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= Long Distance ( Ivy album ) =
Long Distance is the third studio album by American band Ivy . It was released on November 8 , 2000 in Japan , while the US version was released on July 10 , 2001 by Nettwerk . Noted as a departure from Ivy 's previous studio album Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , the album took influence from new wave , but maintained Ivy 's signature blend of indie pop and indie rock music . Ivy collaborated with long @-@ time producer Peter Nashel for two of the album 's tracks , while the rest was completely produced and written by members Andy Chase and Adam Schlesinger .
Long Distance received positive reviews upon release , and is noted for its different new wave sound compared to Ivy 's previous works , Apartment Life and Realistic ( 1995 ) . Many critics favored Ivy 's new approach , although some found it less interesting compared to the material on Apartment Life . Commercially , the album fared well in both Japan and the United States , but did not peak on any significant record chart .
Four singles were released from the album . " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " , " Disappointed " and " I Think of You " were all commercially unsuccessful , while the album 's third single , " Edge of the Ocean " , appeared in numerous films and television programs and is often considered the band 's signature song . The songs " Undertow " and " Worry About You " were also used in the media , and the latter was used as the theme song for the ABC miniseries Kingdom Hospital . Promotional music videos were created for both " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " and " Edge of the Ocean " .
= = Development = =
Shortly after the release of Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , Ivy began work on a new studio album ; however , the band was dropped by their label , Epic Records , shortly after the reissue of Apartment Life was released . After the end of the contract with Epic , and lead singer Dominique Durand 's pregnancy , the New York City studio where Ivy regularly recorded music burned down . In order to forget about these events , Ivy resumed recording sessions , where they began incorporating influences from new wave . Member Adam Schlesinger detailed the album 's exploration of different genres :
" The first songs [ we ] recorded were jangly and simple and straight @-@ ahead . We started gravitating toward the groovier , slightly more melancholy stuff . It works well with Dominique 's voice . "
According to Schlesinger , Ivy then signed with Nettwerk because " their roster was similar to Ivy across the board " . After being released prematurely in Japan on November 8 , 2000 , the album was a quick success . Nettwerk 's head of marketing , Marie Scheibert , stated that Long Distance became one of Amazon.com 's top imports . The album was released in the United States on July 10 , 2001 , eight months later . During recording sessions , Durand , Schlesinger and fellow band member Andy Chase decided " to go one @-@ hundred percent " on one of the tracks , which would later become " Edge of the Ocean " . Ivy stated that the song , which would later be released as the album 's third single , was created in hopes that it would " mean the difference between making our next album or not " . Along with " Edge of the Ocean " , the trio starting writing songs that were " less atmospheric " that those on Apartment Life , but contained more " infectious melodies " , which the band preferred .
= = Composition = =
= = = Songs = = =
Long Distance opens with " Undertow " , a track featuring " pastoral tones " layered with " a lifting guitar frame " ; Tom Topkoff of Hybrid Magazine noted that Durand 's vocals have " aged like a fine wine " . The single " Disappointed " , the " fast @-@ paced " second track , consists of a " taut rhythm and slinky guitars " that " provide a sleekly sexy backdrop for Durand 's wistful vocals " . Its sound was compared to Ivy 's previous tracks on Realistic ( 1995 ) and Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , particularly the songs " No Guarantee " and " I Get the Message " . The next song , " Edge of the Ocean " , is an indie pop and trip hop song , and has been called a " captivating and escapist tune " . Since its release , it has been commonly referred to as one of Ivy 's signature songs , including by Ivy themselves . " Blame It on Yourself " is a " memorable " track , with instrumentation provided by distorted guitars . The fifth track , " While We 're in Love " , is a trip hop @-@ inspired track , with the singer and her partner realizing , " We know it won 't last forever / Because we 're not meant to be together " . " While We 're in Love " uses keyboards that add a groovy feeling to " fill out the sound more than ever before " .
The album 's lead single , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " , uses 1960s @-@ style horns with " jangly guitars " to reintroduce Ivy 's signature indie pop style into the album . It has a " sassy brass and lifting melody " , accompanied by electric guitars to create an " atmospheric " mood . According to Tom Topkoff of Hybrid Magazine , " Worry About You " is Ivy 's " furthest departure from their tried and true practice " . The composition is relatively ambient , with " Portishead styled ethereal @-@ dub characteristics " . The album 's eighth song , " Let 's Stay Inside " , uses keyboard and acoustic guitar instrumentation to provide a " comforting " feeling ; " bossa nova @-@ tinged " , it results in an " intimate approach " . " Midnight Sun " and " I Think of You " both used violins and organs to achieve a sense of effortlessness , with the former 's instrumentation headed by Ivy 's longtime partner James Iha .
The next track , " Hideaway " , is another " escapist tune " , featuring " Durand 's sensually emotive vocals " . The album 's 12th track , " One More Last Kiss " , contains longing lyrics discussing Durand 's final moments with a lover . Its composition consists of guitar passages similar to the majority of the album . A cover of The Blow Monkeys ' " Digging Your Scene " concludes the standard edition of the album , with its production sounding " natural " , as if it was an original Ivy track . The Japanese edition of the album featured a bonus track , " It 's All in Your Mind " , which remains unreleased in the United States , and softly repeats the song 's title throughout .
= = Promotion = =
While Ivy did not heavily promote the album through live appearances , several tracks from Long Distance were featured in various television series and films . " Edge of the Ocean " was used in the movies Angel Eyes , Music and Lyrics and Shallow Hal , and the television series Grey 's Anatomy and Veronica Mars . " Worry About You " served as the theme song for the ABC drama series Kingdom Hospital , and was featured on the CBS sci @-@ fi series The 4400 , and its soundtrack . " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " was played in the similarly titled 2002 film I 'm With Lucy , while " One More Last Kiss " was in the 2002 movie Insomnia .
" Digging Your Scene " was released as a radio single and sent to modern rock radio in June 2001 . In 2002 , the single received a proper release to promote Ivy 's fourth studio album , Guestroom . Ivy visited various record stores throughout the US and Japan to promote the album , including at Sam Goody locations and in West Village ; Ivy 's touring schedule coincided with the rereleased version of Apartment Life , on September 18 , 2001 .
= = = Singles = = =
Ivy released four singles from Long Distance . In late 2000 , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " was released as the album 's lead single . Two CD singles were issued in Japan , the first contained B @-@ side track " Blame It on Yourself " , while the second additionally contained " Digging Your Scene " . The track received favorable reviews from critics , and a music video was filmed in 2000 to promote the song . The album 's second single , " Disappointed " , was released as a radio single on July 10 , 2001 . Similarly , the track received positive feedback , and was promoted by an live performance on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien in 2001 .
Third single " Edge of the Ocean " was also released on July 10 , 2001 in the US . Compared to their previous work , the single was both a critical and commercial success , appearing in several television series and films , and peaking at No. 160 on the UK Singles Chart . Its accompanying music video became Ivy 's most @-@ watched clip on the video @-@ sharing website YouTube . The album 's fourth and final single , " I Think of You " , was released on November 9 , 2001 .
= = Critical reception = =
Long Distance received positive reviews upon release . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on nine reviews . Jonathan Cohen from Billboard commented that " Durand 's sensual vocals are beguiling as ever " and favored singles " Disappointed " and " Edge of the Ocean " . A critic from Resonance magazine praised the album for " stay [ ing ] true to the belief that guitar pop can have cool , utopian sounds without bringing in a truckload of keyboards and sequencers " . A Launch.com reviewer stated that " no one else stateside is currently making pop quite this lush and lovely " , but disapproved of the track " Undertow " for being " short of perfection " . One of E ! Online 's music critics declared " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " a summer anthem and predicted that Long Distance would increase Ivy 's popularity .
Critics from both Rolling Stone and Blender made strong comparisons between Long Distance and the English musical duo Everything but the Girl . The former stated that " any fan on Everything but the Girl , Saint Etienne or vintage Blondie should find plenty to swoon over " , while the latter called the sound " cloudy and distant , [ but ] takes tentative steps toward Everything but the Girl " . In a more mixed review , a critic from SonicNet stated that " Ivy specialize [ s ] in nebulously oriented dream @-@ pop : too ethereal for straight pop fans , too structured for the 4AD crowd " . In a divided review , Michaelangelo Matos of City Pages noted that he preferred Ivy 's previous releases , but stated , " If your band had spent four years getting dropped and picked up and dropped again by record labels , you 'd sound tired too " . Similarly , a reviewer from Alternative Press was negative , expressing that " the 13 tracks here are improbably edgeless , all love @-@ me @-@ do / love @-@ me @-@ don 't plaints that evaporate on impact " .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Ivy except " Digging Your Scene " , written by Dr. Robert .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Release history = =
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= Kaundinya =
Kauṇḍinya ( Sanskrit ; Pali : Koṇḍañña ) also known as Ājñātakauṇḍinya , Pali : Añña Koṇḍañña ) was a Buddhist monk follower of Gautama Buddha and the first to become an arhat . He lived during the 6th century BCE in what is now Uttar Pradesh and Bihar , India .
= = Life = =
Kaundinya was a brahmin who first came to prominence as a youth due to his mastery of the Vedas and was later appointed as a royal court scholar of King Suddhodana of the Sakyas in Kapilavastu . There Koṇḍañña was the only scholar who unequivocally predicted upon the birth of Prince Siddhartha that the prince would become an enlightened Buddha , and vowed to become his disciple . Koṇḍañña and four colleagues followed Siddhartha in six years of ascetic practice , but abandoned him in disgust after Siddhartha gave up the practice of self @-@ mortification . Upon enlightenment , Siddartha gave his first dharma talk to Koṇḍañña 's group . Koṇḍañña was the first to comprehend the teaching and thus became the first bhikkhu and arahat .
Koṇḍañña was regarded as the foremost of the five initial disciples of the Buddha and later travelled around India spreading the dharma . Among his notable converts was his nephew Puṇṇa , who the Buddha acknowledged as the foremost preacher of the dharma . In his final years , he retreated to the Himalayas and predeceased the Buddha .
Koṇḍañña 's previous rebirths are described in many accounts in Buddhist literature . These accounts show that he had vowed in previous existences to be the first to comprehend the dharma when it was to be proclaimed by an enlightened Buddha . They also document that the seeds of his relationship with Gautama Buddha as the first arahant were sown in previous existences in which they had crossed paths .
= = Early years = =
Koṇḍañña was born before the time of Siddhartha to a wealthy brahmin family in a town named in Donavatthu , near Kapilavastu , and was known by his family name . When he was growing up , he mastered the three Vedas at a young age and excelled in the science of physiognomy ( lakhana @-@ manta ) .
Koṇḍañña became a young Brahmin scholar in Kapilavastu in the Sakya kingdom of King Suddhodana . He was one among the group of scholars who were invited to the royal court to predict the destiny of Crown Prince Siddhartha at his naming ceremony . Siddhartha was the first child born to Suddhodana and Queen Maya in twenty years of marriage and much interest surrounded the infant from royal society and the public alike . All the other scholars raised two fingers and offered a twofold prediction : That Siddhartha would either become a Chakravarti ( supreme king ) or would renounce the world and become a supreme religious leader . Koṇḍañña was the only one that explicitly predicted that Siddhartha would renounce the world to become a Buddha , raising one finger and stating his prediction .
Koṇḍañña thereafter vowed that he would follow when Siddhartha became an ascetic to learn from the future Buddha 's findings . In the meantime , Suddhodana attempted to foil Koṇḍañña 's prediction because he wanted his son to succeed him in ruling and expanding the kingdom . Suddhodana made intricate arrangements to shield Siddhartha from all worldly suffering in order to steer his mind away from spiritual matters , pampering him with all the material luxury and sense pleasures that he could find . However , Siddhartha finally persuaded his father to allow him out of the palace to meet his subjects . Suddhodana agreed , but attempted to present a sanitised image of human existence by ordering beggars , old people and sick people to be kept from the streets . Despite this , Siddhartha saw the four sights which prompted him to reevaluate his view of the world .
= = Renouncement and Arahanthood = =
When Siddhartha was aged 29 , he renounced the world to become a samaṇa ( ascetic ) . Koṇḍañña , along with Bhaddiya , Vappa , Mahanama and Assaji , variously described as four of the other scholars who had read Siddhartha 's future or the sons of those scholars , followed him into the ascetic life , with the approval of Suddhodana , who was worried about Siddhartha 's safety . They were known as " the group of five " or " the group of five fortunate ones " . After Siddhartha had mastered all the teachings of Alara Kalama and then Uddaka Ramaputta , he left and began practicing self mortification along with Koṇḍañña and his four colleagues at Uruvela . Koṇḍañña and his colleagues attended to Siddhartha in the hope that he would become enlightened through self @-@ mortification . These involved self @-@ deprivation of food and water , and exposing themselves to the elements to near @-@ death for six years , at which point Siddhartha rejected self @-@ mortification . Koṇḍañña and his colleagues became disillusioned , believing Siddhartha to have become a glutton and moved away to Sarnath near Varanasi to continue their practices .
After Siddhartha became the enlightened Gautama Buddha , he sought to find his former teachers Arada Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra in order to teach them . Realising that they had died , the Buddha decided to find Koṇḍañña and his colleagues to share his teachings . Koṇḍañña and his companions were skeptical of Gautama Buddha after his abandonment of asceticism , and initially refused to acknowledge his presence , except to offer a seat on the ground . However , the ascetics were soon won over when they sensed that the Buddha had changed since they left him . The Buddha preached the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta , which deals with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path , the core pillars of Buddhist teaching regarding the intrinsic suffering of existence and how to deal with it . Koṇḍañña reached the sotāpanna stage of arahathood upon hearing this , becoming the first human to comprehend the teachings . The Buddha acknowledged this by remarking " annasi vata bho Kondanno ( meaning " you have realised , Kondanna " ) .
Five days later , hearing the subsequent Anattalakkhana Sutta regarding anatta , Koṇḍañña gained full arahantship . Koṇḍañña thus became first arahat . Having realised arahanthood , he requested the Buddha for permission to retire from the world , which was granted with the words " ehi bhikkhu " . Koṇḍañña thus became the first bhikkhu ( monk ) in the Buddha 's dispensation , known as the sangha . Later , the assembly at Jetavana declared him to be the foremost among the first bhikkhus and the disciples of long standing .
= = After enlightenment = =
Following the emergence of the sangha , Koṇḍañña and the other monks travelled with the Buddha by foot through the Gangetic plains area of what is now Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to spread the dharma . Koṇḍañña helped to convert many followers to the Buddha 's teaching , the foremost being his nephew Punna , born to his sister Mantani . This occurred while the Buddha was at Rajagaha , where he had immediately gone after first communicating his Realisation in order to honour his promise to show his teachings to King Bimbisara . In the meantime , Koṇḍañña returned to his home town of Kapilavastu and ordained Punna . Punna attained arahantship and 500 of his clansmen become monks . Punna was later acknowledged by the Buddha as the foremost of the disciples in preaching skills .
As one of the senior monks of Gautama Buddha , some of Koṇḍañña 's writings and discourses to other monks are recorded in the literature . A poem consisting of sixteen verses in the Theragatha is attributed to him . The first of these is said to have been recited by Sacca in praise of Koṇḍañña , after Koṇḍañña had preached the Four Noble Truths to Sacca . In other verses , Koṇḍañña is shown admonishing monks who had fallen into ways contrary to Buddhist teaching . Koṇḍañña also acknowledged his own struggles against Mara , the demon who attempted to prevent the enlightenment of the Buddha . Koṇḍañña was also praised in the Udana by the Buddha , who observed his deliverance from the destructiveness of craving .
After a period within the sangha , Koṇḍañña retired to the Himalayas for the last twelve years of his life . This is attributed to two reasons in Buddhist literature . The first reason was that Koṇḍañña considered his presence to be a source of inconvenience for Sariputra and Moggallana , the two chief disciples of The Buddha . As the seniormost member of the sangha , Koṇḍañña lead the monks on the alms @-@ round , but during dharma talks , the two chief disciples sat on either side of the Buddha and Koṇḍañña behind them . The two chief disciples were uncomfortable sitting in front of Koṇḍañña , so he decided to solve the problem by absenting himself . The other reason to which Koṇḍañña 's leave is attributed was to spend more quiet time in religious practice , which was rendered difficult due to the attention that the sangha gained from the public .
According to the Samyutta Nikaya , Koṇḍañña retired to the banks of the Mandakini Lake in the Chaddanta forest , said to be the abode of the paccekabuddhas . It was said that the 8000 elephants in the forest took turns to catering for his needs . Koṇḍañña only left once , to farewell Gautama Buddha . Koṇḍañña kissed the Buddha 's feet and stroked them with his hands . He advised his disciples not to mourn him before returning to the forest to pass away the following morning . He was cremated on a large sandalwood pyre which was constructed with the help of the elephants , and the ceremony was presided over by Anuruddha , one of the ten chief disciples and five hundred other monks . The ashes were later taken to Veluvana , where they were enshrined in a silver stupa .
= = Previous and future rebirths = =
In line with the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth , the previous existences of Koṇḍañña are described in Buddhist texts . They repeatedly show a theme of Koṇḍañña having displayed religious inclinations in previous rebirths , many of which involve experiences with previous rebirths of the Buddha and his other leading disciplines . This is a common theme among the leading disciples , all of whom had many encounters with the future Gautama Buddha in previous lives , and is consistent with the Buddhist concepts of cause and effect and karma . In Pali language Theravada literature , Koṇḍañña is said to have begun striving for enlightenment in the time of Padumuttara Buddha , the 13th Buddha . The son of a wealthy householder at Hamsavati , Koṇḍañña saw the monk who was the first disciple of Padmuttara Buddha . Koṇḍañña 's previous rebirth bestowed on the Buddha and the sangha and wished that he was to be the first disciple of a future Buddha . Padumuttara is said to have prophesied the fulfilment of this in the era of Gautama Buddha , 1000 aeons into the future . After the passing of Padmuttara Buddha , Koṇḍañña constructed a jewelled chamber inside the cetiya in which the relics were stored and also made an offering of jewel festoons . The Apadana offers a variant on this reincarnation . It states that Koṇḍañña was the first person to offer a meal to Padumuttara and became a deva in the Tusita world . It further says and that during the time of Vipassī Buddha , Koṇḍañña was a householder named Mahakala who offered the Buddha the first fruits of his field in their nine stages of production . The Mahavastu gives another account explaining the origin of Koṇḍañña 's vow to attain arahanthood in his final rebirth . This account asserts that he was a potter at Rajagaha in a previous existence . A Paccekabuddha who was suffering from biliousness sought shelter in the potter 's hut and was cured . In time , several more Paccekabuddhas came to visit the hut to inquire about their colleagues health status . The potter asked which of them had realised the dharma first , to which the patient answered in the affirmative . Thereupon the potter made his vow .
Despite the differences in the accounts , all of them agree on his words when announcing his vow :
By the merit I have acquired by doing this service of attending on you , may I be the first of all to realise the dharma when proclaimed by an Exalted One . May I not crave for gain and honour . May I wish only for a solitary bed and begging bowl . May I lay aside my body among the cascades and forest glades , dying all alone .
Numerous previous rebirths in which Koṇḍañña and Gautama Buddha crossed paths are also noted in Pali literature . The Mahavastu cites a previous birth in which Koṇḍañña was a seafaring merchant who had lost all his wealth after a mid @-@ ocean shipwreck . Koṇḍañña then went in search of the king of Kosala , who had a widely known reputation for philanthropy . However , the Kosalan monarch had left his kingdom and surrendered his kingdom to the neighbouring Kasi king . The king of Kosala had done so to avert bloodshed , since the Kasi king had threatened to invade . Nevertheless , the Kasi king wanted to capture the Kosalan king and decreed a large reward for it . The Kosalan king ( Gautama Buddha in a previous rebirth ) tied himself and asked the merchant to deliver him to Kasi so that the merchant would no longer be in poverty . However , when the Kasi king heard this , he withdrew his army and restored the Kosalan monarchy . The Kosalan king subsequently bestowed wealth on the merchant . Gautama Buddha cited this occurrence to illustrate how the ties between living beings extended into their previous existences . In another rebirth described in the Mahavastu , Koṇḍañña and his four colleagues who were to become the first bhikkhus were seafaring merchants under the command of the future Gautama Buddha . The future Buddha sacrificed himself to save them from an ocean death . The Divyavadana describes two further rebirths of Koṇḍañña . In one he was a bird named Uccangama . In another , he was a tigress and Gautama Buddha another tiger . The future Buddha sacrificed his own life by offering himself as meat to the hungry tigress so that it would not eat its own cubs .
The " Five Hundred Disciples " ( eighth ) chapter of the Mahayana Lotus Sutra predicts that in the future he will become a Buddha named Universal Brightness .
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= Echo & the Bunnymen ( album ) =
Echo & the Bunnymen is the fifth studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen , and the last with their drummer Pete de Freitas , who died in 1989 at age 27 in a motorcycle accident . The album was produced by Laurie Latham who recorded the album in Germany , Belgium , London and Liverpool after an aborted attempt at recording the album without de Freitas and with producer Gil Norton . With Latham being an exacting producer and singer Ian McCulloch receiving star treatment and drinking heavily , the recording of the album was more difficult than the band had initially hoped . The album made more use of keyboards than their previous albums , which had been string heavy .
Although Echo & the Bunnymen was successful in the United Kingdom and , to a lesser degree , the United States , it received mixed reviews from the music press following its release in July 1987 . The album reached number four on the UK Albums Chart , number 51 on the United States Billboard 200 , number 51 on the Canadian RPM100 Albums and number 22 on the Swedish Albums Chart . Since its release , the album has been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry . The album includes the singles " The Game " , " Lips Like Sugar " and " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " .
= = Background = =
Echo & the Bunnymen took time off from touring , writing and recording after the release of the critically acclaimed Ocean Rain in 1984 , because the band 's manager , the fabled prankster Bill Drummond , felt that a year off would help the band write different kinds of songs in preparation for the next album . During the time off , drummer Pete de Freitas travelled Spain and France on his motorcycle , bass guitarist Les Pattinson worked on his new boat , singer Ian McCulloch released a solo single " September Song " , leaving guitarist Will Sergeant as the only band member to spend the time doing nothing . Even though the band enjoyed an excellent and creative working relation with Drummond , by the end of 1984 they had mutually parted company as the band were not making enough money .
Under the new management of Mick Hancock , Duran Duran 's tour manager , the band returned to work in May 1985 with a tour of Scandinavia . They also made a headline appearance at the Glastonbury Festival on 21 June 1985 , when they played live for the first time two new songs which would later be included on the album – " Satellite " and " All in Your Mind " . Now ready to start recording , they entered the studio with their former producer Ian Broudie and Clive Langer to record the songs they had played at Glastonbury as well as " Like a Rollercoaster " and " Jimmy Brown " . Not liking the results of this session , the band considered Eddy Grant and ABBA 's production team , before settling on Laurie Latham as their producer . McCulloch had been impressed by the sharp quality of Latham 's production on The Stranglers ' single " Skin Deep " . The band met with Latham in Brussels and recorded " All in Your Mind " , " Like a Rollercoaster " and " Jimmy Brown " , which was renamed " Bring on the Dancing Horses " . " Bring on the Dancing Horses " appeared on the WEA compilation album Songs to Learn & Sing in November 1985 and was released as a single in the same month . An early version of " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " , a song that would appear on the album , appeared on the B @-@ side to the 12 @-@ inch version .
The band faced 1986 with a commitment to record an album , but without their drummer ; a musician who was considered fundamental to the band 's creative success . On 31 December 1985 , de Freitas had gone to New Orleans with the road crew on a drug binge and there announced his resignation from the band . The band then hired former Haircut One Hundred drummer Blair Cunningham for the spring 1986 tour of the United States ; but he didn 't fit in , and after the tour left to join The Pretenders . The band then hired former ABC drummer David Palmer , and recorded a few sessions with producer Gil Norton for the new album . However , by July 1986 Palmer had decided he did not want to remain with the band . As Palmer left the band , de Freitas returned to the United Kingdom and expressed a wish to rejoin . Uncertain of de Freitas 's commitment to the band , and his fragile mental state , they took him back as a hired hand rather than a full member . Now with the line @-@ up that would record Echo & the Bunnymen , the band gave a live television appearance for the BBC in September 1986 when they played two new songs , " The Game " and " Lips Like Sugar " . According to Will Sergeant , the band were under pressure from Warner Music chairman Rob Dickins to produce an album that would replicate the success of Peter Gabriel 's recent number one album So : " I couldn 't believe it when Rob Dickins brought us into his office and played us Peter Gabriel 's album : ' I want you to sound like this ! ' I think he escaped with his life that day . "
= = Recording , production and music = =
Recording of the tracks that were to appear on Echo & the Bunnymen began at Conny Plank 's studio in Cologne . Both Echo & the Bunnymen and their label , WEA Records , were unhappy with the results of the Norton sessions with Palmer playing drums . Keen to record again with de Freitas , the band decided to scrap the Norton sessions and to start recording a new album with Latham who had previously worked with the band on their 1985 single " Bring on the Dancing Horses " . The sessions moved from Cologne to ICP Studios in Brussels before returning to Cologne and finishing off at The Workhouse in London and Amazon Studios in Liverpool . The band hoped that the album would be a collection of simple songs ; however , Latham was very specific and exacting , and he would work on one song for as long as a month . Recording was also complicated by the star treatment received by McCulloch . This , along with his heavy drinking , alienated him from the rest of the band . In a 1995 interview , band guitarist Will Sergeant said of McCulloch 's treatment , " We just found it all ridiculous . He had people running around behind him , basically wiping his arse . " McCulloch later said in a 1997 interview : " I knew I was losing it . I was on another planet but then I didn 't want to be on the one [ the other Bunnymen ] were on . "
While making the album , the band recorded a version of The Doors ' 1967 single " People Are Strange " for the soundtrack of the 1987 film The Lost Boys . Ray Manzarek , former keyboard player with The Doors , was brought in to provide keyboards on the song . While in the studio , he also contributed keyboards to a re @-@ recording of " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " , which had previously been the B @-@ side to the 12 @-@ inch version of " Bring on the Dancing Horses " . Once Echo & the Bunnymen had been recorded the band 's management company , Direct Management , decided to have it mixed by Bruce Lampcov in the United States . While the album was mixed , the band was on tour in Brazil and listened to the finished tracks over the phone .
Latham moved the band away from the use of strings , which featured heavily on Ocean Rain and to a lesser extent on Porcupine ( 1983 ) , and introduced keyboards to the melody of the tracks . De Freitas 's drumming was contained and discreet and McCulloch 's vocals were more restrained . Although the album contained hook @-@ heavy tracks such as " Lips Like Sugar " , the guitars on tracks such as " Lost and Found " are more representative of the album as a whole .
The resulting album was disliked by the entire band . Describing what he thought of as the over @-@ production of the album Sergeant described it as " an overcooked fish " in 1987 ; bass guitarist Les Pattinson said , " I like the songs , just hated the mixes " ; and in 1995 McCulloch said , " It still sounds crap . "
= = Release and critical reception = =
After previewing the album with a short concert on top of the HMV shop on Oxford Street in London , Echo & the Bunnymen was first released on 6 July 1987 as an LP and CD by WEA Records in the United Kingdom and elsewhere and by Sire Records in the United States . The album reached a peak of number four on the UK Albums Chart . The album became the band 's most successful in the United States where it reached number fifty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 . The album also reached number fifty @-@ one on the Canadian RPM100 Albums chart and number twenty @-@ two on the Swedish Albums Chart . The album has also been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry for having shipped more than 60 @,@ 000 copies . Along with the other four of the band 's first five albums , Echo & the Bunnymen was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 – these were released for the band 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary . Seven bonus tracks were added to the album and included early versions of " Bring on the Dancing Horses " ( title " Jimmy Brown " ) , " The Game " and " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " . Also included was a cover version of The Doors ' " Soul Kitchen " , an extended version of " Bring on the Dancing Horses " and the previously unreleased track " Hole in the Holy " . The reissued album was produced by Andy Zax and Bill Inglot and released by Rhino Entertainment .
In his 1987 review of the album for Rolling Stone magazine , music journalist J. D. Considine described Latham 's production of the album as " ineffectual " and " well mannered " . He went on say that there was no " anxious energy or knife @-@ edged irony that made the group 's earlier albums so compelling " . He finishes his review by saying the album is " as vacant as it is pretty " . Reviewing the 2003 remastered album , Andrew Harrison for Blender magazine 's website said , " Egomania and off @-@ message electronics experiments sank their eponymous 1987 comedown ... " Taking a more positive stance , David Cleary for AllMusic describes the album as " the hookiest and most memorable the band would ever write " . Having described de Freitas 's drumming as solid and veering toward the danceable , and McCulloch 's singing as " restrained and tasteful " , Cleary added that , " The production values were excellent , with many subtle touches that do not detract from the album 's overall directness . " Although he stated that the production " watered the band 's sound down " , Joe Tangari for Pitchfork Media said , " The band 's attempt to reach a wider audience worked out . "
Three tracks from the album were released as singles . The first of these was " The Game " , which was released on 1 June 1987 . This was followed by " Lips Like Sugar " , which was released in August 1987 . The final single to be released from the album was " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " , which was also released before the year 's end in the United States and Germany . " The Game " and " Lips Like Sugar " reached numbers 28 and 36 respectively on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written and composed by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch and Les Pattinson except where noted .
Additional tracks
= = Personnel = =
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= Zvi Hecker =
Zvi Hecker ( Hebrew : צבי הקר ; born May 31 , 1931 ) is a Polish @-@ born Israeli architect . His work is known for its emphasis on geometry and asymmetry .
= = Biography = =
Zvi Hecker was born as Tadeusz Hecker in Kraków , Poland . He grew up in Poland and Samarkand . He began his education in architecture at the Cracow University of Technology . He immigrated to Israel in 1950 . There he studied architecture at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , graduating in 1955 . At the Technion , Eldar Sharon was a classmate , and Alfred Neumann was their professor . Between 1955 and 1957 , he studied painting at the Avni Institute of Art and Design , before beginning his career as an architect . Between 1957 and 1959 , Hecker served in the Combat Engineering Corps of the Israel Defense Forces .
= = Architectural career = =
After his military service , he founded a firm with Eldar Sharon ( until 1964 ) and Alfred Neumann ( until 1966 ) . The physical and economic conditions in Israel at the time , allowed them to complete a fair number of works in a relatively brief period of time , which brought international attention . Their joint works include the Mediterranean Sea Club in Achzib ( 1960 – 1961 ) , Dubiner House ( 1963 ) , the Chaim Laskov Officer Training School ( 1963 – 1967 ) Bahad 1 , the main officer training school of the Israel Defense Forces , just later the synagogue ( 1969 – 1971 ) at the same academy , and the Bat Yam city hall ( 1963 – 1969 ) . Their designs shared aspects in common with the metabolist movement , borrowing metaphoric shapes from nature for use in planning morphological structures . The modularity of these works , such as the Dubiner House , provided an architectural precedent for the Habitat 67 project by Moshe Safdie .
Hecker resides in Berlin and Tel Aviv . He has been involved in planning projects for the German Jewish community as well as other international projects .
= = Academic career = =
Hecker taught in Canada , the United States , Israel , and Austria at the Université Laval , University of Texas at Arlington , Washington University in St. Louis , Iowa State University , Technion – Israel Institute of Technology , and the University of Applied Arts Vienna . Zvi Hecker writes about his work periodically , co @-@ authoring books with Sir Peter Cook , John Hejduk , and others .
= = Projects = =
The early projects of Zvi Hecker , designed in partnership with Sharon and Neumann , have architectural qualities that were developed later in his career . The officer school ( Bahad 1 ) was built to give a respectable living environment to soldiers in the Negev desert , and special emphasis was given to the large spaces between the structures , in order to form a micro @-@ environment there , separating the people inside from the harsh desert outskirts . Raw concrete was chosen because it did not require constant maintenance and renovation in light of the strong sandy winds . About the school , Hecker said : " The location of the base has a special relevance to the vision of David Ben @-@ Gurion . To build such an important school in a place which isn 't the center of the country – in my opinion , that 's the positive side of the State of Israel " . The academy was supplemented later with a synagogue , whose form was complementary and contrasting . The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture says of the architect 's approach to its design , " Eschewing the right angles of international modernism , he turned to crystalline geometry found in nature [ ... ] "
Another of the Zvi Hecker 's projects in partnership , the Bat Yam City Hall shows the recurrence of geometrical invention that exists throughout his work . One architectural significance of the Bat Yam City Hall- its formal concept , is that it is an inverted pyramid . It is linked to other works of architecture such as Boston City Hall through this form , in addition to their program , similar materials , and time period . The building is patterned on a diagonal grid with concrete , which provides both its structure and aesthetics . The importance of this building was recognized in 1975 with perspective and section illustrations on a postage stamp in the Architecture in Israel series . As of 2003 , Bat Yam City Hall was removed of its signature light shafts , rather than having them renovated . This was because of a perceived structural instability due to weathering over time . Of this removal Dr. Ami Ran wrote , " From an architectural standpoint , removing them is equivalent to dousing the Statue of Liberty 's torch . "
Among several projects for memorials , Zvi Hecker designed the solemn Page Memorial ( 1996 ) with Micha Ullmann and Eyal Weizman . This site @-@ specific memorial commemorates the Jewish community of Kreuzberg , and their Lindenstrasse synagogue which was designed in 1891 by architects Cremer & Wolffenstein . What was once one of the largest religious buildings in Berlin , with a capacity of 1800 ; was ruined by the Nazis in the 1938 Kristallnacht pogrom . On the original floor plan , the benches of the synagogue were recreated in concrete , and where the bimah stood , trees are now planted . The designers conceived of the benches as sentences on the pages of the Talmud .
= = Architectural style = =
Zvi Hecker architecture has continued to emphasize geometry and modularity , but with increasing asymmetry . Ramot Polin ( 1972 – 75 ) is a rare prefabricated apartment complex with 720 non @-@ rectangular components . The apartments were expanded later , incorporating more cubic rather than pentagonal components . The design idea of this neighborhood may seem to be the more purely geometrical , however it is likened to a chemical structure , and in plan view to an open hand , and a leaf- therefore imparting it with metaphorical qualities . More examples of advanced geometry in Hecker 's work are the Spiral Apartment House in Ramat Gan , ( 1981 – 1989 ) , and the Heinz @-@ Galinski @-@ Schule ( 1992 – 1995 ) in Berlin , noted for their high degree of complexity . The Heinz @-@ Galinski @-@ Schule won Zvi Hecker the Deutscher Kritikerpreis in 1995- it was stated that the decision of the jury was based on their appreciation of the " expressive geometry of his construction . " The Spiral Apartment House is located adjacent to his earlier Dubiner house , providing a juxtaposition of two important moments in his career . The work of Zvi Hecker has been compared to that of Antonio Gaudi , for expressiveness and expanding of architectural ideas .
More of his later works are the Jewish community center in Duisburg ( 1996 – 1999 ) , and with Rafi Segal , the Palmach Museum in Tel Aviv ( 1995 – 2000 ) . The Duisburg Jewish community center is located on a park , the Garten der Erinnerung designed by Dani Karavan . The community center shares a similar concept to the Page Memorial in its likening to the open pages of a book , and symbolically the Torah of Moses . The Palmach Museum has an angular zig @-@ zag plan positioned around the preservation of trees on the site . It is clad in a local sandstone that was found in excavations for the project . It was exhibited at the Venice Biennale .
= = Museum exhibits = =
Hecker was the subject of a solo exhibition at the Israel Museum in 1976 . He had solo exhibitions at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art in the 1980s and in 1996 . He also took part in the Jewish Identity in Contemporary Architecture at the Jewish Museum Berlin in 2005 , and has participated in the Venice Biennale on a number of occasions .
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= Split Agreement =
The Split Agreement or Split Declaration ( Bosnian and Croatian : Splitski sporazum or Splitska deklaracija ) was a mutual defence agreement between Croatia , the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , signed in Split , Croatia on 22 July 1995 . It called on the Croatian Army ( HV ) to intervene militarily in Bosnia and Herzegovina , primarily in relieving the siege of Bihać .
The Split Agreement was a turning point in the Bosnian War as well as an important factor in the Croatian War of Independence . It led to a large @-@ scale deployment of the HV in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the capture of strategic positions in Operation Summer ' 95 . This in turn allowed the quick capture of Knin , the capital of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , and the lifting of the siege of Bihać soon thereafter , during Operation Storm . Subsequent HV offensives in Bosnia and Herzegovina , supported by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) , as well as NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina , shifted the military balance in the Bosnian War , contributing to the start of peace talks , leading to the Dayton Agreement .
= = Background = =
In November 1994 , the Siege of Bihać entered a critical stage as the Army of the Republika Srpska ( VRS ) — the Bosnian Serb military — and forces of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) ( an unrecognized state established following the Serb insurrection in Croatia ) came close to capturing the Bosnian town . Bihać was a UN @-@ designated " safe area " , controlled by the 5th Corps of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) , supported by the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) — the main military force of the Bosnian Croats . It was thought that the capture of Bihać by Serb forces would escalate the war and worsen a growing rift between the United States , France and the United Kingdom , with the U.S. and European powers advocating different approaches to preservation of the area . In addition , it was feared that Bihać would turn into the worst humanitarian disaster of the war . Furthermore , denying Bihać to the RSK or Republika Srpska was strategically important to Croatia , which was fighting the Croatian War of Independence against the RSK . The Chief of the Croatian General Staff Janko Bobetko thought that the possible fall of Bihać would represent the end of Croatia 's war effort . It was considered that if the area were captured by Serb forces , it would allow for the consolidation of the territory held by Serb forces in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as redeployment of RSK and VRS troops to reinforce other areas .
In a meeting of the Croatian and US Governments and military officials held on 29 November 1994 , the Croatian representatives proposed an attack on Serb @-@ held territory from Livno in Bosnia and Herzegovina , in order to draw off part of the forces besieging Bihać and to prevent its capture by the Serbs . The U.S. officials gave no response to the proposal and Operation Winter ' 94 was ordered the same day . Besides contributing to the defence of Bihać , the attack advanced positions held by the HV and the HVO nearer to supply routes vital to the RSK .
The meeting was one in a series held in Zagreb and Washington , D.C. following the March 1994 Washington Agreement . The agreement ended the Croat – Bosniak War , re @-@ allied the ARBiH and the HVO against the VRS and provided Croatia with US military advisors from the Military Professional Resources Incorporated ( MPRI ) . MPRI was hired because a UN arms embargo was still in place , ostensibly to prepare the HV for NATO Partnership for Peace programme participation . The organization trained HV officers and personnel for 14 weeks from January to April 1995 . It was also speculated that the MPRI also provided doctrinal advice , scenario planning and US government satellite information to Croatia . MPRI and Croatian officials dismissed such speculation . In November 1994 , the US unilaterally ended the arms embargo against Bosnia and Herzegovina , in effect allowing the HV to supply itself as arms shipments entered through Croatia . The US involvement reflected a new military strategy endorsed by President Bill Clinton since February 1993 .
= = Call for Croatian intervention = =
On 17 July , the militaries of the RSK and the VRS started a fresh effort to capture Bihać by expanding on gains made during Operation Spider . The offensive , codenamed Operation Sword ' 95 , aimed to capture Cazin — a transportation route hub , situated in the centre of the ARBiH / HVO @-@ controlled Bihać pocket . The attack was spearheaded by the RSK Special Units Corps and supported by the " Pauk " ( Spider ) operational group of the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia ( APWB ) forces — who had been RSK allies since 1993 — advancing from the northwest , with the RSK 39th Banija Corps from the northeast and the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps from the southeast . The effort was also supported by about 500 Yugoslav Army special forces and Željko Ražnatović Arkan 's Serb Volunteer Guard — for a total of about 19 @,@ 000 attacking or sector @-@ holding troops arrayed against the ARBiH 5th Corps . By 21 July , the RSK troops managed a 7 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) breakthrough , but failed to sever the Bihać – Cazin road . A renewed push by the RSK and APWB troops four days later brought their forces within 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) of Cazin and put them in control or in favourable positions to strike several key passes and dominant points of the battlefield by 26 July . The ARBiH 5th Corps was left in a critical defensive situation , dependent on outside help .
As the situation around Bihać deteriorated for the ARBiH , the government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina realized that it could not hold the area on its own and asked Croatia for military intervention . ARBiH Chief of Staff Rasim Delić appealed to the HV and the HVO to assist the ARBiH 5th Corps on 20 July , proposing HV attacks towards Bosansko Grahovo , Knin and Vojnić . His plea was supported by President of Turkey Süleyman Demirel when he met Croatian President Franjo Tuđman in the Brijuni Islands the next day .
This led to signing of the Split Agreement — a mutual defence agreement — by Tuđman and the President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Alija Izetbegović in Split on 22 July , permitting large @-@ scale deployments of the HV in Bosnia and Herzegovina . Besides Tuđman and Izetbegović , the agreement was signed by President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Krešimir Zubak , and the Prime Minister of Bosnia and Herzegovina Haris Silajdžić . It was mediated by Demirel . The agreement specifically stated that Croatia requested urgent military aid , especially for the Bihać area , and that the parties to the agreement intended to coordinate their military activities . The full title of the Split Agreement , or Split Declaration , is Declaration on implementation of the Washington Agreement , joint defence against Serb aggression and achievement of a political solution in accordance with the efforts of the international community ( Deklaracija o oživotvorenju Sporazuma iz Washingtona , zajedničkoj obrani od srpske agresije i postizanju političkog rješenja sukladno naporima međunarodne zajednice ) . The US Ambassador to Croatia , Peter Galbraith , and a German ambassador , representing the European Union , were present at the signing ceremony .
= = Aftermath = =
The agreement provided the HV with the opportunity to extend its territorial gains from Operation Winter ' 94 by advancing from the Livanjsko field . The move was expected to relieve pressure on the ARBiH 5th Corps defending Bihać , while positioning the HV in a more favourable position to strike Knin , the RSK capital . The HV and HVO responded quickly through Operation Summer ' 95 ( Ljeto ' 95 ) . The offensive , commanded by HV Lieutenant General Ante Gotovina , succeeded in capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč on 28 – 29 July . The attack drew off some RSK units away from Bihać , but not as many as expected at the outset of the operation . Nevertheless , the offensive put the HV in an excellent position , as it isolated Knin from Republika Srpska and FR Yugoslavia , and led to the capture of Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč , which sat astride the only direct route between the two .
Regardless of the limited scope of Operation Summer ' 95 , the Split Agreement became a fundamental instrument to change the overall strategic situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina where Bosnian Serbs had had the upper hand since the beginning of the Bosnian war , as well as in Croatia , where the front lines had been largely static since the 1992 Sarajevo armistice . As Operation Summer ' 95 concluded , the RSK and Republika Srpska changed their priority from smashing the Bihać pocket to fending off a possible Croatian offensive to capture Knin ( advancing from the recently gained territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina ) . RSK leaders Milan Martić and Mile Mrkšić agreed with UN Special Representative Yasushi Akashi to withdraw from the Bihać area on 30 July , hoping the move would contribute to averting the Croatian attack . Albeit , the attack materialized days later as Operation Storm , a decisive victory to the HV in the Croatian War of Independence .
Success of Operation Storm also represented a strategic victory in the Bosnian War as it lifted the siege of Bihać , and allowed Croatian and Bosnian leaderships to plan a full @-@ scale military intervention in the VRS @-@ held Banja Luka area , based on the Split Agreement — aimed at creating a new balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina , a buffer zone along the Croatian border , and contributing to the resolution of the war . In September 1995 , the intervention came about as Operation Mistral 2 , supported by the ARBiH offensive Operation Sana , combined with a NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The offensives broke the VRS defences and captured large swathes of territory . The feat was repeated in Operation Southern Move ( Operacija Južni potez ) carried out in October , advancing within 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) of Banja Luka , and contributing to the start of peace talks that would result in the Dayton Agreement soon thereafter . Overall , deployment of the HV based on the Split Agreement , proved decisive in the defeat of the VRS in the Bosnian War .
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= Benedict Arnold =
Benedict Arnold ( January 14 , 1741 [ O.S. January 3 , 1740 ] – June 14 , 1801 ) was a general during the American Revolutionary War who originally fought for the American Continental Army but defected to the British Army . While a general on the American side , he obtained command of the fortifications at West Point , New York ( future site of the U.S. Military Academy after 1802 ) , overlooking the cliffs at the Hudson River ( upriver from British @-@ occupied New York City ) , and planned to surrender it to the British forces . The plan was exposed in September 1780 , and he was commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier general .
Arnold was born in Connecticut and was a merchant operating ships on the Atlantic Ocean when the war broke out in 1775 . He joined the growing army outside Boston and distinguished himself through acts of intelligence and bravery . His actions included the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 , defensive and delaying tactics at the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in 1776 ( allowing American forces time to prepare New York 's defenses ) , the Battle of Ridgefield , Connecticut ( after which he was promoted to major general ) , operations in relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix , and key actions during the pivotal Battles of Saratoga in 1777 , in which he suffered leg injuries that ended his combat career for several years .
Despite Arnold 's successes , he was passed over for promotion by the Continental Congress , while other officers claimed credit for some of his accomplishments . Adversaries in military and political circles brought charges of corruption or other malfeasance , but most often he was acquitted in formal inquiries . Congress investigated his accounts and found that he was indebted to Congress after having spent much of his own money on the war effort . Arnold was frustrated and bitter at this , as well as with the alliance with France and the failure of Congress to accept Britain 's 1778 proposal to grant full self @-@ governance in the colonies . He decided to change sides and opened secret negotiations with the British . In July 1780 , he was awarded command of West Point . Arnold 's scheme was to surrender the fort to the British , but it was exposed when American forces captured British Major John André carrying papers which revealed the plot . Upon learning of André 's capture , Arnold fled down the Hudson River to the British sloop @-@ of @-@ war Vulture , narrowly avoiding capture by the forces of George Washington , who had been alerted to the plot .
Arnold received a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army , an annual pension of £ 360 , and a lump sum of over £ 6 @,@ 000 . He led British forces on raids in Virginia and against New London and Groton , Connecticut before the war effectively ended with the American victory at Yorktown . In the winter of 1782 , Arnold moved to London with his second wife Margaret " Peggy " Shippen Arnold . He was well received by King George III and the Tories , but frowned upon by the Whigs . In 1787 , he returned to the merchant business with his sons Richard and Henry in Saint John , New Brunswick . He returned to London to settle permanently in 1791 , where he died ten years later .
His name quickly became a byword in the United States for treason or betrayal because he betrayed his countrymen by leading the British army in battle against the men whom he once commanded . His earlier legacy is recalled in the ambiguous nature of some of the memorials that have been placed in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Benedict was born the second of six children to Benedict Arnold ( 1683 – 1761 ) and Hannah Waterman King in Norwich , Connecticut on January 14 , 1741 . He was named after his great @-@ grandfather Benedict Arnold , an early governor of the Colony of Rhode Island — as were his father and grandfather , as well as an older brother who died in infancy . Only Benedict and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood ; his other siblings succumbed to yellow fever in childhood . His siblings were , in order of birth : Benedict ( August 15 , 1738 – April 30 , 1739 ) , Hannah ( December 9 , 1742 – August 11 , 1803 ) , Mary ( June 4 , 1745 – September 10 , 1753 ) , Absolom ( April 4 , 1747 – July 22 , 1750 ) , and Elizabeth ( November 19 , 1749 – September 29 , 1755 ) . Arnold was a descendant of John Lothropp through his maternal grandmother , an ancestor of at least six U.S. presidents .
Arnold 's father was a successful businessman , and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society . When he was ten , Arnold was enrolled in a private school in nearby Canterbury , with the expectation that he would eventually attend Yale . However , the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the family fortunes , since his father took up drinking . By the time that he was fourteen , there was no money for private education . His father 's alcoholism and ill health kept him from training Arnold in the family mercantile business , but his mother 's family connections secured an apprenticeship for him with two of her cousins , brothers Daniel and Joshua Lathrop , who operated a successful apothecary and general merchandise trade in Norwich . His apprenticeship with the Lathrops lasted seven years .
In 1755 , Arnold was attracted by the sound of a drummer and attempted to enlist in the provincial militia for service against the French , but his mother refused permission . In 1757 when he was sixteen , he did enlist in the Connecticut militia , which marched off toward Albany and Lake George . The French had besieged Fort William Henry in northeastern New York , and their Indian allies had committed atrocities after their victory . Word of the siege 's disastrous outcome led the company to turn around ; Arnold served for 13 days . A commonly accepted story that Arnold deserted from militia service in 1758 is based on uncertain documentary evidence .
Arnold was very close to his mother , who died in 1759 . His father 's alcoholism worsened after the death of his wife , and the youth took on the responsibility of supporting his father and younger sister . His father was arrested on several occasions for public drunkenness , was refused communion by his church , and eventually died in 1761 .
= = Businessman = =
Arnold established himself in business in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in New Haven , Connecticut with the help of the Lathrops . He was hardworking and successful , and was able to rapidly expand his business . In 1763 , he repaid money borrowed from the Lathrops , repurchased the family homestead that his father had sold when deeply in debt , and re @-@ sold it a year later for a substantial profit . In 1764 , he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock , another young New Haven merchant . They bought three trading ships , using the profits from the sale of his homestead , and established a lucrative West Indies trade .
During this time , he brought his sister Hannah to New Haven and established her in his apothecary to manage the business in his absence . He traveled extensively in the course of his business throughout New England and from Quebec to the West Indies , often in command of one of his own ships . On one of his voyages , Arnold fought a duel in Honduras with a British sea captain who had called him a " damned Yankee , destitute of good manners or those of a gentleman " . The captain was wounded after the first exchange of gunfire , and apologized after Arnold threatened to aim to kill on the second .
The Sugar Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765 severely curtailed mercantile trade in the colonies . The latter act prompted Arnold to join the chorus of voices in opposition to those taxes , and also led to his entry into the Sons of Liberty , a secret organization that was not afraid to use violence to oppose implementation of those and other unpopular Parliamentary measures . Arnold initially took no part in any public demonstrations but , like many merchants , continued to trade as if the Stamp Act did not exist , in effect becoming a smuggler in defiance of the act . Arnold also faced financial ruin , falling £ 16 @,@ 000 in debt , with creditors spreading rumors of his insolvency to the point where he took legal action against them . On the night of January 28 , 1767 , Arnold and members of his crew , watched by a crowd of Sons of Liberty , roughed up a man suspected of attempting to inform authorities of Arnold 's smuggling . Arnold was convicted of a disorderly conduct charge and fined the relatively small amount of 50 shillings ; publicity of the case and widespread sympathy for his view probably contributed to the light sentence .
On February 22 , 1767 , Arnold married Margaret Mansfield , daughter of Samuel Mansfield , the sheriff of New Haven , an acquaintance that may have been made through the membership of both Mansfield and Arnold in the local Masonic Lodge . Their son Benedict was born the following year , and was followed by brothers Richard in 1769 and Henry in 1772 . Margaret died early in the revolution on June 19 , 1775 , while Arnold was at Fort Ticonderoga following its capture . The household , even while she lived , was dominated by Arnold 's sister Hannah . Arnold benefited from his relationship with Mansfield , who became a partner in his business and used his position as sheriff to shield Arnold from creditors .
Arnold was in the West Indies when the Boston Massacre took place on March 5 , 1770 . He wrote that he was " very much shocked " and wondered " good God , are the Americans all asleep and tamely giving up their liberties , or are they all turned philosophers , that they don 't take immediate vengeance on such miscreants ? "
= = Early Revolutionary War = =
Arnold began the war as a captain in Connecticut 's militia , a position to which he was elected in March 1775 . His company marched northeast the following month to assist in the siege of Boston that followed the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington and Concord . Arnold proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety an action to seize Fort Ticonderoga in New York , which he knew was poorly defended . They issued him a colonel 's commission on May 3 , 1775 , and he immediately rode off to the west , arriving at Castleton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants ( present @-@ day Vermont ) in time to participate with Ethan Allen and his men in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga . He followed up that action with a bold raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean on the Richelieu River north of Lake Champlain . A Connecticut militia force arrived at Ticonderoga in June ; Arnold had a dispute with its commander over control of the fort , and resigned his Massachusetts commission . He was on his way home from Ticonderoga when he learned that his wife had died earlier in June .
The Second Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec , in part on the urging of Arnold — but he was passed over for command of the expedition . Arnold then went to Cambridge , Massachusetts and suggested to George Washington a second expedition to attack Quebec City via a wilderness route through present @-@ day Maine . Arnold received a colonel 's commission in the Continental Army for this expedition . He left Cambridge in September 1775 with 1 @,@ 100 men . Arnold arrived before Quebec City in November , after a difficult passage in which 300 men turned back and another 200 died en route . He and his men were joined by Richard Montgomery 's small army and participated in the December 31 assault on Quebec City in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold 's leg was shattered . His chaplain Rev. Samuel Spring carried him to the makeshift hospital at the Hôtel Dieu . Arnold was promoted to brigadier general for his role in reaching Quebec , and he maintained an ineffectual siege of the city until he was replaced by Major General David Wooster in April 1776 .
Arnold then traveled to Montreal where he served as military commander of the city until forced to retreat by an advancing British army that had arrived at Quebec in May . He presided over the rear of the Continental Army during its retreat from Saint @-@ Jean , where he was reported by James Wilkinson to be the last person to leave before the British arrived . He then directed the construction of a fleet to defend Lake Champlain , which was overmatched and defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island . However , his actions at Saint @-@ Jean and Valcour Island played a notable role in delaying the British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777 .
During these actions , Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress . He had established decent relationships with George Washington , commander of the army , as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates , both of whom had command of the army 's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776 . However , an acrimonious dispute with Moses Hazen , commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment , boiled over into a court martial of Hazen at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776 . Only action by Gates , then Arnold 's superior at Ticonderoga , prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen . He also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton , two lower @-@ level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part . Brown was particularly vicious , publishing a handbill which claimed of Arnold , " Money is this man 's God , and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country " .
= = Saratoga and Philadelphia = =
General Washington assigned Arnold to the defense of Rhode Island following the British seizure of Newport in December 1776 , where the militia were too poorly equipped to even consider an attack on the British . Arnold took the opportunity to visit his children while near his home in New Haven , and he spent much of the winter socializing in Boston , where he unsuccessfully courted a young belle named Betsy Deblois . In February 1777 , he learned that he had been passed over by Congress for promotion to major general . Washington refused his offer to resign , and wrote to members of Congress in an attempt to correct this , noting that " two or three other very good officers " might be lost if they persisted in making politically motivated promotions .
Arnold was on his way to Philadelphia to discuss his future when he was alerted that a British force was marching toward a supply depot in Danbury , Connecticut . He organized the militia response , along with David Wooster and Connecticut militia General Gold S. Silliman . He led a small contingent of militia attempting to stop or slow the British return to the coast in the Battle of Ridgefield , and was again wounded in his left leg .
Arnold continued on to Philadelphia , where he met with members of Congress about his rank . His action at Ridgefield , coupled with the death of Wooster due to wounds sustained in the action , resulted in Arnold 's promotion to major general , although his seniority was not restored over those who had been promoted before him . Amid negotiations over that issue , Arnold wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11 , the same day that word arrived in Philadelphia that Fort Ticonderoga had fallen to the British . Washington refused his resignation and ordered him north to assist with the defense there .
Arnold arrived in Schuyler 's camp at Fort Edward , New York on July 24 . On August 13 , Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix , where he succeeded in the use of a ruse to lift the siege . Arnold had an Indian messenger sent into the camp of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger with news that the approaching force was much larger and closer than it actually was ; this convinced St. Leger 's Indian support to abandon him , forcing him to give up the effort .
Arnold then returned to the Hudson , where General Gates had taken over command of the American army , which had by then retreated to a camp south of Stillwater . He then distinguished himself in both Battles of Saratoga , even though General Gates removed him from field command after the first battle , following a series of escalating disagreements and disputes that culminated in a shouting match . During the fighting in the second battle , Arnold operated against Gates ' orders and took to the battlefield to lead attacks on the British defenses . He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting . Arnold himself said that it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg . Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle , on October 17 , 1777 . In response to Arnold 's valor at Saratoga , Congress restored his command seniority . However , Arnold interpreted the manner in which they did so as an act of sympathy for his wounds , and not an apology or recognition that they were righting a wrong .
Arnold spent several months recovering from his injuries . Rather than allowing his shattered left leg to be amputated , he had it crudely set , leaving it 2 inches ( 5 cm ) shorter than the right . He returned to the army at Valley Forge in May 1778 to the applause of men who had served under him at Saratoga . There he participated in the first recorded Oath of Allegiance along with many other soldiers , as a sign of loyalty to the United States .
The British withdrew from Philadelphia in June 1778 , and Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city . Even before the Americans reoccupied Philadelphia , Arnold began planning to capitalize financially on the change in power there , engaging in a variety of business deals designed to profit from war @-@ related supply movements and benefiting from the protection of his authority . Such schemes were not exactly uncommon among American officers , but Arnold 's schemes were sometimes frustrated by powerful local politicians who eventually amassed enough evidence to publicly air charges against him . Arnold demanded a court martial to clear the charges , writing to Washington in May 1779 , " Having become a cripple in the service of my country , I little expected to meet [ such ] ungrateful returns " .
Arnold lived extravagantly in Philadelphia , and was a prominent figure on the social scene . During the summer of 1778 , he met Peggy Shippen , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Judge Edward Shippen , a Loyalist sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city . Peggy had been courted by British Major John André during the British occupation of Philadelphia . Peggy and Arnold married on April 8 , 1779 . Peggy and her circle of friends had found methods of staying in contact with paramours across the battle lines , despite military bans on communication with the enemy . Some of this communication was effected through the services of Joseph Stansbury , a Philadelphia merchant .
= = Plotting to change sides = =
As early as 1778 , there were signs that Arnold was unhappy with his situation and pessimistic about the country 's future . On November 10 , 1778 , General Nathanael Greene wrote to General John Cadwalader , " I am told General Arnold is become very unpopular among you oweing to his associateing too much with the Tories . " A few days later , Greene received a letter from Arnold , where Arnold lamented over the " deplorable " and " horrid " situation of the country at that particular moment , citing the depreciating currency , disaffection of the army , and internal fighting in Congress for the country 's problems , while predicting " impending ruin " if things would not soon change .
Some time early in May 1779 , Arnold met with Joseph Stansbury ( whose testimony before a British commission apparently erroneously placed his meeting with Arnold in June ) . Stansbury said that he then " went secretly to New York with a tender of [ Arnold 's ] services to Sir Henry Clinton . " Stansbury ignored instructions from Arnold to involve no one else in the plot , and crossed the British lines and went to see Jonathan Odell in New York . Odell was a Loyalist working with William Franklin , the last colonial governor of New Jersey and the son of Benjamin Franklin . On May 9 , Franklin introduced Stansbury to Major André , who had just been named the British spy chief . This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André , sometimes using his wife Peggy as a willing intermediary , that culminated over a year later with Arnold 's change of sides .
= = = Secret communications = = =
André conferred with General Clinton , who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold 's offer . André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold . This initial letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence that Arnold might provide , and included instructions for how to communicate in the future . Letters would be passed through the women 's circle that Peggy Arnold was a part of , but only Peggy would be aware that some letters contained instructions , written in both code and invisible ink , that were to be passed on to André , using Stansbury as the courier .
By July 1779 , Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths , as well as the locations of supply depots , all the while negotiating over compensation . At first , he asked for indemnification of his losses and £ 10 @,@ 000 , an amount that the Continental Congress had given Charles Lee for his services in the Continental Army . General Clinton was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley , and was interested in plans and information on the defenses of West Point and other defenses on the Hudson River . He also began to insist on a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting , and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high @-@ level command . By October 1779 , the negotiations had ground to a halt . Furthermore , Patriot mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists , and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened . Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in @-@ laws .
= = = Court martial = = =
The court martial to consider the charges against Arnold began meeting on June 1 , 1779 , but was delayed until December 1779 by General Clinton 's capture of Stony Point , New York , throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react . A number of members of the panel of judges were ill @-@ disposed to Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war , yet Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on January 26 , 1780 . Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact ; however , Washington published a formal rebuke of Arnold 's behavior in early April , just one week after he had congratulated Arnold on the March 19 birth of his son Edward Shippen Arnold .
The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief would have been much happier in an occasion of bestowing commendations on an officer who had rendered such distinguished services to his country as Major General Arnold ; but in the present case , a sense of duty and a regard to candor oblige him to declare that he considers his conduct [ in the convicted actions ] as imprudent and improper .
Shortly after Washington 's rebuke , a Congressional inquiry into his expenditures concluded that Arnold had failed to fully account for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion , and that he owed the Congress some £ 1 @,@ 000 , largely because he was unable to document them . A significant number of these documents had been lost during the retreat from Quebec . Angry and frustrated , Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April .
= = = Offer to surrender West Point = = =
Early in April , Philip Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point . Discussions between Schuyler and Washington on the subject had not borne fruit by early June . Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British , informing them of Schuyler 's proposals and including Schuyler 's assessment of conditions at West Point . He also provided information on a proposed French @-@ American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the Connecticut River . ( Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources . ) On June 16 , Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business , and sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel . When he reached Connecticut , Arnold arranged to sell his home there , and began transferring assets to London through intermediaries in New York . By early July he was back in Philadelphia , where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on July 7 , which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a " drawing of the works ... by which you might take [ West Point ] without loss " .
Major André returned victorious from the Siege of Charleston on June 18 , and both he and General Clinton were immediately caught up in this news . Clinton was concerned that Washington 's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island , and he again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture . André had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold to verify his movements . Excited by the prospects , Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coup , but failed to respond to Arnold 's July 7 letter .
Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton , even before he might have expected a response to the July 7 letter . In a July 11 letter , he complained that the British did not appear to trust him , and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made . On July 12 , he wrote again , making explicit the offer to surrender West Point , although his price rose to £ 20 @,@ 000 ( in addition to indemnification for his losses ) , with a £ 1 @,@ 000 down payment to be delivered with the response . These letters were delivered by Samuel Wallis , another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British , rather than by Stansbury .
= = = Command at West Point = = =
On August 3 , 1780 , Arnold obtained command of West Point . On August 15 , he received a coded letter from André with Clinton 's final offer : £ 20 @,@ 000 , and no indemnification for his losses . Due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines , neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement to that offer . Arnold 's letters continued to detail Washington 's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized . On August 25 , Peggy finally delivered to him Clinton 's agreement to the terms .
Washington , in assigning Arnold to the command at West Point , also gave him authority over the entire American @-@ controlled Hudson River , from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City . While en route to West Point , Arnold renewed an acquaintance with Joshua Hett Smith , someone whom Arnold knew had spied for both sides and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson about 15 miles south of West Point .
Once he established himself at West Point , Arnold began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength . Needed repairs on the chain across the Hudson were never ordered . Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold 's command area ( but only minimally at West Point itself ) , or furnished to Washington on request . He also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies , writing , " Everything is wanting . " At the same time , he tried to drain West Point 's supplies , so that a siege would be more likely to succeed . His subordinates , some long @-@ time associates , grumbled about Arnold 's unnecessary distribution of supplies and eventually concluded that Arnold was selling supplies on the black market for personal gain .
On August 30 , Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton 's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary : William Heron , a member of the Connecticut Assembly whom he thought he could trust . Heron , in a comic twist , went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter , and offered his own services to the British as a spy . He then took the letter back to Connecticut , suspicious of Arnold 's actions , where he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia . General Parsons laid it aside , seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion . Four days later , Arnold sent a ciphered letter with similar content into New York through the services of the wife of a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war . Eventually , a meeting was set for September 11 near Dobb 's Ferry . This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river fired on his boat , not having been informed of his impending arrival .
= = = Plot exposed = = =
Arnold and André finally met on September 21 at the Joshua Hett Smith House . On the morning of September 22 , James Livingston , the colonel in charge of the outpost at Verplanck 's Point , fired on HMS Vulture , the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York . This action did sufficient damage that she retreated downriver , forcing André to return to New York overland . Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines , and also gave him plans for West Point .
André was captured near Tarrytown on Saturday , September 23 by three Westchester militiamen named John Paulding , Isaac Van Wart , and David Williams . The papers exposing the plot to capture West Point were found and sent to Washington , where Arnold 's intentions came to light after Washington examined them . Meanwhile , André convinced the unsuspecting commanding officer to whom he was delivered , Colonel John Jameson , to send him back to Arnold at West Point . However , Major Benjamin Tallmadge , a member of Washington 's secret service , insisted that Jameson order the prisoner to be intercepted and brought back . Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant who had been delivering André into Arnold 's custody , but then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André 's arrest .
Arnold learned of André 's capture the following morning , September 24 , when he received Jameson 's message that André was in his custody and that the papers that André was carrying had been sent to General Washington . Arnold received Jameson 's letter while waiting for Washington , with whom he had planned to have breakfast .
He hastened to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where HMS Vulture was anchored , which then took him to New York . From the ship , Arnold wrote a letter to Washington , requesting that Peggy be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia , a request that Washington granted .
When presented with evidence of Arnold 's activities , it is reported that Washington remained calm . He did , however , investigate its extent , and suggested in negotiations with General Clinton over the fate of Major André that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold . This suggestion Clinton refused ; after a military tribunal , André was hanged at Tappan , New York on October 2 . Washington also infiltrated men into New York in an attempt to capture Arnold . This plan very nearly succeeded , but failed when Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia in December .
Arnold justified his actions in an open letter titled To the Inhabitants of America , published in newspapers in October 1780 . In the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Peggy , he wrote , " Love to my country actuates my present conduct , however it may appear inconsistent to the world , who very seldom judge right of any man 's actions . "
= = After switching sides = =
= = = British Army service = = =
The British gave Arnold a brigadier general 's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds , but paid him only £ 6 @,@ 315 plus an annual pension of £ 360 because his plot had failed . In December 1780 , Arnold led a force of 1 @,@ 600 troops into Virginia under orders from Clinton , where he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia , destroying supply houses , foundries , and mills . This activity brought out Virginia 's militia , led by Colonel Sampson Mathews , and Arnold eventually retreated to Portsmouth to either be evacuated or reinforced .
The pursuing American army included the Marquis de Lafayette , who was under orders from Washington to hang Arnold summarily if he was captured . Reinforcements arrived in late March led by William Phillips ( who served under Burgoyne at Saratoga ) , and Phillips led further raids across Virginia , including a defeat of Baron von Steuben at Petersburg , until his death of fever on May 12 , 1781 . Arnold commanded the army only until May 20 , when Lord Cornwallis arrived with the southern army and took over . One colonel wrote to Clinton of Arnold , " there are many officers who must wish some other general in command . " Cornwallis ignored advice proffered by Arnold to locate a permanent base away from the coast , advice that might have averted Cornwallis 's later surrender at Yorktown .
On his return to New York in June , Arnold made a variety of proposals for attacks on economic targets to force the Americans to end the war . Clinton was uninterested in most of Arnold 's aggressive ideas , but finally authorized Arnold to raid the port of New London , Connecticut . On September 4 , not long after the birth of his and Peggy 's second son , Arnold 's force of over 1 @,@ 700 men raided and burned New London and captured Fort Griswold , causing damage estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 . British casualties were high ; nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded . Clinton declared that he could ill afford any more such victories .
Even before Cornwallis ' surrender in October , Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord George Germain his thoughts on the war in person . When word of the surrender reached New York , Arnold renewed the request , which Clinton then granted . On December 8 , 1781 , Arnold and his family left New York for England .
In London , he aligned himself with the Tories , advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans . In the House of Commons , Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold " at the head of a part of a British army " lest " the sentiments of true honor , which every British officer [ holds ] dearer than life , should be afflicted . " To Arnold 's detriment , the anti @-@ war Whigs had gotten the upper hand in Parliament , and Germain was forced to resign , with the government of Lord North falling not long after .
Arnold then applied to accompany General Carleton , who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander @-@ in @-@ chief ; this request went nowhere . Other attempts all failed to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years , and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non @-@ wartime service . His reputation also came under criticism in the British press , especially when compared to that of Major André , who was celebrated for his patriotism .
One particularly harsh critic said that he was a " mean mercenary , who , having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder , quits it when convicted of that charge . " In turning him down for an East India Company posting , George Johnstone wrote , " Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct , the generality do not think so . While this is the case , no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company . "
= = = New business opportunities = = =
In 1785 , Arnold and his son Richard moved to Saint John , New Brunswick , where they speculated in land and established a business doing trade with the West Indies . Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the Maugerville area , and acquired city lots in Saint John and Fredericton . Delivery of his first ship the Lord Sheffield was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him ; Arnold claimed that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late . After her first voyage , Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John . While there , he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Peggy had been fighting while he was away , paying £ 900 to settle a £ 12 @,@ 000 loan that he had taken while living in Philadelphia . The family moved to Saint John in 1787 , where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits . The most serious of these was a slander suit which he won against a former business partner ; and following this , townspeople burned him in effigy in front of his house , as Peggy and the children watched . The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791 .
In July 1792 , Arnold fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale after the Earl impugned his honor in the House of Lords . With the outbreak of the French Revolution , Arnold outfitted a privateer , while continuing to do business in the West Indies , even though the hostilities increased the risk . He was imprisoned by French authorities on Guadeloupe amid accusations of spying for the British , and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to the blockading British fleet after bribing his guards . He helped organize militia forces on British @-@ held islands , receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf . He hoped that this work would earn him wider respect and a new command ; instead , it earned him and his sons a land @-@ grant of 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) in Upper Canada , near present @-@ day Renfrew , Ontario .
= = Death = =
In January 1801 , Arnold 's health began to decline . He had suffered from gout since 1775 , and the condition attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea . The other leg ached constantly , and he walked only with a cane . His physicians diagnosed him as having dropsy , and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition . He died after four days of delirium on June 14 , 1801 , at the age of 60 . Legend has it that , when he was on his deathbed , he said , " Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles . May God forgive me for ever having put on another , " but this story may be apocryphal . Arnold was buried at St. Mary 's Church , Battersea in London , England . As a result of a clerical error in the parish records , his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later . His funeral procession boasted " seven mourning coaches and four state carriages " ; the funeral was without military honors .
He left a small estate , reduced in size by his debts , which Peggy undertook to clear . Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage , perhaps an illegitimate son or grandson .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Infamy in the United States = = =
Arnold 's contributions to American independence are largely underrepresented in popular culture , while his name became synonymous with traitor in the 19th century . The demonization of Arnold began immediately after his betrayal became public . Biblical themes were often invoked ; Benjamin Franklin wrote that " Judas sold only one man , Arnold three millions " , and Alexander Scammell described Arnold 's actions as " black as hell " .
Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold 's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior . The first major biography of Arnold was The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold , published in 1832 by historian Jared Sparks ; it was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold 's treacherous character was allegedly formed out of childhood experiences . George Canning Hill authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid @-@ 19th century , and began his 1865 biography of Arnold : " Benedict , the Traitor , was born ... " .
Social historian Brian Carso notes that , as the 19th century progressed , the story of Arnold 's betrayal was portrayed with near @-@ mythical proportions as a part of the national creation story . It was invoked again as sectional conflicts increased in the years before the American Civil War . Washington Irving used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 Life of George Washington , pointing out that the unity of New England and the southern states which led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point . Jefferson Davis and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold , implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason . Harper 's Weekly published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as " a few men directing this colossal treason , by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint . "
Fictional invocations of Arnold 's name also carried strongly negative overtones . A moralistic children 's tale entitled " The Cruel Boy " was widely circulated in the 19th century . It described a boy who stole eggs from birds ' nests , pulled wings off insects , and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty , who then grew up to become a traitor to his country . The boy is not identified until the end of the story , when his place of birth is given as Norwich , Connecticut , and his name is given as Benedict Arnold . However , not all depictions of Arnold were so negative . Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity , seeking to understand rather than demonize it .
The connection between Arnold and treason continued into the 20th and 21st centuries . On an episode of The Brady Bunch , " Everyone Can 't Be George Washington " , Peter is assigned the role of Arnold in the school play , and is ostracized . On one of The Simpsons ' Halloween specials , Treehouse of Horror IV , Arnold is included in a " jury of the damned " – along with other figures like John Wilkes Booth and Richard Nixon – deliberating the ownership of Homer Simpson 's soul .
Dan Gilbert , owner of the National Basketball Association 's Cleveland Cavaliers , subtly invoked Arnold in 2010 , upset over LeBron James 's announcement of leaving the team . Gilbert 's company lowered the price of posters bearing James 's likeness to $ 17 @.@ 41 , referring to the year of Arnold 's birth .
Novels related to the American Revolutionary war sometimes feature Arnold as a character . Kenneth Roberts ' Arundel series treats him more positively , covering his military campaigns .
= = = Canada = = =
Canadian historians have treated Arnold as a relatively minor figure . His difficult time in New Brunswick led historians to summarize it as full of " controversy , resentment , and legal entanglements " and to conclude that he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists . Historian Barry Wilson points out that Arnold 's descendants ended up establishing deep roots in the country , becoming leading settlers in Upper Canada and later in lands further west , where they established settlements in Saskatchewan . His descendants who adopted the Arnold surname are spread across Canada , most of all those of John Sage . His long woollen British scarlet military jacket with a buff lining continues to be owned by descendants ; as of 2001 , it was held in Saskatchewan . It has reportedly been passed in each generation to the eldest male of the family .
= = Family = =
During his marriage to Margaret Mansfield , Arnold had three sons , all of whom later served in the British Army :
Benedict Arnold ( 1768 – 1795 ) ( Captain )
Richard Arnold ( 1769 – 1847 ) ( Lieutenant )
Henry Arnold ( 1772 – 1826 )
and with Peggy Shippen , he raised a family also active in the British Army :
Edward Shippen Arnold ( 1780 – 1813 ) ( Lieutenant )
James Robertson Arnold ( 1781 – 1854 ) ( Lieutenant General , Royal Engineers )
George Arnold ( 1787 – 1828 ) ( Lieutenant colonel )
Sophia Matilda Arnold ( 1785 – 1828 )
William Fitch Arnold ( 1794 – 1846 ) ( Captain )
= = Tributes = =
There is a memorial to Arnold on the Saratoga battlefield , now preserved within Saratoga National Historical Park , that does not mention his name . Donated by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster , the inscription on the Boot Monument reads : " In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army , who was desperately wounded on this spot , winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution , and for himself the rank of Major General . " The victory monument at Saratoga has four niches , three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates , Schuyler , and Morgan . The fourth niche is empty .
On the grounds of the United States Military Academy at West Point there are plaques commemorating all of the generals that served in the Revolution . One plaque bears only a rank and a date ( " major general ... born 1740 " ) but no name .
A historical marker in Danvers , Massachusetts commemorates Arnold 's 1775 expedition to Quebec . There are also historical markers bearing Arnold 's name in Moscow , Maine , on the western bank of Lake Champlain , New York , and two in Skowhegan , Maine .
The house where Arnold lived at 62 Gloucester Place in central London bears a plaque describing Arnold as an " American Patriot . " The church where Arnold was buried , St Mary 's Church , Battersea , England , has a commemorative stained @-@ glass window , added between 1976 and 1982 . The faculty club at the University of New Brunswick , Fredericton , has a Benedict Arnold Room , in which framed original letters written by Arnold hang on the walls .
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= K @-@ 3 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 3 is a 43 @.@ 262 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 69 @.@ 623 km ) state highway in southeastern Kansas that runs through Crawford , Bourbon and Linn counties from K @-@ 47 near Girard to K @-@ 31 near Blue Mound . It was designated around 1932 , and the entire route was paved by 1958 . The road is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , and is a two @-@ lane road for its entire length . The route 's concurrency with U.S. Route 54 ( US @-@ 54 ) is a part of the National Highway System .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 3 begins at an intersection with K @-@ 47 west of Girard in Crawford County and heads north on a two @-@ lane road through plains . Approximately three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of its southern terminus , the route passes through the small community of Brazilton . North of here , the highway curves to the west , intersects the eastern terminus of K @-@ 146 , and turns back to the north . K @-@ 3 crosses a branch of the Walnut Creek and continues north and cuts through Hepler . The route then enters Bourbon County . North of the county line , K @-@ 3 turns east and begins a concurrency with K @-@ 39 . Shortly after , the highway leaves K @-@ 39 and turns to the north , continuing in that direction for about seven miles ( 11 km ) before bending to the northwest . K @-@ 3 then curves to the north and crosses the Marmaton River .
