved , but depending on the person , doctors of other medical specialties may also be helpful . Allied health professions such as physiotherapy , speech and language therapy , cognitive rehabilitation therapy , and occupational therapy will be essential to assess function and design the rehabilitation activities for each person . Treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms such as emotional distress and clinical depression may involve mental health professionals such as therapists , psychologists , and psychiatrists , while neuropsychologists can help to evaluate and manage cognitive deficits .
After discharge from the inpatient rehabilitation treatment unit , care may be given on an outpatient basis . Community @-@ based rehabilitation will be required for a high proportion of people , including vocational rehabilitation ; this supportive employment matches job demands to the worker 's abilities . People with TBI who cannot live independently or with family may require care in supported living facilities such as group homes . Respite care , including day centers and leisure facilities for the disabled , offers time off for caregivers , and activities for people with TBI .
Pharmacological treatment can help to manage psychiatric or behavioral problems . Medication is also used to control post @-@ traumatic epilepsy ; however the preventive use of anti @-@ epileptics is not recommended . In those cases where the person is bedridden due to a reduction of consciousness , has to remain in a wheelchair because of mobility problems , or has any other problem heavily impacting self @-@ caring capacities , caregiving and nursing are critical . The most effective research documented intervention approach is the activation database guided EEG biofeedback approach , which has shown significant improvements in memory abilities of the TBI subject that are far superior than traditional approaches ( strategies , computers , medication intervention ) . Gains of 2 @.@ 61 standard deviations have been documented . The TBI 's auditory memory ability was superior to the control group after the treatment .
= = Prognosis = =
Prognosis worsens with the severity of injury . Most TBIs are mild and do not cause permanent or long @-@ term disability ; however , all severity levels of TBI have the potential to cause significant , long @-@ lasting disability . Permanent disability is thought to occur in 10 % of mild injuries , 66 % of moderate injuries , and 100 % of severe injuries . Most mild TBI is completely resolved within three weeks , and almost all people with mild TBI are able to live independently and return to the jobs they had before the injury , although a portion have mild cognitive and social impairments . Over 90 % of people with moderate TBI are able to live independently , although a portion require assistance in areas such as physical abilities , employment , and financial managing . Most people with severe closed head injury either die or recover enough to live independently ; middle ground is less common . Coma , as it is closely related to severity , is a strong predictor of poor outcome .
Prognosis differs depending on the severity and location of the lesion , and access to immediate , specialised acute management . Subarachnoid hemorrhage approximately doubles mortality . Subdural hematoma is associated with worse outcome and increased mortality , while people with epidural hematoma are expected to have a good outcome if they receive surgery quickly . Diffuse axonal injury may be associated with coma when severe , and poor outcome . Following the acute stage , prognosis is strongly influenced by the patient 's involvement in activity that promote recovery , which for most patients requires access to a specialised , intensive rehabilitation service . The Functional Independence Measure is a way to track progress and degree of independence throughout rehabilitation .
Medical complications are associated with a bad prognosis . Examples are hypotension ( low blood pressure ) , hypoxia ( low blood oxygen saturation ) , lower cerebral perfusion pressures and longer times spent with high intracranial pressures . Patient characteristics also influence prognosis . Factors thought to worsen it include abuse of substances such as illicit drugs and alcohol and age over sixty or under two years ( in children , younger age at time of injury may be associated with a slower recovery of some abilities ) . Other influences that may affect recovery include pre @-@ injury intellectual ability , coping strategies , personality traits , family environment , social support systems and financial circumstances .
Life satisfaction has been known to decrease for individuals with TBI immediately following the trauma , but evidence has shown that life roles , age , and depressive symptoms influence the trajectory of life satisfaction as time passes .
= = Complications = =
Improvement of neurological function usually occurs for two or more years after the trauma . For many years it was believed that recovery was fastest during the first six months , but there is no evidence to support this . It may be related to services commonly being withdrawn after this period , rather than any physiological limitation to further progress . Children recover better in the immediate time frame and improve for longer periods .
Complications are distinct medical problems that may arise as a result of the TBI . The results of traumatic brain injury vary widely in type and duration ; they include physical , cognitive , emotional , and behavioral complications . TBI can cause prolonged or permanent effects on consciousness , such as coma , brain death , persistent vegetative state ( in which patients are unable to achieve a state of alertness to interact with their surroundings ) , and minimally conscious state ( in which patients show minimal signs of being aware of self or environment ) . Lying still for long periods can cause complications including pressure sores , pneumonia or other infections , progressive multiple organ failure , and deep venous thrombosis , which can cause pulmonary embolism . Infections that can follow skull fractures and penetrating injuries include meningitis and abscesses . Complications involving the blood vessels include vasospasm , in which vessels constrict and restrict blood flow , the formation of aneurysms , in which the side of a vessel weakens and balloons out , and stroke .
Movement disorders that may develop after TBI include tremor , ataxia ( uncoordinated muscle movements ) , myoclonus ( shock @-@ like contractions of muscles ) , and loss of movement range and control ( in particular with a loss of movement repertoire ) . The risk of post @-@ traumatic seizures increases with severity of trauma ( image at right ) and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas . People with early seizures , those occurring within a week of injury , have an increased risk of post @-@ traumatic epilepsy ( recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma ) . People may lose or experience altered vision , hearing , or smell .
Hormonal disturbances may occur secondary to hypopituitarism , occurring immediately or years after injury in 10 to 15 % of TBI patients . Development of diabetes insipidus or an electrolyte abnormality acutely after injury indicate need for endocrinologic work up . Signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism may develop and be screened for in adults with moderate TBI and in mild TBI with imaging abnormalities . Children with moderate to severe head injury may also develop hypopituitarism . Screening should take place 3 to 6 months , and 12 months after injury , but problems may occur more remotely .
Cognitive deficits that can follow TBI include impaired attention ; disrupted insight , judgement , and thought ; reduced processing speed ; distractibility ; and deficits in executive functions such as abstract reasoning , planning , problem @-@ solving , and multitasking . Memory loss , the most common cognitive impairment among head @-@ injured people , occurs in 20 – 79 % of people with closed head trauma , depending on severity . People who have suffered TBI may also have difficulty with understanding or producing spoken or written language , or with more subtle aspects of communication such as body language . Post @-@ concussion syndrome , a set of lasting symptoms experienced after mild TBI , can include physical , cognitive , emotional and behavioral problems such as headaches , dizziness , difficulty concentrating , and depression . Multiple TBIs may have a cumulative effect . A young person who receives a second concussion before symptoms from another one have healed may be at risk for developing a very rare but deadly condition called second @-@ impact syndrome , in which the brain swells catastrophically after even a mild blow , with debilitating or deadly results . About one in five career boxers is affected by chronic traumatic brain injury ( CTBI ) , which causes cognitive , behavioral , and physical impairments . Dementia pugilistica , the severe form of CTBI , affects primarily career boxers years after a boxing career . It commonly manifests as dementia , memory problems , and parkinsonism ( tremors and lack of coordination ) .
TBI may cause emotional , social , or behavioral problems and changes in personality . These may include emotional instability , depression , anxiety , hypomania , mania , apathy , irritability , problems with social judgment , and impaired conversational skills . TBI appears to predispose survivors to psychiatric disorders including obsessive compulsive disorder , substance abuse , dysthymia , clinical depression , bipolar disorder , and anxiety disorders . In patients who have depression after TBI , suicidal ideation is not uncommon ; the suicide rate among these persons is increased 2- to 3 @-@ fold . Social and behavioral symptoms that can follow TBI include disinhibition , inability to control anger , impulsiveness , lack of initiative , inappropriate sexual activity , asociality and social withdrawal , and changes in personality .
TBI also has a substantial impact on the functioning of family systems Caregiving family members and TBI survivors often significantly alter their familial roles and responsibilities following injury , creating significant change and strain on a family system . Typical challenges identified by families recovering from TBI include : frustration and impatience with one another , loss of former lives and relationships , difficulty setting reasonable goals , inability to effectively solve problems as a family , increased level of stress and household tension , changes in emotional dynamics , and overwhelming desire to return to pre @-@ injury status . In addition , families may exhibit less effective functioning in areas including coping , problem solving and communication . Psychoeducation and counseling models have been demonstrated to be effective in minimizing family disruption
= = Epidemiology = =
TBI is a leading cause of death and disability around the globe and presents a major worldwide social , economic , and health problem . It is the number one cause of coma , it plays the leading role in disability due to trauma , and is the leading cause of brain damage in children and young adults . In Europe it is responsible for more years of disability than any other cause . It also plays a significant role in half of trauma deaths .
Findings on the frequency of each level of severity vary based on the definitions and methods used in studies . A World Health Organization study estimated that between 70 and 90 % of head injuries that receive treatment are mild , and a US study found that moderate and severe injuries each account for 10 % of TBIs , with the rest mild .
The incidence of TBI varies by age , gender , region and other factors . Findings of incidence and prevalence in epidemiological studies vary based on such factors as which grades of severity are included , whether deaths are included , whether the study is restricted to hospitalized people , and the study 's location . The annual incidence of mild TBI is difficult to determine but may be 100 – 600 people per 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Mortality = = =
In the US , the case fatality rate is estimated to be 21 % by 30 days after TBI . A study on Iraq War soldiers found that severe TBI carries a mortality of 30 – 50 % . Deaths have declined due to improved treatments and systems for managing trauma in societies wealthy enough to provide modern emergency and neurosurgical services . The fraction of those who die after being hospitalized with TBI fell from almost half in the 1970s to about a quarter at the beginning of the 21st century . This decline in mortality has led to a concomitant increase in the number of people living with disabilities that result from TBI .
Biological , clinical , and demographic factors contribute to the likelihood that an injury will be fatal . In addition , outcome depends heavily on the cause of head injury . In the US , patients with fall @-@ related TBIs have an 89 % survival rate , while only 9 % of patients with firearm @-@ related TBIs survive . In the US , firearms are the most common cause of fatal TBI , followed by vehicle accidents and then falls . Of deaths from firearms , 75 % are considered to be suicides .
The incidence of TBI is increasing globally , due largely to an increase in motor vehicle use in low- and middle @-@ income countries . In developing countries , automobile use has increased faster than safety infrastructure could be introduced . In contrast , vehicle safety laws have decreased rates of TBI in high @-@ income countries , which have seen decreases in traffic @-@ related TBI since the 1970s . Each year in the United States , about two million people suffer a TBI , approximately 675 @,@ 000 injuries are seen in the emergency department , and about 500 @,@ 000 patients are hospitalized . The yearly incidence of TBI is estimated at 180 – 250 per 100 @,@ 000 people in the US , 281 per 100 @,@ 000 in France , 361 per 100 @,@ 000 in South Africa , 322 per 100 @,@ 000 in Australia , and 430 per 100 @,@ 000 in England . In the European Union the yearly aggregate incidence of TBI hospitalizations and fatalities is estimated at 235 per 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Demographics = = =
TBI is present in 85 % of traumatically injured children , either alone or with other injuries . The greatest number of TBIs occur in people aged 15 – 24 . Because TBI is more common in young people , its costs to society are high due to the loss of productive years to death and disability . The age groups most at risk for TBI are children ages five to nine and adults over age 80 , and the highest rates of death and hospitalization due to TBI are in people over age 65 . The incidence of fall @-@ related TBI in First @-@ World countries is increasing as the population ages ; thus the median age of people with head injuries has increased .
Regardless of age , TBI rates are higher in males . Men suffer twice as many TBIs as women do and have a fourfold risk of fatal head injury , and males account for two thirds of childhood and adolescent head trauma . However , when matched for severity of injury , women appear to fare more poorly than men .
Socioeconomic status also appears to affect TBI rates ; people with lower levels of education and employment and lower socioeconomic status are at greater risk .
= = History = =
Head injury is present in ancient myths that may date back before recorded history . Skulls found in battleground graves with holes drilled over fracture lines suggest that trepanation may have been used to treat TBI in ancient times . Ancient Mesopotamians knew of head injury and some of its effects , including seizures , paralysis , and loss of sight , hearing or speech . The Edwin Smith Papyrus , written around 1650 – 1550 BC , describes various head injuries and symptoms and classifies them based on their presentation and tractability . Ancient Greek physicians including Hippocrates understood the brain to be the center of thought , probably due to their experience with head trauma .
Medieval and Renaissance surgeons continued the practice of trepanation for head injury . In the Middle Ages , physicians further described head injury symptoms and the term concussion became more widespread . Concussion symptoms were first described systematically in the 16th century by Berengario da Carpi .
It was first suggested in the 18th century that intracranial pressure rather than skull damage was the cause of pathology after TBI . This hypothesis was confirmed around the end of the 19th century , and opening the skull to relieve pressure was then proposed as a treatment .
In the 19th century it was noted that TBI is related to the development of psychosis . At that time a debate arose around whether post @-@ concussion syndrome was due to a disturbance of the brain tissue or psychological factors . The debate continues today .
Perhaps the first reported case of personality change after brain injury is that of Phineas Gage , who survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven through his head , destroying one or both of his frontal lobes ; numerous cases of personality change after brain injury have been reported since .
The 20th century saw the advancement of technologies that improved treatment and diagnosis such as the development of imaging tools including CT and MRI , and , in the 21st century , diffusion tensor imaging ( DTI ) . The introduction of intracranial pressure monitoring in the 1950s has been credited with beginning the " modern era " of head injury . Until the 20th century , the mortality rate of TBI was high and rehabilitation was uncommon ; improvements in care made during World War I reduced the death rate and made rehabilitation possible . Facilities dedicated to TBI rehabilitation were probably first established during World War I. Explosives used in World War I caused many blast injuries ; the large number of TBIs that resulted allowed researchers to learn about localization of brain functions . Blast @-@ related injuries are now common problems in returning veterans from Iraq & Afghanistan ; research shows that the symptoms of such TBIs are largely the same as those of TBIs involving a physical blow to the head .
In the 1970s , awareness of TBI as a public health problem grew , and a great deal of progress has been made since then in brain trauma research , such as the discovery of primary and secondary brain injury . The 1990s saw the development and dissemination of standardized guidelines for treatment of TBI , with protocols for a range of issues such as drugs and management of intracranial pressure . Research since the early 1990s has improved TBI survival ; that decade was known as the " Decade of the Brain " for advances made in brain research .
= = Research = =
= = = Medications = = =
Topics of research for improving outcome after TBI have included investigations into mannitol , dexamethasone , progesterone , xenon , barbiturates , magnesium , calcium channel blockers , PPAR @-@ γ agonists , curcuminoids , ethanol , NMDA antagonists , caffeine , hypothermia , and hyperbaric oxygen .
Despite this volume of research , no medication is approved to halt the progression of the initial injury to secondary injury , but the variety of pathological events presents opportunities to find treatments that interfere with the damage processes . Neuroprotection , methods to halt or mitigate secondary injury , have been the subject of great interest for their ability to limit the damage that follows TBI . However , clinical trials to test agents that could halt these cellular mechanisms have met largely with failure . For example , interest existed in hypothermia , cooling the injured brain to limit TBI damage , but it has not been sufficiently studied as of 2014 to see if it is useful or not . In addition , drugs such as NMDA receptor antagonists to halt neurochemical cascades such as excitotoxicity showed promise in animal trials but failed in clinical trials . These failures could be due to factors including faults in the trials ' design or in the insufficiency of a single agent to prevent the array of injury processes involved in secondary injury .
= = = Procedures = = =
In addition to traditional imaging modalities , there are several devices that help to monitor brain injury and facilitate research . Microdialysis allows ongoing sampling of extracellular fluid for analysis of metabolites that might indicate ischemia or brain metabolism , such as glucose , glycerol , and glutamate . Intraparenchymal brain tissue oxygen monitoring systems ( either Licox or Neurovent @-@ PTO ) are used routinely in neurointensive care in the US . A non invasive model called CerOx is in development .
Research is also planned to clarify factors correlated to outcome in TBI and to determine in which cases it is best to perform CT scans and surgical procedures .
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy ( HBO ) has been evaluated as an adjunctive treatment following TBI , concluding a Cochrane review stating that its use could not be justified . HBO for TBI has remained controversial as studies have looked for improvement mechanisms , and further evidence shows that it may have potential as a treatment .
= = = Psychological = = =
As of 2010 , the use of predictive visual tracking measurement to identify mild traumatic brain injury was being studied . In visual tracking tests , a head @-@ mounted display unit with eye @-@ tracking capability shows an object moving in a regular pattern . People without brain injury are able to track the moving object with smooth pursuit eye movements and correct trajectory . The test requires both attention and working memory which are difficult functions for people with mild traumatic brain injury . The question being studied , is whether results for people with brain injury will show visual @-@ tracking gaze errors relative to the moving target .
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= Typhoon Maemi =
Typhoon Maemi , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Pogi , was the most powerful typhoon to strike South Korea since record @-@ keeping began in the country in 1904 . Maemi formed on September 4 , 2003 from a disturbance in a monsoon trough in the western Pacific Ocean . It slowly intensified into Tropical Storm Maemi while moving northwestward , becoming a typhoon on September 8 . That day , favorable conditions facilitated more rapid strengthening ; the storm developed a well @-@ defined eye and reached peak maximum sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . While near peak intensity , Maemi decelerated and began turning to the north @-@ northeast . Soon after , the eyewall passed over the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima on September 10 and produced an air pressure reading of 912 mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) , the fourth @-@ lowest recorded in the nation . Due to warm waters , Maemi was able to maintain much of its intensity before it made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea , on September 12 . The typhoon became extratropical in the Sea of Japan the next day , although its remnants persisted for several days , lashing northern Japan with strong winds .
The typhoon first affected the Ryukyu Islands of Japan . On Miyako @-@ jima , strong winds damaged 104 buildings and left 95 % of residents without power . Maemi caused heavy rainfall there , with rates of 58 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 30 in ) in an hour and 402 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 85 in ) in 24 hours , the latter setting a record . One person died on Miyako @-@ jima after being struck by airborne debris . Elsewhere in Japan , the storm caused flights to be canceled , and rainfall @-@ induced landslides blocked roads . There were two other deaths in Japan , and damage totaled ¥ 11 @.@ 3 billion yen ( JPY , $ 96 million USD ) . Damage was heaviest in South Korea , particularly where it moved ashore . On Jeju Island , Maemi produced a peak wind gust of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , both setting records for the country ; the pressure reading broke the longstanding lowest pressure set by Typhoon Sarah in 1959 . Winds in Busan near the landfall location reached 154 km / h ( 96 mph ) , the second @-@ highest on record . The port there sustained heavy damage , restricting exports in the months following the storm . Nationwide , the high winds destroyed about 5 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 13 @,@ 000 homes and businesses , leaving 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 1 @.@ 47 million households lost power , and widespread crop damage occurred , resulting in the poorest rice harvest in 23 years . Across South Korea , Maemi killed 117 people , and overall damage totaled ₩ 5 @.@ 52 trillion won ( KRW , $ 4 @.@ 8 billion USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early September 2003 , a monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance near Guam . The system consisted of a disorganized area of convection , or thunderstorms , in an area of moderate wind shear . By September 4 , the convection was becoming better organized around a weak low @-@ level circulation . Despite the wind shear , the system continued to develop , becoming a tropical depression north of Chuuk State . At 0200 UTC on September 5 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert , and later that day initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 15W just west of Guam . By that time , the convection had increased over the center . For the first week of its existence , the cyclone tracked generally northwestward , steered by a subtropical ridge to the north .
Early on September 6 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and named it Maemi . With more favorable conditions , including lesser wind shear and enhanced outflow , the storm continued to intensify . The JMA upgraded Maemi to a severe tropical storm on September 7 and to typhoon status – winds of over 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) – the next day . The JTWC had upgraded Maemi to typhoon status on September 7 after an eye feature appeared on satellite imagery . Also around that time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories on the storm , giving it the local name " Pogi " , although the typhoon would remain away from the country . On September 8 , Maemi began undergoing rapid deepening due to enhanced outflow , aided by the flow of an approaching shortwave trough . At 1200 UTC on September 9 , the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) and designated Maemi as a super typhoon . The next day , the same agency estimated peak winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) and gusts to 335 km / h ( 205 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . At 1200 UTC on September 10 , the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( 27 inHg ) while the storm was 155 km ( 100 mi ) southeast of the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima . At peak intensity , Maemi was a small typhoon , with gale @-@ force winds extending only 240 km ( 150 mi ) from the well @-@ defined eye .
Around the time of peak intensity , Maemi was slowing its forward motion and began turning to the north , after the eastward @-@ moving trough weakened the ridge . At 1900 UTC on September 10 , the typhoon passed within 10 km ( 7 mi ) of Miyako @-@ jima . While the eye was passing over the island , the pressure fell to 912 mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) and winds reached 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . Maemi weakened slightly as it continued north , passing about 220 km ( 140 mi ) west of Okinawa on September 11 while undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle . Increasingly hostile conditions from the approaching trough caused further weakening , and the JTWC estimated the typhoon passed just east of Jeju Island with 1 @-@ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) at 0600 UTC on September 12 . Shortly after , Maemi made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea , with the JMA estimating 10 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , and JTWC estimating 1 @-@ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Risk Management Solutions estimated landfall winds of 190 km / h ( 120 mph ) , which surpassed Typhoon Sarah in 1959 . This made Maemi the strongest typhoon to strike the country since the Korea Meteorological Administration began keeping records in 1904 . The storm was able to maintain much of its intensity due to warm sea surface temperatures and its fast forward motion . Maemi rapidly weakened to tropical storm status while moving over land , and was undergoing extratropical transition by the time it entered the Sea of Japan . Increasing wind shear removed the convection from the increasingly ill @-@ defined circulation center . The JTWC issued its final warning on Maemi early on September 13 , declaring the storm extratropical . The JMA followed suit later that day , tracking Maemi over northern Japan and declaring it extratropical over the Sea of Okhotsk . The remnants of Maemi persisted for several more days , until the JMA stopped tracking it on September 16 southwest of the Kamchatka Peninsula . According to the Mariners Weather Log , the remnants of Maemi continued to the east , eventually striking the coast of Alaska on September 21 .
= = Preparations = =
In Japan , the threat of the typhoon caused airlines to cancel 145 flights , mostly in and around Okinawa . About 50 American army bases in Okinawa were closed , and non @-@ essential workers were told to remain home .
Before Maemi made landfall in South Korea , officials issued flood warnings along the Nakdong River due to dams opening floodgates . About 25 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate , either to schools or relatives ' houses . The Korea Meteorological Administration advised travelers to take precaution in advance of the storm . Ferry and airplane services were canceled to Jeju island , stranding residents ahead of the Chuseok holiday .
Officials in Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East issued a storm warning , noting the potential for strong winds and heavy rainfall .
= = Impact = =
= = = Japan = = =
Typhoon Maemi first affected the Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima , where gusts reached 266 km / h ( 166 mph ) , and sustained winds reached 152 km / h ( 94 mph ) . For 16 hours , excluding the 2 – hour passage of the eye , the pressure fell to 912 mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) , the second @-@ lowest on record on the island after Typhoon Sarah in 1959 , and at the time the fourth lowest in all of Japan . The typhoon produced heavy rainfall on Miyako @-@ jima totaling 470 mm ( 19 in ) , of which 402 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 85 in ) fell in 24 hours , breaking the daily record . Also on the island , 58 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 30 in ) fell in one hour , and 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) fell in just 10 minutes . On the island , Maemi damaged 104 buildings , including two severely damaged houses . The storm damaged roads in 36 locations and caused a power outage , affecting about 20 @,@ 900 people , or 95 % of the island . One person on Miyako @-@ jima died after being struck by flying glass .
News agencies considered Maemi the strongest typhoon to affect Okinawa since 1968 . Elsewhere in Okinawa Prefecture , wind gusts reached 109 km / h ( 69 mph ) in Nago . On Ishigaki Island , strong winds damaged houses and crops , while high tides flooded low @-@ lying buildings . Across the region , 94 people were injured , mostly from broken glass .