Continuing north of the river , the highway twists to the northeast and passes through Uniontown . Just north of Uniontown , K @-@ 3 enters a concurrency with U.S. Route 54 ( US @-@ 54 ) and turns west . The highways curve to the northwest , running through slightly wooded flat lands . K @-@ 3 leaves the concurrency with US @-@ 54 just east of the city of Bronson and turns north . About seven miles ( 11 km ) north of the concurrency , K @-@ 3 serves as the eastern terminus of K @-@ 65 . After this intersection , the highway crosses the Little Osage River , then enters Linn County . North of here , K @-@ 3 meets its northern terminus at an intersection with K @-@ 31 east of Blue Mound .
K @-@ 3 is maintained by KDOT . In 2012 , the traffic on the route , measured in annual average daily traffic , was found to be between 130 and 2060 vehicles per day . Most of the traffic was present on the concurrency with US @-@ 54 . K @-@ 3 's concurrency with US @-@ 54 is included in the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
K @-@ 3 first appears on the 1932 state highway map . At that time , the route was almost completely gravel ; only the concurrency with US @-@ 54 was paved . By 1950 , the portion of K @-@ 3 in Crawford County had been paved . The portion of the route from the Crawford – Bourbon county line to the west end of the concurrency with K @-@ 39 was paved in 1953 , and the remainder of the road was paved by 1958 . No significant changes have been made to the route since then .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Firehawk ( roller coaster ) =
Firehawk is a steel flying roller coaster built by Vekoma at Kings Island in Mason , Ohio . It originally opened as X @-@ Flight at Six Flags Worlds of Adventure on May 26 , 2001 . Cedar Fair purchased Worlds of Adventure in 2004 and began efforts to downsize the park . In November 2006 , Cedar Fair announced plans to relocate X @-@ Flight . Kings Island was later revealed as the destination , and it officially reopened as Firehawk on May 26 , 2007 .
Firehawk may not have been the first Flying Dutchman model from Vekoma , a title that belongs to Nighthawk at Carowinds , but it was billed as the Midwest 's first and only flying roller coaster when it opened in 2001 . The notability was short @-@ lived , as the opening of Superman : Ultimate Flight at Six Flags Great America two years later meant it was no longer alone in the region . In addition , Firehawk 's layout is identical to Batwing , another Vekoma Flying Dutchman , located at Six Flags America in Upper Marlboro , Maryland .
= = History = =
= = = Six Flags Worlds of Adventure / Geauga Lake ( 2001 – 2006 ) = = =
While the park was still named Six Flags Ohio , plans for a new roller coaster known as X @-@ Flight were revealed on January 4 , 2001 . Six days later , Six Flags purchased SeaWorld Ohio – next to Geauga Lake – with the intent of merging the two to create Six Flags Worlds of Adventure . The new venture advertised X @-@ Flight as the first Flying roller coaster in the Midwest , and it was the park 's tenth roller coaster overall – the fifth added since 2000 . The new coaster was built on a former bus parking lot , and Geauga Lake Road had to be rerouted around the ride . Regarding the design of the attraction , Jake Bateman , Vice President and General Manager of Six Flags Worlds of Adventure , said :
Land clearing began on December 1 , 2000 , and construction on the footers began February 9 , 2001 . X @-@ Flight was originally supposed to open in early May 2001 , but due to technical difficulties , its opening was delayed . During testing , problems were discovered with several devices including the reclining mechanism on the trains and their restraints . X @-@ Flight 's media day was eventually held on May 24 , 2001 , and the ride officially opened two days later on May 26 .
Cedar Fair purchased the park from Six Flags in 2004 for $ 145 million . They announced intentions of returning the park to its roots as a family @-@ oriented amusement park . The efforts to downsize the park eventually led to X @-@ Flight 's removal . On November 22 , 2006 , Geauga Lake park officials announced that X @-@ Flight was being dismantled to be sent to another unspecified Cedar Fair property . Moving the ride would take some time , as the final sections of track and supports wouldn 't be removed until March 2007 .
= = = Kings Island ( 2007 – present ) = = =
On January 22 , 2007 , green Vekoma track resembling the track of X @-@ Flight was spotted at Kings Island , a Cedar Fair park in Mason , Ohio . On February 5 , 2007 , Kings Island officially announced Firehawk as the former X @-@ Flight roller coaster from Geauga Lake . Construction was scheduled to begin later that month , and the opening was set for Memorial Day weekend later that year . X @-@ Flight 's neon green track and dark blue supports were re @-@ painted red and steel gray , respectively . It was built in an area next to Flight of Fear , creating a new area named X @-@ Base which connects to nearby area Coney Mall . Firehawk officially opened as scheduled on May 26 , 2007 . It was the first roller coaster to be introduced at the park since Cedar Fair purchased it from Paramount Parks in 2006 . The first 2 @,@ 500 riders received commemorative Firehawk T @-@ shirts .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is 3 @,@ 340 feet ( 1 @,@ 020 m ) in length , and the height of the lift is 115 feet ( 35 m ) . There are approximately 300 sections of track colored red with steel gray supports . When the ride operated at Geauga Lake , the track was neon green with dark blue supports .
Firehawk has a total of five inversions - one vertical loop , two inline twists , and four 180 @-@ degree inline twists that are each counted as a half inversion . These 180 @-@ degree inline twists are also known as " Lie to Fly " and " Fly to Lie " elements , in which riders on their backs are flipped to face the ground or vice versa .
= = = Layout = = =
Once riders are seated and restrained , the train is tilted backwards into a ' lay @-@ down ' position and dispatched . The train travels backwards out of the station , turns left and travels up the 115 @-@ foot ( 35 m ) lift hill at a 33 degree angle . Once the train reaches the top of the lift hill , it dips down into a twist ( called a " Lie @-@ to @-@ Fly " ) that turns the trains upside down into a flying position where riders face the ground . After the twist , the train travels down the first drop , reaching speeds of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) . Riders then proceed through an over banked Horseshoe Curve element , passing the queue area . Following the Horseshoe , the train enters a " Fly @-@ to @-@ Lie " element that turns riders back to a lay @-@ down position . After the banked turn , the ride enters the 66 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) tall vertical loop , where riders experience 4 @.@ 3 G 's . The train then goes into another " Lie @-@ to @-@ Fly " element . Following the loop , riders enter another turn and hit two consecutive inline twists . Following the inline twists , the train enters the final helix followed by the final " Fly @-@ to @-@ Lie " element . Afterwards , the train is slowed to a stop on the brake run before returning to the station .
= = = Station = = =
The coaster features a dual station which is connected to the main track using a switch track segment ( similar to a railroad switch ) . Dual @-@ station operation allows for two trains to be loaded simultaneously for more efficient operation . This configuration existed since the ride debuted at Geauga Lake .
= = = Trains = = =
Firehawk currently operates with two trains . There are six cars with four seats in each row for a total of 24 riders per train . There were three trains during the ride 's first year at Geauga Lake , however only two have been used since . The third train became a parts donor for the first two . Originally , riders reclined on the lift hill – rather than in the station – and returned to an upright position prior to re @-@ entering the station . However , this was changed to occur in the station due to problems that arose during the ride 's first season . The trains feature the Firehawk logo on the front colored yellow and red . Previously at Geauga Lake , the X @-@ Flight logo was colored lime green and dark blue .
= = Incident = =
On August 8 , 2009 , an adult male passenger was rushed to a hospital after he was found with breathing problems following the ride . He died the same evening . The Hamilton County Coroner 's Office reported that a heart condition was the likely cause of death and ruled it natural . The ride was re @-@ opened at 12 : 10 pm on August 9 , 2009 , after an inspection by the Ohio Department of Agriculture – a division of the state government responsible for amusement park ride safety in Ohio . They determined the ride was operating within the manufacturer 's specifications .
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= Aliso Creek ( Orange County ) =
Aliso Creek ( Spanish for " Alder Creek " ; also called Alisos Creek ) is a 19 @-@ mile ( 31 km ) -long urban stream that runs through Orange County in the U.S. state of California from the Santa Ana Mountains to the Pacific Ocean , collecting seven main tributaries . The creek is mostly channelized , and as of 2004 , the 30 @.@ 4 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 78 @.@ 7 km2 ) watershed had a population of 149 @,@ 000 divided among seven incorporated cities .
The creek flows generally south @-@ southwest through a narrow coastal watershed at the southern extreme end of the arid Los Angeles Basin in a fairly straight course . Owing to the submersion of Southern California in the Pacific Ocean as recently as 10 million years ago , the creek flows over marine sedimentary rock that dates from the late Eocene to the Pliocene . The present @-@ day form of the watershed , with its broad sediment @-@ filled valleys and deeply eroded side canyons , was shaped by a climate change during the previous Ice Age that produced Aliso Canyon , the creek 's final gorge .
The name was given to the creek by Spanish explorers in the 18th century , although there are now many places in California that use the name . Historically , the creek served as the boundary between the Juaneño ( Acjachemem ) and Gabrieleño ( Tongva ) Indians . The creek 's watershed then became a major portion of the 1842 Rancho Niguel Mexican Land Grant to Juan Avila , later purchased by two American ranchers . Although attempts to use the creek and its watershed as a municipal water source date to the early 20th century , the water it provided was of poor quality and erratic occurrence . As a result , the creek became neglected throughout the late part of the century , eventually becoming little more than an open wastewater drain . Despite this general decline , the Aliso Creek watershed still supports some biodiversity , and it remains a popular recreational area .
Pollution , floods and development of the watershed and the surrounding county have blighted the water quality and wildlife of the creek since the 1960s , when residential suburban development of the eight cities in the watershed began . Pollution continues to be a major problem for the creek — the subject of many water quality and feasibility studies — but , as with many other Orange County streams , little has been done to correct it .
= = Etymology = =
The Native American name for Aliso Creek has almost certainly been lost . The current name of Aliso Creek was given by Spanish conquistadors sometime between the 1750s and the 1800s . The word aliso means " alder tree " in Spanish , and likely refers to the riparian vegetation that lines the creek especially near its mouth . The California sycamore , Platanus racemosa , is also known as aliso in Spanish , and is common in the area around the creek . According to the Geographic Names Information System of the United States Geological Survey , there are now 46 places in California that use the name , as well as five other streams in California that use the name , including as a variant name .
Other derivatives for Aliso Creek 's name have arisen since then — including " Los Alisos Creek " and " Alisos Creek " . Several nearby geographical features also are named for the creek , including Aliso Peak , a 683 @-@ foot ( 208 m ) headland . A middle school in the Saddleback Valley Unified School District , Los Alisos Intermediate School , borders the creek . The creek is also the namesake of Aliso Creek Road , which crosses the creek once and only parallels it for a short length . The city of Aliso Viejo and several other communities that lie near the stream also share their name with the creek .
= = Course = =
Aliso Creek rises in the foothills of the Santa Ana Mountains , near the community of Portola Hills , part of Lake Forest , and at the boundary of the Cleveland National Forest . The Loma Ridge rises about 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) above the creek 's headwaters , which are at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 700 m ) . There is no pond , lake or spring at the creek 's ultimate source ; it starts out as a small seasonal gully that courses southwards through a small valley with relatively little development . The creek then continues generally southwest for 19 miles ( 31 km ) to the Pacific Ocean at Laguna Beach , collecting water from seven major tributaries and over forty minor drains and streams . For much of its course , the creek is channelized and confined by urban development . It only flows freely in several stretches in its far upper and lower course . Passing south of several residential areas on the foothills to the north , Aliso Creek and El Toro Road run parallel for much of the creek 's length upstream from Interstate 5 . Flowing southwest in a small ravine along the right side of the road , the creek soon passes underneath the twin bridges of California State Route 241 , and receives from the right an unnamed northern fork . At this confluence , the creek turns more to the south , then crosses under El Toro Road and bisects another residential area . As it enters the city of Lake Forest , it receives from the right Munger Creek and from the left English Canyon Creek , a larger tributary which drains part of the city of Mission Viejo , 16 miles ( 26 km ) from the mouth .
The creek crosses under Trabuco Road and Jeronimo Road ; the latter was once the site of a stream gauge . It makes a bend to the southeast then veers back south , entering a large gulch and crossing beneath Interstate 5 . The creek then enters a culvert beneath Paseo de Valencia , then crosses under Laguna Hills Drive and cascades under Moulton Parkway , through the community of Laguna Hills . It then swings to the southeast and receives the Aliso Hills Channel , which enters from the left , 13 miles ( 21 km ) from the mouth . The Aliso Hills Channel drains much of eastern Laguna Hills , western Mission Viejo , and southeastern Lake Forest . From the confluence , the gradient of the creek flattens sharply and the stream enters a broad and shallow valley that runs between Aliso Creek Road on the west and Alicia Parkway on the east . It passes under California State Route 73 , which crosses the valley on an earthfill and a bridge segment . The creek receives from the right the Dairy Fork , 9 miles ( 14 km ) from the mouth , which drains parts of southern Laguna Hills and northeastern Aliso Viejo . The southwest @-@ flowing Dairy Fork once flowed in a prominent canyon that was filled in the 1960s and 1970s to build the city of Aliso Viejo ; State Route 73 now runs above the former canyon .
After receiving the fork , Aliso Creek passes into three massive culverts that cross under Pacific Park Drive , which crosses also on an earthfill . Flowing past several sports complexes , it begins to form the boundary of Aliso Viejo and Laguna Niguel , then crosses under Aliso Creek Road into Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park . Here , it receives from the left its largest tributary , Sulphur Creek . This creek is about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) long and drains a fair portion of northern Laguna Niguel , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from the mouth . From there , Aliso Creek bends west and enters Aliso Canyon , which cuts through the San Joaquin Hills on the creek 's final run to the sea . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of the Sulphur Creek confluence , the creek is briefly impounded behind a small dam , and receives the south @-@ flowing Wood Canyon Creek , the second largest tributary , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the mouth . Wood Canyon Creek drains the largest arm of Aliso Canyon and most of eastern Aliso Viejo . Flowing almost due south through a valley with slopes dissected by many deep side canyons , Aliso Creek turns sharply west as it enters private property less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the mouth . This section of the canyon is known for flooding frequently . The creek then enters a reserved size lagoon , crosses under the Pacific Coast Highway and enters the Pacific Ocean .
= = = Tidal lagoon = = =
At Aliso Beach , the mouth of Aliso Creek , lies a freshwater pond that changes frequently in elevation and extent . Tidal activity at the creek 's mouth results in sediment building gradually up into a sandbar , impounding it in a small lake about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) long at its fullest extent . Afterwards , the water level rises upstream of the sandbar until one of two factors causes it to breach : either waves at high tide wash away the top of the sandbar , or the lagoon rises enough to overtop the sandbar by itself . Once the water level rises above the sandbar , rapid erosion quickly cuts through the sand and drains the approximately 3 – 5 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 5 m ) -deep lake in a matter of minutes . Peak flows through the sandbar can reach 500 cubic feet per second ( 14 m3 / s ) , even if the incoming flow of the creek is nowhere near that size . Because of the raised flow of the creek and the construction of a parking lot in the lagoon area since the 1960s , the lagoon has never been able to fill to its much larger , historic extent without breaching . Species such as the tidewater goby have suffered because of loss of their habitat this way .
= = = Discharge = = =
Aliso Creek is known to have historically contained water for most of the year , averaging 6 @.@ 7 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 19 m3 / s ) in the wet season ; urban runoff has raised the creek 's year @-@ round base flow to close to 9 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 26 m3 / s ) at the mouth , with routine surges of more than 700 cubic feet per second ( 20 m3 / s ) in the winter . The United States Geological Survey had two stream gauges on the creek — one at the mouth in Laguna Beach , and one at the El Toro Road bridge near Mission Viejo . The Laguna Beach gauge was in operation from 1983 to 1986 , and the El Toro gauge was operational from 1931 to 1980 . The former received runoff from about 95 percent of the watershed , while the latter received runoff from 7 @.@ 91 square miles ( 20 @.@ 49 km2 ) , or 26 percent of the watershed area .
The largest flow recorded at the Laguna Beach streamflow gauge was 5 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 150 m3 / s ) with a water depth of 11 @.@ 3 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) on March 1 , 1983 . The 1983 flood was caused by an El Niño event causing heavy runoff from the overdeveloped watershed . Damage was worst at the mouth of Aliso Canyon , which contains the Aliso Creek Inn and several other structures . On February 16 , 1986 , 2 @,@ 880 cubic feet per second ( 82 m3 / s ) was recorded , and 2 @,@ 870 cubic feet per second ( 81 m3 / s ) was recorded on October 1 , 1983 .
The largest flow recorded at El Toro was 2 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 71 m3 / s ) on February 24 , 1969 , with a water depth of 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) . On January 5 , 1979 , the second largest flow , 2 @,@ 450 cubic feet per second ( 69 m3 / s ) , was recorded , and 1 @,@ 950 cubic feet per second ( 55 m3 / s ) on February 6 , 1937 . There was another nearby gauge — now out of service — at the Jeronimo Road crossing just downstream of El Toro . Before it was taken out of service in the 1980s , it frequently recorded periods of extremely low or nonexistent flow for most of the year .
The dramatic change in Aliso Creek flows from the 1960s onwards can be seen in streamflow data from the El Toro gauge . From 1931 to 1960 , the average peak flow was 511 cubic feet per second ( 14 @.@ 5 m3 / s ) — though peaks recorded ranged from zero to 1 @,@ 950 cubic feet per second ( 55 m3 / s ) . Between 1960 and 1980 , the average peak flow was 1 @,@ 178 cubic feet per second ( 33 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) , nearly twice the average before 1960 . Urban runoff now constitutes nearly 80 percent of the creek 's dry season flow — 7 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 20 m3 / s ) — and natural runoff , including springs in the Santa Ana Mountains , now supply a negligible amount of the creek 's water .
= = Geology = =
Most of Southern California , including all of Orange County , was periodically part of the Pacific Ocean ; the most recent epoch was approximately 10 million years ago ( MYA ) . The Santa Ana Mountains , which now border the creek to the north and east , began their uplift about 5 @.@ 5 million years ago along the Elsinore Fault . Aliso Creek formed about this time , running from the mountains across the broad coastal plain to the Pacific .
About 1 @.@ 22 million years ago , the San Joaquin Hills along the Orange County coast began their uplift along a blind thrust fault ( the San Joaquin Hills blind thrust ) extending south from the Los Angeles Basin . As Aliso Creek was an antecedent stream , or one that had formed prior to the mountains ' uplift , it cut a water gap through the rising mountains that today is Aliso Canyon . The same phenomenon occurred to the north with Laguna Canyon and San Diego Creek , and to the south at San Juan Creek . The uplift also caused Aliso Creek 's largest tributary , Sulphur Creek , to turn north to join Aliso Creek instead of flowing south to Salt Creek . The Wisconsinian era was responsible for shaping the watershed to its present @-@ day form , with deep side canyons and broad alluvial valleys .
During the last glacial period ( 110 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) , especially in the Wisconsinian glaciation ( 31 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) , the climate of Southern California changed radically from arid to wet , to a climate likely similar to the present @-@ day Pacific Northwest . Prodigious rainfall gradually turned the small streams of the region into large and powerful rivers . It was this surge in volume that allowed Aliso Creek and other rivers to cut through the San Joaquin Hills . A 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) drop in sea level escalated the process , allowing the rivers to flow more rapidly and have more erosive power . As sea levels rose after the Wisconsinian glaciation , the water gaps the rivers had cut through the San Joaquin Hills , including Aliso Canyon , became fjord @-@ like inlets . Aliso Creek and these other streams deposited sediments into the inlets , turning them into flat @-@ floored alluvial valleys with an elevation very close to sea level . Eventually , the sediment deposited met the coastline . By then , the rivers and streams had diminished to their original flow before the glaciation .
In the wake of the periodic inundation of Southern California by the ocean , most of the Aliso Creek watershed is underlain by several layers of marine sedimentary strata , the oldest dating from the Eocene ( 55 @.@ 8 – 33 @.@ 9 MYA ) and the most recent , the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 33 – 2 @.@ 59 MYA ) . These alluvial sediments range from 13 to 36 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 to 11 @.@ 0 m ) in depth . Generally throughout the watershed , there are five major soil and rock outcrop types — Capistrano sandy loam , Cieneba sandy loam , Marina loamy sand , Myford sandy loam , and Cieneba @-@ rock outcrop . The water table ranges from 6 to 20 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) deep .
= = Watershed = =
= = = Geography = = =
The Aliso Creek drainage basin lies in the south central part of Orange County , roughly halfway between the Santa Ana River and the Orange – San Diego County boundary . It is a roughly spoon shaped area of 30 @.@ 4 square miles ( 79 km2 ) , comprising generally hilly and sometimes mountainous land . The watershed borders five major Orange County watersheds : Santiago Creek to the north , San Diego Creek to the west , Laguna Canyon to the southwest , Salt Creek to the southeast , and San Juan Creek to the east . To be more specific , the boundary with San Diego Creek is drained to the west by two tributaries of San Diego Creek — Serrano Creek and the La Cañada Wash . Two tributaries of San Juan Creek — Oso Creek and Trabuco Creek — border Aliso Creek to the northeast and southeast .
As of 2004 , the Aliso Creek watershed had a population of 149 @,@ 087 . Nine communities were established in the creek 's watershed as it was developed in the 20th century . By 2001 seven of them had become cities ( from mouth to source , Laguna Beach , Laguna Niguel , Aliso Viejo , Laguna Hills , Laguna Woods , Lake Forest , and Mission Viejo ) , and the last two , Foothill Ranch and Portola Hills , were incorporated into the city of Lake Forest in 2000 . The largest urban area in the basin is in the middle , where Interstate 5 bisects the watershed east to west . The northern boundary of this urban area stretches a little beyond California State Route 241 and the southern boundary is near California State Route 73 in the south . This area consists primarily of Lake Forest , Laguna Woods , and Laguna Hills .
The Loma Ridge of the Santa Ana Mountains runs east to west in the far northeastern corner of the watershed , forming the water divide with Santiago Creek . The San Joaquin Hills are at the southwestern portion of the watershed , following the coastline , and subranges within form the divides with Laguna Canyon and Salt Creeks . While the Santa Ana Mountains rise to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) or more , the San Joaquin Hills top out at 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) at Temple Hill ( " Top of the World " ) , which lies to the north of Aliso Canyon — the water gap in the San Joaquin Hills through which Aliso Creek passes . Most of the hills rise to only 600 feet ( 180 m ) or 700 feet ( 210 m ) . The largest body of water in the watershed , Sulphur Creek Reservoir , is located to the northeast of Aliso Canyon .
= = = Bacterial pollution = = =
Aliso Creek 's watershed , as well as most of Orange County , saw a rapid jump in urban development from the 1960s onward , which introduced increased flow , non @-@ native vegetation , and high bacterial levels to the creek , severely hurting its ecology . The creek is part of the Clean Water Act list of impaired waters , which is defined as " impaired by one or more pollutants that do not meet one or more water quality standards " . It is said that Aliso Creek is one of the " most publicized " streams on the list . As of 2001 , the average annual precipitation in the San Juan Hydrological Unit , which Aliso Creek is part of , was 16 @.@ 42 inches ( 417 mm ) .
Bacteria affecting the water quality mainly consist of different types of fecal coliforms , with a high level of E. coli bacteria . This comes from pet waste , fertilizer , manure , and other organic pollutants that are washed into the creek , raising the average bacteria level 34 percent higher than levels declared safe under California law . This in turn affects recreation at popular Aliso Creek Beach at the creek 's mouth , violating state swimming standards 99 percent of the time , especially during storm events , as beachgoers are warned to avoid the creek for 72 hours ( 3 days ) after a major storm event .
According to the county health department , the number of bacteria in the creek , especially at the freshwater lagoon at its mouth , frequently exceeds limits set by California law .
According to the Los Angeles Times , " County health officials acknowledge that the bacterial count at the mouth of the creek — which curls into a warm @-@ water stagnant pond that flushes out onto the beach — is at times alarmingly high , often surpassing the legal limit for California . As a result , the area where the creek meets the sea , and the creek itself , are considered permanently off limits to swimmers and bear prominent signs that warn of the dangers of trespassing into such toxic waters . Nevertheless , people do , almost daily . Officials from the Orange County Environmental Health Department say that skin rashes , infections , " pink eye " and other assorted ailments are not uncommon to those who use Aliso Beach and , unwittingly , come in contact with the creek and its invisible bacteria ... " . The problems facing the creeks are blamed on urbanization , which has deprived the creeks of needed sediment while increasing pollution .
= = = Other pollutants = = =
Chlorine is responsible for the degradation of fish and shrimp in the creek . The sources for chlorine in urban runoff include irrigation and car washing . The only remaining fish species in the creek is carp , which can withstand high amounts of chlorine . Carp up to 18 inches ( 1 @.@ 5 feet / 45 cm ) long have been found in Aliso Creek near the mouth . Temperatures of the creek near the mouth have been known to exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , although the temperature at the outflow is often much colder because it has been mixed with seawater .
Changes of sediment patterns in the creek have also created another problem . Stemming from the construction of structures interfering with stream flow , and increased runoff from the urban areas adjoining the creek , excessive erosion has created problems not limited to just the creek . The creek is eroding material from its bed and transporting it to the ocean , but naturally , sediment from the whole watershed flowed towards the main stem via a complex network of tributaries . The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers warned in a 1997 study that up to $ 4 @.@ 2 million in damage occurs per year as a result of the pollution of Aliso Creek and its neighbor San Juan Creek . This includes physical damage to creek banks , bridges , pipes and other creekside structures .
In the upper portion of the watershed , spectacular erosion @-@ related events have occurred at English Canyon Creek , where water flowing at high velocity around a bend during a flood caused several landslides in the 1990s .
= = = Recreation = = =
The Aliso Creek watershed includes portions of the Cleveland National Forest in the upper watershed , and two major regional parks — the 3 @,@ 879 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 570 ha ) Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park and its adjoining Aliso Creek Beach , one of the county 's most popular beaches with over one million annual visitors ; and the 236 @-@ acre ( 96 ha ) Laguna Niguel Regional Park , which borders Sulphur Creek . Because of its shallowness and erratic flow , Aliso Creek is not navigable even in the winter and spring ( rainy season ) ; the only spot in the entire watershed where boating is possible is Sulphur Creek Reservoir . A mostly paved trail , the Aliso Creek Trail , follows the creek from Aliso Canyon to the Cleveland National Forest .
The only major fishing spot in the Aliso Creek 's watershed is the 44 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) Sulphur Creek Reservoir , formed by a large earthfill dam across Sulphur Creek inside Laguna Niguel Regional Park . The lake is regularly stocked with catfish , bass , bluegill , and trout during the winter months . Any other location in the watershed will probably yield only the bottom @-@ dweller carp .
Most of the trails in the watershed are biking and equestrian trails located in the lower portion of the watershed , in the immensely popular Aliso Canyon and its tributary , Wood Canyon . Aside from the main Aliso Creek Trail , the Wood Canyon Trail parallels a tributary of Aliso Creek ( Wood Canyon Creek ) . There is also a bikeway along Sulphur Creek and along parts of English Canyon .
= = Wildlife = =
= = = Historic = = =
Before agricultural and later urban development of the watershed , live oak , sycamore , and alder trees lined the banks of Aliso Creek and its major tributaries , specifically Wood Canyon , Sulphur and English Canyon creeks , in a rich riparian zone . Coyotes , mountain lions , and other large mammals were found throughout the Aliso Creek watershed , especially in the mountainous areas in the San Joaquin Hills and Santa Ana Mountains . These animals can still be found in some number , but they are mostly confined to the wilderness areas that are surrounded by residential development . These " islands " of native vegetation and wildlife still support many native Southern California organisms . As the creek was perennial , the riparian zone surrounding the creek likely was similar to that of San Juan Creek to the south .
Researchers and long @-@ time residents of the lower Aliso Creek watershed have argued for many years over the presence of steelhead trout in Aliso Creek . Up until 2006 the National Marine Fisheries Service stated that Aliso Creek is a " [ coastal basin ] with no evidence of historical or extant of O. mykiss in anadromous waters . " Contrary to that , a 1998 major study co @-@ authored by the US Army Corps of Engineer and US Fish & Wildlife Service declared that steelhead had inhabited the creek until around 1972 when increased density ( urbanization ) resulted in poor water quality conditions ( pollutants and low oxygen levels ) that drove the migrational fish out .
On February 20 , 2009 , in a written rebuke , chastising an Aliso Creek water rights applicant ( South Coast Water District ) a formal letter sent by NOAA Regional Manager Rodney McGinnis to Antonio Barrales of the State Water Resources Control Board , Water Rights Division , revised that 2006 assessment . Carbon copied was California Fish & Game ( Mary Larson ) plus US Fish & Wildlife Service ( Christine Medak ) . This was due to 9 years of constant petitioning by the South Orange County environmental protectionist group Clean Water Now ( CWN ) led by Founder and Executive Director Roger E. Bütow , Board member Michael Hazzard , Joanne Sutch ( Laguna Beach Beautification Committee ) and Devora Hertz ( Planet Laguna ) . Frank Selby , owner of His & Hers Fly Shop in Costa Mesa , was interviewed by Oc Register and lA Times reporters , he confirmed his own steelhead takings from the 1950s and 60s , last sighting in 1972 . Frank then sent a letter to CEMARS ( June 2008 ) titled " Regarding Aliso Creek Steelhead . " He was also personally interviewed by the CWN Board to confirm actual sightings and taking .
NMFS then reversed itself and declared that there was sufficient , credible information to declare that Aliso Creek had been steelhead habitat and was added to the Distinct Population Segment List under the jurisdictional domain of NOAA . It is now considered a candidate for re @-@ colonization .
During the prolonged 9 @-@ year dispute that began in 2000 , Bütow and his working group " Friends of the Aliso Creek Steelhead " provided authentic Native American ( Juañeno ) anecdotes of takings , pictures by upstream fishermen with their catches and other personal accounts by longtime local residents that helped convince the State . It was a negotiated truce between Bütow and NOAA : Only the lower 7 miles of the creek was eventually listed because its conditions were amenable to historical populations . The habitat " termination line " was drawn at about Aliso Creek where it crosses an arterial road : Pacific Parkway in Aliso Viejo . In fact , Mary Larson ( steelhead restoration coordinator for CF & G ) , declared to reporters when the ruling was reversed that it was obviously true , its historical presence a " duh , no @-@ brainer moment . " Many anglers in the 1960s and 1970s reported taking tens or even hundreds of steelhead trout from Aliso Creek 's estuary and Aliso Creek Canyon ( approximately 4 miles ) before suburban development began . This indicates that there was a " possible run or population " of steelhead in Aliso Creek at some point . The creek is also inhabited by bottom @-@ dwellers such as carp , and historically shrimp and other benthic organisms were found throughout perennial pools in the Aliso Creek watershed . Historically , a large population of tidewater goby ( 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 ) was documented at the creek 's mouth by Swift et al .. ( 1989 ) , from a study period that ranged from March 1973 to January 1977 . The tidewater goby , which depended on the transient lagoon at the mouth for survival , has declined in number because of modifications to its habitat .
= = = Human impact = = =
Since urbanization began in the 1960s , sudden high and sediment @-@ lacking flows of polluted water began to destroy the native riparian vegetation once found along much of the creek . Exotic plants , including tobacco tree , castor bean , pampas grass , periwinkle , and Artichoke thistle , but most notably the giant reed , then replaced the historic live oaks , sycamores and alders as riparian vegetation . These plants have crowded out native vegetation , and in the case of giant reed , crowded out native animals — giant reed does not provide habitat for any native Southern California animals . These invasive species are most prevalent along upper Sulphur Creek ( Sulphur Creek Reservoir prevents these plants from spreading downstream ) , much of the Aliso Creek mainstem , and some parts of Wood Canyon Creek .
Many of the trees in Aliso Creek 's riparian zone were cut down in the Spanish Mission period to construct buildings , ships , and other projects . According to the Flood Protection Corridor Program of the Costa Machado Water Act of 2000 , " Aliso Creek was one of the few streams that contained water most of the year , even during the pre @-@ development period . There are documents describing explorers mooring their ships outside the mouth of the river and harvesting large timbers from the river area . Such large timbers could only be available from a relatively lush environment in which water was somewhat plentiful . " Some trees survived into the early 20th century , then a second decline of unknown cause began — either erosion or floods in the creek were responsible for their destruction , or the water table has lowered out of reach of the trees ' roots . The water table began a drastic decline in the 1960s , after the watershed began to become urbanized .
Although historically many fish species used Aliso Creek , the only remaining one is carp , which is known to survive in areas with high toxicity . Bird life was also abundant in the watershed — and 137 species remain in the less developed areas of the watershed . Some of these birds include California least tern , least Bell 's vireo , southwestern willow flycatcher , California gnatcatcher , and western snowy plover . Remaining habitat for native wildlife is now primarily along Wood Canyon Creek , in the upper reaches of Aliso Creek , and along some parts of English Canyon .
Aside from carp , several species of fish and amphibians still inhabited the creek up to the 1980s , when floods destroyed much of the remaining riparian habitat . These included the mosquito fish , bluegill , bass , and channel catfish , as well as several species of native frogs . After the floods , most of these species were reported to have disappeared completely .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
It is believed that in Native American times , Aliso Creek served as part of an important tribal boundary — between the Tongva in the north and the Acjachemen ( or Juaneño ) tribe in the south . The Tongva 's territory extended north , past the Santa Ana River and San Gabriel River , into present @-@ day Los Angeles County , while the Acjachemen 's smaller territory extended from Aliso Creek south , past San Juan Creek , and to the vicinity of San Mateo Creek in present @-@ day San Diego County . The creek 's perennial flow made it a likely spot for Indian settlement , although the Tongva 's main settlements were near the San Gabriel River and the Acjachemen mostly lived at the confluence of San Juan Creek and Trabuco Creek . Even so , some 70 major archaeological sites have been discovered along the creek , and it is believed that there was once an Acjachemen Indian village near the confluence of Aliso Creek and Sulphur Creek , named Niguili , which means " a large spring " in the native Luiseño dialect . The spring still exists near the intersection of Alicia Parkway and Highlands Road in present @-@ day Laguna Niguel , about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 ) km east of Aliso Creek 's confluence with Sulphur Creek .
The creek 's use as a tribal boundary is disputed . As other southern California Native Americans have done , a tribe typically claimed both sides of a stream or river — and used drainage divides as boundaries instead . However , the presence of Aliso Canyon , a steep and difficult @-@ to @-@ traverse gorge , suggests the opposite . Kroeber ( 1907 ) was the first to support this theory , and many other archaeologists have followed as well . The Juaneño disagree , arguing that their boundary stretches north to the northern drainage divide of the Aliso Creek watershed , which supports the practice of claiming both sides of a stream .
= = = Spanish explorers and missionaries = = =
In 1769 , the Portola expedition camped near Aliso Creek on July 24 – 25 , having come north from the San Juan Capistrano area along the route of today 's Interstate 5 . These first Spanish explorers were accompanied by Franciscan missionaries who took control over nearly all of the coastal Native American groups . They later established Mission San Gabriel Arcángel and Mission San Juan Capistrano near the main native population centers , seeking to convert them to Christianity . Most of the native population was moved to these two missions — the Spanish called the Tongva Gabrielinos and the Acjachemen , the Juaneño , after these two missions . The Spanish began farming and ranching practices on many of the fertile floodplains surrounding the only perennial streams in the area — San Juan and Trabuco Creek , Aliso Creek , and the Santa Ana , San Gabriel and Los Angeles rivers to the north . Many of the trees in the riparian zones surrounding these creeks — specifically Aliso Creek — were cut down , and it was said that the trees near the " river [ ' s ] " mouth were especially tall and there were written accounts of Spanish ships mooring in the large bay at the outlet of Aliso Canyon and men going ashore to chop down and take away these trees for constructing mission buildings , ships and other structures .
= = = The Mexican period = = =
Mexico won independence from Spain in 1822 , keeping the Alta California province , and secularized the missions in the 1830s . Former mission lands were divided into private land grants . In 1842 , Juan Avila received the 13 @,@ 316 @-@ acre ( 53 @.@ 89 km2 ) Rancho Niguel grant . The name of the rancho was partially derived from a corruption of the original name of the village , Niguili . ( The rancho name later became part of the name of the city of Laguna Niguel . )
= = = Statehood = = =
Following the Mexican – American War , California was annexed by the United States , becoming the 31st state in 1850 . In 1871 , the first white settler along Aliso Creek , Eugene Salter , claimed 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) along the lower creek , inside Aliso Canyon . The following year the 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) were acquired by George and Sarah Thurston , homesteaders who converted the mouth of the creek into an orchard irrigated by its waters for roughly the next half century .
= = = Urbanization and development = = =
In 1895 , Rancho Niguel was acquired by rancher Lewis Moulton ( 1854 – 1938 ) and his partner , Jean Pierre Daguerre ( 1856 – 1911 ) . The rancho remained under their ownership for approximately thirty @-@ eight years , and the rancho continued to be owned by the Moulton family until the 1960s . Rancho Niguel was eventually assimilated into Laguna Niguel , Aliso Viejo , Laguna Hills , and Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park .
By the 1920s , Aliso Creek was already being experimented with as a municipal water source . In 1924 , the City of Laguna Beach drilled wells into gravel deposits near the mouth of the creek , in order to provide drinking water . Just four years later , the unusually high and unexplained presence of chloride in the water prompted the city to abandon Aliso Creek as a water source . Taking advantage of the creek 's high winter surges , ranging from 0 to 404 acre feet ( 0 to 498 @,@ 327 m3 ) monthly , local resident A. J. Stead proposed in 1934 to build a dam very near the mouth of the creek , forming a reservoir with a capacity of 2 @,@ 650 acre feet ( 3 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 m3 ) and safe annual yield of 150 acre feet ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 ) . Although the proposal was accepted , the results are unknown — there is no remaining trace of these works today .
By the late 1960s , increasing runoff in the creek from the growing cities in the watershed begun to spell ecological problems and severe erosion for the creek . Although a series of flood control channels upstream of Aliso Creek Road ( near Aliso Canyon ) had already begun to prevent erosion in those heavily developed areas , the creek eroded to depths of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) or more in any unlined areas .
In 1969 a flow control and erosion mitigation project for Aliso Creek was begun , requiring the construction of two concrete drop structures on the creek . These two vertical barriers , 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long , were built both upstream and downstream of Aliso Creek Road . Several grouted riprap structures were also constructed between and downstream of these drops .
A small dam was built about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) downstream of Aliso Creek Road in the 1990s — inside Aliso Canyon — as part of a " mitigation bank project " . This project , known as ACWHEP ( Aliso Creek Wildlife Habitat Enhancement Project ) was intended to provide water to 70 acres ( 0 @.@ 28 km2 ) of former riparian areas now several feet higher than the eroded channel of the creek . It was conceived and jointly funded by the county and the Mission Viejo Company . The dam was also supposed to control further erosion downstream . Due to faulty design , however , the dam failed to prevent erosion , which has continued to undermine structures throughout the canyon . The grouted riprap structure is about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high and 100 feet ( 30 m ) long , and aside from impounding water , captures debris and temporarily controls wet season flows . The building of these modifications , as well as dry weather runoff from seven municipal storm sewer systems , began to contribute to the infamous pollution of Aliso Creek .
= = = = Cities and protected areas timeline = = = =
In 1927 Laguna Beach became the first city to be incorporated in the Aliso Creek watershed and the second in Orange County . At this time , prior to the 1930s , aside from some farming and ranching practices , the watershed was largely unpopulated . At the end of that decade , the watershed still remained less than 1 percent developed . Up to the 1960s and 1970s , barely 15 percent of the watershed was developed , but by 1990 , after doubling its rate in the past two decades , the watershed was roughly 60 percent developed . The cities of Mission Viejo and Laguna Niguel were incorporated in 1988 and 1989 , respectively . By the end of the 20th century , more than 70 percent of the watershed was developed . The newest city in the watershed , Aliso Viejo , was incorporated in 2001 .
The Cleveland National Forest , the oldest protected area in the Aliso Creek watershed , was created in 1908 , and the next major park to be created was Laguna Niguel Regional Park in 1973 . Land for Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park was first secured in April 1979 with 3 @,@ 400 acres ( 14 km2 ) , and small increments were added to the park until the early 1990s forming a total of 3 @,@ 879 acres ( 15 @.@ 70 km2 ) . Also in the 1990s , Aliso and Wood Canyons became part of the Laguna Coast Wilderness , which stretches north to Crystal Cove State Park .
= = = Flooding and mitigation = = =
Like most other coastal Orange County streams , the watershed of Aliso Creek is now heavily urbanized . With 70 percent of the original land surface now underneath impermeable surfaces such as pavement and buildings , far more runoff now enters the creek — not only inducing an increased year @-@ round flow , but much larger rainy season flows . In the 1920s and 1930s , devastating floods wreaked havoc on much of southern California ; the Los Angeles Flood of 1938 was the most famous flooding episode of this period .
The Orange County Flood Control Act of 1927 was created in the wake of some of the earlier flooding events of this era . Dams and reservoirs , some of the largest of which include Irvine Lake and the Sulphur Creek Reservoir , were the first features to be constructed following the passage of this act . Starting from the 1960s , most Orange County rivers , including Aliso Creek , were channelized . Some , like the Santa Ana River , were entirely lined with concrete , but Aliso Creek retains a natural riverbed in most parts despite being bound to a narrow channel .
Several tributaries of Aliso Creek — the Dairy Fork , Aliso Hills Channel , Munger Creek , and other smaller ones — have been replaced by storm drains . Wood Canyon Creek remains much like its original condition , despite degradation due to polluted water . Sulphur Creek has been channelized and diverted into culverts in several stretches , and English Canyon Creek has received some riprap stabilization and bank protection .
Although there are no major flood control dams on Aliso Creek itself , there are 19 drop structures , and while doing nothing to reduce the creek 's rainy season surges , the drop structures were constructed to mitigate the catastrophic erosion that came with the creek 's increased flow . Although the creek has a wide floodplain throughout most of Aliso Canyon , a major bottleneck lies at the south end of the canyon where a sharp bend in the creek is constricted between crowded development and steep cliffs . In flooding events , this area generally sustains heavy damage .
Another major era of floods lasted from the 1980s until the early 21st century . The 1983 El Niño season brought unprecedented rainfall that produced a flow of 5 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 150 m3 / s ) from the creek , an all @-@ time high . The creek overflowed its banks and flooded up to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep in places . There were five large floods throughout the 1990s , including one in 1998 that reputedly destroyed six footbridges . The years of 2004 and 2005 again saw heavy rainfall .
= = Along the creek = =
= = = Crossings = = =
Crossings of the creek are listed from mouth to source ( year built in parentheses ) . The creek is crossed by roughly 30 major bridges .
= = = Tributaries = = =
From mouth to source , Aliso Creek is joined by six major tributaries . All of these tributaries as well as several others are listed . Another 46 minor streams and drains flow into the creek .
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= Sutton Valence Castle =
Sutton Valence Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the village of Sutton Valence in Kent , England . It was built in the second half of the 12th century , probably by Baldwin of Bethune , the Count of Aumale . Overlooking a strategic route to the coast , the original castle probably comprised an inner and an outer bailey and a protective barbican , with a three @-@ storey high keep on its southern side . It was passed into the Marshal and de Montfort families , before being given by King Henry III to his half @-@ brother William de Valence in 1265 , from whom the castle takes its current name . It was abandoned in the early 14th century and fell into ruin . In the 21st century the castle is managed by English Heritage , and the remains of the keep are open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = 12th – 15th centuries = = =
Sutton Valence Castle was probably built in the second half of the 12th century by the Counts of Aumale , most likely by Baldwin of Bethune , but perhaps alternatively by William le Gros , Baldwin 's father @-@ in @-@ law . The castle was built on a commanding position overlooking the strategic route between the towns of Maidstone , Rye and Old Winchelsea. and the location was originally known as Town Sutton . The stone keep of the castle was constructed around 1200 .
In 1203 , Baldwin gave the castle to his daughter Alicia on her marriage to William Marshal , the Earl of Pembroke , who later remarried , passing the property to his second wife , Eleanor . After William 's death , Eleanor married Simon de Montfort , the Earl of Leicester . Simon led a rebellion against King Henry III during the Second Barons ' War , but was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 , after which Eleanor was stripped of the castle .
The King gave Sutton Valence to William de Valence , his half @-@ brother , who had supported him during the conflict . Under William , the castle acquired its current name of Sutton Valence . Aymer de Valence , his son , inherited the castle in 1307 . The Valences travelled around their estates , increasingly focusing their attention on a handful of their various great houses , and stayed at Sutton Valence on at least several occasions .
After Aymer 's death in 1324 , the castle passed by marriage to Lawrence , Lord Hastings , and was held in the Hastings family until 1390 , when Reginald Lord Grey de Ruthin acquired it . There are few historical records of the castle beyond this point , but it appears to have been abandoned in the early 14th century and by the 15th century had become ruined .
= = = 16th – 21st centuries = = =
By the end of the 18th century , the historian Edward Hasted described Sutton Valence Castle as being " now almost covered with ivy , and the branches of the trees which sprout out from the walls of it . " Archaeological excavations were carried out at the site during the mid @-@ 1950s with the assistance of Maidstone Museum and the local Sutton Valence School , focusing on the castle keep . The castle was placed into the guardianship of the state in 1976 ; it is now owned by English Heritage and conservation work was done on the ruins in the 1980s . It is protected under UK law as a Grade II listed building and as a Scheduled Monument .
= = Architecture = =
Sutton Valence Castle occupied a spur of the Chart Hills , adjacent to the village of Sutton Valence , and probably comprised an inner and an outer bailey and a protective barbican . Visitors would have entered through an eastern barbican , coming through to an outer bailey ; these features only survive as earthworks . A dry ditch protected the inner bailey , which was approximately 300 by 34 metres ( 984 by 112 ft ) across , positioned on the southern side of the site . It probably included a hall , chapel and kitchen , but only the castle keep now survives . The keep is 11 metres ( 36 ft ) square , with walls 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) thick , built from ragstone and flint rubble and surviving up to 7 metres ( 23 ft ) high . It was originally 20 metres ( 66 ft ) tall , with at least three storeys , and entered through an external staircase leading to a doorway in the first floor . The building had a corner tower , in which was a spiral staircase linking the floors , and had clasping buttresses at the corners .
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= John Hummer =
John Hummer ( born May 4 , 1948 ) is a venture capitalist and retired professional basketball player who was an original member of the Buffalo Braves after starring for the Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team . He also led his high school to the 1966 Virginia State 1A championship and helped Princeton earn a 1967 @-@ 68 co @-@ Ivy League Championship as well as a 1968 @-@ 69 outright Ivy League Championship . Over the course of his basketball career , he was coached by four National Basketball Hall of Fame members .
In college , Hummer was a three @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( first @-@ team : 1969 & 1970 , second team : 1968 ) . He played for two Ivy League champion teams and served as team captain as a senior . He was a part of the first of head coach Pete Carril 's thirteen Ivy League champions ( 1968 ) , eleven NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament teams ( 1969 ) and three undefeated conference champions ( 1969 ) . Although Hummer set no statistical records , his name continues to be ranked high in the Princeton record book by many statistical measures .
He played six seasons in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Braves , Chicago Bulls and Seattle SuperSonics . He was the 15th overall selection in the 1970 NBA Draft and the first draft choice in the history of the Braves franchise . As a Braves draft choice , he was a somewhat controversial pick in a draft year with two All @-@ American local products available . During his NBA career , he played for Hall of Famers Dolph Schayes , Bill Russell and Jack Ramsay .
After his professional basketball career ended , he went to Stanford University to get an MBA in 1980 . In 1989 , Ann Winblad and he founded Hummer Winblad Venture Partners , a venture capital firm focusing on software companies .
= = Amateur career = =
Hummer attended Washington @-@ Lee High School in Arlington , Virginia . Following in the footsteps of his brother Ed Hummer , he led W @-@ L to the 1966 Virginia 1A state title as a high school senior . Ed had led the team to the 1962 and 1963 titles . His nephew ( Ed 's son Ian ) was a freshman on the 2009 – 10 Princeton team .
In Hummer 's sophomore season at Princeton , the team was co @-@ champion of the Ivy League with a 20 – 6 ( 12 – 3 Ivy ) record . Despite the fact that Princeton had three of the five first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy team members , plus second @-@ team member Hummer , they lost the one @-@ game league playoff to the Jim McMillian @-@ led 1968 Columbia Lions . That year the team rose to as high as 8th in the AP Poll . This was the first of thirteen Ivy League championships for head coach Pete Carril .
The following season , the team accumulated a 19 – 7 ( 14 – 0 ) record and participated in the 1969 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . They lost to St. John 's in the tournament , but Hummer was joined by Geoff Petrie on the first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy squad . This was the first of eleven NCAA tournament appearance for Carril . It was also the first of three 14 – 0 conference champions for Carril .
As a senior , Hummer was first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy , but the Tigers placed third in the conference to the undefeated ( in Ivy League games ) Corky Calhoun @-@ led Penn Quakers and McMillian 's Lions . Although Princeton did not appear in the 1970 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , they hosted Penn 's game . All three of his varsity years were spent under Carril . Again , following in the footseps of his brother who had served as Princeton captain of the 1966 – 67 team , John was co @-@ captain for the 1969 – 70 team along with classmate Petrie . Hummer was honored with the team 's B. Franklin Bunn ’ 07 Award for play , sportsmanship and influence that contributed most to the sport .
During his career , he shared the spotlight with Petrie and did not set any statistical records at a school and conference where Bill Bradley continues to dominate the record books . Over the course of his career , Hummer was the 9th Tiger to accumulate 1000 career points ( 1031 in 67 games ) and he continued to rank seventh in school history with a 15 @.@ 4 points / game average through the 2009 – 10 season . Since his career ended in 1970 only Brian Taylor has posted a higher average . He stands eighth in career free throws made ( 297 ) , having only been passed since his career ended by Craig Robinson and Kit Mueller . He is tenth in career rebounds .
= = Professional basketball career = =
Following his senior season , Hummer was one of three first @-@ round Ivy League selections in the 1970 NBA Draft ( Petrie – 8th , McMillian 13th and Hummer 15th ) . Hummer was also drafted by The Floridians in the 1970 American Basketball Association draft . The 1970 draft included two promising All @-@ American local @-@ Buffalo area talents : St. Bonaventure University 's Buffalo @-@ born Bob Lanier and Niagara University 's Calvin Murphy . Murphy was a fan favorite that many local fans hoped the Braves would select . However , Braves General Manager Eddie Donovan doubted the 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) Murphy could make it in the NBA . The Baltimore Bullets traded to improve their draft position on the day of the March 23 , 1970 NBA draft . They traded their # 15 selection and Mike Davis to the expansion Buffalo Braves for the # 9 selection . That day , the Braves selected Hummer with the 15th pick . Hummer averaged 11 @.@ 3 points and 8 @.@ 9 rebounds for the 1970 – 71 Buffalo Braves during an average of 32 @.@ 6 minutes in 81 games played for coach Dolph Schayes . The 22 – 60 Braves finished fourth in the four @-@ team Atlantic Division . Hummer and the Braves struggled for two more seasons with 60 @-@ loss seasons . The 1972 – 73 Braves were Jack Ramsay 's first coaching season with his second NBA team .
After the Braves selected Ernie DiGregorio in the 1973 NBA Draft to complement 1972 NBA Draft selection Bob McAdoo , it was clear the team was going to change to fast @-@ paced offense to leverage DiGregorio 's skills . Hummer was more of a defensive player . Prior to the 1973 – 74 NBA season , Hummer was packaged with a 1974 NBA Draft 2nd round pick and a 1975 NBA Draft 2nd round pick in a trade that sent him to the Chicago Bulls in exchange for Gar Heard and Kevin Kunnert . The deal was part of the resume that earned Donavan the NBA Executive of the Year Award . That season the 54 – 28 Dick Motta @-@ coached 1973 – 74 Bulls team that he was traded to initially would make the playoffs , but the 36 – 46 Bill Russell @-@ coached 1973 – 74 SuperSonics that he would finish the season with would not .
During the season ( on January 7 ) , he was traded by the Bulls to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for a 1975 NBA draft 2nd round selection . Russell 's SuperSonics ( 1974 – 75 and 1975 – 76 ) were the only playoff teams that he played in the postseason with . In the 1975 NBA Playoffs , the Sonics defeated the Detroit Pistons 2 – 1 in the first round before losing to the Golden State Warriors 4 – 2 . Hummer appeared in six of the nine playoff games that year , but accumulated no points . The following season the Sonics earned a bye in the first round of the 1976 NBA Playoffs where they lost to the Phoenix Suns . Hummer appeared in three of these games .
Never a strong free throw shooter , Hummer failed to make 50 % of his free throws during his last three seasons in the NBA . In the 1974 @-@ 75 season , he shot an unusually low 0 @.@ 275 from the free throw line .
= = Education and finance career = =
Hummer graduated from Princeton University in 1970 with an A.B. in English and in 1980 with an MBA from Stanford Graduate School of Business . In 1989 , Ann Winblad and he founded Hummer Winblad Venture Partners , which claims to have been the first venture capital firm to focus exclusively on software companies . The company now makes multimillion @-@ dollar investments in several companies per year . The company has financed over 100 ventures that have been on the forefront of trends that have gone from PC software to enterprise computing to Internet applications . The company 's investments have now spanned generations of software applications , architectures , delivery methods , and business models , including Omniture , Voltage Security , Mulesource , Wind River Systems and Hyperion Solutions . Other notable companies that they have provided venture capital for that no longer exist are Napster , Pets.com , and HomeGrocer .
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= New York State Route 293 =
New York State Route 293 ( NY 293 ) is a 6 @.@ 82 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 98 km ) state highway located entirely within eastern Orange County , New York , in the United States . The highway starts at U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 , known as the Long Mountain Parkway ) in Woodbury , and heads to the northeast , ending at an intersection with US 9W and NY 218 in the community of Highlands . It does not pass through any notable populated areas as most of the land around it is protected either as state parkland or US military reservation . However , it receives much traffic as the major route between the United States Military Academy at West Point and the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 87 or I @-@ 87 ) .
What is now NY 293 was originally designated as part of NY 37 in the mid @-@ 1920s . All of NY 37 became part of a realigned US 6 in 1928 . US 6 was rerouted again c . 1934 to bypass West Point to the south . Its former routing through the academy grounds became NY 293 .
= = Route description = =
NY 293 begins at a junction with US 6 in Woodbury less than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the Thruway , in Harriman State Park . From there it travels in a roughly east @-@ northeast direction between the Harriman properties and the vast USMA reservation , most of which is only selectively open to the public . NY 293 's next major junction also serves as its northern terminus , at US 9W in Highlands . NY 218 ends its concurrency with US 9W there and takes over the roadway that continues east beyond the underpass . West Point 's Washington Gate is a short distance past the intersection .
The Long Path hiking trail follows in the woods closely alongside NY 293 near its southern terminus . Since truck traffic cannot use US 6 , truck drivers may use NY 293 to reach US 9W .
= = History = =
What is now NY 293 was originally designated as part of NY 37 , an east – west highway extending from Monroe to the Connecticut state line near Brewster over most of modern US 6 , in the mid @-@ 1920s . In 1927 , the first route log of the U.S. Highway System published by AASHO placed US 6 on what is now US 209 from Port Jervis to Kingston within New York . At the time , the US 6 designation ended in Kingston and resumed at the Connecticut state line in Danbury . The gap in the designation was eliminated in 1928 when US 6 was realigned east of Port Jervis to follow most of its modern alignment ; however , from Woodbury to the Bear Mountain Bridge , US 6 followed what had been NY 37 from Central Valley to Highlands and overlapped with US 9W south from Highlands to the bridge . US 6 was realigned c . 1934 to bypass West Point to the south while its former routing through the academy grounds was redesignated as NY 293 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Orange County .
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= Pennsylvania Route 997 =
Pennsylvania Route 997 ( PA 997 ) is a 49 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 78 @.@ 9 km ) route in Franklin and Cumberland counties in central Pennsylvania . The route runs from the Maryland state line south of Waynesboro , where it continues into that state as Maryland Route 64 ( MD 64 ) , north to PA 233 in the Upper Mifflin Township community of McCrea . PA 997 heads north from the state line through agricultural areas in the Cumberland Valley and passes through Waynesboro , where it intersects PA 16 , and Mont Alto , where it intersects the south end of PA 233 , before coming to U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) in Greenwood . From here , the route turns northwest and comes to a junction with Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) and PA 696 near Scotland and US 11 in Green Village . PA 997 crosses PA 433 in Culbertson and heads north along the eastern border of Letterkenny Army Depot to Pleasant Hall , where it crosses PA 533 . The route continues north through rural areas and intersects PA 433 near Lurgan and PA 641 in Roxbury before heading northeast and reaching an interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 76 ) near Blue Mountain . PA 997 leaves Franklin County for Cumberland County and intersects the north end of PA 696 before continuing to McCrea .
PA 997 was designated in 1928 between Mont Alto and US 30 in Fayetteville along Mont Alto Road . The same year , the present route between the Maryland border and Waynesboro became part of PA 316 while the section between Lurgan and Roxbury became part of PA 433 . PA 333 was designated in 1928 to run from US 30 in Chambersburg northeast to US 11 in Shippensburg , heading north to Pleasant Hall , west to Upper Strasburg , northeast to Roxbury , east to Newburg , and south to Shippensburg . By 1930 , PA 997 was extended south from Mont Alto to PA 16 in Waynesboro , while PA 333 was moved to a more direct alignment between Pleasant Hall and Roxbury ( running concurrent with PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury ) and PA 996 was designated onto the road between Scotland and Green Village . In 1937 , PA 997 was extended south to MD 60 at the Maryland border south of Waynesboro and northwest to US 11 in Green Village , replacing PA 996 between Scotland and Green Village , while the north end of PA 333 was cut back to PA 433 in Lurgan and PA 944 was designated onto the road between Roxbury and McCrea . PA 997 swapped alignments with PA 316 south of Waynesboro in 1941 , being rerouted to end at MD 64 at the Maryland border . PA 333 was rerouted to head southeast from Pleasant Hall to PA 433 in Culbertson in the 1940s , with a section of the former alignment south of Pleasant Hall remvoed for the Letterkenny Army Depot . PA 997 was extended north from Green Village to PA 233 in McCrea , replacing the entire length of PA 333 , PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , and PA 944 between Roxbury and McCrea . The route was shifted east to its current alignment between Mont Alto and north of Fayetteville in 1977 .
= = Route description = =
PA 997 begins at the Maryland state line in Washington Township , Franklin County , where the road continues south into that state as MD 64 . From the state line , the route heads north @-@ northwest as two @-@ lane undivided Anthony Highway through farmland with some trees and homes . The road crosses the East Branch Little Antietam Creek and soon enters the borough of Waynesboro , where the name becomes State Hill Road , where it passes residences and commercial development . PA 997 curves northwest and immediately turns northeast onto Clayton Avenue , passing homes and coming to an intersection with PA 16 . Here , the route turns northwest to form a concurrency with PA 16 on East Main Street , passing homes and businesses before continuing into the downtown area . At the center of town , PA 997 splits from PA 16 by turning northeast onto North Church Street , heading through more residential areas with a few businesses . The route leaves Waynesboro for Washington Township again and becomes Anthony Highway , passing more development before heading into a mix of farms and woods . The road crosses into Quincy Township and curves northwest and north again as it runs through more rural areas with some residential and commercial development , passing through the communities of Quincy and Knepper .
PA 997 curves northeast and heads into the borough of Mont Alto , where it becomes Main Street and passes homes and a few businesses , coming to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 233 . A short distance past this intersection , the route crosses back into Quincy Township and becomes Anthony Highway again , heading into farmland and entering Guilford Township . The road curves north and passes a golf course and residential development in the community of Ledy before heading through Pond Bank . PA 997 heads north @-@ northeast between farm fields and some homes to the west and a section of Michaux State Forest to the east , passing through the community of Sidetown and crossing into Greene Township , where it continues northeast to an intersection with US 30 in the community of Greenwood .
At this point , PA 997 turns east for a short concurrency with US 30 on Lincoln Way East before turning north onto Black Gap Road . The road curves northwest and heads through wooded areas with some fields and homes . Farther northwest , the route runs through farmland with some residential and commercial development , and gains a center left @-@ turn lane as it passes to the northeast of the Chambersburg Mall . PA 997 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway and comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 696 and an interchange with I @-@ 81 , with the ramps serving the northbound lanes of I @-@ 81 connecting to PA 696 . Past this interchange , the route narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided road and turns north and northwest through fields and woods to bypass the community of Scotland , coming to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Lurgan Branch . The road curves west and then northwest and becomes Cumberland Highway , running through farmland with some woods and residential and commercial development . PA 997 comes to an intersection with US 11 in the community of Green Village , where PA 997 Truck heads south along US 11 . From here , the route passes homes and businesses with some nearby farmland , crossing CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision and passing through the community of Culbertson .
PA 997 intersects PA 433 , where PA 997 Truck returns to the route , and turns north @-@ northwest to run between the Letterkenny Army Depot to the west and agricultural areas to the east . The road crosses into Letterkenny Township and continues north and then northwest through a mix of fields and woods with some development along the eastern border of the military installation . The route curves northeast and heads into the community of Pleasant Hall , where it passes homes and crosses PA 533 . From here , PA 997 runs through a mix of farmland and woodland , crossing the Conodoguinet Creek into Lurgan Township . The road continues north and comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 433 near the community of Lurgan . The route runs through more rural land and curves northwest , passing over the Conodoguinet Creek again and heading back into Letterkenny Township . PA 997 curves north and passes some residential development before heading into wooded areas and crossing the creek a third time and reentering Lurgan Township . At this point , the route heads into the community of Roxbury and comes to a junction with PA 641 , where it turns east to follow that route , passing homes . PA 997 splits from PA 641 by turning northeast onto Cumberland Highway , heading through a mix of farmland and woods with some homes a short distance to the southeast of Blue Mountain . Farther northeast , the route passes businesses and comes to a ramp providing access to the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 76 ) at the Blue Mountain interchange . After this , the road curves east and runs through the community of McKinney .
PA 997 crosses Laughlin Run into Hopewell Township in Cumberland County and winds east along Enola Road through agricultural areas with some trees and homes , coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 696 . At this point , the route turns northeast through more rural land , turning east and northeast again before passing under the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The road enters Upper Mifflin Township and becomes Roxbury Road , continuing through farmland with some wooded areas and residences . PA 997 curves east and then northeast before it makes a turn southeast . In the community of Heberlig , the route makes another turn to the northeast and runs through more rural areas , passing through the community of Little Washington . The road heads into Lower Mifflin Township , where it makes quick turns to the southeast and then to the northeast . PA 997 continues northeast to the community of McCrea , where it comes to its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 233 .
= = History = =
When routes were legislated in Pennsylvania in 1911 , what is now PA 997 between the Maryland border and Waynesboro was designated as part of Legislative Route 44 while a section of the current route south of Roxbury became part of Legislative Route 264 . At this time , an unpaved road ran between Waynesboro , Mont Alto , and Fayetteville . PA 997 was signed in 1928 from Mont Alto , where an unnumbered paved road continued south to Waynesboro , north to US 30 in Fayetteville , following Mont Alto Road . Upon designation , the entire length of PA 997 was paved . The present route between the Maryland border and Waynesboro was designated as part of PA 316 , which was paved , while PA 433 was designated onto the unpaved road between Lurgan and Roxbury . PA 333 was designated in 1928 to run from US 30 in Chambersburg northeast to US 11 in Shippensburg , heading north on North Franklin Street and Letterkenny Road to Pleasant Hall before heading west to Upper Strasburg , northeast to Roxbury , east to Newburg , and south to Shippensburg . Upon designation , PA 333 was paved between Chambersburg and Pleasant Hall and Newburg and Shippensburg and was unpaved between Pleasant Hall and Newburg . On February 25 , 1929 , a bill passed that authorized the state to take over the road between Newburg and McCrea . By 1930 , PA 997 was extended south from Mont Alto to PA 16 in Waynesboro , following a paved road . The same year , PA 333 was shifted east to a more direct alignment between Pleasant Hall and Roxbury that was under construction , running concurrent with PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , while PA 996 was designated onto the paved road between Scotland and US 11 in Green Village . The former alignment of PA 333 became PA 633 ( now PA 533 ) between Pleasant Hall and Upper Strasburg and an unnumbered road between Upper Strasburg and Roxbury . At this time , the road between Mont Alto and Scotland was an unnumbered , unpaved road , the road between Green Village and Culbertson was an unnumbered , paved road , and the road between Roxbury and McCrea was an unnumbered , unpaved road .
In 1937 , PA 997 was extended south from Waynesboro to MD 60 at the Maryland border , following Potomac Street and Wayne Highway , and was extended northwest from Fayetteville to US 11 in Green Village , following Mont Alto Road , Main Street and Mount Pleasant Road before picking up its current alignment . PA 997 replaced the PA 996 designation between Scotland and Green Village . In addition , the north end of PA 333 was cut back to PA 433 near Lurgan , with PA 641 replacing the route between Roxbury and Newburg and PA 696 replacing the route between Newburg and Shippensburg , and an extended PA 944 was designated onto the road between Roxbury and McCrea . In the 1930s , the entire length of both PA 333 and PA 997 were paved along with PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , PA 944 between Roxbury and McCrea , and the unnumbered road between Mont Alto and north of Fayetteville via Black Gap . In 1941 , PA 997 switched alignments with PA 316 south of Waynesboro , with PA 997 rerouted to head south along Clayton Avenue , State Hill road , and Anthony Highway to MD 64 at the Maryland border . In the 1940s , PA 333 was rerouted to head southeast from Pleasant Hall to PA 433 in Culbertson along a new paved road , with a section of the former route between Beautiful and Pleasant Hall removed for the Letterkenny Army Depot . In 1964 , PA 997 was extended north from Green Village to PA 233 in McCrea , replacing the entire length of PA 333 between Culbertson and Lurgan , the section of PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , and the section of PA 944 between Roxbury and McCrea . In the 1960s , PA 997 was rerouted to bypass Scotland to the northeast , with the former alignment now unnumbered Main Street . In 1977 , PA 997 was moved off its alignment on Mont Alto Road , Main Street and Mount Pleasant Road and shifted east onto its current route via Black Gap .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 997 Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 997 Truck ( PA 997 Truck ) is a 3 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) truck route of PA 997 in Greene Township in Franklin County . The truck route begins at PA 997 in Green Village by heading southwest concurrent with US 11 on Philadelphia Avenue , a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that passes through a mix of farmland and residential and commercial development . The road intersects the southern terminus of PA 433 , where PA 997 Truck splits from US 11 by heading north with PA 433 on two @-@ lane undivided Sunset Pike . The road passes through agricultural areas with some industrial development , crossing CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision railroad line . At this point , the route passes to the east of an industrial area adjacent to the Letterkenny Army Depot . The roadway comes to a junction with PA 997 , where PA 997 Truck ends and PA 433 continues north .
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= Reflection ( song ) =
" Reflection " is a song written and produced by Matthew Wilder and David Zippel for the soundtrack of Disney 's 1998 animated film Mulan . In the film , the song is performed by Filipina singer and actress Lea Salonga as Fa Mulan . An accompanying music video for " Reflection " was included as a bonus to the Disney Gold Classic Collection DVD release of the film in 1998 .
A single version of the song was recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera and became her debut single . She was 17 at the time it was released . The single 's commercial success funded Aguilera 's debut album from RCA , in addition to gaining her credibility amongst established writers and producers . Releases of the single were limited , which resulted in the track charting only on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , at number nineteen . An accompanying music video for the song was included on the DVD release of Mulan . Aguilera has performed the track on four televised performances , including at the CBS This Morning show , which saw her gain the attention of songwriter Diane Warren .
= = Use in Mulan = =
In the film Mulan , the song is performed by Filipina singer and actress Lea Salonga as Fa Mulan . " Reflection " , which lasts for 2 : 27 ( two minutes and twenty seven seconds ) , was written and produced by Matthew Wilder and David Zippel , in the key of A major . The track begins with the lyrics " Look at me , I will never pass for a perfect bride , or a perfect daughter " , with Salonga 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of G ♯ 3 to the high @-@ note of D5 in a moderately slow tempo of 92 beats per minute . Irving Tan from Sputnikmusic labelled " Reflection " a " decent " song .
= = Christina Aguilera single release = =
Aguilera approached record label RCA , then having financial difficulties , and was told to contact Disney . After being given the opportunity to record " Reflection " , it was reported she had gained a record deal with RCA Records . After she was asked to hit a musical note required for " Reflection " , she thought that the song could be the gateway into an album deal . Aguilera spent hours recording a cover of Whitney Houston 's " Run to You " , which included the note she was asked to hit . After successfully hitting the note , which she called " the note that changed my life " , she was given the opportunity to record the song . Due to the success around the recording of " Reflection " , RCA wished for Aguilera to record and release an album by September 1998 to maintain the " hype " surrounding her at that time . The label laid the foundation for the album immediately and started presenting Aguilera with tracks for her debut album , which they later decided would have a January 1999 release .
Aguilera 's version of " Reflection " was released to adult contemporary radio on June 15 , 1998 . The song was released as a CD single in Japan on September 18 , 1999 . In 2000 , Aguilera recorded the Spanish version of " Reflection " titled " Mi Reflejo " which was adapted by Rudy Pérez for the album of the same name .
= = = Reception = = =
Beth Johnson of Entertainment Weekly noted Aguilera has a " who @-@ am @-@ I musings " persona in the song , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented that the " Matthew Wilder and David Zippel 's full @-@ fledged songs [ on Mulan ] are flat and unmemorable . " " Reflection " peaked at number 19 on the Adult Contemporary chart . After the success of the track , Aguilera 's record label RCA decided to fund her debut album ( costing over one million dollars ) , and eventually funded more than they had predicted initially .
= = = Live performances = = =
Aguilera performed the song on television four times , first on the CBS This Morning , and then on the Donny & Marie show ; neither of these performances were directed at her demographic of teen viewers . Whilst watching the show on This Morning , Aguilera gained the attention of songwriter Diane Warren , who was astonished by such a young performer being as " polished " as she was . Warren later stated that she had seen the potential in Aguilera . The singer also performed " Reflection " on MuchMusic 's Intimate and Interactive on May 17 , 2000 . An ABC special in 2000 , featuring a performance of the song , was recorded and released in a DVD titled My Reflection .
= = = Track listing = = =
CD single
" Reflection " – 3 : 34
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other languages = =
Edyta Górniak recorded a Polish version of the song titled Lustro ( Mirror ) to promote the movie . Anabela Pires , European Portuguese singing voice of Mulan , along with the whole European Portuguese movie cast , won a prize for the best foreign version , while Yè Bēi , who provided Mulan 's singing voice in the Mainland Mandarin Chinese version , was hailed as one of the " 10 best versions of the world " by Disney director of production .
= = Other versions = =
The group Mannheim Steamroller covered the song on their 1999 album , Mannheim Steamroller Meets the Mouse . Michael Crawford covered this song in The Disney Album . His rendition replaces the word " girl " with " man " in order to avoid gender confusion . Singer and American Idol winner Jordin Sparks performed the song on the Dedication Week of the sixth season of the show , with the performance she moved forward to the next round . Jackie Evancho also covered the song on her fourth studio album , Songs from the Silver Screen . In La Voz ... Argentina ( the Argentinian version of The Voice ) , the Spanish version of the song was covered by Sofia Rangone .
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= Althorp =
Althorp ( / ˈɔːlθɔːp / or / ˈɔːltrəp / ) is a Grade I listed stately home , estate and small civil parish in Daventry District , Northamptonshire , England of about 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 ha ) . By road it is about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) northwest of the county town of Northampton and about 75 miles ( 121 km ) northwest of central London . It has been held by the prominent aristocratic Spencer family for more than 500 years , and has been owned by Charles Spencer , 9th Earl Spencer since 1992 . It was also the home of his sister , Lady Diana Spencer later Princess of Wales , before her marriage to Charles , Prince of Wales .
Althorp is mentioned as a small hamlet in the Domesday Book as " Olletorp " , and by 1377 it had become a village with a population of more than fifty people . By 1505 there were no longer any tenants living there , and in 1508 , John Spencer purchased Althorp estate with the funds generated from his family 's sheep @-@ rearing business . Althorp became one of the prominent stately homes in England . The mansion dates to 1688 , replacing an earlier house that was once visited by Charles I. The Spencer family amassed an extensive art collection and other valuable household items . During the 18th century , the house became a major cultural hub in England , and parties were regularly held , attracting many prominent members of Great Britain 's ruling class . George John , 2nd Earl Spencer , who owned Althorp between 1783 and his death in 1834 , developed one of the largest private libraries in Europe at the house , which grew to over 100 @,@ 000 books by the 1830s . After falling on hard times , John Spencer , 5th Earl Spencer , known as the Red Earl , in 1892 sold much of the collection to Enriqueta Rylands , who was building the University of Manchester Library . Many of Althorp 's furnishings were sold off during the twentieth century , and between 1975 and 1992 alone approximately 20 % of the contents were auctioned .
The house at Althorp was a " classically beautiful " red brick Tudor building , but its appearance was radically altered , starting in 1788 , when the architect Henry Holland was commissioned to make extensive changes . Mathematical tiles were added to the exterior , encasing the brick , and four Corinthian pilasters were added to the front . The grand hall entrance to the house , Wootton Hall , was cited by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as " the noblest Georgian room in the county " . The Great Dining Room in the east wing extension of the house was added in 1877 to designs by John Macvicar Anderson , its walls hung with faded , red damask silk . Numerous fireplaces and furnishings were brought to Althorp from Spencer House in London during the Blitz for safekeeping and still remain . The Picture Gallery stretches for 115 feet ( 35 m ) on the first floor of the west wing , and is one of the best remaining examples of the original Tudor oak woodwork and ambiance in the mansion . It has an extensive collection of portraits , including Anthony van Dyck 's War and Peace , a John de Critz portrait of James I , a Mary Beale portrait of Charles II , and many others . Some £ 2 million was spent on redecorating the house in the 1980s , during which time most of the religious paintings of Althorp were sold off .
In total , the grounds of Althorp estate contain 28 listed buildings and structures , including nine planting stones . The former falconry , now a Grade I listed building , was built in 1613 . Gardener 's House is listed as a Grade II * listed building in its own right , as are the Grade II listed West and East Lodges . The mustard @-@ yellow Grade II listed Stable Block , designed by architect Roger Morris with a Palladian influence , was ordered by Charles , Fifth Earl of Sutherland in the early 1730s . The French landscape architect André Le Nôtre was commissioned to lay out the park and grounds in the 1660s , and further alterations were made during the late 18th century under Henry Holland . Following the death of Diana , Princess of Wales in 1997 , she was interred on a small island in the middle of the ornamental Round Oval lake . A Doric @-@ style temple with Diana 's name inscribed on top , situated across from the lake , is a tourist attraction during July and August when the house and estate are open to the public , although the exhibition centre , situated in the old stable block , closed permanently in 2013 .
= = Etymology = =
A manor existed at Althorp in medieval times . It was referred to in the Domesday Book as " Olletorp " , meaning Olla 's Thorp , believed to refer to a medieval lord named Olla . Thorp is a word of Scandinavian origin , which would have been pronounced as " throop " or " thrupp " , and in Danish probably meant " daughter 's settlement " . In the 13th and 15th centuries it was recorded as " Holtropp " and " Aldrop " , although when the estate was bought by John Spencer in 1508 it began being referred to as " Oldthorpe " .
The name today is properly pronounced as " Awltrupp " , which is not officially recognised on paper and by the media . The current owner , Charles Spencer , noted that none of his family refer to it as Althorp , and that his father insisted on pronouncing it " Awl @-@ trupp " . When he assumed ownership in 1992 , the BBC Pronunciation Department contacted him and the current " Althorp " was agreed upon .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
A hamlet named Althorp existed here in medieval times , believed to have been situated on the southwest side of the park , east of West Lodge . It was first mentioned in the Domesday Book as having a population of ten at the time , and being part of the parish of Brington . It was officially designated as an " extra parochial district " for centuries under the New Bottle Grove Hundred of Brington , but by 1874 it was being cited as an independent civil parish . 21 residents were documented in 1327 , and in 1377 fifty people were reported to have paid Poll Tax over the age of 14 . During the 15th century the population of the village diminished , and in 1505 there were no longer any tenants living there . By 1577 most of the land was converted into four substantial sheep pastures .
In 1469 John Spencer 's uncle – also named John Spencer – had become feoffee ( feudal lord ) of Wormleighton in Warwickshire and a tenant at Althorp in Northamptonshire in 1486 . The family 's administration of their Northamptonshire and Warwickshire estates gained them admiration and a following throughout England , and their sheep @-@ rearing business earned large profits . After beginning construction of Wormleighton Manor the previous year with some 60 relatives , John Spencer bought Althorp in 1508 for £ 800 from the Catesby family . At the time Spencer was also lord of the manors of Fenny Compton , Stoneton , Nobottle , Great Brington , Little Brington , Harlestone , Glassthorpe , Flore , Wicken , Wyke Hamon , Upper Boddington , Lower Boddington and Hinton , and owned numerous other properties . The park took some four years to establish , with 300 acres of grassland , 100 acres of woodland and 40 acres of water .
When John Spencer died in 1522 , he passed the estate to his youngest son , Sir William Spencer , High Sheriff of Northamptonshire , who held it until his death in 1532 . Only a boy at the time of William 's death , his son John Spencer inherited Althorp and held it until his death in 1586 , when he passed it to his son , also John , who died in 1600 . John 's son , Robert , was created the 1st Baron Spencer of Wormleighton on 21 July 1603 . King Charles I is documented to have visited Althorp during his reign . The drawing room was built and the main hall enlarged for the occasion , with £ 1 @,@ 300 spent on the banquet , an exorbitant sum for the period . Upon Robert Spencer 's death in 1627 Althorp devolved to William Spencer , 2nd Baron Spencer of Wormleighton who held it until his death in 1636 . William 's eldest son , Henry Spencer , 1st Earl of Sunderland , known as The Lord Spencer between 1636 and June 1643 , fought in the Battle of Edgehill in 1642 and was rewarded for his services on 8 June 1643 when the title of Earl of Sunderland was bestowed upon him , although the title cost him £ 3 @,@ 000 . He then fought in the Siege of Gloucester in August 1643 and the First Battle of Newbury on 20 September 1643 , where he was killed , aged 23 , by a cannonball .
Following Henry 's death , the estate passed to his eldest son Robert Spencer , 2nd Earl of Sunderland , just two years of age at the time . Cosimo III visited Althorp in 1669 , documenting it in his Travels of Cosmo III . Grand Duke of Tuscany , through England , in 1669 . Robert built the current house in 1688 and made a series of changes to Althorp park . However , Robert 's bad temper and his reputation as a ruthless advocate of absolute monarchy made him numerous enemies , and he was forced to leave the country and flee to the Netherlands the same year . He later underwent a political rehabilitation , becoming Lord Chamberlain of the Household in April 1697 and Lord Justice for a short period before retiring from public life in December of that year , after which he lived a secluded life at Althorp until his death in 1702 . Robert passed Althorp to his son , Charles Spencer , 3rd Earl of Sunderland , who held it for twenty years . Described by John Evelyn as " a youth of extraordinary hopes , " Charles inherited his father 's passion for intrigue and repellent manners , and from his early years he had a great love of books , spending his leisure and his wealth in expanding the library at Althorp . Charles 's second marriage to Anne Churchill , daughter of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough and Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough in 1700 was an important alliance for the Spencers and for his descendants ; through it he was introduced to political life , and later the dukedom of Marlborough came to the Spencers . In 1722 he was implicated in what became known as the Atterbury Plot , to restore the House of Stuart , and his death was one of the factors which brought the Plot to light . Althorp was then occupied by his son Robert Spencer , 4th Earl of Sunderland , who died childless in 1729 . As a result , his brother , Charles , became 5th Earl of Sunderland , and subsequently 3rd Duke of Marlborough after the death of his aunt , Henrietta Godolphin ( née Churchill ) , 2nd Duchess of Marlborough . Charles later led the naval descent on the French coastal port of St Malo during the Seven Years ' War , after passing Althorp to the 3rd Earl 's son , John Spencer , in January 1733 . John Spencer , along with Charles and Thomas Coram , William Hogarth and others , was involved in the charter of the Foundling Hospital . Upon his death in 1746 , John passed his estates to his son John , only 12 years of age at the time , beneficiary to the greatest inheritance in the kingdom at the time with an income of almost £ 30 @,@ 000 a year .
= = = Social and cultural hub = = =
John served as Member of Parliament for Warwick from 1756 to 1761 . He was renowned for his heavy spending on his political pursuits and campaigns , " indulging in the fiercely competitive and heinously expensive business of fighting elections to Parliament – which effectively meant bribing people to vote for his candidate rather than that of another magnate " . He spent £ 120 @,@ 000 in one campaign alone and spent heavily on his estates , building Spencer House in London . He also wore expensive fashionable attire such as " diamond @-@ buckled shoes " . Althorp frequently hosted parties attended by the political and cultural elite , and it became known as a place of indulgence and festivities . At dinners and picnics in the gardens , John hired musicians to play French horns and organised unusual spectacles to entertain guests , such as a " Hooray Henry Olympics " , as Charles Spencer calls it , with a donkey race for Lord Fordwick , dance competitions offering a guinea as the first prize , and sack races with the first prize of 30 shillings . The Christmas of 1755 was a grand affair . John celebrated his 21st birthday with a ball at the house on 20 December during which he secretly married 18 @-@ year @-@ old Margaret Georgiana Poyntz ; the couple did not inform anyone for several days . Around 5 @,@ 000 guests were invited to a celebration party organised by the Spencers in a shed on the village green in the nearby village of Brington , consuming some 11 @,@ 000 pints of beer . Althorp was " buzzing with activity " , and France 's top chefs were brought to Althorp to cater for the family and their guests during the week . He was created Baron Spencer of Althorp and Viscount Spencer by George III on 3 April 1761 , and on 1 November 1765 , he was given the title Viscount Althorp and made the first Earl Spencer . He was also High Steward of St Albans in 1772 and Mayor of St Albans in 1779 . John 's daughter , Georgiana Cavendish , Duchess of Devonshire , was also known for her liberal spending , and although she became one of Britain 's most prominent socialites in the late 18th century , with many political and literary connections , she suffered from a gambling addiction and had an eating disorder .
John 's son George John , 2nd Earl Spencer inherited Althorp after his father 's death in 1783 . He served as Whig MP for Northampton from 1780 to 1782 and for Surrey from 1782 to 1783 before accepting the title of 2nd Earl Spencer . He was later Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 under Lord Grenville in the Ministry of All the Talents . Extremely interested in literary pursuits , he developed one of the largest private libraries in Europe at Althorp . He was the instigator and first President of the Roxburghe Club ( an exclusive bibliophilic club ) , founded in 1812 , President of the Royal Institution from 1813 to 1827 , and Commissioner of the Public Records in 1831 , among other literary pursuits . In later life , his collecting habit had become an obsession , and he attempted to collect every volume ever published in Britain . Such was his desire to obtain as complete a collection as possible , that when Napoleon instigated the secularisation of religious houses in south Germany , Spencer used the local British agent and Benedictine monk , Alexander Horn to acquire many of their rare books and manuscripts . Althorp became a major cultural hub of England during his time ; at one Christmas , the actor David Garrick , the historian Edward Gibbon , the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan and the painter Joshua Reynolds , among other artistic figures. attended a party there together . However , George John 's spending became problematic for the Spencers , especially as at the time they were feeling the impact of the agricultural depressions brought on by the Napoleonic Wars . By the time of his death in 1834 he had amassed a debt of £ 500 @,@ 000 , which he passed onto his son , John Spencer , 3rd Earl Spencer .
The 3rd Earl became an active statesman , serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne from 1830 to 1834 . Along with Lord John Russell , he led the fight to pass the Reform Bill of 1832 , making more than twenty speeches , and is generally considered the architect of its victory . Despite his debts , in respect for his father , John managed to retain the massive book collection , and also continue to run the other Spencer houses at Wimbledon and Spencer House in London , as well as his farm in Wiseton and shooting retreat in Norfolk . He achieved this mainly by far less extravagant living , spending much of the year at Wiseton where the running costs were £ 1 @,@ 200 compared with the £ 5 @,@ 000 needed to run Althorp and pay the staff of 40 in the house . As a result , Althorp was largely abandoned during the late 1830s and early 1840s . John also leased out his lands and gardens and sold land in Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire , repaying all the debt by the time of his death in 1845 , and beginning to run his properties at a profit . His son Frederick Spencer , 4th Earl Spencer , who owned Althorp from 1845 until his death in 1857 , also retained the collection .
John Spencer , 5th Earl Spencer , known as the Red Earl , inherited Althorp in 1857 . He served as a Liberal Party politician and was a close friend of British prime minister William Gladstone , who he served under in all four of his cabinets . Although politically successful , John fell into hard times financially and was forced to eventually sell much of the enormous library collection in 1892 to Enriqueta Rylands , who was building the University of Manchester Library . After dying childless in 1910 , John passed Althorp to his half brother , Charles Spencer , 6th Earl Spencer , who served as Lord Chamberlain from 1905 to 1912 in the Liberal administrations headed by Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman and H. H. Asquith .
= = = Modern history = = =
Times became more difficult for the Spencers by the late 19th century , and many of their assets had to be sold off . Albert Spencer , 7th Earl Spencer inherited the estate after his father Charles ' death in 1922 . Albert became a well @-@ known art connoisseur and was a trustee of the Wallace Collection , chairman of the Royal School of Needlework , a Fellow of both the Society of Antiquaries of London and the Royal Society of Arts , and from 1961 until 1969 he was Chair of the Advisory Council of the Victoria and Albert Museum . Despite his keen interest in art , he began selling off paintings and other items to pay off debts . In the 1930s he was forced to sell off a small but immaculate Hans Holbein portrait of Henry VIII ( now at the Thyssen @-@ Bornemisza Museum , Madrid ) for £ 10 @,@ 000 to finance his son 's education . Although a large sum at the time , by 1998 it was reputed to be worth around £ 50 million . Unlike many country houses in Britain during the Second World War which were occupied by the military and converted into hospitals , training camps and barracks , Althorp house remained untouched , thanks to Albert who saw to it that they used the stables instead . A Wellington bomber crashed near the ice house during the war , killing all of its crew . Due to Spencer House being in a dangerous location in London during the Blitz , many of the pieces of furniture and items of the house were brought to Althorp for safekeeping , including numerous fireplaces and doors with curled " S " doorknobs , a signature of the Spencer family dating to the 18th century .
The estate was first opened to the public in 1953 by Albert , to mitigate against taxation , and Althorp had its own railway station called Althorp Park on the Northampton Loop Line until 1960 . After his death in 1975 , Albert passed Althorp to his son Edward John , 8th Earl Spencer , who had served as Equerry to King George VI ( 1950 – 52 ) and to Queen Elizabeth II ( 1952 – 54 ) . Edward was a wine connoisseur and had an extensive wine cellar at Althorp . He made his own wine and attracted fellow connoisseurs from around the world to Althorp , although he did not sell much of it . During Edward 's ownership of Althorp approximately 20 % of the furnishings of Althorp were sold off . The divestment included eleven Van Dykes and nearly every religious painting in the collection , as well as estate housing , and drew severe public criticism , including from the heir .
Edward left the estate to his son , the current owner Charles Spencer , 9th Earl Spencer , after his death in 1992 . As a teenager , Charles served as a tour guide at the house and acquired a deep knowledge of Althorp . At the time he inherited the estate it was losing some £ 400 @,@ 000 annually , and the staff of 14 had to be significantly reduced . Charles ' older sister was Diana , Princess of Wales , who grew up with him at Althorp .
Since the 1990s Charles Spencer has done much to increase the revenue earned by the estate to keep it running . The annual Althorp Literary Festival was founded in 2003 . The heir apparent is Charles ' son Louis Frederick John Spencer ( born 1994 ) . Charles has expressed concerns about the future of the estate and whether Louis might be forced to sell it . In 2005 Charles endorsed a furniture collection of replicas from the house , known as the Althorp Living History Collection .
In 2009 a major restoration of the roof , stonework and the mathematical tiles that clad the building was undertaken . Approximately £ 10 million was spent on repairing the roof alone . In 2010 an auction of over 700 items from Althorp 's attics and cellars , as well as a Rubens and other notable works , achieved £ 21 million .
= = Architecture and collections = =
Althorp house is described as standing in a low situation , " approached by a handsome avenue , beautifully shaded with trees " . The house was originally a " classically beautiful " red brick Tudor building , and a Johannes Vorstermans painting dated to 1677 shows a smaller red house at Althorp and Holdenby House in the distance to the far right . Cosmo III noted that the interior of Althorp house was strongly influenced by Italian architecture , and remarked that it " may be said to be the best planned , and best arranged country seat in the kingdom ; for though there may be many which surpass it in size , none are superior to it in symmetrical elegance " . The current building dates to 1688 . Diarist John Evelyn described it that year : " The house , or rather palace , at Althorpe is a noble uniform pile in form of a half H , built of brick and freestone ' a la moderne ' ; the hall is well , the staircase excellent ; the rooms of state , galleries , offices , and furniture , such as may become a great prince . It is situate in the midst of a garden , exquisitely planned and kept and all this in a park walled in with hewn stone , planted with rows and walks of trees , canals and fishponds and stored with game . " Its appearance was radically altered in the 18th century when the architect Henry Holland was commissioned to make extensive changes starting in 1788 . Mathematical tiles were added to the exterior , brought from Ipswich , encasing the old red brick , and four Corinthian pilasters , made from Roche Abbey stone in Yorkshire , were added to the front . The stone used to make the pilasters was reportedly intended by Christopher Wren to be used in the construction of St Paul 's Cathedral . Sash windows with glazing bars and " moulded stone heads and surrounds " were added .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the house is generally considered its strongest asset as the Spencer family has assembled an impressive collection of portrait art , including several pieces painted by the Flemish master Anthony van Dyck , and countless valuable pieces of porcelain and furniture . One of the rooms in the estate is called the Queen Mary bedroom , which was used by Queen Mary and George V during their visit to the estate in 1913 . Some £ 2 million was spent on redecorating the house in the 1980s by Raine , Countess Spencer , in a style described by Charles Spencer as having ' the wedding cake vulgarity of a five @-@ star hotel in Monaco ' . This work has been reversed , and the interior returned to its original grand but understated appearance .
= = = = Ground floor = = = =
= = = = = Wootton Hall and Saloon = = = = =
Wootton Hall is the grand hall entrance on the central south side of Althorp house . " Perfectly proportioned " with a two @-@ storey high ceiling , it was cited by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as " the noblest Georgian room in the county " . It takes its name from the painter John Wootton who was commissioned by the family in 1733 to paint a number of massive paintings in his Marylebone studio to reflect the family 's love of equestrian pursuits , particularly fox hunting . At the time , Wootton was considered to be the finest painter of horses in the country . The paintings still hang on the walls . The hall has a substantial collection of artefacts collected over the years . Aside from the hall porter 's chair , there is a dozen or so lavish @-@ looking hall chairs , one of which is a sedan chair , rediscovered in the Stable Block in 1911 , which had once been in Spencer House .
A prominent feature of the Wootton Hall is its pair of Italian black and Beschia marble blackamoor torchères , originally given to the First Duke of Marlborough as a present from General Charles Churchill . In exceptionally good condition , they stand either side of the door into the Saloon . These were discovered in the silt of the River Tiber and are depictions of slaves who once served in a Roman household . Several flags stand above them , including the White Ensign . The ceiling is intricately made , featuring flowers in the plaster , each one different , the work of Colen Campbell in the early 18th century . The black and white check marble floor is also a distinguishing feature of the room , but through most of its history this floor would have been left plain as horses and carriages would enter the hall inside . In the mid 19th century Frederick , the 4th Earl , had laid down brown and blue tiles , replaced by the marble floor which was added by his son Robert in around 1910 . The floor gives significant depth to the hall and provides fine acoustics , so much that Diana would once practice her tap dancing in the hall as a teenager .
Beyond the Wootton Hall is the Saloon , which was converted from an inner courtyard and roofed in 1650 by Dorothy Spencer , Countess of Sunderland . The Saloon was the first room at Althorp to have electricity installed , and it contains an imposing oak staircase , added in the 1660s . Cosmo III noted Althorp 's " spacious staircase of the wood of the walnut tree , stained , constructed with great magnificence ; this staircase , dividing itself into two equal branches , leads to the grand saloon , from which is the passage into the chambers , all of them regularly disposed after the Italian manner , to which country the Earl was indented for a model of the design . " Historically , the staircase was painted white . It is described as being " surprisingly shallow and delightfully uneven – a physical manifestation of the long history of the house " .
= = = = = Sitting and drawing rooms = = = = =
The South Drawing Room is at the front of the house on the West Wing . In earlier times the room had served as a dining room , despite it being about as far from the kitchen as possible . This section of the house was largely remodelled under Henry Holland , but it retains its Georgian elegance today , " gilded to within an inch of its life " , with walls painted in a duck egg blue colour with forest green drapery and peach @-@ patterned sofas . A large mirror with an exquisite gold frame stands between the two windows . The fireplace was added by the Chelsea stonemason Lancelot Edward Wood in 1802 , and the ceiling by master builder Benjamin Broadbent of Leicester in 1865 . The ceiling in the Yellow Drawing Room , also known as the Rubens Room because of its four Rubens paintings , is also attributed to Broadbent . There are numerous paintings on the walls , including fifteen Joshua Reynolds portraits and a miniature portrait in one of the alcoves of Admiral Lord Nelson , an associate of George John , Second Earl Spencer . Although Higgerson , the night watchman , guarded the place from 8 pm to 8 am , in 1954 one of the lesser valuable paintings in the South Drawing Room was stolen in the night .
The Grandmother 's Sitting Room is situated at the front of the eastern wing . It is noted for its deep blue hand @-@ painted frescoes and formal furniture , and was the favourite room of Charles and Diana 's grandmother , Cynthia Spencer , Countess Spencer . Nearby was the Muniment Room in which the Spencer family records were kept , described as a " musty apartment " which contained over 500 years of history , from medieval household accounts to letters from Jacobeans and accounts of Victorian house parties . The room was a favourite haunt of Spencer 's grandfather , Albert Spencer , who would spend thousands of hours in it perusing over the family history . So guarded was he of the collection that when Winston Churchill once spent time in the room looking for information on his ancestor , John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough ( 1650 – 1722 ) , Albert immediately doused out his cigar in fear of creating a fire . The records were sold to the British Library in the 1980s , leaving the room empty , before it was converted to what is known as the " Steward 's Room Flat " . This part of the house once had an extensive collection of 1830s bull paintings by Richard Ansdell .
The Sutherland Room lies at the rear east wing of the house and was once the bedroom of the Earl of Althorp in the first few centuries of the house when it was fashionable for the occupants to sleep on the ground floor and guests to sleep on the first floor . This was still the case during the Holland restoration , and as a result the room was ignored , so it retains many of the earlier mouldings not seen in many other parts of the house . It contains two fireplaces made by John Vardy and James Stuart which were originally situated in Spencer House , and the room has the original 17th @-@ century cornice . The paintings in the room were selected by the current owner Charles Spencer to honour John , Third Earl Spencer and his passion for foxhunting . After it ceased usage as a bedroom , on special occasions the room would be full of life ; on Christmas Day the room would be " transformed into a Christmas fairyland , with clockwork Santas , snowmen and angels all spinning and chiming in the candlelight " . The children would have their places marked by a small cake with their names written on it in icing .
The Marlborough Room , which contains the Great Parlour , is named after Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough , and is situated next to the Sunderland Room and at left angles to the Library . The Marlborough Room served as an " uncomfortable " drawing room until the 1990s when a Victorian rosewood dining table accommodating for up to 42 people was added , with ' squiggle @-@ back ' chairs attributed to George Seddon in 1800 . The new room was created after alterations were made to the large drawing room by the 6th Earl Spencer in 1911 , including the removal of a dividing partition from the old billiard room . Part of the restoration work attributed to the 7th Earl Spencer after 1957 includes a replacement of two Victorian chimney pieces in the Marlborough Room with those from Spencer House , one which was crafted by Peter Scheemakers . Portraits by Thomas Gainsborough , Joshua Reynolds , and George Romney , mostly of family members , adorn the walls , and accessions from the Spencer House are placed throughout .
= = = = = Dining rooms = = = = =
The Great Dining Room is situated in the east wing extension of the house and was added in 1877 under J. MacVicar Anderson during the time of the Red Earl . The room was inspired by the ballroom of Buckingham Palace , with walls hung with faded , red damask silk . The Spencers ate their regular meals in the Tapestry Dining Room , an inner room of the east side to the east of the Wooton Hall . Aside from the two fine vividly constructed tapestries , one of gypsies and one of farming , the room is fairly bleak in design compared to other rooms in the house ; the dining table is relatively small , with a drab grey floor and open brick fireplace dated in large letters to 1683 . The " sombre " oak panelling originally came from the family 's other property of Wormleighton Manor in Warwickshire . Charles Spencer recalled that three generations of Spencers would eat their lunch together and that dining conditions were " silent , apart from the noises of my grandfather eating with great gusto , a napkin tucked in around his neck , hanging down over his popping @-@ out tummy , and it was all very sad and tense " .
= = = = = Library = = = = =
The ceiling of the original library at Althorp collapsed in 1773 , and at the same time a new floor was put down in the Picture Gallery . Ionic columns and an Adam style ceiling were added . George John 's fascination in literature began at a young age and there is a Reynolds portrait in the house of him at Trinity College , Cambridge holding a book By his later life , George John 's collecting habit had become something of an obsession and he attempted to collect every volume ever published in Britain .
The books were kept in five apartments in Althorp in the west wing , which , combined , formed the " Long Library " with books from the floor to the ceiling along much of its approximately 200 by 20 feet ( 61 @.@ 0 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) length . He not only collected British works but imported Greek and Latin classics , and in 1790 , he acquired the collection of Count Charles de Revicksky , paying an initial £ 1000 , and then £ 500 annually until the count 's death , only three years later . George often paid great fees for rare books , including a woodcut of St Christopher dated to 1423 , believed at that time to be the oldest work in ink with a date on it , the Papal Indulgence Letters of 1452 , the Mazarin Bible of 1455 , the Mentz Psalter of 1457 , and some of the earliest works form the printing presses of Augsburg and Nuremberg such as Bonaventurae and Comestiorum Vitiorum . In 1812 , George John was involved in an intense bidding war with his cousin , The Duke of Marlborough , for a copy of Boccacio 's The Decameron of 1471 , one of only three known copies . Marlborough won the auction with a bid of £ 2 @,@ 260 – an amount described by Charles Spencer as " ludicrous " for that time – but he later sold it to George for £ 750 .
In 1802 , George hired Reverend Thomas Frognall Dibdin as an official librarian to look after the collection and the library contains his many catalogues entitled Aedes Althorpianæ , documenting the books of the library . The collection became so enormous that the massive library became inadequate to hold the contents , and books began being stored along the long picture gallery on the first floor above it . By the time of George John 's death in 1834 , he had amassed one of the largest private collections in Europe of some 110 @,@ 000 volumes . Alcoves were added to the ends of the library during the Holland restoration , creating extra room for the growing collection .
= = = = = Billiard Room = = = = =
The Billiard Room is situated between the South Drawing Room and the library , and overlooks the Deer Park . Once known as the " Rubens Room " , the room was once described by Charles Spencer as a " dead space ; desperately uncomfortable furniture , and Ruben 's imposing portraits of several unattractive Habsburgs , against a tightly patterned silver silk , making it anything but welcoming " . The room has now been " brought to life " with numerous horse and sporting paintings and portraits , including a dramatic portrait of Elisabeth , Empress of Austria hunting , and a full @-@ sized billiard table moved from the stables in the 1990s . The chimney piece of the room was made by Derval under Holland , and the room also contains an 1893 bronze sculpture of Forager , the Red Earl 's favourite foxhound . The Broadbent ceiling is dated to 1865 .
= = = = = China Museum and porcelain = = = = =
The old " Painter 's Passage " , parallel to the South Drawing Room was renovated after the Second World War when glass cases were installed along its length to showcase the Spencer crockery , with a range of porcelain including Meissen , Sèvres , Kangxi , Chelsea and Derby pieces . Charles Spencer remarked that his grandfather Albert was trying to say , " This part of Althorp will never be lived in again ; so we may as well use it to show off the treasures in an orderly way " . Today , most of the collection has been moved to the China Museum which lies on the east side of the house , between the Sutherland Room and the Great Dining Room , and the passage now contains a series of busts and paintings in its place , including a self @-@ portrait of Sofonisba Anguisciola , and portraits of the dramatist Molière and the actor David Garrick . Charles Spencer highlights a pair of late 17th century blue and white tulipieres , special vases to hold tulips which were fashionable at the time , as his favourite in the museum .
The Garden Lobby of Althorp also contains a number of pieces of porcelain from reputable European manufacturers , but also several rare Oriental pieces . Of note in the Garden Lobby aside from its many plates is a Sèvres tobacco jar with double strap handles , believed to be painted by Louis Jean Thévenet in 1765 , two Chelsea vases decorated with putti which metaphorically represent the four seasons , which the Red Earl had bought as a gift for his wife Charlotte , an extremely finely carved Meissen flower bowl with hundreds of tiny gilded blooms which dates to around 1745 , a Meissen card box , and a blue and gold cherubic Meissen chocolate set @-@ for @-@ one which was believed to have been made for Marie Antoinette in 1781 as a present celebrating the birth of her son Dauphin .
= = = = First floor = = = =
= = = = = The Picture Gallery and chapel = = = = =
The Picture Gallery stretches for 115 feet ( 35 m ) on the first floor of the west wing , 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high . The room is one of the best remaining examples of the original Tudor woodwork and ambiance in the mansion , featuring oak panelling along its length . During the renovation of the 18th century the oak panelling in the gallery was covered with white paint , and it was not until 1904 that it was restored to its former glory , the restoration funded by the sale of a Rubens painting in the housekeeper 's room . Due to its length , during Tudor times the ladies of the mansion used the gallery for exercise on rainy days to avoid dragging their long skirts and dresses through the mud in the grounds . It was also used as a dining hall , and in 1695 the county nobility and gentry all met together and dined in the gallery to pay their respects to William III .
The gallery has an extensive collection of about 60 portraits , including Van Dyck 's War and Peace , a John de Critz portrait of James I , a Frans Pourbus the Younger aristocratic portrait of Claude Lorraine , Duc de Chevreuse , a Mary Beale portrait of Charles II and others of him by court artist Sir Peter Lely , and portraits of George Digby , Second Earl of Bristol and William , First Duke of Bedford . Visiting the gallery in 1748 , the Marchioness Grey described the gallery in a letter to a friend : " Indeed there is a gracefulness and life in the figures beyond what I ever saw , they are quite animated and a strength of colouring that strikes you from one end of that gallery to the other . It is so beautiful that a picture which hangs by it is hurt by its situation . " Horace Walpole once wrote : " Althorp has several very fine pictures by the best Italian hands , and a gallery of all one 's acquaintances by Vandyke and Lely . In the gallery I found myself quite at home ; and surprised the housekeeper by my familiarity with the portraits . " The portraits in the Picture Gallery are set in extravagant baroque gilded frames , designed by Robert Spencer , the Second Earl , which feature as " cartouche at the top and a stylised mask at the bottom , with a moulded inner edge , which softens the line between frame and painting " . Albert Spencer was so protective of War and Peace , once the most valuable item in Althorp , that he had the nearest tall window in the gallery converted into a door with hinges , so in case of a fire it could safely be lifted outside . There is also a small hidden door between War and Peace and " The Windsor Beauties " cut into the oak which leads to a staircase and the Pink Suite , a guest bedroom . Margaret Douglas @-@ Home , sister of Albert Spencer , lived at Althorp from 1910 , and the gallery was a favourite of hers . During the renovation of the 1980s , the old @-@ fashioned celestial and terrestrial globes dating to the George II period were moved from the gallery back to the library .
The chapel on the upper floor became a store room in the early 1980s for pieces being sold off . The stained glass window of the chapel , with the Spencer crest , dates to 1588 , and was brought to Althorp from Wormleigton . The organ on the other hand is far more recent , acquired from the parish of Meriden in the 1990s . A number of earlier occupants of Althorp , particularly George John and Frederick , were devout Christians and would preach in the chapel , and Robert , 6th Earl Spencer would hold a daily service here . It is still used for family christenings , and for services at Christmas , Easter and Harvest Thanksgiving .
= = = = = Bedrooms = = = = =
The Oak Bedroom is at the rear of the house , on the western side between King William Bedroom and the Great Room . The marriage of the first Earl Spencer and Margaret Georgiana took place in secret here on 20 December 1755 , during a ball which was taking place at Althorp to celebrate John 's 21st birthday . Georgiana later recalled , " We both behaved very well , spoke distinctly and loudly but I trembled so much I could hardly stand " . As of 1998 it was furnished with deep red wall paper , rug and chairs , with oak floors , bed and chairs . There are several portraits on the wall , one of them very large above the fireplace . The Spencer " S " features on the blue velvet bed cover , and above the king @-@ sized bed and by the fireplace .
The room to the east of the Oak Bedroom is known as The Great Room . The room was established in the mid 17th century as part of a reception suite , and was used by George John , the Second Earl for important political conferences during his period as First Lord of the Admiralty and Home Secretary . The Great Room , predominantly red and gold in design like many of the first floor rooms , contains a table and chairs with a large gilded mirror with three urns in front of it . The long mirror , designed by James Stuart , who was noted for his Athenian designs , features a tableaux at the top with the Spencer coat of arms and the pulling of chariots by cherubs , representing the love between John and Georgiana . The Great Room contains an extensive collection of miniature portraits , including a very rare Lucas de Heere portrait of Lady Jane Grey as a teenage girl at her family residence in Bradgate , Leicestershire . The Portrait of Isaak Abrahamsz . Massa is mentioned in the 1822 Bibliotheca Spenceriana as hanging in one of the bedrooms at Althorp . It was sold in 1924 to art merchant Joseph Duveen , who sold it the following year to Canadian businessman Frank P. Wood .
The Princess of Wales Bedroom is named after the wife of the future King Edward VII , Alexandra , Princess of Wales , who stayed at Althorp in 1863 on a visit to see the Red Earl . Although the fabric of the four @-@ poster bed was designed in 1911 , the room is largely Georgian , with deep red walls and furnishings , and contains a notable portrait of a young princess by the Spanish court painter , Bartolomé Esteban Murillo . The Queen Mary Bedroom is named after Mary , the wife of King George V , who visited Althorp in 1913 . It contains a bed with an extremely tall structure , dated to the 18th century , draped in pea green taffet . Of particular note in the Queen Mary Bedroom are two chairs covered with needlework created by Albert , who was once the chairman of the Royal School of Needlework .
The upper floor also contains the India Silk Bedroom and the Ante Room , which measures 23 ft 4 inches by 32 ft 6 inches . Formerly known as the Patchwork Bedroom , the Ante Room was established by Charlotte , Countess Spencer and her sister during the Victorian period , and today forms part of a suite of state chambers .
= = = Outer buildings = = =
In total , Althorp estate contains 28 listed buildings and structures , of which nine are planting stones , dotted around the park . Two are Grade I listed , including the main house ; two are Grade II * listed , including the Stable Block and Gardener 's House , Althorp , and the remainder have a Grade II designation , mainly garden screens , gates and gateways aside from the planting stones .
The mustard @-@ yellow Grade II * listed Stable Block , designed by architect Roger Morris with a Palladian influence , was ordered by Charles , Fifth Earl of Sutherland in the early 1730s . It replaced an earlier building which had long been in disrepair and could hold 30 to 40 horses . Morris designed the building with a clear Tuscan architectural design , drawing upon earlier inspiration from his stables at Inigo Jones 's St Paul 's Church in Covent Garden . A fountain was installed in the courtyard to provide the horse 's troughs with water . Several rooms were built within the stable block , including hot and cold baths for riders after hunting , a veterinarian 's room with medicines for horses , and what was once a smoking room . It was converted into an exhibition centre for Princess Diana between 1998 and 2013 .
The Grade I listed Falconry was built in 1613 using the same local ironstone as the stables and is of similar Palladian appearance , featuring a " gabled roof with ashlar parapets , kneelers and obelisks " . It is a two storey structure , but a single storey red @-@ brick extension was added in the 19th century . The hall of the falconry contains 2 arcaded openings with keystones , and to the left of the hall is a fireplace with Delft tiles , dated to the 19th century . Over the centuries at various times it has been the home of the park warden , the gamekeeper , and the kennelman who looked after the hounds , hosting puppy shows in the 20th century . Both the Stable Block and Falconry became listed buildings in November 1954 . Nearby was the Lavender Cottage with a thatched roof and a wendy house which the Althorp children would play in , but was accidentally burned down by the son of the chauffeur of Albert , and never rebuilt .
The Fifth Earl also built the Grade II * listed Gardener 's House at the back of the park , in a similar Palladian style . The head gardener of Althorp resided at the villa in the 18th century . Princess Diana had been intent on living in the house following her separation from Prince Charles , but due to security concerns it was considered unfeasible . Of particular note is its Victorian three @-@ quarter life @-@ sized marble sculpture , The Shipwrecked Mariner , depicting a sailor reaching desperately from a raft . Charles Spencer has since moved it from the main portico of Gardener 's House to the main house .
Both of the North and South West Lodges of Althorp date to around 1730 under Roger Morris and are both built from lias ashlar with slate roofs . The North and South East Lodges date to around 1810 and are built from limestone ashlar with slate roofs . All four buildings became Grade II listed buildings in November 1954 . The Grade II listed Dairy Cottage , to the northwest of the lake , dates to the late 18th century under Henry Holland , and was listed in December 1986 . It is a two storey building with an attic and hipped roof . It has a 19th @-@ century central door and a surrounding porch " flanked by casements under flat arch heads " .
= = Grounds = =
The estate of Althorp covers an area of at least 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 50 km2 ) , and not only includes the house grounds but areas of woodland , cottages , farms , and surrounding hamlets . The soil in the area is of a rich , dark coloured loam , and the estate is situated mainly on Jurassic Clay between 85 metres ( 279 ft ) and 125 metres ( 410 ft ) above sea level , with the highest area lying in the southeast of Althorp on Northampton Sand . Within the grounds , there are earthworks of the lost village of Althorp on which the estate was built . To the southwest of the house is High Wood , with the Dog Pond to the east of this . Bircham Spinney is immediately to east , to the south of the pond . Hopyard Spinney lies in the north @-@ east corner of the estate bordering the A428 , and Sir John 's Wood marks the northwest corner . Sir John 's Wood is named after John Spencer was responsible for the planting of a number of woods on the grounds in the latter half of the 16th century . One tablet mentions he planted one of the woods in 1567 @-@ 8 and Sir John 's Wood in 1589 at a time when lords of manors around Britain grew increasingly anxious of their security following the Spanish Armada and planted woodlands around their properties . Between 1567 and 1901 at least seven stone date tablets were erected in the park commemorating the planting of trees . In the north and north @-@ eastern part of Althorp is marshy ground which is natural feeding ground for herons , a prized delicacy historically at the house . They were harvested by the gamekeeper usually from early March , after being fattened up by meal and bullock 's liver . In 1842 one hundred nests were recorded at the estate but this had fallen to ten by 1889 . The herons were moved to a pond about two miles away in 1993 and are no longer produced for domestic consumption at Althorp . Northampton Golf Club , established in July 1893 , is situated immediately to the southeast of Althorp .
Robert Spencer hired the French landscape architect André Le Nôtre to lay out the park and grounds in the 1660s . A map by Kip which appeared in Britannia Illustrata ( 1709 ) showed the result of the changes , depicting the house with a wide rectangular courtyard on the main south front , a formal walled garden structured by rectangular @-@ shaped flower @-@ beds and lawns to the east , and tree @-@ lined avenues to the north and south . During the renovation under Holland in the 18th century , the lake was drained in the Deer Park , which the First Earl had used as a playground with full @-@ sized Venetian gondolas , and remaining traces of the old moat were eradicated . From 1860 onwards the architect William Milford Teulon ( 1823 – 1900 ) updated the gardens at Althorp , and further additions and changes were made in the 1990s under Dan Pearson when the Diana memorial was established and many trees planted . After Teulon 's additions , the Spencers began growing its own fruit and vegetables and flowers . In 1901 a variety of sweet pea , now known " Spencer type " , with " flowers of exceptional size and of an exquisite shade of pink " , was cultivated at Althorp by Silas Cole , the chief gardener to the Fifth Earl Spencer , and exhibited at horticultural shows .
= = = Diana grave , memorial , and exhibition = = =
Diana , Princess of Wales was interred on a small island in the middle of the ornamental Round Oval lake , which was created by Teulon in 1868 . The island was decided as the best place to lay her to rest because the water would , according to Spencer , " act as a buffer against the interventions of the insane and ghoulish , the thick mud presenting a further line of defence . We all agreed that , with its beauty and tranquillity , this was the place for Diana to be " . Her burial place is marked with a white memorial plinth and urn .
A Doric @-@ style temple with Diana 's name inscribed on top is situated across from the lake , as a place where visitors can lay down their floral tributes to the princess . It contains a black silhouette of her in the middle , set in white marble , evocative of the Henry Holland 's material preference , with a tablet on either side . One tablet displays a quote from Diana about her love of charitable work , and the other holds Charles Spencer 's concluding tribute given at her funeral in Westminster Abbey .
Following the death of Diana on 31 August 1997 and the subsequent decision to create a memorial and open the house and estate to the public , the garden designer Dan Pearson was commissioned to update the park and gardens , to accommodate for visitors . A series of 36 oak trees was planted along the access road , symbolic of the years of Diana 's life . Thousands of plants were planted , including 100 white rambling roses on the island and 1000 white water lilies , donated by Stowe School , in the water around it .
The estate stable block was converted into a public exhibition devoted to the memory of Diana , and open between 1998 and 2013 , It was designed by Rasshied Ali Din , who had to seek approval from English Heritage due to it being a Grade II listed building . Din said of the result , " You have a contrast of the modern and the new with the old and the established , which is basically a metaphor for Diana . She was a very modern woman within an established environment . " He created six rooms out of the former carriage houses and stabling areas , and the old tea room was transformed into a restaurant , and toilets installed for visitors .
The first room was called " Spencer Women " , placing Diana in context to the women of her family , with paintings and jewellery of Sarah , Duchess of Marlborough , and portraits of Georgiana Spencer etc . The next room contained four minutes of edited video footage of Diana as a child to show to the world that she did not simply come into being in 1980 when she became the girlfriend of Prince Charles . It featured footage of Diana at her christening , her first winter , her first birthday , her first steps , and footage displaying her affection for animals , swimming , and leaving for boarding school . The room also contained her tuck @-@ box , toy typewriter , ballet shoes , and a childhood photo album .
A third room documented the Royal Wedding and its " glamour and excitement " , with a display of the David Emanuel wedding dress she wore on 29 July 1981 . A fourth room documented her extensive charitable and humanitarian work through video footage edited by Tim Ashton , and a fifth , known as the " Tribute Room " , was an " evocation of those doom @-@ laden days between Diana 's death and burial , when the public were reduced to shocked silence in their attempt to digest the death of a much @-@ loved icon " .
The sixth room was the Exhibition , which was a celebration of her life , and contained large glass cases at the sides with dummies of Diana wearing her notable suits and dresses , with the occasions documented on cards on the floor in front of them . A great glass case at the end underneath a stylish black and white photograph contained a selected few hundred of the thousands of condolence books the Spencer received from around the world , designed to give a " final sense of scale to the impact of Diana 's life and of her death " . A sleek , silk @-@ bound copy of the incendiary address that her brother Charles delivered at Diana 's funeral was available for £ 25 .
The estate and house are open to the public during the summer months ( 1 July to 30 August ) , although the exhibition centre in the stable block was closed in August 2013 . It was believed to be due to concern about the commercial exploitation of Diana 's name , and the desire to " squash the cult of Diana " . The items on display have been packed up , with the intention to give them to her sons William and Harry . All profits made were donated to the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Fund , which closed in 2012 .
= = Haunting = =
Although the current owner Charles Spencer professes to have never witnessed a ghost at Althorp or anywhere else , over the years numerous ghostly sightings have been reported in the mansion . In the mid 19th century the Dean of Lincoln was invited to stay at the property by Fredrick , 4th Earl Spencer . He complained the following morning that during the night a figure dressed as a groom ( believed to be the ghost of the deceased servant of the 3rd Earl ) had entered his room holding candles and checking that they were snuffed out around the bed . Margaret Douglas @-@ Home professed to being aware of the ghost of girl with grey slippers in the gallery .
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= Æthelred of Mercia =
Æthelred ( / ˈæθəlrɛd / ; died after 704 ) was King of Mercia from 675 until 704 . He was the son of Penda of Mercia and came to the throne in 675 , when his brother , Wulfhere of Mercia , died . Within a year of his accession he invaded Kent , where his armies destroyed the city of Rochester . In 679 he defeated his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Ecgfrith of Northumbria , at the Battle of the Trent : the battle was a major setback for the Northumbrians , and effectively ended their military involvement in English affairs south of the Humber . It also permanently returned the kingdom of Lindsey to Mercia 's possession . However , Æthelred was unable to re @-@ establish his predecessors ' domination of southern Britain .
He was known as a pious and devout Christian king , and he made many grants of land to the church . It was during his reign that Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , reorganized the church 's diocesan structure , creating several new sees in Mercia and Northumbria . Æthelred befriended Bishop Wilfrid of York when Wilfrid was expelled from his see in Northumbria ; Æthelred made Wilfrid Bishop of the Middle Angles during his exile and supported him at the synod of Austerfield in about 702 , when Wilfrid argued his case for the return of the ecclesiastical lands he had been deprived of in Northumbria .
Æthelred 's wife , Osthryth , was a daughter of King Oswiu , one of the dominant 7th @-@ century Northumbrian kings . Osthryth was murdered in unknown circumstances in 697 , and in 704 Æthelred abdicated , leaving the throne to Wulfhere 's son Coenred . Æthelred became a monk at Bardney , a monastery which he had founded with his wife , and was buried there . Ceolred , who was Æthelred 's son ( though apparently not by Osthryth ) , became king after Coenred ; it is also possible that Æthelred had another son named Ceolwald who was briefly king before Ceolred .
= = Mercia in the seventh century = =
By the 7th century , England was almost entirely divided into kingdoms ruled by the Anglo @-@ Saxons who had come to Britain two hundred years before . The kingdom of Mercia occupied what is now the English midlands . The origin of the kingdom is not recorded , but royal genealogies preserved in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection agree that the royal houses were descended from a founder named Icel ; the Mercian royal house is hence known as the Iclingas . The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia , Æthelred 's father . The larger neighbouring kingdoms included Northumbria to the north , recently united from its constituent kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira , East Anglia to the east , and Wessex , the kingdom of the West Saxons , to the south .
According to Ecclesiastical History of the English People , a history of the English church written by the 8th @-@ century monk Bede , there were seven early Anglo @-@ Saxon rulers who held imperium , or overlordship , over the other kingdoms . The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria , who was killed at the battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon , a British king of Gwynedd , and Penda . After Edwin 's death , Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two subkingdoms of Bernicia and Deira . Within a year Oswald , Edwin 's nephew , killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms , subsequently re @-@ establishing Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England . In 642 Penda killed Oswald at the battle of Maserfield , and Northumbria was again divided . Oswald 's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia , and Osric 's son Oswine to Deira , the southern of the two kingdoms .
In 655 , Oswiu defeated and killed Penda at the Battle of the Winwaed . Oswiu installed Peada , a son of Penda , as king of southern Mercia and ruled the northern half himself ; after Peada was murdered in 656 Oswiu took direct control of all of Mercia . A coup in 658 threw off Northumbrian overlordship and established Wulfhere as king . By the early 670s , Wulfhere had become the most powerful king in southern Britain , with an effective hegemony over all the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms except for Northumbria .
The main source for this period is Bede 's History , completed in about 731 . Despite its focus on the history of the church , this work also provides valuable information about the early Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . For Wessex and Kent , Bede had informants who supplied him with details of the church 's history in each province , but he appears to have had no such contact in Mercia , about which he is less well @-@ informed . A further source for this period is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex . The Chronicle 's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods .
= = Ancestry and early reign = =
Æthelred was the son of Penda of Mercia . Penda 's queen , Cynewise , is named by Bede , who does not mention her children ; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Æthelred 's mother . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle gives Penda 's age as fifty in 626 , and credits him with a thirty @-@ year reign , but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death , which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons ( Wulfhere and Æthelred ) were young when he was killed . At least as likely is that Penda was fifty years old at his death , rather than at his accession . Æthelred 's date of birth is unknown , but Bede describes Wulfhere as a youth at the time of his accession in 658 , so it is likely he and Æthelred were in their middle teens at that time . The early sources do not say whether Æthelred was older or younger than Wulfhere .
Nothing is known of Æthelred 's childhood . He had another brother , Peada , and two sisters , Cyneburh and Cyneswith ; it is also possible that Merewalh , king of the Magonsæte , was Æthelred 's brother .
In 674 , according to Stephen of Ripon , Wulfhere " stirred up all the southern nations against [ Northumbria ] " , but he was defeated by Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith who forced him to surrender Lindsey , and to pay tribute . Wulfhere survived the defeat , but died in 675 , possibly of disease , and Æthelred became king .
The first recorded act of Æthelred 's reign is in 676 , when his armies ravaged Kent , destroying Rochester , the seat of the bishops of West Kent . The reason for his attack is not recorded , but he may have wished to prevent King Hlothhere of Kent from regaining control of Surrey , which had been recently brought into the Mercian orbit by Wulfhere . It may also be that Æthelred wished for revenge for the murder of the sons of Eormenred of Kent ; the murders had been instigated by Ecgberht of Kent , Hlothhere 's brother , and it is possible that Æthelred was the uncle of the murdered princes . A third suggestion is that the kings of Essex solicited the invasion , in response to recent Kentish attempts to gain dominance over the East Saxons . Regardless of the reason , Hlothhere was likely then forced to accept Æthelred 's overlordship . The damage to the see of Rochester was so great that the incumbent bishop , Putta , retired from his diocese ; his appointed successor , Cwichhelm , also gave up the see " because of its poverty " .
Early in Æthelred 's reign , Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , began a substantial reorganization of the church in Mercia . In 675 he removed Winfred from his position as Bishop of Lichfield , and over the next four years he divided the vast Mercian see into the five dioceses of Leicester , Lichfield , Worcester , Dorchester and Hereford . Æthelred was a devout king , " more famed for his pious disposition than his skill in war " , and he made several gifts of land to the expanding church , including grants at Tetbury , Long Newton , and Somerford Keynes . There is also a tradition that Æthelred was associated with the founding of Abingdon Abbey , in southern Oxfordshire .
= = Relations with Northumbria = =
Mercia had been in conflict with Northumbria since at least 633 , when Penda of Mercia defeated and killed Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase . However , there were diplomatic marriages between the two kingdoms : Æthelred 's sister Cyneburh married Alhfrith , a son of Oswiu of Northumbria , and both Æthelred and his brother Peada married daughters of Oswiu . Cyneburh 's marriage to Alhfrith took place in the early 650s , and Peada 's marriage , to Ealhflæd , followed shortly afterwards ; Æthelred 's marriage , to Osthryth , is of unknown date but must have occurred before 679 , since Bede mentions it in describing the Battle of the Trent , which took place that year .
Bede does not mention the cause of the battle , simply saying that it occurred in the ninth year of Ecgfrith 's reign . He is more informative on the outcome . Ælfwine , the young subking of Deira , was killed ; Ælfwine was brother to Osthryth and Ecgfrith , and was well liked in both Mercia and Northumbria since Æthelred 's marriage to Osthryth . According to Bede , his death threatened to cause further strife between the two kingdoms , but Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , intervened :
Theodore , the beloved of God , enlisting God 's help , smothered the flames of this awful peril by his wholesome advice . As a result , peace was restored between the kings and peoples , and in lieu of further bloodshed the customary compensation was paid to King Ecgfrith for his brother 's death .
Æthelred took possession of Lindsey again after the battle ; the change in control this time was lasting , and Lindsey remained part of Mercia until the Viking invasion of the 9th century remade the map of England . Conflict between Northumbria and Mercia did not completely cease after this date : Scottish annals record that Æthelbald , an 8th @-@ century Mercian king , ravaged Northumbrian territory in 740 while King Eadberht of Northumbria was absent fighting the Picts . However , the Battle of the Trent effectively ended Northumbrian involvement in southern Britain .
A conflict between Bishop Wilfrid of York and the church and secular establishment led to Wilfrid 's expulsion from Northumbria and the division of his vast diocese , and Æthelred sided with Ecgfrith against Wilfrid . After Ecgfrith 's death in 685 , Archbishop Theodore arranged a reconciliation between Wilfrid and Aldfrith , Ecgfrith 's successor , but in 692 Aldfrith and Wilfrid fell out and Wilfrid went into exile in Mercia . Æthelred now supported Wilfrid , making him bishop of the Middle Angles , and defending him at the Council of Austerfield in about 702 , when Wilfrid argued his case before an assembly of bishops led by Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury . Æthelred 's support for Wilfrid embroiled him in dispute with both Canterbury and Northumbria , and it is not clear what his motive was , though it may be relevant that some of Wilfrid 's monasteries were in Mercian territory .
= = The southern kingdoms = =
Two charters of 681 show Æthelred granting land near Tetbury , on what is now the border between Gloucestershire and Wiltshire . This may indicate that Æthelred was able to extend Mercian influence further into the territory of the West Saxons , as Wulfhere had done before him . The West Saxons managed a significant military resurgence under Cædwalla , king of Wessex from about 685 to 688 , but when Cædwalla departed for Rome on pilgrimage there may have been internal strife before Ine , his successor , took the throne . Cædwalla had successfully conquered the kingdoms of Sussex and Kent , and his abdication may have contributed to the unsettled history of the southeast over the next few years . In Kent , Oswine emerged as king , though only in eastern Kent ; the western half of the kingdom was ruled by Swæfheard , son of Sæbbi , the king of Essex . It is possible that Æthelred provided support to both Swæfheard and Oswine ; for each king a charter survives in which Æthelred confirms land grants they made in Kent , and Æthelred 's invasion of Kent in 676 indicates his opposition to the traditional Kentish royal house . A charter of Swæfheard 's dated 691 is also of interest as it indicates that Æthelred had invaded Kent ; it has been suggested that Æthelred intended to place Wilfrid in the Archbishop 's seat at Canterbury , but if so he was unsuccessful . Alternatively , Æthelred may have needed assistance in Kent from the East Saxons who may have been independent of Mercia for a decade or more by that time . The East Saxons did return to the Mercian orbit over the next few years : a charter of Æthelred 's , dated between 693 and 704 , shows him granting land to Wealdhere , the bishop of London , and in 704 Æthelred consented to a grant made by Swæfheard . The latter charter also appears to show that a comes , or local official , was put in place by the Mercians to protect their interests .
Despite this evidence of Mercian involvement in the southeast there is very little indication that Æthelred had expansionist ambitions to the south . The increasing strength of the West Saxons under Cædwalla and Ine would have limited Mercian opportunities in that direction . The Northumbrians were no longer a distraction ; they had been contained north of the Humber since the Battle of the Trent , and became even less of a threat after their disastrous defeat in 685 at the hands of the Picts . A possible explanation is that Æthelred was preoccupied with war with the Welsh . It was also at this time that the Hwicce came more definitely into the Mercian orbit . The last Hwiccean ruler to take the title of king was Oshere , who died in 685 ; but from the mid @-@ 670s he sought Æthelred 's consent for his grants , and Æthelred regarded him as a subking . Further evidence of Æthelred 's involvement among the Hwicce comes from a charter in which he grants land for a minster in Gloucestershire , in Hwiccean territory ; the charter is generally thought to be a fabrication , but it appears to be based on an authentic earlier source .
= = Abdication and final years = =
Osthryth was murdered in 697 , for reasons unknown ; according to Bede the murderers were " her own people , the Mercian chieftains " . Bede records that Peada 's death , forty years earlier , stemmed from " the treachery , it is said , of his own wife " ; Peada 's wife was Ealhflæd , Osthryth 's sister . Hence Osthryth 's murder may have been in revenge for Peada 's assassination , though it has also been interpreted more directly as a sign of continuing hostility between Northumbria and Mercia . Osthryth was buried at Bardney in Lindsey , the monastery where , at her urging , the relics of her uncle , Oswald of Northumbria , were kept and revered , though evidence of resistance at Bardney to the cult of Oswald is also indicative of the poor relations between the two kingdoms .
In 704 , Æthelred abdicated to become a monk and abbot at Bardney , leaving the kingship to his nephew Coenred . Seventh century Mercian rulers often patronised religious establishments outside the Mercian heartlands , perhaps as a way of gaining support in outlying provinces . Æthelred 's and Osthryth 's interest in Bardney is consistent with this pattern . The encouragement of the cult of royal saints in areas beyond the central Mercian lands also seems to have been a deliberate policy , and both Æthelred and Osthryth were later revered as saints at Bardney . It appears that Æthelred continued to have influence in the kingdom after his abdication : a passage in Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid shows Æthelred summoning Coenred to him and advising him to make peace with Wilfrid . The date of Æthelred 's death is not recorded ; though it is known that he was buried at Bardney .
Æthelred had at least one son , Ceolred . According to the thirteenth @-@ century Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham , Ceolred was not the son of Osthryth , although it does not name Ceolred 's mother , and in the view of the historian Ann Williams this may mean that Æthelred remarried after Osthryth 's death . However , Susan Kelly states that Osthryth was " most likely ( though not certainly ) " Ceolred 's mother . Ceolred succeeded to the throne in 709 , after Coenred abdicated in 709 to go to Rome on pilgrimage . One version of the regnal lists for Mercia shows a king named Ceolwald reigning after Ceolred , and it is possible that Ceolwald , if he existed , was also a son of Æthelred 's .
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= Ronald Reagan =
Ronald Wilson Reagan ( / ˈrɒnəld ˈwɪlsən ˈreɪɡən / ; February 6 , 1911 – June 5 , 2004 ) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . Prior to his presidency , he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 , following a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader .
Raised in a poor family in small towns of northern Illinois , Ronald Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on several regional radio stations . After moving to Hollywood in 1937 , he became an actor and starred in a few major productions . Reagan was twice elected as President of the Screen Actors Guild , the labor union for actors , where he worked to root out Communist influence . In the 1950s , he moved into television and was a motivational speaker at General Electric factories . Having been a lifelong Democrat , his views changed . He became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party . In 1964 , Reagan 's speech , " A Time for Choosing " , in support of Barry Goldwater 's floundering presidential campaign , earned him national attention as a new conservative spokesman . Building a network of supporters , he was elected Governor of California in 1966 . As governor , Reagan raised taxes , turned a state budget deficit to a surplus , challenged the protesters at the University of California , ordered National Guard troops in during a period of protest movements in 1969 , and was re @-@ elected in 1970 . He twice ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nominations in 1968 and 1976 ; four years later , he easily won the nomination outright , going on to be elected the oldest President , defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980 .
Entering the presidency in 1981 , Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives . His supply @-@ side economic policies , dubbed " Reaganomics " , advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth , control of the money supply to curb inflation , economic deregulation , and reduction in government spending . In his first term he survived an assassination attempt , escalated the War on Drugs , and fought public @-@ sector labor . Over his two terms , his economic policies saw a reduction of inflation from 12 @.@ 5 % to 4 @.@ 4 % , and an average annual growth of real GDP of 3 @.@ 4 % ; while Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending , increased military spending contributed to increased federal outlays overall , even after adjustment for inflation . During his reelection bid , Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was " Morning in America " , winning a landslide in 1984 with the largest electoral college victory in history . Foreign affairs dominated his second term , including ending of the Cold War , the bombing of Libya , and the Iran – Contra affair . Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an " evil empire " , he transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback , by escalating an arms race with the USSR while engaging in talks with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev , which culminated in the INF Treaty , shrinking both countries ' nuclear arsenals . During his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate , President Reagan challenged Gorbachev to " tear down this wall ! " . Five months after the end of his term , the Berlin Wall fell , and on December 26 , 1991 , nearly three years after he left office , the Soviet Union collapsed .
Leaving office in 1989 , Reagan held an approval rating of sixty @-@ eight percent , matching those of Franklin D. Roosevelt , and later Bill Clinton , as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . While having planned an active post @-@ presidency , in 1994 Reagan disclosed his diagnosis with Alzheimer 's disease earlier that year , appearing publicly for the last time at the funeral of Richard Nixon ; he died ten years later at the age of 93 . An icon among Republicans , he ranks favorably in public and critical opinion of U.S. Presidents , and his tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the United States .
= = Early life = =
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico , Illinois on February 6 , 1911 , the son of Nelle Clyde ( Wilson ) and John Edward " Jack " Reagan . Reagan 's father was a salesman and a storyteller , the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary , while his mother was of half Scots and half English descent ( Reagan 's maternal grandmother was born in Surrey , England ) . Reagan had one older brother , Neil ( 1908 – 96 ) , who became an advertising executive . As a boy , Reagan 's father nicknamed his son " Dutch , " due to his " fat little Dutchman " -like appearance , and his " Dutchboy " haircut ; the nickname stuck with him throughout his youth . Reagan 's family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois , including Monmouth , Galesburg , and Chicago , in 1919 , they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C. Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon . After his election as president , residing in the upstairs White House private quarters , Reagan would quip that he was " living above the store again " .
According to Paul Kengor , author of God and Ronald Reagan , Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people , which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother , Nelle , and the Disciples of Christ faith , which he was baptized into in 1922 . For the time , Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination , and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there . Reagan brought them back to his house , where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning .
After the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 , the Reagans moved to Dixon ; the midwestern " small universe " had a lasting impression on Reagan . He attended Dixon High School , where he developed interests in acting , sports , and storytelling . His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park , near Dixon , in 1927 . Over a six @-@ year period , Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard . Reagan attended Eureka College , a Disciples @-@ oriented liberal arts school , where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity , a cheerleader , and studied economics and sociology . While involved , the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an " indifferent student " . He majored in Economics and graduated with a C average . He developed a reputation as a jack of all trades , excelling in campus politics , sports and theater . He was a member of the football team and captain of the swim team . He was elected student body president and led a student revolt against the college president after he tried to cut back the faculty .
= = Entertainment career = =
= = = Radio and film = = =
After graduating from Eureka in 1932 , Reagan drove himself to Iowa , where he held jobs as an announcer at several stations . He moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games . His specialty was creating play @-@ by @-@ play accounts of games using as his source only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress .
While traveling with the Cubs in California , Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven @-@ year contract with Warner Brothers studios . He spent the first few years of his Hollywood career in the " B film " unit , where , Reagan joked , the producers " didn 't want them good ; they wanted them Thursday " .
His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air , and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films , including Dark Victory with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart . Before the film Santa Fe Trail with Errol Flynn in 1940 , he played the role of George " The Gipper " Gipp in the film Knute Rockne , All American ; from it , he acquired the lifelong nickname " the Gipper . " In 1941 exhibitors voted him the fifth most popular star from the younger generation in Hollywood .
Reagan 's favorite acting role was as a double amputee in 1942 's Kings Row , in which he recites the line " Where 's the rest of me ? " — later used as the title of his 1965 autobiography . Many film critics considered Kings Row to be his best movie , though the film was condemned by New York Times critic Bosley Crowther .
Although Reagan called Kings Row the film that " made me a star " , he was unable to capitalize on his success because he was ordered to active duty with the U.S. Army at San Francisco two months after its release , and never regained " star " status in motion pictures . In the post @-@ war era , after being separated from almost four years of World War II stateside service with the 1st Motion Picture Unit in December 1945 , Reagan co @-@ starred in such films as , The Voice of the Turtle , John Loves Mary , The Hasty Heart , Bedtime for Bonzo , Cattle Queen of Montana , Tennessee 's Partner , Hellcats of the Navy ( the only film in which he appears with Nancy Reagan ) and the 1964 remake The Killers ( his final film and the only one in which he played a villain ) . Throughout his film career , his mother answered much of his fan mail .
= = = Military service = = =
After completing fourteen home @-@ study Army Extension Courses , Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the cavalry on May 25 , 1937 .
Reagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18 , 1942 . Due to his poor eyesight , he was classified for limited service only , which excluded him from serving overseas . His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason , California , as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office . Upon the approval of the Army Air Force ( AAF ) , he applied for a transfer from the cavalry to the AAF on May 15 , 1942 , and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the First Motion Picture Unit ( officially , the " 18th Army Air Force Base Unit " ) in Culver City , California . On January 14 , 1943 , he was promoted to first lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is the Army at Burbank , California . He returned to the First Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to captain on July 22 , 1943 .
In January 1944 , Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the Sixth War Loan Drive . He was reassigned to the First Motion Picture Unit on November 14 , 1944 , where he remained until the end of World War II . He was recommended for promotion to major on February 2 , 1945 , but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year . While with the First Motion Picture Unit in 1945 , he was indirectly involved in discovering actress Marilyn Monroe . He returned to Fort MacArthur , California , where he was separated from active duty on December 9 , 1945 . By the end of the war , his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF .
Reagan never left the United States during the war , though he kept a film reel , obtained while in the service , depicting the liberation of Auschwitz , as he believed that someday doubts would arise as to whether the Holocaust had occurred . It has been alleged that he was overheard telling Israeli foreign minister Yitzhak Shamir in 1983 that he had filmed that footage himself and helped liberate Auschwitz , though this purported conversation was disputed by Secretary of State George P. Shultz .
= = = SAG president = = =
Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941 , serving as an alternate . After World War II , he resumed service and became 3rd vice @-@ president in 1946 . The adoption of conflict @-@ of @-@ interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign ; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected . He was subsequently chosen by the membership to serve seven additional one @-@ year terms , from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959 . Reagan led SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor @-@ management disputes , the Taft – Hartley Act , House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era .
= = = = Secret FBI informant in Hollywood = = = =
During the late 1940s , Reagan and his wife provided the FBI with names of actors within the motion picture industry whom they believed to be communist sympathizers , though he expressed reservations ; he said " Do they expect us to constitute ourselves as a little FBI of our own and determine just who is a Commie and who isn 't ? "
Reagan testified before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee on the subject as well . A fervent anti @-@ communist , he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles , stating , " I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged , by either fear or resentment of this group , that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment . "
= = = Television = = =
Though an early critic of television , Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and decided to join the medium . He was hired as the host of General Electric Theater , a series of weekly dramas that became very popular . His contract required him to tour GE plants sixteen weeks out of the year , often demanding of him fourteen speeches per day . He earned approximately $ 125 @,@ 000 per year ( about $ 1 @.@ 07 million in 2010 dollars ) in this role . The show ran for ten seasons from 1953 to 1962 and , as a result it increased Reagan 's profile in American households , especially as he had appeared in feature films mostly in supporting role or as a " second lead " .
His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days .
Reagan and Nancy Davis appeared together on television several times , including an episode of General Electric Theater in 1958 called " A Turkey for the President . "
= = Marriages and children = =
In 1938 , Reagan co @-@ starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman ( 1917 – 2007 ) . They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre , and married on January 26 , 1940 , at the Wee Kirk o ' the Heather church in Glendale , California . Together they had two biological children , Maureen ( 1941 – 2001 ) and Christine ( who was born in 1947 but only lived one day ) , and adopted a third , Michael ( born 1945 ) . After arguments about Reagan 's political ambitions , Wyman filed for divorce in 1948 , citing a distraction due to her husband 's Screen Actors Guild union duties ; the divorce was finalized in 1949 . He is the only US president to have been divorced . Reagan and Wyman continued to be friends until his death , with Wyman voting for Reagan in both of his runs and , upon his death , saying " America has lost a great president and a great , kind , and gentle man . "
Reagan met actress Nancy Davis ( 1921 – 2016 ) in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a Communist blacklist in Hollywood . She had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis . She described their meeting by saying , " I don 't know if it was exactly love at first sight , but it was pretty close . " They were engaged at Chasen 's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4 , 1952 , at the Little Brown Church in the Valley ( North Hollywood , now Studio City ) San Fernando Valley . Actor William Holden served as best man at the ceremony . They had two children : Patti ( born October 21 , 1952 ) and Ron ( born May 20 , 1958 ) .
Observers described the Reagans ' relationship as close , authentic and intimate . During his presidency they were reported to frequently display their affection for one another ; one press secretary said , " They never took each other for granted . They never stopped courting . " He often called her " Mommy " and she called him " Ronnie . " He once wrote to her , " Whatever I treasure and enjoy ... all would be without meaning if I didn 't have you . " When he was in the hospital in 1981 , she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent . In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994 , Reagan wrote " I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer 's disease ... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience , " and in 1998 , while Reagan was stricken by Alzheimer 's , Nancy told Vanity Fair , " Our relationship is very special . We were very much in love and still are . When I say my life began with Ronnie , well , it 's true . It did . I can 't imagine life without him . " Nancy Reagan died on March 6 , 2016 at the age of 94 .
= = Early political career = =
Reagan began as a Hollywood Democrat ; Franklin D. Roosevelt was his great hero . He moved to the right in the 1950s , became a Republican in 1962 , and emerged as a leading conservative spokesman in the Goldwater campaign of 1964 .
He joined numerous political committees with a left @-@ wing orientation , such as the American Veterans Committee . He fought against Republican @-@ sponsored right @-@ to @-@ work legislation and for Helen Gahagan Douglas in 1950 , when she was defeated for the Senate by Richard Nixon . It was his realization that Communists were a powerful backstage influence in those groups , that led him to rally his friends against them .
Reagan spoke frequently at rallies with a strong ideological dimension ; in December 1945 , he was stopped from leading an anti @-@ nuclear rally in Hollywood by pressure from the Warner Bros. studio . He would later make nuclear weapons a key point of his presidency , specifically his opposition to mutually assured destruction , building on previous efforts to limit the spread of nuclear weapons to a new focus to reduce the numbers and types of them . In the 1948 election , Reagan strongly supported Harry S. Truman , appearing on stage with him during a campaign speech in Los Angeles . However , in the early 1950s , as his relationship with actress Nancy Davis grew , he shifted to the right and endorsed the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960 .
He was hired by General Electric in 1954 to host the General Electric Theater , a weekly TV drama series . Much more important , he crisscrossed the country giving talks to over 200 @,@ 000 GE employees as a motivational speaker . His many speeches — which he wrote himself — were non @-@ partisan but carried a conservative , pro @-@ business message ; he was influenced by Lemuel Boulware , a senior GE executive . Boulware , known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers , championed the core tenets of modern American conservatism : free markets , anticommunism , lower taxes , and limited government . Eager for a larger stage , but not allowed to enter politics by GE , he quit and formally registered as a Republican . He often said " I didn 't leave the Democratic Party . The party left me . "
When legislation that would become Medicare was introduced in 1961 , Reagan created a recording for the American Medical Association warning that such legislation would mean the end of freedom in America . Reagan said that if his listeners did not write letters to prevent it , " we will awake to find that we have socialism . And if you don 't do this , and if I don 't do it , one of these days , you and I are going to spend our sunset years telling our children , and our children 's children , what it once was like in America when men were free . " He also joined the National Rifle Association and would become a lifetime member .
Reagan gained national attention in his speeches for conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater in 1964 . Speaking for Goldwater , Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government . Consolidating themes he had developed in talks for GE , he argued in " A Time for Choosing " ( October 27 , 1964 ) :
The Founding Fathers knew a government can 't control the economy without controlling people . And they knew when a government sets out to do that , it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose . So we have come to a time for choosing ... You and I are told we must choose between a left or right , but I suggest there is no such thing as a left or right . There is only an up or down . Up to man 's age @-@ old dream – the maximum of individual freedom consistent with order – or down to the ant heap of totalitarianism .
This " A Time for Choosing " speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign , but it was the key event that established Reagan 's national political visibility .
= = Governorship of California : 1967 – 75 = =
California Republicans were impressed with Reagan 's political views and charisma after his " Time for Choosing " speech , he announced in late 1965 , his campaign for Governor of California in 1966 . He defeated former San Francisco mayor George Christopher in the GOP primary . In Reagan 's campaign , he emphasized two main themes : " to send the welfare bums back to work , " and , in reference to burgeoning anti @-@ war and anti @-@ establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley , " to clean up the mess at Berkeley . " Ronald Reagan accomplished in 1966 what US Senator William F. Knowland in 1958 and former Vice President Richard Nixon in 1962 had tried : he was elected , defeating two @-@ term governor Edmund G. " Pat " Brown , and was sworn in on January 2 , 1967 . In his first term , he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget .
Shortly after the beginning of his term , Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a " Stop Nixon " movement , hoping to cut into Nixon 's Southern support and be a compromise candidate if neither Nixon nor second @-@ place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention . However , by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes , 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination , followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place .
Reagan was involved in high @-@ profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era . On May 15 , 1969 , during the People 's Park protests at UC Berkeley , Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests , in an incident that became known as " Bloody Thursday , " resulting in the death of student James Rector and the blinding of carpenter Alan Blanchard . Reagan then called out 2 @,@ 200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks to crack down on the protesters . A year after " Bloody Thursday , " Reagan responded to questions about campus protest movements saying , " If it takes a bloodbath , let 's get it over with . No more appeasement . " When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor , Reagan joked to a group of political aides about a botulism outbreak contaminating the food . Conversely , in that one afternoon , " Bloody Thursday , " 111 police officers were injured , including one C.H.P. officer who was knifed in the chest . After calling in the National Guard , the Guard remained in Berkeley for 17 days , camping in People 's Park , and demonstrations subsided as the University removed cordoned @-@ off fencing and placed all development plans for People 's Park on hold .
Early in 1967 , the national debate on abortion was beginning . Democratic California state senator Anthony C. Beilenson introduced the " Therapeutic Abortion Act , " in an effort to reduce the number of " back @-@ room abortions " performed in California . The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan 's desk where , after many days of indecision , he signed it . About two million abortions would be performed as a result , most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well @-@ being of the mother . Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill , and later stated that had he been more experienced as governor , he would not have signed it . After he recognized what he called the " consequences " of the bill , he announced that he was pro @-@ life . He maintained that position later in his political career , writing extensively about abortion .
In 1967 , Reagan signed the Mulford Act , which became California penal code 12031 and 171 ( c ) . The bill repealed a law allowing public carrying of loaded firearms . Named after Republican assemblyman Don Mulford , the bill garnered national attention after the Black Panthers marched bearing arms upon the California State Capitol to protest the bill .
Despite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in 1968 , Reagan was re @-@ elected in 1970 , defeating " Big Daddy " Jesse M. Unruh . He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle . One of Reagan 's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment , which he strongly supported . His efforts to enforce the state 's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision , which invalidated all death sentences issued in California before 1972 , though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment . The only execution during Reagan 's governorship was on April 12 , 1967 , when Aaron Mitchell 's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin 's gas chamber .
In 1969 , Reagan , as governor , signed the Family Law Act , an amalgam of two bills which had been written and revised by the California State Legislature for over two years and became the first no @-@ fault divorce legislation in the United States .
Reagan 's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president . By campaigning on a platform of sending " the welfare bums back to work , " he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state . He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy , including that of undue federal taxation .
Reagan did not seek re @-@ election to a third term as governor in 1974 and was succeeded by Democratic California Secretary of State Jerry Brown on January 6 , 1975 .
= = 1976 presidential campaign = =
In 1976 , Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party 's candidate for president . Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate with the support of like @-@ minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union which became key components of his political base , while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican .
Reagan 's campaign relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to damage the inevitability of Ford 's likely nomination . Reagan won North Carolina , Texas , and California , but the strategy failed , as he ended up losing New Hampshire , Florida , and his native Illinois . The Texas campaign lent renewed hope to Reagan , when he swept all ninety @-@ six delegates chosen in the May 1 primary , with four more awaiting at the state convention . Much of the credit for that victory came from the work of three co @-@ chairmen , including Ernest Angelo , the mayor of Midland , and Ray Barnhart of Houston , whom President Reagan would appoint in 1981 as director of the Federal Highway Administration .
However , as the GOP convention neared , Ford appeared close to victory . Acknowledging his party 's moderate wing , Reagan chose moderate Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate if nominated . Nonetheless , Ford prevailed with 1 @,@ 187 delegates to Reagan 's 1 @,@ 070 . Ford would go on to lose the 1976 Presidential election to the Democrat Jimmy Carter .
Reagan 's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union . Though he lost the nomination , he received 307 write @-@ in votes in New Hampshire , 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming 's ballot , and a single electoral vote from a faithless elector in the November election from the state of Washington , which Ford had won over Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter .
After the campaign , Reagan remained in the public debate with the Ronald Reagan Radio Commentary series and his political action committee , Citizens for the Republic , which was later revived in Alexandria , Virginia , in 2009 by the Reagan biographer Craig Shirley .
= = 1980 presidential campaign = =
The 1980 presidential campaign between Reagan and incumbent President Jimmy Carter was conducted during domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis . His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles : lower taxes to stimulate the economy , less government interference in people 's lives , states ' rights , and a strong national defense .
Reagan launched his campaign by declaring " I believe in states ' rights . " After receiving the Republican nomination , Reagan selected one of his primary opponents , George H. W. Bush , to be his running mate . His showing in the October televised debate boosted his campaign . Reagan won the election , carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 electoral votes for Carter ( representing six states and Washington , D.C. ) . Reagan received 51 % of the popular vote while Carter took 41 % , and Independent John B. Anderson ( a liberal Republican ) received 7 % . Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952 , and gained 34 House seats , but the Democrats retained a majority .
= = Presidency of the United States : 1981 – 89 = =
During his presidency , Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom , brought changes domestically , both to the U.S. economy and expanded military , and contributed to the end of the Cold War . Termed the Reagan Revolution , his presidency would reinvigorate American morale , reinvigorate the American economy and reduce American reliance upon government . As president , Reagan kept a diary in which he commented on daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on the issues of the day . The diaries were published in May 2007 in the bestselling book , The Reagan Diaries .
= = = First term = = =
To date , Reagan is the oldest person elected to the office of the presidency ( at 69 ) and the oldest president at the time of inauguration ( at 69 years , 341 days ) . In his first inaugural address on January 20 , 1981 , which Reagan himself wrote , he addressed the country 's economic malaise arguing : " In this present crisis , government is not the solution to our problems ; government is the problem . "
= = = = Prayer in schools and a moment of silence = = = =
In 1981 , Reagan became the first president to propose a constitutional amendment on school prayer . The school prayer had previously been banned by the Supreme Court in 1962 , and Reagan 's election reflected an opposition to the courts decision . Reagan 's 1981 proposed amendment stated : " Nothing in this Constitution shall be construed to prohibit individual or group prayer in public schools or other public institutions . No person shall be required by the United States or by any state to participate in prayer . " In a message to Congress , Reagan said that his proposed amendment would " restore the simple freedom of our citizens to offer prayer in public schools and institutions . " In a nationally televised speech the following day , Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson lauded Reagan 's speech and said the moment of silence would " ensure that children grow up to be decent and upright . " In 1984 , Reagan again raised the issue , asking Congress " why can 't [ the ] freedom to acknowledge God be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land ? " In 1985 , Reagan expressed his disappointment that the Supreme Court ruling still bans a moment of silence for public schools , and said he had " an uphill battle . " In 1987 Reagan again renewed his call for Congress to support voluntary prayer in schools and end " the expulsion of God from America 's classrooms . " During his term in office , Reagan campaigned vigorously to restore prayer to the schools , first as a moment of prayer and later as a Moment of Silence .
= = = = Assassination attempt = = = =
On March 30 , 1981 , only 69 days into the new administration , Reagan , his press secretary James Brady , Washington police officer Thomas Delahanty , and Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy were struck by gunfire from would @-@ be assassin John Hinckley Jr . , outside the Washington Hilton Hotel . Although " close to death " upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital , Reagan was stabilized in the emergency room , then underwent emergency exploratory surgery . He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11 , becoming the first serving U.S. President to survive being shot in an assassination attempt . The attempt had great influence on Reagan 's popularity ; polls indicated his approval rating to be around 73 % . Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purpose .
= = = = Assistant Secretary of State nomination = = = =
In response to conservative criticism that the state department lacked hardliners , Reagan in 1981 nominated Ernest W. Lefever as Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs . Lefever performed poorly at his confirmation hearings and the Senate committee rejected his nomination by vote of 4 – 13 ; Lefever withdrew his name .