Shortly before Maemi made its final landfall , it produced wind gusts of 167 km / h ( 104 mph ) at Izuhara , a Japanese island halfway between South Korea and Japan . Along the southwest coast of Japan , a weather station in Hirado reported gusts of 113 km / h ( 70 mph ) . The typhoon resulted in heavy rainfall on the Japanese main island of Kyushu , reaching 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) at a station in Miyazaki Prefecture . Rainfall @-@ induced landslides in Nagasaki forced 191 people to evacuate their homes . Heavy rainfall also caused landslides in Ōita Prefecture , and Kōchi Prefecture , where several roads were closed . The threat of the storm caused schools to close in Yamaguchi Prefecture . The storm spawned an F1 tornado in Kōchi that damaged several houses and flipped over a car , injuring a woman inside . As an extratropical storm , Maemi left 2 @,@ 500 people in Hokkaido without power after producing gusts of 108 km / h ( 67 mph ) in Hakodate . Wind gusts reached 116 km / h ( 72 mph ) in Akita , the third @-@ highest September wind gust at the station . A falling tree in Sapporo killed one person and injured two others . High waves damaged fisheries and 54 ships in Matsumae alone , and nationwide 262 ships were damaged . Rough seas also killed one person in Akita Prefecture . The typhoon destroyed 1 @,@ 498 homes across the country and flooded 363 others . The storm also damaged 9 ha ( 22 acres ) of fields . In total , Maemi killed three people and injured 107 in Japan , two severely . Overall damage totaled ¥ 11 @.@ 3 billion ( JPY , $ 96 million USD ) .
= = = South Korea = = =
When Typhoon Maemi struck South Korea , it caused heavy rainfall that peaked at 453 mm ( 17 @.@ 8 in ) . Rainfall reached 401 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 81 in ) in Namhae County , and 255 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) on Jeju Island . The rain was less widespread and caused less flooding than Typhoon Rusa , which struck the country a year prior , but damage from Maemi was heavier due to strong winds . On Jeju Island , Maemi produced a wind gust of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , both setting records for the country . The winds broke the record of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) set by Typhoon Prapiroon in 2000 , and the pressure was 1 @.@ 5 mbar lower than that during Typhoon Sarah in 1959 , which was one of the strongest storms to strike South Korea after Maemi . On the South Korean mainland , the Pusan International Airport reported wind gusts of 143 km / h ( 89 mph ) . Winds in Busan reached 154 km / h ( 96 mph ) , the second @-@ highest wind speed for the city after Typhoon Thelma in 1987 . Due to high winds , five nuclear power plants were shut down automatically , but were ultimately unaffected .
In South Korea , damage was heaviest in South Gyeongsang Province , where 71 people were killed . Damage was particularly heavy in Busan , as well in as Yecheon , Ulsan , and Daegu . In Busan , strong winds wrecked 11 lifting cranes , each weighing about 900 tons , which injured five people and killed two in one incident . Many shipyards in the region were closed , and initial reports estimated it would take a year to fully reopen the Busan port . The estimated damage to the Busan port was about $ 50 million ( USD ) , causing cargo capacity to be cut by 20 % . High waves turned a large ship on its side in Busan , and in Ulsan the waves knocked an offshore shipbuilding plant into a petroleum facility , damaging them both . Sixteen people were killed in Busan .
High tides flooded hundreds of houses along the coast , particularly in areas without seawalls . In Masan , the storm caused 12 fatalities when it flooded an underground shopping center . On Jeju Island to the south of the country , Maemi destroyed sets of the Korean drama TV series All In , and wrecked 32 houses . Two people were killed on the island , one of whom while attempting to secure his boat . Throughout the country , 465 boats were damaged or beached . The heavy rainfall caused mudslides , one of which in Chungcheong derailed a train , injuring 28 aboard . Mudslides closed several roads , and damaged five rail lines in ten locations . Nationwide , the storm damaged 2 @,@ 278 roads and bridges , as well as nearly 40 @,@ 000 cars . Intense rainfall also caused flooding along the Nakdong River , reaching a flood stage of 5 @.@ 06 m ( 16 @.@ 6 ft ) near Busan . There , the river produced a discharge of about 13 @,@ 000 m ³ / s ( 460 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) , strong enough to destroy a section of the Gupo bridge . Along a tributary of the Nakdong River , floods destroyed a dyke near Daegu . Maemi also flooded 37 @,@ 986 ha ( 93 @,@ 870 acres ) of fields before the fall harvest , causing widespread damage to the rice crop . On Ulleungdo island off the eastern coast , Maemi washed away the primary road and many houses , killing three . Residents there complained about the lack of advance warning .
Typhoon Maemi left about 1 @.@ 47 million electric customers without power around the country , causing ₩ 12 @.@ 9 billion ( KRW , $ 11 @.@ 61 million USD ) in damage to power companies . Widespread damage interrupted mobile and cell phone service . United States military bases in the country sustained about $ 4 @.@ 5 million in damage . Nationwide , Maemi destroyed about 5 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 13 @,@ 000 homes and businesses , leaving 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 150 businesses in Gangwon Province were destroyed by Typhoon Rusa in 2002 , only to be destroyed again by Maemi when they were rebuilt . Insured damages from Maemi were estimated at ₩ 650 billion ( KRW , $ 565 million ) , mostly property damage . The insured damage was over four times the amount of insured damage from Typhoon Rusa the year prior . Overall damage was estimated at ₩ 5 @.@ 52 trillion ( KRW , $ 4 @.@ 8 billion USD ) . By comparison , this total was ₩ 2 @.@ 52 trillion ( KRW , $ 1 @.@ 9 billion USD ) less than Rusa ; the discrepancy between the insured and overall damage was due to Maemi causing heavier industrial damage , while Rusa caused more damage overall . The storm killed 117 people throughout South Korea .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Although the typhoon prompted the PAGASA to hoist warnings — and in spite of initial concerns that the cyclone would enhance monsoonal rainfall — Maemi did not cause any damage in the Philippines .
While recurving east of Taiwan , Maemi dropped significant rainfall , peaking at 227 @.@ 5 mm ( 8 @.@ 96 in ) in Ilan County . The rains helped ease drought conditions and replenished parched reservoirs .
In North Korea , Maemi produced about 186 mm ( 7 @.@ 32 in ) of rainfall , although further details of the storm 's effects there were unknown due to press censorship .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , South Korean President Roh Moo @-@ hyun declared the entire of the country excluding Seoul and Incheon as special disaster areas , after touring the storm damage in Busan . The government provided tax breaks and allocated ₩ 1 @.@ 4 trillion ( KRW , $ 1 @.@ 2 billion ) in assistance to the affected residents , after an additional budget was passed in late September 2003 . This included ₩ 100 billion ( KRW , $ 90 million USD ) in immediate funds for search and rescue missions . After the storm , residents complained they did not receive adequate warning and not enough coastal areas were evacuated , which led to the high death toll . Widespread damage and continued flooding caused traffic jams in the days following the storm . A damaged rail line prompted operators to provide alternate bus service . Landslides throughout the country forced travelers to use alternate routes . By three days after the storm , most damaged roads and highways were reopened . About 33 @,@ 000 members of the South Korean Army were deployed to assist in relief efforts , such as clearing roads and delivering aid to storm victims . Workers quickly restored power to 95 % of customers within 24 hours . The government installed four new cranes for the Busan port , and assisted operators to ensure exports would not be delayed . Heavy crop damage caused fruit and vegetable prices to rise , and fish and crop exports rose 9 @.@ 2 % on average . The rice harvest was the lowest in 23 years , due to the storm and a government effort to limit production . To assist farmers , the government increased purchases in federal contracts . Three government @-@ run banks provided low @-@ rate loans for businesses damaged by the storm . Residual flooding from Maemi contributed to an outbreak of conjunctivitis in the southern portion of the country . To prevent additional outbreaks , the Korean National Institute of Health sent 1 @,@ 000 workers to storm @-@ damaged areas . The Korea Stock Exchange fell 1 @.@ 8 % due to fears that storm damage would disrupt exports .
For the month of September 2003 , the Korea Electric Power Corporation waived electric bills for residents who lost their homes , and cut bills in half for residents and businesses who lost power . The South Korean government allowed companies to increase premiums for car insurance by 3 @.@ 5 % due to the widespread car damage . Due to storm damage , 34 companies were forced to temporarily close . Loss of production and disruptions were expected to subtract 0 @.@ 5 % from the forecast economic growth in 2003 . The Consumer Confidence Index dropped to its lowest level in five years , largely due to the typhoon damage and weakened economic conditions . Following the strikes of Rusa and Maemi in consecutive years , the South Korean government worked on disaster management and mitigation programs . In March 2004 , the government passed the " Emergency and Safety Management Basic Act " , largely due to the storm as well as the Daegu metro fire , which effectively set up a nationwide emergency management system . The Gupo bridge damaged during the storm was repaired in 2007 .
Although the South Korean government did not request international aid , several countries sent aid to the country . A few days after Maemi struck , the United States Agency for International Development sent $ 50 @,@ 000 ( USD ) to the Korean Red Cross . Later , the government of Japan sent ¥ 9 @.@ 5 million ( $ 85 @,@ 000 USD ) worth of supplies to South Korea , including sleeping mats , generators , and water units . Taiwan also provided $ 100 @,@ 000 in aid . The Republic of Korea National Red Cross utilized 700 volunteers and 200 staff members to distribute food and blankets to 8 @,@ 190 houses , while local offices provided over 5 @,@ 500 meals . Members of Food for the Hungry delivered food and clothing to storm @-@ damaged residents in Masan .
As a result of the damage and deaths caused by the storm , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Maemi in 2006 and replaced it with Mujigae .
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= Ghost in the Shell ( video game ) =
Ghost in the Shell is a cyberpunk @-@ themed third @-@ person shooter video game developed by Exact and Production I.G for the PlayStation . A part of the larger Ghost in the Shell media franchise , it utilizes the same English voice cast as the feature film of the same name , although the two do not share a story continuity . The game was first released in July 1997 , along with soundtrack albums , an artbook and a guidebook .
The game 's story and art design were written and illustrated by Masamune Shirow , the author of the original manga . Ghost in the Shell 's plot revolves around a recruit of Public Security Section 9 as he investigates and combats the Human Liberation Front . The player controls a Fuchikoma , a robotic fighting vehicle capable of traversing walls and ceilings .
The game received mainly positive reviews . It was praised for its graphics , animation , music and unusual wall @-@ climbing mechanics , as well as living up to the name of the series . However , it received criticism for its tedious and repetitive gameplay and low difficulty . Fifteen years after its release , Game Informer listed Ghost in the Shell as one of the best manga and anime @-@ based games .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls a spider @-@ shaped think tank robot , known as Fuchikoma , that is able to jump , thrust forward , strafe to the side , climb walls , and hang upside @-@ down from ceilings . The camera auto @-@ adjusts its position when scaling walls and ceilings for easy maneuvering , and automatically switches between first and third @-@ person perspectives depending on the environment , although the player can stay in first @-@ person view at will .
The Fuchikoma is equipped with twin machine guns and guided missiles . Both weapons have unlimited ammunition , however up to six missiles can be launched at once after a charge time . Grenades can be found throughout missions and a maximum of three can be carried at a time . Enemies vary from humanoid robots to helicopters and sport an array of firearms and explosives . Some stages of the game are governed by a time limit . Seventeen cutscenes can be unlocked throughout the missions and depending on the player 's score in training mode . Once unlocked , the cutscenes can be reviewed on the options menu .
The training mode contains six stages to learn the basic game elements . The first five stages introduce the player to targets in various settings and using the controls effectively , with the sixth being a battle against another Fuchikoma . The twelve missions that compose the story take place in different environments , including a warehouse complex , a sewer , the city highways , and the enemy base inside of a skyscraper . The missions display a variety of gameplay objectives : the first mission is a raid ; the third level is an Explosive Ordnance Disposal mission that involves the elimination of bombs attached to red barrels ; the fourth level is a sea chase on a boat ; the fifth level is a game of hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the player having to locate a boss wearing thermoptical camouflage ; and the game 's final boss fight ends with a free fall battle down the skyscraper under a timer .
= = Plot = =
The plot follows the members of Public Security Section 9 , mainly consisting of Major Motoko Kusanagi , Chief Aramaki , Batou , Togusa , Ishikawa , Saito , and a nameless male , the Rookie , controlled by the player . The game 's story is told using mission briefings and animated cutscenes .
After the terrorist organization known as the Human Liberation Front claims responsibility for blowing up the Megatech Body Corporation building , Section 9 is sent to resolve the situation . Section 9 is able to trace the terrorists ' communications and find their location in the bay area ; however , it is a trap . Chief Aramaki later announces that the leader of the Human Liberation Front is a mercenary known as Zebra 27 . Ishikawa then reports that the Energy Ministry is interested in files relating to Zebra ; Aramaki orders further investigation .
The Rookie 's skill is put to the test , leading chase missions and surviving an ambush . Eventually , the Human Liberation Front 's secret base is discovered in Aeropolis II tower by following the enemy supply line , along with the terrorists ' intentions of using a nuclear reactor . Ishikawa informs Aramaki that an official of the Energy Ministry named Sawamura has been in contact with Zebra and is connected to Megatech Body Corporation . While conducting the raid on the enemy 's base , the reactor begins to overload . In order to shut it down , squad leader Motoko Kusanagi attempts to remove the protective barrier from an access point nearby , as the rest of the team search for the other building 's control room . After disarming the reactor , Kusanagi locates the leader on top of the tower . Batou and Togusa encounter obstacles that prevent them from moving to the top , leaving the Rookie as the only available member . Once he reaches the top , he engages the leader in combat and defeats him in a free fall battle off of the tower .
After the mission , it is revealed that Sawamura planned to collect bribes from Megatech in exchange for covering up a defect in the nuclear reactor , which was going to explode , and presenting it as a terrorist attack ; however , Zebra seized the reactor to take it over and wanted to extort money from Sawamura . Kusanagi declares the entire experience a training exercise for the Rookie and acknowledges his cleverness , but criticizes his overdependence on the Fuchikoma .
= = Development = =
The concept for the Fuchikoma came from one climactic scene of the film : the battle between Motoko Kusanagi and the big spider @-@ like tank in the museum of paleontology . Based on this tank design , mecha creators Shōji Kawamori and Atsushi Takeuchi made a smaller version , designed for one person , that would be used by the police . Thus , the player becomes the pilot of one of these combat machines .
The game was in development for one and a half years , and involved the work of several divisions , being Kenji Sawaguchi and Tetsuji Yamamoto the total director and producer respectively . The programming was done by Exact , known for the Jumping Flash ! series . Ghost in the Shell was designed and targeted to a mature audience ; developers did not make Motoko playable to prevent the game appearing to be a character @-@ based game for children . The original manga 's creator Masamune Shirow was the main designer of the characters and mecha for the game .
At Production I.G , Hiroyuki Kitakubo directed the animation scenes , wrote the screenplay and did the storyboards ; Toshihiro Kawamoto was animation supervisor and a character designer . The scenes are noticeably different when compared to the film namesake directed by Mamoru Oshii , because the game is colored using a full digital technique . The scenes are a combination of cel animation and backgrounds that were rendered in three dimensions to ensure smooth transitions for the camera movement . Adobe Photoshop was used to add the finishing details to the scenes .
The Japanese voicing of the game was done by a different cast than the film 's : Motoko Kusanagi was played by Hiromi Tsuru , Batou by Shinji Ogawa , Chief Aramaki by Soichi Ito , Ishikawa by Kiyoshi Kobayashi , Togusa by Hirotaka Suzuoki , Saito by Nobuyuki Hiyama , and the Fuchikoma were voiced by Katsue Miwa . The English localization was dubbed by the same cast used for the original movie , although the game does not specify the respective roles in the credits . Motoko was voiced by Mimi Woods , Batou by Richard Epcar , Aramaki by William Frederick , and Togusa by Christopher Joyce ; the roles of Bob Papenbrook , Wendee Lee , Jimmy Krakor and Julie Maddalena are not reliably known .
= = Release and promotion = =
The game was originally released in Japan by Sony Computer Entertainment on July 17 , 1997 . The following day , a launch party was held at the Yebisu Garden Hall : the Megatech Body Night . The event featured the game 's music artists Takkyu Ishino , Joey Beltram and Mijk van Dijk performing live , and a Fuchikoma robot appeared . All who bought tickets received a papercraft kit of the Fuchikoma and ten posters of the game were raffled . A Japanese demo disc was also released with the first mission playable .
The first edition of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine was published in October 1997 and featured the game on its cover . The game was released in North America by THQ on October 31 , 1997 , and in Europe by Sony Computer Entertainment on July 1 , 1998 . THQ 's producer Don Nauert said that aside from dubbing and changing the button configuration , the English localization of the game was not modified nor censored .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack albums for the game were titled Ghost in the Shell : Megatech Body , named after the cybernetic body manufacturer in the Ghost in the Shell series . The albums were produced by Takkyu Ishino and feature techno tracks by other composers including Mijk van Dijk . Two versions of the albums were released by Sony Music Entertainment Japan on July 17 , 1997 : Megatech Body CD . , a standard single disc ; and Megatech Body CD . , Ltd . , a limited two @-@ disc edition . Megatech Vinyl . Ltd. was a limited two LP record set scheduled to be released .
= = = = Track listing = = = =
= = = Related media = = =
Kodansha released three books and one video about the game . Ghost in the Shell Official Art Book was published on July 4 , 1997 ; the artbook contains concept designs , scenes and commentary . Two guidebooks were published : Ghost in the Shell : Basic File on July 17 , 1997 , and Ghost in the Shell : Master File on August 29 , 1997 . The video , Making of Game Ghost in the Shell All of Digital Animation , features interviews with the animation staff ; it was released on VHS on April 22 , 1998 . A LaserDisc was also released in 1998 that included interviews on side A and the in @-@ game cutscenes on side B.
= = Reception = =
Ghost in the Shell gained an aggregate rating of 78 @.@ 50 % at GameRankings , which would be a mostly positive metascore . AllGame praised the graphics , sound and gameplay ; the review stated , " Even with plenty of eye candy and strong audio , a game is nothing without actually being fun to play and as you 've probably guessed , Ghost in the Shell supplies the fun , whether you 're familiar with the license or not . " GameSpot rated the game as good , eulogizing the controls as " simple ... most people will take to them like a fish to water " and praising the animation sequences . GameFan reviewers cited the game 's unique wall @-@ scaling mechanics and noted how it lives up to the name of the Ghost in the Shell series . IGN said that the game was great , faithful to its manga counterpart , stating that " the techno music , including tracks from artists like Derrick May and Hardfloor , is superb , " but adding that " the levels aren 't incredibly difficult , and don 't really encourage replay . " Super GamePower reviewed the game short after the movie was released in Brazil , stating that the opening animation was better than the drawing of the film . In Russia , Velikij Drakon lauded the orientation system , the game graphics and the overall design , highlighting the unlockable animation scenes . NowGamer praised the gameplay mechanics but criticized the option to unlock , stating , " The tremendous feeling of agility you get from Ghost In The Shell and the slick weapons is where the fun comes from . But it ’ s a tough game and playing for more scenes of new footage will not be compelling enough for a country in which anime is a cult industry and not a national fixation . "
GamePro did not find the game worthy of its name , although the cutscenes were praised , stating , " The cinemas at the opening of the game and between each level are stunning ; however , the game graphics , particularly buildings and enemies , are lackluster at best . The sound effects are bland , and there are no weapon power @-@ ups to be found . Put that all together and you get a very generic game . " Next Generation criticized the game for being tedious , but recognized that it is still an enjoyable game . Computer and Video Games offered similar criticism , declaring that " it was too repetitive to become anything more than a good game . " Edge criticized the gameplay features such as camera control and boss difficulty . Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewers criticized the game for its easy bosses and its repetitive and short gameplay value . Famitsu liked the battles but complained about the Fuchikoma attaching to walls when not intended .
The Herald @-@ News praised the game for being original and worth playing , unlike other movie adaptations . In 2013 , Game Informer listed Ghost in the Shell as one of the best anime and manga @-@ based games released in English , and the best of the franchise 's titles ; the other seven games in the list were released more than six years after Ghost in the Shell .
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= University of Toronto =
The University of Toronto ( U of T , UToronto , or Toronto ) is a public research university in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , situated on the grounds that surround Queen 's Park . It was founded by royal charter in 1827 as King 's College , the first institution of higher learning in the colony of Upper Canada . Originally controlled by the Church of England , the university assumed the present name in 1850 upon becoming a secular institution . As a collegiate university , it comprises twelve colleges , which differ in character and history , each retaining substantial autonomy on financial and institutional affairs . It has two satellite campuses located in Scarborough and Mississauga .
Academically , the University of Toronto is noted for influential movements and curricula in literary criticism and communication theory , known collectively as the Toronto School . The university was the birthplace of insulin and stem cell research , and was the site of the first practical electron microscope , the development of multi @-@ touch technology , the identification of Cygnus X @-@ 1 as a black hole , and the theory of NP @-@ completeness . By a significant margin , it receives the most annual scientific research funding of any Canadian university . It is one of two members of the Association of American Universities located outside the United States , the other being McGill University .
The Varsity Blues are the athletic teams representing the university in intercollegiate league matches , with particularly long and storied ties to gridiron football and ice hockey . The university 's Hart House is an early example of the North American student centre , simultaneously serving cultural , intellectual and recreational interests within its large Gothic @-@ revival complex .
The University of Toronto has educated two Governors General of Canada and four Prime Ministers of Canada , four foreign leaders , fourteen Justices of the Supreme Court , and has been affiliated with ten Nobel laureates .
= = History = =
The founding of a colonial college had long been the desire of John Graves Simcoe , the first Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Upper Canada . As an Oxford @-@ educated military commander who had fought in the American Revolutionary War , Simcoe believed a college was needed to counter the spread of republicanism from the United States . The Upper Canada Executive Committee recommended in 1798 that a college be established in York , the colonial capital .
On March 15 , 1827 , a royal charter was formally issued by King George IV , proclaiming " from this time one College , with the style and privileges of a University ... for the education of youth in the principles of the Christian Religion , and for their instruction in the various branches of Science and Literature ... to continue for ever , to be called King 's College . " The granting of the charter was largely the result of intense lobbying by John Strachan , the influential Anglican Bishop of Toronto who took office as the first president of the college . The original three @-@ storey Greek Revival school building was constructed on the present site of Queen 's Park .
Under Strachan 's stewardship , King 's College was a religious institution that closely aligned with the Church of England and the British colonial elite , known as the Family Compact . Reformist politicians opposed the clergy 's control over colonial institutions and fought to have the college secularized . In 1849 , after a lengthy and heated debate , the newly elected responsible government of Upper Canada voted to rename King 's College as the University of Toronto and severed the school 's ties with the church . Having anticipated this decision , the enraged Strachan had resigned a year earlier to open Trinity College as a private Anglican seminary . University College was created as the nondenominational teaching branch of the University of Toronto . During the American Civil War , the threat of Union blockade on British North America prompted the creation of the University Rifle Corps , which saw battle in resisting the Fenian raids on the Niagara border in 1866 .
Established in 1878 , the School of Practical Science was precursor to the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , which has been nicknamed Skule since its earliest days . While the Faculty of Medicine opened in 1843 , medical teaching was conducted by proprietary schools from 1853 until 1887 , when the faculty absorbed the Toronto School of Medicine . Meanwhile , the university continued to set examinations and confer medical degrees during that period . The university opened the Faculty of Law in 1887 , and it was followed by the Faculty of Dentistry in 1888 , when the Royal College of Dental Surgeons became an affiliate . Women were admitted to the university for the first time in 1884 .
A devastating fire in 1890 gutted the interior of University College and destroyed thirty @-@ three thousand volumes from the library , but the university restored the building and replenished its library within two years . Over the next two decades , a collegiate system gradually took shape as the university arranged federation with several ecclesiastical colleges , including Strachan 's Trinity College in 1904 . The university operated the Royal Conservatory of Music from 1896 to 1991 and the Royal Ontario Museum from 1912 to 1968 ; both still retain close ties with the university as independent institutions . The University of Toronto Press was founded in 1901 as the first academic publishing house in Canada . The Faculty of Forestry , founded in 1907 with Bernhard Fernow as dean , was the first university faculty devoted to forest science in Canada . In 1910 , the Faculty of Education opened its laboratory school , the University of Toronto Schools .