= = = = Air traffic controllers ' strike = = = =
In summer 1981 PATCO , the union of federal air traffic controllers went on strike , violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking . Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft – Hartley Act , Reagan stated that if the air traffic controllers " do not report for work within 48 hours , they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated . " They did not return and on August 5 , Reagan fired 11 @,@ 345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order , and used supervisors and military controllers to handle the nation 's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained . A leading reference work on public administration concluded , " The firing of PATCO employees not only demonstrated a clear resolve by the president to take control of the bureaucracy , but it also sent a clear message to the private sector that unions no longer needed to be feared . "
= = = = " Reaganomics " and the economy = = = =
During Jimmy Carter 's last year in office ( 1980 ) , inflation averaged 12 @.@ 5 % , compared with 4 @.@ 4 % during Reagan 's last year in office ( 1988 ) . During Reagan 's administration , the unemployment rate declined from 7 @.@ 5 % to 5 @.@ 4 % , with the rate reaching highs of 10 @.@ 8 % in 1982 and 10 @.@ 4 % in 1983 , averaging 7 @.@ 5 % over the eight years , and real GDP growth averaged 3 @.@ 4 % with a high of 8 @.@ 6 % in 1983 , while nominal GDP growth averaged 7 @.@ 4 % , and peaked at 12 @.@ 2 % in 1982 .
Reagan implemented policies based on supply @-@ side economics , advocating a laissez @-@ faire philosophy and free @-@ market fiscal policy , seeking to stimulate the economy with large , across @-@ the @-@ board tax cuts . He also supported returning the United States to some sort of gold standard , and successfully urged Congress to establish the U.S. Gold Commission to study how one could be implemented . Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer , Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base , offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation , a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve . Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success , and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt . His policy of " peace through strength " resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40 % real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985 .
During Reagan 's presidency , federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 , which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from 70 % to 50 % and the lowest bracket from 14 % to 11 % . Other tax increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan ensured however that tax revenues over his two terms were 18 @.@ 2 % of GDP as compared to 18 @.@ 1 % over the 40 @-@ year period 1970 – 2010 . Then , in 1982 the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 was signed into law , initiating one of the United States ' first public – private partnerships and a major part of the president 's job creation program . Reagan 's Assistant Secretary of Labor and Chief of Staff , Al Angrisani , was a primary architect of the bill .
Conversely , Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 ( TEFRA ) , Social Security , and the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 ( DEFRA ) . Despite the fact that TEFRA was the " largest peacetime tax increase in American history , " gross domestic product ( GDP ) growth recovered strongly after the early 1980s recession ended in 1982 , and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of 7 @.@ 9 % per year , with a high of 12 @.@ 2 % growth in 1981 . Unemployment peaked at 10 @.@ 8 % monthly rate in December 1982 — higher than any time since the Great Depression — then dropped during the rest of Reagan 's presidency . Sixteen million new jobs were created , while inflation significantly decreased . The Tax Reform Act of 1986 , another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan , simplified the tax code by reducing the number of tax brackets to four and slashing a number of tax breaks . The top rate was dropped to 28 % , but capital gains taxes were increased on those with the highest incomes from 20 % to 28 % . The increase of the lowest tax bracket from 11 % to 15 % was more than offset by expansion of the personal exemption , standard deduction , and earned income tax credit . The net result was the removal of six million poor Americans from the income tax roll and a reduction of income tax liability at all income levels .
The net effect of all Reagan @-@ era tax bills was a 1 % decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from the Administration 's first post @-@ enactment January budgets . However , federal income tax receipts increased from 1980 to 1989 , rising from $ 308 @.@ 7 billion to $ 549 billion or an average annual rate of 8 @.@ 2 % ( 2 @.@ 5 % attributed to higher Social Security receipts ) , and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7 @.@ 1 % .
Reagan 's policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment , which would then lead to higher employment and wages . Critics labeled this " trickle @-@ down economics " — the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a " trickle @-@ down " effect to the poor . Questions arose whether Reagan 's policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty , and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles . These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan 's economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $ 3 @.@ 35 an hour , slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60 % , cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in half , and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program . The widening gap between the rich and poor had already begun during the 1970s before Reagan 's economic policies took effect . Along with Reagan 's 1981 cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income , he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to only 20 % . Reagan later set tax rates on capital gains at the same level as the rates on ordinary income like salaries and wages , with both topping out at 28 % . Reagan is viewed as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eleven times over the course of his presidency , all in the name of fiscal responsibility . According to Paul Krugman , " Over all , the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut ; as a share of GDP , the increase was substantially larger than Mr. Clinton 's 1993 tax increase . " According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett , Reagan 's tax increases over the course of his presidency took back half of the 1981 tax cut .
Further following his opposition to government intervention , Reagan cut the budgets of non @-@ military programs including Medicaid , food stamps , federal education programs and the EPA . While he protected entitlement programs , such as Social Security and Medicare , his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls .
The administration 's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis . It is also suggested , by a minority of Reaganomics critics , that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987 , but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash . In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits , the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad , raising the national debt from $ 997 billion to $ 2 @.@ 85 trillion . Reagan described the new debt as the " greatest disappointment " of his presidency .
He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve , and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him . Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had contributed to energy crises in the early 1970s . The price of oil subsequently dropped , and the 1980s did not see the fuel shortages that the 1970s had . Reagan also fulfilled a 1980 campaign promise to repeal the windfall profit tax in 1988 , which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil . Some economists , such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell , argue that Reagan 's tax policies invigorated America 's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s . Other economists , such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow , argue that Reagan 's deficits were a major reason his successor , George H.W. Bush , reneged on a campaign promise and resorted to raising taxes .
During Reagan 's presidency , a program was initiated within the U.S. Intelligence Community to ensure America 's economic strength . The program , Project Socrates , developed and demonstrated the means required for the United States to generate and lead the next evolutionary leap in technology acquisition and utilization for a competitive advantage — automated innovation . To ensure that the United States acquired the maximum benefit from automated innovation , Reagan , during his second term , had an executive order drafted to create a new federal agency to implement the Project Socrates results on a nationwide basis . However , Reagan 's term came to end before the executive order could be coordinated and signed , and the incoming Bush administration , labeling Project Socrates as " industrial policy , " had it terminated .
= = = = Escalation of the Cold War = = = =
Reagan escalated the Cold War , accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 after the Soviet war in Afghanistan . Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces and implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union : reviving the B @-@ 1 Lancer program that had been canceled by the Carter administration , and producing the MX missile . In response to Soviet deployment of the SS @-@ 20 , Reagan oversaw NATO 's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany .
In 1984 , journalist Nicholas Lemann interviewed Reagan Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and summarized the strategy of the Reagan administration to roll back the Soviet Union :
Their society is economically weak , and it lacks the wealth , education , and technology to enter the information age . They have thrown everything into military production , and their society is starting to show terrible stress as a result . They can 't sustain military production the way we can . Eventually it will break them , and then there will be just one superpower in a safe world – if , only if , we can keep spending .
Lemann notes that when he wrote that in 1984 , he thought the Reaganites were living in a fantasy world . But in 2016 , he says , that passage represents " a fairly uncontroversial description of what Reagan actually did . "
Together with the United Kingdom 's prime minister Margaret Thatcher , Reagan denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms . In a famous address on June 8 , 1982 , to the British Parliament in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster , Reagan said , " the forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism – Leninism on the ash heap of history . " On March 3 , 1983 , he predicted that communism would collapse , stating , " Communism is another sad , bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written . " In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March 8 , 1983 , Reagan called the Soviet Union " an evil empire . "
After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island on September 1 , 1983 , carrying 269 people , including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald , Reagan labeled the act a " massacre " and declared that the Soviets had turned " against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere . " The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States , and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets , wounding them financially . As result of the shootdown , and the cause of KAL 007 's going astray thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system , Reagan announced on September 16 , 1983 , that the Global Positioning System would be made available for civilian use , free of charge , once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in future .
Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine , Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti @-@ communist resistance movements in an effort to " rollback " Soviet @-@ backed communist governments in Africa , Asia , and Latin America . Reagan deployed the CIA 's Special Activities Division to Afghanistan and Pakistan . They were instrumental in training , equipping and leading Mujaheddin forces against the Soviet Army . President Reagan 's Covert Action program has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan , though some of the United States funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to U.S. troops in the 2000s ( decade ) war in Afghanistan . However , in a break from the Carter policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act , Reagan also agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan .
In March 1983 , Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative , a defense project that would have used ground- and space @-@ based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles . Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible . There was much disbelief surrounding the program 's scientific feasibility , leading opponents to dub SDI " Star Wars " and argue that its technological objective was unattainable . The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have ; leader Yuri Andropov said it would put " the entire world in jeopardy . " For those reasons , David Gergen , former aide to President Reagan , believes that in retrospect , SDI hastened the end of the Cold War .
Critics labeled Reagan 's foreign policies as aggressive , imperialistic , and chided them as " warmongering , " though they were supported by leading American conservatives who argued that they were necessary to protect U.S. security interests . The Reagan administration also backed anti @-@ communist leaders accused of severe human rights violations , such as Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala and Hissène Habré of Chad .
= = = = Lebanese Civil War ( 1983 ) = = = =
With the approval of Congress , Reagan in 1983 sent forces to Lebanon to reduce the threat of the Lebanese Civil War . The American peacekeeping forces in Beirut , a part of a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War , were attacked on October 23 , 1983 . The Beirut barracks bombing killed 241 American servicemen and wounded more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber . Reagan sent in the USS New Jersey battleship to shell Syrian positions in Lebanon . He then withdrew all the Marines from Lebanon .
= = = = Operation Urgent Fury ( Grenada : 1983 ) = = = =
On October 25 , 1983 , Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada , code named Operation Urgent Fury , where a 1979 coup d 'état had established an independent non @-@ aligned Marxist – Leninist government . A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States ( OECS ) led to the intervention of U.S. forces ; President Reagan also cited an allegedly regional threat posed by a Soviet @-@ Cuban military build @-@ up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George 's University as adequate reasons to invade . Operation Urgent Fury was the first major military operation conducted by U.S. forces since the Vietnam War , several days of fighting commenced , resulting in a U.S. victory , with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers . In mid @-@ December , after a new government was appointed by the Governor @-@ General , U.S. forces withdrew .
= = = = 1984 presidential campaign = = = =
Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas , Texas . He proclaimed that it was " morning again in America , " regarding the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the 1984 Summer Olympics , among other things . He became the first American president to open an Olympic Games held in the United States .
Reagan 's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale . With questions about Reagan 's age , and a weak performance in the first presidential debate , his ability to perform the duties of president for another term was questioned . His apparent confused and forgetful behavior was evident to his supporters ; they had previously known him clever and witty . Rumors began to circulate that he had Alzheimer 's disease . Reagan rebounded in the second debate , and confronted questions about his age , quipping , " I will not make age an issue of this campaign . I am not going to exploit , for political purposes , my opponent 's youth and inexperience , " which generated applause and laughter , even from Mondale himself .
That November , Reagan was re @-@ elected , winning 49 of 50 states . The president 's overwhelming victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota ( by 3 @,@ 800 votes ) and the District of Columbia . Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes , the most of any candidate in United States history , and received 59 % of the popular vote to Mondale 's 41 % .
= = = Second term = = =
Reagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20 , 1985 , in a private ceremony at the White House . Because January 20 fell on a Sunday , a public celebration was not held but took place in the Capitol rotunda the following day . January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington , D.C. ; due to poor weather , inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol . In the coming weeks he shook up his staff somewhat , moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan , a former Merrill Lynch officer , Chief of Staff .
In 1985 , Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl . It was determined that the cemetery held the graves of forty @-@ nine members of the Waffen @-@ SS . Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery as themselves " victims , " a designation which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to victims of the Holocaust ; Pat Buchanan , Reagan 's Director of Communications , argued that the president did not equate the SS members with the actual Holocaust . Now strongly urged to cancel the visit , the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl . He ultimately attended the ceremony where two military generals laid a wreath .
The disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28 , 1986 , proved a pivotal moment in Reagan 's presidency . All seven astronauts aboard were killed . On the night of the disaster , Reagan delivered a speech , written by Peggy Noonan , in which he said :
The future doesn 't belong to the fainthearted ; it belongs to the brave ... We will never forget them , nor the last time we saw them , this morning , as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and ' slipped the surly bonds of Earth ' to ' touch the face of God.'
In 1988 , near the end of the Iran – Iraq War , the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655 killing 290 civilian passengers . The incident further worsened already tense Iran – United States relations .
= = = = War on Drugs = = = =
Reagan announced a War on Drugs in 1982 , in response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic . Though Nixon had previously declared a war on drugs , Reagan advocated more militant policies .
He said that " drugs were menacing our society " and promised to fight for drug @-@ free schools and workplaces , expanded drug treatment , stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts , and greater public awareness .
In 1986 , Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $ 1 @.@ 7 billion to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses . The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population and critics also charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street , while resulting in a great financial burden for America . Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use . First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs her main priority by founding the " Just Say No " drug awareness campaign , which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying " no . " Nancy Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states , raising awareness about the dangers of drugs including alcohol .
= = = = Response to AIDS Epidemic = = = =
The Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis , which began to unfold in the United States in 1981 , the same year Reagan took office . AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan 's administration , and requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) were routinely denied . By the end of the first 12 months of the epidemic , when more than 1 @,@ 000 people had died of AIDS in the US , the CDC had spent less than $ 1 million on AIDS research . In contrast , funding had been made amply available to the CDC in their efforts to stop Legionnaires ' disease after an outbreak in 1976 ; the CDC had spent $ 9 million in fighting Legionnaires ' disease , though the outbreak had caused fewer than 50 deaths .
By the time President Reagan had given his first speech on the epidemic , some six years into his presidency , 36 @,@ 058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS and 20 @,@ 849 had died of it . By the end of 1989 , the year Reagan left office , 115 @,@ 786 people had been diagnosed with AIDS in the United States , and more than 70 @,@ 000 of them had died of it . It has been suggested that far fewer would have died , both then and in the decades that followed , if the Reagan Administration had applied the same determination in combatting AIDS as Gerald Ford 's Administration had applied to fighting Legionnaires ' disease .
= = = = Libya bombing = = = =
Relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious , beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981 ; by 1982 , Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the CIA to be , along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro , part of a group known as the " unholy trinity " and was also labeled as " our international public enemy number one " by a CIA official . These tensions were later revived in early April 1986 , when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque , resulting in the injury of 63 American military personnel and death of one serviceman . Stating that there was " irrefutable proof " that Libya had directed the " terrorist bombing , " Reagan authorized the use of force against the country . In the late evening of April 15 , 1986 , the United States launched a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya .
The UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the U.S. Air Force to use Britain 's air bases to launch the attack , on the justification that the UK was supporting America 's right to self @-@ defense under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter . The attack was designed to halt Gaddafi 's " ability to export terrorism , " offering him " incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior . " The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced , stating , " When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes , we will respond so long as I 'm in this office . " The attack was condemned by many countries . By a vote of 79 in favor to 28 against with 33 abstentions , the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 41 / 38 which " condemns the military attack perpetrated against the Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on April 15 , 1986 , which constitutes a violation of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law . "
= = = = Immigration = = = =
Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act in 1986 . The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants , required employers to attest to their employees ' immigration status , and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who entered the United States before January 1 , 1982 , and had lived in the country continuously . Critics argue that the employer sanctions were without teeth and failed to stem illegal immigration . Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty , Reagan said , " The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows , without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society . Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and , ultimately , if they choose , they may become Americans . " Reagan also said , " The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element . It will remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens here . "
= = = = Iran – Contra affair = = = =
In 1986 , the Iran – Contra affair became a problem for the administration stemming from the use of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran during the Iran – Iraq War to fund the Contra rebels fighting against the government in Nicaragua , which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress . The affair became a political scandal in the United States during the 1980s . The International Court of Justice , whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed by the United States , ruled that the United States had violated international law and breached treaties in Nicaragua in various ways ( see Nicaragua v. United States ) .
President Reagan professed that he was unaware of the plot 's existence . He opened his own investigation and appointed two Republicans and one Democrat ( John Tower , Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie , known as the " Tower Commission " ) to investigate the scandal . The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program , but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff , making the diversion of funds possible . A separate report by Congress concluded that " If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing , he should have . " Reagan 's popularity declined from 67 % to 46 % in less than a week , the greatest and quickest decline ever for a president . The scandal resulted in fourteen indictments within Reagan 's staff , and eleven convictions .
Many Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras , calling him an anti @-@ communist zealot , blinded to human rights abuses , while others say he " saved Central America . " Daniel Ortega , Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua , said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his " dirty war against Nicaragua . "
= = = = End of the Cold War = = = =
Until the early 1980s , the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets , but the gap had been narrowed . Although the Soviet Union did not accelerate military spending after President Reagan 's military buildup , their large military expenses , in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing , were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy . At the same time , Saudi Arabia increased oil production , which resulted in a drop of oil prices in 1985 to one @-@ third of the previous level ; oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues . These factors contributed to a stagnant Soviet economy during Gorbachev 's tenure .
Reagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev , and shifted to diplomacy , with a view to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms agreements . Reagan 's personal mission was to achieve " a world free of nuclear weapons , " which he regarded as " totally irrational , totally inhumane , good for nothing but killing , possibly destructive of life on earth and civilization . " He was able to start discussions on nuclear disarmament with General Secretary Gorbachev . Gorbachev and Reagan held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988 : the first in Geneva , Switzerland , the second in Reykjavík , Iceland , the third in Washington , D.C. , and the fourth in Moscow . Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech , this would lead to reform and the end of Communism .
Speaking at the Berlin Wall on June 12 , 1987 , Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further , saying " General Secretary Gorbachev , if you seek peace , if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , if you seek liberalization , come here to this gate ! Mr. Gorbachev , open this gate ! Mr. Gorbachev , tear down this wall ! "
Before Gorbachev 's visit to Washington , D.C. , for the third summit in 1987 , the Soviet leader announced his intention to pursue significant arms agreements . The timing of the announcement led Western diplomats to contend that Gorbachev was offering major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces , nuclear weapons , and policy in Eastern Europe . He and Reagan signed the Intermediate @-@ Range Nuclear Forces Treaty ( INF ) at the White House , which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons . The two leaders laid the framework for the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty , or START I ; Reagan insisted that the name of the treaty be changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to Strategic Arms Reduction Talks .
When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988 , he was viewed as a celebrity by the Soviets . A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire . " No , " he replied , " I was talking about another time , another era . " At Gorbachev 's request , Reagan gave a speech on free markets at the Moscow State University . In his autobiography , An American Life , Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that they charted and his warm feelings for Gorbachev . In November 1989 , ten months after Reagan left office , the Berlin Wall was opened , the Cold War was unofficially declared over at the Malta Summit on December 3 , 1989 , and two years later , the Soviet Union collapsed .
= = = Health = = =
Early in his presidency , Reagan started wearing a custom , technologically advanced hearing aid , first in his right ear and later in his left as well . His decision to go public in 1983 regarding his wearing the small , audio @-@ amplifying device boosted their sales .
On July 13 , 1985 , Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove cancerous polyps from his colon . He relinquished presidential power to the Vice President for eight hours in a similar procedure as outlined in the 25th Amendment , which he specifically avoided invoking . The surgery lasted just under three hours and was successful . Reagan resumed the powers of the presidency later that day . In August of that year , he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cells from his nose . In October , additional skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed .
In January 1987 , Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate which caused further worries about his health . No cancerous growths were found , however , and he was not sedated during the operation . In July of that year , aged 76 , he underwent a third skin cancer operation on his nose .
On January 7 , 1989 , Reagan underwent surgery at Walter Reed Army Medical Center to repair a Dupuytren 's contracture of the ring finger of his left hand . The surgery lasted for more than three hours and was performed under regional anesthesia . This procedure was done just thirteen days before he left office . For this reason he had a hand and finger bandage the day of his farewell speech and the day of the Inauguration of George H. W. Bush .
= = = Judiciary = = =
During his 1980 campaign , Reagan pledged that , if given the opportunity , he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice . That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O 'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart . In his second term , Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice , and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat . Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court in 1987 . Senator Ted Kennedy , a Democrat of Massachusetts , strongly condemned Bork , and great controversy ensued . Bork 's nomination was rejected 58 – 42 . Reagan then nominated Douglas Ginsburg , but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after coming under fire for his cannabis use . Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place . Along with his three Supreme Court appointments , Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 290 judges to the United States district courts .
Reagan also nominated Vaughn Walker , who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge , to the United States District Court for the Central District of California . However , the nomination stalled in the Senate , and Walker was not confirmed until he was renominated by Reagan 's successor , George H. W. Bush .
Early in his tenure , Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton , Jr . , of San Diego as the first African American to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights . Pendleton tried to steer the commission into a conservative direction in line with Reagan 's views on social and civil rights policy during his time as tenure from 1981 until his sudden death in 1988 . Pendleton soon aroused the ire of many civil rights advocates and feminists when he ridiculed the comparable worth proposal as being " Looney Tunes . "
In 1984 , Reagan commuted the 18 @-@ year sentence of former Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry Gil Dozier , a Democrat from Baton Rouge , to the time served for violations of both the Hobbs and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations acts . On September 23 , 1980 , the United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana convicted Dozier of extortion and racketeering when he pushed companies doing business with his department to make campaign contributions on his behalf . Reagan determined that the 18 @-@ year sentence was excessive compared to what other political figures in similar circumstances had been receiving .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
After leaving office in 1989 , the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air , Los Angeles , in addition to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara . They regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party ; Reagan delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention . Previously on November 4 , 1991 , the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public . At the dedication ceremonies , five presidents were in attendance , as well as six first ladies , marking the first time that five presidents were gathered in the same location . Reagan continued publicly to speak in favor of a line @-@ item veto ; the Brady Bill ; a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget ; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment , which prohibits anyone from serving more than two terms as president . In 1992 Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the newly formed Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation . His final public speech was on February 3 , 1994 , during a tribute to him in Washington , D.C. , and his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27 , 1994 .
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
= = = = Announcement and reaction : 1994 = = = =
In August 1994 , at the age of 83 , Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease , an incurable neurological disorder which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death . In November , he informed the nation through a handwritten letter , writing in part :
I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer 's Disease ... At the moment I feel just fine . I intend to live the remainder of the years God gives me on this earth doing the things I have always done ... I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life . I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead . Thank you , my friends . May God always bless you .
After his diagnosis , letters of support from well @-@ wishers poured into his California home .
But there was also speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration . Former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl recounted that , in her final meeting with the president in 1986 , Reagan did not seem to know who Stahl was , and that she came close to reporting that Reagan was senile , but at the end of the meeting , Reagan had regained his alertness . However , Dr. Lawrence K. Altman , a physician employed as a reporter for the New York Times , noted that " the line between mere forgetfulness and the beginning of Alzheimer 's can be fuzzy , " and all four of Reagan 's White House doctors said that they saw no evidence of Alzheimer 's while he was president . Dr. John E. Hutton , Reagan 's primary physician from 1984 to 1989 , said the president " absolutely " did not " show any signs of dementia or Alzheimer 's . " His former Chief of Staff James Baker considered " ludicrous " the idea that Reagan slept during cabinet meetings . Other staff members , former aides , and friends said they saw no indication of Alzheimer 's while he was president . Reagan did experience occasional memory lapses , though , especially with names . Reagan 's doctors say that he only began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992 or 1993 , several years after he had left office . For example , Reagan repeated a toast to Margaret Thatcher , with identical words and gestures , at his 82nd @-@ birthday party on Feb. 6 , 1993 .
Complicating the picture , Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in July 1989 , five years before his diagnosis . After being thrown from a horse in Mexico , a subdural hematoma was found and surgically treated later in the year . Nancy Reagan , citing what doctors told her , asserts that her husband 's 1989 fall hastened the onset of Alzheimer 's disease , although acute brain injury has not been conclusively proven to accelerate Alzheimer 's or dementia . Reagan 's one @-@ time physician Daniel Ruge has said it is possible , but not certain , that the horse accident affected the course of Reagan 's memory .
= = = = Progression : 1994 – 2004 = = = =
As the years went on , the disease slowly destroyed Reagan 's mental capacity . He was only able to recognize a few people , including his wife , Nancy . He remained active , however ; he took walks through parks near his home and on beaches , played golf regularly , and until 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City .
Reagan suffered a fall at his Bel Air home on January 13 , 2001 , resulting in a broken hip . The fracture was repaired the following day and the 89 @-@ year @-@ old Reagan returned home later that week , although he faced difficult physical therapy at home . On February 6 , 2001 , Reagan reached the age of 90 , becoming the third former president to do so ( the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover , with Gerald Ford , George H. W. Bush and Jimmy Carter later reaching 90 ) . Reagan 's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease , and as a result , his family decided that he would live in quiet semi @-@ isolation with his wife Nancy . Nancy Reagan told CNN 's Larry King in 2001 that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that " Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was . " After her husband 's diagnosis and death , Nancy Reagan became a stem @-@ cell research advocate , urging Congress and President George W. Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem @-@ cell research , something Bush opposed . In 2009 , she praised President Barack Obama for lifting restrictions on such research . Mrs. Reagan has said that she believes that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer 's .
= = Death = =
Reagan died of pneumonia , complicated by Alzheimer 's disease , at his home in Bel Air , California , on the afternoon of June 5 , 2004 . A short time after his death , Nancy Reagan released a statement saying , " My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer 's disease at 93 years of age . We appreciate everyone 's prayers . " President George W. Bush declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning , and international tributes came in from around the world . Reagan 's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica , California later in the day , where well @-@ wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass . On June 7 , his body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library , where a brief family funeral was held conducted by Pastor Michael Wenning . His body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June 9 ; over 100 @,@ 000 people viewed the coffin .
On June 9 , Reagan 's body was flown to Washington , D.C. where he became the tenth United States president to lie in state ; in thirty @-@ four hours , 104 @,@ 684 people filed past the coffin .
On June 11 , a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral , and presided over by President George W. Bush . Eulogies were given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney , and both former President George H. W. Bush and President George W. Bush . Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev , and many world leaders , including British Prime Minister Tony Blair , Prince Charles , representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II , German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder , Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi , and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan , and Ghazi al @-@ Yawer of Iraq .
After the funeral , the Reagan entourage was flown back to the Ronald W. Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California , where another service was held , and President Reagan was interred . At the time of his death , Reagan was the longest @-@ lived president in U.S. history , having lived 93 years and 120 days ( 2 years , 8 months , and 23 days longer than John Adams , whose record he surpassed ) . He is now the second longest @-@ lived president , just 45 days fewer than Gerald Ford . He was the first United States president to die in the 21st century , and his was the first state funeral in the United States since that of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 .
His burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library : " I know in my heart that man is good , that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life . "
= = Legacy = =
Since Reagan left office in 1989 , substantial debate has occurred among scholars , historians , and the general public surrounding his legacy . Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reagan 's economic policies , foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War , and a restoration of American pride and morale . Proponents also argue Reagan restored faith in the American Dream with his unabated and passionate love for the United States , after a decline in American confidence and self @-@ respect under Jimmy Carter 's perceived weak leadership , particularly during the Iranian hostage crisis , as well as his gloomy , dreary outlook for the future of the United States during the 1980 election . Critics contend that Reagan 's economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits , a wider gap in wealth , and an increase in homelessness and that the Iran – Contra affair lowered American credibility .
Opinions of Reagan 's legacy among the country 's leading policy makers and journalists differ as well . Edwin Feulner , president of The Heritage Foundation , said that Reagan " helped create a safer , freer world " and said of his economic policies : " He took an America suffering from ' malaise ' ... and made its citizens believe again in their destiny . " However , Mark Weisbrot , co @-@ Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research , contended that Reagan 's " economic policies were mostly a failure " while Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was " a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest . "
Despite the continuing debate surrounding his legacy , many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Franklin D. Roosevelt , leaving his imprint on American politics , diplomacy , culture , and economics through his effective communication , dedicated patriotism and pragmatic compromising . Since he left office , historians have reached a consensus , as summarized by British historian M. J. Heale , who finds that scholars now concur that Reagan rehabilitated conservatism , turned the nation to the right , practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics , revived faith in the presidency and in American exceptionalism , and contributed to victory in the Cold War .
= = = Cold War = = =
The Cold War was a major political , economic and military endeavor for over four decades , but the confrontation between the two superpowers had decreased dramatically by the end of Reagan 's presidency . The significance of Reagan 's role in ending the Cold War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate . That Reagan played a role in contributing to the downfall of the Soviet Union is agreed , but the extent of this role is continuously debated , with many believing that Reagan 's defense policies , economic policies , military policies and hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism , as well as summits with General Secretary Gorbachev played a significant part in ending the Cold War .
He was first among post – World War II presidents to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with , a post @-@ Détente strategy , a conviction that was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov , the Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev , who said that the Strategic Defense Initiative was " very successful blackmail . ... The Soviet economy couldn 't endure such competition . " Reagan 's aggressive rhetoric toward the USSR had mixed effects ; Jeffery W. Knopf observes that being labeled " evil " probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East @-@ European citizens opposed to communism .
General Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival 's Cold War role : " [ He was ] a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War , " and deemed him " a great president . " Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war , but rather a peaceful end ; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan 's harsh rhetoric . Margaret Thatcher , former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , said of Reagan , " he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power ... but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform . " She later said , " Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired . " Said Brian Mulroney , former Prime Minister of Canada : " He enters history as a strong and dramatic player [ in the Cold War ] . " Former President Lech Wałęsa of Poland acknowledged , " Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism 's collapse . " That Reagan had little or no effect in ending the Cold War is argued with equal weight ; that Communism 's internal weakness had become apparent , and the Soviet Union would have collapsed in the end regardless of who was in power . President Harry S. Truman 's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the U.S.S.R. , and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself .
= = = Domestic and political legacy = = =
Ronald Reagan reshaped the Republican party , led the modern conservative movement , and altered the political dynamic of the United States . More men voted Republican under Reagan , and Reagan tapped into religious voters . The so @-@ called " Reagan Democrats " were a result of his presidency .
After leaving office , Reagan became an iconic influence within the Republican party . His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates since 1989 . The 2008 Republican presidential candidates were no exception , for they aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates , even imitating his campaign strategies . Republican nominee John McCain frequently said that he came to office as " a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution . " Reagan 's most famous statement regarding the role of smaller government was that " Government is not a solution to our problem , government is the problem . "
Reagan has become an iconic figure in the Republican Party , with praise for his accomplishments part of the standard GOP rhetoric a quarter century after his retirement . Washington Post reporter Carlos Lozada notes how in the 2016 presidential race the main Republican contenders have adopted " standard GOP Gipper worship , " including even Donald Trump , who previously had been skeptical .
The period of American history most dominated by Ronald Reagan and his policies concerning taxes , welfare , defense , the federal judiciary and the Cold War is known today as the Reagan Era , and emphasizes that the conservative " Reagan Revolution , " led by Reagan , had a permanent impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy . The Clinton presidency ( 1993 – 2001 ) is often treated as an extension of the Reagan Era , as is the Bush presidency ( 2001 – 09 ) . Historian Eric Foner noted that the Obama candidacy in 2008 " aroused a great deal of wishful thinking among those yearning for a change after nearly thirty years of Reaganism . "
Campaigning for the Democratic nomination in 2008 , Barack Obama , an American liberal , interpreted how Reagan changed the nation 's trajectory :
I think Ronald Reagan changed the trajectory of America in a way that Richard Nixon did not and in a way that Bill Clinton did not . He put us on a fundamentally different path because the country was ready for it . I think they felt like with all the excesses of the 1960s and 1970s and government had grown and grown but there wasn 't much sense of accountability in terms of how it was operating . I think that people ... he just tapped into what people were already feeling , which was we want clarity , we want optimism , we want a return to that sense of dynamism and entrepreneurship that had been missing .
= = = Cultural and political image = = =
According to columnist Chuck Raasch , " Reagan transformed the American presidency in ways that only a few have been able to . " He redefined the political agenda of the times , advocating lower taxes , a conservative economic philosophy , and a stronger military . His role in the Cold War further enhanced his image as a different kind of leader . Reagan 's " avuncular style , optimism , and plain @-@ folks demeanor " also helped him turn " government @-@ bashing into an art form . "
As a sitting president , Reagan did not have the highest approval ratings , but his popularity has increased since 1989 . Gallup polls in 2001 and 2007 ranked him number one or number two when correspondents were asked for the greatest president in history . Reagan ranked third of post – World War II presidents in a 2007 Rasmussen Reports poll , fifth in an ABC 2000 poll , ninth in another 2007 Rasmussen poll , and eighth in a late 2008 poll by United Kingdom newspaper The Times . In a Siena College survey of over 200 historians , however , Reagan ranked sixteenth out of 42 . While the debate about Reagan 's legacy is ongoing , the 2009 Annual C @-@ SPAN Survey of Presidential Leaders ranked Reagan the 10th greatest president . The survey of leading historians rated Reagan number 11 in 2000 .
In 2011 , the Institute for the Study of the Americas released the first ever UK academic survey to rate U.S. presidents . This poll of UK specialists in U.S. history and politics placed Reagan as the 8th greatest U.S. president .
Reagan 's ability to connect with Americans earned him the laudatory moniker " The Great Communicator . " Of it , Reagan said , " I won the nickname the great communicator . But I never thought it was my style that made a difference — it was the content . I wasn 't a great communicator , but I communicated great things . " His age and soft @-@ spoken speech gave him a warm grandfatherly image .
Reagan also earned the nickname " the Teflon President , " in that public perceptions of him were not tarnished by the controversies that arose during his administration . According to Congresswoman Patricia Schroeder , who coined the phrase , and reporter Howard Kurtz , the epithet referred to Reagan 's ability to " do almost anything wrong and not get blamed for it . "
Public reaction to Reagan was always mixed ; the oldest president was supported by young voters , and began an alliance that shifted many of them to the Republican party . Reagan did not fare well with minority groups , especially African @-@ Americans . This was largely due to his opposition to affirmative action policies . However , his support of Israel throughout his presidency earned him support from many Jews . He emphasized family values in his campaigns and during his presidency , although he was the first president to have been divorced . The combination of Reagan 's speaking style , unabashed patriotism , negotiation skills , as well as his savvy use of the media , played an important role in defining the 1980s and his future legacy .
Reagan was known to joke frequently during his lifetime , displayed humor throughout his presidency , and was famous for his storytelling . His numerous jokes and one @-@ liners have been labeled " classic quips " and " legendary . " Among the most notable of his jokes was one regarding the Cold War . As a microphone test in preparation for his weekly radio address in August 1984 , Reagan made the following joke : " My fellow Americans , I 'm pleased to tell you today that I 've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever . We begin bombing in five minutes . " Former aide David Gergen commented , " It was that humor ... that I think endeared people to Reagan . "
= = = Honors = = =
Reagan received a number of awards in his pre- and post @-@ presidential years . After his election as president , Reagan received a lifetime gold membership in the Screen Actors Guild , was inducted into the National Speakers Association Speaker Hall of Fame and received the United States Military Academy 's Sylvanus Thayer Award .
In 1981 , Ronald Reagan was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln ( the state 's highest honor ) by the Governor of Illinois in the area of Government .
In 1989 , Reagan was made an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath , one of the highest British orders ( this entitled him to the use of the post @-@ nominal letters " GCB " but , as a foreign national , not to be known as " Sir Ronald Reagan " ) ; only two American presidents have received this honor , Reagan and George H.W. Bush . Reagan was also named an honorary Fellow of Keble College , Oxford . Japan awarded him the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum in 1989 ; he was the second American president to receive the order and the first to have it given to him for personal reasons ( Dwight D. Eisenhower received it as a commemoration of U.S.-Japanese relations ) .
On January 18 , 1993 , Reagan 's former Vice @-@ President and sitting President George H. W. Bush awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom ( awarded with distinction ) , the highest honor that the United States can bestow . Reagan was also awarded the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom , the highest honor bestowed by Republican members of the Senate .
On Reagan 's 87th birthday , in 1998 , Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Bill Clinton . That year , the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center was dedicated in Washington , D.C. He was among 18 included in Gallup 's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century , from a poll conducted in the U.S. in 1999 ; two years later , USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy Reagan and the United States Navy . It is one of few Navy ships christened in honor of a living person and the first aircraft carrier to be named in honor of a living former president .
In 1998 the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Reagan its Naval Heritage award for his support of the U S Navy and military in both his film career and while he served as president .
Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon , Illinois in 2002 , pending federal purchase of the property . On May 16 of that year , Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal , the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress , on behalf of the president and herself .
After Reagan 's death , the United States Postal Service issued a President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp in 2005 . Later in the year , CNN , along with the editors of Time magazine , named him the " most fascinating person " of the network 's first 25 years ; Time listed Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century as well . The Discovery Channel asked its viewers to vote for The Greatest American in June 2005 ; Reagan placed in first place , ahead of Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr .
In 2006 , Reagan was inducted into the California Hall of Fame , located at The California Museum for History , Women , and the Arts . Every year since 2002 , California Governors Gray Davis and Arnold Schwarzenegger have proclaimed February 6 " Ronald Reagan Day " in the state of California in honor of their most famous predecessor . In 2010 , Schwarzenegger signed Senate Bill 944 , authored by Senator George Runner , to make every February 6 Ronald Reagan Day in California .
In 2007 , Polish President Lech Kaczyński posthumously conferred on Reagan the highest Polish distinction , the Order of the White Eagle , saying that Reagan had inspired the Polish people to work for change and helped to unseat the repressive communist regime ; Kaczyński said it " would not have been possible if it was not for the tough @-@ mindedness , determination , and feeling of mission of President Ronald Reagan . " Reagan backed the nation of Poland throughout his presidency , supporting the anti @-@ communist Solidarity movement , along with Pope John Paul II ; the Ronald Reagan Park , a public facility in Gdańsk , was named in his honor .
On June 3 , 2009 , Nancy Reagan unveiled a statue of her late husband in the United States Capitol rotunda . The statue represents the state of California in the National Statuary Hall Collection . After Reagan 's death , both major American political parties agreed to erect a statue of Reagan in the place of that of Thomas Starr King . The day before , President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act into law , establishing a commission to plan activities to mark the upcoming centenary of Reagan 's birth .
Independence Day 2011 saw the unveiling of another statue to Reagan — this time in the British capital of London , outside the American Embassy , Grosvenor Square . The unveiling was supposed to be attended by Reagan 's wife , Nancy , but she did not attend ; former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice took her place and read a statement on her behalf ; further to the former First Lady 's absence President Reagan 's friend , and the sole British Prime Minister during Reagan 's presidency , Baroness Thatcher , was also unable to attend due to frail health .
= = = Historiography = = =
Johns , Andrew L. , ed . A Companion to Ronald Reagan ( Wiley @-@ Blackwell , 2015 ) . xiv , 682 pp . ; topical essays by scholars emphasizing historiography contents – free at many libraries
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= White @-@ bellied sea eagle =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster ) , also known as the white @-@ breasted sea eagle , is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae . Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 , it is closely related to Sanford 's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands , and the two are considered a superspecies . A distinctive bird , the adult white @-@ bellied sea eagle has a white head , breast , under @-@ wing coverts and tail . The upper parts are grey and the black under @-@ wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts . The tail is short and wedge @-@ shaped as in all Haliaeetus species . Like many raptors , the female is slightly larger than the male , and can measure up to 90 cm ( 35 in ) long with a wingspan of up to 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) , and weigh 4 @.@ 5 kg ( 9 @.@ 9 lb ) . Immature birds have brown plumage , which is gradually replaced by white until the age of five or six years . The call is a loud goose @-@ like honking .
Resident from India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle breeds and hunts near water , and fish form around half of its diet . Opportunistic , it consumes carrion and a wide variety of animals . Although rated of Least Concern globally , it has declined in parts of southeast Asia such as Thailand , and southeastern Australia . It is ranked as Threatened in Victoria and Vulnerable in South Australia and Tasmania . Human disturbance to its habitat is the main threat , both from direct human activity near nests which impacts on breeding success , and from removal of suitable trees for nesting . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is revered by indigenous people in many parts of Australia , and is the subject of various folk tales throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle was first described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 , although John Latham had made notes on the species in 1781 , from a specimen obtained in February 1780 at Princes Island off the westernmost cape of Java during Captain Cook 's last voyage . Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek leuko- ' white ' , and gaster ' belly ' . Its closest relative is the little @-@ known Sanford 's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands . These form a superspecies , and as is usual in other sea eagle superspecies , one ( the white @-@ bellied sea eagle ) has a white head , as opposed to the other species ' dark head . The bill and eyes are dark , and the talons are dark yellow as in all Southern Hemisphere sea eagles . Both these species have at least some dark colouration in their tails , though this may not always be clearly visible in the white @-@ bellied sea eagle . The nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene of the two sea eagles were among those analysed in a 1996 study . Although they differ greatly in appearance and ecology , their genetic divergence of 0 @.@ 3 % indicates that the ancestors of the two forms might have diverged as recently as 150 @,@ 000 years ago . The study authors conclude that although the genetic divergence is more consistent with subspecies , the distinctness in appearance and behaviour warrants the two being retained as separate species . Mitochondrial sequence of the cytochrome b locus differs very slightly from that of Sanford 's sea eagle suggesting a relatively recent divergence after New Guinea @-@ based white @-@ bellied sea eagles colonised the Solomon Islands .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle 's affinities beyond the Sanford 's sea eagle are a little less clear ; molecular data indicate that it is one of four species of tropical sea eagle ( along with the African fish eagle and the Madagascar fish eagle ) , while allozyme data indicate it might have a closer relationship with the sea eagles of the northern hemisphere . A further molecular study published in 2005 showed the white @-@ bellied and Sanford 's sea eagles to be basal to the four fish eagles ( the two mentioned above plus the two hitherto untested species of the genus Ichthyophaga ) .
As well as white @-@ bellied sea eagle and white @-@ breasted sea eagle , other recorded names include white @-@ bellied fish @-@ hawk , white @-@ eagle , and grey @-@ backed sea eagle .
= = Description = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle has a white head , rump and underparts , and dark or slate @-@ grey back and wings . In flight , the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below . The large , hooked bill is a leaden blue @-@ grey with a darker tip , and the irides are dark brown . The cere is also lead grey . The legs and feet are yellow or grey , with long black talons ( claws ) . Unlike those of eagles of the genus Aquila , the legs are not feathered . The sexes are similar . Males are 66 – 80 cm ( 26 – 31 in ) long and weigh 1 @.@ 8 – 3 kg ( 4 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . Females are slightly larger , at 80 – 90 cm ( 31 – 35 in ) and 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 9 lb ) . The wingspan ranges from 1 @.@ 78 to 2 @.@ 2 m ( 5 @.@ 8 to 7 @.@ 2 ft ) . A 2004 study on 37 birds from Australia and Papua New Guinea ( 3 ° S to 50 ° S ) found that birds could be sexed reliably on size , and that birds from latitudes further south were larger than those from the north . There is no seasonal variation in plumage . The moulting pattern of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle is poorly known . It appears to take longer than a year to complete , and can be interrupted and later resumed from the point of interruption .
The wings are modified when gliding so that they rise from the body at an angle , but are closer to horizontal further along the wingspan . In silhouette , the comparatively long neck , head and beak stick out from the front almost as far as the tail does behind . For active flight , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle alternates strong deep wing @-@ beats with short periods of gliding .
A young white @-@ bellied sea eagle in its first year is predominantly brown , with pale cream @-@ streaked plumage on their head , neck , nape and rump areas . The plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until it acquires the complete adult plumage by the fourth or fifth year . The species breeds from around six years of age onwards . The lifespan is thought to be around 30 years .
The loud goose @-@ like honking call is a familiar sound , particularly during the breeding season ; pairs often honk in unison , and often carry on for some time when perched . The male 's call is higher @-@ pitched and more rapid than that of the female . Australian naturalist David Fleay observed that the call is among the loudest and furthest @-@ carrying of all Australian bird calls , in stark contrast to the relatively quiet calls of the wedge @-@ tailed eagle .
Adult white @-@ bellied sea eagles are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird . Immature birds can be confused with wedge @-@ tailed eagles . However , the plumage of the latter is darker , the tail longer , and the legs feathered . They might also be confused with the black @-@ breasted buzzard ( Hamirostra melanosternon ) , but this species is much smaller , has white patches on the wings , and has a more undulating flight . In India , the Egyptian vulture has white plumage , but is smaller and has a whiter back and wings . The white tail of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle in flight distinguishes it from other species of large eagles . In the Philippines , it can be confused with the Philippine eagle , which can be distinguished by its crest ; immature white @-@ bellied sea eagles resemble immature grey @-@ headed fish eagles , but can be identified by their more wholly dark brown underparts and flight feathers , and wedge @-@ shaped tail .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is found regularly from Mumbai ( sometimes north to Gujarat , and in the past in the Lakshadweep Islands ) eastwards in India , Bangladesh , and Sri Lanka in southern Asia , through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma , Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , Indochina , the main and offshore islands of the Philippines , and southern China including Hong Kong , Hainan and Fuzhou , eastwards through New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago , and Australia . In the northern Solomons it is restricted to Nissan Island , and replaced elsewhere by Sanford 's sea eagle . In Victoria , where it is otherwise scarce , it is locally more common at Corner Inlet and Gippsland Lakes . Similarly in South Australia , it is most abundant along the north coast of Kangaroo Island . The range extends to the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania , and it is thought able to move between the islands and the mainland . There is one unconfirmed record from Lord Howe Island and several from New Zealand .
They are a common sight in coastal areas , but may also be seen well inland ( It is reportedly seen at the Panna Tiger Reserve in central India , nearly 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) away from the sea shore ) The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is generally sedentary and territorial , although it may travel long distances . They have been reported travelling upriver to hunt for flying foxes ( Pteropus ) . Populations in inland Australia move around as inland bodies of water appear and then dry up . In one instance , a pair came to breed at Lake Albacutya in northwestern Victoria after the lake had been empty for 30 years . The species is easily disturbed by humans , especially when nesting , and may desert nesting sites as a result . It is found in greater numbers in areas with little or no human impact or interference .
= = Behaviour = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is generally territorial ; some birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year , while others are nomadic . The species is monogamous , with pairs remaining together until one bird dies , after which the surviving bird quickly seeks a new mate . This can lead to some nest sites being continuously occupied for many years ( one site in Mallacoota was occupied for over fifty years ) . Immature birds are generally dispersive , with many moving over 50 km ( 31 mi ) away from the area they were raised . One juvenile raised in Cowell , South Australia was reported 3 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) away at Fraser Island in Queensland . A study of the species in Jervis Bay showed increases in the numbers of immature and subadult birds in autumn , although it was unclear whether these were locally fledged or ( as was considered more likely ) an influx of young birds born and raised elsewhere in Australia . Birds are often seen perched high in a tree , or soaring over waterways and adjacent land . They are most commonly encountered singly or in pairs . Small groups of white @-@ bellied sea eagles sometimes gather if there is a plentiful source of food such as a carcass or fish offal on a ship . Much of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle 's behaviour , particularly breeding , remains poorly known .
= = = Feeding = = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is an opportunistic carnivore and consumes a wide variety of animal prey , including carrion . It often catches a fish by flying low over the water and grasping it in its talons . It prepares for the strike by holding its feet far forward ( almost under its chin ) and then strikes backwards while simultaneously beating its wings to lift upwards . Generally only one foot is used to seize prey . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle may also dive at a 45 degree angle from its perch and briefly submerge to catch fish near the water surface . While hunting over water on sunny days , it often flies directly into the sun or at right angles to it , seemingly to avoid casting shadows over the water and hence alerting potential prey .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle hunts mainly aquatic animals , such as fish , turtles and sea snakes , but it takes birds , such as little penguins , Eurasian coots and shearwaters , and mammals ( including flying foxes ) as well . In the Bismarck Archipelago it has been reported feeding on two species of possum , the northern common cuscus and common spotted cuscus . It is a skilled hunter , and will attack prey up to the size of a swan . They also feed on carrion such as dead sheep , birds and fish found along the waterline , as well as raiding fishing nets and following cane harvesters .
They harass smaller raptors such as swamp harriers , whistling kites , brahminy kites and ospreys , forcing them to drop any food that they are carrying . Other birds victimised include silver and Pacific gulls , cormorants and Australasian gannets . There is one record of a white @-@ bellied sea eagle seizing a gannet when unsuccessful in obtaining its prey . They may even steal food from their own species , including their mates . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle attacks these birds by striking them with outstretched talons from above or by flying upside down underneath the smaller predator and snatching the prey , all the while screeching shrilly . Southern fur seals have also been targeted for their fish .
White @-@ bellied sea eagles feed alone , in pairs , or in family groups . A pair may cooperate to hunt . Prey can be eaten while the bird is flying or when it lands on a raised platform such as its nest . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle skins the victim as it eats it . It is exceptionally efficient at digesting its food , and disgorges only tiny pellets of fragmented bone , fur and feathers .
A 2006 study of inland bodies of water around Canberra where wedge @-@ tailed eagles and white @-@ bellied sea eagles share territories showed little overlap in the range of prey taken . Wedge @-@ tailed eagles took rabbits , various macropods , terrestrial birds such as cockatoos and parrots , and various passerines including magpies and starlings . White @-@ bellied sea eagles caught fish , water @-@ dwelling reptiles such as the eastern long @-@ necked turtle and Australian water dragon , and waterbirds such as ducks , grebes and coots . Both species preyed on the maned duck . Rabbits constituted only a small fraction of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle 's diet . Despite nesting near each other , the two species seldom interacted , as the wedge @-@ tailed eagles hunted away from water and the white @-@ bellied sea eagles foraged along the lake shores . However , conflict with wedge @-@ tailed eagles over nesting sites in remnant trees has been recorded in Tasmania .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding season varies according to location — it has been recorded in the dry season in the Trans @-@ Fly region and Central Province of Papua New Guinea , and from June to August in Australia . A pair of white @-@ bellied sea eagles performs skilful displays of flying before copulation : diving , gliding and chasing each other while calling loudly . They may mirror each other , flying 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) apart and copying each other swooping and swerving . A talon @-@ grappling display has been recorded where the pair will fly high before one flips upside down and tries to grapple the other 's talons with its own . If successful , the two then plunge cartwheeling before separating as they approach the ground . This behaviour has also been recorded as an aggressive display against a wedge @-@ tailed eagle .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle usually chooses tall trees or man @-@ made pylons to nest in . Often , locations are sought where there is a tall dead tree or high branch with good visibility which can be used as a perch to survey the surrounding area , which is generally a low @-@ lying locale near water with some forest cover . The perch becomes covered in faeces and pellets and animal remains litter the immediate surrounding area . The nest is a large deep bowl constructed of sticks and branches , and lined with such materials as grass or seaweed . Yearly renovations result in nests getting gradually bigger . Nests are generally sited in the forks of large trees overlooking bodies of water . Old nests of wedge @-@ tailed eagles or whistling kites have been renovated and used . Cliffs are also suitable nesting sites , and on islands nests are sometimes built directly on the ground . A breeding pair , with the male being more active , spends three to six weeks building or renovating the nest before laying eggs . Normally a clutch of two dull , white , oval eggs are laid . Measuring 73 × 55 mm , they are incubated over six weeks before hatching . The young are semi @-@ altricial , and covered in white down when they emerge from the egg . Initially , the male brings food and the female feeds the chicks , but both parents feed the chicks as they grow larger . Although two eggs are laid , it is unusual for two young to be reared successfully to fledging ( leaving the nest ) . One egg may be infertile , or the second chick may die in the nest . If the first clutch is lost , the parents may attempt a second brood . Nestlings have been recorded fledging when 70 to 80 days old , and remaining around the parents ' territory for up to six months or until the following breeding season .
= = Conservation status = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN . There are an estimated 10 thousand to 100 thousand individuals , although there seems to be a decline in numbers . They have become rare in Thailand and some other parts of southeast Asia . They are relatively abundant in Hong Kong , where the population increased from 39 to 57 birds between 2002 and 2009 . A field study on Kangaroo Island in South Australia showed that nesting pairs in areas of high human disturbance ( as defined by clearing of landscape and high human activity ) had lower breeding success rates . In the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia , nests have been vacated as human activities have encroached on the eagles ' territories . Elsewhere , the clearing of trees suitable for nesting has seen it largely disappear locally , such as the removal of stands of Casuarina equisetifolia in Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in India . In India , nest densities of about one per 4 @.@ 32 km of coastline have been noted in Sindhudurg and one per 3 @.@ 57 km ( 45 nests along 161 km ) in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra . They also nest on Netrani Island , where about a 100 birds were noted in 1875 ( then known as Pigeon Island ) by Allan Octavian Hume who noted that this was perhaps the largest breeding colony of the species . In 2000 , the disturbance to the island from torpedo @-@ firing exercises conducted by the Indian navy was noted as a threat . Nearly 100 nests have been noted in 2004 on this island .
DDT was a widely used pesticide in agriculture that was found to have significant adverse effects on wildlife , particularly egg thinning and subsequent breakage in birds of prey . A review of DDT 's impact on Australian raptors between 1947 and 1993 found that the average egg @-@ shell thickness had decreased by 6 % . This average level of thinning was not thought likely to result in significantly more breakage overall , however individual clutches that had been even thinner might have broken . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle was one of the more affected species , probably due to its feeding in areas heavily treated with pesticide such as swamps . DDT use peaked in 1973 , but was no longer approved after 1987 and its use had effectively ceased by 1989 .
= = = Australia = = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is listed under the marine and migratory categories which give it protected status under Australia 's federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . As a mainly coastal species , it is vulnerable to habitat destruction in Australia 's increasingly populated and urbanised coastal areas , particularly in the south and east of the country , where it appears to have declined in numbers . However , there may have been an increase in population inland , secondary to the creation of reservoirs , dams and weirs , and the spread of the introduced common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) . However , it is rare along the Murray River where it was once common . It is also listed as Threatened under Victoria 's Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ( 1988 ) , with possibly fewer than 100 breeding pairs remaining in the state . On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle is listed as vulnerable .
There are fewer than 1000 adult birds in Tasmania , where the species is listed as Vulnerable under Schedule 3 @.@ 1 of the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 . In Tasmania it is threatened by nest disturbance , loss of suitable nesting habitat , shooting , poisoning , trapping , and collision with power lines and wind turbines , as well as entanglement and environmental pollution . Estuaries are a favoured habitat , and these are often subject to environmental disturbance. white @-@ bellied sea eagles have been observed to increase their hunting ranges to include salmon fish farms , but the effect of this on breeding success is unknown .
= = Cultural significance = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle was important to different tribes of indigenous people across Australia . The guardian animal of the Wreck Bay aboriginal community , it is also the official emblem of the Booderee National Park and Botanic Gardens in the Jervis Bay Territory . The community considered localities around Booderee National Park to be connected with it . A local Sydney name was gulbi , and the bird was the totem of Colebee , the late 18th century indigenous leader of the Cadigal people . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is important to the Mak Mak people of the floodplains to the southwest of Darwin in the northern Territory , who recognised its connection with " good country " . It is their totem and integrally connected to their land . The term Mak Mak is their name for both the species and themselves . The Umbrawarra Gorge Nature Park was a Dreaming site of the bird , in this area known as Kuna @-@ ngarrk @-@ ngarrk . It was similarly symbolic to the Tasmanian indigenous people — Nairanaa was one name used there .
Known as Manulab to the people of Nissan Island , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle is considered special and killing it is forbidden . Its calls at night are said to foretell danger , and seeing a group of calling eagles flying overhead is a sign that someone has died . Local Malay folk tales tell of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle screaming to warn the shellfish of the turning of tides , and a local name burung hamba siput translates as " slave of the shellfish " . Called Kaulo in the recently extinct Aka @-@ Bo language , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle was held to be the ancestor of all birds in one Andaman Islands folk tale . On the Maharashtra coast , their name is kakan and its call is said to indicate the presence of fish in the sea . They sometimes nest on coconut trees . Owners of the trees destroy the nest to avoid attacks when harvesting the coconuts .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is featured on the $ 10 @,@ 000 Singapore note , which was introduced into circulation on 1 February 1980 . It is the emblem of the Malaysian state of Selangor . Malay magnate Loke Wan Tho had a 40 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 130 ft ) tower built for the sole purpose of observing a white @-@ bellied sea eagle nest in the palace gardens of Istana Bukit Serene in Johor Bahru . Taken in February 1949 , the resulting photographs appeared in The Illustrated London News in 1954 . The bird is the emblem of the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles rugby league team , chosen at the club 's inception in 1947 . From 2010 , a nesting pair of white @-@ bellied sea eagles have had their attempts at raising chicks filmed live on " EagleCam " , with footage on display at the nearby Birds Australia Discovery Centre in Sydney Olympic Park , New South Wales . After raising one brood , however , their nest collapsed in February 2011 . The story attracted statewide attention .
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= Guitar Method =
Guitar Method ( subtitled 1996 – 1999 ) is the only album by indie supergroup Kid Kilowatt , initially released by Second Nature Recordings on vinyl in 2003 , and later on CD by Hydra Head Records in 2004 . It consists of material recorded over a period of three years , including after the band 's breakup . Still , it did not see release as a whole for over four years after the last track was recorded .
Kid Kilowatt was formed by members of Cave In and Converge as a side project ; sessions together were sporadic and rare , and the process of writing , recording and release took seven years in all . Reviewers praised the band 's musicianship and the depth and range of the sound ; one " much mellower " than that of the members ' main projects .
= = Context and recording = =
Kid Kilowatt was initially created as ' Ester of Wood Rosin ' by Cave In 's Stephen Brodsky in August 1996 , " inspired by [ his ] love for Giants Chair and [ his ] need for an alter @-@ ego to Cave In " . Other influences upon Kid Kilowatt 's sound , as stated by Brodksy , included Sunny Day Real Estate and " early " Promise Ring . Brodsky recruited Adam McGrath , also of Cave In , on bass guitar , along with local drummer Matt Redmond and Piebald guitarist and vocalist Aaron Stuart . Brodsky took the role of guitarist and lead vocalist , and with this line @-@ up they , in the words of Brodsky , " began to formulate some good ol ' sappy @-@ but @-@ not @-@ too @-@ sappy rock n ' roll tunes " .
The first material destined for Guitar Method was written within the initial few months , including " Teg Nugent " and " the original , 9 minute long opus version " of " Tug of War " . In Autumn 1996 , they recorded a four @-@ song demo with Kurt Ballou at his 8 @-@ track home studio , GodCity . Brodsky hand @-@ crafted the demo inserts in his high school graphic arts room , with around 400 copies pressed . According to Brodsky , they were " gone in no time " . In Spring 1997 , Aaron Stuart left the band in order to concentrate on his primary project , Piebald . Ballou , of Converge , who had recorded and produced their prior four track demo , joined the band in his stead , and they renamed the band " Kid Kilowatt " , inspired by a Guided by Voices song entitled " Cool Off Kid Kilowatt " from their 1993 album Vampire on Titus .
Now with Ballou as a full @-@ time member , the band re @-@ developed songs written with Stuart , including " The Bicycle Song " , " 7th Inning Song Formation " , " The Scope " , " Peeping Tomboy " and " Red Carpet " . They resumed writing fresh material with " Radio Pow for Now " . In their first show as Kid Kilowatt , they performed with Brodsky 's " heroes " , Giants Chair , in his home town of Methuen , Massachusetts . For the following six to seven months , however , all the band members were prepossessed with other musical projects , resulting in infrequent rehearsal and intermittent live performance . They did occasionally play live during this period , however , performing with bands such as Piebald , Jejune , and Regulator Watts .
They recorded as Kid Kilowatt only once before the official demise of the band , in July 1997 . During this session , they recorded " Bicycle Song " and " The Scope " on Ballou 's 8 @-@ track machine ; this version of " Bicycle Song " appeared on Hydra Head Records CD sampler Volume 1 .
After Brodsky joined Converge , whilst still a member of Cave In , in 1997 , the amount of time being devoted to Kid Kilowatt began to wane . Matt Redmond had moved to New Hampshire also , causing " enthusiasm for the band to fizzle " . They played what would be their last show in January 1998 at the Met Café in Providence , Rhode Island . Soon after that show , Brodsky left Converge in order to devote all his time to Cave In , now as not only the guitarist , but as the vocalist . McGrath and Ballou continued their duties with Cave In and Converge , respectively , and Redmond joined a new band called Eulcid . As Brodsky eulogises : " There was simply no time left in our schedules for Kid Kilowatt and the band collapsed " .
In November 1998 , the band decided to try to record everything they had written together . Recording continued at GodCity until October 1999 , occurring " completely sporadically ; a week night here and there , maybe a full day during one weekend of a month or two " . Brodsky describes this as " quite evident from the sound of the record " . During these sessions , some new material was composed , including " Memorial Drive " , " Glass of Shattered Youth " , " Cadence for a Rainy Day " and " Cadence for the Desert Sun " . The last Kid Kilowatt song ever recorded was the album version of " Tug of War " . The record was mastered at M @-@ works in Cambridge , Massachusetts .
= = Release = =
Predating Guitar Method by three years , Second Nature Recordings released a 7 @-@ inch Kid Kilowatt single entitled Hit Single in 2001 . It includes tracks " Peeping Tomboy " and " Glass of Shattered Youth " , described as " a playful companion to their Guitar Method debut full @-@ length " . The vinyl saw two pressings . Second Nature also released the original version of Guitar Method on 12 " on October 14 , 2003 , in slightly abridged form . The vinyl edit excluded the tracks " Glass of Shattered Youth " , " Blue / Green Heart " and " Tug of War " . These three tracks were credited as " bonus tracks " on the Hydra Head Records CD , released on March 9 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception to the album was largely positive ; reviews specifically praised the band 's musicianship and the range of material on the album . Adam Moore , writing for the Tufts Observer , posits that " [ a ] ll of the members bring their great musical abilities to Kid Kilowatt and make them more palatable to the listener who isn 't into blast beats and Jake Bannon 's [ of Converge ] distinctive voice " . The album 's sound is described as " more recent Cave In , but without the spacey effects and meandering songwriting " . Moore likens the sound to that of Thursday , but concedes that " Kilowatt isn ’ t even that metallic or scream @-@ oriented " . Attempting to categorise that band , a ScenePointBlank review writes that " [ o ] ne could narrowly define Kid Kilowatt as either indie @-@ rock or post @-@ hardcore , both are accurate descriptions " . Moore says that " [ o ] verall , the album sounds rather pop @-@ y " , and that their use of " pop hooks combined with post @-@ pop chord progressions " gives the album a " very melodic feel " . Chris Morgan , in a glowing review , writes that Guitar Method is " a sleeper classic of the modern underground " .
Several songs are selected as stand @-@ outs throughout the album . " Tug of War " is labelled as " the strongest song on the album " , with John D. Luerssen writing that " the cohesiveness of the material suggests the lads in Kid Kilowatt exited this side project as friends . After all , only buddies capable of putting their differences aside could craft the soaring , majestic " Tug of War , " where Brodsky 's wide @-@ reaching pipes mesh brilliantly with KK 's ace musicianship " . He continues to say that " the disc shifts from roaring , expansive rockers like " Bicycle Song " to crunching anthems like " Ted Nugent " and on to lilting , near @-@ ballads like " Memorial Drive " with inexplicable ease " . Moore writes that " The Scope " " encapsulates what the rest of the album will sound like . It starts out sounding rather crunchy and smooths out as the album progresses , providing a good contrasting effect that runs throughout the album " . Moore , however , writes that " Memorial Drive " is " only mediocre . It 's the only song on the album over five minutes long . Playing slow just isn 't this band 's forte , although they have the ability to write poignant lyrics " . Similarly , a ScenePointBlank review states that " Cadence for a Rainy Day " and " Memorial Drive " " often diverge and lead the listener off @-@ course " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kid Kilowatt .
= = Personnel = =
Band members
Kurt Ballou – guitar
Stephen Brodsky – guitar , vocals
Adam McGrath – bass
Matt Redmond – drums
Aaron Stuart – guitar
Other personnel
Aaron Turner – album artwork and design
Nick Zampiello – mastering
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= Female genital mutilation =
Female genital mutilation ( FGM ) , also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision , is the ritual removal of some or all of the external female genitalia . UNICEF estimated in 2016 that 200 million women had undergone the procedures in 27 countries in Africa , as well as in Indonesia , Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen , with a rate of 80 – 98 percent within the 15 – 49 age group in Djibouti , Egypt , Eritrea , Guinea , Mali , Sierra Leone , Somalia and Sudan . The practice is also found elsewhere in Asia , the Middle East , and among communities from these areas around the world .
Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade , FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond ; in half the countries for which national figures are available , most girls are cut before the age of five . Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group . They include removal of the clitoral hood and clitoral glans ; removal of the inner labia ; and removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva . In this last procedure ( known as infibulation ) , a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid ; the vagina is opened for intercourse and opened further for childbirth . The United Nations Population Fund estimated in 2010 that 20 percent of women affected by FGM had been infibulated , a practice found largely in northeast Africa .
The practice is rooted in gender inequality , attempts to control women 's sexuality , and ideas about purity , modesty and aesthetics . It is usually initiated and carried out by women , who see it as a source of honour , and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to social exclusion . The health effects depend on the procedure ; they can include recurrent infections , difficulty urinating and passing menstrual flow , chronic pain , the development of cysts , an inability to get pregnant , complications during childbirth , and fatal bleeding . There are no known health benefits .
FGM has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs , but the laws are poorly enforced . There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon it , and in 2012 the United Nations General Assembly , recognizing FGM as a human @-@ rights violation , voted unanimously to intensify those efforts . The opposition is not without its critics , particularly among anthropologists . Eric Silverman writes that FGM has become one of anthropology 's central moral topics , raising difficult questions about cultural relativism , tolerance and the universality of human rights .
= = Terminology = =
= = = English = = =
Until the 1980s FGM was widely known as female circumcision , which implied an equivalence in severity with male circumcision . The Kenya Missionary Council began referring to it as the sexual mutilation of women in 1929 , following the lead of Marion Scott Stevenson , a Church of Scotland missionary . References to the practice as mutilation increased throughout the 1970s . In 1975 Rose Oldfield Hayes , an American anthropologist , called it female genital mutilation in the title of a paper , and in 1979 Fran Hosken , an Austrian @-@ American researcher and feminist , called it mutilation in her influential The Hosken Report : Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females .
The Inter @-@ African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) began referring to it as female genital mutilation in 1990 and 1991 respectively . In April 1997 the WHO , United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) and United Nations Population Fund ( UNFPA ) issued a joint statement using that term . Other terms in common use include female genital cutting ( FGC ) and female genital mutilation / cutting ( FGM / C ) , preferred by those who work with practitioners .
= = = Local terms = = =
The many variants of FGM are reflected in dozens of local terms in countries where it is common . These often refer to purification . A common Arabic term for purification has the root t @-@ h @-@ r , used for male and female circumcision ( tahur and tahara ) . It is also known in Arabic as khafḍ or khifaḍ . In the Bambara language , spoken mostly in Mali , FGM is known as bolokoli ( " washing your hands " ) and in the Igbo language in eastern Nigeria as isa aru or iwu aru ( " having your bath , " as in " a young woman must ' have her bath ' before she has a baby " ) .
Sunna circumcision usually refers to clitoridectomy , but is also used for more severe forms . Communities often refer to just two forms of FGM : pharaonic for infibulation and sunna for everything else . Sunna means " path or way " in Arabic and refers to the tradition of Muhammad , although none of the procedures are required within Islam . The term infibulation derives from fibula , Latin for clasp ; the Ancient Romans reportedly fastened clasps through the foreskins or labia of slaves to prevent sexual intercourse . The surgical infibulation of women came to be known as pharaonic circumcision in Sudan , but as Sudanese circumcision in Egypt . In Somalia it is known simply as qodob ( " to sew up " ) .
= = Circumcisers , methods = =
The procedures are generally performed by a traditional circumciser ( cutter or exciseuse ) in the girls ' homes , with or without anaesthesia . The cutter is usually an older woman , but in communities where the male barber has assumed the role of health worker he will perform FGM too .
When traditional cutters are involved , non @-@ sterile devices are likely to be used , including knives , razors , scissors , glass , sharpened rocks and fingernails . A nurse in Uganda , quoted in 2007 in The Lancet , said that a cutter would use one knife on up to 30 girls at a time .
Health professionals are often involved in Egypt , Kenya , Indonesia and Sudan . In Egypt 77 percent of FGM procedures , and in Indonesia over 50 percent , were performed by medical professionals as of 2008 and 2016 . Depending on the involvement of medical professionals , the procedures may include a local or general anaesthetic , or neither . Women in Egypt reported in 1995 that a local anaesthetic had been used on their daughters in 60 percent of cases , a general in 13 percent and neither in 25 percent ( two percent were missing / don 't know ) .
= = Classification = =
= = = Typologies = = =
The WHO , UNICEF and UNFPA issued a joint statement in April 1997 defining FGM as " all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non @-@ therapeutic reasons . "
The procedures vary considerably according to ethnicity and individual practitioners . During a 1998 survey in Niger , women responded with over 50 different terms when asked what was done to them . Translation problems are compounded by the women 's confusion over which type of FGM they experienced , or even whether they experienced it . Several studies have suggested that survey responses are unreliable .
Standard questionnaires from United Nations bodies ask women whether they have undergone the following : ( 1 ) cut , no flesh removed ( pricking or symbolic circumcision ) ; ( 2 ) cut , some flesh removed ; ( 3 ) sewn closed ; and ( 4 ) type not determined / unsure / doesn 't know . The most common procedures fall within the " cut , some flesh removed " category and involve complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans .
= = = WHO Types I – II = = =
The World Health Organization has created a more detailed typology , Types I – II , based on how much tissue is removed . Type III is " sewn closed . " Type IV describes symbolic circumcision and miscellaneous procedures .
Type I is subdivided into Ia , removal of the clitoral hood ( rarely performed alone ) , and the more common Ib ( clitoridectomy ) , the complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans and clitoral hood . ( When discussing FGM , the WHO uses clitoris to refer to the clitoral glans , the visible tip of the clitoris . ) Susan Izett and Nahid Toubia write : " [ T ] he clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger , pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object . "
Type II ( excision ) is the complete or partial removal of the inner labia , with or without removal of the clitoral glans and outer labia . Type IIa is removal of the inner labia ; IIb , removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia ; and IIc , removal of the clitoral glans , inner and outer labia . Excision in French can refer to any form of FGM .
= = = Type III = = =
Type III ( infibulation or pharaonic circumcision ) , the " sewn closed " category , involves the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound . The inner and / or outer labia are cut away , with or without removal of the clitoral glans . Type IIIa is the removal and closure of the inner labia and IIIb the outer labia . The practice is found largely in Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Somalia and Sudan ( though not South Sudan ) in northeast Africa . Estimates of numbers vary : according to one in 2008 , over eight million women in Africa have experienced it . According to UNFPA in 2010 , 20 percent of women with FGM have been infibulated .
Comfort Momoh , a specialist midwife , writes of Type III : " [ E ] lderly women , relatives and friends secure the girl in the lithotomy position . A deep incision is made rapidly on either side from the root of the clitoris to the fourchette , and a single cut of the razor excises the clitoris and both the labia majora and labia minora . " In Somalia the clitoral glans is removed and shown to the girl 's senior female relatives , who decide whether enough has been amputated . After this the labia are removed .
A single hole of 2 – 3 mm is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid by inserting something , such as a twig , into the wound . The vulva is closed with surgical thread , agave or acacia thorns , or covered with a poultice such as raw egg , herbs and sugar . The parts that have been removed might be placed in a pouch for the girl to wear . To help the tissue bond , the girl 's legs are tied together , often from hip to ankle , for up to six weeks ; the bindings are usually loosened after a week and may be removed after two . Momoh writes :
[ The entrance to the vagina ] is obliterated by a drum of skin extending across the orifice except for a small hole . Circumstances at the time may vary ; the girl may struggle ferociously , in which case the incisions may become uncontrolled and haphazard . The girl may be pinned down so firmly that bones may fracture .
If the remaining hole is too large in the view of the girl 's family , the procedure is repeated . The vagina is opened for sexual intercourse , for the first time either by a midwife with a knife or by the woman 's husband with his penis . In some areas , including Somaliland , female relatives of the bride and groom might watch the opening of the vagina to check that the girl is a virgin . Psychologist Hanny Lightfoot @-@ Klein interviewed hundreds of women and men in Sudan in the 1980s about sexual intercourse with Type III :
The penetration of the bride 's infibulation takes anywhere from 3 or 4 days to several months . Some men are unable to penetrate their wives at all ( in my study over 15 % ) , and the task is often accomplished by a midwife under conditions of great secrecy , since this reflects negatively on the man 's potency . Some who are unable to penetrate their wives manage to get them pregnant in spite of the infibulation , and the woman 's vaginal passage is then cut open to allow birth to take place . ... Those men who do manage to penetrate their wives do so often , or perhaps always , with the help of the " little knife . " This creates a tear which they gradually rip more and more until the opening is sufficient to admit the penis .
The woman is opened further for childbirth and closed afterwards , a process known as defibulation ( or deinfibulation ) and reinfibulation . Reinfibulation can involve cutting the vagina again to restore the pinhole size of the first infibulation . This might be performed before marriage , and after childbirth , divorce and widowhood .
= = = Type IV = = =
The WHO defines Type IV as " [ a ] ll other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non @-@ medical purposes " , including pricking , piercing , incising , scraping and cauterization . It includes nicking of the clitoris ( symbolic circumcision ) , burning or scarring the genitals , and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten it . Labia stretching is also categorized as Type IV . Common in southern and eastern Africa , the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to the sense of a woman as a closed space . From the age of eight , girls are encouraged to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage . Girls in Uganda are told they may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia .
A definition of FGM from the WHO in 1995 included gishiri cutting and angurya cutting , found in Nigeria and Niger . These were removed from the WHO 's 2008 definition because of insufficient information about prevalence and consequences . Gishiri cutting involves cutting the vagina 's front or back wall with a blade or penknife , performed in response to infertility , obstructed labour and several other conditions . Over 30 percent of women with gishiri cuts in a study by Nigerian physician Mairo Usman Mandara had vesicovaginal fistulae . Angurya cutting is excision of the hymen , usually performed seven days after birth .
= = Complications = =
= = = Short @-@ term and late = = =
FGM harms women 's physical and emotional health throughout their lives . It has no known health benefits . The short @-@ term and late complications depend on the type of FGM , whether the practitioner had medical training , and whether she used antibiotics and unsterilized or surgical single @-@ use instruments . In the case of Type III , other factors include how small a hole was left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood , whether surgical thread was used instead of agave or acacia thorns , and whether the procedure was performed more than once ( for example , to close an opening regarded as too wide or re @-@ open one too small ) .
Common short @-@ term complications include swelling , excessive bleeding , pain , urine retention and healing problems / wound infection . A 2015 systematic review of 56 studies that recorded immediate complications suggested that each of these occurred in more than one in ten girls and women undergoing any form of FGM , including symbolic nicking of the clitoris ( Type IV ) , although the risks increased with Type III . The review also suggested that there was under @-@ reporting . Other short @-@ term complications include fatal bleeding , anaemia , urinary infection , septicaemia , tetanus , gangrene , necrotizing fasciitis ( flesh @-@ eating disease ) and endometritis . It is not known how many girls and women die as a result of the practice , because complications may not be recognized or reported . The practitioners ' use of shared instruments is thought to aid the transmission of hepatitis B , hepatitis C and HIV , although no epidemiological studies have shown this .
Late complications vary depending on the type of FGM . They include the formation of scars and keloids that lead to strictures and obstruction , epidermoid cysts that may become infected , and neuroma formation ( growth of nerve tissue ) involving nerves that supplied the clitoris .
An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2 – 3 mm , which can cause prolonged , drop @-@ by @-@ drop urination , pain while urinating , and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time . Urine may collect underneath the scar , leaving the area under the skin constantly wet , which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones . The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery , but the urethra opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue . Vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae can develop ( holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina ) . This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence , pain during sexual intercourse and infertility .
Painful periods are common because of the obstruction to the menstrual flow , and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus . Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in hematocolpos and hematometra ( where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood ) . The swelling of the abdomen that results from the collection of fluid , together with the lack of menstruation , can lead to suspicion of pregnancy . Asma El Dareer , a Sudanese physician , reported in 1979 that a girl in Sudan with this condition was killed by her family .
= = = Pregnancy , childbirth = = =
FGM may place women at higher risk of problems during pregnancy and childbirth , which are more common with the more extensive FGM procedures . Infibulated women may try to make childbirth easier by eating less during pregnancy to reduce the baby 's size . In women with vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae , it is difficult to obtain clear urine samples as part of prenatal care , making the diagnosis of conditions such as pre @-@ eclampsia harder . Cervical evaluation during labour may be impeded and labour prolonged or obstructed . Third @-@ degree laceration ( tears ) , anal @-@ sphincter damage and emergency caesarean section are more common in infibulated women .
Neonatal mortality is increased . The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional 10 – 20 babies die per 1 @,@ 000 deliveries as a result of FGM . The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28 @,@ 393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso , Ghana , Kenya , Nigeria , Senegal and Sudan . In those settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby : 15 percent higher for Type I , 32 percent for Type II and 55 percent for Type III . The reasons for this were unclear , but may be connected to genital and urinary tract infections and the presence of scar tissue . The researchers wrote that FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother of damage to the perineum and excessive blood loss , as well as a need to resuscitate the baby , and stillbirth , perhaps because of a long second stage of labour .
= = = Psychological effects , sexual function = = =
According to a 2015 systematic review there is little high @-@ quality information available on the psychological effects of FGM . Several small studies have concluded that women with FGM suffer from anxiety , depression and post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Feelings of shame and betrayal can develop when women leave the culture that practises FGM and learn that their condition is not the norm , but within the practising culture they may view their FGM with pride , because for them it signifies beauty , respect for tradition , chastity and hygiene .
Studies on sexual function have also been small . A 2013 meta @-@ analysis of 15 studies involving 12 @,@ 671 women from seven countries concluded that women with FGM were twice as likely to report no sexual desire and 52 percent more likely to report dyspareunia ( painful sexual intercourse ) . One third reported reduced sexual feelings .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Household surveys = = =
The prevalence of FGM is defined as the percentage of the 15 – 49 age group that has exerienced it . These figures are based on nationally representative household surveys known as Demographic and Health Surveys ( DHS ) , developed by Macro International and funded mainly by the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys ( MICS ) , conducted with financial and technical help from UNICEF .
These surveys have been carried out in Africa , Asia , Latin America and elsewhere roughly every five years , since 1984 and 1995 respectively . The first to ask about FGM was the 1989 – 1990 DHS in northern Sudan . The first publication to estimate FGM prevalence based on DHS data ( in seven countries ) was by Dara Carr of Macro International in 1997 .
= = = Prevalence = = =
FGM is found mostly in what Gerry Mackie called an " intriguingly contiguous " zone in Africa – east to west from Somalia to Senegal , and north to south from Egypt to Tanzania . Nationally representative figures available as of 2016 suggest that the practice is concentrated in 27 countries in Africa , as well as in Indonesia , Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen . Over 200 million women and girls are thought to be living with FGM in those 30 countries . As of 2013 , 27 @.@ 2 million women had undergone FGM in Egypt , 23 @.@ 8 million in Ethiopia , and 19 @.@ 9 million in Nigeria .
The highest concentrations among the 15 – 49 age group are in Somalia ( 98 percent ) , Guinea ( 97 percent ) , Djibouti ( 93 percent ) , Egypt ( 91 percent ) and Sierra Leone ( 90 percent ) . There is also a high concentration in Indonesia ; national figures for adults are not available , but the prevalence rate for the 0 – 11 age group there is 49 percent , mostly Types I and IV .
Smaller studies or anecdotal reports suggest that FGM is also practised in Colombia , the Congo , Malaysia , Oman , Peru , Saudi Arabia , Sri Lanka , and the United Arab Emirates , as well as among the Bedouin in Israel ; in Rahmah , Jordan ; and among the Dawoodi Bohra in India . It is also found within immigrant communities in Australasia , Europe , North America and Scandinavia .
= = = Downward trend = = =
Women who respond to surveys on FGM are reporting events experienced years ago , so prevalence figures for the 15 – 49 age group do not reflect current trends . Figures for the 15 – 19 age group show , for example , a reduction in Burkina Faso from 89 percent ( 1980 ) to 58 percent ( 2010 ) ; in Egypt from 97 percent ( 1985 ) to 70 percent ( 2015 ) ; and in Kenya from 41 percent ( 1984 ) to 11 percent ( 2014 ) .
From 2010 , household surveys asked women about the FGM status of all their living daughters . The highest concentrations among girls aged 0 – 14 , as reported by UNICEF in 2016 , were in Gambia ( 56 percent ) , Mauritania ( 54 percent ) , Indonesia ( 49 percent for 0 – 11 ) and Guinea ( 46 percent ) .
The figures suggest that , overall , a girl was one third less likely in 2014 to undergo FGM than she was 30 years ago . If the rate of decline continues , the number of girls cut will nevertheless rise from 3 @.@ 6 million a year in 2013 to 4 @.@ 1 million in 2050 because of population growth .
= = = Rural areas , wealth , education = = =
Surveys have found FGM to be more common in rural areas , less common in most countries among girls from the wealthiest homes , and ( except in Sudan and Somalia ) less common in girls whose mothers had access to primary or secondary / higher education . In Somalia and Sudan the situation was reversed : in Somalia the mothers ' access to secondary / higher education was accompanied by a rise in prevalence of FGM in their daughters , and in Sudan access to any education was accompanied by a rise .
= = = Age conducted = = =
FGM is not invariably a rite of passage between childhood and adulthood , but is often performed on much younger children . Girls are most commonly cut shortly after birth to age 15 . In half the countries for which national figures were available in 2000 – 2010 , most girls had been cut by age five .
Over 80 percent ( of those cut ) are cut before the age of five in Nigeria , Mali , Eritrea , Ghana and Mauritania . The 1997 Demographic and Health Survey in Yemen found that 76 percent of girls had been cut within two weeks of birth . The percentage is reversed in Somalia , Egypt , Chad and the Central African Republic , where over 80 percent ( of those cut ) are cut between five and 14 . Just as the type of FGM is often linked to ethnicity , so is the mean age . In Kenya , for example , the Kisi cut around age 10 and the Kamba at 16 .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
A country 's national prevalence often reflects a high sub @-@ national prevalence among certain ethnicities , rather than a widespread practice . In Iraq , for example , FGM is found mostly among the Kurds in Erbil ( 58 percent prevalence within age group 15 – 49 , as of 2011 ) , Sulaymaniyah ( 54 percent ) and Kirkuk ( 20 percent ) , giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent .
The practice is sometimes an ethnic marker , but may differ along national lines . In the northeastern regions of Ethiopia and Kenya , which share a border with Somalia , the Somali people practise FGM at around the same rate as they do in Somalia . But in Guinea all Fulani women responding to a survey in 2012 said they had experienced FGM , against 12 percent of the Fulani in Chad , while in Nigeria the Fulani are the only large ethnic group in the country not to practise it .
= = = Type of FGM = = =
Women are asked during surveys about the type of FGM they experienced :
Was the genital area just nicked / cut without removing any flesh ?
Was any flesh ( or something ) removed from the genital area ?
Was your genital area sewn ?
Most affected women experience one of the " cut , some flesh removed " procedures , which embrace WHO Types I and II . Types I and II are both performed in Egypt . Mackie wrote in 2003 that Type II was more common there , while a 2011 study identified Type I as more common . In Nigeria Type I is usually found in the south and the more severe forms in the north .
Type III ( infibulation ) is concentrated in northeastern Africa , particularly Djibouti , Eritrea , Somalia and Sudan . In surveys in 2002 – 2006 , 30 percent of cut girls in Djibouti had experienced Type III , 38 percent in Eritrea and 63 percent in Somalia . There is also a high prevalence of infibulation among girls in Niger and Senegal , and in 2013 it was estimated that in Nigeria three percent of the 0 – 14 age group had been infibulated . The type of procedure is often linked to ethnicity . In Eritrea , for example , a survey in 2002 found that all Hedareb girls had been infibulated , compared with two percent of the Tigrinya , most of whom fell into the " cut , no flesh removed " category .
= = Reasons = =
= = = Support from women = = =
Dahabo Musa , a Somali woman , described infibulation in a 1988 poem as the " three feminine sorrows " : the procedure itself , the wedding night when the woman is cut open , then childbirth when she is cut again . Despite the evident suffering , it is women who organize all forms of FGM . Anthropologist Rose Oldfield Hayes wrote in 1975 that educated Sudanese men who did not want their daughters to be infibulated ( preferring clitoridectomy ) would find the girls had been sewn up after the grandmothers arranged a visit to relatives .
Gerry Mackie has compared FGM to footbinding . Like FGM , footbinding was carried out on young girls , nearly universal where practised , tied to ideas about honour , chastity and appropriate marriage , and supported by women . FGM practitioners see the procedures as marking not only ethnic boundaries but also gender difference . According to this view , FGM demasculinizes women , while male circumcision defeminizes men .
Fuambai Ahmadu , an anthropologist and member of the Kono people of Sierra Leone , who in 1992 underwent clitoridectomy as an adult during a Sande society initiation , argued in 2000 that it is a male @-@ centred assumption that the clitoris is important to female sexuality . African female symbolism revolves instead around the concept of the womb . Infibulation draws on that idea of enclosure and fertility . " [ G ] enital cutting completes the social definition of a child 's sex by eliminating external traces of androgyny , " Janice Boddy wrote in 2007 . " The female body is then covered , closed , and its productive blood bound within ; the male body is unveiled , opened and exposed . "
In communities where infibulation is common , there is a preference for women 's genitals to be smooth , dry and without odour , and both women and men may find the natural vulva repulsive . Men seem to enjoy the effort of penetrating an infibulation . The local preference for dry sex causes women to introduce substances into the vagina to reduce lubrication , including leaves , tree bark , toothpaste and Vicks menthol rub . The WHO includes this practice within Type IV FGM , because the added friction during intercourse can cause lacerations and increase the risk of infection . Because of the smooth appearance of an infibulated vulva , there is also a belief that infibulation increases hygiene .
Common reasons for FGM cited by women in surveys are social acceptance , religion , hygiene , preservation of virginity , marriageability and enhancement of male sexual pleasure . In a study in northern Sudan , published in 1983 , only 17 @.@ 4 percent of women opposed FGM ( 558 out of 3 @,@ 210 ) , and most preferred excision and infibulation over clitoridectomy . Attitudes are slowly changing . In Sudan in 2010 , 42 percent of women who had heard of FGM said the practice should continue . In several surveys since 2006 , over 50 percent of women in Mali , Guinea , Sierra Leone , Somalia , Gambia and Egypt supported FGM 's continuance , while elsewhere in Africa , Iraq and Yemen most said it should end , although in several countries only by a narrow margin .
= = = Social obligation , poor access to information = = =
Against the argument that women willingly choose FGM for their daughters , UNICEF calls the practice a " self @-@ enforcing social convention " to which families feel they must conform to avoid uncut daughters facing social exclusion .
Ellen Gruenbaum reports that , in Sudan in the 1970s , cut girls from an Arab ethnic group would mock uncut Zabarma girls with Ya , Ghalfa ! ( " Hey , unclean ! " ) . The Zabarma girls would respond Ya , mutmura ! ( A mutmara was a storage pit for grain that was continually opened and closed , like an infibulated woman . ) But despite throwing the insult back , the Zabarma girls would ask their mothers , " What 's the matter ? Don 't we have razor blades like the Arabs ? "
Because of poor access to information , and because circumcisers downplay the causal connection , women may not associate the health consequences with the procedure . Lala Baldé , president of a women 's association in Medina Cherif , a village in Senegal , told Mackie in 1998 that when girls fell ill or died , it was attributed to evil spirits . When informed of the causal relationship between FGM and ill health , Mackie wrote , the women broke down and wept . Mackie argued that surveys taken before and after this sharing of information would show very different levels of support for FGM .
The American non @-@ profit group Tostan , founded by Molly Melching in 1991 , introduced community @-@ empowerment programmes in several countries that focus on literacy , education about healthcare and local democracy , giving women the tools to make their own decisions . In 1997 , using the Tostan programme , Malicounda Bambara in Senegal became the first village to abandon FGM . By 2016 , over 7 @,@ 300 communities in six countries had pledged to abandon FGM and child marriage .
= = = Religion = = =
Surveys have shown a widespread belief , particularly in Mali , Mauritania , Guinea and Egypt , that FGM is a religious requirement . Gruenbaum has argued that practitioners may not distinguish between religion , tradition and chastity , making it difficult to interpret the data .
FGM 's origins in northeastern Africa are pre @-@ Islamic , but the practice became associated with Islam because of that religion 's focus on female chastity and seclusion . There is no mention of it in the Quran . It is praised in several hadith ( sayings attributed to Muhammad ) as noble but not required . In 2007 the Al @-@ Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research in Cairo ruled that FGM had " no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions . "
There is no mention of FGM in the Bible . Christian missionaries in Africa were among the first to object to FGM , but Christian communities in Africa do practise it . UNICEF reported in 2013 that , for example , 55 percent of Christian women and girls in Niger had experienced FGM , compared with two percent of their Muslim counterparts . The only Jewish group known to have practised it are the Beta Israel of Ethiopia . Judaism requires male circumcision , but does not allow FGM . FGM is also practised by animist groups , particularly in Guinea and Mali .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The origins of the practice are unknown . Its east @-@ west , north @-@ south distribution in Africa meets in Sudan . Gerry Mackie has suggested that infibulation originated there with the Meroite civilization ( c . 800 BCE — c . 350 CE ) and imperial polygyny , before the rise of Islam , to increase confidence in paternity .
According to historian Mary Knight , Spell 1117 ( c . 1991 – 1786 BCE ) of the Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts may refer in hieroglyphs to an uncircumcised girl ( ' m 't ) :
The spell was found on the sarcophagus of Sit @-@ hedjhotep , now in the Egyptian Museum , and dates to Egypt 's Middle Kingdom . ( Paul F. O 'Rourke argues that ' m 't probably refers instead to a menstruating woman . )
The proposed circumcision of an Egyptian girl , Tathemis , is mentioned on a Greek papyrus from 163 BCE in the British Museum :
Sometime after this , Nephoris [ Tathemis 's mother ] defrauded me , being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised , as is the custom among the Egyptians . She asked that I give her 1 @,@ 300 drachmae ... to clothe her ... and to provide her with a marriage dowry ... if she didn 't do each of these or if she did not circumcise Tathemis in the month of Mecheir , year 18 [ 163 BCE ] , she would repay me 2 @,@ 400 drachmae on the spot .
The examination of mummies has shown no evidence of FGM . Citing the Australian pathologist Grafton Elliot Smith , who examined hundreds of mummies in the early 20th century , Knight writes that the genital area may resemble Type III , because during mummification the skin of the outer labia was pulled toward the anus to cover the pudendal cleft , possibly to prevent sexual violation . It was similarly not possible to determine whether Types I or II had been performed , because soft tissues had been removed by the embalmers or had deteriorated .
The Greek geographer Strabo ( c . 64 BCE – c . 23 CE ) wrote about FGM after visiting Egypt around 25 BCE ( right ) . The philosopher Philo of Alexandria ( c . 20 BCE – 50 CE ) also made reference to it : " the Egyptians by the custom of their country circumcise the marriageable youth and maid in the fourteenth ( year ) of their age , when the male begins to get seed , and the female to have a menstrual flow . " It is mentioned briefly in a work attributed to the Greek physician Galen ( 129 – c . 200 CE ) : " When [ the clitoris ] sticks out to a great extent in their young women , Egyptians consider it appropriate to cut it out . "
Another Greek physician , Aëtius of Amida ( mid @-@ 5th to mid @-@ 6th century CE ) , offered more detail in book 16 of his Sixteen Books on Medicine , citing the physician Philomenes . The procedure was performed in case the clitoris , or nymphê , grew too large or triggered sexual desire when rubbing against clothing . " On this account , it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged " , Aëtius wrote , " especially at that time when the girls were about to be married " :
The surgery is performed in this way : Have the girl sit on a chair while a muscled young man standing behind her places his arms below the girl 's thighs . Have him separate and steady her legs and whole body . Standing in front and taking hold of the clitoris with a broad @-@ mouthed forceps in his left hand , the surgeon stretches it outward , while with the right hand , he cuts it off at the point next to the pincers of the forceps .
It is proper to let a length remain from that cut off , about the size of the membrane that 's between the nostrils , so as to take away the excess material only ; as I have said , the part to be removed is at that point just above the pincers of the forceps . Because the clitoris is a skinlike structure and stretches out excessively , do not cut off too much , as a urinary fistula may result from cutting such large growths too deeply .
The genital area was then cleaned with a sponge , frankincense powder and wine or cold water , and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in vinegar , until the seventh day when calamine , rose petals , date pits or a " genital powder made from baked clay " might be applied .
Whatever the practice 's origins , infibulation became linked to slavery . Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary João dos Santos , who in 1609 wrote of a group inland from Mogadishu who had a " custome to sew up their Females , especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception , which makes these slaves sell dearer , both for their chastitie , and for better confidence which their Masters put in them . " The English explorer William Browne wrote in 1799 that the Egyptians practised excision , and that slaves in that country were infibulated to prevent pregnancy . Thus , Mackie argues , a " practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor . "
= = = Europe and the United States = = =
Gynaecologists in 19th @-@ century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation . British doctor Robert Thomas suggested clitoridectomy as a cure for nymphomania in 1813 . The first reported clitoridectomy in the West , described in The Lancet in 1825 , was performed in 1822 in Berlin by Karl Ferdinand von Graefe on a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was masturbating excessively .
Isaac Baker Brown , an English gynaecologist , president of the Medical Society of London , and co @-@ founder in 1845 of St. Mary 's Hospital there , believed that masturbation , or " unnatural irritation " of the clitoris , caused peripheral excitement of the pubic nerve , which led to hysteria , spinal irritation , fits , idiocy , mania and death . He therefore " set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so " , according to his obituary in the Medical Times and Gazette in 1873 . Brown performed several clitoridectomies between 1859 and 1866 . When he published his views in On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity , Epilepsy , Catalepsy , and Hysteria in Females ( 1866 ) , doctors in London accused him of quackery and expelled him from the Obstetrical Society .
In the United States J. Marion Sims followed Brown 's work , and in 1862 slit the neck of a woman 's uterus and amputated her clitoris , " for the relief of the nervous or hysterical condition as recommended by Baker Brown " , after the patient complained of menstrual pain , convulsions and bladder problems . Later that century A. J. Bloch , a surgeon in New Orleans , removed the clitoris of a two @-@ year @-@ old girl who was reportedly masturbating . According to a 1985 paper in the Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey , clitoridectomy was performed in the US into the 1960s to treat hysteria , erotomania and lesbianism .
= = Opposition = =
= = = Colonial opposition in Kenya = = =
Protestant missionaries in British East Africa ( present @-@ day Kenya ) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century , when Dr. John Arthur joined the Church of Scotland Mission ( CSM ) in Kikuyu . The practice , an important ethnic marker , was known by the Kikuyu , the country 's main ethnic group , as irua for both girls and boys . It involved excision ( Type II ) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys . Unexcised Kikuyu women , known as irugu , were outcasts .
Jomo Kenyatta , general secretary of the Kikuyu Central Association and Kenya 's first prime minister from 1963 , wrote in 1938 that , for the Kikuyu , the institution of FGM was the " conditio sine qua non of the whole teaching of tribal law , religion and morality . " No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised . A woman 's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation . Her age and place within tribal history was traced to that day , and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events , an oral tradition that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years .
From 1925 , beginning with the CSM mission , several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians . The CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated , resulting in hundreds leaving or being expelled . The stand @-@ off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement ; the 1929 – 1931 period is known in the country 's historiography as the female circumcision controversy .
In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM as the " sexual mutilation of women , " rather than circumcision , and a person 's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty , either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association . Hulda Stumpf , an American missionary with the Africa Inland Mission who opposed FGM in the girls ' school she helped to run , was murdered in 1930 . Edward Grigg , the governor of Kenya , told the British Colonial Office that the killer , who was never identified , had attempted to circumcise her .
In 1956 the council of male elders ( the Njuri Nchecke ) in Meru announced a ban on FGM . Over the next three years , as a symbol of defiance , thousands of girls cut each other 's genitals with razor blades . The movement came to be known in Meru as Ngaitana ( " I will circumcise myself " ) , because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves . Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators .
= = = Growth of opposition = = =
The first known non @-@ colonial campaign against FGM began in Egypt in the 1920s , when the Egyptian Doctors ' Society called for a ban . There was a parallel campaign in Sudan , run by religious leaders and British women . Infibulation was banned there in 1946 , but the law was unpopular and barely enforced . The Egyptian government banned infibulation in state @-@ run hospitals in 1959 , but allowed partial clitoridectomy if parents requested it .
In 1959 the UN asked the WHO to investigate FGM , but the latter responded that it was not a medical matter . Feminists took up the issue throughout the 1970s . Women and Sex ( 1972 ) , a book by the Egyptian physician and feminist Nawal El Saadawi , criticized FGM ; the book was banned in Egypt and El Saadawi lost her job as director general of public health . She followed up with a chapter , " The Circumcision of Girls , " in The Hidden Face of Eve : Women in the Arab World ( 1980 ) , which described her own clitoridectomy when she was six years old :
I did not know what they had cut off from my body , and I did not try to find out . I just wept , and called out to my mother for help . But the worst shock of all was when I looked around and found her standing by my side . Yes , it was her , I could not be mistaken , in flesh and blood , right in the midst of these strangers , talking to them and smiling at them , as though they had not participated in slaughtering her daughter just a few moments ago .
In 1975 Rose Oldfield Hayes , an American social scientist , became the first female academic to publish a detailed account of FGM , aided by her ability to discuss it directly with women in Sudan . Her article in American Ethnologist called it " female genital mutilation , " rather than female circumcision , and brought it to wider academic attention .
In 1977 Edna Adan Ismail , who worked at the time for the Somalia Ministry of Health , raised the health consequences of FGM with the Somali Women 's Democratic Organization . Two years later Fran Hosken , an Austria @-@ American feminist , published The Hosken Report : Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females ( 1979 ) , the first to offer global figures . She estimated that 110 @,@ 529 @,@ 000 women in 20 African countries had experienced FGM . The figures were speculative but consistent with later surveys ; Mackie writes that her work was " more informative than the silence that preceded her efforts . " Describing FGM as a " training ground for male violence , " Hosken accused female practitioners of " participating in the destruction of their own kind . " The language caused a rift between Western and African feminists ; African women boycotted a session featuring Hosken during the UN 's Mid @-@ Decade Conference on Women in Copenhagen in July 1980 .
In 1979 the WHO held a seminar , " Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children , " in Khartoum , Sudan , and in 1981 , also in Khartoum , 150 academics and activists signed a pledge to fight FGM after a workshop held by the Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women 's Studies ( BBSAWS ) , " Female Circumcision Mutilates and Endangers Women – Combat it ! " Another BBSAWS workshop in 1984 invited the international community to write a joint statement for the United Nations . It recommended that the " goal of all African women " should be the eradication of FGM and that , to sever the link between FGM and religion , clitoridectomy should no longer be referred to as sunna .
The Inter @-@ African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children , founded in 1984 in Dakar , Senegal , called for an end to the practice , as did the UN 's World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993 . The conference listed FGM as a form of violence against women , marking it as a human @-@ rights violation , rather than a medical issue .
= = = United Nations = = =
In December 1993 the United Nations General Assembly included FGM in resolution 48 / 104 , the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women . From 2003 the UN began sponsoring an International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation , which is held every 6 February .
UNICEF began in 2003 to promote an evidence @-@ based social norms approach to the evaluation of intervention , using ideas from game theory about how communities reach decisions about FGM , and building on the work of Gerry Mackie on the ending of footbinding in China . In 2005 the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence published its first report on FGM .
UNFPA and UNICEF launched a joint programme in Africa in 2007 to reduce FGM by 40 percent within the 0 – 15 age group and eliminate it entirely from at least one country by 2012 , goals that were not met .
In 2008 several United Nations bodies , including the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , published a statement recognizing FGM as a human @-@ rights violation . In December 2012 the General Assembly passed resolution 67 / 146 , " Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations . " In July 2014 UNICEF and the UK government co @-@ hosted the first Girl Summit , aimed at ending FGM and child marriage .
= = = Legislation in Africa and the Middle East = = =
Throughout the 1990s and 2000s governments in Africa and the Middle East passed legislation banning or restricting FGM . In 2003 the African Union ratified the Maputo Protocol on the rights of women , which supported the elimination of FGM . By 2015 laws restricting FGM had been passed in at least 23 of the 27 African countries in which it is concentrated , although several fell short of a ban .
= = = Non @-@ practising countries = = =
= = = = Overview = = = =
As of 2013 legislation banning FGM had been passed by 33 countries outside Africa and the Middle East . As a result of immigration the practice spread to Australia , New Zealand , Europe , North America and Scandinavia , all of which outlawed it entirely or restricted it to consenting adults . Sweden outlawed it in 1982 , the first Western country to do so . Several former colonial powers , including Belgium , Britain , France and the Netherlands , followed suit , either with new laws or by making clear that it was covered by existing legislation .
= = = = North America = = = =
Canada recognized FGM as a form of persecution in July 1994 , when it granted refugee status to Khadra Hassan Farah , who had fled Somalia to avoid her daughter being cut . In 1997 section 268 of its Criminal Code was amended to ban FGM , except where " the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm . " As of May 2016 there had been no prosecutions .
In the United States the Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) estimated in 2015 that 513 @,@ 000 women and girls living there had experienced FGM or were at risk , as of 2012 ; their previous estimate was 168 @,@ 000 as of 1990 . A Nigerian woman successfully contested deportation in March 1994 on the grounds that her daughters might be cut , and in 1996 Fauziya Kasinga from Togo became the first to be granted asylum to escape FGM .
In 1996 the Federal Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act made it illegal to perform FGM on minors for non @-@ medical reasons , and in 2013 the Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act prohibited transporting a minor out of the country for the purpose of FGM . In addition , 24 states have legislation banning FGM . The American Academy of Pediatrics opposes all forms of the practice ; in 2010 it suggested that " pricking or incising the clitoral skin " was a harmless procedure that might satisfy parents , but it withdrew the statement after complaints . The first FGM conviction in the US was in 2006 , when Khalid Adem , who had emigrated from Ethiopia , was sentenced to ten years after severing his two @-@ year @-@ old daughter 's clitoris with a pair of scissors .
= = = = Europe = = = =
According to the European Parliament , 500 @,@ 000 women in Europe had undergone FGM as of March 2009 . France is known for its tough stance against FGM . Up to 30 @,@ 000 women there were thought to have experienced FGM as of 1995 . Colette Gallard , a family @-@ planning counsellor , writes that when FGM was first encountered in France , the reaction was that Westerners ought not to intervene , and it took the deaths of two girls in 1982 , one of them three months old , for that attitude to change .
The practice is outlawed by a provision of France 's penal code dealing with violence against children . All children under six who were born in France undergo medical examinations that include inspection of the genitals , and doctors are obliged to report FGM . The first civil suit was in 1982 and the first criminal prosecution in 1993 . In 1999 a woman was given an eight @-@ year sentence for having performed FGM on 48 girls . By 2014 over 100 parents and two practitioners had been prosecuted in over 40 criminal cases .
Around 137 @,@ 000 women and girls living in England and Wales were born in countries where FGM is practised ( as of 2011 ) . Performing FGM on children or adults was outlawed under the Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 . This was replaced by the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 and Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation ( Scotland ) Act 2005 , which added a prohibition on arranging FGM outside the country for British citizens or permanent residents . The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women asked the government in 2013 to " ensure the full implementation of its legislation on FGM . " The first charges were brought the following year against a physician and another man , after the physician stitched an infibulated woman after opening her for childbirth . Both men were acquitted in 2015 .
= = Criticism of opposition = =
= = = Tolerance versus human rights = = =
Anthropologist Eric Silverman wrote in 2004 that FGM had " emerged as one of the central moral topics of contemporary anthropology . " Anthropologists have accused FGM eradicationists of cultural colonialism . In turn , anthropologists have been criticized for their moral relativism and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights .
According to the opposition 's critics , the biological reductionism of the opposition to FGM , and the failure to appreciate FGM 's cultural context , serves to " other " the people who practice it and undermines their agency – in particular when African parents are referred to as " mutilators . " Africans who object to the tone of the opposition to FGM risk appearing to defend the practice . Feminist theorist Obioma Nnaemeka – herself strongly opposed to FGM ( " If one is circumcised , it is one too many " ) – argues that the impact of renaming it female genital mutilation cannot be underestimated :
In this name game , although the discussion is about African women , a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West 's relevance ( even indispensability ) in purging the barbarism marks another era where colonialism and missionary zeal determined what " civilization " was , and figured out how and when to force it on people who did not ask for it .
Ugandan law professor Sylvia Tamale argues that early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo @-@ Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices – including dry sex , polygyny , bride price and levirate marriage – were primitive and required correction . African feminists " do not condone the negative aspects of the practice " , writes Tamale , but " take strong exception to the imperialist , racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women . "
The debate has highlighted a tension between anthropology and feminism , with the former 's focus on tolerance and the latter 's on equal rights for all women . Anthropologist Christine Walley writes that a common trope within the anti @-@ FGM literature has been to present African women as victims of false consciousness participating in their own oppression , a position promoted by several feminists in the 1970s and 1980s , including Fran Hosken , Mary Daly and Hanny Lightfoot @-@ Klein . It prompted the French Association of Anthropologists to issue a statement in 1981 , at the height of the early debates , that " a certain feminism resuscitates ( today ) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday 's colonialism . "
As an example of the disrespect arguably shown toward women who have undergone FGM , commentators highlight the appropriation of the women 's bodies as exhibits . Historian Chima Korieh cites the publication in 1996 of the Pulitzer @-@ prize @-@ winning photographs ( above ) of a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Kenyan girl undergoing FGM . The photographs were published by 12 American newspapers , but according to Korieh the girl had not given permission for the images to be taken , much less published .
= = = Comparison with other procedures = = =
Nnaemeka argues that the crucial question , broader than FGM , is why the female body is subjected to so much " abuse and indignity " around the world , including in the West . Several authors have drawn a parallel between FGM and cosmetic procedures . Ronán Conroy of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland wrote in 2006 that cosmetic genital procedures were " driving the advance of female genital mutilation " by encouraging women to see natural variations as defects . Anthropologist Fadwa El Guindi compares FGM to breast enhancement , in which the maternal function of the breast becomes secondary to men 's sexual pleasure . Benoîte Groult made a similar point in 1975 , citing FGM and cosmetic surgery as sexist and patriarchal .
Carla Obermeyer maintains that FGM may be conducive to women 's well @-@ being within their communities in the same way that rhinoplasty and male circumcision may help people elsewhere . In Egypt , despite the 2007 ban , women wanting FGM for their daughters discuss the need for amalyet tajmeel ( cosmetic surgery ) to remove what is viewed as excess genital tissue for a more acceptable appearance .
The WHO does not cite procedures such as labiaplasty and clitoral hood reduction as examples of FGM , but its definition aims to avoid loopholes , so several elective practices on adults do fall within its categories . Some of the laws banning FGM , including in Canada and the US , focus only on minors . Several countries , including Sweden and the UK , have banned it regardless of consent , and the legislation would seem to cover cosmetic procedures . Sweden , for example , has banned " [ o ] perations on the external female genital organs which are designed to mutilate them or produce other permanent changes in them ... regardless of whether consent to this operation has or has not been given . " Gynaecologist Birgitta Essén and anthropologist Sara Johnsdotter note that it seems the law distinguishes between Western and African genitals , and deems only African women ( such as those seeking reinfibulation after childbirth ) unfit to make their own decisions .
Arguing against suggested similarities between FGM and dieting or body shaping , philosopher Martha Nussbaum writes that a key difference is that FGM is mostly conducted on children using physical force . She argues that the distinction between social pressure and physical force is morally and legally salient , comparable to the distinction between seduction and rape . She argues further that the literacy of women in practising countries is generally poorer than in developed nations , and that this reduces their ability to make informed choices .
Several commentators maintain that children 's rights are violated with the genital alteration of intersex children , who are born with anomalies that physicians choose to correct . Legal scholars Nancy Ehrenreich and Mark Barr write that thousands of these procedures take place every year in the United States , and say that they are medically unnecessary , more extensive than FGM , and have more serious physical and mental consequences . They attribute the silence of anti @-@ FGM campaigners about intersex procedures to white privilege and a refusal to acknowledge that " similar unnecessary and harmful genital cutting occurs in their own backyards . "
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= Cocker Spaniel =
Cocker Spaniels are dogs belonging to two breeds of the spaniel dog type : the American Cocker Spaniel and the English Cocker Spaniel , both of which are commonly called simply Cocker Spaniel in their countries of origin . In the early 20th century , Cocker Spaniels also included small hunting Spaniels .
Cocker Spaniels were originally bred as hunting dogs in the United Kingdom , with the term cocker deriving from their use to hunt the Eurasian woodcock . When the breed was brought to the United States , it was bred to a different standard , which enabled it to specialize in hunting the American woodcock . Further physical changes were bred into the cocker in the United States during the early part of the 20th century .
Spaniels were first mentioned in the 14th century by Gaston III of Foix @-@ Béarn in his work the Livre de Chasse . The " cocking " or " cocker spaniel " was a type of field or land spaniel in the 19th century . Prior to 1901 , Cocker Spaniels were only separated from Field Spaniels and Springer Spaniels by weight . Two dogs are considered to be the foundation sires of both modern breeds , the English variety are descended from Ch . Obo , while the American breed descends from Obo 's son , Ch . Obo II . In the United States , the English Cocker was recognized as separate from the native breed in 1946 ; in the UK , the American type was recognized as a separate breed in 1970 . In addition , there is a second strain of English Cocker Spaniel , a working strain which is not bred to a standard but to working ability . Both breeds share similar coat colors and health issues with a few exceptions .
= = History = =
While their origins are unknown , " spaynels " are mentioned in 14th century writings . It is commonly assumed that they originated in Spain , and Edward of Norwich , 2nd Duke of York in his 15th century work The Master of Game introduces them as " Another kind of hound there is that be called hounds for the hawk and spaniels , for their kind cometh from Spain , notwithstanding that there are many in other countries . " The Master of Game was mostly an English translation of an earlier 14th century Old French work by Gaston III of Foix @-@ Béarn entitled Livre de Chasse .
In 1801 , Sydenham Edwards wrote in Cynographia Britannica that the " Land Spaniel " is divided into two types : the hawking , springing / springer and the cocking / cocker spaniel . The term cocker came from the dog 's use in hunting woodcocks . During the 19th century a " cocker spaniel " was a type of small Field Spaniel ; at the time , this term referred to a number of different spaniel hunting breeds , including the Norfolk Spaniel , Sussex Spaniel , and Clumber Spaniel . While there were no Sussex Cockers or Clumber Cockers , there were dogs known as Welsh Cockers and Devonshire Cockers . The Welsh or Devonshire were considered cockers until 1903 when they were recognized by The Kennel Club as the Welsh Springer Spaniel .
Prior to the 1870s , the only requirement for a dog to be classed as a Cocker Spaniel was that it needed to weigh less than 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) , although breeders separated the cocker from the King Charles Spaniel which remains a smaller breed of spaniel . This maximum weight limit remained on the Cocker Spaniel until 1900 , with larger dogs being classed as Springer Spaniels . The colors of the Devonshire and Welsh Cockers were described by John Henry Walsh under the pseudonym Stonehenge in his book The Dog in Health and Disease as being a deeper shade of liver than that of the Sussex Spaniel . Following the formation of The Kennel Club in the UK in 1873 , efforts were made by breeders to record the pedigrees of cockers and springers . In 1892 , English Cocker Spaniels and English Springer Spaniels were recognized as separate breeds by The Kennel Club .
There are two dogs which are thought to be the foundation sires of both modern breeds of cocker spaniels . Ch . Obo is considered by breed enthusiasts to be the father of the modern English Cocker Spaniel , while his son , Ch . Obo II , is considered to be the progenitor of the American Cocker Spaniel . Obo was born in 1879 , at which point registration as a cocker was still only by size and not by ancestry . He was the son of a Sussex Spaniel and a Field Spaniel . Although Obo was an English dog , Obo II was born on American shores – his mother was shipped to the United States while pregnant . During his lifetime , it was claimed in advertisements that Obo II was the sire or grandsire of nearly every prize winning cocker in America .
= = Modern breeds = =
There are two modern breeds of cocker spaniel , the English Cocker Spaniel and the American Cocker Spaniel . They were bred as gun dogs ; to use their sense of smell to cover low areas near the handler in order to flush birds into the air to be shot , and to use their eyes and nose to locate the bird once downed , and then to retrieve the bird with a soft mouth . The major differences between the English and American varieties is that the American is smaller with a shorter back , a domed head and a shorter muzzle , while the English variety is taller with a narrower head and chest .
Cocker spaniel coats come in a variety of colors including black , liver , red and golden in solids . There are also black and tan , and sometimes liver and tan , as well as a variety of color mixtures of those solid colors including roans , roan and tans , tricolors and those solid colors with additional white markings .
Rare colours can appear unexpectedly in certain lines , for instance while an all @-@ white cocker is usually bred by selective breeding of very light golden strains , they can still appear very uncommonly to parents who are dark colored . A noted occurrence of this happened in 1943 , when a grandson of My Own Brucie , Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1940 and 1941 , was born all @-@ white .
In its native United States , the American Cocker Spaniel was ranked the 23rd most popular breed according to registration statistics of the AKC in 2009 , a decrease in popularity since 1999 when it was ranked 13th . For twenty five years the American Cocker Spaniel was the most popular dog in America . It was ranked number one first in 1936 prior to the English Cocker Spaniel being recognized as a separate breed , and held onto the spot until 1952 when Beagles became the most popular dog . It regained the spot in 1983 and held on at number one until 1990 . In the UK , the American Cocker Spaniel is far less popular than its English cousin with 322 registrations compared to the English Cocker 's 22 @,@ 211 in 2009 .
= = = English Cocker Spaniel = = =
Called simply Cocker Spaniel in the UK , this is the breed that was originally recognized by The Kennel Club ( KC ) in 1892 . The American Kennel Club ( AKC ) recognized the English Cocker Spaniel as a separate breed in 1946 .
The size of the English Cocker Spaniel according to the KC is 15 @.@ 5 – 16 inches ( 39 – 41 cm ) at the withers for males , and 15 – 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 – 39 cm ) for females . The weight of a show dog should be 28 – 32 pounds ( 13 – 15 kg ) .
The English Cocker Spaniel is the most successful breed at the most popular dog show in the UK , Crufts , with seven best @-@ in @-@ show wins since the prize was first awarded in 1928 . This was mostly due to the success of dog breeder H.S. Lloyd 's Ware Kennel , dogs of which won best @-@ in @-@ show on six occasions between 1930 – 1950 . They are the second most popular dog breed in the UK according to statistics released by the KC with 22 @,@ 211 registrations in 2009 , beaten only by the Labrador Retriever with 40 @,@ 943 . In third place was the English Springer Spaniel with 12 @,@ 700 . The English Cocker 's popularity has increased steadily since 1999 in the United States when they were ranked 76th in registrations by the AKC , to 2009 when they were ranked 66th .
There are physical differences between the show strains and working strains in the UK . While the show strain is bred to the conformation standard , the working strain is bred for working ability and as such several physical differences have appeared . Working type dogs tend to be larger with flatter heads and shorter ears . The coat also tends to be shorter and finer than the show variety and have less feathering . The working strain seems to be more energetic than the show strain .
= = = American Cocker Spaniel = = =
Cocker Spaniels were recognized by the AKC in 1878 . Generally smaller than its English cousin , separate classes were created for the two types in America in 1935 and the Cocker Spaniel Club of America discouraged breeding between the two types in 1938 . The American Cocker Spaniel was recognized as a separate breed by the KC in the UK in 1970 . The American Cocker Spaniel is referred to as the Cocker Spaniel within the United States .
The American Cocker Spaniel was bred smaller as American woodcocks are smaller than their European cousins , and the breeds appearance changed slightly during the first part of the 20th century as the preference by American breeders was for a more stylized appearance . The standard size according to the AKC is between 14 @.@ 5 – 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 37 – 39 cm ) at the withers for males and 13 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 34 – 37 cm ) for females . The weight of the breed is on average between 24 – 30 pounds ( 11 – 14 kg ) .
At the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show , the most prestigious dog show in the United States , the American Cocker Spaniel has won Best in Show on four occasions since its first award in 1907 . The most successful breed is the Wire Fox Terrier with thirteen wins . The American Cocker Spaniel is judged in three separate breed classes under AKC rules ; " black " , " parti @-@ color " , and " any solid color other than black ... " ( ASCOB ) . Sophia and Olivia won the gold medal of dog showing in 2012 .
= = Common health issues = =
In a survey conducted by the Kennel Club ( UK ) , the American Cocker Spaniels had a median age of death of ten years and four months , while the English Cocker Spaniel had a median age of eleven years and two months . According to the survey , the most common cause of death for both breeds was cancer , while old age was the second most common cause . The two modern breeds are susceptible to several health problems . Issues common to the two breeds include ear infections , and a variety of eye problems . A large number of breeds are susceptible to hip dysplasia . In a survey conducted by Orthopedic Foundation for Animals , the American Cocker Spaniel was ranked 115th out of 157 different breeds , with 1 being the highest percentage dysplastic and 157 being the lowest percentage dysplastic . The English Cocker was ranked 129th .
= = = Otitis externa = = =
Cocker spaniels and other dogs that have long , pendulous ears are more predisposed to ear problems than some other breeds . The fold of the ear can prevent air from entering , and it also creates a warm , moist environment where organisms can grow . Otitis externa is an inflammation of the ear canal which can be caused by a variety of factors including parasites , microorganisms , foreign bodies , tumors , and underlying dermatological disease . Ear mites can cause otitis externa ; ticks and fleas can also live in dogs ' ear canals .
The most common types of canine ear infections are caused by microorganisms , including yeast and bacterial infections . The most common variety of this is Malassezia pachydermatitis . Symptoms can include the dog shaking its head or scratching at its ears more frequently . The ear canal will appear inflamed , a pus @-@ like substance will be discharged in some cases , and the ear will smell quite pungent in most cases . Treatment for the more common causes of otitis externa in dogs often includes oral antibiotics and flushing the ears with an antibacterial solution . In some cases , anti @-@ inflammatory medication is prescribed . Some conditions can increase the chance of ear infections , including living in a humid environment and frequent swimming or bathing without adequate drying of the ear afterwards . Keeping the hair on the ears short can be used as a preventative method to ear problems .
= = = Eye conditions = = =
Progressive retinal atrophy ( PRA ) is a group of diseases that affect a dog 's eyesight and can lead to blindness . It has been documented in a large number of different dog breeds including both the American and English Cocker Spaniels . The two types of Cockers are susceptible to a specific type of PRA called Progressive rod @-@ cone degeneration ( PRCD ) , symptoms include night blindness leading to total blindness between the ages of three and five . PRCD is the most widespread hereditary retinal disease which may lead to blindness in dogs .
Another leading cause of blindness is Canine glaucoma . This is an increase in the pressure of the fluid in the eye which , if left untreated , can cause visual impairment and eventual loss of sight . The condition can be inherited ( Primary glaucoma ) or a secondary condition to a variety of other eye issues including tumors or lens luxation . Both breeds are affected by juvenile cataracts which can occur at up to four years of age . Symptoms can include discoloring of the pupil , and treatment may include surgery to remove the cataract .
= = In popular culture = =
The Cocker Spaniel is featured in the 1955 Disney film Lady and the Tramp who is Lady .
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= Falun Gong outside mainland China =
Falun Gong , a qigong practice that combines meditation with the moral philosophy articulated by founder Li Hongzhi , first began spreading widely in China in 1992 . Li 's first lectures outside mainland China took place in Paris in 1995 . At the invitation of the Chinese ambassador to France , he lectured on his teachings and practice methods to the embassy staff and others . From that time on , Li gave lectures in other major cities in Europe , Asia , Oceania , and North America . He has resided permanently in the United States since 1998 . Falun Gong is now practiced in some 70 countries worldwide , and the teachings have been translated to over 40 languages . The international Falun Gong community is estimated to number in the hundreds of thousands , though participation estimates are imprecise on account of a lack of formal membership .
Since 1999 , the Chinese Communist Party has persecuted Falun Gong in mainland China . In response , Falun Gong practitioners around the world have conducted activities aimed at raising awareness about the related human rights issues . These include lobbying , passing out of flyers , participating in sit @-@ ins in front of Chinese embassies and consulates , and staging parades and demonstrations . They have established media outlets , have founded advocacy and research organizations to report information on the persecution in China , and launched lawsuits against the alleged architects and participants of the persecution campaign .
Several foreign governments , the United Nations , and human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have expressed their concerns over allegations of torture and ill @-@ treatment of Falun Gong practitioners in China . Nonetheless , some observers have noted that Falun Gong has failed to attract the level of sympathy and sustained international attention afforded to Tibetans , Chinese Christians or democracy activists . This has been attributed to the group 's unsophisticated PR skills , the impact of the Communist Party 's propaganda against the practice , or the foreign nature of its teachings , which identify with Buddhist and Daoist traditions .
= = History = =
From 1992 – 1994 , Li Hongzhi traveled throughout China giving week @-@ long seminars on Falun Gong 's spiritual philosophy and exercises and meditation practices . In late 1994 , he declared that he had finished his work of teaching the practice in China , and the content of his lectures was compiled in the book Zhuan Falun , published in January 1995 . Later that year , Li left China and began teaching the practice overseas , beginning with a stop at the Chinese embassy in Paris in March 1995 , followed by lectures in Sweden in May 1995 . Between 1995 and 1999 , Li gave lectures in the United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Germany , Switzerland , and Singapore . Falun Gong associations and clubs began appearing in Europe , North America and Australia , with activities centered mainly on university campuses .
As the practice began proliferating outside China , Li was the recipient of a measure of recognition in the United States and elsewhere in the western world . In August 1994 , the city of Houston named Li as an honorary citizen and goodwill ambassador for his " unselfish public service for the benefit and welfare of mankind . " In May 1999 , Li was welcomed to Toronto with greetings from the mayor and the provincial governor general , and in the two months that followed also received recognition from the cities of Chicago and San Jose .
Translations of Falun Gong teachings began appearing in the late 1990s . Although the practice was beginning to attract an overseas constituency , it remained relatively unknown in the Western world until the Spring of 1999 , when tensions between Falun Gong and Communist Party authorities became a subject of international media coverage . With the increased attention , the practice gained a greater following outside China . Following the launch of the Communist Party 's persecution of Falun Gong , the overseas presence became vital to the practice 's resistance in China and its continued survival .
= = Organization = =
Falun Gong embraces a minimal organizational structure , and does not have a rigid hierarchy , physical places of worship , fees , or formal membership . As a matter of doctrinal significance , Falun Gong is intended to be " formless , " having little to no material or formal organization . Practitioners of Falun Gong are forbidden to solicit donations or charge fees for the practice , and are similarly forbidden teach or interpret the teachings for others .
In the absence of membership or initiation rituals , a Falun Gong practitioner can be anyone who chooses to identify themselves as such . Students participate in the practice and follow its teachings as much or as little as they like , and practitioners do not instruct others on what to believe or how to behave .
Falun Gong can be said to be highly centralized in the sense that neither spiritual nor practical authority is dispersed . Li Hongzhi 's spiritual authority within the practice is absolute , yet the organization of Falun Gong works against totalistic control . Li does not intervene in the personal lives of practitioners , who have little to no contact with Li , except through the study of his teachings . Volunteer " assistants " or " contact persons " coordinate local activities , but they do not hold authority over other practitioners , regardless of how long they have practiced Falun Gong ; they cannot collect money , conduct healings , or teach or interpret doctrine for others .
Falun Gong 's nebulous structure and lack of membership makes it difficult to gauge the scope and size of Falun Gong communities outside China . Local groups post their practice site times on Falun Gong websites , but do not attempt to keep up with how many practitioners there are in certain areas . University of Montreal historian David Ownby notes that there are no " mid- or upper @-@ level tiers of the organization where one might go for such information . " He says that practitioners are not " members " of an " organization " , and do not fill out any forms at any point .
To the extent that organization is achieved in Falun Gong , it is accomplished partly through a global , networked , and often virtual community . In particular , electronic communications , email lists and a collection of websites are the primary means of coordinating activities and disseminating Li Hongzhi 's teachings . In addition to disseminating teachings , the internet serves to forge and maintain community , and is used as a medium for raising awareness of the persecution in China . Practitioners maintain hundreds of websites around the world . Most contain content in both Chinese and English , while others include German , French , Russian , Portuguese , Spanish , Japanese , and other languages .
Falun Gong 's reliance on the internet as a means of organizing has led to the group 's characterization by some observers as " a virtual religious community , " though other scholars are wary about overstating the significance of the internet . Scott Lowe , for instance , believes that the Internet is not a significant factor in attracting people to the practice ; instead , the influence of family and friends , as well as the prospect of better health , seem far more important in establishing initial interest .
Although the spiritual practice of Falun Gong has little clear organization , practitioners of Falun Gong have organized considerably among themselves since 1999 , establishing their own research and advocacy organizations , media groups , and arts companies .
= = Group exercise and study = =
Outside mainland China , a network of volunteer " contact persons , " regional Falun Dafa Associations and university clubs exists in approximately 70 countries . In most mid- to large @-@ sized cities , Falun Gong practitioners organize regular group meditation or study sessions in which they practice Falun Gong exercises and read ( or re @-@ read ) Li Hongzhi 's writings . The exercise and meditation sessions are described as informal groups of practitioners who gather in public parks — usually in the morning — for one to two hours . Group study sessions typically take place in the evenings in private residences or university or high school classrooms , and are described by David Ownby as " the closest thing to a regular ' congregational experience ' " that Falun Gong offers . Individuals who are too busy , isolated , or who simply prefer solitude may elect to practice privately .
Large Falun Gong " experience @-@ sharing " conferences are also held every several months in major metropolitan areas , in which Falun Gong students read prepared testimonials detailing their experiences in the practice . These conferences , which can attract audiences of thousands , also provide a venue for Li Hongzhi to address practitioners .
= = Evangelism = =
Practitioners of Falun Gong are encouraged to engage in Hong Fa activities , meaning " making known the way . " The Chinese term " Hong Fa " may be interpreted to refer to proselytizing , yet because Falun Gong espouses a belief that individuals are either predestined or not to obtain the practice , practitioners of Falun Gong do not actively attempt to convert people . Hong Fa activities include handing out flyers in the subway or at the mall , leaving Falun Gong literature in stores , libraries , etc . , and participating in activities such as marches , parades , and Chinese cultural events .
= = Demographics = =
Ownby confirms estimates that Falun Gong is practiced by hundreds of thousands of people outside China , with the largest communities found in Taiwan and in North American cities with large Chinese populations , such as New York and Toronto . Demographic surveys by sociologist Susan Palmer and David Ownby in North American communities found that 90 % of practitioners were ethnic Chinese ( in Europe , there are proportionally more Caucasians ) . The average age was approximately 42 . Among survey respondents , 56 % were female and 44 % male ; 80 % were married . The surveys found the respondents to be highly educated : 9 % held PhDs , 34 % had master 's degrees , and 24 % had a bachelor 's degree .
Most of the Falun Gong practitioners in North America were among the Chinese students who emigrated in the 1980s and 1990s . In Craig Burgdoff 's ethnographic research of Ohio practitioners , he found that 85 – 90 % were Chinese graduate students or their family members . Similar results for North American practitioners were borne out by Scott Lowe , a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the University of Wisconsin @-@ Eau Claire . In a 2003 Internet survey , Lowe found that the Chinese respondents living in Western nations were " uniformly well educated , clearly representing the expatriate elite " , with all respondents holding a master 's degree or higher . Respondents from Singapore and Malaysia had a more mixed educational profile , with a minority holding university degrees .
The preponderance of North American practitioners learned Falun Gong after leaving China . Ownby suggests that Falun Gong appealed to a broad spectrum of social groups , " including university professors and students , high party and government officials , well @-@ educated cadres and members of the comfortable middle class , and [ ... ] the old , the infirm , the unemployed , and the desperate . " In contrast to the typical mainland Chinese practitioner , who is likely to be a female retiree , Ownby 's survey at practitioners ' conferences in Montreal , Toronto , and Boston between 1999 and 2002 found the average Chinese practitioner in North America to be " young , urban , dynamic " . Non @-@ Chinese Falun Gong practitioners tend to fit the profile of non @-@ conformists and " spiritual seekers " — people who had tried a variety of qigong , yoga , or religious practices before finding Falun Gong . This stands in contrast to the standard profile of Chinese , whom Ownby described as " the straightest of straight arrows " .
= = Reasons for practicing Falun Gong = =
In surveys of the Falun Gong practitioners in North America , the most commonly reported reasons for being attracted to the practice were the teachings , cultivation exercises , and health benefits . In a study conducted by David Ownby , close to 30 % of practitioners said they were attracted to Falun Dafa for its " intellectual content " , 27 % for " spiritual enlightenment " , 20 % for " health benefits " , 15 % the exercises , 7 % for Li Hongzhi himself , and 2 % for the community . The " intellectual content " , according to Ownby , refers to the value of Falun Dafa doctrine in describing the " functioning of the moral and physical universe . "
Scott Lowe 's survey found that Falun Gong 's spiritual teachings and promise of good health were the most common reasons for people to have taken up the practice . In Lowe 's survey , 22 respondents gave " Master Li 's philosophy and his answers to life 's most difficult questions " as their primary attraction to the practice , while another twenty were attracted for health benefits . Nine were drawn by the moral principles , twelve by the books , ten by the exercises , and small numbers of others by a variety of other factors . Several respondents apparently realized that other forms of qigong were " shallow , exoteric , and superficial , " while they came to believe that Falun Gong is the " most complete , efficacious , and comprehensive system of spiritual cultivation on the planet . "
In Lowe 's survey , The practitioners were asked if their attraction to and focus on Falun Gong practice had changed over time . Ten claimed that they had no change , since they started Falun Gong with the intention of gaining enlightenment , which is the goal of practice . Others , over time , put less emphasis on the health improvements they experienced , which they came to see " as a relatively trivial result of cultivation . " Twenty @-@ six respondents said they felt a newfound sense of moral certitude and spiritual growth , while ten " discovered a firm determination to carry their cultivation through to the end goal of enlightenment or consummation , no matter what obstacles might appear in their path . "
= = Overseas responses to persecution in China = =
In July 1999 , the Communist Party initiated a campaign to persecute Falun Gong , including through the use of extralegal imprisonment , torture and other coercive measures , and propaganda . Falun Gong communities inside and outside China have adopted a variety of approaches to resist and mitigate the persecution in China . These tactics range from engagement with the media , lobbying of governments and NGOs , public protests and demonstrations , and attempts to seek legal redress . As the persecution in China progressed , overseas Falun Gong efforts increasingly tied their pleas for relief to Western human rights discourse , emphasizing the implications for freedom of speech , assembly , and conscience .
= = = Legal initiatives = = =
Lawyers acting on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners have filed dozens of largely symbolic lawsuits around the world against Jiang Zemin , Luo Gan , and other Chinese officials alleging genocide and crimes against humanity . According to International Advocates for Justice , Falun Gong has filed the largest number of human rights lawsuits in the 21st century and the charges are among the most severe international crimes defined by international criminal laws . As of 2006 , 54 civil and criminal lawsuits were under way in 33 countries .
In some instances , courts have refused to adjudicate Falun Gong cases against Chinese officials on the grounds of sovereign immunity . In November 2009 , however , Jiang Zemin and Luo Gan were indicted by a Spanish court on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong . One month later , an Argentine judge concluded that Jiang and Luo had adopted a " genocidal strategy " in pursuing the eradication of Falun Gong , and asked Interpol to seek their arrest .
In May 2011 , a lawsuit was filed on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners against technology giant Cisco . The suit alleges , based mainly on internal Cisco documents , that the technology company " designed and implemented a surveillance system for the Chinese Communist Party , knowing it would be used to root out members of the Falun Gong religion and subject them to detention , forced labor and torture . " Cisco denies customizing its products to facilitate censorship or repression .
In addition to high @-@ profile lawsuits against Chinese officials and corporations , Falun Gong practitioners have filed a number of complaints and civil suits alleging discrimination outside China , most of them centered within the Chinese diaspora community . Several complaints have been made after Falun Gong groups were barred from participating in parades or events , with mixed results . In Canada and in New York , Falun Gong practitioners won judgments against Chinese businesses or community organizations for discriminating against them on the basis of their religious creed .
Practitioners of Falun Gong have been involved in a number of defamation cases against Chinese @-@ language media outlets or agents of the Chinese government . In 2004 , a Canadian Falun Gong practitioner Joel Chipkar won a libel case against Pan Xinchun , an officer at the Chinese consulate in Toronto , who had called Chipkar a member of a " sinister cult " in a newspaper article . Pan was ordered to pay $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages to Chipkar , but left the country before paying . In 2008 , the Appeals Court of Quebec , Canada , ruled that a Chinese language newspaper " Les Presses Chinoises " had defamed Falun Gong when it depicted the practice as dangerous and perverse . The court did not award damages , however , on the basis that the defamation targeted the group , rather than the individual plaintiffs
= = = Media organizations = = =
In the early 2000s , Falun Gong practitioners in the United States began establishing their own Chinese @-@ language media organizations to gain wider exposure for their cause and challenge the narratives of the dominant Chinese state @-@ run media . These include The Epoch Times newspaper , New Tang Dynasty Television , and Sound of Hope radio station . In addition to carrying content related to Falun Gong , they became vocal critics of Communist Party policies more generally , carrying reports on other human rights issues in China , on corruption , environment and public health issues , and other topics . According to communications professor Yuezhi Zhao , these media organizations are an example of how Falun Gong entered into a " de facto media alliance " with China 's democracy movements in exile , as demonstrated by its frequent printing of articles by prominent overseas Chinese critics of the mainland Chinese government .
Although initially created to address the needs of the Chinese @-@ language media market , the media organizations have expanded into dozens of additional languages ; The Epoch Times newspaper is distributed across over 30 countries in 17 languages , and NTD Television has a satellite or cable presence in North America , Europe , and Asia , and produces programs in 18 languages . The organizations maintain that they are not formally affiliated with Falun Gong , which lacks both a centralized organization and funds . However , most of their staff are Falun Gong practitioners , and many contribute on a volunteer basis .
= = = Demonstrations and sit @-@ ins = = =
After the launch of the persecution campaign in 1999 , practitioners outside China began holding frequent protests , rallies , and appeals . These include large @-@ scale marches , demonstrations , and vigils to coincide with notable anniversaries , such as April 25 , 1999 , and July 20 , 1999 . Marches typically involve participants holding signs and banners , devoting different sections of the parade to different aspects of the persecution . There is usually a section involving participants wearing only white ( symbolizing mourning ) and holding photos of those killed in China .
Practitioners also stage sit @-@ ins and demonstrations outside Chinese embassies and consulates . Falun Gong practitioners in Vancouver , Canada continue to stage the world 's longest , continuous protest against the persecution . It which runs twenty @-@ four hours a day at the entrance to the PRC consulate on Granville Street . In June 2006 , it was announced by the mayor of Vancouver that the protest signs and structures must be taken down in accordance with a by @-@ law against building permanent structures on public property . In 2010 , the B.C. Court of Appeal ruled that the city 's order to remove the protest structures was unconstitutional , and the structure was restored .
Anniversaries of significant dates in the persecution are marked with protests by Falun Gong communities around the world , . In Washington DC , for instance , the anniversary of 20 July 1999 is marked by a rally at the U.S. capitol attended by several thousand practitioners . Diplomatic visits by high @-@ ranking Chinese officials are also met with demonstrations by Falun Gong practitioners .
= = = Parades = = =
In contrast to marches , which focus on bringing attention to the persecution in China , celebratory Falun Gong parades usually incorporate traditional @-@ style Chinese dances , costumes , song , exercise demonstrations , drumming , floats , and banners . Practitioners regularly hold parades or public exhibitions of Chinese cultural performances to coincide with May 13 , the anniversary of the practice 's first public teaching in China . Practitioners also utilize various parade venues around the world to publicize their group and its message .
= = = Arts and culture = = =
A number of Falun Gong practitioners and organizations outside China are engaged in the promotion of classical visual and performing arts . Practitioners frame Falun Gong as being part of the wider cultural tradition that gave rise to Chinese arts , which they describe as having been persecuted and attacked under Communist Party rule .
Falun Gong devotees trained in the visual arts have held exhibitions of their works as a means of representing their beliefs and practice , and raising awareness of the persecution in China . These include Zhang Cuiying , an Australian painter who was imprisoned in China for practicing Falun Gong , and Zhang Kunlun , a Canadian citizen and former professor who was also imprisoned in China . Zhang Kunlun is part of a collective of twelve Falun Gong visual artists whose exhibit " The Art of Zhen Shan Ren " travels internationally .
In 2006 , Falun Gong practitioners with backgrounds in classical Chinese dance and music established Shen Yun Performing Arts in New York state . Shen Yun comprises three separate companies of dancers and musicians that tour internationally . Its stated mission is " reviving 5 @,@ 000 years of divinely inspired Chinese culture . " Shen Yun 's performance programs consists of classical Chinese dance , ethnic folk dance , solo musicians , and narrative dances that portray Falun Gong . Local productions of Shen Yun are often presented by the host city 's Falun Dafa Association .
New Tang Dynasty , the television station founded by Chinese @-@ American practitioners of Falun Gong , organizes a variety of cultural outreach programs as part of its mission to promote " appreciation and awareness of traditional Chinese culture . " In 2008 , the station began organizing a series of annual competitions open to ethnic Chinese participants in fields of classical Chinese dance , martial arts , traditional clothing design , painting , music , photography , and Chinese cooking .
= = = Research and advocacy organizations = = =
Supporters and practitioners of Falun Gong have established a number of research and advocacy organizations involved in reporting on human rights abuses in China and presenting this information to Western governments , NGOs , and multilateral organizations . These include the Falun Dafa Information Center , a volunteer @-@ run organization which presents itself as the " official source on Falun Gong and the human rights crisis in China , " and functions largely as a press office , publishing press releases and annual reports . The Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group conducts similar research and issues reports on the persecution in China , often presenting these findings to the United Nations . The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong ( WOIPFG ) is as a research organization dedicated to investigating " the criminal conduct of all institutions , organizations , and individuals involved in the persecution of Falun Gong . " Falun Gong supporters and sympathizers have also founded groups such as Friends of Falun Gong and the Committee to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong ( CIPFG ) .
= = = Circumvention tools = = =
Roughly coinciding with the launch of the persecution in 1999 , Chinese authorities began establishing and fortifying a system of internet censorship and surveillance , sometimes referred to as the " golden shield . " Since that time , information relating to Falun Gong has consistently been among the primary targets of censorship and monitoring on the internet , with several Falun Gong practitioners reportedly being captured and sent to prison or labor camps for downloading or distributing information online .
In 2000 , North American Falun Gong computer scientists began developing circumvention and annonymizing tools to enable those in mainland China to access information on Falun Gong . Their software tools , such as Freegate and GPass , have since become a popular means of evading government controls of the internet in several other countries .
= = = Other initiatives and campaigns = = =
Practitioners of Falun Gong have launched a number of other campaigns to bring attention to the treatment of Falun Gong in China . Notable examples include the Human Rights Torch Relay , which toured to over 35 countries in 2007 and 2008 ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics . The relay was intended to draw attention to a range of human rights issues in China in connection with the Olympics , especially those related to Falun Gong and Tibet , and received support from hundreds of elected officials , past Olympic medallists , human rights groups and other concerned organizations .
Some practitioners of Falun Gong both inside and outside China are also involved in the promotion of the Tuidang movement , a dissident phenomenon catalyzed by an editorial series in The Epoch Times in late 2004 . The movement encourages Chinese citizens to renounce their affiliations to the Chinese Communist Party , including ex post facto renunciations of the Communist Youth League and Young Pioneers . Practitioners of Falun Gong outside China make phone calls or faxes to mainland China to inform citizens of the movement and solicit renunciation statements .
= = Attempts at persecution overseas by the Communist Party = =
The Communist Party 's campaign against Falun Gong has extended to diaspora communities , including through the use of media , espionage and monitoring of Falun Gong practitioners , harassment and violence against practitioners , diplomatic pressure applied to foreign governments , and hacking of overseas websites . According to a defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney , Australia , " The war against Falun Gong is one of the main tasks of the Chinese mission overseas . "
In 2004 the U.S. House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution condemning the attacks on Falun Gong practitioners in the United States by agents of the Communist Party . The resolution reported that party affiliates have " pressured local elected officials in the United States to refuse or withdraw support for the Falun Gong spiritual group , " that Falun Gong spokespeople have had their houses have been broken into , and individuals engaged in peaceful protest actions outside embassies have been physically assaulted .
The overseas campaign against Falun Gong is described in documents issued by China 's Overseas Chinese Affairs Office ( OCAO ) . In a report from a 2007 meeting of OCAO directors at the national , provincial , and municipal level , the office stated that it " coordinates the launching of anti- ' Falun Gong ' struggles overseas . " OCAO exhorts overseas Chinese citizens to participate in " resolutely implementing and executing the Party line , the Party 's guiding principles , and the Party 's policies , " and to " aggressively expand the struggle " against Falun Gong , ethnic separatists , and Taiwanese independent activists abroad . Other party and state organs believed to be involved in the overseas campaign include the Ministry of State Security ( MSS ) , 6 @-@ 10 Office , and People 's Liberation Army , among others .
= = = Surveillance and espionage = = =
In 2005 , Chen Yonglin , a political consul from the Chinese consulate in Sydney , and Jennifer Zeng , a Falun Gong victim of torture from China , both sought asylum in Australia while making claims that Chinese agents were engaged in large @-@ scale operations to monitor , intimidate , and undermine support for Falun Gong outside China . Chen alleged that his primary function at the consulate involved efforts to monitor and harass Falun Gong and to minimize support for the practice from Australian media and elected officials . Zeng stated that " espionage and intimidation against [ Falun Gong ] practitioners overseas is so common that many of us have become accustomed to it . "
Hao Fengjun , another defector to Australia , had worked for the 610 Office of Tianjin city and claims that his job involved the collection and analysis of intelligence reports on Falun Gong from Europe , Australia , and North America . The implication was that local 610 offices are involved in the espionage efforts abroad . Another defector from China 's Ministry of State Security — which conducts both domestic and international intelligence — claimed that the repression and monitoring of underground Christians and Falun Gong practitioners is a major focus of the ministry .
In 2005 , a Ministry of State Security ( MSS ) agent working with the Chinese embassy in Berlin recruited a German Falun Gong practitioner Dr. Dan Sun to act as an informant . The MSS agent reportedly arranged a meeting for Sun with two men who purported to be scholars of Chinese medicine interested in researching Falun Gong , and Sun agreed to pass information to them , ostensibly hoping to further their understanding of the practice . The men were in fact high @-@ ranking agents of the 610 Office in Shanghai . Sun maintained that he had no knowledge the men he was corresponding with were Chinese intelligence agents , but was he nonetheless convicted of espionage in 2011 . According to Der Spiegel , the case demonstrated " how important fighting [ Falun Gong ] is to the [ Chinese ] government , " and " points to the extremely offensive approach that is sometimes being taken by the Chinese intelligence agencies . "
= = = Blacklisting = = =
Chinese authorities reportedly maintain lists of high @-@ profile overseas Falun Gong practitioners , and they use these blacklists to impose travel and visa restrictions on practitioners . Chen Yonglin , the defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney , said in 2005 that approximately 800 Australian Falun Gong practitioners had been blacklisted ( Chen claimed he sought to remove most of these names ) .
In order to prevent potential protests during the 2008 Beijing Olympics , authorities imposed a blacklist on overseas Falun Gong practitioners , preventing them from traveling to China . 42 other categories of individuals , including Tibetans and " counter @-@ revolutionary figures , " were also blacklisted . Chinese authorities tolerated Bibles and other religious items at the Olympics , with the exception of Falun Gong materials . Ahead of the Olympic Games , Chinese public security bodies reportedly requested lists of Japanese Falun Gong practitioners from the government of Japan . The request was denied .
In June 2002 , when Jiang Zemin visited Iceland , Icelandic authorities complied with requests from the Chinese government to deny entry to Falun Gong practitioners who sought to enter the country to protest . Using a blacklist provided by China , hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners were turned away by the national airline or detained if they managed to make it to the country . The blacklisting ignited protests by Icelandic citizens and members of parliament . In 2011 , Iceland 's foreign minister Össur Skarphéðinsson issued an apology for violating Falun Gong practitioners ' freedom of expression and movement .
In August 2010 , an airline hostess from the Australian airline , Qantas , was demoted to short haul flights after being threatened by Chinese officials in Beijing , in spite of having flown there several times before .
Although Falun Gong is practiced freely within Hong Kong , Falun Gong practitioners from abroad have also reported being blacklisted from entering the territory . In 2001 , Hong Kong officials admitted that they had used a blacklist to deny entry to approximately 100 Falun Gong practitioners during a visit by then @-@ Communist Party chief Jiang Zemin . In 2004 , a Canadian Falun Gong practitioner on a book tour was denied entry to the territory , and in 2008 , two Falun Gong practitioners from the United States and Switzerland were separately denied entry while on professional and research trips .
In 2003 , 80 Taiwanese practitioners were blocked from entering Hong Kong , and again in 2007 , hundreds more Taiwanese were blocked from entering Hong Kong or detained at the airport , These events set off a six @-@ year human rights case that tested the integrity of the one country , two systems arrangement . In 2009 , Falun Gong 's case against the Hong Kong immigration department was dismissed . Months later , Hong Kong immigration officials denied visas to several members of the Falun Gong @-@ affiliated Shen Yun dance company , which was scheduled to perform in the territory in January 2010 . Democratic Party chairman Albert Ho said the denial of the visas was a worrying new erosion of Hong Kong 's freedoms , and damaged the reputation of Hong Kong as a liberal and open society . A court ruling in March 2010 overturned the Immigration Department 's decision .
= = = Disruption , monitoring of electronic communications = = =
Since 1999 , Falun Gong practitioners outside China have reported having their telephone lines tapped and electronic correspondence monitored . Falun Gong websites based outside China were the earliest targets of Chinese denial of service attacks , according to Chinese internet expert Ethan Gutmann . In 2011 , dated stock footage aired on China Central Television of People 's Liberation Army staff carrying out attacks on U.S.-based Falun Gong websites .
= = = Violence = = =
In isolated instances , violence against practitioners of Falun Gong has reportedly been committed by agents of the Chinese government abroad , though the connection to Chinese authorities is sometimes tenuous or difficult to verify .
In September 2001 , five Falun Gong practitioners were assaulted while demonstrating outside the Chinese consulate in Chicago . The assailants , who were later convicted of battery , were members of a Chinese @-@ American association with connections to the Chinese consulate . In 2002 , 25 @-@ year @-@ old Ottawa practitioner Leon Wang reported being kicked , dragged , and beaten inside the Chinese embassy after he was caught taking pictures of an anti @-@ Falun Gong exhibit being held there . The embassy responded that Wang had " sneaked in . . . and disrupted its normal functioning " of the event .
In June 2004 , Australian Falun Gong practitioner David Liang was injured in a drive @-@ by shooting while in South Africa . The purpose of his visit was to protest outside the South Africa @-@ China Binational Commission ( BNC ) meetings and to launch a lawsuit against high @-@ ranking Chinese officials for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong . Practitioners allege that the drive @-@ by shooting was an assassination attempt , and noted that the assailants made no attempt to rob them . Chinese Embassy officials denied involvement . In December 2005 , Argentine Falun Gong practitioners filed a lawsuit against former 610 Office chief and Politburo member Luo Gan while he visited the country . During Luo 's visit , practitioners were beaten by Chinese assailants in Buenos Aires 's Congress Square . Police were reportedly ordered not to intervene . Amnesty International 's Argentina director suggested the assaults may have been " connected to officials of the Chinese government . "
In the spring and summer of 2008 , practitioners of Falun Gong in New York became the targets of sustained violence within the largely ethnic Chinese neighborhood of Flushing , Queens . Groups of Chinese reportedly punched , assaulted , and threw rocks at Falun Gong practitioners , leading to multiple arrests . The Chinese consul general in New York , Peng Keyu , was reportedly involved in inciting the violence against Falun Gong and providing " guidance " to the assailants .
= = = Diplomatic and commercial pressure = = =
Representatives of the party @-@ state , typically acting through China 's overseas diplomatic mission , have applied diplomatic and commercial pressure on foreign governments , media organizations , and private enterprises with regards to Falun Gong .
In North America , Chinese agents have reportedly visited newspaper offices to " extol the virtues of Communist China and the evils of Falun Gong . " There have also been instances where international media organizations have cancelled programing or print articles about Falun Gong in response to requests from the Chinese government . In 2008 , for instance , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation succumb to pressure from the Chinese embassy in Ottawa to pull a documentary on Falun Gong hours before it was set to air . In 2009 @-@ 2010 , the Washington Post commissioned a feature article on Falun Gong . The article was killed " immediately after the Chinese embassy became aware of it , " according to the journalist .
Chinese diplomats also exhort politicians not to support or recognize Falun Gong , and threaten that expressions of support for Falun Gong will jeopardize trade relations with China . In 2002 , the Wall Street Journal reported that hundreds of American municipalities had received letters from Chinese diplomatic missions urging them to shun or persecute Falun Gong , using approaches that " combine gross disinformation with scare tactics and , in some cases , slyly implied diplomatic and commercial pressure . "
According to Perry Link , pressure on Western institutions also takes more subtle forms , including academic self @-@ censorship , whereby research on Falun Gong is avoided because it could result in a denial of visas for fieldwork in China . Ethan Gutmann also noted that media organizations and human rights groups also self @-@ censor on the topic , given the PRC government 's attitude toward the practice , and the potential repercussions that may follow for making overt representations on Falun Gong 's behalf .
Governments and private enterprises have also come under pressure from China to censor media organizations operated by Falun Gong practitioners . In 2008 , for instance , French satellite provider Eutelsat suspended its Asian broadcasts of New Tang Dynasty Television in response to pressure from China 's State Administration of Radio , Film and Television . The move was viewed as a quid pro quo attempt to secure access to the Chinese market .
In 2011 , under pressure from Chinese authorities , the Vietnamese government tried two Falun Gong practitioners who had been operating a shortwave radio station and broadcasting information into China . The pair was charged with unlicensed broadcasting , and sentenced to 2 and 3 years in prison . Earlier in the same year , another radio station operated by Falun Gong practitioners in Indonesia , Radio Erabaru , was shuttered under diplomatic pressure from China .
= = International reception and response = =
Western governments and human rights organizations have expressed condemnation of the suppression in China and sympathized with Falun Gong 's plight . Since 1999 , members of the United States Congress have made public pronouncements and introduced several resolutions in support of Falun Gong . In 2010 , House Resolution 605 described Falun Gong as a set of " spiritual , religious , and moral teachings for daily life , meditation , and exercise , based upon the principles of truthfulness , compassion , and tolerance , " called for " an immediate end to the campaign to persecute , intimidate , imprison , and torture Falun Gong practitioners , " condemned the Chinese authorities ' efforts to distribute " false propaganda " about the practice worldwide , and expressed sympathy to persecuted Falun Gong practitioners and their families .
United Nations Special Rapporteurs on Torture , Extrajudicial executions , Violence against Women and Freedom of Religion or Belief have issued numerous reports condemning the persecution of Falun Gong in China , and relayed hundreds of cases of concern to Chinese authorities . In 2003 , for instance , The Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial Killings wrote that reports from China " describe harrowing scenes in which detainees , many of whom are followers of the Falun Gong movement , die as a result of severe ill @-@ treatment , neglect or medical attention . The cruelty and brutality of these alleged acts of torture defy description . " In 2010 , the special rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief condemned the defamation against minority religious groups , singling out the governments of Iran and China for their treatment of the Bahá 'í Faith and Falun Gong , respectively . " Small communities , such as Jehovah 's Witnesses , Baha 'is , Ahmadis , Falun Gong and others are sometimes stigmatized as " cults " and frequently meet with societal prejudices which may escalate into fully fledged conspiracy theories , " said the rapporteur at the UN general assembly .
Although the persecution of Falun Gong has drawn considerable condemnation outside China , some observers note that Falun Gong has failed to attract the level of sympathy and sustained attention afforded to other Chinese dissident groups . Katrina Lantos Swett , vice chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom , notes that most Americans are aware of the persecution of " Tibetan Buddhists and unregistered Christian groups or pro @-@ democracy and free speech advocates such as Liu Xiaobo and Ai Weiwei , " and yet " know little to nothing about China ’ s assault on the Falun Gong . "
From 1999 – 2001 , Western media reports on Falun Gong — and in particular , the mistreatment of practitioners — were frequent , if mixed . By the latter half of 2001 , however , the volume of media reports declined precipitously , and by 2002 , coverage of Falun Gong by major news organizations like the New York Times and Washington Post had almost completely ceased , particularly from within China . In a study of media discourse on Falun Gong , researcher Leeshai Lemish found that Western news organizations also became less balanced , and more likely to uncritically present the narratives of the Communist Party , rather than those of Falun Gong or human rights groups .