The First and Second World Wars curtailed some university activities as undergraduate and graduate men eagerly enlisted . Intercollegiate athletic competitions and the Hart House Debates were suspended , although exhibition and interfaculty games were still held . The David Dunlap Observatory in Richmond Hill opened in 1935 , followed by the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies in 1949 . The university opened satellite campuses in Scarborough in 1964 and in Mississauga in 1967 . The university 's former affiliated schools at the Ontario Agricultural College and Glendon Hall became fully independent of the University of Toronto and became part of University of Guelph in 1964 and York University in 1965 , respectively . Beginning in the 1980s , reductions in government funding prompted more rigorous fundraising efforts . The University of Toronto was the first Canadian university to amass a financial endowment greater than C $ 1 billion .
= = Grounds = =
The university grounds lie about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the Financial District in Downtown Toronto , and immediately south of the neighbourhoods of Yorkville and The Annex . The site encompasses 71 hectares ( 180 acres ) bounded mostly by Bay Street to the east , Bloor Street to the north , Spadina Avenue to the west and College Street to the south . An enclave surrounded by university grounds , Queen 's Park , contains the Ontario Legislative Building and several historic monuments . With its green spaces and many interlocking courtyards , the university forms a distinct region of urban parkland in the city 's downtown core . The namesake University Avenue is a ceremonial boulevard and arterial thoroughfare that runs through downtown between Queen 's Park and Front Street . The Spadina , St. George , Museum , and Queen 's Park stations of the Toronto rapid transit system are located in the vicinity .
The architecture is epitomized by a combination of Romanesque and Gothic Revival buildings spread across the eastern and central portions of campus , most of them dating between 1858 and 1929 . The traditional heart of the university , known as Front Campus , is located near the centre of the campus in an oval lawn enclosed by King 's College Circle . The centrepiece is the main building of University College , built in 1857 with an eclectic blend of Richardsonian Romanesque and Norman architectural elements . The dramatic effect of this blended design by architect Frederick William Cumberland drew praise from European visitors of the time : " Until I reached Toronto , " remarked Lord Dufferin during his visit in 1872 , " I confess I was not aware that so magnificent a specimen of architecture existed upon the American continent . " The building was declared a National Historic Site of Canada in 1968 . Built in 1907 , Convocation Hall is recognizable for its domed roof and Ionic @-@ pillared rotunda . Although its foremost function is hosting the annual convocation ceremonies , the building serves as a venue for academic and social events throughout the year . The sandstone buildings of Knox College epitomizes the North American collegiate Gothic design , with its characteristic cloisters surrounding a secluded courtyard .
A lawn at the northeast is anchored by Hart House , a Gothic @-@ revival student centre complex . Among its many common rooms , the building 's Great Hall is noted for large stained @-@ glass windows and a long quotation from John Milton 's Areopagitica that is inscribed around the walls . The adjacent Soldiers ' Tower stands 143 feet ( 44 m ) tall as the most prominent structure in the vicinity , its stone arches etched with the names of university members lost to the battlefields of the two World Wars . The tower houses a 51 @-@ bell carillon that is played on special occasions such as Remembrance Day and convocation . North of University College , the main building of Trinity College displays Jacobethan Tudor architecture , while its chapel was built in the Perpendicular Gothic style of Giles Gilbert Scott . The chapel features exterior walls of sandstone and interiors of Indiana Limestone , and was constructed by Italian stonemasons using ancient building methods . Philosopher 's Walk is a scenic footpath that follows a meandering , wooded ravine , the buried Taddle Creek , linking with Trinity College , Varsity Arena and the Faculty of Law . Victoria College is on the eastern side of Queen 's Park , centred on a Romanesque main building made of contrasting red sandstone and grey limestone .
Developed after the Second World War , the western section of the campus consists mainly of modernist and internationalist structures that contain laboratories and faculty offices . The most significant example of Brutalist architecture is the massive Robarts Library complex , built in 1972 and opened a year later in 1973 . It features raised podia , extensive use of triangular geometric designs and a towering fourteen @-@ storey concrete structure that cantilevers above a field of open space and mature trees . Sidney Smith Hall is the home to the Faculty of Arts and Science , as well as a few departments within that faculty . The Leslie L. Dan Pharmacy Building , completed in 2006 , exhibits the high @-@ tech architectural style of glass and steel by British architect Norman Foster .
= = Governance and colleges = =
The University of Toronto has traditionally been a decentralized institution , with governing authority shared among its central administration , academic faculties and colleges . The Governing Council is the unicameral legislative organ of the central administration , overseeing general academic , business and institutional affairs . Before 1971 , the university was governed under a bicameral system composed of the board of governors and the university senate . The chancellor , usually a former governor general , lieutenant governor , premier or diplomat , is the ceremonial head of the university . The president is appointed by the council as the chief executive .
Unlike most North American institutions , the University of Toronto is a collegiate university with a model that resembles those of the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford in Britain . The colleges hold substantial autonomy over admissions , scholarships , programs and other academic and financial affairs , in addition to the housing and social duties of typical residential colleges . The system emerged in the 19th century , as ecclesiastical colleges considered various forms of union with the University of Toronto to ensure their viability . The desire to preserve religious traditions in a secular institution resulted in the federative collegiate model that came to characterize the university .
University College was the founding nondenominational college , created in 1853 after the university was secularized . Knox College , a Presbyterian institution , and Wycliffe College , a low church seminary , both encouraged their students to study for non @-@ divinity degrees at University College . In 1885 , they entered a formal affiliation with the University of Toronto , and became federated schools in 1890 . The idea of federation initially met strong opposition at Victoria University , a Methodist school in Cobourg , but a financial incentive in 1890 convinced the school to join . Decades after the death of John Strachan , the Anglican seminary Trinity College entered federation in 1904 , followed in 1910 by St. Michael 's College , a Roman Catholic college founded by the Basilian Fathers . Among the institutions that had considered federation but ultimately remained independent were McMaster University , a Baptist school that later moved to Hamilton , and Queen 's College , a Presbyterian school in Kingston that later became Queen 's University .
The post @-@ war era saw the creation of New College in 1962 , Innis College in 1964 and Woodsworth College in 1974 , all of them nondenominational . Along with University College , they comprise the university 's constituent colleges , which are established and funded by the central administration and are therefore financially dependent . Massey College was established in 1963 by the Massey Foundation as a college exclusively for graduate students . Regis College , a Jesuit seminary , entered federation with the university in 1979 .
In contrast with the constituent colleges , the colleges of Knox , Massey , Regis , St. Michael 's , Trinity , Victoria and Wycliffe continue to exist as legally distinct entities , each possessing a separate financial endowment . While St. Michael 's , Trinity and Victoria continue to recognize their religious affiliations and heritage , they have since adopted secular policies of enrolment and teaching in non @-@ divinity subjects . Some colleges have , or once had , collegiate structures of their own : Emmanuel College is a college of Victoria and St. Hilda 's College is part of Trinity ; St. Joseph ’ s College had existed as a college within St. Michael 's until it was dissolved in 2006 . Ewart College existed as an affiliated college until 1991 , when it was merged into Knox College . Postgraduate theology degrees are conferred by the colleges of Knox , Regis and Wycliffe , along with the divinity faculties within Emmanuel , St. Michael 's and Trinity , including joint degrees with the university through the Toronto School of Theology .
= = Academics = =
The Faculty of Arts and Science is the university 's main undergraduate faculty , and administers most of the courses in the college system . While the colleges are not entirely responsible for teaching duties , most of them house specialized academic programs and lecture series . Among other subjects , Trinity College is associated with programs in international relations , as are University College with Canadian studies , Victoria College with Renaissance studies , Innis College with film studies and urban studies , New College with gender studies , Woodsworth College with industrial relations and St. Michael 's College with Medievalism . The faculty teaches undergraduate commerce in collaboration with the Rotman School of Management . The Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering is the other major direct @-@ entry undergraduate faculty .
The University of Toronto is the birthplace of an influential school of thought on communication theory and literary criticism , known as the Toronto School . Described as " the theory of the primacy of communication in the structuring of human cultures and the structuring of the human mind " , the school is rooted in the works of Eric A. Havelock and Harold Innis and the subsequent contributions of Edmund Snow Carpenter , Northrop Frye and Marshall McLuhan . Since 1963 , the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology of the Faculty of Information has carried the mandate for teaching and advancing the Toronto School .
Several notable works in arts and humanities are based at the university , including the Dictionary of Canadian Biography since 1959 and the Collected Works of Erasmus since 1969 . The Records of Early English Drama collects and edits the surviving documentary evidence of dramatic arts in pre @-@ Puritan England , while the Dictionary of Old English compiles the early vocabulary of the English language from the Anglo @-@ Saxon period .
The Munk School of Global Affairs encompasses the university 's various programs and curricula in international affairs and foreign policy . As the Cold War heightened , Toronto 's Slavic studies program evolved into an important institution on Soviet politics and economics , financed by the Rockefeller , Ford and Mellon foundations . The Munk School is also home to the G20 Research Group , which conducts independent monitoring and analysis on the Group of Twenty , and the Citizen Lab , which conducts research on Internet censorship as a joint founder of the OpenNet Initiative . The university operates international offices in Berlin , Hong Kong and Siena .
The Dalla Lana School of Public Health is a Faculty of the University of Toronto that originated as one of the School of Hygiene begun by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1927 . The School went through a dramatic renaissance after the 2003 SARS crisis and it is now the largest public health school in Canada , with more than 750 faculty , 800 students , and research and training partnerships with institutions throughout Toronto and the world . With more than $ 39 million in research funding per year , the School supports discovery in global health , tobacco impacts on health , occupational disease and disability , air pollution , inner city , circumpolar health , and many other pressing issues in population health .
The Faculty of Medicine is affiliated with a network of ten teaching hospitals , providing medical treatment , research and advisory services to patients and clients from Canada and abroad . A core member of the network is University Health Network , itself a specialized federation of Toronto General Hospital , Princess Margaret Cancer Centre , Toronto Western Hospital , and Toronto Rehabilitation Institute . Physicians in the medical institutes have cross @-@ appointments to faculty and supervisory positions in university departments . The Rotman School of Management developed the discipline and methodology of integrative thinking , upon which the school bases its curriculum . Founded in 1887 , the Faculty of Law 's emphasis on formal teachings of liberal arts and legal theory was then considered unconventional , but gradually helped shift the country 's legal education system away from the apprenticeship model that prevailed until the mid @-@ 20th century . The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education is the teachers college of the university , affiliated with its two laboratory schools , the Institute of Child Study and the University of Toronto Schools . Autonomous institutes at the university include the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics , the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies and the Fields Institute .
= = = Library and collections = = =
The University of Toronto Libraries is the third @-@ largest academic library system in North America , following those of Harvard and Yale , measured by number of volumes held . The collections include more than ten million bound volumes , 5 @.@ 4 million microfilms , 70 @,@ 000 serial titles and 1 million maps , films , graphics and sound recordings . The largest of the libraries , Robarts Library , holds about five million bound volumes that form the main collection for humanities and social sciences . The Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library constitutes one of the largest repositories of publicly accessible rare books and manuscripts . Its collections range from ancient Egyptian papyri to incunabula and libretti ; the subjects of focus include British , European and Canadian literature , Aristotle , Darwin , the Spanish Civil War , the history of science and medicine , Canadiana and the history of books . Most of the remaining holdings are dispersed at departmental and faculty libraries , in addition to about 1 @.@ 3 million bound volumes that are held by the colleges . The university has collaborated with the Internet Archive since 2005 to digitize some of its library holdings .
Housed within University College , the University of Toronto Art Centre contains three major art collections . The Malcove Collection is primarily represented by Early Christian and Byzantine sculptures , bronzeware , furniture , icons and liturgical items . It also includes glassware and stone reliefs from the Greco @-@ Roman period , and the painting Adam and Eve by Lucas Cranach the Elder , dated from 1538 . The University of Toronto Collection features Canadian contemporary art , while the University College Art Collection holds significant works by the Group of Seven and 19th century landscape artists .
= = = Reputation = = =
The University Ranking by Academic Performance places the University of Toronto 2nd in the world in research performance . The Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2015 ranks the University of Toronto at 19th place globally and 1st in Canada , while the QS World University Rankings of 2015 placed the university at 34th in the world and 2nd in Canada . In the Academic Ranking of World Universities of 2014 , the University of Toronto is placed at 24th in the world and 1st in Canada . It ranked 25th worldwide in the 2012 report compiled by Human Resources & Labor Review on graduate performance , 9th worldwide in the 2010 Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities , 14th in the High Impact Universities ranking , 14th in a New York Times employment survey in 2013 , and 2nd globally in the University Ranking by Academic Performance of 2014 @-@ 2015 . In 2011 , the university received a grade of A- for environmental sustainability from the Sustainable Endowments Institute . The university has placed first among Canada 's research universities in the annual ranking by Research Infosource since 2001 . In 2011 , the University of Toronto was named by Newsweek as one of the top three schools outside of the United States . In 2014 , it was also ranked 14th in the world by the U.S. News & World Report ’ s Best Global Universities Ranking .
The University of Toronto ranked as the nation 's top medical @-@ doctoral ( category ) university in Maclean 's magazine for eleven consecutive years between 1994 and 2004 . Since 2009 , it has joined 22 other national institutions in withholding data from the magazine , citing continued concerns regarding methodology . In 2013 , the Faculty of Law was named the top law school in Canada by Maclean 's for the seventh consecutive year .
= = Research = =
Since 1926 , the University of Toronto has been a member of the Association of American Universities , a consortium of the leading North American research universities . The university manages by far the largest annual research budget of any university in Canada , with sponsored direct @-@ cost expenditures of $ 878 million in 2010 . The federal government was the largest source of funding , with grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research , the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council amounting to about one @-@ third of the research budget . About eight percent of research funding came from corporations , mostly in the health care industry .
The first practical electron microscope was built by the physics department in 1938 . During World War II , the university developed the G @-@ suit , a life @-@ saving garment worn by Allied fighter plane pilots , later adopted for use by astronauts . Development of the infrared chemiluminescence technique improved analyses of energy behaviours in chemical reactions . In 1963 , the asteroid 2104 Toronto is discovered in the David Dunlap Observatory in Richmond Hill and is named after the university . In 1972 , studies on Cygnus X @-@ 1 led to the publication of the first observational evidence proving the existence of black holes . Toronto astronomers have also discovered the Uranian moons of Caliban and Sycorax , the dwarf galaxies of Andromeda I , II and III , and the supernova SN 1987A . A pioneer in computing technology , the university designed and built UTEC , one of the world 's first operational computers , and later purchased Ferut , the second commercial computer after UNIVAC I. Multi @-@ touch technology was developed at Toronto , with applications ranging from handheld devices to collaboration walls . The AeroVelo Atlas , which was the first to win the Igor I. Sikorsky Human Powered Helicopter Competition in 2013 , was developed by the university 's team of students and graduates and was tested in Vaughan .
The discovery of insulin at the University of Toronto in 1921 is considered among the most significant events in the history of medicine . The stem cell was discovered at the university in 1963 , forming the basis for bone marrow transplantation and all subsequent research on adult and embryonic stem cells . This was the first of many findings at Toronto relating to stem cells , including the identification of pancreatic and retinal stem cells . The cancer stem cell was first identified in 1997 by Toronto researchers , who have since found stem cell associations in leukemia , brain tumors and colorectal cancer . Medical inventions developed at Toronto include the glycaemic index , the infant cereal Pablum , the use of protective hypothermia in open heart surgery and the first artificial cardiac pacemaker . The first successful single @-@ lung transplant was performed at Toronto in 1981 , followed by the first nerve transplant in 1988 , and the first double @-@ lung transplant in 1989 . Researchers identified the maturation promoting factor that regulates cell division , and discovered the T cell receptor , which triggers responses of the immune system . The university is credited with isolating the genes that cause Fanconi anemia , cystic fibrosis and early @-@ onset Alzheimer 's disease , among numerous other diseases . Between 1914 and 1972 , the university operated the Connaught Medical Research Laboratories , now part of the pharmaceutical corporation Sanofi @-@ Aventis . Among the research conducted at the laboratory was the development of gel electrophoresis .
The University of Toronto is the primary research presence that supports one of the world 's largest concentrations of biotechnology firms . More than 5 @,@ 000 principal investigators reside within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the university grounds in Toronto 's Discovery District , conducting $ 1 billion of medical research annually . MaRS Discovery District is a research park that serves commercial enterprises and the university 's technology transfer ventures . In 2008 , the university disclosed 159 inventions and had 114 active start @-@ up companies . Its SciNet Consortium operates the most powerful supercomputer in Canada .
= = Athletics = =
The 44 sports teams of the Varsity Blues represent the university in intercollegiate competitions . The two main leagues in which the Blues participate are Canadian Interuniversity Sport for national competitions , and the auxiliary Ontario University Athletics conference at the provincial level . The athletic nickname of Varsity Blues was not consistently used until the 1930s ; previously , references such as " Varsity " , " The Big Blue " , " The Blue and White " and " The Varsity Blue " also appeared interchangeably . The Blue and White is commonly played and sung in athletic games as a fight song .
North American ( gridiron ) football traces its very origin to the University of Toronto , with the first documented football game played at University College on November 9 , 1861 . The Blues played their first intercollegiate football match in 1877 against the University of Michigan , in a game that ended with a scoreless draw . Since intercollegiate seasons began in 1898 , the Blues have won four Grey Cup , two Vanier Cup and 25 Yates Cup championships , including the inaugural championships for all three trophies . However , the football team has hit a rough patch following its last championship in 1993 . From 2001 until 2008 , the Blues suffered the longest losing streak in Canadian collegiate history , recording 49 consecutive winless games . This was preceded by a single victory in 2001 that ended a run of 18 straight losses . The site of Varsity Stadium has served as the primary playing grounds of the Varsity Blues football and soccer programs since 1898 . It also served as the venue for archery during the 2015 Pan American Games .
Formed in 1891 , the storied Varsity Blues men 's ice hockey team has left many legacies on the national , professional and international hockey scenes . Conn Smythe played for the Blues as a centre during his undergraduate years , and was a Blues coach from 1923 to 1926 . When Smythe took over the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1927 , the familiar blue @-@ and @-@ white sweater design of the Varsity Blues was adopted by his new team . Blues hockey competed at the 1928 Winter Olympics and captured the gold medal for Canada . At the 1980 Winter Olympics , Blues coach Tom Watt served as co @-@ coach of the Canadian hockey team in which six players were Varsity grads . In all , the Blues have won the CIS University Cup national hockey title ten times , last in 1984 . Varsity Arena has been the permanent home of the Blues ice hockey programs since it opened in 1926 . In men 's basketball , the Varsity Blues have won 14 conference titles , including the inaugural championship in 1909 , but have not won a national title . In swimming , the men 's team has claimed the national crown 16 times since 1964 , while the women 's team has claimed the crown 14 times since 1970 . Established in 1897 , the University of Toronto Rowing Club is the oldest collegiate rowing club in Canada . It earned a silver medal for the country in the 1924 Summer Olympics , finishing second to Yale 's crew .
The back campus of University College was used for field hockey during the 2015 Pan American Games and the field was renamed Pan Am / Parapan Am Fields for the duration of the Pan American Games .
= = Culture and student life = =
In the heart of social , cultural and recreational life at the University of Toronto lies Hart House , the sprawling neo @-@ Gothic student activity centre that was conceived by alumnus @-@ benefactor Vincent Massey and named for his grandfather Hart . Opened in 1919 , the complex established a communitarian spirit in the university and its students , who at the time kept largely within their own colleges under the decentralized collegiate system . At Hart House , a student can read in the library , dine casually or formally , have a haircut , visit the art gallery , watch a play in the theatre , listen to a concert , observe or join in debates , play billiards , or go for a swim and find a place to study , all under the same roof and within the span of a day . The confluence of assorted functions is the result of a deliberate effort to create a holistic educational experience , a goal summarized in the Founders ' Prayer . The Hart House model was influential in the planning of student centres at other universities , notably Cornell University 's Willard Straight Hall .
Hart House resembles some traditional aspects of student representation through its financial support of student clubs , and its standing committees and board of stewards that are composed mostly of undergraduate students . However , the main students ' unions on administrative and policy issues are the University of Toronto Students ' Union , Association of Part @-@ time Undergraduate Students and the Graduate Students ' Union . Student representative bodies also exist at the various colleges , academic faculties and departments .
The Hart House Debating Club employs a debating style that combines the American emphasis on analysis and the British use of wit . Smaller debating societies at Trinity , University and Victoria College have served as initial training grounds for debaters who later progress to Hart House . The club won the World Universities Debating Championship in 1981 and 2006 . The North American Model United Nations hosts an annual Model United Nations conference on campus , while the United Nations Society participates in various North American and international conferences . The Toronto chess team has captured the top title six times at the Pan American Intercollegiate Team Chess Championship . The Formula SAE Racing Team won the Formula Student European Championships in 2003 , 2005 and 2006 .
= = = Greek life = = =
The University of Toronto is home to the first collegiate fraternity in Canada , Zeta Psi , whose Toronto chapter has been active since 1879 . Because few other Canadian universities in the 19th century were deemed comparable to their American counterparts in repute , age and secularity , most early American fraternities chose to open their first international chapter at the University of Toronto , including Delta Kappa Epsilon , Sigma Chi , Delta Upsilon , Phi Delta Theta , Phi Kappa Sigma , Phi Gamma Delta , Psi Upsilon , Alpha Delta Phi , Beta Theta Pi , Pi Kappa Phi , Lambda Phi Epsilon , Sigma Nu , Theta Delta Chi , Alpha Kappa Nu , Alpha Omicron Pi , Delta Delta Delta , Alpha Kappa Delta Phi and Lambda Chi Alpha . Other Greek @-@ letter societies include Alpha Gamma Delta , Alpha Phi , Alpha Sigma Nu , Delta Phi Nu , Gamma Phi Beta , Kappa Alpha Society , Delta Psi Delta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , Pi Beta Phi , Sigma Pi , and Alpha Epsilon Pi . A secret society known as Episkopon has operated from Trinity College since 1858 .
= = = Theatre and music = = =
Hart House Theatre is the university 's student amateur theatre , generally producing four major plays every season . As old as Hart House itself , the theatre is considered a pioneer in Canadian theatre for introducing the Little Theatre Movement from Europe . It has cultivated numerous performing @-@ arts talents , including Donald Sutherland , Lorne Michaels , Wayne and Shuster and William Hutt . Three members of the Group of Seven artists ( Harris , Lismer and MacDonald ) have been set designers at the theatre , and composer Healey Willan was director of music for fourteen productions . The theatre also hosts annual variety shows run by several student theatrical companies at the colleges and academic faculties , the most prominent of which are U.C. Follies of University College , Skule Nite of the Faculty of Engineering , and Daffydil of the Faculty of Medicine , the latter in its hundredth year of production in 2010 – 2011 .
The main musical ensembles at Hart House are the orchestra , the chamber strings , the chorus , the jazz choir , the jazz ensemble and the symphonic band . The Jazz at Oscar 's concert series performs big band and vocal jazz on Friday nights at the period lounge and bar of the Hart House Arbor Room . Open Stage is the monthly open mic event featuring singers , comics , poets and storytellers . The Sunday Concert is the oldest musical series at Hart House ; since 1922 , the series has performed more than 600 classical music concerts in the Great Hall , freely attended by the university community and general audiences . The public may also screen midday events held at noon , when concerts are recited prior to formal debut .
= = = Student media = = =
The Varsity is one of Canada 's oldest student @-@ run newspapers , in publication since 1880 . The paper was originally a daily broadsheet , but has since adopted a compact format and is now weekly with three summer issues . Hart House Review , a literary magazine , publishes prose , poetry , and visual art from emerging Canadian writers and artists . The Newspaper is an independent student @-@ run community newspaper , published weekly since 1978 . CIUT @-@ FM is the university 's campus radio station , while the University of Toronto Television broadcasts student @-@ produced content . Students at each college and academic faculty also produce their own set of journals and news publications . University College 's The Gargoyle was an early training ground for such notables as journalist Naomi Klein , and musician / comedian Paul Shaffer . Victoria University 's Acta Victoriana is the oldest active literary journal in Canada , and provided first publication credits to such literary figures as Margaret Atwood and Northrop Frye .