Adam Frank writes that foreign media adopted a variety of frames in reporting on Falun Gong , including linking Falun Gong to historical antecedents in China , reporting on human rights violations against the group , and practice @-@ based reporting on the experience of Falun Gong . Ultimately , Frank writes that in reporting on the Falun Gong , the Western tradition of casting the Chinese as " exotic " took dominance , and that " the facts were generally correct , but the normalcy that millions of Chinese practitioners associated with the practice had all but disappeared . " David Ownby observes that sympathy for Falun Gong is further undermined by the impact of the " cult " label applied to the practice by the Chinese authorities , which never entirely went away in the minds of some Westerners , and the stigma of which still plays a role in public perceptions of Falun Gong .
Ethan Gutmann , a journalist reporting on China since the early 1990s , has attempted to explain the apparent dearth of public sympathy for Falun Gong as stemming , in part , from the group 's shortcomings in public relations . Unlike the democracy activists or Tibetans , who have found a comfortable place in Western perceptions , " Falun Gong marched to a distinctly Chinese drum , " according to Gutmann . This , coupled with western skepticism of persecuted refugees , has resulted in a perception that Falun Gong practitioners tended to exaggerate , or " spout slogans rather than facts . " Gutmann also observes that Falun Gong also lacks robust backing from the American constituencies that usually support religious freedom : liberals are wary of Falun Gong 's conservative morality , Christian conservatives don 't accord the practice the same space as persecuted Christians , and the political center is wary of disrupting commercial and political relations with the Chinese government . Thus , Falun Gong practitioners have largely had to rely on their own resources in responding to the persecution .
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= SMS Monarch =
SMS Monarch ( " His Majesty 's Ship Monarch " ) was the lead ship of the Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ships built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the 1890s . After their commissioning , Monarch and the two other Monarch @-@ class ships made several training cruises in the Mediterranean Sea in the early 1900s . Monarch and her sisters formed the 1st Capital Ship Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy until they were replaced by the newly commissioned Habsburg @-@ class predreadnought battleships at the turn of the century . In 1906 the three Monarchs were placed in reserve and only recommissioned during the annual summer training exercises . After the start of World War I , Budapest was recommissioned and assigned to 5th Division together with her sisters .
The division was sent to Cattaro in August 1914 to attack Montenegrin and French artillery that was bombarding the port , and Monarch remained there for the rest of the war . The ship was decommissioned in early 1918 and became an accommodation ship . She was awarded to Great Britain by the Paris Peace Conference in 1920 . The British sold her for scrap and she was broken up in Italy beginning in 1921 .
= = Description and construction = =
At only 5 @,@ 785 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 694 long tons ) maximum displacement , the Monarch class was less than half the size of the battleships of other major navies at the time , and were officially designated as coast defense ships . Austria @-@ Hungary 's only coastline was on the Adriatic Sea , and the Austro @-@ Hungarian government believed that the role of its navy was solely to defend the nation 's coast .
Monarch had an overall length of 99 @.@ 22 meters ( 325 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 17 meters ( 55 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 4 meters ( 21 ft 0 in ) . Her two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines produced a total of 8 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 300 kW ) using steam from five cylindrical boilers . These gave the ship a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) . Monarch 's maximum load of 500 metric tons ( 490 LT ) of coal gave her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She was manned by 26 officers and 397 enlisted men , a total of 423 personnel .
The armament of the Monarch class consisted of four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) Krupp K / 94 guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The ships carried 80 rounds for each gun . Their secondary armament was six 150 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) Škoda guns located in casemates in the superstructure . Defense against torpedo boats was provided by ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Škoda guns and four 47 @-@ millimeter QF Hotchkiss guns . The ships also mounted two 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . Each torpedo tube was provided with two torpedoes .
The ship 's nickel @-@ steel waterline armor belt was 120 – 270 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the gun turrets were protected by 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The casemates had 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides while the conning tower had 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) of armor . Monarch 's deck armor was 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick .
The Monarch @-@ class ships were ordered in May 1892 , with Monarch to be built at the Pola Naval Arsenal ( Seearsenal ) . The ship was laid down on 31 July 1893 , and she was launched on 9 May 1895 by Archduchess Maria Theresa , wife of Archduke Karl Ludwig . She was commissioned on 11 May 1898 .
= = Service history = =
Monarch and her sisters formed the Navy 's 1st Capital Ship Division ( I. Schwere Division ) in 1899 , and the division made a training cruise to the Eastern Mediterranean where they made port visits in Greece , Lebanon , Turkey and Malta later that year . In early 1902 , they made another training cruise to the Western Mediterranean with port visits in Algeria , Spain , France , Italy , Corfu , and Albania . The ship was fitted with a Siemens @-@ Braun radio early the following year . The ships of the division were inspected by Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the throne , in March 1903 at Gravosa . In 1904 , the Monarch @-@ class ships formed the 2nd Capital Ship Division , and they took part in the 1904 cruise of the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas as well as training exercises in which the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships engaged the Budapest and her sisters in simulated combat . Those maneuvers marked the first time two homogeneous squadrons consisting of modern battleships operated in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . In the summer of 1905 , Wien ran aground during a night exercise off Meleda Island ; it took two tries by Budapest and Habsburg to pull her off .
The Monarchs were relegated to the newly formed Reserve Squadron on 1 January 1906 , and were only recommissioned for the annual summer exercises . They participated in a fleet review by Archduke Franz Ferdinand , conducted in the Koločepski Channel near Šipan , in September . The ships were briefly recommissioned at the beginning of 1913 , as the 4th Division after the start of the Second Balkan War , but were decommissioned again on 10 March . In early 1914 , Monarch made a cruise in the Levant with the dreadnoughts Viribus Unitis , Tegetthoff and the predreadnought Zrínyi . Two of the ship 's crew came down with smallpox and cerebrospinal meningitis in Egypt and caused the ship to be quarantined for several weeks in Pola .
= = = World War I = = =
With the beginning of World War I the three Monarchs were recommissioned as the 5th Division . They were sent down to the Bay of Kotor in August 1914 , to attack Montenegrin artillery batteries on Mount Lovćen bombarding the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Cattaro and the fortifications defending it . Monarch and her sisters arrived on 13 August , but their guns could not elevate enough to engage all of the enemy artillery , which was reinforced by eight French guns on 19 October . The battleship Radetzky was summoned to deal with the guns two days later , and she managed to knock out several French guns and forced the others to withdraw by 27 October . Monarch remained at Cattaro for the rest of the war to deter any further attacks . The ship 's crew joined in the Cattaro Mutiny in early February 1918 . Six weeks later she became an accommodation ship for the submarine crews based at nearby Gjenovic . Monarch was handed over to Great Britain as war reparations in January 1920 and broken up for scrap in Italy in 1921 .
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= Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station =
Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station , also known as Becker 's Marathon Gas Station , is a historic filling station located at the intersection of Old U.S. Route 66 and Illinois Route 17 in the village of Dwight , Illinois , United States . The station has been identified as the longest operating gas station along Route 66 ; it dispensed fuel for 66 continuous years until 1999 . The station is a good example of a domestic style gas station and derives its most common names from ownership stints by two different men . North of the station is an extant outbuilding that once operated as a commercial icehouse . Ambler 's was the subject of major restoration work from 2005 – 2007 , and reopened as a Route 66 visitor 's center in May 2007 . It was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = History = =
Located at the intersection of U.S. Route 66 and Illinois Route 17 in Dwight , Illinois , United States , Ambler 's Texaco Station was built in 1933 by Jack Schore on property originally owned by Otto Strufe . The gas station is no longer in operation as a filling station , but when it closed , it held the record as the longest operating gas station along the historic Route 66 . The station last dispensed gasoline in 1999 . In 1936 , the station was leased to Vernon Von Qualen and became known as Vernon 's Texaco Station . Over the next two years , Von Qualen purchased the station from Schore , and sold it in 1938 to Basil " Tubby " Ambler . Ambler owned the station from 1938 – 1966 . Ambler 's ownership was the longest of any owner during the most historically significant period ; as a result , the station was known as Ambler 's longer than by any other name .
The owner at the time of the building 's nomination to the National Register of Historic Places , Phil Becker , grew up living on Mazon Street ( Illinois Route 17 ) . He had been hanging out at the station since he was nine and began working at the station in 1964 . One year after Becker 's employment began , Ambler sold the station to Earl Kochler . Kochler sold the station to Royce McBeath , who ran it between 1965 – 1970 . The station changed hands once again when Becker bought the station from McBeath on March 4 , 1970 . About a year after Becker took over operation of the station , Texaco suddenly stopped supplying the location with gasoline and Becker contracted with Marathon Oil . The brand change was accompanied by a name change to Becker 's Marathon Gas Station , a name the station would be known by for over 26 years . Becker operated the station , along with his wife Debbie , from the time of purchase until 1996 . After closing the station , the couple leased the building out as an auto repair shop and eventually donated the building to the village of Dwight .
In 2005 , a project to restore the old gas station began . The village of Dwight applied for and received a US $ 10 @,@ 400 federal cost @-@ share grant from the U.S. National Park Service and its Route 66 Corridor Preservation Program . The grant required the village to present matching funds in the amount of the grant . The restoration 's ultimate goal was to reopen the station as a rest stop and interpretive center along the historic roadway .
= = Restoration = =
The combined grant and village @-@ funded restoration included door , window , and roof repairs , along with interior and exterior repainting . The repainting matched the station 's 1940s color scheme . On April 24 , 2007 , the National Park Service presented a plaque commemorating the restoration project at the station . In early May 2007 , with the restoration completed , Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station reopened as a visitor 's center .
Following the restoration , the station evokes the 1940s ; the interior is complete with a potbelly stove , tiny Coca @-@ Cola bottle and antique Dwight Lumber / Route 66 advertising yardsticks . Also inside are an old cash register , old 7 Up bottles and a plaid stamp saver book . The restored station is owned by the village of Dwight .
= = Architecture = =
The Ambler 's Texaco Station is built in a common gas station style known as " house and canopy " style or " domestic style . " The style was developed by Standard Oil of Ohio in 1916 , and consisted of a small house @-@ like building with an attached canopy . The canopy extended out over the pumps to protect customers from the weather . The style was meant to evoke feelings of home and comfort in travelers and , in turn , to make people more at ease buying goods from the station .
The one @-@ story building has no basement and originally consisted of only the house and canopy portion , and three Texaco gas pumps . The house , or main office portion of the station includes the interior office and the men 's and women 's restrooms . The men 's restroom is accessed from the interior office and the women 's restroom is accessed via an outside door on the south side of the building . The original " LADIES " sign still protrudes from the wall above the entrance . The entire house section of the station is 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The exterior of the building is wood and sided with clapboard , save the garage bay area which is concrete block . The bay was built during World War II , between 1941 – 45 , and material shortages forced the use of the differing building material .
The building has a wooden , side gabled roof covered with asphalt shingles , which extends over the station 's canopy . The canopy supporting piers originally " flared out " and have been altered since the building 's original construction . The three original Texaco pumps were replaced with 1960s era Marathon pumps , which are on display in the service bay . The Marathon change @-@ over also resulted in a sign being attached to the roof of the service bay which read " Marathon , " this sign is no longer extant .
= = Icehouse = =
Located on the property of Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station , just north of the station , is a 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) by 16 foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wood clad , wooden frame building that once housed a commercial icehouse . Though its exact dates of operation are unknown , it is believed the icehouse was established by a member of Jack Schore 's family during the 1930s . While the icehouse was in business , there was a small pond located about 200 feet ( 61 m ) east of the property . Operators cut ice from the pond and stored it in the building until sale . After the icehouse ceased operation , a date that is also unknown , the building was used as a storage shed for the gas station . The building features a double wall with sawdust stuffed in between the walls to provide insulation . The wooden roof has asphalt shingles . Ambler 's Texaco Station listing on the National Register lists the icehouse building as a contributing property .
= = Significance = =
The building is a good example of the house and canopy style , and for its architectural and commercial significance it was nominated to the National Register of Historic Places in October 2001 and listed on November 29 , 2001 . Commercially , the station is most significant for the services and products it provided travelers along U.S. Route 66 , including fuel , oil and automobile repairs . The gas station met all criteria listed in the National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property form as requirements for adding gas stations to the listing . In order for gas stations along U.S. Route 66 in Illinois to qualify for listing on the National Register , they must show a clear connection to and raise feelings associated with early traffic and tourism along Route 66 . A gas station listed for its architecture , such as Ambler 's , must be a " good example " of an architectural style or type through many details from design to location , all of which must convey a connection with its historic appearance along Route 66 .
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= Angel One =
This article is for the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode . For the cable channel known as " Angel One " , see Sky Angel .
" Angel One " is the 14th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It was first broadcast on January 25 , 1988 , in the United States in broadcast syndication . It was written by Patrick Barry and was directed by Michael Ray Rhodes .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , an away team visits a world dominated by women to search for survivors of a downed freighter , while the crew of the Enterprise suffer from the effects of a debilitating virus .
The episode was intended to be commentary on Apartheid in South Africa , using gender role reversal . However , there were problems between the cast and director during filming , and Patrick Stewart sought to have the sexist nature of the episode changed . The resulting episode was not well liked by members of the production team , and the response from reviewers was negative .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise arrives at the planet Angel One , where its native population is run as an oligarchy , with women in the dominant position of power . The ship is looking for survivors from the shipwrecked freighter Odin , 7 + years after having been evacuated . The freighter was missing 3 escape pods and the only planet in range was Angel One . An away team consisting of Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) , Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) , Lt. Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) , and Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) beam down to the surface . They attempt to negotiate with Beata ( Karen Montgomery ) , the " Elected One " of the native inhabitants , to let them search for the survivors . Time is of the essence however , as the Enterprise must travel to a Federation outpost near the Romulan Neutral Zone ( where a group of Romulan Battlecruisers has been detected ) as soon as they resolve their investigation into the Odin survivors .
Beata reveals that they are aware of four male survivors of the Odin who have caused disruption in their society , and are considered fugitives . Beata requests Riker stay with her ( and later requests that he orders Troy , Data , and Yar to track down the survivors ' camp and their leader Ramsey ( Sam Hennings ) , while he stay and dine with her ) . After some back and forth the Data concludes Ramsey and the survivors of the Odin would have Platinum with them , and Angel One is naturally devoid of Platinum , allowing the Enterprise to easily detect them . Meanwhile , Riker dresses in the garb given to him for his dinner with Beata , Troy and Yar taunt him for dressing in clothes that sexualize him and in some ways demean him , and he is only doing it to win favor with Beata . He responds by saying he is honoring the local customs , and acknowledges Beata 's beauty , and that the garb is rather comfortable .
The Enterprise searches while in orbit of Angel One . Doctor Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) relieves Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) of duty after he and most of the crew have fallen ill to a random virus on board , that gives the sense of an odd smell to its victims at the time of infection . The Captain leaves Lieutenant Geordi La Forge ( Levar Burton ) in command ( Geordi 's first time in Acting Command of a Starship ) . Shortly after , they find Ramsey and transmit his location to the Away Team , who beam directly to there .
When confronted by Data , Yar , and Troy , Ramsey and his men , having taken wives and started families during the seven years , refuse to leave , Geordi informs Yar of the medical situation on board , and that more Romulan ships have been detected near the Neutral Zone . Riker learns from Beata that their society structure has already been collapsing , but Ramsey and his men have served to accelerate its decline . Riker argues that it may just be the course of evolution taking place . On the Enterprise , systems are becoming harder to maintain with more crew succumbing the virus . Geordi ( after a friendly reminder from a sniffling Worf ( Michael Dorn ) ) remembers that in command , he must delegate others perform tasks so he can stay on the Bridge . Dr. Crusher finds that the virus is an airborne organism that produces a sweet smell , to encourage inhalation , after which becomes viral inside the body .
Riker gets up to date with the situation , and decides that while Ramsey and his group are at large and refusing to leave the planet , there is little they can do . Before leaving they find that one of Beata 's assistants , Ariel ( Patricia McPherson ) , has married Ramsey , and was followed by Beata 's men to their camp , where they arrested the survivors and their families . The Away Team attempt to explain to Beata the reason for Ramsey 's refusal to leave . Beata and her council reject his reasoning , and threatens to execute them the following day . After failing to convince Ramsey and his group to leave with them , Riker contacts the Enterprise , in hopes to transport Ramsey and his group without their consent ( despite it being a violation of the Prime Directive , and almost certainly an end to his career ) , but Dr. Crusher ( while treating an incapacitated Geordi in the Captain 's chair ) refuses to allow anyone to beam aboard for fear of being infected , but allows Data , as an android , to return . Riker orders Data to take command and get the Enterprise to the Neutral Zone before it 's too late .
The following morning the Away Team is invited to witness the execution of Ramsey and his followers . Moments after Riker rejects their invitation Data makes contact and informs them that there is a 48 @-@ minute window for which Dr. Crusher has to find a cure , and for Riker to defuse the situation on the planet before the ship must leave to the Neutral Zone . On the planet , Ramsey and his men are prepared to be executed by disintegration despite Ariel 's pleas , while Dr. Crusher discovers a cure for the virus . Riker is prepared to have the away team and the Odin survivors beamed to the Enterprise , but Beata announces that she will stay the execution and banish Ramsey , his men , their families , and any others that support them to the far side of the planet . She explains that their banishment will not stop the fall of the oligarchy , but will slow it down enough that Beata will not be around to see its end . The away team return to the ship and Picard , already recovering from the virus but hardly having a voice , orders the ship to the Neutral Zone at high warp .
= = Production = =
Producer Herbert Wright explained that the episode was to be a commentary on Apartheid in South Africa , with men on the planet representing black people . The original plot by Patrick Berry would have seen Riker and Data travel to the surface with an otherwise all female away team , which offended the planet 's leader to the extent that Yar stuns him with a phaser as a show of strength in order to prevent his immediate execution . Riker is imprisoned as one of the marooned men , named Lucas Jones , begins an uprising . Jones is killed , but his death inspires his followers to assault the government . In that version , Picard is the only one to fall ill on board the Enterprise . The reverse role society had already been included in Gene Roddenberry 's 1974 TV pilot / movie Planet Earth , and Wright described it as " being done a thousand times already " . In her book Sexual Generations : " Star Trek , the Next Generation " and Gender ( University of Illinois Press , 1999 ) , Robin Roberts points out that a similar plot was used by Walter Besant in his 1882 anti @-@ feminist dystopia , The Revolt of Man . " Angel One " featured the first mention of the Romulans , who would appear later in the season one finale , " The Neutral Zone " .
Michael Ray Rhodes directed the episode as part of a deal with The Bronx Zoo , another television show filmed at Paramount Studios . Rhodes had previously won Emmy Awards on four occasions for his work on the television series Insights between 1981 and 1984 . Wil Wheaton later recalled that there were some issues between the main cast and the director , but didn 't know what they were about as he only worked for one day of the shoot . Gates McFadden described it as " one of the most sexist episodes we ever had " , and Patrick Stewart sought to have the episode changed to reduce those elements . Some of the production crew subsequently thought poorly of " Angel One " . Executive producer Maurice Hurley described it as " Terrible . Just terrible . One of the ones you 'd just as soon erase " . Producer Herbert Wright felt that the " sexual places it was dragged to were absurd " .
= = Reception = =
" Angel One " first aired in the United States in broadcast syndication on January 25 , 1988 . It received an 11 @.@ 4 rating , meaning that it was seen by 11 @.@ 4 percent of all households . This was an increase from the previous week 's " Datalore " which received a rating of 10 @.@ 3 .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode following the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com. He described the episode as being " one of the most sexist episodes of Star Trek ever produced under the veneer of feminism " , and that the virus subplot was " filler , and boring filler at that " . Overall , he said that it was " one of the absolute low points of the show " , giving it a score of two out of ten . Cast member Wil Wheaton watched it for AOL TV , and thought that it started well but soon descended into the appearance of an episode from The Original Series with Riker in the Kirk role . He also noted that if the speech that Riker gave towards the end of the episode had been given to Yar or Troi then the overall message would have been more subtle . He gave it a grade of D overall .
James Hunt for Den of Geek said that the episode was not as bad as " Code of Honor " , but that it contained " almost every terrible cliché about seen in TNG 's first season in one episode " . He summed it up , saying " We 've seen all of this before , and it was barely interesting the first time around . The second time , it 's just tedious . A horrible episode on so many levels . " Zack Handlen watched the episode for The A.V. Club and said that he " expected more from TNG " , saying that he was not sure what the reversal of gender roles in the episode was meant to achieve . He described the virus subplot as " absurd " and gave the episode an F grade . The episode was included in a couple of worst episode lists , including in one compiled by Scott Thrill for Wired magazine , and it was ranked the fourth worst episode by Jay Garmon at the website TechRepublic .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " Angel One " was on VHS cassette , appearing on August 26 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
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= History of Mars observation =
The recorded history of Mars observation dates back to the era of the ancient Egyptian astronomers in the 2nd millennium BCE . Chinese records about the motions of Mars appeared before the founding of the Zhou Dynasty ( 1045 BCE ) . Detailed observations of the position of Mars were made by Babylonian astronomers who developed arithmetic techniques to predict the future position of the planet . The ancient Greek philosophers and Hellenistic astronomers developed a geocentric model to explain the planet 's motions . Measurements of Mars ' angular diameter can be found in ancient Greek and Indian texts . In the 16th century , Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model for the Solar System in which the planets follow circular orbits about the Sun . This was revised by Johannes Kepler , yielding an elliptic orbit for Mars that more accurately fitted the observational data .
The first telescopic observation of Mars was by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Within a century , astronomers discovered distinct albedo features on the planet , including the dark patch Syrtis Major Planum and polar ice caps . They were able to determine the planet 's rotation period and axial tilt . These observations were primarily made during the time intervals when the planet was located in opposition to the Sun , at which points Mars made its closest approaches to the Earth .
Better telescopes developed early in the 19th century allowed permanent Martian albedo features to be mapped in detail . The first crude map of Mars was published in 1840 , followed by more refined maps from 1877 onward . When astronomers mistakenly thought they had detected the spectroscopic signature of water in the Martian atmosphere , the idea of life on Mars became popularized among the public . Percival Lowell believed he could see a network of artificial canals on Mars . These linear features later proved to be an optical illusion , and the atmosphere was found to be too thin to support an Earth @-@ like environment .
Yellow clouds on Mars have been observed since the 1870s , which Eugène M. Antoniadi suggested were windblown sand or dust . During the 1920s , the range of Martian surface temperature was measured ; it ranged from − 85 to 7 ° C ( − 121 to 45 ° F ) . The planetary atmosphere was found to be arid with only trace amounts of oxygen and water . In 1947 , Gerard Kuiper showed that the thin Martian atmosphere contained extensive carbon dioxide ; roughly double the quantity found in Earth 's atmosphere . The first standard nomenclature for Mars albedo features was adopted in 1960 by the International Astronomical Union . Since the 1960s , multiple robotic spacecraft have been sent to explore Mars from orbit and the surface . The planet has remained under observation by ground and space @-@ based instruments across a broad range of the electromagnetic spectrum . The discovery of meteorites on Earth that originated on Mars has allowed laboratory examination of the chemical conditions on the planet .
= = Earliest records = =
The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by ancient Egyptian astronomers . By the 2nd millennium BCE they were familiar with the apparent retrograde motion of the planet , in which it appears to move in the opposite direction across the sky from its normal progression . Mars was portrayed on the ceiling of the tomb of Seti I , on the Ramesseum ceiling , and in the Senenmut star map . The last is the oldest known star map , being dated to 1534 BCE based on the position of the planets .
By the period of the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire , Babylonian astronomers were making systematic observations of the positions and behavior of the planets . For Mars , they knew , for example , that the planet made 37 synodic periods , or 42 circuits of the zodiac , every 79 years . The Babylonians invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets . This technique was primarily derived from timing measurements — such as when Mars rose above the horizon , rather than from the less accurately known position of the planet on the celestial sphere .
Chinese records of the appearances and motions of Mars appear before the founding of the Zhou Dynasty ( 1045 BCE ) , and by the Qin Dynasty ( 221 BCE ) astronomers maintained close records of planetary conjunctions , including those of Mars . Occultations of Mars by Venus were noted in 368 , 375 , and 405 CE . The period and motion of the planet 's orbit was known in detail during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 CE ) .
The early astronomy of ancient Greece was influenced by knowledge transmitted from the Mesopotamian culture . Thus the Babylonians associated Mars with Nergal , their god of war and pestilence , and the Greeks connected the planet with their god of war , Ares . During this period , the motions of the planets were of little interest to the Greeks ; Hesiod 's Works and Days ( c . 650 BCE ) makes no mention of the planets .
= = Orbital models = =
The Greeks used the word planēton to refer to the seven celestial bodies that moved with respect to the background stars and they held a geocentric view that these bodies moved about the Earth . In his work , The Republic ( X.616E – 617B ) , the Greek philosopher Plato provided the oldest known statement defining the order of the planets in Greek astronomical tradition . His list , in order of the nearest to the most distant from the Earth , was as follows : the Moon , Sun , Venus , Mercury , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and the fixed stars . In his dialogue Timaeus , Plato proposed that the progression of these objects across the skies depended on their distance , so that the most distant object moved the slowest .
Aristotle , a student of Plato , observed an occultation of Mars by the Moon in 365 BCE . From this he concluded that Mars must lie further from the Earth than the Moon . He noted that other such occultations of stars and planets had been observed by the Egyptians and Babylonians . Aristotle used this observational evidence to support the Greek sequencing of the planets . His work De Caelo presented a model of the universe in which the Sun , Moon , and planets circle about the Earth at fixed distances . A more sophisticated version of the geocentric model was developed by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus when he proposed that Mars moved along a circular track called the epicycle that , in turn , orbited about the Earth along a larger circle called the deferent .
In Roman Egypt during the 2nd century CE , Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Ptolemy ) attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars . Observations of Mars had shown that the planet appeared to move 40 % faster on one side of its orbit than the other , in conflict with the Aristotelian model of uniform motion . Ptolemy modified the model of planetary motion by adding a point offset from the center of the planet 's circular orbit about which the planet moves at a uniform rate of rotation . He proposed that the order of the planets , by increasing distance , was : the Moon , Mercury , Venus , Sun , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and the fixed stars . Ptolemy 's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi @-@ volume collection Almagest , which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries .
In the 5th century CE , the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the angular size of Mars as 2 arc @-@ minutes ( 1 / 30 of a degree ) and its distance to Earth as 10 @,@ 433 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 296 @,@ 600 yojana , where one yojana is equivalent to eight km in the Surya Siddhanta ) . From this the diameter of Mars is deduced to be 6 @,@ 070 km ( 754 @.@ 4 yojana ) , which has an error within 11 % of the currently accepted value of 6 @,@ 788 km . However , this estimate was based upon an inaccurate guess of the planet 's angular size . The result may have been influenced by the work of Ptolemy , who listed a value of 1 @.@ 57 arc @-@ minutes . Both estimates are significantly larger than the value later obtained by telescope .
In 1543 , Nicolaus Copernicus published a heliocentric model in his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium . This approach placed the Earth in an orbit around the Sun between the circular orbits of Venus and Mars . His model successfully explained why the planets Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were on the opposite side of the sky from the Sun whenever they were in the middle of their retrograde motions . Copernicus was able to sort the planets into their correct heliocentric order based solely on the period of their orbits about the Sun . His theory gradually gained acceptance among European astronomers , particularly after the publication of the Prutenic Tables by the German astronomer Erasmus Reinhold in 1551 , which were computed using the Copernican model .
On October 13 , 1590 , the German astronomer Michael Maestlin observed an occultation of Mars by Venus . One of his students , Johannes Kepler , quickly became an adherent to the Copernican system . After the completion of his education , Kepler became an assistant to the Danish nobleman and astronomer , Tycho Brahe . With access granted to Tycho 's detailed observations of Mars , Kepler was set to work mathematically assembling a replacement to the Prutenic Tables . After repeatedly failing to fit the motion of Mars into a circular orbit as required under Copernicanism , he succeeded in matching Tycho 's observations by assuming the orbit was an ellipse and the Sun was located at one of the foci . His model became the basis for Kepler 's laws of planetary motion , which were published in his multi @-@ volume work Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae ( Epitome of Copernican Astronomy ) between 1615 and 1621 .
= = Early telescope observations = =
At its closest approach , the angular size of Mars is 25 arcseconds ; this is much too small for the naked eye to resolve . Hence , prior to the invention of the telescope , nothing was known about the planet besides its position on the sky . The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first person known to use a telescope to make astronomical observations . His records indicate that he began observing Mars through a telescope in September 1610 . This instrument was too primitive to display any surface detail on the planet , so he set the goal of seeing if Mars exhibited phases of partial darkness similar to Venus or the Moon . Although uncertain of his success , by December he did note that Mars had shrunk in angular size . Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius succeeded in observing a phase of Mars in 1645 .
In 1644 , the Italian Jesuit Daniello Bartoli reported seeing two darker patches on Mars . During the oppositions of 1651 , 1653 and 1655 , when the planet made its closest approaches to the Earth , the Italian astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his student Francesco Maria Grimaldi noted patches of differing reflectivity on Mars . The first person to draw a map of Mars that displayed terrain features was the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens . On November 28 , 1659 he made an illustration of Mars that showed the distinct dark region now known as Syrtis Major Planum , and possibly one of the polar ice caps . The same year , he succeeded in measuring the rotation period of the planet , giving it as approximately 24 hours . He made a rough estimate of the diameter of Mars , guessing that it is about 60 % of the size of the Earth , which compares well with the modern value of 53 % . Perhaps the first definitive mention of Mars 's southern polar ice cap was by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini , in 1666 . That same year , he used observations of the surface markings on Mars to determine a rotation period of 24h 40m . This differs from the currently @-@ accepted value by less than three minutes . In 1672 , Huygens noticed a fuzzy white cap at the north pole .
After Cassini became the first director of the Paris Observatory in 1671 , he tackled the problem of the physical scale of the Solar System . The relative size of the planetary orbits was known from Kepler 's third law , so what was needed was the actual size of one of the planet 's orbits . For this purpose , the position of Mars was measured against the background stars from different points on the Earth , thereby measuring the diurnal parallax of the planet . During this year , the planet was moving past the point along its orbit where it was nearest to the Sun ( a perihelic opposition ) , which made this a particularly close approach to the Earth . Cassini and Jean Picard determined the position of Mars from Paris , while the French astronomer Jean Richer made measurements from Cayenne , South America . Although these observations were hampered by the quality of the instruments , the parallax computed by Cassini came within 10 % of the correct value . The English astronomer John Flamsteed made comparable measurement attempts and had similar results .
In 1704 , Italian astronomer Jacques Philippe Maraldi " made a systematic study of the southern cap and observed that it underwent " variations as the planet rotated . This indicated that the cap was not centered on the pole . He observed that the size of the cap varied over time . The German @-@ born British astronomer Sir William Herschel began making observations of the planet Mars in 1777 , particularly of the planet 's polar caps . In 1781 , he noted that the south cap appeared " extremely large " , which he ascribed to that pole being in darkness for the past twelve months . By 1784 , the southern cap appeared much smaller , thereby suggesting that the caps vary with the planet 's seasons and thus were made of ice . In 1781 , he estimated the rotation period of Mars as 24h 39m 21.67s and measured the axial tilt of the planet 's poles to the orbital plane as 28 @.@ 5 ° . He noted that Mars had a " considerable but moderate atmosphere , so that its inhabitants probably enjoy a situation in many respects similar to ours " . Between 1796 and 1809 , the French astronomer Honoré Flaugergues noticed obscurations of Mars , suggesting " ochre @-@ colored veils " covered the surface . This may be the earliest report of yellow clouds or storms on Mars .
= = Geographical period = =
At the start of the 19th century , improvements in the size and quality of telescope optics proved a significant advance in observation capability . Most notable among these enhancements was the two @-@ component achromatic lens of the German optician Joseph von Fraunhofer that essentially eliminated coma — an optical effect that can distort the outer edge of the image . By 1812 , Fraunhofer had succeeded in creating an achromatic objective lens 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . The size of this primary lens is the main factor in determining the light gathering ability and resolution of a refracting telescope . During the opposition of Mars in 1830 , the German astronomers Johann Heinrich Mädler and Wilhelm Beer used a 95 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) Fraunhofer refracting telescope to launch an extensive study of the planet . They chose a feature located 8 ° south of the equator as their point of reference . ( This was later named the Sinus Meridiani , and it would become the zero meridian of Mars . ) During their observations , they established that most of Mars ' surface features were permanent , and more precisely determined the planet 's rotation period . In 1840 , Mädler combined ten years of observations to draw the first map of Mars . Rather than giving names to the various markings , Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters ; thus Meridian Bay ( Sinus Meridiani ) was feature " a " .
Working at the Vatican Observatory during the opposition of Mars in 1858 , Italian astronomer Angelo Secchi noticed a large blue triangular feature , which he named the " Blue Scorpion " . This same seasonal cloud @-@ like formation was seen by English astronomer J. Norman Lockyer in 1862 , and it has been viewed by other observers . During the 1862 opposition , Dutch astronomer Frederik Kaiser produced drawings of Mars . By comparing his illustrations to those of Huygens and the English natural philosopher Robert Hooke , he was able to further refine the rotation period of Mars . His value of 24h 37m 22.6s is accurate to within a tenth of a second .
Father Secchi produced some of the first color illustrations of Mars in 1863 . He used the names of famous explorers for the distinct features . In 1869 , he observed two dark linear features on the surface that he referred to as canali , which is Italian for ' channels ' or ' grooves ' . In 1867 , English astronomer Richard A. Proctor created a more detailed map of Mars based on the 1864 drawings of English astronomer William R. Dawes . Proctor named the various lighter or darker features after astronomers , past and present , who had contributed to the observations of Mars . During the same decade , comparable maps and nomenclature were produced by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion and the English astronomer Nathan Green .
At the University of Leipzig in 1862 – 64 , German astronomer Johann K. F. Zöllner developed a custom photometer to measure the reflectivity of the Moon , planets and bright stars . For Mars , he derived an albedo of 0 @.@ 27 . Between 1877 and 1893 , German astronomers Gustav Müller and Paul Kempf observed Mars using Zöllner 's photometer . They found a small phase coefficient — the variation in reflectivity with angle — indicating that the surface of Mars is smooth and without large irregularities . In 1867 , French astronomer Pierre Janssen and British astronomer William Huggins used spectroscopes to examine the atmosphere of Mars . Both compared the optical spectrum of Mars to that of the Moon . As the spectrum of the latter did not display absorption lines of water , they believed they had detected the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars . This result was confirmed by German astronomer Herman C. Vogel in 1872 and English astronomer Edward W. Maunder in 1875 , but would later come into question .
A particularly favorable perihelic opposition occurred in 1877 . The English astronomer David Gill used this opportunity to measure the diurnal parallax of Mars from Ascension Island , which led to a parallax estimate of 8 @.@ 78 ± 0 @.@ 01 arcseconds . Using this result , he was able to more accurately determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun , based upon the relative size of the orbits of Mars and the Earth . He noted that the edge of the disk of Mars appeared fuzzy because of its atmosphere , which limited the precision he could obtain for the planet 's position .
In August 1877 , the American astronomer Asaph Hall discovered the two moons of Mars using a 660 mm ( 26 in ) telescope at the U.S. Naval Observatory . The names of the two satellites , Phobos and Deimos , were chosen by Hall based upon a suggestion by Henry Madan , a science instructor at Eton College in England .
= = Martian canals = =
During the 1877 opposition , Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli used a 22 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) telescope to help produce the first detailed map of Mars . These maps notably contained features he called canali , which were later shown to be an optical illusion . These canali were supposedly long straight lines on the surface of Mars to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth . His term canali was popularly mistranslated in English as canals . In 1886 , the English astronomer William F. Denning observed that these linear features were irregular in nature and showed concentrations and interruptions . By 1895 , English astronomer Edward Maunder became convinced that the linear features were merely the summation of many smaller details .
In his 1892 work La planète Mars et ses conditions d 'habitabilité , Camille Flammarion wrote about how these channels resembled man @-@ made canals , which an intelligent race could use to redistribute water across a dying Martian world . He advocated for the existence of such inhabitants , and suggested they may be more advanced than humans .
Influenced by the observations of Schiaparelli , Percival Lowell founded an observatory with 30 @-@ and @-@ 45 cm ( 12 @-@ and @-@ 18 in ) telescopes . The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions . He published books on Mars and life on the planet , which had a great influence on the public . The canali were found by other astronomers , such as Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon using a 38 cm ( 15 in ) refractor at the Nice Observatory in France , one of the largest telescopes of that time .
Beginning in 1901 , American astronomer A. E. Douglass attempted to photograph the canal features of Mars . These efforts appeared to succeed when American astronomer Carl O. Lampland published photographs of the supposed canals in 1905 . Although these results were widely accepted , they became contested by Greek astronomer Eugène M. Antoniadi , English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and others as merely imagined features . As bigger telescopes were used , fewer long , straight canali were observed . During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with a 84 cm ( 33 in ) telescope , irregular patterns were observed , but no canali were seen .
= = Refining planetary parameters = =
Surface obscuration caused by yellow clouds had been noted in the 1870s when they were observed by Schiaparelli . Evidence for such clouds was observed during the oppositions of 1892 and 1907 . In 1909 , Antoniadi noted that the presence of yellow clouds was associated with the obscuration of albedo features . He discovered that Mars appeared more yellow during oppositions when the planet was closest to the Sun and was receiving more energy . He suggested windblown sand or dust as the cause of the clouds .
In 1894 , American astronomer William W. Campbell found that the spectrum of Mars was identical to the spectrum of the Moon , throwing doubt on the burgeoning theory that the atmosphere of Mars is similar to that of the Earth . Previous detections of water in the atmosphere of Mars were explained by unfavorable conditions , and Campbell determined that the water signature came entirely from the Earth 's atmosphere . Although he agreed that the ice caps did indicate there was water in the atmosphere , he did not believe the caps were sufficiently large to allow the water vapor to be detected . At the time , Campbell 's results were considered controversial and were criticized by members of the astronomical community , but they were confirmed by American astronomer Walter S. Adams in 1925 .
Baltic German astronomer Hermann Struve used the observed changes in the orbits of the Martian moons to determine the gravitational influence of the planet 's oblate shape . In 1895 , he used this data to estimate that the equatorial diameter was 1 / 190 larger than the polar diameter . In 1911 , he refined the value to 1 / 192 . This result was confirmed by American meteorologist Edgar W. Woolard in 1944 .
Using a vacuum thermocouple attached to the 2 @.@ 54 m ( 100 in ) Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory , in 1924 the American astronomers Seth Barnes Nicholson and Edison Pettit were able to measure the thermal energy being radiated by the surface of Mars . They determined that the temperature ranged from − 68 ° C ( − 90 ° F ) at the pole up to 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) at the midpoint of the disk ( corresponding to the equator ) . Beginning in the same year , radiated energy measurements of Mars were made by American physicist William Coblentz and American astronomer Carl Otto Lampland . The results showed that the night time temperature on Mars dropped to − 85 ° C ( − 121 ° F ) , indicating an " enormous diurnal fluctuation " in temperatures . The temperature of Martian clouds was measured as − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) . In 1926 , by measuring spectral lines that were redshifted by the orbital motions of Mars and Earth , American astronomer Walter Sydney Adams was able to directly measure the amount of oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars . He determined that " extreme desert conditions " were prevalent on Mars . In 1934 , Adams and American astronomer Theodore Dunham , Jr. found that the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars was less than one percent of the amount over a comparable area on Earth .
In 1927 , Dutch graduate student Cyprianus Annius van den Bosch made a determination of the mass of Mars based upon the motions of the Martian moons , with an accuracy of 0 @.@ 2 % . This result was confirmed by the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter and published posthumously in 1938 . Using observations of the near Earth asteroid Eros from 1926 to 1945 , German @-@ American astronomer Eugene K. Rabe was able to make an independent estimate the mass of Mars , as well as the other planets in the inner Solar System , from the planet 's gravitational perturbations of the asteroid . His estimated margin of error was 0 @.@ 05 % , but subsequent checks suggested his result was poorly determined compared to other methods .
During the 1920s , French astronomer Bernard Lyot used a polarimeter to study the surface properties of the Moon and planets . In 1929 , he noted that the polarized light emitted from the Martian surface is very similar to that radiated from the Moon , although he speculated that his observations could be explained by frost and possibly vegetation . Based on the amount of sunlight scattered by the Martian atmosphere , he set an upper limit of 1 / 15 the thickness of the Earth 's atmosphere . This restricted the surface pressure to no greater than 2 @.@ 4 kPa ( 24 mbar ) . Using infrared spectrometry , in 1947 the Dutch @-@ American astronomer Gerard Kuiper detected carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere . He was able to estimate that the amount of carbon dioxide over a given area of the surface is double that on the Earth . However , because he overestimated the surface pressure on Mars , Kuiper concluded erroneously that the ice caps could not be composed of frozen carbon dioxide . In 1948 , American meteorologist Seymour L. Hess determined that the formation of the thin Martian clouds would only require 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) of water precipitation and a vapor pressure of 0 @.@ 1 kPa ( 1 @.@ 0 mbar ) .
The first standard nomenclature for Martian albedo features was introduced by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) when in 1960 they adopted 128 names from the 1929 map of Antoniadi named La Planète Mars . The Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ( WGPSN ) was established by the IAU in 1973 to standardize the naming scheme for Mars and other bodies .
= = Remote sensing = =
The International Planetary Patrol Program was formed in 1969 as a consortium to continually monitor planetary changes . This worldwide group focused on observing dust storms on Mars . Their images allow Martian seasonal patterns to be studied globally , and they showed that most Martian dust storms occur when the planet is closest to the Sun .
Since the 1960s , robotic spacecraft have been sent to explore Mars from orbit and the surface in extensive detail . In addition , remote sensing of Mars from Earth by ground @-@ based and orbiting telescopes has continued across much of the electromagnetic spectrum . These include infrared observations to determine the composition of the surface , ultraviolet and submillimeter observation of the atmospheric composition , and radio measurements of wind velocities .
The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) has been used to perform systematic studies of Mars and has taken the highest resolution images of Mars ever captured from Earth . This telescope can produce useful images of the planet when it is at an angular distance of at least 50 ° from the Sun . The HST can take images of a hemisphere , which yields views of entire weather systems . Earth @-@ based telescopes equipped with charge @-@ coupled devices can produce useful images of Mars , allowing for regular monitoring of the planet 's weather during oppositions .
X @-@ ray emission from Mars was first observed by astronomers in 2001 using the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory , and in 2003 it was shown to have two components . The first component is caused by X @-@ rays from the Sun scattering off the upper Martian atmosphere ; the second comes from interactions between ions that result in an exchange of charges . The emission from the latter source has been observed out to eight times the radius of Mars by the XMM @-@ Newton orbiting observatory .
In 1983 , the analysis of the shergottite , nakhlite , and chassignite ( SNC ) group of meteorites showed that they may have originated on Mars . The Allan Hills 84001 meteorite , discovered in Antarctica in 1984 , is believed to have originated on Mars but it has an entirely different composition than the SNC group . In 1996 , it was announced that this meteorite might contain evidence for microscopic fossils of Martian bacteria . However , this finding remains controversial . Chemical analysis of the Martian meteorites found on Earth suggests that the ambient near @-@ surface temperature of Mars has most likely been below the freezing point of water ( 0 C ° ) for much of the last four billion years .
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= Tirunelveli =
Tirunelveli pronunciation ) , also known as Nellai and historically ( during British rule ) as Tinnevelly , is a city in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is the administrative headquarters of the Tirunelveli District . It is the sixth @-@ largest municipal corporation in the state ( after Chennai , Madurai , Coimbatore , Tiruchirappalli , Salem ) . Tirunelveli is located 700 km ( 430 mi ) southwest of the state capital , Chennai and 58 km ( 36 mi ) away from Thoothukudi .
The city is located on the west bank of the Thamirabarani River ; its twin city Palayamkottai is on the east bank . Tirunelveli is believed to be an ancient settlement ; it has been ruled at different times by the Early Pandyas , the Medieval and Later Cholas , the later Pandyas , the Ma 'bar and Tirunelveli sultanates , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Madurai Nayaks , Chanda Sahib , the Carnatic kingdom and the British . The Polygar War , involving Palaiyakkarars led by Veerapandiya Kattabomman and forces of the British East India Company , was waged on the city 's outskirts from 1797 to 1801 . Tirunelveli has a number of historical monuments , the Nellaiappar Temple being the most prominent .
Industries in Tirunelveli include administrative services , agricultural trading , tourism , banking , agricultural machinery and educational services . The city is an educational hub of southern Tamil Nadu , with institutions such as Tirunelveli Medical College , the Veterinary College and Research Institution , Tirunelveli Law College and the Government College of Engineering . Tirunelveli is administered by a municipal corporation , established in 1994 by the Municipal Corporation Act . The city covers an area of 169 @.@ 9 km2 ( 65 @.@ 6 sq mi ) , and had a population of 473 @,@ 637 in 2011 . Tirunelveli is well @-@ connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu .
= = Etymology = =
Tirunelveli was known in Sambandar 's seventh @-@ century Saiva canonical work Tevaram as Thirunelveli . Nellaiappar temple inscriptions indicate that Shiva ( as Vrihivritesvara ) descended in the form of a hedge and roof to save the paddy crop of a devotee . In Hindu legend , the place was known as Venuvana ( " forest of bamboo " ) due to the presence of bamboo in the temple under which the deity is believed to have appeared . The early Pandyas named the city Thenpandiyanadu , the Cholas Mudikonda Cholamandalam and the Nayaks Tirunelveli Seemai ; it was known as Tinnelvelly by the British , and Thirunelveli after independence . The word Tirunelveli is derived from three Tamil words : thiru , nel and veli , meaning " sacred paddy hedge " .
= = History = =
The history of Tirunelveli was researched by Robert Caldwell ( 1814 – 91 ) , a Christian missionary who visited the area . Tirunelveli was under the rule of Pandya kings as their secondary capital ; Madurai was the empire 's primary capital . The Pandya dynasty in the region dates to several centuries before the Christian era from inscriptions by Ashoka ( 304 – 232 BCE ) and mention in the Mahavamsa , the Brihat @-@ Samhita and the writings of Megasthenes ( 350 – 290 CE ) . The province came under the rule of Cholas under Rajendra Chola I in 1064 CE ; however , it is unclear whether he conquered the region or obtained it voluntarily . Tirunelveli remained under control of the Cholas until the early 13th century , when the second Pandyan empire was established with Madurai as its capital .
The Nellaiappar temple was the royal shrine of the later Pandyas during the 13th and 14th centuries , and the city benefited from dams constructed with royal patronage during the period . After the death of Kulasekara Pandian ( 1268 – 1308 ) , the region was occupied by Vijayangara rulers and Marava chieftains ( palayakarars , or poligars ) during the 16th century . The Maravars occupied the western foothills and the Telugas , and the Kannadigas settled in the black @-@ soil @-@ rich eastern portion . Tirunelveli was the subsidiary capital of the Madurai Nayaks ; under Viswanatha Nayak ( 1529 – 64 ) , the city was rebuilt about 1560 . Inscriptions from the Nellaiappar temple indicate generous contributions to the temple . Nayak rule ended in 1736 , and the region was captured by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 ) during the mid @-@ 18th century .
In 1743 Nizam @-@ ul @-@ mulk , lieutenant of the Deccan Plateau , displaced most of the Marathas from the region and Tirunelveli came under the rule of the Nawabs of Arcot . The original power lay in the hands of the polygars , who were originally military chiefs of the Nayaks . The city was the chief commercial town during the Nawab and Nayak era . The city was known as Nellai Cheemai , with Cheemai meaning " a developed foreign town " . The polygars built forts in the hills , had 30 @,@ 000 troops and waged war among themselves . In 1755 , the British government sent a mission under Major Heron and Mahfuz Khan which restored some order and bestowed the city to Mahfuz Khan . The poligars waged war against Mahfuz Khan seven miles from Tirunelveli , but were defeated . The failure of Mahfuz Khan led the East India Company to send Muhammed Yusuf for help . Khan became ruler , rebelled in 1763 and was hanged in 1764 . In 1758 , British troops under Colonel Fullarton reduced the polygar stronghold under Veerapandiya Kattabomman . In 1797 , the first Polygar war broke out between the British ( under Major Bannerman ) and the polygars ( headed by Kattabomman ) . Some polygars ( such as the head of Ettaiyapuram ) aided the British ; Kattabomman was defeated and hanged in his home province of Panchalaguruchi . Two years later , another rebellion became known as the Second Polygar War . Panchalankuruchi fell to the British , after stiff resistance . The Carnatic region came under British rule following a treaty with the Nawab of Carnatic .
After acquiring Tirunelveli from the Nawab of Arcot in 1801 , the British anglicised its name to " Tinnevelly " and made it the headquarters of Tinnelvelli District . The administrative and military headquarters was located in Palayamkottai ( anglicised as " Palankottah " ) , from which attacks against the polygars were launched . After independence both cities reverted to their original names , and Tirunelveli remained the capital of Tirunelveli district . A separate Thoothukudi district was split off in 1986 . And now 30 April 2015 by BJP government it 's known to be said as the one of the 100 smart cities of India
= = Geography and climate = =
Tirunelveli is located at 8 @.@ 73 ° N 77 @.@ 7 ° E / 8 @.@ 73 ; 77 @.@ 7 , and its average elevation is 47 metres ( 154 ft ) . It is located at the southernmost tip of the Deccan plateau . The Tamirabarani River divides the city into the Tirunelveli quarter and the Palayamkottai area . The river ( with its tributaries , such as the Chittar ) is the major source of irrigation , and is fed by the northeast and southwest monsoons . The major lakes in the city are Nainar Lake and Udayarpetti Lake . The area around the Tamirabarani River and the Chittar has five streams : Kodagan , Palayan , Tirunelveli , Marudur East and Marudur West , and the Chittar feeds fifteen other channels . The soil is friable , red and sandy .
The climate of Tirunelveli is generally hot and humid . The average temperature during summer ( March to June ) ranges from 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) to 41 ° C ( 106 ° F ) , and 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) during the rest of the year . The average annual rainfall is 680 millimetres ( 27 in ) . Maximum precipitation occurs during the northeast monsoon ( October – December ) . Since the economy of the district is primarily based on agriculture , flooding of the Tamarabarani River or a fluctuation in monsoon rain has an immediate impact on the local economy . The primary crops grown in the region are paddy and cotton . Pineapples were introduced during the 16th century , chilly and tobacco during the late 16th and potatoes during the early 17th centuries . The most common tree is the palmyra palm , a raw material in cottage industries . Other trees grown in the region are teak , wild jack , manjakadambu , venteak , vengai , pillaimaruthu , karimaruthu and bamboo . Livestock of the city and district comprises cattle , buffalo , goats , sheep and other animals in smaller numbers .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Tirunelveli had a population of 473 @,@ 637 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 027 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 46 @,@ 624 were under the age of six , constituting 23 @,@ 894 males and 22 @,@ 730 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 13 @.@ 17 % and .32 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the city was 81 @.@ 49 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The city had a total of 120 @,@ 466 households . There were a total of 182 @,@ 471 workers , comprising 2 @,@ 088 cultivators , 5 @,@ 515 main agricultural labourers , 18 @,@ 914 in house hold industries , 142 @,@ 435 other workers , 13 @,@ 519 marginal workers , 166 marginal cultivators , 913 marginal agricultural labourers , 1 @,@ 828 marginal workers in household industries and 10 @,@ 612 other marginal workers .
According to provisional data from the 2011 census the Tirunelveli urban agglomeration had a population of 498 @,@ 984 , with 246 @,@ 710 males and 252 @,@ 274 females . The overall sex ratio in the city was 1023 , and the child sex ratio was 957 . Tirunelveli had a literacy rate of 91 percent , with male literacy 95 percent and female literacy 87 percent . A total of 42 @,@ 756 of the city 's population was under age six .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Tirunelveli had 69 @.@ 0 % Hindus , 20 @.@ 02 % Muslims , 10 @.@ 59 % Christians , 0 @.@ 01 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 02 % Jains and 0 @.@ 35 % following other religions .
The city covers an area of 108 @.@ 65 square kilometres ( 41 @.@ 95 sq mi ) . The population density of the city in the 2001 census was 3 @,@ 781 persons per square kilometre , compared with 2 @,@ 218 persons per square kilometre in 1971 . Hindus form the majority of the urban population , followed by Muslims and Christians . Tamil is the main language spoken in the city , but the use of English is relatively common ; English is the medium of instruction in most educational institutions and offices in the service sector . The Tamil dialect spoken in this region is distinct , and is widely spoken throughout Tamil Nadu .
= = Economy = =
Inscriptions from the eighth to the 14th centuries ( during the rule of the Pandyas , Cholas and later Tenkasi Pandyas ) indicate the growth of Tirunelveli as a centre of economic growth which developed around the Nellaiappar temple . The drier parts of the province also flourished during the rule of the Vijayanagara kings . From 1550 until the early modern era , migration to the city from other parts of the state was common and the urban regions became hubs of manufacturing and commerce . Tirunelveli was a strategic point , connecting the eastern and western parts of the peninsula , as well as a trading centre . Records of sea and overland trade between 1700 and 1850 indicate close trading connections with Sri Lanka and Kerala . During the 1840s , cotton produced in the region was in demand for British mills . The chief exports during British rule were cotton , jaggery , chillies , tobacco , palmyra fibre , salt , dried saltwater fish and cattle .
Occupations in Tirunelveli include service @-@ sector activities such as administration , agricultural trading , tourism , banking , agro @-@ machinery and educational services . In 1991 , the Tirunelveli region ranked second in the number of women workers . Service sectors such as tourism have developed , due to a growth in religious tourism . Tirunelveli has beedi and cement factories , tobacco companies , workshops for steel @-@ based products and mills for cotton textiles , spinning and weaving ; there are also small @-@ scale industries , such as tanneries and brick kilns . The agricultural areas , hand @-@ woven clothes and household industries contribute to the economic growth of the city . Food @-@ processing industries have developed since the late 1990s ; at the district level , it is the foremost industrial segment . Industries involving rice @-@ making , blue @-@ jelly metal manufacturing and jem power generating are located on the outskirts of the city . The major agricultural produce in the region is paddy and cotton . Beedi production during the 1990s earned an annual revenue of ₹ 190 billion and a foreign exchange of ₹ 8 billion across the three districts of Tirunelveli , Tiruchirapalli and Vellore .
Tirunelveli is a major area for wind @-@ power generation . Most wind @-@ power @-@ generation units in Tamil Nadu are located in Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts . In 2005 they contributed 2036 @.@ 9 MW to the state power @-@ generation capacity . Many private , multinational wind companies are located on the outskirts of the city . In June 2007 the Tata Group signed a memorandum of understanding with the state government to open a titanium dioxide plant , with an estimated value of ₹ 25 billion , in Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi Districts . However , the state government put the project on hold after increasing protests against it .
= = Administration and politics = =
The Tirunelveli Corporation was established in 1866 during British rule . It became a municipal corporation in 1994 , bringing the Palayamkottai and Melapalayam municipalities , the Thatchanallur town panchayat and eleven other village panchayats within the city limits . The municipal corporation has four zones : Tirunelveli , Thatchanallur , Palayamkottai and Melapalayam . The corporation has 55 wards , with an elected councillor for each ward . The corporation has six departments : general administration and personnel , engineering , revenue , public health , city planning and information technology ( IT ) . All departments are under the control of a municipal commissioner . Legislative power is vested in a body of 55 members , one from each ward . The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson , assisted by a deputy . Tirunelveli city is district headquarters for the Tirunelveli district .
The city is part of the Tirunelveli assembly constituency , electing a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly every five years . Since the 1977 elections , the assembly seat was held by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) for three terms ( following the 1989 , 1996 and 2006 elections and the All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam ( AIADMK ) for six terms following the 1977 , 1980 , 1984 , 1991 , 2001 and 2011 elections . The current MLA is Nainar Nagendran , ex @-@ minister and a leader of AIADMK .
Tirunelveli is a part of the Tirunelveli Lok Sabha constituency , with ten assembly constituencies : Tirunelveli , Vasudevanallur ( SC ) , Sankarankoil ( SC ) , Kalayanallur , Nanguneri , Ambasamudram , Tenkasi , Alangulam , Radhapuram and Palayamkottai . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is K.R.P. Prabakaran of the AIADMK . Since 1957 , the Tirunelveli parliament seat was held by the Indian National Congress for four terms : 1957 – 1961 , 1962 – 67 , 2004 – 09 and 2009 @-@ 14 . The Swantantra Party and the CPI won once each , from 1967 – 71 and 1971 – 77 respectively . The DMK won the seat twice : 1980 – 84 and 1996 – 98 . The ADMK won the seat seven times : 1977 – 80 , 1984 – 89 , 1989 – 91 , 1991 – 96 , 1998 , 1999 – 2004 and 2014 elections .
Order in the city is maintained by the Tirunelveli division of the Tamil Nadu Police , headed by a commissioner . There are units for prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and a special branch operating at the district level , each headed by a deputy superintendent of police .
= = Transport = =
Tirunelveli has an extensive transport network and is well @-@ connected to other major cities by road , rail and air . The corporation maintains a total of 763 @.@ 3 km ( 474 @.@ 3 mi ) of roads . The city has 134 @.@ 88 km ( 83 @.@ 81 mi ) of concrete roads , 375 @.@ 51 km ( 233 @.@ 33 mi ) of BT roads , 94 @.@ 291 km ( 58 @.@ 590 mi ) of water @-@ bound macadam roads , 76 @.@ 31 km ( 47 @.@ 42 mi ) of unpaved roads and 82 @.@ 3 km ( 51 @.@ 1 mi ) of highways . Twenty @-@ two kilometres ( fourteen miles ) of highway are maintained by the State Highways Department and thirty kilometres ( nineteen miles ) by the National Highways Department . In 1844 a bridge was built by Colonel Horsley across the Tamirabarani River , connecting Tirunelveli to Palayamkottai . The city is located on NH 7 , 150 km ( 93 mi ) south of Madurai and 91 km ( 57 mi ) north of Kanyakumari . NH 7A , an extension of NH 7 , connects Palayamkottai with Tuticorin Port . Tirunelveli is also connected by major highways to Kollam , Tiruchendur , Rajapalayam , Sankarankovil , Ambasamudram and Nazareth .
The main bus stand ( popularly known as the New Bus Stand ) , opened in 2003 , is located in Veinthaankulam and there is regular bus service to and from the city . Other bus stands ( for intracity service ) are the Junction and Palay bus stands . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation has daily service to a number of cities , and the corporation operates a computerised reservation centre in the main bus stand . It also operates local buses serving the city and neighbouring villages . The State Express Transport Corporation has intercity service to Bangalore , Chennai , Kanyakumari and other cities .
Tirunelveli Junction railway station is one of the oldest railway stations in India . The line from Tirunelveli to Sengottai was opened in 1903 ; the connection to Quilon , which was completed later , was the most important trade route to Travancore province in British India . The city is connected to major cities in all four directions : Madurai and Sankarankovil to the north , Nagercoil to the south , Sengottai and Kollam to the west and Tiruchendur to the east . Tirunelveli is also connected to major Indian cities with daily service to Chennai , Coimbatore , Tiruchirappalli , Madurai , Salem , Kanyakumari , Mumbai , Guruvayur , Howrah , Delhi and Trivandrum . There is passenger service to Madurai , Tiruchendur , Tiruchirapalli and Kollam .
The nearest airport to Tirunelveli is Tuticorin Airport ( TCR ) at Vaagaikulam in Thoothukkudi District , 22 km ( 14 mi ) east of the city , which offers daily flights to Chennai . The nearest international airports are Madurai International Airport , 150 km ( 93 mi ) away and Thiruvananthapuram International Airport ( TRV ) , about 130 km ( 81 mi ) away .
= = Culture = =
Nellaiappar Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva in the form of Nellaiappar . The deity is revered in the verses of Tevaram , a seventh @-@ century Saiva work by Sambandar . The temple was greatly expanded during the 16th @-@ century Nayak period and has a number of architectural attractions , including musical pillars . The temple has several festivals , the foremost an annual festival when the temple chariot is brought around the streets near the temple . It is one of the Pancha Sabhai temples , the five royal courts of Nataraja ( the dancing form of Shiva ) , where he performed a cosmic dance . The Nataraja shrine in the temple represents copper , and features many copper sculptures . Tirunelveli has its fair share of temples , dating back to ancient times . It also prides itself as being the site where the Nellaiappar Temple is located , the state ’ s largest Shiva Temple
Tirunelveli is also known for halwa , a sweet made of wheat , sugar and ghee . It originated during the mid @-@ 1800s at Lakshmi Vilas Stores , which still exist . The art of sweet @-@ making spread to other parts of Tamil Nadu , such as Nagercoil , Srivilliputhur and Thoothukudi . Tirunelveli halwa was popularised by Irutukadai Halwa , a shop opened in 1900 which sells the sweets only during twilight .
Tirunelveli has a number of cinemas which predominantly play Tamil movies . It is among the 40 cities in India with FM radio stations . Tirunelveli 's stations are Tirunelveli Vanoli Nilayam ( All India Radio , from the Government of India ) , Suryan FM ( operated by Sun Network on 93 @.@ 5 MHz ) and Hello FM ( operated by the Malai Malar Group on 106 @.@ 4 MHz ) .
A number of state- and national @-@ level sports events are sponsored in Tirunelveli annually . The VOC grounds ( in central Palayamkottai ) and the Anna Stadium ( on St. Thomas Road ) are popular venues in the city , and some events are held at scholastic sports facilities . As in India generally , the most popular sport is cricket . Also popular are football , volleyball , swimming and hockey , played on facilities provided by the Tirunelveli Division of the Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu .
The Government Exhibition , an annual event at Exhibition Grounds , attracts thousands of visitors from in and around Tirunelveli . Near the city are regional tourist attractions such as the Manimuthar and Papanasam Dams , the Ariakulam and Koonthakulam Bird Sanctuaries , Manjolai and Upper Kodaiyar .
= = Education = =
During the 1790s , Tamil Christians established a number of schools in Tirunelveli . The missionary educational system included primary and boarding schools , seminaries , industrial schools , orphanages and colleges . The first boarding school for girls was opened in 1821 , but its efforts were hampered by the emphasis on Christian education . Thomas Munro ( 1761 – 1827 CE ) of the British East India Company established a two @-@ tier school system : district schools , teaching law , and sub @-@ district schools teaching vernacular languages in the Madras Presidency . Tirunelveli had four sub @-@ district schools : two teaching Tamil and one each for Telugu and Persian .
Tirunelveli has 80 schools : 29 higher secondary schools , 12 high schools , 22 middle schools and 17 primary schools ; the city corporation operates 33 of these schools . The city has eight arts and science colleges and six professional colleges . The Manonmaniam Sundaranar University is named for poet Manonmaniam Sundaranar , who wrote " Tamil Thai Vazhthu " the state anthem . Most Christian schools and colleges in the city are located in the Palayamkottai area .
Anna University of Technology Tirunelveli was established in 2007 , offering a variety of engineering and technology courses for undergraduate and graduate students . Tirunelveli Medical College , Veterinary College and Research Institution and the Government College of Engineering , Tirunelveli are professional colleges operated by the government of Tamil Nadu . The Jesuit St. Xavier 's College , and St. John 's College ( operated by the Church of South India diocese ) , MDT Hindu College , Sadakathulla Appa College and Sarah Tucker College are notable arts colleges .
The Indian Institute of Geomagnetism ( IIG ) operates a regional unit , the Equatorial Geophysical Research Laboratory , conducting research in geomagnetism and atmospheric and space sciences . The city has a District Science Centre ( a satellite unit of Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum , Bangalore ) with permanent exhibitions , science shows , interactive self @-@ guided tours , a mini @-@ planetarium and sky observation .
Tirunelveli and the district have a high rate of child labour . The drop in female school attendance between ages 15 and 19 is almost four times greater than that in the rest of Tamil Nadu .
= = Utilities = =
Electric service to Tirunelveli is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . The city is headquarters for the Tirunelveli region of the four @-@ division TNEB and , with its suburbs , forms the Tirunelveli Electricity Distribution Circle . A chief distribution engineer is stationed at regional headquarters . Water supply is provided by the Tirunelveli City Corporation from the Tamirabarani River , throughout the city .
About 100 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the city daily in door @-@ to @-@ door collection ; source segregation and disposal is performed by the sanitary department of the Tirunelveli Municipal Corporation . The underground drainage system was constituted in 1998 , covering 22 percent of the corporation area . The remaining system for disposal of sewage is through septic tanks and public conveniences . The corporation maintains a total of 184 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 114 @.@ 8 mi ) of stormwater drains , 27 percent of the total road length . The clinics operated by the corporation provide primary health care to the urban poor through family @-@ welfare and immunisation programs . In addition , there are private hospitals and clinics providing health care to citizens .
Tirunelveli is part of the Tirunelveli Telecom District of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet @-@ services provider . Both Global System for Mobile Communications ( GSM ) and Code division multiple access ( CDMA ) mobile services are available . In addition to telecommunications , BSNL also provides broadband internet service . Tirunelveli is one of a few cities in India where BSNL 's Caller Line Identification ( CLI ) -based internet service , Netone , is available . The city has a Passport Seva Kendra , a public @-@ private @-@ sector collaboration , which accepts passport applications from the Tirunelveli region for the passport office in Madurai .
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= 1998 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1998 Atlantic hurricane season was one of the deadliest Atlantic hurricane seasons that featured the highest number of storm @-@ related fatalities in over 200 years . It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . The first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Alex , developed on July 27 , and the season 's final storm , Hurricane Nicole , became extratropical on December 1 . The strongest storm , Mitch , was tied with Hurricane Dean for the seventh most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded . Mitch is also the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history . The system dropped tremendous amounts of rainfall in Central America , causing 19 @,@ 000 confirmed deaths and at least $ 6 @.@ 2 billion ( 1998 USD ) in damage . The season was the first to feature a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale since Hurricane Andrew in the 1992 season .
Several storms made landfall or directly affected land . Hurricane Bonnie made landfall in southeastern North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane in late August , killing five people and causing about $ 1 billion in damage . Hurricane Earl caused $ 79 million in damage and three deaths after making landfall in Florida as a Category 1 hurricane . The two deadliest and destructive hurricanes of the season , Hurricane Georges and Mitch , caused $ 5 @.@ 9 billion in damage and $ 6 @.@ 2 billion in damage , respectively . Hurricane Georges was an intense Category 4 hurricane that moved through many of the Caribbean Islands , causing significant damage before making landfall near Biloxi , Mississippi . Hurricane Mitch was a very powerful and destructive late @-@ season hurricane that affected much of Central America before making landfall in Florida as a tropical storm . The significant amount of rainfall that Mitch produced across Central America caused significant damage and killed at least 11 @,@ 000 people , making the system the second deadliest hurricane in recorded history , behind only the Great Hurricane of 1780 .
= = Season outlooks = =
In advance of , and during , each hurricane season , several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services , scientific agencies , and noted hurricane experts . These include forecasters from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) ' s National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center 's , William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , as well as Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a particular year . As stated by NOAA and CSU , an average Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 – 2010 contains roughly 12 tropical storms , 6 hurricanes , 3 major hurricanes , and an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) Index of 66 – 103 units . NOAA typically categorizes a season as either above @-@ average , average , of below @-@ average based on the cumulative ACE Index ; however , the number of tropical storms , hurricanes , and major hurricanes within a hurricane season is considered occasionally as well .
CSU began issuing outlooks in December 1997 and initially predicted 9 named storms , 5 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes would occur in the upcoming season . Later , in April 1998 , CSU released a forecast calling for 10 named storms , 6 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricane . The predictions by CSU in June and August 1998 remained the same as the forecast in April . Additionally , forecasters at CSU predicted that the El Niño event that began in 1997 would dissipate either before or shortly after the 1998 season began . The WRC predicted 8 named storms and 5 hurricanes in early 1998 , but did not include a forecast for the number of major hurricanes .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1998 , with the first tropical cyclone developing on July 27 . It was an above average season in which 14 tropical cyclones formed . All fourteen depressions attained tropical storm status and ten of these became a hurricane . Three hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The dissipation of an El Niño in April and the development of a La Niña by June was attributed to the above average activity . Three hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused at least 19 @,@ 618 deaths and nearly $ 17 @.@ 6 billion in damage . Hurricane Danielle also caused damage , although it never made landfall . The last storm of the season , Hurricane Nicole , dissipated on December 1 , which was the day after the official season ending on November 30 .
Activity in the season began slowly , with the first tropical cyclone not forming until July 27 . It did not become Tropical Storm Alex until July 29 , which was an abnormally late first named storm for an Atlantic hurricane season . After being dormant for about two weeks , Hurricane Bonnie developed on August 19 . Thereafter , tropical cyclogenesis became more frequent , with an additional three storms by the end of August . September was the most active month , coinciding with the climatological peak of the season . Six tropical cyclones formed in that month , four of which reached hurricane intensity . Four hurricanes were active on September 26 , with Georges over the Straits of Florida , Ivan in the North Atlantic , Jeanne was located near Cape Verde , and Karl was situated over the Central Atlantic . This was the first such occurrence since August 22 in 1893 . However , three hurricanes also co @-@ existed in the Atlantic on September 11 in 1961 , with a possible fourth . Following a busy September , activity began slowing , starting in October , when only two tropical cyclones developed . However , both storms became a hurricane , with the second cyclone , Hurricane Mitch , become the most intense , deadliest , and costliest storm of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 182 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alex = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on July 26 and rapidly developed a surface circulation by the following day . As a result , it is estimated that Tropical Depression One formed at 1200 UTC on July 27 , while centered about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . Initially , minimal change in structure or convection occurred . However , after an increase in deep convection and satellite intensity estimates of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Alex early on July 29 . Under the influence of a deep @-@ layer ridge , the storm tracked west to west @-@ northwestward at 12 to 17 mph ( 19 to 27 km / h ) . A mid- to upper @-@ level trough located north and west of Alex generated vertical wind shear starting on July 30 , allowing for minimal intensification .
Later on July 30 , a burst in deep convection resulted in slight strengthening of the storm . At 0000 UTC on July 31 , Alex attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Vertical wind shear prevented Alex from strengthening further and instead caused it to weaken later that day . By August 1 , the low @-@ level circulation became exposed to the south of the remaining deep convection . Later that day , Alex curved northwestward and avoided any threat to the Lesser Antilles . At 1800 UTC on August 1 , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression . Early on the following day , Alex was considered dissipated after a reconnaissance aircraft failed to locate a closed low @-@ level circulation .
= = = Hurricane Bonnie = = =
Tropical Depression Two developed from a tropical wave at 1200 UTC on August 19 , while located well east of the Lesser Antilles . After tracking west @-@ northwestward for 24 hours , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie . While at tropical storm intensity , Bonnie passed north of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands on August 21 . Early on the following day , a hurricane hunter aircraft indicated that the storm strengthened into a hurricane . Bonnie curved north @-@ northwestward on August 23 , shortly before it peaked with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The storm weakened slightly before making landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) early on August 27 . The storm briefly weakened to a tropical storm later on August 27 , though it re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane as it was re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic . Colder waters weakened Bonnie to a tropical storm by late on August 28 . The storm then accelerated east @-@ northeastward offshore New England and Atlantic Canada , before becoming an extratropical cyclone on August 30 .
In South Carolina , strong winds were reported , particularly in Charleston , Georgetown , and Horry Counties . Many trees and power lines were downed in the area ; there was also structural damage . The storm caused two deaths and about $ 25 million in losses in South Carolina . Strong winds lashed Eastern North Carolina , downing numerous trees and power lines , which left about 500 @,@ 000 people without electricity . One person was killed in Barco when a tree fell on a house . In North Carolina alone , damage reached at least $ 240 million . Erosion was also severe , with numerous docks , piers , and bulkheads either damaged or destroyed ; many protective dunes constructed after Hurricane Fran in 1996 were ruined . In Virginia , strong winds in the eastern portions of the state caused some structural damage and downed trees and power lines , leaving about 750 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Damage in Virginia reached approximately $ 95 million . Two other fatalities were reported , one in Rehoboth Beach , Delaware and the other at Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Later in its duration , Bonnie brought rough seas , strong winds , and light rainfall to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia , but caused little damage . Overall , there were five deaths and at least $ 720 million in damage , while other sources claimed that losses reached $ 1 billion .
= = = Tropical Storm Charley = = =
An area of disturbed weather developed into Tropical Depression Three at 0600 UTC on August 21 , while located about 305 miles ( 490 km ) east @-@ southeast of Brownsville , Texas . The depression moved generally northwestward throughout its duration . Based on data from oil platforms in the northern Gulf of Mexico , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Charley at 1800 UTC on August 21 . The storm intensified further , with reconnaissance aircraft reporting sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on August 22 . Shortly thereafter , Charley weakened and only four hours later , it made landfall near Port Aransas , Texas with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Late on August 22 , the system weakened to a tropical depression . Charley persisted as a tropical cyclone for about 24 hours longer , before dissipating near Del Rio , Texas .
Heavy rainfall was reported throughout southern Texas . Del Rio recorded 17 inches ( 432 mm ) of precipitation in a 24 ‑ hour period , a record for the city . Charley was also responsible for serious local flooding in Val Verde County , Texas , where collectively about 2 @,@ 000 houses , mobile homes , and apartments were destroyed . In that county alone , damage was estimated at $ 40 million . Throughout Texas , losses reached about $ 50 million and 13 deaths were confirmed , with an additional 6 people listed as missing . Flooding also occurred in northern Mexico , especially in the state of Coahuila . Ciudad Acuña was inundated with up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water , which damaged about 450 houses in the city ; seven deaths were also reported in the area .
= = = Hurricane Danielle = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 21 . Convection quickly organized and by 0600 UTC on August 24 , Tropical Depression Four developed while located about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . Favorable conditions allowed strengthening , with an upgrade to Tropical Storm Danielle later that day . The storm sharply intensified and became a hurricane on August 25 . Strengthening continued , with Danielle peaking with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on August 26 . However , the storm oscillated in intensity for several days , ranging from a minimal Category 1 to a strong Category 2 hurricane , due to differing atmospheric conditions . While passing north of the Lesser Antilles , Danielle dropped heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico , causing street flooding and damaging at least one home . Damage in Puerto Rico totaled to $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Additionally , Danielle crossed seas in the wake of Hurricane Bonnie , also contributing to weakening . After tracking west @-@ northwest for several days , an anticyclone curved the storm to the northeast while it was located northeast of the Bahamas on August 31 . By early on September 2 , Danielle weakened to a Category 1 hurricane , as it was passing northwest of Bermuda . Danielle produced tropical storm force winds on the island . Thereafter , the storm continued to slowly weaken and lose tropical characteristics . At 0000 UTC on September 4 , Danielle transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located east @-@ southeast of Newfoundland . The remnant extratropical cyclone reached the British Isles on September 6 , before merging with an extratropical low pressure area two days later . Offshore Newfoundland , rogue waves were reported , though the only effects on land were light rainfall . The remnant extratropical storm associated with Danielle lashed the United Kingdom with large waves . Severe beach erosion and coastal flooding occurred , causing evacuations in Cornwall , England .
= = = Hurricane Earl = = =
Tropical Depression Five developed from a tropical wave in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC on August 31 , while located about midway between Mérida , Yucatán and Tampico , Tamaulipas . The depression is estimated to have strengthened into Tropical Storm Earl six hours later , while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) south @-@ southwest of New Orleans , Louisiana . The storm headed north @-@ northeastward and was difficult to track , due to multiple centers on satellite imagery . Earl slowly curved east @-@ northeastward and continued strengthening , with reconnaissance aircraft data indicating that the storm reached hurricane intensity at 1200 UTC on September 2 . It briefly became a Category 2 hurricane about six hours later and peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . However , the storm weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane early on September 3 , before landfall near Panama City , Florida with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Earl rapidly weakened to a tropical storm about six hours later and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Georgia late on September 3 .
Prodigious precipitation fell during its transit of northern Florida , with 16 @.@ 36 inches ( 415 mm ) near of Panama City . In Gulf County , 300 homes were damaged by high winds and floodwaters . At Port St. Joe , storm surge inundated 14 businesses . Storm surge in Franklin County damaged 136 homes and 15 businesses and led to a brief closure of the St. George Causeway . In Wakulla County , 216 homes and businesses were damaged by high winds and flooding . Severe flooding in coastal Taylor County caused significant damage in nine communities , with 66 structures impacted . Five homes were destroyed and 39 others were damaged by flooding in Dixie County . On September 3 , the strongest tornado spawned by Earl in Florida touched down in Citrus County , where it destroyed 8 homes and damaged 24 others . There were 3 fatalities and about $ 76 million in damage in Florida . In other states , heavy rainfall and tornadoes resulted in severe localized damage , particularly in Alabama , Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina . A third storm @-@ related fatality occurred in Saint Helena , South Carolina caused by a tornado . Overall , Earl caused 3 deaths and about $ 79 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Frances = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on September 8 , while located about 160 miles ( 260 km ) east of Brownsville , Texas . The depression moved south @-@ southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances on September 9 . Frances then executed a small cyclonic loop , moving westward , southward , and then northeastward . By September 10 , the storm moved quickly northward . After re @-@ curving northwestward , Frances peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) early on September 11 , but later then weakened slightly . At 0600 UTC , the storm made landfall near Corpus Christi , Texas with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Frances slowly weakened inland and continued northwestward . Early on September 12 , it curved northward , while weakening to a tropical depression . The storm degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure at 1800 UTC on September 13 , while located over northeastern Texas .
Early in its duration , Frances interacted with Tropical Storm Javier in the eastern Pacific , resulting in torrential rainfall over Mexico , peaking at 44 @.@ 06 inches ( 1 @,@ 119 mm ) in Escuintla , Chiapas . Roughly 800 @,@ 000 people in Chiapas were directly affected by the flooding . About 36 rivers in the region exceed their banks . Damage was estimated at $ 63 million and at least 229 deaths were confirmed . Severe flooding was also reported in the United States , particularly in Louisiana and Texas . Rainfall from the storm in the United States peaked at 22 @.@ 39 inches ( 569 mm ) in Terrytown , Louisiana . Flooding was worst in Calcasieu Parish , where over 20 homes in the Deatonville area reported water damage . Tides in Cameron Parish were the highest since Hurricane Carla , causing significant coastal flooding . In Texas , flooding was particularly severe in the eastern portions of the state . More than 1 @,@ 400 homes and businesses in the Houston area alone were either damaged or destroyed by the floods . In the United States , there was about $ 500 million in damage , as well as two fatalities in Louisiana .
= = = Hurricane Georges = = =
Tropical Depression Seven developed from a tropical wave on September 15 , while located south of Cape Verde . It tracked west @-@ northwestward and intensified into Tropical Storm Georges on September 16 . Favorable conditions such as warm sea surface temperature and good upper @-@ level outflow allowed the storm to rapidly deepen . By September 20 , Georges peaked as a 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane . However , it weakened due to increasing vertical wind shear and winds were 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) when the storm made landfall in Antigua , Saint Kitts and Nevis , and Puerto Rico on September 21 . Georges made another landfall in the Dominican Republic with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) on September 22 . It weakened significantly over Hispaniola , and late on September 23 , Georges struck eastern Cuba with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The storm tracked inland near the north coast of Cuba , retaining hurricane @-@ force winds . On September 25 , the storm struck Key West with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . After heading northwestward for three days , Georges struck Biloxi at the same intensity . Georges quickly weakened to a tropical depression on September 29 , by which time it turned eastward through the Southeastern United States . By October 1 , it dissipated close to the Atlantic Ocean near the Florida @-@ Georgia border .
About 2 @,@ 125 homes were either damaged or destroyed in Antigua and Barbuda , with property losses reaching $ 160 million ; there were also 3 deaths . Roughly 60 % of structures on Saint Kitts were damaged , as were 35 % of structures in Nevis . Five deaths and $ 445 million in damage were reported in Saint Kitts and Nevis . Strong winds and heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico left 96 % of the island without electricity , impacted at least 100 @,@ 610 homes , wiped out more than two @-@ thirds of crops , and caused 8 deaths and $ 2 billion in losses . Heavy precipitation in Dominican Republic caused mudslides , which left about 155 @,@ 000 homeless and damaged buildings and road infrastructure . Additionally , it destroyed 55 % of crops , caused at least 380 deaths , and left about $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in losses . The situation was similar in Haiti , where mudslides left 167 @,@ 332 people homeless , at least 80 % of certain crops ruined , 209 persons dead , and about $ 179 million in damage . In Cuba , mudslides and strong winds damaged 60 @,@ 475 homes , of which 3 @,@ 481 were completely destroyed . Additionally 1 @,@ 117 businesses were damaged , of which 12 were destroyed . Extensive crops losses also occurred . Six deaths and $ 305 @.@ 8 million in damage were reported in Cuba .
Hurricane @-@ force winds in the Florida Keys damaged 1 @,@ 536 houses and destroyed 173 homes . In the Florida Panhandle , flooding was extensive because of rainfall up to 38 @.@ 46 inches ( 977 mm ) . Many residents were isolated and 132 roads were closed due to flooding . In Alabama , 251 houses , 16 apartment buildings , and 70 businesses experienced significant impacts at Gulf Shore . About 50 houses were destroyed and another 40 were left uninhabitable on Dauphin Island , Alabama . One fatality was reported in Mobile when a woman was driving and slid off the road into a creek . Mississippi bore the brunt of the storm in the United States . Along the coast of Mississippi , more than 1 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . One of the worst impacted areas inland was Stone County , where 54 homes had minor damage , 26 suffered major damage and 5 were destroyed . Winds also left 230 @,@ 000 people without electricity . In the state of Mississippi alone , there was approximately $ 665 million in losses . In Louisiana , the storm caused three indirect deaths , while strong winds and storm surge impacted at least 70 homes , destroyed 85 fishing camps , and left 160 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Overall , Georges caused at least 615 deaths and roughly $ 9 @.@ 72 billion in losses .
= = = Tropical Storm Hermine = = =
A tropical wave crossed the Africa coast and entered the Atlantic Ocean on September 5 . It tracked westward for several days , until curving northwestward in the Caribbean Sea near the coast of South America . By September 16 , the system entered the Gulf of Mexico and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September 17 . The depression executed a cyclonic loop , first heading west @-@ southwest , then south , before curving northeast and finally northward . By September 19 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Hermine . The storm continued north @-@ northeastward until it made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 0500 UTC on September 20 . Hermine rapidly weakened inland and dissipated in Mississippi late on September 20 .
The outer bands of Hermine dropped heavy rainfall throughout Florida . Several traffic accidents occurred as a result , with one man dying after losing control of his vehicle on U.S. Route 441 . Effects overall in Louisiana were minimal , mostly minor flooding . At Lake Catouatchie , a man went to untangle debris in his boat propeller and attempted to swim after the boat , but instead drowned . Hermine spawned two tornadoes in Mississippi , one of which destroyed two mobile homes , damaged seven cars , and caused one injury . Locally heavy rainfall left parts of Mississippi Highway 27 and U.S. Route 11 in Alabama under water , stranding several motorists . The remnants of Hermine produced more than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain in Charleston , South Carolina , leaving more than 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of standing water in some neighborhoods . Overall , the storm caused 2 deaths and $ 85 @,@ 000 in damage .
= = = Hurricane Ivan = = =
A tropical wave developed over western Africa near the Prime meridian on September 14 . Two days later , residual cloudiness and sounding data from Dakar , Senegal , indicated that the system entered the Atlantic Ocean . After the system quickly developed deep convection and improved significantly in organization , it was classified as Tropical Depression Nine starting at 0000 UTC on September 19 , while located approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . The depression initially tracked west to west @-@ southwestward with slow intensification , due to vertical wind shear . By September 20 , an elongated trough turned the depression northwestward . Later that day , the depression strengthened enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Ivan .
On September 21 , Ivan re @-@ curved northward , while still in the far eastern Atlantic . While heading north @-@ northwestward on September 23 , the storm briefly weakened , but quickly re @-@ strengthened and became a hurricane later that day . Two days later , Ivan began slowly turning northeastward . At 0600 UTC on September 26 , Ivan attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . As it was tracking east @-@ northeastward , Ivan briefly posed a threat to the Azores , though tropical storm or hurricane @-@ force winds did not impact the archipelago . Shortly thereafter , colder sea surface temperatures weakened Ivan to a tropical storm by early on September 27 . Six hours later , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while northeast of the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Jeanne = = =
Between September 19 and September 20 , a slow @-@ moving tropical wave crossed the west coast of Africa . By the following day , an increase in deep convection allowed it to be classified as Tropical Depression Ten . Forming about 160 miles ( 260 km ) west of Guinea @-@ Bissau , it was the easternmost tropical cyclone development in the Atlantic basin since Tropical Storm Christine in 1973 . Due to light wind shear , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Jeanne by 1800 UTC on September 21 . Further significant intensification occurred and Jeanne became a hurricane about 24 hours later . Late on September 23 , the storm became a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . At 1800 UTC on September 24 , Jeanne attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
After peaking as a moderate Category 2 hurricane , an increase in vertical wind shear slowly weakened the storm . Around that time , Jeanne began curving northwestward . By late on September 25 , the storm was downgraded back to a Category 1 hurricane . Three days later , a trough forced Jeanne to accelerate toward the north @-@ northeast . It re @-@ strengthened slightly on September 28 , though the storm began weakening again . Late on September 29 , Jeanne was downgraded to a tropical storm . Shortly before weakening further to a tropical depression on October 1 , a wind gust of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) was reported on Horta in the Azores . The storm then passed through the Azores , but lost tropical characteristics by 1200 UTC on October 1 . The remnant extratropical cyclone struck Portugal on October 4 and became unidentifiable over Spain later that day .
= = = Hurricane Karl = = =
A non @-@ tropical low pressure system was first noted on the coast of the Carolinas on September 21 . Deep convection became better organized , and on September 23 , the system was designated as Tropical Depression Eleven while located near Bermuda . Initially , the depression moved quickly towards the east , ahead of a frontal boundary moving off the East Coast of the United States . Early on September 24 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Karl . At the time , the storm began curved east @-@ southeastward and slowed in forward speed . By later that day , westerly and northwesterly wind shear caused the center to become partially exposed from the deep convection . Despite this , Karl strengthened into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on September 25 .
In response to a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough , Karl accelerated towards the northeast . Shortly after developing a well @-@ defined eye , the storm reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 27 . However , wind shear caused Karl to begin weakening . Later on September 27 , satellite imagery indicated that the cyclone was beginning to lose tropical characteristics . Deep convective activity was limited to the north and northwest of the center , and the low @-@ level center became separated from the center of the cloud circulation . Karl weakened to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on September 28 , while located near the Azores . Later that day , the storm became extratropical over cooler waters , when the center of circulation became separated from the deep convection . The extratropical remnants were last noted south of Ireland on September 29 .
= = = Hurricane Lisa = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 29 . The system soon became unidentifiable within the Intertropical Convergence Zone , preventing quick development . However , by October 3 , the system became more distinguishable and better @-@ defined , with a low @-@ level circulation forming on October 4 . It was reported that Tropical Depression Twelve formed at 0000 UTC on October 5 , while located about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . Although strong wind shear kept the depression disorganized , it was able to intensify into Tropical Storm Lisa about six hours later . Because of unfavorable conditions , further intensification was deemed unlikely . Lisa initially tracked northwestward , though by October 6 , an upper @-@ level low pressure system caused the storm to turn northeastward .
A baroclinic trough within the westerlies transitioned into a deep low , causing Lisa to accelerate starting on October 7 . Despite winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at a buoy and an improved appearance on satellite imagery , no strengthening was predicted . By October 8 , convection persisted near the center and banding features developed . Lisa further accelerated , with forward speed reaching over 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on October 9 . Later that day , a deep low to the west and a strong high pressure system to the east caused Lisa to turn northward . At 1200 UTC on October 9 , Lisa unexpectedly strengthened into a hurricane , simultaneously peaking with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later that day , the storm began merging with an extratropical frontal system and eventually became unidentifiable by early on October 10 .
= = = Hurricane Mitch = = =
Tropical Depression Thirteen was spawned by a tropical wave on October 22 , while located offshore Colombia in the Caribbean Sea . Later that day , the depression became Tropical Storm Mitch , and within two days it intensified into a hurricane . While curving westward , the storm rapidly deepened , reaching its peak as a Category 5 hurricane with winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) late on October 26 . Mitch weakened significantly while turning to the south , and on October 29 it moved ashore with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) east of La Ceiba , Honduras . It quickly weakened to a tropical storm , but did deteriorate into a tropical depression until October 31 while over Central America . Mitch degenerated into a low pressure area on November 2 near the border of Mexico and Guatemala , although it was re @-@ designated a tropical storm on November 3 , after emerging into the Bay of Campeche . After turning to the northeast , the storm struck the city of Campeche early on November 4 , and Mitch briefly weakened into a tropical depression over the Yucatán Peninsula . The storm re @-@ intensified after reaching the Gulf of Mexico again , and Mitch made its final landfall near Naples , Florida with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on November 5 . Shortly thereafter the storm became extratropical near the northern Bahamas , which lasted several more days while crossing the Atlantic Ocean .
Heavy rainfall in Jamaica flooded numerous houses and caused three fatalities from mudslides . Strong winds , rough seas , and large amounts of precipitation resulted in minor effects in Cuba and the Cayman Islands . Offshore Honduras , the Fantome sank , drowning all 31 people on board . In Honduras , the large and slow @-@ moving storm dropped 35 @.@ 89 inches ( 912 mm ) of rain , causing the destruction of at least 70 % of the country 's crops and an estimated 70 @-@ 80 % of road infrastructure . About 25 villages were completely dismantled , while about 33 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 50 @,@ 000 were damaged . Damage totaled about $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in Honduras and at least 14 @,@ 600 fatalities were reported . In Nicaragua , rainfall totals may have reached 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . Over 1 @,@ 700 miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) of roads required replacement or repairs , while effects to agriculture were significant . Almost 24 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed and an additional 17 @,@ 600 were damaged . About 3 @,@ 800 deaths and $ 1 billion in damage were reported in Nicaragua . In Costa Rica , the storm impacted 2 @,@ 135 homes , of which 241 were destroyed . Extensive road infrastructure and crop damage was also reported . There were 7 people killed and $ 92 million in damage in Costa Rica .
The storm caused flooding as far south as Panama , where three fatalities occurred . Flash flooding and landslides in El Salvador damaged more than 10 @,@ 000 homes , 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of roadway , and caused heavy losses to crops and livestock . Damage totaled $ 400 million and 240 deaths were confirmed . Effects were similar but slightly more significant in Guatemala , where 6 @,@ 000 houses were destroyed and an additional 20 @,@ 000 were impacted to some degree . Additionally , 840 miles ( 1 @,@ 350 km ) of roads were affected , with nearly 400 miles ( 640 km ) of it being major highways . Crop damage in Guatemala alone was nearly $ 500 million . It was reported that 268 deaths and $ 748 million in losses occurred in Guatemala . The storm caused relatively minor effects in Mexico and Belize , with 9 and 11 fatalities in both countries , respectively . Mitch brought tropical storm winds to South Florida and rainfall up to 11 @.@ 20 inches ( 284 mm ) . In the Florida Keys , several buildings that were damaged by Georges were destroyed by Mitch . Tornadoes in the state spawned by Mitch damaged or destroyed 645 houses . The storm caused two fatalities and $ 40 million in damage in Florida . Overall , Mitch caused $ 6 @.@ 2 billion in losses and at least 18 @,@ 974 people were left dead .
= = = Hurricane Nicole = = =
An intense frontal low that persisted near the Canary Islands gradually acquired tropical characteristics and a low @-@ level circulation . Tropical Depression Fourteen developed at 0000 UTC on November 24 , while located about 615 miles ( 990 km ) west @-@ southwest of La Palma , Canary Islands . Due to light wind shear , Nicole was able to strengthen swiftly while tracking west @-@ southwestward , reaching winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) later that day . However , on November 25 , wind shear increased , causing the storm to weaken . By 1200 UTC on November 26 , Nicole was downgraded to a tropical depression . The low @-@ level circulation became almost entirely devoid of deep convection . As a result , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Nicole at 1500 UTC on November 26 and did not forecast re @-@ development . However , post @-@ analysis indicates that Nicole remained a tropical cyclone .
At 1500 UTC on November 27 , the National Hurricane Center resumed advisories after Nicole unexpectedly " regenerated " . Deep convection began re @-@ developing and about three hours later , Nicole was upgraded back to a tropical storm . Under the influence of a cold front , Nicole curved northeastward starting on November 27 . While crossing sea surface temperatures that were 2 to 3 ° F ( 3 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 ° C ) above normal , the storm began to significantly intensify . After development of an eye and increasing satellite intensity estimates , Nicole was upgraded to a hurricane early on November 30 . Twenty @-@ four hours later , Nicole attained its peak intensity with a maximum sustained wind speed of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . However , Nicole weakened to a tropical storm later on December 1 , while also losing tropical characteristics . By 1800 UTC on December 1 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located northwest of the Azores .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the North Atlantic in 1998 . Names that were not used are marked in gray . This is the same list used in the 1992 season with the exception of Alex , which replaced Andrew . The names Alex , Lisa , Mitch , and Nicole were used for the first time this year . The World Meteorological Organization retired the names Mitch and Georges from their rotating lists , they were replaced by Matthew and Gaston for the 2004 season . The remaining names that were not retired were re @-@ used in 2004 .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season . It mentions all of the season 's storms and their names , landfall ( s ) , peak intensities , damages ( in millions ) , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( e.g. a traffic accident or landslide ) , but are still related to that storm . The damage and death totals in this list include impacts when the storm was a precursor wave or post @-@ tropical low , and all of the damage figures are in 1998 USD .
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= Mycena atkinsoniana =
Mycena atkinsoniana is a species of agaric fungus in the Mycenaceae family . It is one of the so @-@ called " bleeding mycenas " that will ooze yellow to orange juice when injured . Other distinguishing features include the upper stem surface that is decorated with tiny purplish @-@ brown fibers , and the gills , which are pale yellow with maroon edges . The reddish @-@ brown caps are smooth with a grooved margin , and up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide . Mycena atkinsoniana is known from the United States and Canada , where it grows scattered or in groups on leaf litter in forests during the summer and autumn . It was originally described from collections associated with beech , but it is also frequently found under eastern North American oaks .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described in 1935 as Mycena fagicola by American mycologist Alexander H. Smith , based on specimens that he collected the previous year in Cross Village , Michigan . The naming , however , was illegitimate , as it had been previously used by Camille Grognot ( as Mycena fagicola Grogn. apud Roumeguère published in 1885 ) , so Smith changed the specific epithet to atkinsoniana in his 1947 monograph on North American Mycena species . Smith credited George Francis Atkinson with one of the early collections of the fungus in his 1935 species description . Mycena specialist Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus agreed with Smith 's decision to change the epithet , concluding that although Grognot 's name was a nomen nudum ( written without an adequate description ) , he conceded that " the possibility cannot be excluded that one day some overlooked 19th century booklet or exsiccatum will turn up containing a description " .
= = Description = =
The cap is 1 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) broad , initially obtuse to convex , later becoming broadly umbonate . Eventually the cap flattens , sometimes with the disc ( the central region of the cap ) slightly depressed . The cap margin initially touches the stem ; as it expands it becomes somewhat wavy . The extreme margin is marked by small lines , grooves or ridges when the cap is moist . The cap is initially covered with white powdery granules , but this later sloughs off to leave a smooth surface . The disc is brownish when young , but soon develops reddish tones ; older specimens are bay to Isabella , with lighter @-@ colored margins . The flesh is buff @-@ colored , and oozes an orange @-@ yellow juice when cut . The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem . They have a close to moderately crowded spacing , with between 23 and 26 gills reaching the stem . The gills are narrow to moderately broad , chamoisee when young , somewhat darker in age , with edges that are maroon , and either crenulate ( finely scalloped ) or even . The stem is 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long , 2 – 3 mm thick , and more or less equal in width throughout . The stem base is rooted among the leaves and debris , and the base is covered with short stiff hairs pressed flat against the surface . Its surface is covered sparsely with minute purplish brown fibrils . The stem is dull reddish brown overall , but the color fades near the top . When mushroom tissue is cut or injured , it oozes a dull reddish @-@ brown juice or , in old specimens , a dull orange juice . M. atkinsoniana mushrooms have no distinctive taste or odor .
The spores are narrowly to broadly ellipsoid , amyloid ( staining black to blue @-@ black in Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and measure 28 – 30 by 6 – 7 μm . Cheilocystidia are plentiful , and arranged so as to form a sterile band on the edge of the gill . Measuring , they are narrowly fusoid ( tapered at each end ) , smooth , and have dark reddish contents . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) similar in appearance to the cheilocystidia but far less abundant . Gill tissue is yellowish to very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown when stained with iodine . The tissue of the cap consists of several layers . The outer surface comprises a thin cuticle made of narrow hyphae filled with dark @-@ reddish material . Underlying this layer this is a region of vesiculose ( swollen like a bladder ) cells , while the remainder of the cap tissue consists of narrower woolly hyphae . Both layers of tissue beneath the cuticle will stain very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine ; the stem tissue , in contrast , stains dark vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine .
= = = Similar species = = =
The " bleeding " will distinguish Mycena atkinsoniana from most other Mycena species commonly encountered . The common and widely distributed M. sanguinolenta is another " bleeder " , but it is smaller than M. atkinsonia , with a cap diameter ranging from 3 to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) . Additionally , it has distantly spaced gills and a stem that is the same color as the cap , and a dark red juice . M. atkinsoniana is also similar in stature to M. pelianthina ( a non @-@ bleeding species ) , but several field characteristics distinguish M. pelianthina , including a radish @-@ like odor and taste , a purplish to lilac @-@ colored cap , and purple @-@ gray gills with dark purple edges .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fungus is saprobic , and so derives nutrients from breaking down dead plant material , such as leaves , bark , needles , and twigs , that has fallen to the ground . Fruit bodies are usually found growing in groups or scattered on leaf litter in beech and beech @-@ hemlock forests during the summer and autumn , although it has been recorded growing on lawns . It is also often found under eastern North American oaks . The distribution includes the US states Connecticut , New York , Ohio , Michigan , and Vermont . It has also been collected in Quebec , Canada .
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= For Your Eyes Only ( short story collection ) =
For Your Eyes Only is a collection of short stories by the British author Ian Fleming , featuring the fictional British Secret Service agent Commander James Bond . It was first published by Jonathan Cape on 11 April 1960 . It marked a change of format for Fleming , who had previously written James Bond stories only as full @-@ length novels .
The collection contains five short stories : " From a View to a Kill " , " For Your Eyes Only " , " Quantum of Solace " , " Risico " and " The Hildebrand Rarity " . Four of the stories were adaptations of plots for a television series that was never filmed , while the fifth Fleming had written previously but not published . Fleming undertook some minor experiments with the format , including a story written as an homage to W. Somerset Maugham , an author he greatly admired .
Elements from the stories have been used in a number of the Eon Productions James Bond film series , including the 1981 film , For Your Eyes Only , starring Roger Moore as James Bond . The film used some elements and characters from the short stories " For Your Eyes Only " and " Risico " . " From a View to a Kill " also gave part of its title ( but no characters or plot elements ) to the fourteenth Bond film , A View to a Kill ( 1985 ) . Plot elements from " The Hildebrand Rarity " were used in the sixteenth Bond film , Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) , and the twenty @-@ fourth Bond film Spectre references the title . " Quantum of Solace " was used as the title for the twenty @-@ second Bond film .
= = Plots = =
= = = " From a View to a Kill " = = =
Bond investigates the murder of a motorcycle dispatch @-@ rider and the theft of his top @-@ secret documents by a motorcycle @-@ riding assassin . The rider was en route from SHAPE , the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe , then located in Versailles , to his base , Station F , in Saint @-@ Germain in France . Since Bond is already in Paris , his superior , M , sends him to assist in the investigation in any way he can . Bond disguises himself as a dispatch @-@ rider and follows the same journey to Station F as the previous rider : as expected , the assassin attempts to kill Bond . Bond , however , is ready and kills the assassin . He then uncovers the assassin 's hidden base of operations .
= = = " For Your Eyes Only " = = =
" For Your Eyes Only " begins with the murder of the Havelocks , a British couple in Jamaica who have refused to sell their estate to Herr von Hammerstein , a former Gestapo officer who is the chief of counterintelligence for the Cuban secret service . They are killed by two Cuban hitmen at the direction of their leader , Major Gonzales ; all three work for von Hammerstein . The Havelocks turn out to be close friends of M , who served as the groom 's best man during their wedding in 1925 . M subsequently gives Bond a voluntary assignment , unconnected to sanctioned Secret Service duties , to travel to Vermont via Canada , find von Hammerstein at his rented estate at Echo Lake and assassinate him as a warning to future criminals who might think to target British citizens . When Bond arrives on the scene , he finds the Havelocks ' daughter , Judy , who intends to carry out her own mission of revenge with a bow and arrow . Judy kills von Hammerstein by shooting him in the back with an arrow from 100 yards ( 91 m ) away at the exact moment that he dives into a lake . A shoot @-@ out then occurs between Bond and Gonzales and the two Cuban gunmen . Bond kills all of them and returns to Canada with Judy , who has been wounded during the gunfight .
= = = " Quantum of Solace " = = =
After completing a mission in the Bahamas , Bond is in Nassau and attends a dinner party at Government House . When the other guests have left , Bond remarks that if he ever marries , he imagines it would be nice to marry an air hostess . The Governor then tells Bond the story of a relationship between a former civil servant , Philip Masters and air hostess Rhoda Llewellyn . After meeting aboard a flight to London , the couple married , and went to live in Bermuda , but after a time Rhoda began a long open affair with the eldest son of a rich Bermudian family . As a result , Masters ' work deteriorated , and he suffered a nervous breakdown . After recovering , he was given a break from Bermuda by the governor and sent on an assignment to Washington . Upon his return Masters was determined to end his marriage and he divided their home into two sections , half to each of them and refused to have anything to do with his wife in private — although they continued to appear as a couple in public . He eventually returned to the UK alone , leaving Rhoda with unpaid debts and stranded in Bermuda — a cruel act which he would have been incapable of carrying out just a few months earlier . The governor explains his point to Bond : when the " Quantum of Solace " drops to zero , humanity and consideration of one human for another is gone and the relationship is finished . Despite the success of Masters ' plan to take revenge on his unfaithful wife , he never recovered emotionally . After a time , Rhoda married a rich Canadian . The governor then reveals that the dinner companions whom Bond found dull were in fact Rhoda and her rich Canadian husband .
= = = " Risico " = = =
Bond is sent by M to investigate a drug @-@ smuggling operation based in Italy that is sending narcotics to England . M instructs Bond to get in touch with a CIA informant , Kristatos , who in turn tells Bond that a man named Enrico Colombo is behind the racket . When Bond sets out to find more information on Colombo , he is captured and brought aboard Colombo 's ship , the Colombina . Colombo informs Bond that Kristatos is actually the one in charge of the drug smuggling operation , and that Kristatos is backed by the Russians . Colombo agrees to help Bond by providing information about things " as long as none of it comes back to Italy " ; Bond agrees to help Colombo eliminate Kristatos . Bond , Colombo , and his men sail the Colombina to Santa Maria when Kristatos 's men are loading another shipment of drugs , they attack Kristatos 's ship and adjacent warehouse and discover Kristatos lurking near the warehouse , preparing to detonate a bomb . Kristatos tries to escape , but is killed by Bond .
= = = " The Hildebrand Rarity " = = =
Bond is on an assignment in the Seychelles Islands ; through Fidele Barbey , his influential and well @-@ connected local contact , he meets an uncouth American millionaire named Milton Krest , who challenges the two to aid him in the search for a rare fish , The Hildebrand Rarity . Bond , Barbey , Krest and his English wife , Elizabeth , set off aboard the Wavekrest in search of the fish . During the journey , Bond learns that Milton verbally and physically abuses everyone around him , especially his wife — whom he punishes with the use of a stingray tail he dubs " The Corrector " . Krest finds the Hildebrand Rarity and kills it — along with many other fish — by pouring poison into the water . After finding and killing the Hildebrand Rarity , the Wavekrest sets sail for port . Along the way Krest gets very drunk , insults Bond and Barbey and tells his wife he will beat her again with the stingray tail . Later that night , Bond hears Krest choking ; investigating , Bond finds that Krest has been murdered — apparently by having the rare fish stuffed down his throat . So as not to be entangled in a murder investigation , Bond throws Krest overboard and cleans up the scene of the crime , making it look as though Krest fell overboard after one of the ropes holding his hammock broke : Bond suspects both Barbey and Mrs. Krest , but is unsure which is responsible . However , when Mrs. Krest invites Bond to sail with her to Mombasa — his next destination — aboard the Wavekrest , he accepts her invitation with reservations .
= = Characters and themes = =
Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson notes that two of the stories ( " Quantum of Solace " and " The Hildebrand Rarity " ) are experimental for Fleming , whilst the remaining three are straightforward Bond adventures . In the two experimental stories Bond is given something of a more human side , with " Quantum of Solace " evidencing Bond 's reaction to the Governor 's story by showing a compassionate side , as he sees the real life of Philip Masters and Rhoda Llewellyn as being more dramatic than his recent mission ; the forthcoming trip he has to make to the CIA , he now sees as " dull and unexciting " . In " The Hildebrand Rarity " , Bond is also shown with a humanitarian side , with feelings for the plight of Liz at the hands of her husband and for the use of the poison on the fish by Milton Krest .
An aspect of Bond 's relationship with M is shown in " For Your Eyes Only " , with Bond taking the decision from M 's shoulders about what should happen to the murderers of M 's friends , the Havelocks ; the scene also shows the reader about the weight of command and M 's indecision as to what path to follow . The daughter of M 's friends , Judy Havelock , is a tough and resourceful character , according to Benson , although after she has revenged her parents ' death and is wounded , softens and allows Bond to take up his usual role of protector .
In the " Risico " story , academic Christoph Lindner identifies the character of Enrico Colombo as an example of those characters who have morals closer to those of the traditional villains , but who act on the side of good in support of Bond ; others of this type include Darko Kerim ( From Russia , with Love ) , Tiger Tanaka ( You Only Live Twice ) and Marc @-@ Ange Draco ( On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ) .
World War II again makes an appearance in the stories : in For Your Eyes Only , Von Hammerstein is a former Gestapo officer , whilst the RCMP officer , Colonel Johns , served with the British under Montgomery in the Eighth Army . In " The Hildebrand Rarity " Milton Krest is of German descent and " Risico " sees both Enrico Colombo and Aristotle Kristatos as having fought for the British in the war .
Justice and revenge are themes that run through two of the stories . In " For Your Eyes Only " the idea of revenge is looked at from a number of angles : Bond 's , M 's and Judy Havelock 's and each has a different interpretation . Bond 's approach to killing is also dissected in " For Your Eyes Only " whilst the morality of killing is a theme in " The Hildebrand Rarity " .
= = Background = =
In the summer of 1958 , CBS television commissioned Fleming to write episodes of a television show based on the James Bond character . This deal came about after the success of the 1954 television adaptation of Casino Royale as an episode of the CBS television series Climax ! . Fleming agreed to the deal , and began to write outlines for the series ; however , CBS later dropped the idea . In January and February 1959 Fleming adapted four of these television plots into short stories at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica and added a fifth story he had written in the summer of 1958 . Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett noted that at the time Fleming was writing both the television scripts , and the short story collection , " Ian 's mood of weariness and self @-@ doubt was beginning to affect his writing " and this can be seen in Bond 's internal monologue of thoughts .
" From a View to a Kill "
" From a View to a Kill " was initially intended to be the backstory for Hugo Drax , the villain of the novel Moonraker . The story would have taken place during World War II , and featured Drax as the motorcycle assassin who crashes his bike and is taken to an American field hospital . Later , the hospital is bombed , leaving Drax with amnesia and a disfigured face . The story was one that Fleming had drawn up for the television series . The SHAPE head of security , Colonel Schreiber , was designed to be the antithesis of Bond , with greying hair , the air of a bank manager , desk with silver framed photographs of his family and a single white rose ; the description shows Fleming using colour to show Schreiber 's lack of colour and personality . The idea of the underground hideout was inspired by Fleming 's brother Peter 's band of Auxiliary Units who dug tunnel networks in Britain in 1940 as part of a resistance movement in advance of a German invasion . The original name for the story was " The Rough with the Smooth " , which was also the original title of the books , before For Your Eyes Only was chosen for publication .
" For Your Eyes Only "
The story was originally entitled Man 's Work and was set in Vermont , where Fleming had spent a number of summers at his friend Ivar Bryce 's Black Hollow Farm , which became the model for von Hammerstein 's hideaway , Echo Lake . The name of the villain of the story , Von Hammerstein was taken from General Baron Kurt von Hammerstein @-@ Equord ( 1878 – 1943 ) , one of Hitler 's opponents . Fleming also considered calling the story " Death Leaves an Echo " and based the story on " Rough Justice " , which was to be episode three of the television series .
" Quantum of Solace "
" Quantum of Solace " was based on a story told to Fleming by his neighbour and lover Blanche Blackwell about a real @-@ life police inspector , who Fleming turned into the civil servant , Philip Masters . As thanks for the story , Fleming bought Blackwell a Cartier watch . Fleming wrote the story in the style of W Somerset Maugham and this was Fleming 's homage to a writer he greatly admired . The story takes its structure - an agent 's private conversation with a high @-@ ranking diplomat about socially unequal romance - from Maugham 's short story " His Excellency " . " Quantum of Solace " was first published in Modern Woman 's Magazine of November 1959 .
" Risico "
In 1958 Fleming holidayed with his wife Ann in Venice and at the Lido peninsula ; Fleming was a great admirer of Thomas Mann 's work Death in Venice , which was based on the Lido and the Flemings visited it for that reason , using the location as the backdrop for " Risico " . For the love interest in the story , Lisl , Fleming used the name of an ex @-@ girlfriend from Kitzbühel in Austria , where he had travelled in the 1930s . For the name of Colombo , Fleming borrowed the surname of Gioacchino Colombo , the Ferrari engine designer .
" The Hildebrand Rarity "
In April 1958 Fleming flew to the Seychelles via Bombay to report for The Sunday Times on a treasure hunt ; although the hunt was not as exciting as he hoped , Fleming used many of the details of the island for " The Hildebrand Rarity " . Fleming combined the backdrop of the Seychelles with his experience he and Blanche Blackwell had undergone when they had visited Pedro Keys , two islands off Jamaica , and watched two scientists do something similar with poison to obtain samples . For the villain of the story , an abusive American millionaire , Fleming used the name Milton Krest : Milton was the code name of a Greek sea captain who ferried British soldiers and agents through German patrols and who received the Distinguished Service Order and an MBE , whilst Krest was the name of tonic and ginger beer Fleming drank in Seychelles . " The Hildebrand Rarity " was first published in Playboy in March 1960 .
= = Release and reception = =
For Your Eyes Only was published on 11 April 1960 in the UK as a hardcover edition by publishers Jonathan Cape ; it was 252 pages long and cost fifteen shillings . The subtitle , Five Secret Occasions in the Life of James Bond , was added for publication ; 21 @,@ 712 copies were printed and quickly sold out . For Your Eyes Only was published in the US in August 1960 by Viking Press and the subtitle was changed to Five Secret Exploits of James Bond ; in later editions , it was dropped altogether .
Artist Richard Chopping once again provided the cover art for the book . On 18 March 1959 Fleming had written to Chopping about the cover he had undertaken for Goldfinger , saying that : " The new jacket is quite as big a success as the first one and I do think [ Jonathan ] Cape have made a splendid job of it " . Moving on to For Your Eyes Only , Fleming said " I am busily scratching my head trying to think of a subject for you again . No one in the history of thrillers has had such a totally brilliant artistic collaborator ! "
= = = Reviews = = =
Francis Iles , writing in The Guardian , noting the short @-@ story format , " thought it better than the novels " and wrote that " the first story is full of the old wild improbabilities , but one of the others has a positively Maughamish flavour . " Iles also thought that " it seems that one must either enjoy the novels of Mr. Ian Fleming beyond reason or be unable to read them at all . " Writing in The Guardian 's sister paper , The Observer , Maurice Richardson thought that " our Casanovaesque cad @-@ clubman secret agent is mellowing a bit now " ; Richardson liked the format , saying that " the short form suits him quite well " although the downside is that " if it checks the wilder fantasies it cuts short the love @-@ affairs " . Writing in The Spectator , Cyril Ray ( under the pseudonym Christopher Pym ) wrote that " each episode of the Bond novels meant the adventure was less probable and more preposterous than the last , and now our hero seems to have lost , as well as any claims to plausibility , the know @-@ how , the know @-@ who , know @-@ what and sheer zing that used to carry the unlikely plots along . Perhaps all that mattress pounding is taking it out of poor Bond " .
Writing in The Listener , John Raymond was of the opinion that Bond 's " admirers ... will find him in top form " and that the stories , " all but one of which are well up to 007 's high standard " . Raymond believed that " The Commander seems to be mellowing with the years " and because of this was " less of a show @-@ off ... and , for once , his chronicler has almost cut out the sadism " . In terms of the villains in the book , most notably Milton Krest , Raymond saw that Fleming 's " capacity to create villains is undiminished " .
The critic for The Times reflected that " the mood of For Your Eyes Only is , in fact , a good deal more sober and , perhaps , weary than before " ; the critic also thought that the short form worked well with Bond , and that " the girls , though a short story allows them only walk @-@ on parts , are as wild and luscious as ever " . Philip Stead , writing in The Times Literary Supplement thought that " Mr. Fleming 's licensed assassin is in pretty good form . " Stead considered that in the stories " occasionally there seem to be echoes of Ashenden and glimpses of Rogue Male , but the Bond ambience is persuasive " .
In the US , James Sandoe , writing in the New York Herald Tribune thought that For Your Eyes Only had " urban savagery and mighty smooth tale @-@ spinning " . Writing in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — described by a Fleming biographer , John Pearson as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — described what his main issue with Fleming 's work was : " his basic weakness as a storyteller , which can be summed up in two words : ' no story . ' " In the short story form , however , Boucher finds that Bond 's tales " are proportionate " and that Fleming 's " prose ... is eminently smooth and readable " even if " Bond 's triumphs are too simple and lack ... intricate suspense " .
= = Adaptations = =
Comic strip ( 1961 – 1967 )
Four of the five short stories in For Your Eyes Only were adapted into comic strips published in the British newspaper Daily Express and subsequently syndicated around the world . The first three stories were adapted by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky and appeared in the newspaper between 3 April 1961 and 9 December 1961 . All three comics were published again in 2005 as part of the Dr. No anthology by Titan Books . The fourth adaptation , " The Hildebrand Rarity " , did not appear until six years after the comic @-@ strip versions of the other stories . It was adapted by Jim Lawrence and illustrated by Yaroslav Horak . This adaptation was reprinted by Titan Books in 2009 as part of Volume 2 of the The James Bond Omnibus collection .
For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 )
A number of details from the story are used in the film For Your Eyes Only , released in 1981 and starring Roger Moore as James Bond . The film shows the murder of the Havelocks by a hit man , although it names the hitman as Gonzalez , rather than Gonzales . The film also changes the name of the Havelock 's daughter , Judy , to Melina . For Your Eyes Only also uses much of the plot of " Risico " , including the characters of Colombo and Kristatos .
A View to a Kill ( 1985 )
Part of the title of the story From a View to a Kill was used for the 1985 Bond film A View to a Kill , with none of the story used in this or any other film to date .
Licence to Kill ( 1989 )
Milton Krest , his foundation , the Wavekrest , and " the Corrector " were incorporated into the 1989 film Licence to Kill starring Timothy Dalton as Bond .
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 )
Quantum of Solace was chosen as the title of the 22nd Bond film ; none of the story was used for the film 's plot . Daniel Craig , who starred as Bond in the film , said the film also shares the primary thematic element of the story as " it relates to the fact that if you don 't have that Quantum of Solace in a relationship , you should give up . If you are not respecting each other , it 's over , and at the end of the last movie Bond doesn 't have that because his girlfriend has been killed . "
Spectre ( 2015 )
In the 2015 film Spectre M and Bond meet in a London safe house , which carries a name plate labelled " Hildebrand Antiques and Rarities " , a reference to The Hildebrand Rarity .
For Your Eyes Only ( proposed unauthorised Canadian film )
On 1 January 2015 the original Fleming novels and short stories entered the public domain in countries in which the length of copyright remains at the Berne Convention minimum of the life of the author plus 50 years . The Canadian filmmakers Lee Demarbre and Ian Driscoll announced plans to film an unauthorised adaptation of " For Your Eyes Only " which is partly set in Canada . If completed , the film will only be able to be released in Canada , China and other countries in which the copyright has expired .
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= Forever and a Day ( Kelly Rowland song ) =
" Forever and a Day " is a song by American recording artist Kelly Rowland . Written by Rowland , Andre Merritt , Samual Watters , and Jonas Jeberg , the uptempo Europop song is the second international single ( fourth overall ) taken from her third studio album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) . It was produced and record by Jeberg at his personal recording studios in Copenhagen , Denmark .
" Forever and a Day " received its world premiere on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge on August 18 , 2010 , and was released for digital download on September 20 , 2010 . Critics mainly praised the song for Rowland 's vocals , as well as an infectious and refreshing production which uses Europop melodies , guitar riffs , and Glee @-@ like handclaps . An accompanying music video , directed by Sarah Chatfield , features the iPad interface and scenes of Rowland partying with friends in Los Angeles . The single was considerably less successful than its predecessor , " Commander " , only managing to peak in the UK at number forty @-@ nine .
= = Background and composition = =
In an interview with the German editor of her official website , Rowland has said that " On and On " ( produced by Brian Kennedy ) or the Pitbull @-@ assisted " Take Everything " , written by Jim Jonsin , were considered for release as second international singles . However , on August 18 , 2010 , UK station BBC Radio 1 announced that " Forever and a Day " was the name of Rowland 's new single and subsequently played the record for the first time .
" Forever and a Day " is an up @-@ tempo Europop song which makes use of a " subtle guitar riff " and " Glee @-@ like handclaps . " The song was written by Rowland , Jonas Jeberg , Andre Merrit , and Sam Watters . Jeberg produced the song at his personal recording studios in Copenhagen , Denmark . Rowland uses auto @-@ tuning on some of her vocals in the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Becky Bain of Idolator praised the song , saying , " Kelly totally rips it wide open on the chorus with her shrieking @-@ but @-@ not @-@ shrill ' DAAAAY ! ' Once again , David Guetta + Kelly Rowland = musical gold . If we 're lucky , this will also be a US single , but we know how infrequently mass American [ sic ] takes a liking to Europop tunes . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy agreed , saying that the song was " nothing less than was expected . " He awarded the song four out of five stars , saying that the song could not top " Commander " but " comes pretty close . " It " [ uses ] beats that bounce faster than a chesty lady on a high @-@ powered jetski . It all makes for another infectious club @-@ pop number on which Kel is refreshingly direct with her fella . " Not all reviews were positive . Rick Fullton of the Daily Record was much less impressed with the song , saying it could have " been a session singer " instead of the " dance diva " Rowland is intending on becoming . A reviewer from StarObserver praised the dance remix of the song . The review said , " French DJ Antoine Clamaran has turned K Row ’ s mid @-@ tempo jam into the perfect summer anthem – with killer beats , an uplifting chorus and suitably cheesy video ( below ) . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Following its premiere , " Forever and a Day " was added to the A @-@ playlist on UK urban music radio on September 10 , 2010 . On September 15 , 2010 , " Forever and a Day " was added to B @-@ playlist on the UK 's mainstream radio station , BBC Radio 1 . It was due to be released in the UK on September 27 , 2010 , but for unspecified reasons the release was delayed by a week to October 4 , 2010 . Rowland performed " Forever and a Day " for the first time on The Alan Titchmarsh Show on October 7 , 2010 . Following its release , the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number forty @-@ nine , but then fell to number sixty @-@ one the following week . On October 23 , 2010 , the single debuted on the Belgium Flanders Tip chart at number forty @-@ nine before peaking at number forty @-@ two weeks later . The single also peaked at number seventy @-@ three on the Slovkian Airplay Chart . At the end of October 2010 , Rowland performed the new Antoine Clamaran dance remix of the song at the Starfloor 2010 music festival in Paris , France .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video was filmed from August 20 to August 22 , 2010 , and was directed by British pop @-@ culture and video director Sarah Chatfield . The full completed video debuted on the Vevo network , and was added to UK music channels on September 15 , 2010 . It was released in other territories on September 25 , 2010 . The scenes were put together with superimposed images of the workings and interface of the iPad . It was released through the US iTunes Store on September 21 , 2010 . Video Static 's Steven Gottlieb provided clarity on how the interface is integrated into the video . He said , " Logos get tapped to trigger various edits ; pinching makes things zoom in and out , etc , etc . " A video set to the Antoine Clamaran dance remix of the song premiered on Clamaran 's official YouTube page on December 8 , 2010 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a still photo of Rowland and a " slide @-@ lock " function from the iPad in the foreground . A single finger appears and unlocks the image by sliding the slider from left to right . The music begins and four small images appear on screen . The finger reappears and clicks on the third image , resulting in that image zooming to fit the whole screen . In this scene , Rowland wears an orange knee @-@ length skirt , T @-@ shirt , and a blue cropped denim jacket . She walks around on a rooftop in Los Angeles . The video then flicks between this scene and another where she is seen partying with her friends . As the chorus begins , Rowland and her friends are seen riding in a convertible car . Then they are seen sitting on some concrete stairs as some skate @-@ boarders ride past them . When the bridge kicks in , the images flicker to a party scene on a rooftop with lots of people enjoying themselves . The finger then re @-@ appears and clicks on the scroll bar , which appears on screen as if to rewind the clip and the original scene of Rowland alone on the rooftop plays as the music fades .
= = = Reception = = =
A review from Idolator said that the futuristic theme to the video might have been better suited to the previous international single , " Commander . " It also said , " The pop diva continues her ascent to grown woman in this sun @-@ soaked video , making good use of palm trees , a convertible , and the Los Angeles skyline , " commenting that she takes " a breezy approach so casual it almost does look like a camera crew just happened to stumble upon a typical day out with the girls . " The reviewer concluded that " it 's hard to imagine better uses for a touch screen than getting as close as possible to the carefree fun on display here . " Steven Gottlieb of Video Static said , " [ ' Forever and a Day ' is ] a casual and sunny pop video gets a bit of a twist , or a flick , via an interface that 's swiped from your iPhone ... It 's possibly not the kind of finger manipulation some Kelly Rowland fans have been dreaming about , but even they should admit it 's a clever conceit . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Radio dates and release history = =
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= Battle of Kalbajar =
The Battle of Kelbajar took place in March and April 1993 , during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . It resulted in the capture by Armenian military forces of the Kelbajar region of Azerbaijan .
Kelbajar lay outside the contested enclave of the former Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast , but within Nagorno @-@ Karabakh geographic region of Azerbaijan , that Armenian and Azerbaijani forces had been fighting over for five years . The offensive was the first time Armenian forces from Nagorno @-@ Karabakh had advanced beyond the boundaries of the enclave . Kelbajar rayon , located between Armenia and the western border of former NKAO , was composed of several dozen villages and its provincial capital , also named Kelbajar . According to Russian sources mountain troops from the 128th Regiment ( 7th Russian Army ) stationed in Armenia participated in the seizure of Kelbajar in a blitzkrieg operation . After initial heavy resistance , the Azerbaijani defenses quickly collapsed and the provincial capital fell on April 3 , 1993 . Kelbajar is currently under the control of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic .
= = Background = =
An autonomous oblast during the Soviet era under the jurisdiction of the Azerbaijan SSR , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh 's population was approximately 75 % ethnic Armenian . As the Soviet Union 's disintegration approached during the late 1980s , the enclave 's government expressed its desire to secede and unite with the neighboring Armenian SSR . By 1991 , Armenia and Azerbaijan were independent countries but the nascent Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic remained internationally unrecognized despite its government 's declaration of independence . Small @-@ scale violence had flared up between the two ethnic groups in February 1988 but soon escalated to use of Soviet @-@ built tanks , helicopters , and fighter bombers appropriated by both sides after the collapse of the Soviet Union .
On May 9 , 1992 , Armenian forces captured the mountain stronghold of Shusha but remained on the defensive until the next year . Fighting between Armenians and Azeris continued in other parts of the enclave , including Lachin , Khojavend , and Aghdara . However , nearly all offensives launched by Azerbaijan failed or could not hold on to captured territory . By the spring of 1993 the Azerbaijani military , which had the upper hand in the initial stages of the war , had been largely reduced to unorganized and incoherent fighting groups . By March 1993 the fighting had shifted to west and south of Karabakh .
Kelbajar was a raion surrounded by several canyons and an elevated mountain range known as the Murov Mountains . In the attack , Armenian forces from four directions , including Armenia proper , assaulted and captured an area of over 1 @,@ 900 square kilometers . This linked Armenia with Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and opened a second " corridor " for Armenia to send aid through .
= = The region of Kelbajar = =
= = = Rationale for its taking = = =
Kelbajar is located between Armenia and the western boundary of former Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast . Situated between a steep mountain range , its wartime population of approximately 45 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 was primarily made up of ethnic Azeris and Kurds . Throughout the war , the Armenians of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh had been voicing their discontent over seventy years of Azeri rule and said that they were defending themselves from Azerbaijan 's aggression . Their capture of the towns of Khojaly and Shusha stemmed from security concerns in silencing artillery bombardments positioned in those towns , albeit the capture of the former resulted in the Khojaly massacre . They stated that Karabakh had historically been an Armenian region and that their claims for territory did not extend beyond its boundaries .
In March 1993 , military incursions by Azeri forces and artillery barrages were reported to have been coming from the region , prompting military leaders to announce an offensive against the rayon . However , a different reason was given by the Armenians ' most successful commander of the conflict , Monte Melkonian . According to Melkonian , the commander of the southern front in Martuni ( Khojavend ) , the decision to take the town was a matter of certainty rather than choice . He stated , " This is a historical issue ... of course this is historical Armenia ... And we 'll vindicate that reality [ to the Azeris ] with our guns . Unfortunately ! It would be nice if the Azeris would understand that reality is reality , agree and say OK , it 's yours , and that 's that . " Questioned on the possibility of a large expulsion of civilians if the region was captured , Melkonian responded , " A lot of blood has been spilled on both sides ... The emotions are high and that isn 't conducive to living together in near or medium future . "
= = The battle = =
= = = Heavy resistance = = =
Defeats in late March already had the Azeri military evacuating civilians out of the region to the northern town of Yevlakh and Azerbaijan 's second largest city , Ganja . The Armenians had assembled a force of several hundred men to enter Kelbajar from four different directions : Melkonian 's own detachment of tanks and troops from Karabakh would attack from the southeast , one fifty @-@ man unit from the town of Vardenis , Armenia would enter from the west ; the third force would attack from the village of Aghdaban in the north , and the primary attacking force would come from the village of Narınclar .
The battered village of Charektar in Kelbajar had already seen extensive fighting in earlier weeks and was reinforced by both Azerbaijani and foreign fighters as the Armenian offensive commenced on March 27 . However , instead of launching a simultaneous attack , only the units in Aghdaban and Narinclar moved out . Melkonian 's armored column did not move out until later on and his units faced tenacious resistance on an embankment of entrenched defenses where his forces were forced to retreat . The troops in Vardenis began their assault shortly thereafter but their advance was slowed since they had to trek through the snowy passes of the Murov Mountains .
On March 28 , Melkonian 's forces counterattacked Charektar and an eight @-@ hour battle ensued until his forces were able to break through the defenses . The stretched out Azeri forces deployed through the region allowed them to advance twenty @-@ nine kilometers , reaching the Tartar River on March 31 . Within another twenty kilometers of his forces ' positions was the Kelbajar 's namesake capital , a crucial road intersection that led to Lachin and the village of Zulfugarli . By March 29 , Armenian forces encircled the town of Kalbajar . A journalist reported seeing intensive bombardment of Kelbajar , including Grad artillery , originating from Armenia proper .
= = = Melkonian 's advance = = =
The following two days saw a massive refugee column of cars and trucks " laden with bundles ... bumper to bumper " trudging through the intersection . Melkonian ordered his forces to halt their advance until the remnants of the column dried up in the early afternoon of April 1 . Assessing that most refugees had left , he ordered his units to advance and sent a detachment to guard a vital tunnel leading south towards Zulfugarli . While his troops had assumed that most civilians had left Kelbajar , they encountered a GAZ @-@ 52 transport truck in the tunnel and , thinking it was a military vehicle , fired and destroyed it with rocket @-@ propelled grenades and assault rifles . As they observed the wreck of the vehicle , the troops realized they had taken out a vehicle filled entirely with civilians : twenty @-@ five Kurd and Azeri kolkhoz workers . Four of them , including the driver of the truck and his daughter , were killed . The rest were ordered by Melkonian to be taken to a hospital in Karabakh 's capital of Stepanakert ; however , as many as eleven of them died .
After the Zulufgarli incident , his forces pushed forward and reached another vital intersection leading to Ganja , fifteen kilometers away from the capital . Civilians in Kelbajar continued to be evacuated by both air and the through the intersection and Melkonian halted his advance by a further forty hours to allow the traffic column to move through . On April 1 , his forces issued a radio message to the governor of the region , instructing his forces to leave the capital . An ultimatum was placed until 2 pm of the following day . Identified by his radio codename , " Khan " , the governor responded and stated , " We 're never going to leave ... we 'll fight to the end . "
= = = Final push = = =
As the deadline passed on April 2 , Melkonian 's armor entered the intersection and encountered a line of Azeri tanks and infantry . A firefight ensued but lasted for only several minutes as the defense line was soon battered and destroyed . Many of the Azeri forces were ill @-@ prepared for the attack as Melkonian noted when pointing out to their lack of equipment . Despite having his force reduced down to a total of sixty @-@ eight men , a force too weak to take the capital , he ordered them to continue forward .
By April 3 , the Armenian forces had encircled the capital and resistance had weakened . Azeri commander Suret Huseynov and his 709th brigade , which had been tasked to defending the Murov Mountains , had retreated to Ganja after political and military problems began to unravel upon in the battlefield . An account of the war @-@ weariness afflicting the inhabitants of the town was described by Melkonian 's elder brother , Markar :
A downcast enemy soldier with a bandaged hand and a burned leg rides up on a donkey and surrenders . An old man in a faded jacket studded with medals from the Great Patriotic War weeps before leaving his home forever . An elderly woman in a black yazma , waving a torn sheet on a stick , greets Monte and Abo [ his radio operator ] in Azeri Turkish , then suddenly kneels to the ground to kiss Monte 's feet . Surprised and awkward , Monte tries to pull back . Yok ! he shouts , " No ! " He reflexively bends over and brings the woman up by her arm . " What are you doing ? " he asks in Anatolian Turkish , " Don 't ever do that ! " ... [ Melkonian ] found [ in the capital ] a row of neat but bleak storefronts and a few chickens . The townsfolk ... had not bothered to grab the chickens as provisions for the road . The only other sign of life was a BMP idling in the middle of the road through the center of town .
Although his contingent did not reach in time for the fighting , the city 's capital was taken . Aside from some farm life , the town had been largely abandoned . The taking of the region marked a continuous swath of territory held by Armenians stretching from Karabakh to Armenia proper , a total of 3 @,@ 000 square kilometers . In the retreat through the Omar Pass of the Murov mountain range , many Azeri refugees froze to death . With the last helicopters leaving on April 1 , they were forced to walk through the heavy snow at freezing temperatures . Nearly 39 @,@ 000 civilians were processed into the camps at Yevlakh and Dashkesen with as many as 15 @,@ 000 unaccounted for . Four Azerbaijani MI @-@ 8 helicopters ferrying refugees and wounded out of the conflict zone crashed , the last of which was hit by Armenian forces . Human Rights Watch findings concluded that during the Kalbajar offensive Armenian forces committed numerous violations of the rules of war , including forcible exodus of civilian population , indiscriminate fire and hostage @-@ taking .
= = Political ramifications = =
The offensive provoked international criticism against both the Armenians in Karabakh and the Republic . Vafa Guluzade , the chief adviser to then president of Azerbaijan , Abulfaz Elchibey alleged that the region was taken too easily because help arrived from the Russian 128th Regiment ( 7th Russian Army ) stationed in Armenia . This charge was refuted by the operation 's commander , Gurgen Daribaltayan , and others since " Moscow [ i.e. , the Russian government ] was not in total control of Armenian military operations . " Armenia 's western neighbor , Turkey halted humanitarian aid coming through its borders . The United States also condemned the offensive , issuing a " sharp rebuke " and sending an accompanying letter to the Armenian government .
On April 30 , 1993 , Turkey and Pakistan co @-@ sponsored United Nations Security Council Resolution 822 which called for Armenians in the region to withdraw immediately from Kelbajar and other areas of Azerbaijan . Turkey 's President Turgut Özal called for military intervention on Azerbaijan 's side and set forth on a tour of Turkic former Soviet republics on April 14 . ( Özal would die of a heart attack just three days later ) . Iran also condemned the offensive since many refugees in Azerbaijan were fleeing south towards its borders . In an attempt to end the hostilities , U.S. , Russia and Turkey reiterated the call for withdrawal of Armenian troops from Kelbajar region of Azerbaijan on May 6 , which would be followed by formal peace talks .
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= Marion L. Brittain =
Marion Luther Brittain , Sr. ( November 11 , 1866 – July 13 , 1953 ) was an American academic administrator and president of the Georgia Institute of Technology from 1922 to 1944 . Brittain was born in Georgia and , aside from a brief stint at the University of Chicago for graduate school , spent most of his life serving the educational community there . After receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree from Emory College in 1886 , Brittain worked his way up the ranks from principal of an Atlanta high school to superintendent of education for the entire state of Georgia .
In 1922 , Brittain accepted the position of president of the Georgia Institute of Technology , then called the Georgia School of Technology , an office he would hold until his retirement in 1944 . During his 22 @-@ year tenure at Georgia Tech , Brittain was credited with doubling student enrollment , establishing what is now the second largest aerospace engineering faculty in the United States , and playing an influential role in securing Georgia Tech 's position as a leading technical institute and research university . After his retirement , Brittain wrote The Story of Georgia Tech ( 1948 ) , a history of the Institute published shortly before his death in 1953 .
= = Early life = =
Marion L. Brittain was born in Wilkes County , Georgia in 1866 to Dr. J. M. Brittain , a Baptist minister , and Ida Callaway , granddaughter of Baptist minister Enoch Callaway . Brittain 's childhood was spent in a variety of towns and cities throughout the state of Georgia due to his father 's career as a minister . He attended Emory College for his undergraduate studies , graduating in 1886 with the commendation that he was the " best student in his department the college had had in ten years . " Brittain then spent ten years as an administrator of several high schools in the Atlanta , Georgia area . In 1897 , he gained local fame for his erudition after winning a contest held by the Atlanta Constitution in which he was able to identify the missing word from a passage taken from an obscure book on English literature . Brittain left his work as a high school administrator in 1898 to pursue graduate studies at the University of Chicago .
On December 5 , 1899 , Brittain and Lettie McDonald , daughter of Baptist minister Dr. Henry McDonald , were married . He returned to academic administration , first as superintendent of the Fulton County School System ( 1900 – 1910 ) and later , at the appointment of Joseph Mackey Brown , the education system for the entire state of Georgia ( 1910 – 1922 ) . In this role , Brittain became well known for fighting corruption and generally improving the education system . Throughout this time , Brittain earned LL.D. degrees from Mercer University ( 1919 ) , and , later , the University of Georgia ( 1927 ) and Emory University ( 1928 ) . He was also president of the Georgia Education Association in 1906 , of the Southern Education Association in 1913 , and of the Council of State School Superintendents of the United States in 1917 . He earned the wrath of Senator Tom Watson during these positions , who attempted to remove Brittain from his position as superintendent of education .
= = President of Georgia Tech = =
On August 1 , 1922 , Brittain was elected president of the Georgia School of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) . During his tenure , Brittain was able to convince the state of Georgia to increase funding for the Institute . He had noted in the 1923 annual report that " there are more students in Georgia Tech than in any other two colleges in Georgia , and we have the smallest appropriation of them all . " Additionally , a $ 300 @,@ 000 grant ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 249 @,@ 601 @.@ 59 in 2015 ) from the Guggenheim Foundation allowed Brittain to establish the David Guggenheim School of Aeronautics at Georgia Tech . In 1930 , Brittain 's decision to use the money for a School of Aeronautics was controversial ; today , the David Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering boasts the second largest faculty in the United States behind MIT .
Other accomplishments during Brittain 's administration included a doubling of Georgia Tech 's enrollment , the first ROTC unit in the Southern United States , accreditation for the Institute by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools , and the creation of a new ceramic engineering department , building , and major that attracted the American Ceramics Society 's national convention to Atlanta . Perhaps most significantly , Brittain is attributed with providing the vision and securing the finances to move Georgia Tech away from its roots as a teaching @-@ oriented trade school and towards a new focus on science and technology research .
Brittain was known by reputation as a kind , gentle man and was well liked by students and faculty . He was especially remembered for his dedication to the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team , attending nearly every game including those taking place out @-@ of @-@ state . Outside of Georgia Tech , Brittain taught Sunday school classes and maintained active membership in a number of service organizations . Brittain retired from his position as president of Georgia Tech in 1944 , after which he penned a history of the Institute entitled The Story of Georgia Tech , completed in 1948 . He died in 1953 , survived by three children : McDonald , Marion Luther , Jr . , and Ida , three grandsons , and a great @-@ granddaughter . Flags at the university were flown at half @-@ staff for a month in remembrance of Brittain , and classes were cancelled for the rest of the school week .
= = Legacy = =
Long after his death , Brittain continues to be remembered through several prestigious awards named in his honor . The Marion L. Brittain Fellows Program , established in 1990 , awards postdoctoral fellowships to teach in the Communications Program at Georgia Tech 's School of Literature , Communication , and Culture for up to three years . At Emory University , the Marion Luther Brittain Award is presented annually at commencement to a graduate " who has demonstrated exemplary service to both the university and the greater community without expectation of recognition " and is considered the university 's highest student honor .
A pair of buildings bears the name of Brittain as well . The Dr. Marion Luther Brittain , Sr. , House , built in the Neoclassical Revival style and located at 1109 West Peachtree Street in Atlanta , was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 23 , 1993 . The building served as Brittain 's home from its construction in 1911 until Brittain and his family moved to the Georgia Tech president 's house in 1922 . It has since been converted into office space and is privately owned . Additionally , the Marion L. Brittain Dining Hall , erected in 1928 , is one of two dining facilities for students living in residence halls on the east side of Georgia Tech 's campus .
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= Albertosaurus =
Albertosaurus ( / ælˌbɜːrtəˈsɔːrəs / ; meaning " Alberta lizard " ) is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period , about 70 million years ago . The type species , A. sarcophagus , was apparently restricted in range to the modern @-@ day Canadian province of Alberta , after which the genus is named . Scientists disagree on the content of the genus , with some recognizing Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species .
As a tyrannosaurid , Albertosaurus was a bipedal predator with tiny , two @-@ fingered hands and a massive head that had dozens of large , sharp teeth . It may have been at the top of the food chain in its local ecosystem . Although relatively large for a theropod , Albertosaurus was much smaller than its more famous relative Tyrannosaurus , probably weighing less than 2 metric tons .
Since the first discovery in 1884 , fossils of more than 30 individuals have been recovered , providing scientists with a more detailed knowledge of Albertosaurus anatomy than is available for most other tyrannosaurids . The discovery of 26 individuals at one site provides evidence of pack behaviour and allows studies of ontogeny and population biology , which are impossible with lesser @-@ known dinosaurs .
= = Description = =
Albertosaurus was smaller than some other tyrannosaurids , such as Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus . Typical Albertosaurus adults measured up to 9 metres ( 30 feet ) long , while rare individuals of great age could grow to be over 10 metres ( 33 feet ) long . Several independent mass estimates , obtained by different methods , suggest that an adult Albertosaurus weighed between 1 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 4 short tons ) and 1 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 9 tons ) .
Albertosaurus shared a similar body appearance with all other tyrannosaurids . Typically for a theropod , Albertosaurus was bipedal and balanced the heavy head and torso with a long tail . However , tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits . The hind limbs were long and ended in a four @-@ toed foot on which the first digit , called the hallux , was short and did not reach the ground . The third digit was longer than the rest . Albertosaurus may have been able to reach walking speeds of 14 − 21 kilometres per hour ( 8 − 13 miles per hour ) . At least for the younger individuals , a high running speed is plausible .
= = = Skull and teeth = = =
The massive skull of Albertosaurus , which was perched on a short , S @-@ shaped neck , was approximately 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 feet ) long in the largest adults . Wide openings in the skull ( fenestrae ) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs . Its long jaws contained , both sides combined , 58 or more banana @-@ shaped teeth ; larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth , Gorgosaurus at least sixty @-@ two . Unlike most theropods , Albertosaurus and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont , with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth . The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the upper jaw , four per side , were much smaller than the rest , more closely packed , and D @-@ shaped in cross section . Like with Tyrannosaurus , the maxillary ( cheek ) teeth of Albertosaurus were adapted in general form to resist lateral forces exerted by a struggling prey . The bite force of Albertosaurus was less formidable , however , with the maximum force , by the hind teeth , reaching 3 @,@ 413 Newtons . Above the eyes were short bony crests that may have been brightly coloured in life and used in courtship to attract a mate .
William Abler observed in 2001 that Albertosaurus tooth serrations resemble a crack in the tooth ending in a round void called an ampulla . Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling meat off a body , so when a tyrannosaur pulled back on a piece of meat , the tension could cause a purely crack @-@ like serration to spread through the tooth . However , the presence of the ampulla distributed these forces over a larger surface area , and lessened the risk of damage to the tooth under strain . The presence of incisions ending in voids has parallels in human engineering . Guitar makers use incisions ending in voids to , as Abler describes , " impart alternating regions of flexibility and rigidity " to the wood they work with . The use of a drill to create an " ampulla " of sorts and prevent the propagation of cracks through material is also used to protect aircraft surfaces . Abler demonstrated that a plexiglass bar with incisions called " kerfs " and drilled holes was more than 25 % stronger than one with only regularly placed incisions . Unlike tyrannosaurs , ancient predators like phytosaurs and Dimetrodon had no adaptations to prevent the crack @-@ like serrations of their teeth from spreading when subjected to the forces of feeding .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Albertosaurus is a member of the theropod family Tyrannosauridae , in the subfamily Albertosaurinae . Its closest relative is the slightly older Gorgosaurus libratus ( sometimes called Albertosaurus libratus ; see below ) . These two species are the only described albertosaurines ; other undescribed species may exist . Thomas Holtz found Appalachiosaurus to be an albertosaurine in 2004 , but his more recent unpublished work locates it just outside Tyrannosauridae , in agreement with other authors .
The other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is the Tyrannosaurinae , which includes Daspletosaurus , Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus . Compared with these robust tyrannosaurines , albertosaurines had slender builds , with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower leg ( tibia ) and feet ( metatarsals and phalanges ) .
Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen et al. in 2013 .
= = Discovery and naming = =
= = = Naming = = =
Albertosaurus was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in a one @-@ page note at the end of his 1905 description of Tyrannosaurus rex . The name honours Alberta , the Canadian province established the same year , in which the first remains were found . The generic name also incorporates the Greek term σαυρος / sauros ( " lizard " ) , the most common suffix in dinosaur names . The type species is Albertosaurus sarcophagus ; the specific name is derived from Ancient Greek σαρκοφάγος ( sarkophagos ) meaning " flesh @-@ eating " and having the same etymology as the funeral container with which it shares its name : a combination of the Greek words σαρξ / sarx ( " flesh " ) and φαγειν / phagein ( " to eat " ) . More than 30 specimens of all ages are known to science .
= = = Early discoveries = = =
The type specimen is a partial skull , collected in the summer of 1884 from an outcrop of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation alongside the Red Deer River , in Alberta . This specimen , found on June 9 , 1884 , was recovered by an expedition of the Geological Survey of Canada , led by the famous geologist Joseph Burr Tyrrell . Due to a lack of specialised equipment the almost complete skull could only be partially secured . In 1889 , Tyrrell 's colleague Thomas Chesmer Weston found an incomplete smaller skull associated with some skeletal material at a location nearby . The two skulls were assigned to the preexisting species Laelaps incrassatus by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892 , although the name Laelaps was preoccupied by a genus of mite and had been changed to Dryptosaurus in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh . Cope refused to recognize the new name created by his archrival Marsh . However , Lawrence Lambe used the name Dryptosaurus incrassatus instead of Laelaps incrassatus when he described the remains in detail in 1903 and 1904 , a combination first coined by Oliver Perry Hay in 1902 . Shortly later , Osborn pointed out that D. incrassatus was based on generic tyrannosaurid teeth , so the two Horseshoe Canyon skulls could not be confidently referred to that species . The Horseshoe Canyon skulls also differed markedly from the remains of D. aquilunguis , type species of Dryptosaurus , so Osborn created the new name Albertosaurus sarcophagus for them in 1905 . He did not describe the remains in any great detail , citing Lambe 's complete description the year before . Both specimens ( the holotype CMN 5600 and the paratype CMN 5601 ) are stored in the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa . By the early twenty @-@ first century , some concerns had arisen that , due to the damaged state of the holotype , Albertosaurus might be a nomen dubium , a " dubious name " that could only be used for the type specimen itself because other fossils could not reliably be assigned to it . However , in 2010 , Thomas Carr established that the holotype , the paratype and comparable later finds all shared a single common unique trait or autapomorphy : the possession of an enlarged pneumatic opening in the back rim of the side of the palatine bone , proving that Albertosaurus was a valid taxon .
= = = Dry Island bonebed = = =
On 11 August 1910 , American paleontologist Barnum Brown discovered the remains of a large group of Albertosaurus at another quarry alongside the Red Deer River . Because of the large number of bones and the limited time available , Brown 's party did not collect every specimen , but made sure to collect remains from all of the individuals that they could identify in the bonebed . Among the bones deposited in the American Museum of Natural History collections in New York City are seven sets of right metatarsals , along with two isolated toe bones that did not match any of the metatarsals in size . This indicated the presence of at least nine individuals in the quarry . The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology rediscovered the bonebed in 1997 and resumed fieldwork at the site , which is now located inside Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park . Further excavation from 1997 to 2005 turned up the remains of 13 more individuals of various ages , including a diminutive two @-@ year @-@ old and a very old individual estimated at over 10 metres ( 33 feet ) in length . None of these individuals are known from complete skeletons , and most are represented by remains in both museums . Excavations continued until 2008 , when the minimum number of individuals present had been established at 12 , on the basis of preserved elements that occur only once in a skeleton , and at 26 if mirrored elements were counted when differing in size due to ontogeny . A total of 1 @,@ 128 Albertosaurus bones had been secured , the largest concentration of large theropod fossils known from the Cretaceous .
= = = Gorgosaurus libratus = = =
In 1913 , paleontologist Charles H. Sternberg recovered another tyrannosaurid skeleton from the slightly older Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta . Lawrence Lambe named this dinosaur Gorgosaurus libratus in 1914 . Other specimens were later found in Alberta and the US state of Montana . Finding , largely due to a lack of good Albertosaurus skull material , no significant differences to separate the two taxa , Dale Russell declared the name Gorgosaurus a junior synonym of Albertosaurus , which had been named first , and G. libratus was renamed Albertosaurus libratus in 1970 . A species distinction was maintained because of the age difference . This addition extended the temporal range of the genus Albertosaurus backwards by several million years and its geographic range southwards by hundreds of kilometres .
In 2003 , Philip J. Currie , benefiting from much more extensive finds and a general increase in anatomical knowledge of theropods , compared several tyrannosaurid skulls and came to the conclusion that the two species are more distinct than previously thought . The decision to use one or two genera is rather arbitrary , as the two species are sister taxa , more closely related to each other than to any other species . Recognizing this , Currie nevertheless recommended that Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus be retained as separate genera , as he concluded that they were no more similar than Daspletosaurus and Tyrannosaurus , which are almost always separated . In addition , several albertosaurine specimens have been recovered from Alaska and New Mexico , and Currie suggested that the Albertosaurus @-@ Gorgosaurus situation may be clarified once these are described fully . Most authors have followed Currie 's recommendation , but some have not .
= = = Other discoveries = = =
In 1911 , Barnum Brown , during the second year of American Museum of Natural History operations in Alberta , uncovered a fragmentary partial Albertosaurus skull at the Red Deer River near Tolman Bridge , specimen AMNH 5222 .
William Parks described a new species in 1928 , Albertosaurus arctunguis , based on a partial skeleton lacking the skull excavated by Gus Lindblad and Ralph Hornell near the Red Deer River in 1923 , but this species has been considered identical to A. sarcophagus since 1970 . Parks ' specimen ( ROM 807 ) is housed in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto .
Between 1926 and 1972 , no Albertosaurus fossils were found at all ; but , since the seventies , there has been a steady increase in the known material . Apart from the Dry Island bonebed , six more skulls and skeletons have since been discovered in Alberta and are housed in various Canadian museums : specimens RTMP 81 @.@ 010 @.@ 001 , found in 1978 by amateur paleontologist Maurice Stefanuk ; RTMP 85 @.@ 098 @.@ 001 , found by Stefanuk on 16 June 1985 ; RTMP 86 @.@ 64 @.@ 001 ( December 1985 ) ; RTMP 86 @.@ 205 @.@ 001 ( 1986 ) ; RTMP 97 @.@ 058 @.@ 0001 ( 1996 ) ; and CMN 11315 . However , due to vandalism and accidents , no undamaged and complete skulls could be secured among these finds . Fossils have also been reported from the American states of Montana , New Mexico , and Wyoming , but these probably do not represent A. sarcophagus and may not even belong to the genus Albertosaurus .
= = = Other species = = =
Apart from A. sarcophagus , A. arctunguis and A. libratus , several other species of Albertosaurus have been named . All of these are today seen as younger synonyms of other species or as nomina dubia , and are not assigned to Albertosaurus .
In 1930 , Anatoly Nikolaevich Riabinin named Albertosaurus pericolosus based on a tooth from China , that probably belonged to Tarbosaurus . In 1932 , Friedrich von Huene renamed Dryptosaurus incrassatus , not considered a nomen dubium by him , to Albertosaurus incrassatus . Because he had identified Gorgosaurus with Albertosaurus , in 1970 , Russell also renamed Gorgosaurus sternbergi ( Matthew & Brown 1922 ) into Albertosaurus sternbergi and Gorgosaurus lancensis ( Gilmore 1946 ) into Albertosaurus lancensis . The former species is today seen as a juvenile form of Gorgosaurus libratus , the latter as either identical to Tyrannosaurus or representing a separate genus Nanotyrannus . In 1988 , Gregory S. Paul based Albertosaurus megagracilis on a small tyrannosaurid skeleton , specimen LACM 28345 , from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana . It was renamed Dinotyrannus in 1995 , but is now thought to represent a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . Also in 1988 , Paul renamed Alectrosaurus olseni ( Gilmore 1933 ) into Albertosaurus olseni ; this has found no general acceptance . In 1989 , Gorgosaurus novojilovi ( Maleev 1955 ) was renamed by Bryn Mader and Robert Bradley as Albertosaurus novojilovi ; today this is seen as a synonym of Tarbosaurus .