Members of the student press have contributed to activist causes on several notable occasions . At the height of debate on coeducation in 1880 , The Varsity published an article in its inaugural issue voicing in favour of admitting women . In 1895 , the university suspended the editor of The Varsity for breach of collegiality , after he published a letter that harshly criticized the provincial government 's dismissal of a professor and involvement in academic affairs . University College students then approved a motion by Varsity staff member William Lyon Mackenzie King and boycotted lectures for a week . After Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau decriminalized homosexuality throughout Canada in 1969 , a medical research assistant placed an advertisement in The Varsity seeking volunteers to establish the first university homophile association in Canada .
= = = Residences = = =
Each college at the University of Toronto operates its own set of residence halls and dining halls clustered in a different area of the campus . Innis , New , St. Michael 's , Trinity , University , Victoria , and Woodsworth colleges reserve most of their dormitories for their undergraduate students within the Faculty of Arts and Science , while setting a portion available to students from the professional and postgraduate faculties . Massey College is exclusively for graduate students , while Knox and Wycliffe Colleges mainly house graduate theology students . Annesley Hall of Victoria College , a National Historic Site , was the first university residence for women in Canada . After St. Hilda 's College became coeducational in 2005 , Annesley Hall and Loretto College of St. Michael 's College are the last remaining women 's halls at the university .
As campus residences accommodate just 6 @,@ 400 students in all , the university guarantees housing only for undergraduates in their first year of study , while most upper @-@ year and graduate students reside off @-@ campus . Traditionally , the adjacent neighbourhoods of The Annex and Harbord Village are popular settling grounds for University of Toronto students , forming a distinct student quarter enclave . In 2004 , the university purchased and converted a nearby hotel into the Chestnut Residence , which houses students from all colleges and faculties . There are also numerous fraternity houses and student housing cooperatives , where boarders pay reduced rent for assuming housekeeping duties .
= = = Student strikes = = =
There have been four student strikes at the University of Toronto by members of CUPE 3902 . The most recent strike was for four weeks in 2015 ( February 27 to March 27 ) . Graduate and undergraduate student teachers ( teaching assistants , course instructors , invigilators , and TA trainers ) went on strike to raise the minimum funding package to a level above the poverty line and to eliminate the tuition paid by fourth @-@ year students outside the funding package .
= = Notable people = =
In addition to Havelock , Innis , Frye , Carpenter and McLuhan , former professors of the 20th century include Frederick Banting , Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter , Robertson Davies , John Charles Fields , Leopold Infeld and C. B. Macpherson . Ten Nobel laureates studied or taught at the University of Toronto . As of 2006 , University of Toronto academics accounted for 15 of 23 Canadian members in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ( 65 % ) and 20 of 72 Canadian fellows in the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( 28 % ) . Among honorees from Canada between 1980 and 2006 , University of Toronto faculty made up 11 of 21 Gairdner Foundation International Award recipients ( 52 % ) , 44 of 101 Guggenheim Fellows ( 44 % ) , 16 of 38 Royal Society fellows ( 42 % ) , 10 of 28 members in the United States National Academies ( 36 % ) and 23 of 77 Sloan Research Fellows ( 30 % ) .
Alumni of the University of Toronto 's colleges , faculties and professional schools have assumed notable roles in a wide range of fields and specialties . In government , Governors General Vincent Massey and Adrienne Clarkson , Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King , Arthur Meighen , Lester B. Pearson and Paul Martin , and 14 Justices of the Supreme Court have all graduated from the university , while world leaders include President of Latvia Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga , Premier of the Republic of China Liu Chao @-@ shiuan and President of Trinidad and Tobago Noor Hassanali . Economist John Kenneth Galbraith , political scientist David Easton , historian Margaret MacMillan , philosophers David Gauthier and Ted Honderich , anthropologist Davidson Black , social activist Ellen Pence , sociologist Erving Goffman , psychologists Endel Tulving , Daniel Schacter , and Lisa Feldman Barrett , physicians Norman Bethune and Charles Best , geologists Joseph Tyrrell and John Tuzo Wilson , mathematicians Irving Kaplansky and William Kahan , physicists Arthur Leonard Schawlow and Bertram Brockhouse , religion scholar Amir Hussain , architect James W. Strutt , engineer Gerald Bull , computer scientists Alfred Aho and Brian Kernighan , and astronauts Roberta Bondar and Julie Payette are also some of the most well @-@ known academic figures from the university .
In business , University of Toronto alumni include Rogers Communications ' Ted Rogers , Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank 's W. Edmund Clark , Bank of Montreal 's Bill Downe , Scotiabank 's Peter Godsoe , Barrick Gold 's Peter Munk , BlackBerry 's Jim Balsillie , AGF 's Blake Goldring eBay 's Jeffrey Skoll and Fiat S.p.A. ' s Sergio Marchionne . In literature and media , the university has produced writers Stephen Leacock , John McCrae , Rohinton Mistry , Margaret Atwood and Michael Ondaatje , film directors Arthur Hiller , Norman Jewison , David Cronenberg and Atom Egoyan , actor Donald Sutherland , screenwriter David Shore , television producer and writer Hart Hanson , musician Paul Shaffer , journalists Malcolm Gladwell , Naomi Klein and Barbara Amiel .
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= Sheryl Crow ( album ) =
Sheryl Crow is the second studio album by the American singer Sheryl Crow , released on September 24 , 1996 by A & M Records . Unlike its predecessor Tuesday Night Music Club , which was written by a casual collective formed by Crow and several other musicians , Sheryl Crow was entirely produced by Crow , who wrote most of the songs alone or with only one collaborator . Most of the album was recorded at Kingsway Studio in New Orleans , Louisiana . The album covers topics of American life , relationship breakups , and moral and ethical issues , while encompassing a variety of music genres such as rock , blues , alternative rock , country , and folk .
Sheryl Crow was a commercial success , being certified 3 × platinum by the RIAA and 3 × platinum by the BPI . It also reached No. 6 on the US Billboard Top 200 chart and produced five singles , including the international hit " If It Makes You Happy " . The album received very positive reviews from critics , who praised its intricate production and Crow 's louder and more assured singing . At the 39th Annual Grammy Awards , the album was awarded Best Rock Album and Crow received the Best Female Rock Vocal Performance award for " If It Makes You Happy " . Retrospectively , it is often regarded as one of Crow 's best albums .
= = Background and recording = =
Sheryl Crow is the follow @-@ up to Sheryl Crow 's 1993 album Tuesday Night Music Club , which was written by a group of musicians known as the " Tuesday Music Club " . The group existed as a casual collective formed by Crow and musicians Bill Bottrell , David Baerwald , Kevin Gilbert , Brian MacLeod , David Ricketts , and Dan Schwartz . The album was a commercial success and produced several hit singles , including " All I Wanna Do " , " Strong Enough " , and " Leaving Las Vegas " . It was certified 7 × Platinum in the United States and 2 × Platinum in the United Kingdom . Crow was also awarded Best New Artist , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , and Record of the Year at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards .
Tensions between Crow and other members of the group began to arise following Crow 's performance of " Leaving Las Vegas " on the Late Show with David Letterman in March 1994 . Crow offhandedly agreed with the host when she was asked if the track was autobiographical , even though it was primarily written by Baerwald and based on the book of the same name by his friend John O 'Brien . As a result , several members of the Tuesday Music Club group felt betrayed , and O 'Brien himself committed suicide three weeks later . Nevertheless , O 'Brien 's parents insisted that Crow had nothing to do with the tragedy , noting that he " was just mad about it [ ... ] But the problems that drove him toward the end were – you know , that 's a long , long bloody trip . "
After Tuesday Night Music Club , Crow wanted to prove her authority as a musician . According to her , " My only objective on this record was to get under people 's skin , because I was feeling like I had so much shit to hurl at the tape . " Work on the new album began at Toad Hall in Pasadena , California , the same studio where Tuesday Night Music Club was recorded , but sessions were soon relocated to New Orleans , Louisiana because Crow " was feeling ghosts in that room " . Bottrell was designated to produce the record and co @-@ wrote three songs that would appear on the album , but eventually left because he could not sort out his differences with Crow . As a result , Crow took over production duties and wrote most of the songs alone or with only one collaborator . She also played most of the instruments on the album , including bass and guitar work and nearly all the keyboard parts . Most of the album was recorded at Kingsway Studio in New Orleans , although Crow would later return to Los Angeles to complete work at The Sound Factory and Sunset Sound . Audio mastering took place at Gateway Mastering Studios in Portland , Maine .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Sheryl Crow was described as a combination of rock , blues , alternative rock , country , folk , and light hip hop loops . Unlike its predecessor , it also features a more off @-@ balance production and a richer instrumentation , with " lots of fuzz , wurlitzer , hammond , moog . Nothing extreme , perhaps , but almost psychedelic when joined to big mainstream melodies " , one critic explained . The album covers topics of American life , relationship breakups , and moral and ethical issues , among others . For example , " Home " is a folk ballad where Crow recounts the emotional difficulties of a deteriorating relationship , while " Superstar " deals with a woman fantasizing about stardom . The song " A Change Would Do You Good " , which features hand claps and organ licks , is about the need to escape a constricted life .
The opening track , " Maybe Angels " , was described as " a cryptic ode to UFOs and government conspiracies that plays like an X @-@ Files theme song . " Crow explained that the song is " an extraterrestrial yarn that finds Kurt Cobain joining John Lennon in heaven 's winged choir " . The track " Redemption Day " is a protest against the US indifference to the Bosnian War . It was inspired when Crow visited the country as part of a USO trip with Hillary and Chelsea Clinton . The song was later covered by Johnny Cash , appearing on his 2010 posthumous record American VI : Ain 't No Grave . The track " Hard to Make a Stand " references abortion , while " Love Is a Good Thing " criticizes Walmart 's gun sales policy with the lyrics " Watch out sister / Watch out brother / Watch our children as they kill each other / with a gun they bought at the Wal @-@ Mart discount stores . " The song caused some controversy , resulting in Walmart banning sales of the album at their stores .
The album 's lead single , " If It Makes You Happy " , underwent several different arrangements before being turned into a rock song . According to musician Jeff Trott , who co @-@ wrote the song along with Crow , " It started off as a twangy , David Lynch @-@ esque sort of thing . Then [ ... ] we played it like punk rock , really fast , as well as country and funky . You know , you get a song and put clothes on it to see what looks good and what doesn 't , and usually when you find the right one it 's pretty obvious . With that song it was real obvious ! " Trott initially wrote the song when he was a member of Pete Droge 's backing band , but Crow added a second verse and strengthened the melody . Sheryl Crow also has contributions by notable musicians . For example , " Sweet Rosalyn " features saxophone by Steve Berlin of Los Lobos , while " Everyday Is a Winding Road " features harmony vocals by Neil Finn of Crowded House .
= = Release = =
Sheryl Crow was released on CD and cassette formats on September 24 , 1996 . The album reached No. 6 on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 143 @,@ 000 copies in the first two weeks of release . As of January 2008 , the album had sold 2 @.@ 4 million units in the U.S. according to Nielsen SoundScan and has been certified 3 × platinum by the RIAA . In the United Kingdom , Sheryl Crow reached No. 5 on the UK Albums Chart and was certified 3 × platinum by the BPI . Unlike the American edition , the British edition of the album contains the bonus track " Free Man " . Sheryl Crow also reached top ten in Austria , Belgium , New Zealand , Sweden and Switzerland . In Europe , it was certified platinum by the IFPI . A special edition of the album , entitled Sheryl Crow - Signature Tour Edition , was released in Australia and Japan in 1997 . It contains the bonus tracks " Sad Sad World " and an alternate version of " Hard to Make a Stand " as well as a bonus CD with six songs recorded live at Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London on November 26 , 1996 . This 2CD set was also released as Sheryl Crow - Special Edition in the United Kingdom in 1997 .
The song " If It Makes You Happy " was released as the lead single on September 20 , 1996 and became an international hit , peaking at No. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and selling 82 @,@ 000 units in the first two weeks of release . It was also a success in the United Kingdom , where it reached No. 9 on the UK Singles Chart . Other countries where the single charted include Australia , Canada , France , New Zealand and Switzerland . A music video was made for the song under the direction of Keir McFarlane . " Everyday Is a Winding Road " was released on November 8 , 1996 as the album 's second single . The song was also a success , reaching No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 12 on the UK Singles Chart . The tracks " Hard to Make a Stand " , " A Change Would Do You Good " , and " Home " were released as the album 's last three singles . " A Change Would Do You Good " was a modest success , peaking at No. 16 on the Mainstream Top 40 and No. 8 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Sheryl Crow received general acclaim from most music critics . Eric Weisbard of Spin praised the album 's production , stating that the record " goes much further " than its predecessor and that its " bigger beats and dirtier guitar / keyboard effects [ work ] well with Crow 's literate hippie @-@ chick persona " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated similar pros , commenting : " If there 's such a thing as a professional lo @-@ fi album , Sheryl Crow is it . " He also noted Crow 's louder and more assured singing , concluding that she " doesn 't expose that much of herself [ ... ] she 's an emotional centrist . But at the very least , she 's building a bridge to a lasting career " . Writing for The Baltimore Sun , J.D. Considine praised Crow 's vocals , especially on " If It Makes You Happy " , which he felt was probably the album 's best song .
Despite the praise , the last third of the album was considered the weakest part and the song " Ordinary Morning " was considered a poor choice for a closer . Rolling Stone editor David Fricke also criticized the album for being underdeveloped and lacking originality , and unfavorably compared the song " Hard to Make a Stand " to " Tumbling Dice " by the Rolling Stones and " Sweet Jane " by the Velvet Underground . In February 1997 , Sheryl Crow was ranked at number 26 in The Village Voice 's 1996 Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . At the 39th Annual Grammy Awards , the album was awarded Best Rock Album and Crow received the Best Female Rock Vocal Performance award for the song " If It Makes You Happy " .
Retrospectively , AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine referred to the album as " a postmodern masterpiece of sorts -- albeit a mainstream , post @-@ alternative , postmodern masterpiece . It may not be as hip or innovative as , say , the Beastie Boys ' Paul 's Boutique , but it is as self @-@ referential , pop culture obsessed , and musically eclectic . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine highlighted the album 's " quirky , stream @-@ of @-@ conscious lyrics " and elaborate sound collages , stating that " none of [ Crow 's ] other full @-@ length albums have been as consistent , immaculately produced or distinctly modern . " In 1999 , Rolling Stone selected Sheryl Crow as one of the essential albums of the decade . In 2002 , the mamazine also ranked it at number 44 in its list of Women in Rock : The 50 Essential Albums . In 2003 , the album was featured in the Vital Pop : 50 Essential Pop Albums list by Slant Magazine . In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly magazine placed the album at number 39 in their list of Top 100 Best Albums of the past 25 years .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= ? ( film ) =
? ( also written Tanda Tanya , meaning Question Mark ) is a 2011 Indonesian drama film directed by Hanung Bramantyo . It stars Revalina Sayuthi Temat , Reza Rahadian , Agus Kuncoro , Endhita , Rio Dewanto , and Hengky Sulaeman . The theme is Indonesia 's religious pluralism , which often results in conflict between religious beliefs , represented in a plot that revolves around the interactions of three families , one Buddhist , one Muslim , and one Catholic . After undergoing numerous hardships and the deaths of several family members in religious violence , they are reconciled .
Based on Bramantyo 's experiences as a mixed @-@ race child , ? was meant to counter the portrayal of Islam as a " radical religion " . Owing to the film 's theme of religious pluralism and controversial subject matter , Bramantyo had difficulty finding backing . Eventually , Mahaka Pictures put forth Rp 5 billion to fund the production . Filming began on 5 January 2011 in Semarang .
Released on 7 April 2011 , ? was a critical and commercial success : it received favourable reviews and was viewed by more than 550 @,@ 000 people . Also screened internationally , it was nominated for nine Citra Awards at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one . However , several Indonesian Muslim groups , including the Indonesian Ulema Council and Islamic Defenders Front , protested against the film because of its pluralist message .
= = Plot = =
? focuses on interfaith relations in Indonesia , a country where religious conflicts are common , and there is a long history of violence and discrimination against Chinese Indonesians . The storyline follows three families living in a village in Semarang , Central Java : the Chinese @-@ Indonesian Buddhist Tan Kat Sun ( Hengky Sulaeman ) and his son Hendra ( Rio Dewanto ) , the Muslim couple Soleh ( Reza Rahadian ) and Menuk ( Revalina S. Temat ) , and the Catholic @-@ convert Rika ( Endhita ) and her Muslim son Abi .
Sun and Hendra run a Chinese restaurant that serves pork , which is forbidden for Muslims , although the restaurant has many Muslim clients and staff . To ensure good relations with his Muslim employees and customers , Sun uses special utensils for the preparation of pork , which he does not permit to be used for other dishes , and allows his staff time for prayers ; he also gives them a holiday during Eid ul @-@ Fitr , the largest Muslim holiday . One of his employees is Menuk , who supports her unemployed husband Soleh . Rika is Menuk 's friend and is involved with the unsuccessful Muslim actor Surya ( Agus Kuncoro ) .
Already in his 70s , Sun falls ill , and the restaurant is taken over by Hendra , who decides it will serve exclusively pork , alienating Muslim customers . Hendra comes into conflict with Soleh over Menuk , as Hendra had previously dated her . Menuk becomes increasingly depressed after Soleh tells her that he plans to divorce her , and they are driven apart . Rika feels stressed as a result of how she has been treated by her neighbours and family after converting to Catholicism from Islam ; Abi is also facing ostracism . Meanwhile , Surya and Doni ( Glenn Fredly ) are competing for Rika 's affections . Surya is upset over his failure to find a good acting job .
Soleh joins the Islamic charitable group Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) , hoping to gain confidence . Though he is initially reluctant to protect the security of a church , he ends up sacrificing his life when he discovers a bomb has been planted in a Catholic church . He rushes out with the bomb , which explodes outside the church , killing Soleh , but away from the worshippers . Sun dies when the restaurant , which did not close to honour Eid ul @-@ Fitr , is attacked by a group of Muslims . After the attack , Hendra reads the 99 Names of Allah and converts to Islam ; he attempts to approach Menuk , although it is unclear if she will accept him . Surya receives an offer from Rika to play the role of Jesus in her church 's Christmas and Easter pageants , which he accepts for a high fee after hesitating due to fears that it will be against his religion ; after the pageant he reads Al @-@ Ikhlas in a mosque . Rika is able to obtain her parents ' blessing for her conversion .
= = Cast = =
Revalina S. Temat as Menuk , a religious Muslim woman who wears a hijab and is married to Soleh . Menuk works at Tan Kat Sun 's restaurant alongside her would @-@ be suitor , Sun 's son Hendra . According to Temat , Menuk married Soleh , whom she did not love , instead of Hendra because Soleh was Muslim .
Reza Rahadian as Soleh , Menuk 's unemployed Muslim husband , who wishes to be a hero for his family . He eventually joins the Banser branch of the Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) and is tasked with protecting places of worship from possible terrorist attacks . He dies in the process of removing a bomb from a church full of worshippers .
Endhita as Rika , a young divorcée , mother of one , and Catholic convert . Because of her divorce and conversion , she is often looked down upon by her neighbours . She also comes into conflict with her son Abi , who did not convert with her , over her faith . Endhita received a nomination at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival for Best Supporting Actress for her role , but lost to Dewi Irawan of Sang Penari ( The Dancer ) .
Agus Kuncoro as Surya , a young Muslim actor and Rika 's boyfriend . His inability to secure more than bit parts provokes financial desperation and an existential crisis . He eventually lands the lead role as Jesus at Rika 's Easter and Christmas pageants . Kuncoro received a nomination at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival for Best Supporting Actor for his role , but lost to Mathias Muchus of Pengejar Angin ( The Wind Chaser ) .
Rio Dewanto as Hendra ( Ping Hen ) , the son of Tan Kat Sun and Lim Giok Lie . He constantly argues with his parents , especially about running the restaurant . He falls in love with Menuk , but she rejects him since he is not Muslim . After the death of his father , he converts to Islam .
Hengky Sulaeman as Tan Kat Sun , a Chinese @-@ Indonesian restaurant owner , husband of Lim Giok Lie and father of Hendra . Sun 's health is poor health , but he keeps a positive attitude .
Edmay as Lim Giok Lie , wife of Tan Kat Sun and mother of Hendra . She often gives advice to Menuk .
Glenn Fredly as Doni , a Catholic youth in love with Rika .
David Chalik as Wahyu , a Muslim religious leader and adviser to Surya .
Dedy Soetomo as the pastor of Rika 's church .
= = Production = =
? was directed by Hanung Bramantyo , who is of mixed Chinese @-@ Javanese descent . He decided to direct a pluralist @-@ themed film based on his own experiences as a mixed @-@ race child . He chose the title ? to avoid protests upon the film 's release , saying that if it had been named Liberalism or Pluralism there would be protests by opponents of those ideologies , and that he could not think of a better title . The individual characters are based on people Bramantyo has known or read about . His goal in making the film was to " clarify misleading arguments about Islam " and counter the portrayal of Islam as a " radical religion " . In a pre @-@ release press conference , Bramantyo said that ? was not meant to be commercial , but to make a statement . The film , his fourteenth , is one of several Islam @-@ themed movies he has directed , after the polygamous romantic drama Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( The Verses of Love ; 2008 ) and the biopic Sang Pencerah ( The Enlightener ; 2009 ) .
Fearing that the theme of pluralism would be taken as a " battle cry " , some investors abandoned their commitments ; Bramantyo was also unable to find support from mainstream studios . Before screening the film for the Indonesian Film Censor Board , several scenes were cut , including one in which a pig 's head was displayed in the window of Sun 's restaurant ; other scenes that raised commentary were kept , although trimmed . Prior to the film 's release , Bramantyo consulted about twenty people , including several religious leaders , in an attempt to ensure that the film was not offensive . Titien Wattimena was brought in to work further with the script ; she put more emphasis on the message of tolerance .
Mahaka Pictures , owned by the same group as the predominantly Muslim Republika , co @-@ produced the film with Dapur Film . The director of Mahaka Pictures , Erick Thohir , stated that his company had assisted with production because he " was disturbed by the fact that Indonesian films have declined in quality " . He was willing to work with Bramantyo , as he found that the latter had proven to be a skilled director of religious films through his earlier work . Filming began on 5 January 2011 in Semarang ; Bramantyo later described the city as a good example of tolerance in action . The film reportedly cost Rp 5 billion ( US $ 600 @,@ 000 ) to produce . Two songs by the Indonesian band Sheila on 7 , " Pasti Kubisa " ( " Sure I Can " ) and " Kamus Hidupku " ( " Dictionary to My Life " ) were used in the soundtrack , while Satrio Budiono and Saft Daultsyah handled sound editing .
Mulyo Hadi Purnomo , based in Semarang , was tasked with casting the minor roles . Bramantyo contacted the main cast members directly . Agus Kuncoro , who had acted in Sang Pencerah and was known for playing in Islamic @-@ themed films , agreed to play Surya in ? immediately after reading the script . Singer Glenn Fredly was interested in playing Doni because he considered the character , an ultra @-@ conservative Catholic , an interesting role , given the sensitive religious situation in the country . Revalina S. Temat , who had appeared in Bramantyo 's 2009 film Perempuan Berkalung Sorban ( The Girl With the Keffiyeh Around Her Neck ) , found her role as Menuk interesting and more serious than her recent work in horror films . Endhita , whom Bramantyo called for the role , expressed interest as soon as she received an outline of the plot .
= = Themes and style = =
Ade Irwansyah , writing for Tabloid Bintang , notes that the film is a " microcosm " of Indonesia , which has numerous religious groups that often come into conflict . Irwansyah writes that Bramantyo intended for viewers to think of the religious conflicts that happen daily , and how to deal with differences in culture and beliefs , while Bramantyo has called the film his own personal interpretation of the country 's religious situation . The film critic Eric Sasono noted this was apparent from the film 's tagline , " Is it still important that we are different ? " , and suggested that Bramantyo feared that Indonesia was becoming a monolithic state . According to Sasono , the conflict in ? is settled when the characters begin believing that all religions are good , and all praise God ; thus , all religious conflict would end if people were to accept other beliefs .
The Jakarta Globe describes the film as a " study of the role and state of Islam in modern Indonesian society " . Sasono noted that the Muslim majority in the film did not have their motives shown explicitly , be it for the use of the racist term " Cino " or for attacking Sun 's restaurant . After comparing the actions of Muslim groups in ? and Asrul Sani 's films Al Kautsar ( 1977 ) and Titian Serambut Dibelah Tujuh ( Titian Serambut , Divided by Seven ; 1982 ) , Sasono suggested that Bramantyo may have been expressing a fear that these groups no longer needed provocateurs to attack others . He notes that a scene in which a Catholic priest is stabbed by two men on a motorcycle reflects a September 2010 case in Bekasi , which had become a national issue . He further describes the camera angles as vulgar , abandoning subtlety , but suggests that they made the work more dramatic ; he indicates that this was readily apparent with a scene in which part of a mosque falls apart .
= = Release = =
? debuted at Gandaria City in South Jakarta on 31 March 2011 , with a wide release on 7 April . Its release coincided with a contest sponsored by a local cellular service provider that called on viewers to decide the best name to describe the events shown in the film ; it was said that the best name to be submitted would be used on the DVD release , but this was ultimately not done . Within five days of its premiere , ? had been seen by almost 100 @,@ 000 people . ? had been watched by more than 550 @,@ 000 people by mid @-@ September . The film was also shown internationally . At the sixth Indonesian Film Festival in Australia , ? was screened to full theatres on 25 August 2011 as the festival 's closing film . According to Bramantyo , the film was also screened in Vancouver and Paris , receiving positive feedback .
A novelisation of the film , entitled Harmoni Dalam Tanda Tanya ( Harmony in Tanda Tanya ) and published by Mahaka Publishing , was released in December 2011 . Written by Melvy Yendra dan Adriyati , it further expanded the background of the film , including the relationship between Hendra and Menuk . On 21 February 2012 , ? was released on DVD by Jive ! Collection , after passing the censorship board in January . The DVD featured Indonesian audio , Indonesian and English subtitles , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary , and a gallery of photographs from production . In a preface on the DVD 's liner notes , Ronny P. Tjandra of Jive ! Collection wrote that viewers should view the film with open hearts , as the conflicts within reflected actualities in society .
= = Reception = =
Critical reaction to ? was favourable . Indah Setiawati of The Jakarta Post wrote that the film was a " gallant attempt to promoted [ sic ] moderate Islam and reveal the sensitive issues in the country in a casual way " , and that viewers should " get ready to burst into laughter and break down in tears " . Aguslia , writing for Tempo , said that it was better than the 2010 Citra Award winner 3 Hati Dua Dunia , Satu Cinta , which had similar themes . Kartoyo DS , reviewing for Suara Karya after a press screening , praised the plot , visuals , and music .
Benny Benke , writing for the Semarang @-@ based daily Suara Merdeka , found that Bramantyo had used ? to portray tolerance in Indonesia without making the subject seem cliché ; however , he considered some scenes , such as Hendra 's conversion , overdone . Frans Sartono , reviewing for the historically Catholic daily Kompas , considered the film heavily didactic but ultimately interesting , because its social commentary was much needed , considering Indonesia 's religious turmoil . He also noted that the characters were driven to their actions by worldly needs and not religion .
= = = Controversy = = =
After the release of ? , the conservative Islamic Defenders Front ( Front Pembela Islam , or FPI ) demonstrated against the film , owing to its pluralist message . Banser , the youth wing of the NU , also protested the film , taking offence to a scene in which Banser members are paid to do their charitable duties ; they insisted that they are not . Meanwhile , the head of the Center For Culture of the Indonesian Ulema Council ( Majelis Ulama Indonesia , or MUI ) Cholil Ridwan stated that " the film clearly propagates religious pluralism " , which the MUI had previously declared haraam ( forbidden ) in 2005 . Protests also erupted when SCTV announced plans to show ? during Eid al @-@ Fitr in 2011 ; the FPI organised a demonstration in front of the station 's office , in which hundreds of its members called for further cuts to the film . The network later decided against showing the film in a decision which was heavily criticised and seen as " giving in " to the FPI .
In response to the criticism of ? , Minister of Culture and Tourism Jero Wacik expressed that the film would be best titled Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ( " Unity in Diversity " , the Indonesian national motto ) , and that its depiction of inter @-@ ethnic and interfaith tolerance reflected Indonesia 's " national character " . Yenny Wahid , a religious activist and daughter of former president and noted pluralist Abdurrahman Wahid , said that ? had " succeeded in conveying the ideas of pluralism in Indonesia " , and that critics should not look at it in fragments . Although initially tweeting that the protests were free promotion , Bramantyo later entered discussions with the MUI and agreed to cut some scenes to avoid protests . In an October 2011 interview , he said he was " bewildered " that the film was poorly received by Muslims .
= = Awards = =
? received 9 nominations at the 2011 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one Citra Award for Best Cinematography . Together with Ifa Isfansyah 's Sang Penari and Benni Setiawan 's Masih Bukan Cinta Biasa ( Still Not Normal Love ) , it was the most @-@ nominated film of the year ; however , ? received the least Citra Awards of the three . Sang Penari won two of the awards for which ? had been nominated , including Best Director , while Masih Bukan Cinta Biasa took Best Sound and Kamila Andini 's The Mirror Never Lies bested ? for Best Original Story . In 2012 ? was nominated for three awards at the Bandung Film Festival , winning none ; all three awards were taken by The Mirror Never Lies .
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= German Type U 66 submarine =
The Type U 66 was a class of five submarines or U @-@ boats operated by the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The class is alternately referred to as the U @-@ 66 @-@ class or the Type UD . The class was built by Germaniawerft of Kiel to their 506d design as the U @-@ 7 @-@ class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The five boats were sold to the Imperial Germany Navy at the beginning of World War I when it was thought impossible for the submarines to reach the Mediterranean for delivery to Austria @-@ Hungary .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , after competitively evaluating six submarines of three foreign designs , selected the Germaniwerft 506d or Type UD design over a design from Whitehead & Co. for the U @-@ 7 class . The boats , numbered U @-@ 7 to U @-@ 11 , were designed to be 228 feet ( 69 m ) long and displace between 695 and 885 tonnes ( 684 and 871 long tons ) when surfaced and submerged . They were to be armed with five torpedo tubes and a deck gun . For propulsion the design called for twin diesel engines for surface running and twin electric motors for subsurface movement . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ordered the boats in February 1913 and construction began on the first boats in November .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy became convinced that delivery of the still @-@ unfinished submarines to the Mediterranean via Gibraltar would be impossible . As a result , they sold the five boats to the Imperial German Navy in November 1914 . The German Navy assigned the numbers U @-@ 66 to U @-@ 70 to the five submarines and had them redesigned and reconstructed to their specifications . These changes , which included a larger deck gun , increased the displacement of the U @-@ boats by almost 100 tonnes ( 98 long tons ) surfaced and nearly 50 tonnes ( 49 long tons ) submerged .
All five boats saw active service , and four sank 18 or more ships . Only U @-@ 68 , sunk six days into her first war patrol in March 1916 , had no successes . Two other boats , U @-@ 66 and U @-@ 69 disappeared in 1917 . The remaining two U @-@ boats , U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 70 , were surrendered to the United Kingdom and were broken up by 1921 .
= = Background = =
In 1904 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , after allowing the navies of other countries to pioneer submarine developments , ordered the Austrian Naval Technical Committee ( German : Marinetechnisches Komitee or MTK ) to produce a submarine design . When the Navy rejected the January 1905 MTK design and other designs submitted as part of a public competition as impracticable , they instead opted to order two submarines each of designs by Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland for a competitive evaluation .
Based on the trials results , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy determined the characteristics that the next generation of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines should have . They were looking for a double @-@ hulled submarine of about 500 tonnes ( 490 long tons ) displacement with diesel propulsion . They also wanted a surface speed of 16 – 18 knots ( 30 – 33 km / h ; 18 – 21 mph ) , and for the boat to be armed with between three and five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for the U @-@ 7 class over the Type 48 design submitted by Whitehead & Co . , primarily because of the lower cost . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
= = Design = =
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 tonnes ( 684 long tons ) on the surface and 885 tonnes ( 871 long tons ) while submerged . The doubled @-@ hulled boats were to be 228 feet ( 69 m ) long overall with a beam of 20 feet 8 inches ( 6 @.@ 30 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 78 m ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 269 bhp ; 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 240 PS ( 1 @,@ 223 shp ; 912 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged .
The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 26 deck gun .
= = Construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's 1 February 1913 order , the first two boats , U @-@ 7 and U @-@ 8 , were laid down at Germaniawerft on 1 November . U @-@ 9 was laid down at the end of December , and the final two boats , U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 were both begun in February 1914 . Construction of the boats was slated to be complete within 29 to 33 months .
None of the submarines were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . With the boats under construction at Kiel , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery of the boats , which would need to be towed into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , the five boats of the class were transferred to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 after the advance payment of 2 million Kronen had been returned . Germaniawerft was then awarded Kriegsauftrag D , hence the type was known as UD .
After their purchase , the boats were assigned the numbers U @-@ 66 to U @-@ 70 , and the class became known as the U 66 type . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , which increased the surface displacement by 96 tonnes ( 94 long tons ) and the submerged by 48 tonnes ( 47 long tons ) . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun originally specified to an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) one .
U @-@ 66 was launched on 22 April 1915 , the first of the class , and was followed by the other four about one every three weeks , with the last boat , U @-@ 70 , hitting the water on 20 July . The boats were all completed and commissioned into the Imperial German Navy between July and September .
= = Service career = =
All the boats of the U @-@ 66 class saw active service , and all but one boat , U @-@ 68 , had wartime successes ; U @-@ 69 and U @-@ 70 both sank over 100 @,@ 000 tons of Allied shipping . U @-@ 68 was sunk by the British Q @-@ ship HMS Farnborough in March 1916 , and was the first boat of the class to be lost during the war . U @-@ 69 and U @-@ 66 were lost in July and September 1917 , respectively . U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 70 both survived the war and were surrendered to the United Kingdom in November 1918 , and both were broken up by 1921 .
= = Boats in class = =
= = = SM U @-@ 66 = = =
U @-@ 66 , the lead boat of the class , was laid down on 1 November 1913 ( yard number 203 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 22 April 1915 . She was commissioned on 23 July 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Thorwald von Bothmer . During the war , she sank 25 ships totaling 69 @,@ 967 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The two largest ships she sank were the British steamers Powhatan ( 6 @,@ 117 GRT ) and Bay State ( 6 @,@ 583 GRT ) , both sunk in 1917 . U @-@ 66 was last heard from on 3 September 1917 when she reported her position in the North Sea . Her fate is officially unknown . British records suggest that U @-@ 66 may have struck a mine or been sunk by destroyers , this is not borne out by German records .
= = = SM U @-@ 67 = = =
U @-@ 67 was laid down on 1 November 1913 ( yard number 204 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 15 May 1915 . She was commissioned on 4 August 1915 under the command of Korvettenkapitän Erich von Rosenberg @-@ Grusczyski . U @-@ 67 sank a total of 18 ships ( 39 @,@ 937 GRT ) and damaged a further three ( 14 @,@ 766 GRT ) . U @-@ 67 was surrendered to the United Kingdom on 20 November 1918 and was broken up at Fareham in 1921 .
= = = SM U @-@ 68 = = =
U @-@ 68 was laid down on 31 December 1913 ( yard number 205 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 1 June 1915 . She was commissioned on 17 August 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ludwig Güntzel . Six days into her first war patrol , U @-@ 68 encountered the British Q @-@ ship HMS Farnborough ( Q @-@ ship number five ) off Dingle and was sunk with all hands . U @-@ 68 sank no ships during her brief service career .
= = = SM U @-@ 69 = = =
U @-@ 69 was laid down on 7 February 1914 ( yard number 206 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 24 June 1915 . She was commissioned on 4 September 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ernst Wilhelms . During her service career , U @-@ 69 sank 31 ships with a combined gross register tonnage of 102 @,@ 875 , the largest among them , the 13 @,@ 441 @-@ ton armed merchant cruiser Avenger . U @-@ 69 was last heard from on 11 July 1917 when she reported being off the coast of Norway . Her fate is officially unknown , even though British reports credit her sinking to destroyer HMS Patriot . The dates in German records , however , do not support this claim .
= = = SM U @-@ 70 = = =
U @-@ 70 was laid down on 11 February 1914 ( yard number 207 ) by Germaniawerft at Kiel and launched on 20 July 1915 . She was commissioned on 22 September 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Otto Wünsche . During the war , Wünsche and U @-@ 70 sank one warship , the British sloop Rhododendron , and 53 civilian ships totaling 137 @,@ 775 GRT . Among the civilian ships was Southland , at 11 @,@ 899 GRT , one of the largest ships hit by U @-@ boats during the war . U @-@ 70 also damaged four ships of 20 @,@ 369 GRT . U @-@ 70 was surrendered to the British on 20 November 1918 and was broken up at Bo 'ness in 1919 – 20 .
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= Times Square Ball =
The Times Square Ball is an LED geodesic sphere located in New York City 's Times Square . Located on the roof of One Times Square , the ball is a prominent part of a New Year 's Eve celebration in Times Square Commonly known as the ball drop , where the ball descends 141 feet ( 43 m ) in 60 seconds down a specially designed flagpole , beginning at 11 : 59 : 00 p.m. ET , and resting at midnight to signal the start of the new year . In recent years , the festivities have been preceded by live entertainment , including performances by musicians .
The event was first organized by Adolph Ochs , owner of The New York Times newspaper , as a successor to a series of New Year 's Eve fireworks displays he held at the building to promote its status as the new headquarters of the Times , while the ball itself was designed by Artkraft Strauss . First held on December 31 , 1907 , to welcome 1908 , the ball drop has been held annually since , except in 1942 and 1943 in observance of wartime blackouts .
The ball 's design has also been updated over the years to reflect improvements in lighting technology ; the original design was made from wood and iron and lit with 100 incandescent light bulbs , while its current incarnation features a computerized LED lighting system and an outer surface consisting of triangle @-@ shaped crystal panels . Since 2009 , the current ball has been displayed atop the building year @-@ round , while the original , smaller version of the current ball that was used in 2008 is on display at Times Square 's visitor center .
The event is organized by the Times Square Alliance and Countdown Entertainment , a company led by Jeff Strauss , and is among the most notable New Year 's celebrations internationally : it is attended by at least 2 million spectators yearly , and is nationally televised as part of New Year 's Eve specials broadcast by a number of networks and cable channels . The prevalence of the Times Square ball drop has inspired similar " drops " at other local New Year 's Eve events across the country ; while some use balls , some instead drop objects that represent local culture or history .
= = Events = =
= = = Event organization = = =
To facilitate the arrival of attendees , Times Square is closed to traffic on beginning in the late afternoon on New Year 's Eve . The square is then divided into different viewing sections referred to as " pens " , into which attendees are directed sequentially upon arrival . Security is strictly enforced by the New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) , even more so since the 2001 @-@ 02 edition in the wake of the September 11 attacks . Attendees are required to pass through security checkpoints before they are assigned a pen , and are prohibited from bringing backpacks or alcohol to the event .
= = = Event Music = = =
Imagine - John Lennon ( rendition )
Auld Lang Syne - Guy lombardo and His Royal Canadians
New York New York - Frank Sinatra
What A Wonderful World - Louis Armstrong
America the Beautiful - Ray Charles
God Bless the U.S.A - Lee Greenwood
Somewhere Over the Rainbow - Israel Kamakawiwo 'Ole
= = = Festivities = = =
Festivities formally begin in the early evening with the raising of the ball at around 6 : 00 p.m. ET . Party favors are also distributed to attendees , which have historically included large balloons , hats , and other items branded with the event 's corporate sponsors . The hours before the drop are preceded by hourly countdowns for the arrival of the new year in other countries , along with live music performances by popular musicians . Some of these performances are organized by , and aired on New Year 's Eve television specials which are broadcast from Times Square .
The drop itself occurs at 11 : 59 p.m. — the last minute of the year , and is ceremonially " activated " by a dignitary or celebrity joined on @-@ stage by the current Mayor of New York City . The conclusion of the drop is followed by fireworks shot from the roof of One Times Square , along with the playing of " Auld Lang Syne " by Guy Lombardo , " Theme from New York , New York " by Frank Sinatra , " America the Beautiful " by Ray Charles , " What a Wonderful World " by Louis Armstrong , and " Over the Rainbow " by IZ .
Since the 1996 New Year 's Eve celebration , the current Mayor of New York City has been joined by a special guest , selected yearly to recognize their community involvement or significance , in ceremonially " activating " the ball drop by pressing a button , resembling a smaller version of the ball itself , at exactly one minute to midnight . The button itself does not actually trigger the drop ; that is done from a control room , synchronized using a government time signal . Special guests who have activated the ball drop have included :
1996 – 1997 : Oseola McCarty
1997 – 1998 : A group of five winners from a school essay contest honoring New York City 's centennial
1998 – 1999 : Chinese gymnast Sang Lan ( who was injured during the 1998 Goodwill Games and was being rehabilitated in New York City )
1999 – 2000 : Dr. Mary Ann Hopkins from Doctors Without Borders
2000 – 2001 : Muhammad Ali
2001 – 2002 : Rudy Giuliani and Judith Nathan ; activating the drop was also Giuliani 's final act as mayor . Michael Bloomberg officially became the new Mayor of New York City upon the beginning of 2002 , and took his oath of office shortly after midnight
2002 – 2003 : Christopher and Dana Reeve
2003 – 2004 : Cyndi Lauper , along with Shoshana Johnson , the first female American prisoner of war belonging to an ethnic minority
2004 – 2005 : Secretary of State Colin Powell
2005 – 2006 : Jazz musician Wynton Marsalis
2006 – 2007 : A group of eight United States Armed Forces members
2007 – 2008 : Karolina Wierzchowska , a valedictorian of the NYPD 's academy who also served in the Iraq War
2008 – 2009 : Bill and Hillary Clinton
2009 – 2010 : Twelve students from New York City high schools on the U.S. News & World Report " America 's Best High Schools Top 100 ' Gold Medal ' List "
2010 – 2011 : Former Staff sergeant Salvatore Giunta
2011 – 2012 : Lady Gaga
2012 – 2013 : The Rockettes
2013 – 2014 : U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor .
2014 – 2015 : Cuban @-@ American musician Jencarlos Canela and a group of refugees who emigrated to New York City , in partnership with the International Rescue Committee
2015 – 2016 : Hugh Evans
= = = = " Imagine " performance = = = =
Since the 2005 – 06 edition of the event , the drop has also been directly preceded by the playing of John Lennon 's song " Imagine " ; the original recording was previously used . It was replaced by a live performance by a pop musician for 2011 .
2010 – 2011 : Taio Cruz
2011 – 2012 : Cee @-@ Lo Green
2012 – 2013 : Train
2013 – 2014 : Melissa Etheridge
2014 – 2015 : O.A.R.
2015 – 2016 : Jessie J
= = = Cleanup = = =
After the conclusion of the festivities and the dispersal of attendees , cleanup is performed overnight to remove confetti and other debris from Times Square before it is re @-@ opened to the public the following morning . Few traces of the previous night 's celebration remain after the cleanup process is completed : following the 2013 @-@ 14 drop , the New York City Department of Sanitation estimated that by 8 : 00 a.m. , it had cleared over 50 tons of refuse from Times Square , using 190 workers from their own crews and the Times Square Alliance .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings ( 1907 – 19 ) = = =
The first New Year 's Eve celebration in Times Square was held on December 31 , 1904 ; The New York Times ' owner , Adolph Ochs , decided to celebrate the opening of the newspaper 's new headquarters , One Times Square , with a New Year 's fireworks show on the roof of the building to welcome 1905 . Close to 200 @,@ 000 people attended the event , displacing traditional celebrations that had normally been held at Trinity Church . However , following several years of fireworks shows , Ochs wanted a bigger spectacle at the building to draw more attention to the area . The newspaper 's chief electrician , Walter F. Palmer , suggested using a time ball , after seeing one used on the nearby Western Union Building .
Ochs hired sign designer Artkraft Strauss to construct a ball for the celebration ; it was built from iron and wood , electrically lit with one hundred incandescent light bulbs , weighed 700 pounds ( 320 kg ) , and measured 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The ball was hoisted on the building 's flagpole with rope by a team of six men . Once it hit the roof of the building , the ball was designed to complete an electric circuit to light a 5 @-@ foot tall sign indicating the new year , and trigger a fireworks show . The first ever " ball drop " was held on December 31 , 1907 , welcoming the year 1908 .
In 1913 , only eight years after it moved to One Times Square , the Times moved its corporate headquarters to 229 West 43rd Street . The Times still maintained ownership of the tower , however , and Strauss continued to organize future editions of the drop .
= = = The second and third balls ( 1920 – 98 ) = = =
The original ball was retired in 1920 in favor of a new design ; the second ball remained 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter , but was now constructed from iron , weighing 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) . The ball drop was placed on hiatus for New Year 's Eve 1942 and 1943 due to wartime lighting restrictions during World War II . Instead , a moment of silence was observed at midnight in Times Square , accompanied by the sound of chimes played from sound trucks .
The second ball was retired in favor of a third design in 1955 ; again , it maintained the same diameter of its predecessors , but was now constructed from aluminium , and weighed 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) . In 1981 , the third ball was revamped in honor of the I Love New York campaign , with red lightbulbs and a green stem to give it the appearance of an apple . For 1988 , organizers acknowledged the addition of a leap second earlier that day ( leap seconds are appended at midnight UTC , which is five hours before midnight in New York ) by extending the drop to 61 seconds , and by including a special one @-@ second light show during the extra second . The original white lightbulbs returned to the ball for 1989 , but were replaced by red , white , and blue bulbs in 1991 to salute the troops of Operation Desert Shield .
The third ball was revamped again in 1995 for 1996 , adding a computerized lighting system with 180 halogen bulbs and 144 strobe lights , and over 12 @,@ 000 rhinestones . Lighting designer Barry Arnold stated that the changes were " something [ that ] had to be done to make this event more spectacular as we approach the millennium . "
The drop itself also became computerized through the use of an electric winch synced with the National Institute of Standards and Technology 's time signal ; the new system was not without issues , however , as a glitch caused the ball to pause for a short moment halfway through its descent . After its 44th use in 1999 , the third ball was retired and placed on display at the Atlanta headquarters of Jamestown Group , owners of One Times Square .
= = = Into the new millennium ( 1999 – 2007 ) = = =
On December 28 , 1998 , during a press conference attended by New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani , organizers announced that the third ball would be retired for the arrival of the new millennium , and replaced by a new design constructed by Waterford Crystal . The year 2000 celebrations would also introduce more prominent sponsorship to the drop ; companies such as Discover Card , Korbel Champagne , and Panasonic were announced as official sponsors of the festivities in Times Square . The city also announced that Ron Silver would lead a committee known as " NYC 2000 " , to be in charge of organizing events across New York City for the year 2000 celebrations , particularly outside of Times Square .
A full day of festivities was held at Times Square to celebrate the arrival of the year 2000 , which included concerts and hourly cultural presentations with parades of puppets designed by Michael Curry , representing countries entering the new year at that hour . Organizers expected a total attendance exceeding 2 million spectators .
The fourth ball , measuring 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter and weighing 1 @,@ 070 pounds ( 490 kg ) , incorporated a total of over 600 halogen bulbs , 504 triangle @-@ shaped crystal panels provided by Waterford , 96 strobe lights , and spinning , pyramid @-@ shaped mirrors . The ball was constructed at Waterford 's factory in Ireland , and was then shipped to New York City , where the lighting system and motorized mirrors were installed . Many of the triangles were inscribed with " Hope " -themed designs changing yearly , such as " Hope for Fellowship " , " Hope for Wisdom " , " Hope for Unity " , " Hope for Courage " , " Hope for Healing " , and " Hope for Abundance " .
For 2002 , the ball 's crystals were engraved with the names of nations and organizations who were affected by the September 11 attacks .
= = = Present day ( 2008 – present ) = = =
In honor of the ball drop 's centennial anniversary , a brand new fifth design debuted for New Year 's Eve 2008 . Once again manufactured by Waterford Crystal with a diameter of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but weighing 1 @,@ 212 pounds ( 550 kg ) , it used LED lamps provided by Philips ( which can produce 16 @,@ 777 @,@ 216 or 224 colors ) , with computerized lighting patterns developed by the New York City @-@ based lighting firm Focus Lighting . The ball featured 9 @,@ 576 energy @-@ efficient bulbs that consumed the same amount of electricity as only 10 toasters . The 2008 ball was only used once , and was placed on display at the Times Square Visitors Center following the event .
For 2009 , a larger version of the fifth ball was introduced — an icosahedral geodesic sphere lit by 32 @,@ 256 LED lamps . Its diameter is twice as wide as 2008 ball , at 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , and contains 2 @,@ 688 Waterford Crystal panels , with a weight of 11 @,@ 875 pounds ( 5 @,@ 386 kg ) . It was also designed to be weatherproof , as the ball would now be displayed atop One Times Square nearly year @-@ round following the celebrations .
Yearly themes for the ball 's crystal panels continued ; from 2008 to 2013 , the ball contained crystal patterns that were part of a Waterford series known as " World of Celebration " , including themes such as " Let There Be Light " and " Let There Be Peace " . For 2014 , all the ball 's panels were replaced , marking a new theme series known as " Greatest Gifts " , beginning with " Gift of Imagination " .
The numerical sign indicating the year ( which remains atop the tower along with the ball itself ) also uses Philips LED lamps . For 2014 , the final two digits of the sign used bulbs from the company 's " Hue " line of multi @-@ color LED lamps , allowing them to also have computerized lighting cues .
= = = Weather at midnight = = =
According to the National Weather Service , from 1907 to 2011 , the average temperature at midnight in New York City was 33 @.@ 7 ° F ( 0 @.@ 9 ° C ) . The coldest event was in 1917 when the temperature was 1 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) ( − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) after wind chill ) , the second coldest was 11 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) in 1962 . The warmest ball drop was 58 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in both 1965 and 1972 . It has snowed during the ball drop just seven times out of 109 events ( one being light snow ) — 1926 , 1934 , 1948 , 1952 , 1961 , 1967 , and 2009 — and it has rained multiple times .
= = Broadcasting = =
As a public event , the festivities and ball drop are broadcast as part of New Year 's Eve television specials originating from Times Square on several major U.S. television networks and cable channels . By far the most notable of these is Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve ; created , produced , and originally hosted by the entertainer Dick Clark until his death in 2012 , and currently hosted by Ryan Seacrest , Jenny McCarthy , and Fergie , the program first aired on NBC in 1972 before moving to ABC , where it has been broadcast ever since . New Year 's Rockin ' Eve has consistently been the most @-@ watched New Year 's Eve special in the U.S. , peaking at 22 @.@ 6 million viewers for its 40th edition in 2012 . Following the death of Dick Clark in April 2012 , a crystal engraved with his name was added to the 2013 ball in tribute .
Across the remaining networks , NBC broadcasts New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly , hosted from Times Square by Carson Daly of The Voice and Last Call , and Spanish @-@ language network Univision broadcasts ¡ Feliz ! , hosted from Times Square by Raúl de Molina of El Gordo y La Flaca . On cable , CNN carries coverage of the festivities , known as New Year 's Eve Live , which has been hosted by Anderson Cooper and Kathy Griffin from Times Square . Fellow news channel Fox News Channel carries All @-@ American New Year , most recently hosted by Elisabeth Hasselbeck and Bill Hemmer from Times Square .
MTV has also broadcast coverage originating from the network 's Times Square studios at One Astor Plaza . For 2011 , MTV also held its own ball drop in Seaside Heights , New Jersey , the setting of its popular reality series Jersey Shore , featuring cast member Snooki lowered inside a giant " hamster ball " . Originally , MTV planned to hold the drop within its studio in Times Square , but the network was asked by city officials to conduct the drop elsewhere .
Since 2009 , organizers have produced an official webcast of the ball drop and its associated festivities .
= = = Past broadcasts = = =
Beginning in the 1940s , NBC broadcast coverage from Times Square anchored by Ben Grauer on both radio and television . Its coverage was later incorporated into special episodes of The Tonight Show , continuing through Johnny Carson and Jay Leno 's tenures on the program . NBC would introduce a dedicated special , New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly , beginning in 2003 .
From 1956 to 1976 , CBS was well known for its television coverage of the festivities hosted by bandleader Guy Lombardo from the ballroom of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City , featuring his band 's famous rendition of " Auld Lang Syne " at midnight . After Lombardo 's death in 1977 , CBS and the Royal Canadians , now led by Victor Lombardo , attempted to continue the special . However , Guy 's absence and the growing popularity of ABC 's New Year ’ s Rockin ’ Eve prompted CBS to eventually drop the band entirely . The Royal Canadians were replaced by a new special , Happy New Year , America , which ran in various formats with different hosts ( such as Paul Anka , Donny Osmond , Andy Williams , Paul Shaffer , and Montel Williams ) until it was discontinued after 1996 . CBS , barring a special America 's Millenium broadcast for 2000 , no longer provides any national coverage from Times Square .
For 2000 , in lieu of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , ABC News covered the festivities as part of its day @-@ long telecast , ABC 2000 Today . Hosted by Peter Jennings , the broadcast featured coverage of millennium festivities from around the world , including those in New York City . Jennings was joined by Dick Clark as a special correspondent for coverage from Times Square .
Fox previously aired New Year 's specials covering Times Square with rotating hosts and themes , primarily under the title New Year 's Eve Live . For 2015 , New Year 's Eve Live was replaced by Pitbull 's New Year 's Revolution , which is broadcast from Miami instead .
= = Major Sponsor = =
Discover Card 2000 @-@ 2007
Nivea 2008 @-@ 2014
Cosmopolitan and CoverGirl 2015
Planet Fitness 2016 @-@ Present
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= K @-@ 383 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 383 is a state highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . The highway runs 74 @.@ 042 miles ( 119 @.@ 159 km ) from U.S. Route 83 ( US @-@ 83 ) and K @-@ 23 near Selden north and east to US @-@ 183 near Woodruff , just south of the Nebraska state line . K @-@ 383 runs southwest – northeast and connects Norton with Colby to the southwest and Alma , Nebraska , to the northeast via the valley of Prairie Dog Creek , a tributary of the Republican River . The highway also serves the cities of Selden in northern Sheridan County ; Dresden , Jennings , and Clayton in southeastern Decatur County ; Almena in eastern Norton County ; and Long Island in northern Phillips County . K @-@ 383 is a part of the National Highway System from its western terminus at US @-@ 83 to the eastern US @-@ 36 junction near Norton .
K @-@ 383 was assigned in 1981 over the portions of former US @-@ 383 that had not run concurrently with either US @-@ 83 or US @-@ 183 . The highway was originally designated as parts of US @-@ 36 and K @-@ 22 in the mid @-@ 1920s . The entire route became US @-@ 83 and was placed on much of its modern alignment in the early 1930s. replacing the original path that followed section lines . The route was redesignated US @-@ 383 in the mid @-@ 1940s and paved from the late 1930s to the late 1940s . The highway was relocated within Norton in the late 1930s and early 1940s . Other relocations of K @-@ 383 have included the segment near Clayton in the mid @-@ 1950s , southwest of Norton in the late 1930s and again in the early 1960s , and at both ends of the highway in the early 1990s .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 383 begins at a four @-@ legged intersection northeast of the town of Selden in northern Sheridan County . US @-@ 83 heads west toward Selden and Colby and north toward Oberlin ; K @-@ 23 heads south and east toward Hoxie . K @-@ 383 heads northeast as a two @-@ lane road immediately parallel to the Kyle Railroad and a couple of miles south of Prairie Dog Creek . The highway enters Decatur County and intersects K @-@ 223 north of the village of Leoville and K @-@ 123 while passing through the city of Dresden . K @-@ 383 and the railroad enter the creek valley shortly before the city of Jennings , through which the road is Railroad Street . The highway separates from the railroad for several miles prior to rejoining at the city of Clayton at the Decatur – Norton county line . K @-@ 383 leaves the railroad again southwest of the village of Oronoque , heading east then curving north to cross Prairie Dog Creek at its entrance to Keith Sebelius Lake . The highway crosses over the Kyle Railroad before intersecting US @-@ 36 , with which the state highway runs concurrently east .
K @-@ 383 and US @-@ 36 intersect K @-@ 261 , a spur serving Prairie Dog State Park , before reaching the city of Norton . The highways curve northeast and back east and pass through the northern part of the city as Holme Street , a four @-@ lane undivided road . K @-@ 383 and US @-@ 36 intersect US @-@ 283 ( State Street ) north of the downtown area . The highways become a two @-@ lane road again as they leave Norton . K @-@ 383 and US @-@ 36 cross over the Kyle Railroad and begin to parallel the railroad and Prairie Dog Creek . The highways meet the southern end of K @-@ 67 , a spur serving the Norton Correctional Facility , before they diverge . US @-@ 36 continues east and K @-@ 383 heads northeast parallel to the Kyle Railroad through the hamlet of Calvert . The state highway meets the northern end of K @-@ 60 just before it crosses over the Kyle Railroad on the edge of the city of Almena . K @-@ 383 continues east parallel to the Nebraska Kansas Colorado Railway into Phillips County . After they pass through the city of Long Island , that railroad splits to the north into Nebraska . K @-@ 383 passes through the village of Woodruff shortly before it reaches its northern terminus at US @-@ 183 about one half @-@ mile south of the Nebraska state line .
= = History = =
The portion of K @-@ 383 southwest of Almena was part of the Rock Island Highway , an auto trail that paralleled the Chicago , Rock Island and Pacific Railroad northeast from Colby to Norton and then east along the northern tier of the state to St. Joseph , Missouri . When the U.S. Highway System was laid out in 1926 , the Rock Island Highway , which had become integrated into the Pikes Peak Ocean to Ocean Highway , was designated US @-@ 36 . The portion of K @-@ 383 north of the US @-@ 36 split was K @-@ 22 . By 1927 , all of the highway along the K @-@ 383 corridor followed section lines , with a great number of right @-@ angle turns , except for a small section south of Almena . US @-@ 36 and K @-@ 22 were graded throughout Norton County but were unimproved dirt roads in Decatur , Phillips , and Sheridan counties .
By 1932 , US @-@ 36 headed west from Norton toward Oberlin instead of southwest toward Selden , and all of what is K @-@ 383 became part of US @-@ 83 . The entire route from Selden to Nebraska had been straightened , mostly paralleling the railroad instead of following section lines , except for through Oronoque and Jennings . US @-@ 83 was a gravel road from Selden to the Norton – Phillips county line , east of which the highway remained a dirt road until it was graveled in 1937 . The highway was relocated straight through Jennings and to a path with fewer turns through Oronoque in 1938 ; that same year , the highway was paved with a bituminous surface along the US @-@ 36 concurrency . US @-@ 83 was paved from the US @-@ 36 split to the Nebraska state line in 1940 . The highway was paved from Selden to Dresden by 1945 and from Dresden to US @-@ 36 west of Norton in 1948 . US @-@ 383 was assigned to the entire length of the K @-@ 383 corridor and beyond in both directions by 1945 .
The first modern relocations along what is now K @-@ 383 occurred in Norton . US @-@ 36 and US @-@ 83 originally entered the city along Washington Street , turned north onto First Avenue , and turned east onto Main Street . The highway followed Main Street out of town and along a road paralleling the railroad to the present highway . The first realignment was authorized in 1936 to eliminate several right @-@ angle turns and several at @-@ grade railroad crossings . East of the intersection of First and Main , US @-@ 36 and US @-@ 83 turned north onto State Street and followed the highway to Holme Street , where the highways joined the present course . By 1941 , this change was deemed unsatisfactory due to the continued existence of right @-@ angle turns and grade crossings . Shortly thereafter , the highways were moved to their present course bypassing downtown Norton .
US @-@ 383 was relocated to K @-@ 383 's present alignment southwest of Clayton starting in 1954 . The highway was constructed along its current route near Oronoque concurrent with the construction of the Norton Reservoir ( now Keith Sebelius Lake ) on Prairie Dog Creek around 1962 . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials approved the removal of the US @-@ 383 designation in 1979 . K @-@ 383 was assigned to the portions of former US @-@ 383 in Kansas from US @-@ 83 near Selden to a concurrency with US @-@ 183 at the Nebraska state line in 1981 . In 1990 , K @-@ 383 's western terminus was relocated to its present spot . K @-@ 383 had begun at US @-@ 83 's intersection with the first east – west section line road the latter highway intersects west of K @-@ 383 . US @-@ 83 followed the section line road to near what was then K @-@ 23 's northern terminus , then turned north along another section line road and passed under K @-@ 383 and the Kyle Railroad ; a connector ramp was used between US @-@ 83 and K @-@ 383 at the bridges , which were constructed by 1951 . US @-@ 83 was relocated to remove the grade separations and both K @-@ 383 and K @-@ 23 were given their present termini ; the east – west section line road west of K @-@ 23 was transferred to county maintenance . In 1994 , K @-@ 383 was relocated at its present eastern terminus to remove what had been a wye junction with US @-@ 183 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Confirmation bias =
Confirmation bias , also called confirmatory bias or myside bias , is the tendency to search for , interpret , favor , and recall information in a way that confirms one 's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses , while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities . It is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning . People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively , or when they interpret it in a biased way . The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs . People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position . Biased search , interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization ( when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence ) , belief perseverance ( when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false ) , the irrational primacy effect ( a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series ) and illusory correlation ( when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations ) .
A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs . Later work re @-@ interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one @-@ sided way , focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives . In certain situations , this tendency can bias people 's conclusions . Explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information . Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong , rather than investigating in a neutral , scientific way .
Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence . Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts .
= = Types = =
Confirmation biases are effects in information processing . They differ from what is sometimes called the behavioral confirmation effect , commonly known as self @-@ fulfilling prophecy , in which a person 's expectations influence their own behavior , bringing about the expected result .
Some psychologists restrict the term confirmation bias to selective collection of evidence that supports what one already believes while ignoring or rejecting evidence that supports a different conclusion . Other psychologists apply the term more broadly to the tendency to preserve one 's existing beliefs when searching for evidence , interpreting it , or recalling it from memory .
= = = Biased search for information = = =
Experiments have found repeatedly that people tend to test hypotheses in a one @-@ sided way , by searching for evidence consistent with their current hypothesis . Rather than searching through all the relevant evidence , they phrase questions to receive an affirmative answer that supports their hypothesis . They look for the consequences that they would expect if their hypothesis were true , rather than what would happen if it were false . For example , someone using yes / no questions to find a number he or she suspects to be the number 3 might ask , " Is it an odd number ? " People prefer this type of question , called a " positive test " , even when a negative test such as " Is it an even number ? " would yield exactly the same information . However , this does not mean that people seek tests that guarantee a positive answer . In studies where subjects could select either such pseudo @-@ tests or genuinely diagnostic ones , they favored the genuinely diagnostic .
The preference for positive tests in itself is not a bias , since positive tests can be highly informative . However , in combination with other effects , this strategy can confirm existing beliefs or assumptions , independently of whether they are true . In real @-@ world situations , evidence is often complex and mixed . For example , various contradictory ideas about someone could each be supported by concentrating on one aspect of his or her behavior . Thus any search for evidence in favor of a hypothesis is likely to succeed . One illustration of this is the way the phrasing of a question can significantly change the answer . For example , people who are asked , " Are you happy with your social life ? " report greater satisfaction than those asked , " Are you unhappy with your social life ? "
Even a small change in a question 's wording can affect how people search through available information , and hence the conclusions they reach . This was shown using a fictional child custody case . Participants read that Parent A was moderately suitable to be the guardian in multiple ways . Parent B had a mix of salient positive and negative qualities : a close relationship with the child but a job that would take him or her away for long periods of time . When asked , " Which parent should have custody of the child ? " the majority of participants chose Parent B , looking mainly for positive attributes . However , when asked , " Which parent should be denied custody of the child ? " they looked for negative attributes and the majority answered that Parent B should be denied custody , implying that Parent A should have custody .
Similar studies have demonstrated how people engage in a biased search for information , but also that this phenomenon may be limited by a preference for genuine diagnostic tests . In an initial experiment , participants rated another person on the introversion – extroversion personality dimension on the basis of an interview . They chose the interview questions from a given list . When the interviewee was introduced as an introvert , the participants chose questions that presumed introversion , such as , " What do you find unpleasant about noisy parties ? " When the interviewee was described as extroverted , almost all the questions presumed extroversion , such as , " What would you do to liven up a dull party ? " These loaded questions gave the interviewees little or no opportunity to falsify the hypothesis about them . A later version of the experiment gave the participants less presumptive questions to choose from , such as , " Do you shy away from social interactions ? " Participants preferred to ask these more diagnostic questions , showing only a weak bias towards positive tests . This pattern , of a main preference for diagnostic tests and a weaker preference for positive tests , has been replicated in other studies .
Personality traits influence and interact with biased search processes . Individuals vary in their abilities to defend their attitudes from external attacks in relation to selective exposure . Selective exposure occurs when individuals search for information that is consistent , rather than inconsistent , with their personal beliefs . An experiment examined the extent to which individuals could refute arguments that contradicted their personal beliefs . People with high confidence levels more readily seek out contradictory information to their personal position to form an argument . Individuals with low confidence levels do not seek out contradictory information and prefer information that supports their personal position . People generate and evaluate evidence in arguments that are biased towards their own beliefs and opinions . Heightened confidence levels decrease preference for information that supports individuals ' personal beliefs .
Another experiment gave participants a complex rule @-@ discovery task that involved moving objects simulated by a computer . Objects on the computer screen followed specific laws , which the participants had to figure out . So , participants could " fire " objects across the screen to test their hypotheses . Despite making many attempts over a ten @-@ hour session , none of the participants figured out the rules of the system . They typically attempted to confirm rather than falsify their hypotheses , and were reluctant to consider alternatives . Even after seeing objective evidence that refuted their working hypotheses , they frequently continued doing the same tests . Some of the participants were taught proper hypothesis @-@ testing , but these instructions had almost no effect .
= = = Biased interpretation = = =
Confirmation biases are not limited to the collection of evidence . Even if two individuals have the same information , the way they interpret it can be biased .
A team at Stanford University conducted an experiment involving participants who felt strongly about capital punishment , with half in favor and half against it . Each participant read descriptions of two studies : a comparison of U.S. states with and without the death penalty , and a comparison of murder rates in a state before and after the introduction of the death penalty . After reading a quick description of each study , the participants were asked whether their opinions had changed . Then , they read a more detailed account of each study 's procedure and had to rate whether the research was well @-@ conducted and convincing . In fact , the studies were fictional . Half the participants were told that one kind of study supported the deterrent effect and the other undermined it , while for other participants the conclusions were swapped .
The participants , whether supporters or opponents , reported shifting their attitudes slightly in the direction of the first study they read . Once they read the more detailed descriptions of the two studies , they almost all returned to their original belief regardless of the evidence provided , pointing to details that supported their viewpoint and disregarding anything contrary . Participants described studies supporting their pre @-@ existing view as superior to those that contradicted it , in detailed and specific ways . Writing about a study that seemed to undermine the deterrence effect , a death penalty proponent wrote , " The research didn 't cover a long enough period of time " , while an opponent 's comment on the same study said , " No strong evidence to contradict the researchers has been presented " . The results illustrated that people set higher standards of evidence for hypotheses that go against their current expectations . This effect , known as " disconfirmation bias " , has been supported by other experiments .
Another study of biased interpretation occurred during the 2004 U.S. presidential election and involved participants who reported having strong feelings about the candidates . They were shown apparently contradictory pairs of statements , either from Republican candidate George W. Bush , Democratic candidate John Kerry or a politically neutral public figure . They were also given further statements that made the apparent contradiction seem reasonable . From these three pieces of information , they had to decide whether or not each individual 's statements were inconsistent . There were strong differences in these evaluations , with participants much more likely to interpret statements from the candidate they opposed as contradictory .
In this experiment , the participants made their judgments while in a magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scanner which monitored their brain activity . As participants evaluated contradictory statements by their favored candidate , emotional centers of their brains were aroused . This did not happen with the statements by the other figures . The experimenters inferred that the different responses to the statements were not due to passive reasoning errors . Instead , the participants were actively reducing the cognitive dissonance induced by reading about their favored candidate 's irrational or hypocritical behavior There were strong differences in these evaluations , with participants much more likely to interpret statements from the candidate they opposed as contradictory .
Biases in belief interpretation are persistent , regardless of intelligence level . Participants in an experiment took the SAT test ( a college admissions test used in the United States ) to assess their intelligence levels . They then read information regarding safety concerns for vehicles , and the experimenters manipulated the national origin of the car . American participants provided their opinion if the car should be banned on a six @-@ point scale , where one indicated " definitely yes " and six indicated " definitely no . " Participants firstly evaluated if they would allow a dangerous German car on American streets and a dangerous American car on German streets . Participants believed that the dangerous German car on American streets should be banned more quickly than the dangerous American car on German streets . There was no difference among intelligence levels at the rate participants would ban a car .
Biased interpretation is not restricted to emotionally significant topics . In another experiment , participants were told a story about a theft . They had to rate the evidential importance of statements arguing either for or against a particular character being responsible . When they hypothesized that character 's guilt , they rated statements supporting that hypothesis as more important than conflicting statements .
= = = Biased memory = = =
Even if people gather and interpret evidence in a neutral manner , they may still remember it selectively to reinforce their expectations . This effect is called " selective recall " , " confirmatory memory " or " access @-@ biased memory " . Psychological theories differ in their predictions about selective recall . Schema theory predicts that information matching prior expectations will be more easily stored and recalled than information that does not match . Some alternative approaches say that surprising information stands out and so is memorable . Predictions from both these theories have been confirmed in different experimental contexts , with no theory winning outright .
In one study , participants read a profile of a woman which described a mix of introverted and extroverted behaviors . They later had to recall examples of her introversion and extroversion . One group was told this was to assess the woman for a job as a librarian , while a second group were told it was for a job in real estate sales . There was a significant difference between what these two groups recalled , with the " librarian " group recalling more examples of introversion and the " sales " groups recalling more extroverted behavior . A selective memory effect has also been shown in experiments that manipulate the desirability of personality types . In one of these , a group of participants were shown evidence that extroverted people are more successful than introverts . Another group were told the opposite . In a subsequent , apparently unrelated , study , they were asked to recall events from their lives in which they had been either introverted or extroverted . Each group of participants provided more memories connecting themselves with the more desirable personality type , and recalled those memories more quickly .
Changes in emotional states can also influence memory recall . Participants rated how they felt when they had first learned that O.J. Simpson had been acquitted of murder charges . They described their emotional reactions and confidence regarding the verdict one week , two months , and one year after the trial . Results indicated that participants ' assessments for Simpson 's guilt changed over time . The more that participants ' opinion of the verdict had changed , the less stable were the participant 's memories regarding their initial emotional reactions . When participants recalled their initial emotional reactions two months and a year later , past appraisals closely resembled current appraisals of emotion . People demonstrate sizable myside bias when discussing their opinions on controversial topics . Memory recall and construction of experiences undergo revision in relation to corresponding emotional states .
Myside bias has been shown to influence the accuracy of memory recall . In an experiment , widows and widowers rated the intensity of their experienced grief six months and five years after the deaths of their spouses . Participants noted a higher experience of grief at six months rather than at five years . Yet , when the participants were asked after five years how they had felt six months after the death of their significant other , the intensity of grief participants recalled was highly correlated with their current level of grief . Individuals appear to utilize their current emotional states to analyze how they must have felt when experiencing past events . Emotional memories are reconstructed by current emotional states .
One study showed how selective memory can maintain belief in extrasensory perception ( ESP ) . Believers and disbelievers were each shown descriptions of ESP experiments . Half of each group were told that the experimental results supported the existence of ESP , while the others were told they did not . In a subsequent test , participants recalled the material accurately , apart from believers who had read the non @-@ supportive evidence . This group remembered significantly less information and some of them incorrectly remembered the results as supporting ESP .
= = Related effects = =
= = = Polarization of opinion = = =
When people with opposing views interpret new information in a biased way , their views can move even further apart . This is called " attitude polarization " . The effect was demonstrated by an experiment that involved drawing a series of red and black balls from one of two concealed " bingo baskets " . Participants knew that one basket contained 60 % black and 40 % red balls ; the other , 40 % black and 60 % red . The experimenters looked at what happened when balls of alternating color were drawn in turn , a sequence that does not favor either basket . After each ball was drawn , participants in one group were asked to state out loud their judgments of the probability that the balls were being drawn from one or the other basket . These participants tended to grow more confident with each successive draw — whether they initially thought the basket with 60 % black balls or the one with 60 % red balls was the more likely source , their estimate of the probability increased . Another group of participants were asked to state probability estimates only at the end of a sequence of drawn balls , rather than after each ball . They did not show the polarization effect , suggesting that it does not necessarily occur when people simply hold opposing positions , but rather when they openly commit to them .
A less abstract study was the Stanford biased interpretation experiment in which participants with strong opinions about the death penalty read about mixed experimental evidence . Twenty @-@ three percent of the participants reported that their views had become more extreme , and this self @-@ reported shift correlated strongly with their initial attitudes . In later experiments , participants also reported their opinions becoming more extreme in response to ambiguous information . However , comparisons of their attitudes before and after the new evidence showed no significant change , suggesting that the self @-@ reported changes might not be real . Based on these experiments , Deanna Kuhn and Joseph Lao concluded that polarization is a real phenomenon but far from inevitable , only happening in a small minority of cases . They found that it was prompted not only by considering mixed evidence , but by merely thinking about the topic .
Charles Taber and Milton Lodge argued that the Stanford team 's result had been hard to replicate because the arguments used in later experiments were too abstract or confusing to evoke an emotional response . The Taber and Lodge study used the emotionally charged topics of gun control and affirmative action . They measured the attitudes of their participants towards these issues before and after reading arguments on each side of the debate . Two groups of participants showed attitude polarization : those with strong prior opinions and those who were politically knowledgeable . In part of this study , participants chose which information sources to read , from a list prepared by the experimenters . For example , they could read the National Rifle Association 's and the Brady Anti @-@ Handgun Coalition 's arguments on gun control . Even when instructed to be even @-@ handed , participants were more likely to read arguments that supported their existing attitudes than arguments that did not . This biased search for information correlated well with the polarization effect .
The backfire effect is a name for the finding that , given evidence against their beliefs , people can reject the evidence and believe even more strongly . The phrase was first coined by Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler .
= = = Persistence of discredited beliefs = = =
Confirmation biases can be used to explain why some beliefs persist when the initial evidence for them is removed . This belief perseverance effect has been shown by a series of experiments using what is called the " debriefing paradigm " : participants read fake evidence for a hypothesis , their attitude change is measured , then the fakery is exposed in detail . Their attitudes are then measured once more to see if their belief returns to its previous level .
A common finding is that at least some of the initial belief remains even after a full debriefing . In one experiment , participants had to distinguish between real and fake suicide notes . The feedback was random : some were told they had done well while others were told they had performed badly . Even after being fully debriefed , participants were still influenced by the feedback . They still thought they were better or worse than average at that kind of task , depending on what they had initially been told .
In another study , participants read job performance ratings of two firefighters , along with their responses to a risk aversion test . This fictional data was arranged to show either a negative or positive association : some participants were told that a risk @-@ taking firefighter did better , while others were told they did less well than a risk @-@ averse colleague . Even if these two case studies were true , they would have been scientifically poor evidence for a conclusion about firefighters in general . However , the participants found them subjectively persuasive . When the case studies were shown to be fictional , participants ' belief in a link diminished , but around half of the original effect remained . Follow @-@ up interviews established that the participants had understood the debriefing and taken it seriously . Participants seemed to trust the debriefing , but regarded the discredited information as irrelevant to their personal belief .
The continued influence effect is the tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected . Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred .
= = = Preference for early information = = =
Experiments have shown that information is weighted more strongly when it appears early in a series , even when the order is unimportant . For example , people form a more positive impression of someone described as " intelligent , industrious , impulsive , critical , stubborn , envious " than when they are given the same words in reverse order . This irrational primacy effect is independent of the primacy effect in memory in which the earlier items in a series leave a stronger memory trace . Biased interpretation offers an explanation for this effect : seeing the initial evidence , people form a working hypothesis that affects how they interpret the rest of the information .
One demonstration of irrational primacy used colored chips supposedly drawn from two urns . Participants were told the color distributions of the urns , and had to estimate the probability of a chip being drawn from one of them . In fact , the colors appeared in a pre @-@ arranged order . The first thirty draws favored one urn and the next thirty favored the other . The series as a whole was neutral , so rationally , the two urns were equally likely . However , after sixty draws , participants favored the urn suggested by the initial thirty .
Another experiment involved a slide show of a single object , seen as just a blur at first and in slightly better focus with each succeeding slide . After each slide , participants had to state their best guess of what the object was . Participants whose early guesses were wrong persisted with those guesses , even when the picture was sufficiently in focus that the object was readily recognizable to other people .
= = = Illusory association between events = = =
Illusory correlation is the tendency to see non @-@ existent correlations in a set of data . This tendency was first demonstrated in a series of experiments in the late 1960s . In one experiment , participants read a set of psychiatric case studies , including responses to the Rorschach inkblot test . The participants reported that the homosexual men in the set were more likely to report seeing buttocks , anuses or sexually ambiguous figures in the inkblots . In fact the fictional case studies had been constructed so that the homosexual men were no more likely to report this imagery or , in one version of the experiment , were less likely to report it than heterosexual men . In a survey , a group of experienced psychoanalysts reported the same set of illusory associations with homosexuality .
Another study recorded the symptoms experienced by arthritic patients , along with weather conditions over a 15 @-@ month period . Nearly all the patients reported that their pains were correlated with weather conditions , although the real correlation was zero .
This effect is a kind of biased interpretation , in that objectively neutral or unfavorable evidence is interpreted to support existing beliefs . It is also related to biases in hypothesis @-@ testing behavior . In judging whether two events , such as illness and bad weather , are correlated , people rely heavily on the number of positive @-@ positive cases : in this example , instances of both pain and bad weather . They pay relatively little attention to the other kinds of observation ( of no pain and / or good weather ) . This parallels the reliance on positive tests in hypothesis testing . It may also reflect selective recall , in that people may have a sense that two events are correlated because it is easier to recall times when they happened together .
= = Individual differences = =
Myside bias was once believed to be associated with greater intelligence ; however , studies have shown that myside bias can be more influenced by ability to rationally think as opposed to amount of intelligence . Myside bias can cause an inability to effectively and logically evaluate the opposite side of an argument . Studies have stated that myside bias is an absence of " active open @-@ mindedness , " meaning the active search for why an initial idea may be wrong . Typically , myside bias is operationalized in empirical studies as the quantity of evidence used in support of their side in comparison to the opposite side .
A study has found individual differences in myside bias . This study investigates individual differences that are acquired through learning in a cultural context and are mutable . The researcher found important individual difference in argumentation . Studies have suggested that individual differences such as deductive reasoning ability , ability to overcome belief bias , epistemological understanding , and thinking disposition are significant predictors of the reasoning and generating arguments , counterarguments , and rebuttals .
A study by Christopher Wolfe and Anne Britt also investigated how participants ' views of " what makes a good argument ? " can be a source of myside bias that influence the way a person creates their own arguments . The study investigated individual differences of argumentation schema and asked participants to write essays . The participants were randomly assigned to write essays either for or against their preferred side of an argument and were given research instructions that took either a balanced or an unrestricted approach . The balanced @-@ research instructions directed participants to create a " balanced " argument , i.e. , that included both pros and cons ; the unrestricted @-@ research instructions included nothing on how to create the argument .
Overall , the results revealed that the balanced @-@ research instructions significantly increased the incidence of opposing information in arguments . These data also reveal that personal belief is not a source of myside bias ; however , that those participants , who believe that a good argument is one that is based on facts , are more likely to exhibit myside bias than other participants . This evidence is consistent with the claims proposed in Baron 's article — that people 's opinions about what makes good thinking can influence how arguments are generated .
= = History = =
= = = Informal observation = = =
Before psychological research on confirmation bias , the phenomenon had been observed anecdotally throughout history . Beginning with the Greek historian Thucydides ( c . 460 BC – c . 395 BC ) , who wrote of misguided treason in The Peloponnesian War ; " ... for it is a habit of mankind to entrust to careless hope what they long for , and to use sovereign reason to thrust aside what they do not fancy . " Italian poet Dante Alighieri ( 1265 – 1321 ) , noted it in his famous work , the Divine Comedy , in which St. Thomas Aquinas cautions Dante upon meeting in Paradise , " opinion — hasty — often can incline to the wrong side , and then affection for one 's own opinion binds , confines the mind . " English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon ( 1561 – 1626 ) , in the Novum Organum noted that biased assessment of evidence drove " all superstitions , whether in astrology , dreams , omens , divine judgments or the like " . He wrote :
The human understanding when it has once adopted an opinion ... draws all things else to support and agree with it . And though there be a greater number and weight of instances to be found on the other side , yet these it either neglects or despises , or else by some distinction sets aside or rejects [ . ]
In his essay " What Is Art ? " , Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy wrote ,
I know that most men — not only those considered clever , but even those who are very clever , and capable of understanding most difficult scientific , mathematical , or philosophic problems — can very seldom discern even the simplest and most obvious truth if it be such as to oblige them to admit the falsity of conclusions they have formed , perhaps with much difficulty — conclusions of which they are proud , which they have taught to others , and on which they have built their lives .
= = = Wason 's research on hypothesis @-@ testing = = =
The term " confirmation bias " was coined by English psychologist Peter Wason . For an experiment published in 1960 , he challenged participants to identify a rule applying to triples of numbers . At the outset , they were told that ( 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 ) fits the rule . Participants could generate their own triples and the experimenter told them whether or not each triple conformed to the rule .
While the actual rule was simply " any ascending sequence " , the participants had a great deal of difficulty in finding it , often announcing rules that were far more specific , such as " the middle number is the average of the first and last " . The participants seemed to test only positive examples — triples that obeyed their hypothesized rule . For example , if they thought the rule was , " Each number is two greater than its predecessor " , they would offer a triple that fit this rule , such as ( 11 @,@ 13 @,@ 15 ) rather than a triple that violates it , such as ( 11 @,@ 12 @,@ 19 ) .
Wason accepted falsificationism , according to which a scientific test of a hypothesis is a serious attempt to falsify it . He interpreted his results as showing a preference for confirmation over falsification , hence the term " confirmation bias " . Wason also used confirmation bias to explain the results of his selection task experiment . In this task , participants are given partial information about a set of objects , and have to specify what further information they would need to tell whether or not a conditional rule ( " If A , then B " ) applies . It has been found repeatedly that people perform badly on various forms of this test , in most cases ignoring information that could potentially refute the rule .
= = = Klayman and Ha 's critique = = =
A 1987 paper by Joshua Klayman and Young @-@ Won Ha argued that the Wason experiments had not actually demonstrated a bias towards confirmation . Instead , Klayman and Ha interpreted the results in terms of a tendency to make tests that are consistent with the working hypothesis . They called this the " positive test strategy " . This strategy is an example of a heuristic : a reasoning shortcut that is imperfect but easy to compute . Klayman and Ha used Bayesian probability and information theory as their standard of hypothesis @-@ testing , rather than the falsificationism used by Wason . According to these ideas , each answer to a question yields a different amount of information , which depends on the person 's prior beliefs . Thus a scientific test of a hypothesis is one that is expected to produce the most information . Since the information content depends on initial probabilities , a positive test can either be highly informative or uninformative . Klayman and Ha argued that when people think about realistic problems , they are looking for a specific answer with a small initial probability . In this case , positive tests are usually more informative than negative tests . However , in Wason 's rule discovery task the answer — three numbers in ascending order — is very broad , so positive tests are unlikely to yield informative answers . Klayman and Ha supported their analysis by citing an experiment that used the labels " DAX " and " MED " in place of " fits the rule " and " doesn 't fit the rule " . This avoided implying that the aim was to find a low @-@ probability rule . Participants had much more success with this version of the experiment .
In light of this and other critiques , the focus of research moved away from confirmation versus falsification to examine whether people test hypotheses in an informative way , or an uninformative but positive way . The search for " true " confirmation bias led psychologists to look at a wider range of effects in how people process information .
= = Explanations = =
Confirmation bias is often described as a result of automatic , unintentional strategies rather than deliberate deception . According to Robert Maccoun , most biased evidence processing occurs through a combination of both " cold " ( cognitive ) and " hot " ( motivated ) mechanisms .
Cognitive explanations for confirmation bias are based on limitations in people 's ability to handle complex tasks , and the shortcuts , called heuristics , that they use . For example , people may judge the reliability of evidence by using the availability heuristic — i.e. , how readily a particular idea comes to mind . It is also possible that people can only focus on one thought at a time , so find it difficult to test alternative hypotheses in parallel . Another heuristic is the positive test strategy identified by Klayman and Ha , in which people test a hypothesis by examining cases where they expect a property or event to occur . This heuristic avoids the difficult or impossible task of working out how diagnostic each possible question will be . However , it is not universally reliable , so people can overlook challenges to their existing beliefs .
Motivational explanations involve an effect of desire on belief , sometimes called " wishful thinking " . It is known that people prefer pleasant thoughts over unpleasant ones in a number of ways : this is called the " Pollyanna principle " . Applied to arguments or sources of evidence , this could explain why desired conclusions are more likely to be believed true . According to experiments that manipulate the desirability of the conclusion , people demand a high standard of evidence for unpalatable ideas and a low standard for preferred ideas . In other words , they ask , " Can I believe this ? " for some suggestions and , " Must I believe this ? " for others . Although consistency is a desirable feature of attitudes , an excessive drive for consistency is another potential source of bias because it may prevent people from neutrally evaluating new , surprising information . Social psychologist Ziva Kunda combines the cognitive and motivational theories , arguing that motivation creates the bias , but cognitive factors determine the size of the effect .
Explanations in terms of cost @-@ benefit analysis assume that people do not just test hypotheses in a disinterested way , but assess the costs of different errors . Using ideas from evolutionary psychology , James Friedrich suggests that people do not primarily aim at truth in testing hypotheses , but try to avoid the most costly errors . For example , employers might ask one @-@ sided questions in job interviews because they are focused on weeding out unsuitable candidates . Yaacov Trope and Akiva Liberman 's refinement of this theory assumes that people compare the two different kinds of error : accepting a false hypothesis or rejecting a true hypothesis . For instance , someone who underestimates a friend 's honesty might treat him or her suspiciously and so undermine the friendship . Overestimating the friend 's honesty may also be costly , but less so . In this case , it would be rational to seek , evaluate or remember evidence of their honesty in a biased way . When someone gives an initial impression of being introverted or extroverted , questions that match that impression come across as more empathic . This suggests that when talking to someone who seems to be an introvert , it is a sign of better social skills to ask , " Do you feel awkward in social situations ? " rather than , " Do you like noisy parties ? " The connection between confirmation bias and social skills was corroborated by a study of how college students get to know other people . Highly self @-@ monitoring students , who are more sensitive to their environment and to social norms , asked more matching questions when interviewing a high @-@ status staff member than when getting to know fellow students .
Psychologists Jennifer Lerner and Philip Tetlock distinguish two different kinds of thinking process . Exploratory thought neutrally considers multiple points of view and tries to anticipate all possible objections to a particular position , while confirmatory thought seeks to justify a specific point of view . Lerner and Tetlock say that when people expect to justify their position to others whose views they already know , they will tend to adopt a similar position to those people , and then use confirmatory thought to bolster their own credibility . However , if the external parties are overly aggressive or critical , people will disengage from thought altogether , and simply assert their personal opinions without justification . Lerner and Tetlock say that people only push themselves to think critically and logically when they know in advance they will need to explain themselves to others who are well @-@ informed , genuinely interested in the truth , and whose views they don 't already know . Because those conditions rarely exist , they argue , most people are using confirmatory thought most of the time .
= = Consequences = =
= = = In finance = = =
Confirmation bias can lead investors to be overconfident , ignoring evidence that their strategies will lose money . In studies of political stock markets , investors made more profit when they resisted bias . For example , participants who interpreted a candidate 's debate performance in a neutral rather than partisan way were more likely to profit . To combat the effect of confirmation bias , investors can try to adopt a contrary viewpoint " for the sake of argument " . In one technique , they imagine that their investments have collapsed and ask themselves why this might happen .
= = = In physical and mental health = = =
Raymond Nickerson , a psychologist , blames confirmation bias for the ineffective medical procedures that were used for centuries before the arrival of scientific medicine . If a patient recovered , medical authorities counted the treatment as successful , rather than looking for alternative explanations such as that the disease had run its natural course . Biased assimilation is a factor in the modern appeal of alternative medicine , whose proponents are swayed by positive anecdotal evidence but treat scientific evidence hyper @-@ critically .
Cognitive therapy was developed by Aaron T. Beck in the early 1960s and has become a popular approach . According to Beck , biased information processing is a factor in depression . His approach teaches people to treat evidence impartially , rather than selectively reinforcing negative outlooks . Phobias and hypochondria have also been shown to involve confirmation bias for threatening information .
= = = In politics and law = = =
Nickerson argues that reasoning in judicial and political contexts is sometimes subconsciously biased , favoring conclusions that judges , juries or governments have already committed to . Since the evidence in a jury trial can be complex , and jurors often reach decisions about the verdict early on , it is reasonable to expect an attitude polarization effect . The prediction that jurors will become more extreme in their views as they see more evidence has been borne out in experiments with mock trials . Both inquisitorial and adversarial criminal justice systems are affected by confirmation bias .
Confirmation bias can be a factor in creating or extending conflicts , from emotionally charged debates to wars : by interpreting the evidence in their favor , each opposing party can become overconfident that it is in the stronger position . On the other hand , confirmation bias can result in people ignoring or misinterpreting the signs of an imminent or incipient conflict . For example , psychologists Stuart Sutherland and Thomas Kida have each argued that US Admiral Husband E. Kimmel showed confirmation bias when playing down the first signs of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
A two @-@ decade study of political pundits by Philip E. Tetlock found that , on the whole , their predictions were not much better than chance . Tetlock divided experts into " foxes " who maintained multiple hypotheses , and " hedgehogs " who were more dogmatic . In general , the hedgehogs were much less accurate . Tetlock blamed their failure on confirmation bias — specifically , their inability to make use of new information that contradicted their existing theories .
In the 2013 murder trial of David Camm , the defense argued that Camm was charged for the murders of his wife and two children solely because of confirmation bias within the investigation . Camm was arrested three days after the murders on the basis of faulty evidence . Despite the discovery that almost every piece of evidence on the probable cause affidavit was inaccurate or unreliable , the charges were not dropped against him . A sweatshirt found at the crime was subsequently discovered to contain the DNA of a convicted felon , his prison nickname , and his department of corrections number . Investigators looked for Camm 's DNA on the sweatshirt , but failed to investigate any other pieces of evidence found on it and the foreign DNA was not run through CODIS until 5 years after the crime . When the second suspect was discovered , prosecutors charged them as co @-@ conspirators in the crime despite finding no evidence linking the two men . Camm was acquitted of the murders .
= = = In the paranormal = = =
One factor in the appeal of alleged psychic readings is that listeners apply a confirmation bias which fits the psychic 's statements to their own lives . By making a large number of ambiguous statements in each sitting , the psychic gives the client more opportunities to find a match . This is one of the techniques of cold reading , with which a psychic can deliver a subjectively impressive reading without any prior information about the client . Investigator James Randi compared the transcript of a reading to the client 's report of what the psychic had said , and found that the client showed a strong selective recall of the " hits " .
As a striking illustration of confirmation bias in the real world , Nickerson mentions numerological pyramidology : the practice of finding meaning in the proportions of the Egyptian pyramids . There are many different length measurements that can be made of , for example , the Great Pyramid of Giza and many ways to combine or manipulate them . Hence it is almost inevitable that people who look at these numbers selectively will find superficially impressive correspondences , for example with the dimensions of the Earth .
= = = In science = = =
A distinguishing feature of scientific thinking is the search for falsifying as well as confirming evidence . However , many times in the history of science , scientists have resisted new discoveries by selectively interpreting or ignoring unfavorable data . Previous research has shown that the assessment of the quality of scientific studies seems to be particularly vulnerable to confirmation bias . It has been found several times that scientists rate studies that report findings consistent with their prior beliefs more favorably than studies reporting findings inconsistent with their previous beliefs . However , assuming that the research question is relevant , the experimental design adequate and the data are clearly and comprehensively described , the found results should be of importance to the scientific community and should not be viewed prejudicially , regardless of whether they conform to current theoretical predictions .
In the context of scientific research , confirmation biases can sustain theories or research programs in the face of inadequate or even contradictory evidence ; the field of parapsychology has been particularly affected .
An experimenter 's confirmation bias can potentially affect which data are reported . Data that conflict with the experimenter 's expectations may be more readily discarded as unreliable , producing the so @-@ called file drawer effect . To combat this tendency , scientific training teaches ways to prevent bias . For example , experimental design of randomized controlled trials ( coupled with their systematic review ) aims to minimize sources of bias . The social process of peer review is thought to mitigate the effect of individual scientists ' biases , even though the peer review process itself may be susceptible to such biases . Confirmation bias may thus be especially harmful to objective evaluations regarding nonconforming results since biased individuals may regard opposing evidence to be weak in principle and give little serious thought to revising their beliefs . Scientific innovators often meet with resistance from the scientific community , and research presenting controversial results frequently receives harsh peer review .
= = = In self @-@ image = = =
Social psychologists have identified two tendencies in the way people seek or interpret information about themselves . Self @-@ verification is the drive to reinforce the existing self @-@ image and self @-@ enhancement is the drive to seek positive feedback . Both are served by confirmation biases . In experiments where people are given feedback that conflicts with their self @-@ image , they are less likely to attend to it or remember it than when given self @-@ verifying feedback . They reduce the impact of such information by interpreting it as unreliable . Similar experiments have found a preference for positive feedback , and the people who give it , over negative feedback .
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= Hot chocolate =
Hot chocolate , also known as hot cocoa , drinking chocolate or just cocoa is a heated beverage consisting of shaved chocolate , melted chocolate or cocoa powder , heated milk or water , and often sugar . Hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate , characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency .
The first chocolate beverage is believed to have been created by the Aztecs around 2 @,@ 000 years ago , and a cocoa beverage was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD . The beverage became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then . Until the 19th century , hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases . Today , hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations , including the spiced chocolate para mesa of Latin America , the very thick cioccolata densa served in Italy and chocolate a la taza served in Spain , and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States .
= = History = =
An early Classic period ( 460 @-@ 480 AD ) Mayan tomb from the site of Rio Azul , Guatemala , had vessels with the Maya glyph for cacao on them with residue of a chocolate drink .
To make the chocolate drink , which was served cold , the Maya ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with water , cornmeal , chili peppers , and other ingredients . They then poured the drink back and forth from a cup to a pot until a thick foam developed . Chocolate was available to Maya of all social classes , although the wealthy drank chocolate from elaborately decorated vessels .
What the Spaniards then called " chocolatl " was said to be a beverage consisting of a chocolate base flavored with vanilla and other spices that was served cold .
Because sugar was yet to come to the Americas , xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste . The drink tasted spicy and bitter as opposed to sweetened modern hot chocolate . As to when xocolatl was first served hot , sources conflict on when and by whom . However , Jose de Acosta , a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century , described xocolatl as :
Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it , having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant taste . Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians , where with they feast noble men who pass through their country . The Spaniards , both men and women , that are accustomed to the country , are very greedy of this Chocolate . They say they make diverse sorts of it , some hot , some cold , and some temperate , and put therein much of that " chili " ; yea , they make paste thereof , the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh .
= = = European adaptation = = =
After defeating Montezuma 's warriors and demanding that the Aztec nobles hand over their valuables , Cortés returned to Spain in 1528 , bringing cocoa beans and chocolate drink making equipment with them . At this time , chocolate still only existed in the bitter drink invented by the Mayas . Sweet hot chocolate and bar chocolate were yet to be invented .
After its introduction to Europe , the drink slowly gained popularity . The court of King Charles V soon adopted the drink , and what was then only known as " chocolate " became a fashionable drink popular with the Spanish upper class . Additionally , cocoa was given as a dowry when members of the Spanish Royal Family married other European aristocrats . At the time , chocolate was very expensive in Europe because the cocoa beans only grew in South America .
Sweet @-@ tasting hot chocolate was then invented , leading hot chocolate to become a luxury item among the European nobility by the 17th century . Even when the first Chocolate House ( an establishment similar to a modern coffee shop ) opened in 1657 , chocolate was still very expensive , costing 50 to 75 pence ( approximately 10 @-@ 15 shillings ) a pound .
In the late 17th century , Hans Sloane , president of the Royal College of Physicians , visited Jamaica . There , he tried chocolate and considered it " nauseous " , but found it became more palatable when mixed with milk . When he returned to England , he brought the recipe with him , introducing milk chocolate to England .
In 1828 , Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine in the Netherlands . The press separated the greasy cocoa butter from cacao seeds , leaving a purer chocolate powder behind . This powder , much like instant cocoa powder used today , was easier to stir into milk and water . As a result , another very important discovery was made : solid chocolate . By using cocoa powder and low amounts of cocoa butter , it was then possible to manufacture bar chocolate . The term " chocolate " then came to mean solid chocolate , rather than hot chocolate .
= = Terminology = =
A distinction is sometimes made between " hot cocoa " , made from powder made by removing most of the rich cocoa butter from the ground cacao beans , and " hot chocolate " , made directly from bar chocolate , which already contains cocoa , sugar , and cocoa butter . Thus , the major difference between the two is the cocoa butter , the absence of which makes hot cocoa significantly lower in fat than hot chocolate while still preserving all the antioxidants found in chocolate .
Hot chocolate can be made with dark , semisweet , or bittersweet chocolate chopped into small pieces and stirred into milk with the addition of sugar . American instant hot cocoa powder often includes powdered milk or other dairy ingredients so it can be made without using milk . In the United Kingdom , " hot chocolate " is a sweet chocolate drink made with hot milk or water , and powder containing chocolate , sugar , and powdered milk . " Cocoa " usually refers to a similar drink made with just hot milk and cocoa powder , then sweetened to taste with sugar ( or not sweetened at all ) .
= = Usage = =
Today , hot chocolate in the form of drinking chocolate or cocoa is considered a comfort food and is widely consumed in many parts of the world .
= = = Europe = = =
In mainland Europe ( particularly Spain and Italy ) , hot chocolate is sometimes served very thick due to the use of a thickening agent such as cornstarch . Among the multiple thick forms of hot chocolate served in Europe is the Italian cioccolata densa . German variations are also known for being very thick and heavy .
Hot chocolate with churros is the traditional working @-@ man 's breakfast in Spain . This style of hot chocolate can be extremely thick , often having the consistency of warm chocolate pudding . In the Netherlands , hot chocolate is a very popular drink , known as chocolademelk , it is often served at home or in cafes . In France , hot chocolate is often served at breakfast time ; sometimes sliced bread spread with butter , jam , honey , or Nutella is dunked into the hot chocolate . There are also brands of hot chocolate specially formulated for breakfast time , notably Banania .
Even further variations of hot chocolate exist . In some cafes in Belgium and other areas in Europe , one who orders a " warme chocolade " or " chocolat chaud " receives a cup of steaming white milk and a small bowl of bittersweet chocolate chips to dissolve in the milk . Particularly rich hot chocolate is often served in demitasse cups .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , the drink is popular in instant form , made with hot water or milk from a packet containing mostly cocoa powder , sugar , and dry milk . This is the thinner of the two main variations . It is very sweet and may be topped with marshmallows , whipped cream , or a piece of solid chocolate . Hot chocolate was first brought to North America as early as the 17th century by the Dutch , but the first time colonists began selling hot chocolate was around 1755 . Traditionally , hot chocolate has been associated with cold weather , winter , and dessert in the United States .
In Mexico , hot chocolate remains a popular national drink . Besides the instant powder form , traditional Mexican hot chocolate includes semi @-@ sweet chocolate , cinnamon , sugar , and vanilla . Hot chocolate of this type is commonly sold in circular or hexagonal tablets which can be dissolved into hot milk , water , or cream , and then blended until the mixture develops a creamy froth . Mexican cinnamon hot chocolate is traditionally served alongside a variety of Mexican pastries known as pan dulce or with churros .
= = = South America = = =
In Colombia , a hot chocolate beverage made with milk and water using a chocolatera and molinillo is enjoyed as part of breakfast with bread and soft , fresh farmers cheese . The chocolate bars used in the preparation come with granulated sugar mixed in , and sometimes have flavors such as cinnamon , cloves and vanilla added to the chocolate .
In Peru , hot chocolate can be served with panettone at breakfast on Christmas Day , even though summer has already started in the southern hemisphere . This tradition began in Cuzco ; for this reason typical brands of chocolate bars are from this cocoa @-@ producing region . Another region which produces best @-@ quality cacao is the San Martin Region in the north Peruvian rainforest .
= = Health = =
Although hot chocolate is generally consumed for pleasure , the beverage confers several potential health benefits . A 2003 study from Cornell University found that cocoa contains large amounts of antioxidants that may help prevent cancer . Also , it has been demonstrated that the cocoa bean helps with digestion . From the 16th to 19th centuries , hot chocolate was valued as a medicine as well as a drink .
The explorer Francisco Hernández wrote that chocolate beverages helped treat fever and liver disease . Another explorer , Santiago de Valverde Turices , believed that large amounts of hot chocolate were helpful in treating chest ailments and that smaller amounts could help stomach disorders . When chocolate was introduced to the French in the 17th century , it was reportedly used " to fight against fits of anger and bad moods " , which may be attributed to chocolate 's phenylethylamine content . Today , hot chocolate is consumed for pleasure rather than medicinally , but new research suggests that there may be other health benefits attributed to the drink .
On the other hand , several negative effects can be attributed to drinking hot chocolate , as some hot chocolate recipes contain high amounts of sugar , hydrogenated oils , or fats .
= = = Benefits = = =
Research has shown that the consumption of hot chocolate can be positive to one 's health . A study conducted by Cornell University has shown that hot chocolate contains more antioxidants than wine and tea , therefore reducing the risk of heart disease . In a single serving of cocoa , the researchers found 611 milligrams of gallic acid equivalents ( GAE ) and 564 milligrams of epicatechin equivalents ( ECE ) , compared with 340 milligrams of GAE and 163 milligrams of ECE in red wine , and 165 milligrams of GAE and 47 milligrams of ECE in green tea . Chang Yong Lee , the professor and researcher at Cornell who conducted the study , revealed that larger amounts of antioxidants are released when the beverage is heated .
The flavonoids found in the cocoa that makes up hot chocolate also have a positive effect on arterial health . A particular study performed by the National Institutes of Health partially supported by Mars Chocolate company showed high amounts of improvement in blood flow after drinking a flavanol @-@ rich cocoa beverage . In the study , the subjects ( 27 people ages 18 to 72 ) drank a cocoa drink containing 900 milligrams of flavonols every day , which resulted in an improvement in blood flow and the function of endothelial cells that line blood vessels .
In further studies conducted by Dr. Norman K. Hollenberg , professor of medicine at Brigham and Women 's Hospital and Harvard Medical School found that flavonols may also help vessels dilate and help keep platelets from clustering on the blood vessel walls . Flavonoids found in hot chocolate are beneficial to health mainly because they shield the walls of blood vessels from free radical damage . Flavanols are also thought to help reduce blood platelet buildup and can balance levels of compounds called eicosanoids , which may be beneficial to cardiovascular health .
= = = Risks = = =
Several negative effects may be attributed to the drinking of hot chocolate . The types and severity of health risks vary between different styles of hot chocolate . Hot chocolate made from milk also contains the sugars naturally found in milk . Processed cocoa powder usually contains additional sugars . Some brands also contain hydrogenated oils and fats , the most common of which are coconut derivatives .
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= Moons of Haumea =
The outer Solar System dwarf planet Haumea has two known moons , Hiʻiaka and Namaka , named after Hawaiian goddesses . These small moons were discovered in 2005 , from observations of Haumea made at the large telescopes of the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii .
Haumea 's moons are unusual in a number of ways . They are thought to be part of its extended collisional family , which formed billions of years ago from icy debris after a large impact disrupted Haumea 's ice mantle . Hiʻiaka , the larger , outermost moon , has large amounts of pure water ice on its surface , which is rare among Kuiper belt objects . Namaka , about one tenth the mass , has an orbit with surprising dynamics : it is unusually eccentric and appears to be greatly influenced by the larger satellite .
= = History = =
Two small satellites were discovered around Haumea ( which was at that time still designated 2003 EL61 ) through observations using the W.M. Keck Observatory by a Caltech team in 2005 . The outer and larger of the two satellites was discovered January 26 , 2005 , and formally designated S / 2005 ( 2003 EL61 ) 1 , though nicknamed " Rudolph " by the Caltech team . The smaller , inner satellite of Haumea was discovered on June 30 , 2005 , formally termed S / 2005 ( 2003 EL61 ) 2 , and nicknamed " Blitzen " . On September 7 , 2006 , both satellites were numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 I and II , respectively .
The permanent names of these moons were announced , together with that of 2003 EL61 , by the International Astronomical Union on September 17 , 2008 : ( 136108 ) Haumea I Hiʻiaka and ( 136108 ) Haumea II Namaka . Each moon was named after a daughter of Haumea , the Hawaiian goddess of fertility and childbirth . Hiʻiaka is the goddess of dance and patroness of the Big Island of Hawaii , where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located . Nāmaka is the goddess of water and the sea ; she cooled her sister Pele 's lava as it flowed into the sea , turning it into new land .
In her legend , Haumea 's many children came from different parts of her body . The dwarf planet Haumea appears to be almost entirely made of rock , with only a superficial layer of ice ; most of the original icy mantle is thought to have been blasted off by the impact that spun Haumea into its current high speed of rotation , where the material formed into the small Kuiper belt objects in Haumea 's collisional family . There could therefore be additional outer moons , smaller than Namaka , that have not yet been detected . However , HST observations have confirmed that no other moons brighter than 0 @.@ 25 % of the brightness of Haumea exist within the closest tenth of the distance ( 0 @.@ 1 % of the volume ) where they could be held by Haumea 's gravitational influence ( its Hill sphere ) . This makes it unlikely that any more exist .
= = Surface properties = =
Hiʻiaka is the outer and , at roughly 350 km in diameter , the larger and brighter of the two moons . Strong absorption features observed at 1 @.@ 5 , 1 @.@ 65 and 2 µm in its infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of its surface . The unusual spectrum , and its similarity to absorption lines in the spectrum of Haumea , led Brown and colleagues to conclude that it was unlikely that the system of moons was formed by the gravitational capture of passing Kuiper belt objects into orbit around the dwarf planet : instead , the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself .
The sizes of both moons are calculated with the assumption that they have the same infrared albedo as Haumea , which is reasonable as their spectra show them to have the same surface composition . Haumea 's albedo has been measured by the Spitzer Space Telescope : from ground @-@ based telescopes , the moons are too small and close to Haumea to be seen independently . Based on this common albedo , the inner moon , Namaka , which is a tenth the mass of Hiʻiaka , would be about 170 km in diameter .
The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) has adequate angular resolution to separate the light from the moons from that of Haumea . Photometry of the Haumea triple system with HST 's NICMOS camera has confirmed that the spectral line at 1 @.@ 6 µm that indicates the presence of water ice is at least as strong in the moons ' spectra as in Haumea 's spectrum .
The moons of Haumea are too faint to detect with telescopes smaller than about 2 metres in aperture , though Haumea itself has a visual magnitude of 17 @.@ 5 , making it the third brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope .
= = Orbital characteristics = =
Hiʻiaka orbits Haumea nearly circularly every 49 days . Namaka orbits Haumea in 18 days in a moderately elliptical , non @-@ Keplerian orbit , and as of 2008 was inclined 13 ° with respect to Hiʻiaka , which perturbs its orbit . Because the impact that created the moons of Haumea is thought to have occurred in the early history of the Solar System , over the following billions of years it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit . Namaka 's orbit has likely been disturbed by orbital resonances with the more @-@ massive Hiʻiaka due to converging orbits as they moved outward from Haumea due to tidal dissipation . They may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times ; they currently are in or at least close to an 8 : 3 resonance . This resonance strongly perturbs Namaka 's orbit , which has a current precession of its argument of periapsis by about − 6 @.@ 5 ° per year , a precession period of 55 years .
At present , the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge @-@ on from Earth , with Namaka having periodically occulted Haumea from 2009 to 2011 . Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons , as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon . The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium @-@ aperture professional telescope for detection . Hiʻiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999 , a few years before its discovery , and will not do so again for some 130 years . However , in a situation unique among regular satellites , the great torquing of Namaka 's orbit by Hiʻiaka will preserve the viewing angle of Namaka – Haumea transits for several more years .
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= Kingdom of Loathing =
Kingdom of Loathing ( abbreviated KoL ) is a browser @-@ based multiplayer role @-@ playing game designed and operated by Asymmetric Publications , including creator Zack " Jick " Johnson and writer Josh " Mr Skullhead " Nite . The game was released in 2003 . Because content is added frequently , the game is considered unfinished and officially remains in open beta .
It uses hand @-@ drawn stick figure graphics and writing characterized by surreal humor , word play , parody and references to popular culture . In KoL , a player 's character fights monsters for experience , and acquiring meat ( the game 's currency ) , and / or items , through a turn @-@ based system . Players may also interact with each other through player versus player competition , participate in the in @-@ game economy by trading goods and services , organize their characters into clans , work together to complete clan dungeons , and speak to each other in many different chat channels .
The game is also particularly notable for managing to be financially successful purely from donations and the purchase of merchandise rather than from advertising or subscription fees , which are used by many online games . In 2008 , the game had between 100 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 regular players . These players form an active community which frequently organizes fan meet @-@ ups and runs an internet radio station . The game has been generally well received by critics . In 2012 , Mr. Card Game , a tabletop game based on Kingdom of Loathing , was launched on Kickstarter .
= = Gameplay and features = =
Gameplay involves fighting monsters , completing quests , gaining skills and stats , and accumulating items and meat .
In KoL 's turn @-@ based gameplay , a player 's character is supplied with a number of adventures each day , at a base of 40 , although this can be increased . The game day resets at a time called " rollover " . Characters are allotted forty adventures every rollover , though they can increase that number with various equipment and items . Additional adventures can be acquired by consuming food and booze . However , only a limited amount of each can be consumed each day , and drinking too much booze puts the character into a drunken stupor for the remainder of the day . During rollover , drunkenness and fullness levels are reset , and minor amounts of health points and magic points are restored . Although a character can accumulate a large number of adventures , the number is reduced to 200 at rollover .
Most actions in the game use up adventures , including crafting items and exploring the game world ( adventuring ) . When exploring , players experience combat encounters , in which they fight monsters , as well as non @-@ combat encounters . Combat is turn @-@ based , meaning that the player and the monster take turns attacking one another using weapons , skills and items . Players who successfully defeat a monster receive experience points , pieces of meat ( the game 's currency ) , and various items . Non @-@ combat encounters simply present the reader with a text description of an event , occasionally allowing the player to choose how to respond to that event .
After gaining enough experience points , players will gain levels , allowing them to access new areas and quests . Characters can combine items by using " meat paste " ( a substance analogous to glue ) , and can also cook food , mix cocktails and smith weapons and armor . Characters may also earn trophies or tattoos for various in @-@ game achievements . Puzzle @-@ solving is an important part of the game , with the solutions often involving a certain item combination or the completion of tasks in different zones .
= = = Player interaction = = =
While Kingdom of Loathing 's player versus environment content is largely single @-@ player , some features allow multiplayer interaction .
Player versus player ( PvP ) combat is voluntary , features a randomized selection of non @-@ interactive minigames , and is subdivided into seasons . The winner of the PvP battle can take fame or items from the loser .
The game features an integrated chat system which is available only after completing a basic test of English grammar and spelling . There are many chat channels , including a channel in which all chat must follow the syllabic conventions of English haiku . Most of the chat channels are moderated ; those who violate the chat rules are banned . Players can also send messages and gift packages to each other in @-@ game , and the official Kingdom of Loathing forums are another active venue for discussion among players .
Upon reaching level 3 , characters may join a clan , a band of cooperating characters . A clan has a clan hall which can be furnished with beneficial equipment as well as a clan stash for sharing useful items . Clan members can chat with each other in a private chat channel . In 2008 , a multiplayer dungeon was added which allows clan members to raid cooperatively in Hobopolis , the underground city of hobos . Eurogamer likened Hobopolis to World of Warcraft instances . Additional clan dungeons have since been added , including the Slimetube , Dreadsylvania , and the limited @-@ time Haunted Sorority House .
Players can buy a store in The Mall of Loathing and sell their character 's items to other players . Direct trading between two players is also possible , and in the trade chat channel users can auction items and advertise shops . This functionality has created a complex in @-@ game economy which author Ted Friedman , in his book Electric dreams : computers in American culture , described as " vibrant " . The Kingdom of Loathing economy was the subject of an academic study , Economics in the Kingdom of Loathing : Analysis of Virtual Market Data in 2011 .
= = = Character classes = = =
Players choose from six classes when they create a character . Each class has various items that characters obtain by completing class @-@ specific quests . Characters also receive non @-@ tradable class @-@ dependent items as a reward for completing harder ascensions . The classes can be split into groups based on the primary character attribute associated with them .
Muscle classes : The two muscle classes are Seal Clubber and Turtle Tamer . Muscle classes depend on strength and fighting ability . A character 's Max HP is determined by his / her muscle , and Muscle classes gain an innate + 50 % boost to their Max HP.-
Mysticality classes : The mysticality classes are Pastamancer and Sauceror . Gameplay for mysticality classes is focused on spellcasting and the use of magic . A character 's Max MP is determined by his / her Mysticality , and Mysticality classes gain an innate + 50 % to their Max MP .
Moxie classes : The moxie classes , Disco Bandit and Accordion Thief , use charm and dexterity to achieve success .
= = = Familiars = = =
Familiars are creatures that can accompany players in combat , performing ( usually ) helpful actions . Familiars are often instrumental in the completion of quests . Familiars possess many abilities ; for example , a Sabre @-@ Toothed Lime attacks monsters , a Leprechaun grants extra meat after combat , and a Hovering Sombrero increases stat gains from combat . Some familiars , such as the Ninja Pirate Zombie Robot , are very difficult to acquire .
= = = Ascension = = =
Ascension is a feature that allows characters to start the game over and play through it again from the beginning , similar to a New Game Plus feature . This feature becomes available after the game 's final quest is completed . Players who ascend have their character 's experience levels reset to one , but they retain their currency and items . Ascending players can also choose to make their ascension more difficult by taking on various restrictions , such as not being able to eat or drink , in exchange for special rewards . In addition , the game features a leaderboard system which allows players to see one another 's ascension speeds and compete for the fastest ascensions .
= = Plot and setting = =
The player takes on the role of an adventurer who is tasked with solving problems and killing monsters in a fantasy @-@ based kingdom . The game is humorous in nature , and most quests , battles and individual item descriptions include jokes , witticisms , or references to popular culture . Many quests parody the tropes found in other role @-@ playing games .
The premise is that the Naughty Sorceress has captured and " imprismed " ( imprisoned in a prism ) the Kingdom 's ruler , King Ralph XI . The ultimate objective of the game is to defeat the Naughty Sorceress and free King Ralph . In King Ralph 's absence , most of the power in the Kingdom of Loathing is held by the Council of Loathing , which gives quests to characters as they increase in level , with the final quest given when the character has reached level 13 and finished the other quests . Players can also unlock quests from other sources , some of which are available only after ascending .
= = Development = =
Zack Johnson , the game 's creator , developed several games before Kingdom of Loathing but did not feel that they were good enough to release online . Deciding that he was taking the games he created too seriously , Johnson then set himself the challenge of creating one within a week and publishing the result online . The result was more of a joke than a game , and the initial content including classes and even the name of the game were stream of consciousness . The game was released in early 2003 , and Johnson soon invited his childhood friend Josh Nite to contribute content as a writer and designer . Within a year , 300 @,@ 000 player accounts had been created , far exceeding Johnson and Nite 's expectations ; Johnson has referred to the game 's success as " a never ending series of astonishments " . In 2008 , the game had between 100 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 regular players .
In the game 's early days , Johnson would work on the game during breaks while at work , but eighteen months or so after launch , the game was bringing in enough money for Johnson to quit his day job as a programmer and develop the game full @-@ time . He then began to pay Nite for his work and after approximately two years hired two more developers . There are currently eight full @-@ time employees working on Kingdom of Loathing , as well as three other employees who are working on a separate game . The game 's creative process is fluid and loosely structured . According to Johnson , " At this point , I provide the overall direction . I do about a quarter of the writing , a quarter of the coding , and almost all of the artwork . " The bulk of the writing is done by Nite , who also contributes design ideas , while two other developers , known in the game as Riff and HotStuff , work on writing , design , and coding .
According to Nite , the game 's writing style owes itself to a humorous email exchange between himself and Johnson that began when the two separated after high school . These emails " helped us develop the shared comedic voice that KoL 's written in " . The game 's developers cite text @-@ based games such as Zork and Legend of the Red Dragon as creative influences , and Nite has compared the game to the Choose Your Own Adventure series of children 's books .
The game has been in open beta since its initial release , and is continuously being worked on . New content is released weekly or monthly , and there is also unique holiday @-@ themed content every Christmas , known as Crimbo . Occasionally , the developers stage world events such as the Gray Plague , which was similar to the Corrupted Blood incident in World of Warcraft .
In November 2014 , Nite was laid off from Asymmetric Publications .
= = Business model = =
Kingdom of Loathing is advertising @-@ free and does not charge subscription fees .
Maintenance and development of the game is supported primarily through donations and players who donate US $ 10 to the game receive a powerful item known as a Mr. Accessory . Mr. Accessories can be equipped to give stat boosts or spent in the " Mr. Store " to buy powerful items ( including special monthly items ) . Mr. Accessories and Mr. Store items may be traded freely between players . According to an interview with Zack Johnson from 2010 , Johnson originally established the Mr. Accessory revenue model as " kind of an afterthought " , but it became lucrative enough to allow him to work on the game full @-@ time and eventually to hire several permanent employees .
= = Community = =
Kingdom of Loathing has been praised for its welcoming and active player community . One of the most unusual aspects of the community is the large number of female players : according to Johnson , approximately 40 % of players are female . Fans often gather at both official conventions , run by Asymmetric , and unofficial player @-@ organized meet @-@ ups , including the annual KoLumbus event . Players support the game by writing scripts to perform various in @-@ game functions , using Greasemonkey , Java , Perl , and Lua , and have also developed a player @-@ run wiki which offers puzzle solutions and walkthroughs . Longtime player and nerdcore rapper MC Frontalot is active in the community and included a Kingdom of Loathing @-@ themed song on his 2010 album Zero Day .
Brett Bixler , founder of the Educational Gaming Commons at Pennsylvania State University , has hypothesized that the Kingdom of Loathing community is successful because it accounts for Richard Bartle 's model of player personality types in massively multiplayer online roleplaying games , creating a balanced gameplay system that appeals to a wide variety of players . Researcher Martin Oliver addressed similar issues in a 2009 study of the Kingdom of Loathing player community , " Playing Roles in the MMORPG Kingdom of Loathing " .
A Web @-@ based SHOUTcast radio station , Radio KoL , is the " official unofficial " radio station of KoL . It is a 24 / 7 DJ @-@ hosted station , with volunteer DJs drawn from the KoL user base . Twice weekly , development team members host shows on Radio KoL in which they discuss the state of the game and answer questions from players .
= = Reception = =
Critical response for Kingdom of Loathing has been generally positive , with consistent praise for the game 's humor and surrealism . The gameplay and content have been praised as " well designed " and having a " huge amount of content " . Matt Gallant of Gizmodo said that the game is " actually very full @-@ featured " with " a lot of content " , and according to Worlds in Motion , " Kingdom of Loathing isn 't just a great game , but a really unique and interesting MMO . " Jay Is Games called it " a ' must play ' game for RPG fans who want something different " . Gamezebo criticized the interface as well , calling it " clunky " , and several reviewers expressed concern that the game might be confusing to new players .
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