On two occasions , species based on valid Albertosaurus material were reassigned to a different genus : in 1922 William Diller Matthew renamed A. sarcophagus into Deinodon sarcophagus and in 1939 German paleontologist Oskar Kuhn renamed A. arctunguis into Deinodon arctunguis .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Growth pattern = = =
Most age categories of Albertosaurus are represented in the fossil record . Using bone histology , the age of an individual animal at the time of death can often be determined , allowing growth rates to be estimated and compared with other species . The youngest known Albertosaurus is a two @-@ year @-@ old discovered in the Dry Island bonebed , which would have weighed about 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) and measured slightly more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 feet ) in length . The 10 metres ( 33 feet ) specimen from the same quarry is the oldest and largest known , at 28 years of age . When specimens of intermediate age and size are plotted on a graph , an S @-@ shaped growth curve results , with the most rapid growth occurring in a four @-@ year period ending around the sixteenth year of life , a pattern also seen in other tyrannosaurids . The growth rate during this phase was 122 kilograms ( 269 pounds ) per year , based on an adult 1 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 4 short tons ) . Other studies have suggested higher adult weights ; this would affect the magnitude of the growth rate , but not the overall pattern . Tyrannosaurids similar in size to Albertosaurus had similar growth rates , although the much larger Tyrannosaurus rex grew at almost five times this rate ( 601 kilograms [ 1 @,@ 325 pounds ] per year ) at its peak . The end of the rapid growth phase suggests the onset of sexual maturity in Albertosaurus , although growth continued at a slower rate throughout the animals ' lives . Sexual maturation while still actively growing appears to be a shared trait among small and large dinosaurs as well as in large mammals such as humans and elephants . This pattern of relatively early sexual maturation differs strikingly from the pattern in birds , which delay their sexual maturity until after they have finished growing .
During growth , through thickening the tooth morphology changed so much that , had the association of young and adult skeletons on the Dry Island bonebed not proven they belonged to the same taxon , the teeth of juveniles would likely have been identified by statistical analysis as those of a different species .
= = = Life history = = =
Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death . Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons , mainly preservation bias , where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults , and collection bias , where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field . Young Albertosaurus are relatively large for juvenile animals , but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults . It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history , rather than bias , and that fossils of juvenile Albertosaurus are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did .
A hypothesis of Albertosaurus life history postulates that hatchlings died in large numbers , but have not been preserved in the fossil record due to their small size and fragile construction . After just two years , juveniles were larger than any other predator in the region aside from adult Albertosaurus , and more fleet of foot than most of their prey animals . This resulted in a dramatic decrease in their mortality rate and a corresponding rarity of fossil remains . Mortality rates doubled at age twelve , perhaps the result of the physiological demands of the rapid growth phase , and then doubled again with the onset of sexual maturity between the ages of fourteen and sixteen . This elevated mortality rate continued throughout adulthood , perhaps due to the high physiological demands of procreation , including stress and injuries received during intraspecific competition for mates and resources , and eventually , the ever @-@ increasing effects of senescence . The higher mortality rate in adults may explain their more common preservation . Very large animals were rare because few individuals survived long enough to attain such sizes . High infant mortality rates , followed by reduced mortality among juveniles and a sudden increase in mortality after sexual maturity , with very few animals reaching maximum size , is a pattern observed in many modern large mammals , including elephants , African buffalo , and rhinoceros . The same pattern is also seen in other tyrannosaurids . The comparison with modern animals and other tyrannosaurids lends support to this life history hypothesis , but bias in the fossil record may still play a large role , especially since more than two @-@ thirds of all Albertosaurus specimens are known from one locality .
= = = Pack behaviour = = =
The Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 26 Albertosaurus , the most individuals found in one locality of any large Cretaceous theropod , and the second @-@ most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the Allosaurus assemblage at the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah . The group seems to be composed of one very old adult ; eight adults between 17 and 23 years old ; seven sub @-@ adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old ; and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years , who had not yet reached the growth phase .
The near @-@ absence of herbivore remains and the similar state of preservation common to the many individuals at the Albertosaurus bonebed quarry led Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap like the La Brea Tar Pits in California , and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time . Currie claims this as evidence of pack behaviour . Other scientists are skeptical , observing that the animals may have been driven together by drought , flood or for other reasons .
There is plentiful evidence for gregarious behaviour among herbivorous dinosaurs , including ceratopsians and hadrosaurs . However , only rarely are so many dinosaurian predators found at the same site . Small theropods like Deinonychus and Coelophysis have been found in aggregations , as have larger predators like Allosaurus and Mapusaurus . There is some evidence of gregarious behaviour in other tyrannosaurids as well . Fragmentary remains of smaller individuals were found alongside " Sue " , the Tyrannosaurus mounted in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago , and a bonebed in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana contains at least three specimens of Daspletosaurus , preserved alongside several hadrosaurs . These findings may corroborate the evidence for social behaviour in Albertosaurus , although some or all of the above localities may represent temporary or unnatural aggregations . Others have speculated that instead of social groups , at least some of these finds represent Komodo dragon @-@ like mobbing of carcasses , where aggressive competition leads to some of the predators being killed and cannibalized .
Currie also offers speculation on the pack @-@ hunting habits of Albertosaurus . The leg proportions of the smaller individuals were comparable to those of ornithomimids , which were probably among the fastest dinosaurs . Younger Albertosaurus were probably equally fleet @-@ footed , or at least faster than their prey . Currie hypothesized that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults , who were larger and more powerful , but also slower . Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults , filling predator niches between the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods , the largest of which were two orders of magnitude smaller than adult Albertosaurus in mass . A similar situation is observed in modern Komodo dragons , with hatchlings beginning life as small insectivores before growing to become the dominant predators on their islands . However , as the preservation of behaviour in the fossil record is exceedingly rare , these ideas cannot readily be tested . In 2010 , Currie , though still favouring the hunting pack hypothesis , admitted that the concentration could have been brought about by other causes , such as a slowly rising water level during an extended flood .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
In 2009 , researchers hypothesized that smooth @-@ edged holes found in the fossil jaws of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs such as Albertosaurus were caused by a parasite similar to Trichomonas gallinae , which infects birds . They suggested that tyrannosaurids transmitted the infection by biting each other , and that the infection impaired their ability to eat food .
In 2001 , Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior . They found that only one of the 319 Albertosaurus foot bones checked for stress fractures actually had them and none of the four hand bones did . The scientists found that stress fractures were " significantly " less common in Albertosaurus than in the carnosaur Allosaurus . ROM 807 , the holotype of A. arctunguis ( now referred to A. sarcophagus ) , had a 2 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 by 1 @.@ 38 in ) deep hole in the iliac blade , although the describer of the species did not recognize this as pathological . The specimen also contains some exostosis on the fourth left metatarsal . In 1970 , two of the five Albertosaurus sarcophagus specimens with humeri were reported by Dale Russel as having pathological damage to them .
In 2010 , the health of the Dry Island Albertosaurus assembly was reported upon . Most specimens showed no sign of disease . On three phalanges of the foot strange bony spurs , consisting of abnormal ossifications of the tendons , so @-@ called enthesophytes , were present , their cause unknown . Two ribs and a belly @-@ rib showed signs of breaking and healing . One adult specimen had a left lower jaw showing a puncture wound and both healed and unhealed bite marks . The low number of abnormalities compares favourably with the health condition of a Majungasaurus population of which it in 2007 was established that 19 % of individuals showed bone pathologies .
= = Paleoecology = =
All identifiable fossils of Albertosaurus sarcophagus are known from the upper Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta . These younger units of this geologic formation date to the early Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period , 70 to 68 Ma ( million years ago ) . Immediately below this formation is the Bearpaw Shale , a marine formation representing a section of the Western Interior Seaway . The seaway was receding as the climate cooled and sea levels subsided towards the end of the Cretaceous , exposing land that had previously been underwater . It was not a smooth process , however , and the seaway would periodically rise to cover parts of the region throughout Horseshoe Canyon before finally receding altogether in the years after . Due to the changing sea levels , many different environments are represented in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation , including offshore and near @-@ shore marine habitats and coastal habitats like lagoons , estuaries and tidal flats . Numerous coal seams represent ancient peat swamps . Like most of the other vertebrate fossils from the formation , Albertosaurus remains are found in deposits laid down in the deltas and floodplains of large rivers during the later half of Horseshoe Canyon times .
The fauna of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well @-@ known , as vertebrate fossils , including those of dinosaurs , are quite common . Sharks , rays , sturgeons , bowfins , gars and the gar @-@ like Aspidorhynchus made up the fish fauna . Mammals included multituberculates and the marsupial Didelphodon . The saltwater plesiosaur Leurospondylus has been found in marine sediments in the Horseshoe Canyon , while freshwater environments were populated by turtles , Champsosaurus , and crocodilians like Leidyosuchus and Stangerochampsa . Dinosaurs dominate the fauna , especially hadrosaurs , which make up half of all dinosaurs known , including the genera Edmontosaurus , Saurolophus and Hypacrosaurus . Ceratopsians and ornithomimids were also very common , together making up another third of the known fauna . Along with much rarer ankylosaurians and pachycephalosaurs , all of these animals would have been prey for a diverse array of carnivorous theropods , including troodontids , dromaeosaurids , and caenagnathids . Intermingled with the Albertosaurus remains of the Dry Island bonebed , the bones of the small theropod Albertonykus were found . Adult Albertosaurus were the apex predators in this environment , with intermediate niches possibly filled by juvenile albertosaurs .
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= Donald Cousens Parkway =
Donald Cousens Parkway or York Regional Road 48 , also referred to historically as the Markham Bypass or Markham Bypass Extension , is a regionally maintained arterial bypass of Markham in the Canadian province of Ontario . Named for former Markham mayor Don Cousens in April 2007 , the route initially travelled northward from Copper Creek Drive in Box Grove , south of Highway 407 , to Major Mackenzie Drive ( York Regional Road 25 ) . A southern extension to Steeles Avenue was later completed and the name Donald Cousens Parkway applied along the extension to Ninth Line . In addition to its role of funneling through @-@ traffic around downtown Markham , the route serves as a boundary to residential development as land to the north and east are part of the protected Rouge Park and southwest limits of the planned Pickering Airport .
Construction of the route began in 2002 north of 16th Avenue . In 2004 , an interchange with Highway 407 was constructed along with a connection north to Highway 7 . Both segments and the interchange were opened by December of that year . The following year , construction began to connect these two segments as well as on the Box Grove Bypass along Ninth Line ; the former opened in October 2006 and the latter in the spring of 2007 . Construction of the most recently opened segment , connecting the Box Grove Bypass to the interchange with Highway 407 , began in 2009 . It opened after several delays in 2012 and included a realignment of 14th Avenue .
Donald Cousens Parkway and a planned connection with Morningside Avenue form the East Metro Transportation Corridor , originally envisioned by the province in the 1970s as a six lane municipal expressway . During the mid @-@ 1990s , the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) conducted studies and identified the need for the corridor by 2011 . Although York had intended for a continuous alignment , the City of Toronto has opposed the direct connection between Morningside and Donald Cousens Parkway . As a result , it is now proposed to connect Morningside Avenue and Donald Cousens Parkway via a widened Steeles Avenue . However , no timeline has been announced as of 2015 .
= = Route description = =
Donald Cousens Parkway is intended to relieve north @-@ south traffic congestion on York Regional Road 68 ( Main Street , former Highway 48 ) and York Regional Road 69 ( Ninth Line ) , with signage suggesting drivers use the parkway as a through route past Markham . As trucks are prohibited along Main Street , signage guides them onto the parkway .
The road begins north of Steeles Avenue East , which serves as the boundary between Markham and Toronto . A two @-@ laned Ninth Line curves northeast after crossing and being crossed by two separate railway tracks ( the Canadian Pacific ( CP ) Havelock Subdivision and the Canadian National Halton subdivision ) and becomes Donald Cousens Parkway , expanding to four lanes and travelling along the eastern fringe of the community of Box Grove , alongside which it was built in the mid @-@ 2000s . On the west side is a new residential subdivision , while on the east side beyond the CP Havelock subdivision , which the road parallels , is the completely undeveloped Bob Hunter Memorial Park . After passing Box Grove Bypass , where for some time the route ended , the road also becomes known as Box Grove Collector Road ( BGCR ) . The route intersects 14th Avenue ( York Regional Road 71 ) and continues as before , eventually curving north and meeting Copper Creek Drive while departing from the railway tracks and park . It passes a supercenter before an interchange with Highway 407 , where it crosses over the toll route .
No longer known by the BGCR name , the route meanders north , slowly edging east towards Reesor Road and now surrounded by undeveloped greenspace . It encounters Highway 7 , north of which it becomes a divided roadway travelling on the eastern edge of Cornell as well as parallel to and alongside Reesor Road . Approaching and intersecting 16th Avenue , the road makes a broad sweeping curve northwest , continuing to serve as the boundary of urban development in Markham . It narrows to a two lane road , with adjacent land along the northern side prepared for future northbound lanes , before encountering Ninth Line again . Quickly curving north then east , sandwiched between the neighbourhood of Greenborough and Little Rouge Creek , the route makes a final curve north to end at Major Mackenzie Drive on the northern edge of urban development in eastern Markham .
A future extension , scheduled to begin construction in April 2018 , will carry Donald Cousens Parkway north , crossing over the Stouffville GO Train line on a new bridge and merging into the current southern terminus of Highway 48 . As a result of this , Highway 48 and Donald Cousens Parkway ( York Regional Road 48 ) will become the through route while Main Street will meet them at an intersection demarcating the two .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The history of Donald Cousens Parkway dates back to the 1970s , when Metropolitan Toronto and the Department of Highways ( now the MTO ) planned out the East Metro Transportation Corridor . This corridor was originally envisioned as a six lane expressway connecting Highway 401 with the planned but unbuilt Highway 407 to service the future towns of Cornell and Seaton using the greenspace between the two . However , the drive for expressway construction faded through the 1970s and 1980s as a result of opposition and the resulting cancellation of the Toronto expressway network . Studies nonetheless continued to be performed confirming the need for the route . The formation of Rouge Park in 1990 resulted in a commitment for " no new roads " through the park south of Steeles Avenue , ending the potential for any expressway proposals to be approved .
During 1994 and 1995 , the MTO conducted two studies termed the Morningside Transportation Corridor Review . While the study once again confirmed the need for the route , it also suggested that while an expressway was the ideal solution , an arterial road would be the practical solution . It also suggested that the road be a municipal route , rather than a provincial one . In 1997 , the Environmental Assessment for the Markham Bypass extension was completed , approving construction of an interchange at the future Highway 407 ( then open only as far as Highway 404 ) and a divided roadway north from there to Major Mackenzie Drive .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction on the two lane section between 16th Avenue and Major Mackenzie Drive , connecting with the north end of the Old Markham Bypass , began in 2002 , and was completed by the end of 2004 . Phase 2 , which included construction of a partial interchange with Highway 407 , began in 2004 and was completed by the end of the year ; it and the four lane section north of it to Highway 7 opened on December 17 , 2004 . In 2005 , construction began on the third phase of the bypass , connecting the southern segment at Highway 7 with the northern segment north of 16th Avenue . This four lane section opened on October 24 , 2006 . The two lane road between this new section and 16th Avenue was subsequently closed and removed . Phase 1 cost an estimated $ 19 @.@ 3 million ; phase 2 an estimated $ 5 @.@ 5 million ; phase 3 an estimated $ 10 @.@ 8 million .
On October 19 , 2006 , York Regional Council voted to rename the Markham Bypass to honour the work of mayor Don Cousens . Following this decision , a report was prepared outlining the costs ; it was presented to council on February 22 , 2007 , and a bylaw enacted . The name change became effective April 1 , 2007 .
South of Highway 407 , planning for the controversial link to Morningside Avenue has been underway since 2002 . Although York had intended for Donald Cousens Parkway to tie directly into Morningside , thus completing and arterial link the Highway 401 , Toronto has firmly opposed this direct link since 2005 due to the requirement for a new crossing of the Rouge River . After a lengthy and contentious debate between the two , the province brought in former York Region CAO Alan Wells as a mediator in 2007 . In September 2010 , York announced that it had reached a compromise to construct a discontinuous route , with Donald Cousens Parkway ending at the current Steeles Avenue / Ninth Line intersection , widening the two @-@ laned Steeles to six west of that point , and extending Morningside north to Steeles immediately east of Eastvale Drive . The Regional Municipality of York applied for and obtained environmental assessment approval for this undertaking in July 2011 and January 2013 , respectively . In July 2014 it was announced that Toronto and York would begin sharing jurisdiction over 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of Steeles west from Ninth Line in order to move forward on the planned widening project .
In the interim period since the debate erupted in 2005 , York Region and the Town of Markham began collaboration on linking Donald Cousens Parkway between Steeles and Highway 407 . Markham oversaw construction of the Box Grove Bypass ( or Ninth Line Bypass ) and Town Arterial Road , ( or Box Grove Collector Road ) , with construction carried out by it and the developers of the adjacent Box Grove community . The Box Grove Bypass was constructed by the town beginning in 2005 and opened in the spring of 2007 , partially utilizing the Donald Cousens Parkway alignment along the north side of the CP Havelock railway subdivision . Construction of the Box Grove Collector Road , between the Box Grove Bypass and Highway 407 , began in 2009 and included a realignment of 14th Avenue . The developers of the surrounding communities – Box Grove Hill Developments Inc. to the north of 14th Avenue and Box Grove Developers Group to the south – were contracted to build this section , which was scheduled for completion by December 2010 . Although a short portion between Copper Creek Drive and Highway 407 — including the unfinished ramps at the interchange — was opened by 2011 , the remainder of the project was delayed by issues involving a new railway crossing along 14th Avenue . It opened in 2012 at an estimated cost of $ 15 @.@ 5 million .
= = Future = =
The original intention of the Markham Bypass was to link Highway 48 with Highway 401 via the Morningside Avenue extension through Toronto . York Region planned for a continuous connection between the bypass and Morningside , meeting Steeles Avenue west of its intersection with Ninth Line . However , Toronto resisted , citing the environmental effects that would come from two new crossings over the Rouge River . As such , a discontinuous alignment was planned as a compromise beginning in 2010 . However , no timeline or construction has been announced regarding the widening of Steeles to six lanes or the extension of Morningside north of Oasis Boulevard .
Donald Cousens Parkway will be extended north from Major Mackenzie Drive to tie in with Highway 48 , becoming the through @-@ route in the process and completing the Markham Bypass . Poor soil conditions at a planned overpass of the Stouffville GO Train line have required several years of ongoing soil consolidation , beginning in July 2012 and scheduled for completion in the fall of 2017 . Construction is set to begin in April 2018 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Donald Cousens Parkway . The entire route is located in Markham , Ontario , within the Regional Municipality of York .
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= Today ( The Smashing Pumpkins song ) =
" Today " is a song by American alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins , written by lead vocalist and guitarist Billy Corgan . The song , though seemingly upbeat , contains dark lyrics . Corgan wrote the song about a day in which he was having suicidal thoughts , exemplified by the reference to self @-@ mutilation in the chorus . The contrast between the grim subject matter of the song and the soft instrumental part during the verses , coupled with use of irony in the lyrics , left many listeners unaware of the song 's tale of depression and desperation . The song alternates between quiet , dreamy verses and loud choruses with layered , distorted guitar similar to the noisy guitar rock of My Bloody Valentine .
" Today " was released in September 1993 as the second single from the band 's second album and major label debut , Siamese Dream . Although Corgan opted for " Cherub Rock " , the lead single from the album , to be the opening track , " Today " and its follow @-@ up " Disarm " are credited in AllMusic for popularizing the band and " sen [ ding ] [ Siamese Dream ] into the stratosphere " . " Today " has been generally well received by critics ; a Blender article described it as having " achieved a remarkable status as one of the defining songs of its generation , perfectly mirroring the fractured alienation of American youth in the 1990s . "
= = Background and recording = =
After the release and minor success of the band 's debut album , Gish , The Smashing Pumpkins were being hyped as " the next Nirvana " . However , the band was experiencing several difficulties at the time . Drummer Jimmy Chamberlin was undergoing an increasingly severe addiction to heroin ; James Iha and D 'arcy Wretzky had recently broken up their romantic relationship ; and Billy Corgan had become overweight , depressed to the point of contemplating suicide , and plagued by writer 's block . Corgan recalled that " after the first album , I became completely suicidal . It was an eight @-@ month depression , give or take a month , and I was pretty suicidal for about two or three months . " Under the pressure and other complications , the Pumpkins entered the Triclops Sound Studios in Atlanta to record the follow @-@ up to Gish .
" Today " was the first song Corgan wrote for Siamese Dream . Corgan said , " The day after I wrote ' Today , ' my manager heard it and said , ' It 's a hit , ' and I guess in a way , it was . " Corgan played the self @-@ recorded demo to producer Butch Vig and to the rest of his band , all of whom responded positively . " Today " already had a chord progression and a melody , but Corgan felt there needed to be an opening riff to the song . One day , " out of the blue , I heard the opening lick note for note in my head " , Corgan said . " When I added the opening riff , it completely changed the character of the song . Suddenly , I had a song that was starting out quiet and then got very loud . " Soon afterwards , Virgin Records executives were sent to check up on the band after hearing about their problems , but were pleased with the demo . The reaction from the executives only served to put more stress on Corgan ; as a result , he recorded most of the guitar and bass guitar parts himself , including on the finished version of " Today " .
Siamese Dream was completed after running four months after the deadline and considerably exceeding its budget . Virgin Records executives saw " Today " as the ideal lead single , but Corgan wanted " Cherub Rock " , one of the last songs written for the album , as the lead single . Ultimately , " Cherub Rock " was released first , but it was only a modest success . " Today " brought the band popularity through wide radio airplay and a successful music video .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Today " is written in the key of E @-@ flat major ( E ♭ ) and played in standard tuning . While Corgan briefly considered simply tuning the guitar down a half @-@ step and playing the song as if it were in the key of E , he said , " There was something about the E ♭ voicing that I liked . So it 's absolutely , intentionally in E ♭ , not E. " " Today " is one of the Siamese Dream songs on which Corgan took over Iha and D 'arcy 's duties on guitar and bass to ensure quality ; Wretzky later stated that Corgan " can do something in three takes where it would maybe take me 20 . "
The song , spanning three minutes and 21 seconds , begins with a one @-@ measure opening guitar riff that alludes to the E ♭ major @-@ pentatonic scale . Corgan uses this riff ( along with variations on it ) to emphasize certain parts and to indicate shifts in the song . After the riff is played four times , the rest of the band enters backed with feedback @-@ driven guitars . Ned Raggett of Allmusic commented on the song 's ability to " alternate between calmer , almost Cure @-@ like sections and the louder crunches , [ and Corgan 's ] soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ trademark guitar style taking My Bloody Valentine 's own hypnotic riffing to more accessible results . " The chorus , consisting of multiple guitar tracks playing barre chords , is an example of the band 's tendency to overdub several rhythm guitar tracks . While the song does not include a standard guitar solo , a short melodic guitar part appears during the bridge . Corgan explained : " The little guitar break over the C chord is actually a forwards sample that we laid in backwards . Then there 's a weird vocal effect that moves across the speakers , a ' yan @-@ yan @-@ yan @-@ yan ' thing , which was generated by using a Roland Space Echo to regenerate on the last word of the vocal line , ' I wanna turn you on . ' "
The dark , ironic lyrics of " Today " , describing a day when Corgan was feeling depressed and suicidal , contrast with the instrumentation . Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle said that the song is " downright pretty as rock ballads go " but that " Corgan manages to convey the exhilaration and tragic release he seeks . " Corgan told Rolling Stone that " I was really suicidal ... I just thought it was funny to write a song that said today is the greatest day of your life because it can 't get any worse . " Corgan later compared writing the lyrics of " Today " and " Disarm " to " ripping [ his ] guts out . "
= = Music video = =
The music video , directed by Stéphane Sednaoui , brought even more mainstream success to the band through repeated airplay on MTV . The video debuted in September 1993 . It was shot with low quality photographic equipment , which , like several other early Pumpkins videos , was an intentional stylistic decision . Corgan said that the plot of the video was inspired by a memory he had of an ice cream truck driver who , upon quitting his job , gave out his remaining stock of ice cream to the neighborhood children . This image was then melded with Sednaoui 's own sensibilities inspired by the film Zabriskie Point . The video is available on The Smashing Pumpkins – Greatest Hits Video Collection ( 1991 – 2000 ) DVD , released in 2001 .
The video begins with Corgan reading a comic book dressed in an ice cream man uniform . A clip of the intro to the song is played and stopped repeatedly before the song begins . Groups of two or more people are kissing each other around Corgan as he drives in an ice cream van through a desert . Corgan picks up a dress @-@ wearing Iha and the two drive for a while before stopping at a gas station , where Chamberlin and Wretzky appear as gas attendants . After Iha changes into a yellow and white cowboy outfit , the band paints the van in a multitude of colors . More people are shown kissing in the hills as the band drives away from the gas station in the van . However , Corgan is ultimately kicked out of the van , and the video ends with Corgan walking off the road wearing a cowboy hat as the van drives away .
= = Reception = =
" Today " has received generally positive reviews . Ned Raggett of AllMusic called the song an " at @-@ once storming but catchy smash single " . Johnny Black of Blender noted that the song " has achieved a remarkable status as one of the defining songs of its generation " . Robert Christgau cited " Today " as one of the highlights of Siamese Dream . However , Stylus Magazine 's Brett Hickman said " nothing can make ' Today ' sound fresh again . This is a prime example of the power that radio and MTV have in ruining a great song . " " Today " topped Eye Weekly magazine 's year @-@ end list of best singles , and also appeared at number 32 on NME 's year @-@ end list of best singles .
" Today " was one of the most successful early singles by The Smashing Pumpkins , and additionally has been recognized as one of the songs that brought the Pumpkins into the mainstream . The song was , at the time of its release , the highest @-@ charting song by the band , peaking at number four on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks . The song also reached a peak position of number 28 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks , and was one of the first Pumpkins songs to chart in the UK , peaking at number 44 . " Today " was later called one of the " hits that took the cool alternative band into stadium rock territory " by the BBC 's Dan Tallis in a review of the band 's greatest hits album , Rotten Apples , and similarly referred to as the " Smashing Pumpkins ' red carpet to the glorified frat houses of alternative rock radio " by Nick Sylvester of Pitchfork Media .
= = Other releases = =
" Today " has appeared on several Smashing Pumpkins official releases , including the band 's greatest hits album Rotten Apples and the box set Siamese Singles . A live version of " Today " performed in the band 's hometown of Chicago was included on the 1994 video release Vieuphoria and on its companion album Earphoria , and was praised as " a triumphant recording " by Pitchfork 's Chris Dahlen . A different live recording from Chicago appears on the promotional album Live in Chicago 23 @.@ 10 @.@ 95 and the song is featured on 14 volumes of Live Smashing Pumpkins . The song has also appeared in different versions on several Smashing Pumpkins bootlegs such as Unplugged : 100 % Pure Acoustic Performances , which includes unofficial live recordings and acoustic recordings .
" Today " has been included in a few compilation albums . The eighteenth volume of Indie Top 20 , a Melody Maker @-@ sponsored compilation series which serves as a " time capsule of U.K. indie music " , features " Today " as its fourth track . The song appears on a two @-@ disc MTV Dutch import , Rock Am Ring , a collection of hit singles from the early 1990s .
The song is also included in the video game Rock Band 2 .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The song has been covered for several tribute albums . A Gothic – Industrial Tribute to The Smashing Pumpkins features a dance music @-@ influenced version of the song by industrial band Shining . Solomon Burke Jr . , the son of influential soul musician Solomon Burke , contributed a " radically altered " rendition of " Today " for Midnight in the Patch : Tribute to The Smashing Pumpkins , performing the song in a Motown style . Other covers of " Today " for tribute albums include performances by Armor for Sleep on The Killer in You : A Tribute to Smashing Pumpkins and by Death Rawk Boy on Ghost Children / Friends and Enemies . The main guitar passage was also sampled by Japanese hip @-@ hop act Dragon Ash in its song " Grateful Days " . It was covered by John Craigie on his album Leave the Fire Behind . Deerhunter reinterpreted the song live in 2015 , following a legal dispute between frontman Bradford Cox and Corgan , " transforming the song 's opening riff into a 10 @-@ minute noise @-@ pop improvisation . "
= = Sales chart positions = =
= = Track listings = =
CD single
" Today " – 3 : 22
" Hello Kitty Kat " – 4 : 32
" Obscured " – 5 : 20
7 " single
" Today " – 3 : 22
" Apathy 's Last Kiss " – 2 : 42
Japanese CD single
" Today " – 3 : 22
" Hello Kitty Kat " – 4 : 32
" Obscured " – 5 : 20
" Apathy 's Last Kiss " – 2 : 42
" French Movie Theme " – 3 : 49
= = Personnel = =
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums
Billy Corgan – guitar , vocals , production
James Iha – guitar
Butch Vig – production
D 'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar
= = Accolades = =
( * ) designates unordered lists .
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= Tropical Storm Bonnie ( 2016 ) =
Tropical Storm Bonnie was a weak but persistent tropical cyclone that brought heavy rains to the Southeastern United States in May 2016 . The second storm of the season , Bonnie formed from an area of low pressure northeast of the Bahamas on May 27 , a few days before the official hurricane season began on June 1 . Moving steadily west @-@ northwestwards , Bonnie intensified into a tropical storm on May 28 and attained peak winds six hours later . However , due to hostile environmental conditions , Bonnie weakened to a depression hours before making landfall just east of Charleston , South Carolina , on May 29 . Steering currents collapsed afterwards , causing the storm to meander over South Carolina for two days . The storm weakened further into a post @-@ tropical cyclone on May 31 , before emerging off the coast while moving generally east @-@ northeastwards . On June 2 , Bonnie regenerated into a tropical depression just offshore North Carolina as conditions became slightly more favorable . The next day , despite increasing wind shear and cooling sea surface temperatures , Bonnie reintensified into a tropical storm and reached its peak intensity . The storm hung on to tropical storm strength for another day , before weakening into a depression late on June 4 and became post @-@ tropical early the next day .
Lingering over South Carolina for a few days , Bonnie brought heavy rains and widespread floods to the Southeastern United States . Rainfall totals hit 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in much of South Carolina , and exceeded 10 in ( 250 mm ) in some areas . Flooding resulted in the closure of the southbound lanes of Interstate 95 in Jasper County , and also inundated the Jasper County Sheriff ’ s Office and Detention Center . In Ridgeland , several buildings were damaged and the local wastewater treatment plant overflowed , spilling discharge into the nearby Captain Bill Creek . Damage in this county alone exceeded $ 640 @,@ 000 ( 2016 USD ) . Record @-@ breaking rainfall was observed across much of the Outer Banks ; on Hatteras Island , Cape Point Campground was closed for a week due to flooding . Two people drowned in rip currents along the coastline of the Southeast United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 24 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring an area of disturbed weather resulting from the interaction of a weakening cold front and an upper @-@ level trough . A surface area of low pressure formed late the next day , and the low eventually gained sufficient organization for the NHC to declare it a tropical depression at 5 : 00 p.m. EDT ( 21 : 00 UTC ) on May 27 . At the time , the depression was located about 435 miles ( 695 km ) southeast of Charleston , South Carolina , and moving west @-@ northwestwards in response to a low over the northwestern Bahamas and a ridge near the coast of North Carolina . Strong vertical wind shear and dry air in the region hindered strengthening , however , the depression was located over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream . In the afternoon of May 28 , a burst of deep convection developed near the northwestern part of the exposed low @-@ level circulation center ( LLCC ) , and the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Bonnie .
Despite strong southerly shear exposing the LLCC , Bonnie intensified slightly to reach its initial peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) as it turned towards the north . However , the continued effects of high wind shear and dry air caused the cyclone 's appearance to significantly degrade early on May 29 , as deep convection dissipated due to more than 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) of southerly shear . Bonnie weakened back to tropical depression strength less than an hour prior to its landfall just east of Charleston , South Carolina . Caught in weak steering currents , the depression meandered over South Carolina for over a day before degenerating to a remnant low over the northeastern portion of the state at 11 : 00 a.m. EDT ( 15 : 00 UTC ) on May 30 .
The remnant circulation continued to move slowly and erratically as it emerged off the coast on May 31 , before accelerating east @-@ northeastwards and reintensifying slightly . Amidst light wind shear and high sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) , organization improved as convection persisted near the center , and Bonnie regenerated into a tropical depression on June 2 . The next day , despite worsening conditions , a burst of convection around the center led to Bonnie once again being declared a tropical storm , simultaneously attaining a new minimum pressure of 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) . Increasing northwesterly shear and cooling SSTs soon became evident as the LLCC became exposed to the west , however Bonnie continued to maintain tropical storm strength . On the afternoon of June 4 , Bonnie began to succumb to the unfavorable conditions , and the storm weakened into a tropical depression . Early the next day , Bonnie degenerated once more into a post @-@ tropical cyclone . The storm continued moving east @-@ southeastward over the Atlantic Ocean , and eventually dissipated early the next day .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
Upon formation , a tropical storm warning was issued , covering the Savannah River to the Little River Inlet in South Carolina . These were discontinued when Bonnie weakened to a depression at 8 : 00 a.m. EDT ( 12 : 00 UTC ) on May 29 . Total rainfall accumulations in South Carolina from Bonnie peaked at 10 @.@ 43 inches ( 265 mm ) in Ridgeland . The heavy rains affected several coastal businesses expecting high numbers of tourists over the Memorial Day weekend . The heavy rains led to significant flooding , prompting the South Carolina Highway Patrol to close at least seven roads in Jasper County , including the southbound lanes of Interstate 95 . Other road closures occurred in Dorchester and Hampton counties , after flooding rendered them impassible . Across Jasper County , four buildings sustained major damage and ten others experienced minor damage , primarily within the town of Ridgeland . Water inundated both the Jasper County Sheriff ’ s Office and Detention Center , prompting the relocation of one @-@ third of its inmates . Ridgeland 's wastewater treatment plant overflowed , spilling 75 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 gallons ( 280 @,@ 000 to 380 @,@ 000 liters ) of discharge into the nearby Captain Bill Creek . Bonnie is estimated to have caused over $ 640 @,@ 000 ( 2016 USD ) in structural damage in Jasper County alone . At Charleston International Airport , a sustained wind of 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) and a gust to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) were observed ; these were the highest recorded windspeeds related to the cyclone on land .
In Georgia , precipitation reached 7 @.@ 74 in ( 197 mm ) at Oliver . In Bulloch County , several roads were inundated or closed due to high water . Some ponds exceeded their banks . Heavy rainfall , record @-@ breaking in some areas , was observed in much of the Outer Banks of North Carolina . Precipitation peaked at 8 @.@ 21 in ( 209 mm ) at the Billy Mitchell Airport in Hatteras . At that location , 7 @.@ 09 in ( 180 mm ) of rain fell on May 30 , breaking the old record set in 1940 . Furthermore , a new monthly rainfall record for the month of May was observed — 12 @.@ 67 in ( 322 mm ) of rain fell during that month . At least 7 in ( 180 mm ) of rain fell on Hatteras Island , resulting in the closure of Cape Point Campground and its online reservation system for a week . Several beach ramps were inundated with at least 6 in ( 150 mm ) of standing water and some were rendered impassible , however none were closed . Tropical Storm Colin would later combine with Bonnie to produce at least 10 in ( 250 mm ) of standing water in farmlands in Hyde and Beaufort counties , damaging young and newly planted crops .
Swells generated by Bonnie created an elevated risk of rip currents along the coastline of the Southeastern United States . Several water rescues were carried out . A 21 @-@ year @-@ old man went missing at Carolina Beach on May 28 ; his body was recovered in New Hanover County , North Carolina , three days later . Further south , the body of a 20 @-@ year @-@ old man was recovered in Brevard County , Florida , after he drowned .
When Bonnie formed on May 27 , it became the first occurrence of two pre @-@ season Atlantic storms since 2012 , and only the second occurrence since 1951 . The first storm , Alex , had formed in January .
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= Ivalice =
Ivalice ( イヴァリース , Ivarīsu ) is a fictional universe setting primarily appearing in the Final Fantasy video game series . The world was conceived by Yasumi Matsuno when he joined Square ( now Square Enix ) in 1995 , and has since been expanded upon by several games , with more yet due with the Ivalice Alliance series . Ivalice is described as a complex world with a very long history , and the stories of Final Fantasy Tactics , Vagrant Story and Final Fantasy XII are said to unfold quite close on the Ivalice map .
Though described often as a world , this was only physically true of Ivalice in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , in which Ivalice was created parallel to the real world . The ' true ' Ivalice , as witnessed in the remaining games , describes two distinct locations ; a geographical region , and a smaller kingdom , both of which belong to a larger , unnamed world . Generally , however , the term Ivalice is also used to refer to the conceptual setting , rather as one might say the Medieval world of Europe and the Mediterranean .
= = Concept and creation = =
Ivalice was created by Yasumi Matsuno as a fictional world with its own identity ; a medieval @-@ like world where magic and machine exist together . The usual elements of Final Fantasy , such as Chocobos , crystals and magic spells , blend into the setting . This setting first appeared in Final Fantasy Tactics , a game produced mostly by the team that made Ogre Battle and Tactics Ogre , and was Matsuno 's first project with Square following his departure from Quest in 1995 . Matsuno 's next game , Vagrant Story , featured several allusions to Final Fantasy Tactics , and Matsuno stated in 2004 that Vagrant Story , Final Fantasy Tactics , and Final Fantasy XII unfold quite close on the map of Ivalice , " a complex world with a very long history and the stories " .
Following Matsuno 's departure from Square Enix during development on Final Fantasy XII , Square Enix has continued to feature Ivalice in other games .
In 2011 , Matsuno stated that he never originally intended for Vagrant Story to take place in Ivalice . As a result , any references he had made of Final Fantasy Tactics in Vagrant Story , as well as Vagrant Story references in Final Fantasy XII , only serve as " fan service " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Video games = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics ( 1997 ) , a tactical role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square for the Sony PlayStation video game console , marked the first appearance of Ivalice . The game combined thematic elements of the Final Fantasy video game series with a game engine and battle system unlike those previously seen in the franchise . Final Fantasy Tactics is set in a fictional medieval @-@ inspired kingdom called Ivalice and created by Yasumi Matsuno . The game 's story follows Ramza Beoulve , a highborn cadet who finds himself thrust into the middle of an intricate military conflict known as The Lion War , where two opposing noble factions are coveting the throne of the kingdom . As the story progresses , Ramza and his allies discover a sinister plot behind the war .
In an interview with Akito Inoue , an assistant professor at the International University of Japan , Inoue mentions that Final Fantasy Tactics was made because of how casual gamers are usually put off by games with branching storylines found in Matsuno 's other titles such as Tactics Ogre .
Vagrant Story ( 1999 ) is an action role @-@ playing game featuring no shops and no player interaction with other characters ; instead , the game focuses on weapon creation and modification , as well as elements of puzzle @-@ solving and strategy . The game takes place in the fictional kingdom of Valendia and the ruined city of Leá Monde . The story centers on Ashley Riot , an elite agent known as a Riskbreaker , who must travel to Leá Monde to investigate the link between a cult leader and a senior Valendian Parliament member , Duke Bardorba . In the prologue , Ashley is blamed for murdering the duke , and the game discloses the events that happen one week before the murder .
Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is a tactical role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance . The game shares several traits with Final Fantasy Tactics , although it is not a direct sequel . The game 's story centers on four children ; Marche , Mewt , Ritz , and Doned , who live in a small town named St. Ivalice . The children are transported to a realm of the same name as their town , " Ivalice " , after discovering an ancient magical book . The story then focuses on the exploits of Marche as he attempts to return to the real world while facing opposition from those around him .
Development on the game began when Square announced its publishing agreement with Nintendo , and it was later confirmed by the producer Matsuno . The development team of Tactics Advance , Square 's Product Development Division 4 , was constructed from employees of Quest Corporation , and work began in February 2002 . This comes after Quest announced the handover of its software development team to Square , of which the former is famed for its Tactics Ogre series .
Final Fantasy XII ( 2006 ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 2 platform . It is the twelfth title in the mainline Final Fantasy series . The game introduced several innovations to the offline titles in the mainline series : an open world , a seamless battle system , a controllable camera , a customizable " gambit " system which lets the player automatically control the actions of characters ; and a " license " system which determines which abilities and equipment are used by characters .
The game takes place in the fictional land of Ivalice , where the empires of Archadia and Rozarria are waging an endless war . Dalmasca , a small kingdom , is caught between the warring nations . When Dalmasca is annexed by Archadia , its princess , Ashe , creates a resistance movement . During the struggle , she meets Vaan , a young adventurer who dreams of becoming a sky pirate in command of an airship . They are quickly joined by a band of allies ; together , they rally against the tyranny of the Archadian Empire .
On December 13 , 2006 , a Square Enix representative informed Tokyo reporters that the already announced Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings would be joined by other games in a new subseries known as the Ivalice Alliance . Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions is a PlayStation Portable and iOS port of the original Final Fantasy Tactics game . Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift is a Nintendo DS sequel to Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , albeit set in the actual Ivalice world and not an artificial illusory world , unlike its predecessor . Another title in the collection , Final Fantasy XII International Zodiac Job System , was revealed on May 8 , 2007 .
Executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu explained that the aim of the Ivalice Alliance is to " spread the word about the world of Ivalice " , and to bring more players into the franchise , with new titles not restricted to the standard role @-@ playing game genre but also tactical games and games similar to Vagrant Story . Revenant Wings director Motomu Toriyama noted that with the large and original team that worked on Final Fantasy XII , Ivalice became more Square Enix 's world than that of the former Quest team , and that the Ivalice Alliance world is thus slightly more influenced by Final Fantasy XII than the earlier Ivalice titles .
Crystal Defenders is a series of turn @-@ based strategy video games developed by MSF / Winds and published by Square Enix . It comprises several iterations released for mobile phones and through online video game delivery services . The games are set in the fictional world of Ivalice and features job classes , monsters and summoned creatures from the tactical role @-@ playing game Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift .
Fortress is the code name of a cancelled action role @-@ playing video game that was in development by Grin . Director Ulf Andersson devised the concept for Fortress and pre @-@ production began in the second half of 2008 . During development , Square Enix approached the developer and proposed making the game a spin @-@ off of Final Fantasy XII . Grin reconceived the game in the recurring Final Fantasy world of Ivalice , and included elements of Final Fantasy XII such as stylistic motifs and character designs ; additional elements included chocobos and other recurring creatures from the Final Fantasy series . It was to be released on the Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 platforms .
During development , Square Enix did not pay Grin over several months , and disapproved of the game 's Nordic art style . Grin worked to bring the game 's art style closer to the Final Fantasy series , but after six months of development was told that no funding would ever come from Square Enix , and the developer filed for bankruptcy several days later . Word of the project leaked out through art portfolios of those who worked on the project and even a tech demo surfaced . In 2011 , Fortress was thought to have been in development by an undisclosed studio , but this was also suspended and the game will not be released in any form .
Final Fantasy Tactics S is a tactical role @-@ playing game with social features and multiplayer battles . It was released in Japan on the Mobage social gaming network in May 2013 .
= = = Other media = = =
In Japan , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance 's story was expanded and broadcast in Japanese radio stations . The radio drama entitled Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Radio Edition was broadcast in four radio stations within Japan from early January 2003 to late March 2003 .
Final Fantasy XII was adapted into a manga by Gin Amou . Square Enix published the series in a total of five tankōbon volumes from December 22 , 2006 to August 22 , 2009 .
= = Setting = =
= = = Geography = = =
= = = = Kingdom of Ivalice = = = =
The events of Final Fantasy Tactics are set in the kingdom of Ivalice , which borders Ordalia in the east and the insular nation of Romanda in the north @-@ west , from which it is separated by the Larner Channel . The kingdom forms a peninsula and is composed of seven provinces which were individual kingdoms before their unification : Gallione , Lionel , Lesalia , Fovoham , Limberry , Zeltennia and Mullonde .
The insular province of Mullonde is home to the Glabados Church and is ruled separately from the royal government . In the game 's backstory , Mullonde 's territory was once connected to the mainland , but was mostly submerged by a disaster involving the Zodiac Stones and which occurred soon after Saint Ajora 's execution , with its city made into a Necrohol , a city of the dead . The city of Bervenia , Ajora 's birthplace , is governed by the Church although it is enclosed in the province of Lesalia .
Prior to the events of Final Fantasy Tactics , the Fara church dominated the kingdom of Ivalice . The remake of Final Fantasy Tactics , Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , refers to the Fara Church as Pharism . The life of Ajora saw Fara replaced with the new Glabados church which , by the time of the game , is the major religion of the kingdom . Glabados is monotheistic and intensely political , underscoring much of Ivalice history . Followers of Glabados use the word " Faram " to affirm their prayers . During the events of the game , the church is revealed to have put a large spin on history , particularly the events surrounding the life of Ajora , a messianic figure .
= = = = Leá Monde = = = =
Vagrant Story is set in the ruins of the city of Leá Monde . The kingdom of Valendia is also heavily mentioned , and a few of its locations are featured in the prologue and the ending sequence . In contrast to the other Ivalice games , magic is rare , being suppressed by religious doctrine . Other races are never mentioned , so one can assume that all other races aside from Humes have become extinct by this time .
Vagrant Story centers around the " Dark " , a formless , invisible entity . In places where the Dark runs strongest , those who died will have their corpses controlled by the dark , becoming the undead . The Dark exists within a person as negative energy that unleashes the individual 's latent power . Throughout the story , many individuals crave the powers of the Dark , which centers around the abandoned city of Leá Monde . Another mythological aspect of Vagrant Story is the Kiltia , an ancient cult which built itself upon the Dark and ancient sorcery , and of which the Müllenkamp sect is stemmed from . It can be seen that most rituals and summoning performed in the game involved ancient Kildean magic .
In Vagrant Story , the Iocus priesthood of the kingdom of Valendia is shown to use the Kildean rood as a symbol , although they follow the teachings of a saint named Iocus instead of the original Kildean teachings of the Kiltia religion of Leá Monde . Müllenkamp , founder of the city of Leá Monde featured in the story , used to be a priestess of Kiltia , and bore the rood on her back . The followers of St. Iocus are outwardly intolerant of magic , seeing it as an abomination , and yet its higher members continue to use it behind the scenes . This hypocrisy is revealed over the course of the story , though it goes unresolved .
= = = = St. Ivalice = = = =
In Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , the protagonist lives in a land called St. Ivalice . Following the characters ' discovery of the book called the Gran Grimoire , St. Ivalice was transformed into a " mirror " of the " real " kingdom of Ivalice . The races seen in the world of Tactics Advance — Bangaa , Moogle , Viera and Nu Mou — reappear in the game Final Fantasy XII , the setting of which has come to represent the " real " Ivalice . This is apparently explained as Mewt replied that Final Fantasy was his favorite game ; with the Races and elements such as Ivalice , one would assume St. Ivalice was based on Final Fantasy XII . The sequel to the game , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , also takes place in both St. Ivalice and the Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII .
= = = = Galtean Peninsula = = = =
In Final Fantasy XII , Ivalice covers three continents , Ordalia , Valendia and Kerwon . The demography consists of the known races : Humes , Bangaa , Viera , Seeq and Moogles , and other minority races . Civilization is advanced in this world where the use of a magical stone called magicite is extensive in everyday life , airships are a prominent transportation and multi @-@ story buildings cover the cityscape . Ivalice in Final Fantasy XII is designed based on a mixture of cultures . According to the game developers , these designs are inspired from a mixture of medieval Mediterranean countries , Turkish architecture , art @-@ deco from Indian architecture , the cityscape of New York and the Arabic culture found hidden in European countries . As such , many patterns are featured as geometrical and Arabesque in shape . The cityscape is also conceived by Matsuno as being dirty and weather @-@ worn , mirroring the conditions of a medieval landscape . The natural landscape also mirrors Earth 's geographical features , including large expanse of deserts and snowy mountains .
In Final Fantasy XII , the continents in Ivalice are presently home to three nations : Rozarria , Archadia and Dalmasca . There was once the Kingdom of Nabradia and the Republic of Landis in Valendia , now either destroyed or assimilated into the Archadian Empire . Strategically located between the rival neighboring empires of Archadia and Rozarria , Dalmasca 's position as a neutral buffer region between the two countries is eliminated when it is invaded by Archadia at the onset of the game . With the fall of Landis and Nabradia and its reduction to an occupied territory under Archadian rule , Dalmasca is set to play a central role in the still @-@ heated dispute between its neighbors , which is escalating once more .
The events of Final Fantasy XII are focused on the area around the Galtean Peninsula , itself located in the larger Ivalice region . This area of Ivalice is diverse in both geography and climate , ranging from the hilly , clement grasslands of southern Valendia to the deserts of Dalmasca . In Kerwon , south of Dalmasca , the lands are arid at lower altitudes , though the higher elevations are the only places in the region known to receive snow . The north of Kerwon is heavily forested , home to the dense Golmore Jungle , within which lies the magical Feywood .
These various micro @-@ climates are influenced by the magical phenomenon known as Mist , an unstable substance with the ability to cause great variation over small areas . Due to the influence of Mist , several areas of Ivalice are ' jagd ' , areas in which Mist @-@ laden winds and magicite @-@ rich soil interfere with airship mechanisms . As such , jagds tend to be harsh , lawless frontiers , uncontrolled by any nation . Physically , the peninsula area resembles Europe in the east , with the landmasses of Valendia , Ordalia and Kerwon surrounding a central body of water ( the Naldoan Sea ) on three sides . To the west , Valendia and Kerwon curve away from Ordalia , creating the Galtean Peninsula .
Mist is responsible for the existence of ' magicite ' , stones that contain magical powers due to the presence of Mist in their crystalline structure . Magicite is divided into three types ; spellstones that are used in spell casting , skystones that are installed into a component known as ' glossair rings ' that give flight to the vehicles , whether small @-@ sized bikes or large airships , and memstones that function much like recording devices . The quality of magicite depends on the quantity of Mist and not on the size or shape of the stone . The ubiquitousness of magic and magicite , as well as its cost @-@ efficiency , led to it replacing electricity and its various sources as the dominant usable energy in Ivalice .
Nethicite , another type of magicite , works by absorbing Mist , thus nullifying the effects of magic and storing vast amounts of power . Nethicite can be described as either deifacted or manufacted ( literally , god @-@ made or man @-@ made ) . During the course of the game , it is discovered that deifacted nethicite is nethicite created by the Occuria , and that the ultimate source of known pieces of deifacted nethicite is the Sun @-@ Cryst they created . Deifacted nethicite contains a large amount of magic and is known to influence the history of Ivalice .
In Final Fantasy XII , the Light of Kiltia , a polytheistic religion , is the dominant church in Ivalice , having influence in the political affairs of the region around the Galtean Peninsula . Despite this , the church maintains an apolitical stance , with its most high @-@ ranking officials banned from participating in political affairs altogether . At its head is the Gran Kiltias , being the Helgas Anastasis at the time of Final Fantasy XII , until his death during the events of the story . Like Glabados followers in Final Fantasy Tactics , Kiltias swear on the name of Faram , the Father of All , in the manner of the Christian amen . The Final Fantasy XII Ultimania Ω guide considers the Glabados Church a possible branch of Kiltia .
= = = = Purvama Lemurés = = = =
Some of the locations in the Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII returned in its sequel , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , along with a new area called Lemurés . A legendary Purvama ( Floating Continent ) raised into the skies by the god Feolthanos long ago , this land is ruled by three " Sacred Crystals " called Auraliths , which erected a barrier to shield the Purvama from the rest of the world . In Revenant Wings , the " Legend of the Floating Land " has become an ambition for Sky Pirates who seek the island for Auracite , pieces of Auralith able to allow one to summon entities called Yarhi . The ruins of Lemurés are where the Aegyl reside . During the course of the game , the main characters learn that the sealing of Lemurés was the work of the Occuria , whom Feolthanos defied prior to using the Auralith to become a god @-@ like being .
In the backstory of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , Feolthanos established a personality cult over Lemurés , labeling himself to his people as a god . Though Lemurés still had a sense of peace and paradise , in spite of Yarhi attacks , it was a false paradise due to the Aurcite draining the Aegyl of their anima as part of Feolthanos ' plan to destroy Ivalice as revenge against the Occurians .
= = = = Jylland = = = =
Taking place only a few years after Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift introduces a new region of Ivalice called Jylland . The region of Jylland is made up of the western half of the Ordalia Continent and the eastern half of the Loar Continent , with Jagd Zellea to the north of the two continents . There are five regions spread out across these two continents , which consist of smaller territories inside of them , twenty being the number of territories throughout Jylland , which contain a varying number of areas ( battlefields ) in each of them ( eighty @-@ six areas in all of Jylland ) . The towns in Jylland include Camoa , Grazston , Moorabella , Fluorgis , and Goug . Goug in particular , is a town of Moogles . Another race similar to the Aegyl also was introduced along with this game . Called Gria , these winged females are small , but pack a mean punch , specializing in three new classes and one old one . Geomancer , Ravager , and Raptor , along with the before @-@ human exclusive class Hunter were given to the Gria , and only the geomancer class uses magic .
= = = Timeline = = =
The timeline of Ivalice as presented in the games was left quite vague , and formerly other official sources had said little on the matter . A few sources have made their own conclusion on the timeline of Ivalice . The official timeline , however , was eventually given in the Final Fantasy XII Ultimania Omega , and placed the events of Final Fantasy XII before those of Final Fantasy Tactics .
There is no direct mention of Ivalice in Vagrant Story . However , several references are made ; the Kingdom of Valendia , the setting for Vagrant Story , shares its name with a continent of Ivalice appearing in Final Fantasy XII . The Kiltia religion , featured in Final Fantasy XII , was the religion of the ghost town Leá Monde , in which the story takes place . Additionally , a quotation from Arazlam J. Durai , a famous historian of Ivalice who lived 400 years after the War of the Lions ( and narrator of the Zodiac Brave Story told in Final Fantasy Tactics ) , is used at the beginning of the game , and the descriptions of several items make direct reference to the same story . This would seem to place Vagrant Story latest in the timeline , given its direct references to the events of Final Fantasy Tactics . Matsuno has said that he never intended Vagrant Story to be in the same world as Tactics and Final Fantasy XII , though he noted that Square Enix advertising might not agree .
Some confusion still persists , particularly due to the facts surrounding Saint Ajora , who was executed 1200 years prior to the events of Final Fantasy Tactics , yet in the Clan Primer of Final Fantasy XII is said to have separated from the Light of Kiltia religion shortly after its foundation , already two thousand years old . While no gender is specified in the North American release of Final Fantasy XII , in both the Japanese Clan Primer and the Ultimania timeline , Ajora is referred to as Seijo Ajora ( 聖女アジョラ , lit . Holy Woman Ajora ) , while Ajora of Final Fantasy Tactics is male .
Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift has been confirmed by the developers to take place after Final Fantasy XII , and both Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and A2 to take place " near " in time to Final Fantasy XII .
= = = Races = = =
The populations seen in Final Fantasy Tactics and Vagrant Story are essentially human . The other intelligent races who appear are hostile or monster @-@ like , such as Goblins or Ogres . Friendly intelligent races appear in later games set in Ivalice , where the human race is called Humes . Monsters and the like are thought not to exist by the general populace in Vagrant Story , with the monsters in the isolated Leá Monde all stemming from the Dark . The races are sorted by appearance and then according to the alphabetical order .
Ivalice as featured in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is populated by four main intelligent races in addition to Humes ; all of them also reappearing in Final Fantasy XII .
The Bangaa ( バンガ , Banga ) are a reptilian race living almost twice as long as Humes . Being a very socially and cognitively advanced race , they hate being called " lizards " as this is regarded as an offensive slur . Bangaa in Final Fantasy XII are often considered to be the most integrated of all races into Hume society , and are the race most friendly with the latter , as exemplified with Migelo . Bangaa possess great agility and strength , and acute senses of hearing and smell , making them excellent hunters and fighters . However , their eyesight is so poor that some wear blindfolds as part of their clothing . Their magical abilities are generally poor due to problems their unique mouth gives them when chanting magic spells . To make up for this , some Bangaa have developed exclusive high level spells for the race to use . They are also said to be distantly related to lizard men .
The Moogles ( モーグリ , Mōguri ) are a resourceful race known to be skillful in mechanics and engineering ; they were the pioneers of airship construction . They have longer , rabbit @-@ like ears and tend to have more beige or gray fur . In Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , the player is guided through the world of Ivalice by the moogles Montblanc and Nono . In Final Fantasy XII , these two characters return albeit with different roles . Although Moogles were featured in Final Fantasy Tactics only as summoned creatures , their race is mentioned in the backstory as having once lived in the Sweegy Woods .
The Nu Mou ( ン ・ モゥ , N Mou ) are a dog @-@ like race . They are short and hunched ; half the size of an adult Hume , are adept in magic and can speak with monsters . The Nu Mou 's lifespan is three times longer than that of a Hume . Two Nu Mou , Babus Swain and Ezel Berbier , appear as optional playable characters in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . All of the races have an infinite number of possible playable characters , but these two are the only Nu Mou with special sprites . In Final Fantasy XII , most of the Nu Mou appear as acolytes of the Kiltia religion , found mainly in Mt . Bur @-@ Omisace .
The Viera ( ヴィエラ , Viera ) are a rabbit @-@ like race that can live three times as long as a Hume , and divided into two subraces : The light @-@ skinned Veena and dark @-@ skinned Rava . The Viera have rabbit or deer @-@ like features , most notably their long ears . Their feet are shaped in such a way that in order to stand they must wear high heels . Their slender forms heighten their senses and speed , and although their defense is low , Viera agility and finesse are unmatched by the other races . In Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , Vieras have blue @-@ white , pale green , or purple @-@ white hair , with only a few having hair that is pure white , which is considered to be a blessing . Viera can listen to the surrounding nature and sense Mist , and can sometimes go berserk from feeling an overwhelmingly vast quantity of active Mist . In Final Fantasy XII , they live in hidden villages deep within the vast forests of Ivalice . The Viera believe themselves to be intimately tied to the " Wood " , a part of the forests themselves , and are rarely involved in matters outside the wood . A Viera that moves out of the forest , like Fran , is considered an outcast and dead to her people . Mixed breeds of Veena and Rava Viera have accustomed themselves to coexist within Hume society , dyeing their white hair . Regarding the lack of males seen , it is found that males and females live separately , only meeting when there is a need for it .
Final Fantasy XII introduces several other races to Ivalice , with varying importance in the plot of the game .
The Baknamy ( バクナムス , Bakunamusu ) are a green @-@ skinned humanoid race . Their bodies are relatively small in stature ; even as an adult , their height is only the size of a child Hume . After the kingdom of Nabradia ceased to exist , they designated the Necrohol of Nabudis as their stronghold . The Baknamy are sensitive to the air that they breathe , and living where the air is polluted due to the city 's destruction forces them to wear gas masks . The poorer and less fortunate Baknamy commit crimes to earn a living , targeting adventurers and travelers , causing Humes to view them as a despicable race .
The Garif ( ガリフ , Garifu ) of Final Fantasy XII are depicted as large , thick @-@ furred appreciators of nature and the arts of war , but disliking unnecessary violence . They have high smelling and hearing senses , which make them able hunters . The Garif prefer to adorn themselves with natural ornaments of animal bones and stones over crafted objects , with the exception of a traditional mask which is worn from birth to death . Their villages are sparsely located in the Bancour Region , and each is governed by a council led by a High Elder . Relations with other races are peaceful but rare . Garif merchants are known to trade with the nomads of Giza Plains and the Dalmascans , exchanging items such as Bancour spices . In ancient times , the Occuria granted the Garif nethicite , however the Garif 's dislike for violence hindered them from using its power .
The Helgas ( ヘルガス , Herugasu ) are a long @-@ living , highly intelligent race . Helgas are white @-@ haired , tall , thin , and have long limbs . They can communicate telepathically while asleep , and also probe into the dreams of others . Gran Kiltias Anastasis is the only Helgas who appears within Final Fantasy XII .
The Rev ( レベ , Rebe ) are a minor , feline race that appears in Skycity Bhujerba . They are deeply cultured and a bit aristocratic , and act as advisors and representatives for Marquis Halim Ondore the IV .
The Seeq ( シーク , Shīku ) are a powerful and agile porcine race possessing low intellect and described as barely able to speak human languages . Though somewhat cowardly , they are often hired as mercenaries , guards , or hunters , with a significant amount going into thievery . The Seeq are also attracted by shiny objects , often adorning themselves with such . Seeq often adorn themselves with markings of sorts , the most common being something that resembles a smiley face on their chest . Males and Females are almost impossible to distinguish , the only real sign being that females often wear some clothing on their upper bodies .
The Urutan @-@ Yensa ( ウルタン ＝ エンサ , Urutan @-@ Ensa ) are the " Lords and Masters of the Great Sea " , a name bestowed befitting their presence in the Yensa Sandsea and mastery in taming the Yensa fish for travel . Evolved from crustaceans , their bodies are thin and entirely covered by layers of clothing , which the game 's Bestiary states is either to hide their ugly bodies or to keep themselves protected from the sun . The Urutan @-@ Yensa divided into separate tribes ruled by a queen able to speak the Hume language , and are strictly territorial , attacking anyone who enters their lands . Urutan @-@ Yensa are particularly proud and attached to honor so much that requesting the aid of others outside their race results in a death penalty . They sometimes exile tribe members that show unusual aggressive and violent nature , known as the Urutan @-@ Exile .
Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings introduces two other races :
The Aegyl ( エグル , Eguru ) is a winged , humanlike race appearing in Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings . These wings count as both a blessing ( able to fly in the air ) and a curse ( resulting in a short lifespan of 40 years ) . The Aegyl dwell in the ruins of the Lemurés . They are a people without emotion and thus have no true conflict amongst themselves , but there are a few who tend to go against the will of their people ; such as Llyud . But overtime , as Auraliths were being destroyed , the Aegyl regained their emotions , with some feeling mostly rage on the sky pirates who terrorized them and Ivalice for its sins against them . Their race departed from Ivalice when Lemurés crumbled .
The Feol Viera ( フォル ・ ヴィエラ , Foru Viera ) is a sub @-@ race of the Viera , characterized by light blond hair and shorter ears than standard Viera . They are the descendants of the Aegyl chief Feolthanos who fell in love with a full @-@ blood Viera . The Feol were from birth treated as exiles by their full blood kin , cast out of the Wood to take refuge at Roda Volcano , where none dare enter . Since they have no wings , Feolthanos left the airship Galbana and the Auracite in the hopes that one day they come to him . His inheritance was received by Mydia / Judge of Wings , who decimated all that remained of his progeny to ensure that her people would never learn the truth behind their patriarch .
Lastly , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift features two other races :
The Gria ( グリア , Guria ) are a winged , humanoid race in Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift . The Gria are born with dragon @-@ like wings and horns , and excel at physical combat . All Gria featured in the game are female , but it is never stated whether all members are female or if males exist .
The Revgaji are a subspecies of the above @-@ mentioned Rev race . Their features are not as feline but they do share the pointed ears . Cid and Lezaford are members of this race .
= = = Mythos = = =
Within Final Fantasy Tactics , legends revolve around the Zodiac Brave Story , which deals with twelve knights who used the power of Zodiac Stones — magical stones engraved with symbols of the twelve Zodiac constellations — to fight against a demon summoned by an ambitious king to control Ivalice . This myth was twisted by the Glabados Church , as explained in the game 's backstory , by including St. Ajora as the leader of the Zodiac Braves .
The " Lucavi " are demons linked to the twelve Zodiac Stones who seek to gain control of Ivalice by resurrecting their defeated leader , the High Seraph , Ultima . Any person who holds a Zodiac Stone may make a contract with the Lucavian demon associated with it , and in doing so , become one with that demon . During the events of the game , the Lucavi manipulate the Glabados Church into controlling the War of the Lions to ensure enough bloodshed for Ultima 's resurrection . A thirteenth Lucavi , associated with the sun constellation Ophiuchus , can also be found in a side @-@ quest . Some of the Lucavi reappear as Totema in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , while a sub @-@ boss , Gukko , becomes a " Rukavi " before his final encounter with the party , with an appearance similar to that of a vampire @-@ type enemy . They also reappear in Final Fantasy XII as summoned Espers — with backstories that describe how they became known as Lucavi . It is also revealed that they were creations of the Occuria from Final Fantasy XII . In the new translation of the PSP version of Final Fantasy Tactics , the Zodiac Stones are also referred to as Auracite — the same stone used to summon the Yarhi and Scions ( the Lucavi ) in Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings .
Final Fantasy XII also introduces the " Occuria " , immortal beings who have no visible faces , only a pair of glowing yellow eyes seen under their floating shell @-@ like armor , surrounded by an aquamarine aura . The Occuria can become selectively invisible , and are also capable of possession , shape @-@ shifting and image projection . Referred to by some as gods , but unknown to the main religions in Ivalice , the Occuria race played a central role in the history of Ivalice , controlling all major events , such as the rise of the Dynast @-@ King Raithwall . Though peace fostered in Ivalice in the four @-@ hundred year rule after Raithwall , the Occurian Venat , apparently disgusted with its kind 's manipulations , rebelled and gave the secret of Nethicite to the Archadia 's Dr. Cid and Vayne to overthrow the Occuria and make mankind the masters of their own fate . The events of the game eventually provoke the end the " Age of Stones " ( the Occuria 's control over Ivalice ) . In Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , the Occuria were revealed to have played a part in the sealing of the Purvama Lemurés long ago , which by the present time became a land of legend that many Sky Pirates sought for its Auracite .
Revenant Wings also introduced beings known as the " Yarhi " . Also known as " Espers " to those on Ivalice , they are powerful entities created from anima , spiritual energy . Through certain elements , such as Auracite or Mist , the Yarhi can assume physical form until they are defeated in battle . They are summoned by the wielders of Auracite and obey their every command . Fourteen such Yarhi appeared in Final Fantasy XII ; the first thirteen being the Lucavi from Final Fantasy Tactics which are referred as the " Scions of darkness " , magical beings created by Occuria with great strength and intelligence . Led by Ultima , they eventually rebelled for various reasons and engaged themselves in a war dubbed the Thousand Year War against the gods ; but they were eventually defeated . Consequently , the gods bound their existence with the Glyph of the Beast , trapping them within the Mist . Any who controls the Glyph in turn controls the Scion , allowing them to operate as summoned creatures . The Fourteenth is the legendary swordsman Gilgamesh , who collects the swords of those he defeats in battle . While most fight , few like Cu Sith and the Sahaguin Namingway offer aid in other ways . Also , the viera job " Summoner " can call and use the powers of mythological gods like Kirin , Shiva , and many others .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy Tactics sold 824 @,@ 671 copies in Japan in the first half of 1997 . Since then , the total number of copies sold in Japan has reached approximately 1 @,@ 350 @,@ 000 . In the United States it reached an estimated sale of 750 @,@ 000 units as of year 2004 . As of March 31 , 2003 , the game had shipped 2 @.@ 27 million copies worldwide , with 1 @.@ 36 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 910 @,@ 000 abroad . Final Fantasy Tactics Advance sold over 440 @,@ 000 copies during its year of release in Japan , with nearly 225 @,@ 000 units being sold in its first week alone . By August 6 , 2004 , more than 1 million units of the game were sold in North America and Europe together . The War of the Lions reached the top of Japanese gaming charts , and sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in the first month of release in the United States . The game was the 53rd best @-@ selling game of 2007 in Japan at 301 @,@ 796 copies according to Famitsu magazine . The Ultimate Hits edition sold an additional 19 @,@ 488 copies in Japan . Square Enix reports that as of May 31 , 2009 , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift has sold 670 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , with 310 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan , 240 @,@ 000 copies in North America , and 120 @,@ 000 copies in Europe .
Editorials from the gaming website RPGamer.com outlined several similarities between the Catholic Church and the Church of Glabados portrayed in Final Fantasy Tactics . One editorial noted that it was a controversial move by the developers , as if the church institution " in fact worships a demon , and is evil from its god on down " . However , another editorial mentions that such controversies failed to recognize the church in question is the medieval Roman Catholic Church , and that historically such institution is known for its flaws in the past .
The Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII is considered a Japanese take on the Star Wars galaxy by a GameSpot reviewer ( in turn , Star Wars was considered an American take on Japanese jidaigeki samurai films , specifically Akira Kurosawa 's The Hidden Fortress ) . Even with the established fantasy setting , the airships and air battles gives the world a science @-@ fiction feel . Adding to the " galaxy far , far away " mood is the mingling of different races within large cities and the political unrest between the rebellion and the Empire . Because the characters primarily traverse on foot , the world of Final Fantasy XII feels vast , and reviewers enjoyed sightseeing because of the impressive visuals .
Eurogamer praised the " beautiful architecture and interaction of the various races " in Final Fantasy XII and noted that there was a " melancholy feeling " to " wandering the barren wastes " of Ivalice . In their review of Final Fantasy Tactics , IGN called the battle areas " extremely well designed and detailed to perfection " , singling out the churches as especially beautiful . GameSpot was similarly impressed with the wide varieties of " beautiful " terrains to be seen in Ivalice , from swamps to castles to " anything else you can think of " . PSXExtreme praised the feel of Lea Monde in Vagrant Story , calling it " excellently lit " in a style that brought out the " dark and moody " feeling of the game . They went on to say that the game 's " great visual presentation will go down in the books as one of the best looking [ PlayStation ] games " .
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= Westcott railway station =
Westcott railway station was a small station built to serve the village of Westcott , Buckinghamshire and nearby buildings attached to Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor . It was built by the Duke of Buckingham in 1871 as part of a short horse @-@ drawn tramway to allow for the transport of goods from and around his extensive estates in Buckinghamshire and to connect the Duke 's estates to the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway at Quainton Road . A lobbying campaign by residents of the town of Brill led to the tramway being converted for passenger use and extended to Brill railway station in 1872 , becoming known as the Brill Tramway .
Cheaply built and ungraded , and using poor quality locomotives , services on the line were very slow , initially limited to 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) . In the 1890s it was planned to extend the tramway to Oxford , but the scheme was abandoned . Instead , the operation of the line was taken over by the Metropolitan Railway in 1899 .
Following the 1933 transfer of the Metropolitan Railway to public ownership to become the Metropolitan line of London Transport , Westcott station became a part of the London Underground , despite being over 40 miles ( 60 km ) from central London . The management of London Transport believed it very unlikely that the line could ever be made viable , and Westcott station was closed , along with the rest of the line , from 30 November 1935 . The station building and its associated house are the only significant buildings from the Brill Tramway to survive other than the former junction station at Quainton Road .
= = Brill Tramway = =
On 23 September 1868 the small Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) opened , linking the Great Western Railway 's station at Aylesbury to the London and North Western Railway 's Oxford to Bletchley line at Verney Junction . On 1 September 1894 London 's Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) reached Aylesbury , and shortly afterwards connected to the A & BR line , with local MR services running to Verney Junction from 1 April 1894 . Through trains from the MR 's London terminus at Baker Street commenced on 1 January 1897 .
Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos , had long had an interest in railways , and had served as Chairman of the London and North Western Railway from 1852 to 1861 . In the early 1870s he decided to build a light railway to carry freight from his estates in Buckinghamshire to the A & BR 's line at Quainton Road . The first stage of the line , known as the Wotton Tramway , was a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) line from Quainton Road via Wotton to a coal siding at Kingswood , and opened on 1 April 1871 . Intended for use by horse trams , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers to avoid horses tripping on the sleepers .
Lobbying from the nearby town of Brill for the introduction of passenger services on the line led to an extension from Wotton to Brill railway station , at the foot of Brill Hill 3 ⁄ 4 of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from the hilltop town of Brill itself , in the summer of 1872 and the introduction of two mixed trains each day in each direction , at which time the line was renamed the Brill Tramway . The Duke bought two Aveling and Porter traction engines modified to work as locomotives for the line , each with a top speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) , although a speed limit of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) was enforced .
The Duke died in 1889 , and in 1894 the trustees of his estate set up the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ( O & ATC ) with the intention of extending the line from Brill to Oxford . The MR leased the Brill Tramway from 1 December 1899 , although the line continued to be owned by the O & ATC .
= = Services and facilities = =
Westcott station was the second station from Quainton Road , about 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Quainton Road . The station consisted of a single platform with a small wooden station building , and was immediately south of the village of Westcott , which at the time of the railway 's opening had a population of about 150 . Initially named " Westcott Siding " , the station was renamed " Westcott " shortly after opening . The station was initially built with a single low wooden platform , primarily intended for loading and unloading freight . After the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the MR introduced a single Brown Marshall passenger carriage on the line ; at this time , a short section of platform was raised to conventional height to allow access to the higher doors on the new carriage .
Limited by poor quality locomotives and the bumpy , cheaply laid track which followed the contours of the hills , trains ran very slowly in the area ; in 1882 trains took 20 minutes to travel the short distance from Quainton Road to Westcott , and 50 minutes from Westcott to Brill .
From 1872 to 1894 Westcott station was served by two passenger trains per day in each direction , and from 1895 to 1899 the number was increased to three per day . Following the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the station was served by four trains per day in each direction until closure in 1935 . Improvements to the line carried out at the time of the transfer to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad reduced journey times from Westcott to Quainton Road and Brill to 13 minutes and 28 minutes respectively .
Passenger trains generally served the station only on weekdays , although between 1903 and 1922 trains also ran on Sundays . While the village of Westcott was small , the proximity of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor made Westcott one of the busier stations on the branch in terms of passenger and goods traffic .
Despite the low frequency of service and relatively low numbers of people using the station , Westcott station was staffed ; the single employee 's responsibilities included maintaining the oil lamps on the platform and working a nearby level crossing gate . As with all employees on the line , staff at the station were contractually obliged to " devote themselves exclusively to the service , attend regularly during the appointed hours and to refrain from using improper language , cursing or swearing " . The single member of staff was provided with a house immediately adjacent to the station ; built by the Duke of Buckingham , the house bears the inscription " B & C " ( Buckingham & Chandos ) .
A small gasworks a short distance to the south of Westcott station opened in 1889 to provide power to Waddesdon Manor and to other buildings on the Rothschild 's estate . A short spur line was built from Westcott station to the gasworks , running immediately parallel to the road south from Westcott village . In 1926 the gasworks closed and was replaced by an electrical generator elsewhere on the Waddesdon Manor grounds , and the track of the spur was removed .
= = Closure = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , along with London 's other underground railways aside from the small Waterloo & City Railway , was taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . As a consequence , despite it being 43 miles ( 69 km ) from the City of London , Westcott station became part of the London Underground network . The Brill Tramway was by this time losing significant sums of money . Goods traffic had dwindled , and unlike other areas served by the former Metropolitan Railway , passenger numbers were low ; in 1932 Westcott station saw only 1 @,@ 560 passengers and had made only £ 27 ( about £ 1 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts .
Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , saw the lines beyond Aylesbury to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes , concluding that over £ 2000 ( about £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) would be saved simply by closing the Brill Tramway . As a consequence , the LPTB decided to abandon all passenger services beyond Aylesbury . The Brill Tramway was closed on 1 December 1935 , with the last trains running on 30 November .
= = After closure = =
Upon the withdrawal of London Transport services the lease expired and the railway and stations reverted to the control of the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company . With no funds and no rolling stock of its own the O & ATC was unable to operate the line , and on 2 April 1936 the entire infrastructure of the line was sold at auction . The cheapest of the 53 lots sold were the Westcott station sign and the oil lamps from the Westcott level crossing , both of which sold for one shilling . The railway house at Westcott was also sold , fetching £ 305 ( about £ 18 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) .
Metropolitan line trains ceased to run north of Aylesbury from 6 July 1936 . London and North Eastern Railway services ( British Rail from 1948 ) continued to run from London 's Marylebone station over the line to Verney Junction via Quainton Road until March 1963 . No trace of the line at Westcott remains , but the station building remains in place in the back garden of the former station house , now a private residence , and carries an exact replica of its original " Westcott " station sign . Aside from the junction station at Quainton Road , now preserved as the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre , the two buildings at Westcott are the only significant buildings associated with the Brill Tramway to have survived .
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= Hurricane Kate ( 1985 ) =
Hurricane Kate was the final in a series of tropical cyclones to impact the United States during 1985 and the latest in any calendar year to strike the country at hurricane intensity on record . The eleventh named storm , seventh hurricane , and third major hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Kate originated from the interaction of an upper @-@ level trough and tropical wave northeast of Puerto Rico on November 15 . Though the system tracked erratically during the first hours of its existence , the intensification of a region of high pressure to the cyclone 's north caused Kate to turn westward . A favorable atmospheric pattern allowed the newly developed system to intensify to hurricane intensity on November 16 , and further to Category 2 intensity three days later . Kate made its first landfall on the northern coast of Cuba at this intensity prior to emerging as a slightly weaker storm during the evening hours of November 19 . Once clear of land , it began to strengthen quickly , becoming a Category 3 and reaching its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) the following day . On November 21 , a cold front moving across the Mississippi Valley resulted in a north and eventual northeast turn of the cyclone , and Kate came ashore near Mexico Beach , Florida , as a minimal Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Gradual weakening ensued as the cyclone moved along the Southeast United States coastline , and Kate transitioned to an extratropical cyclone on November 23 , a day after exiting the coastline of North Carolina .
The threat of Hurricane Kate in Cuba prompted the evacuation of 360 @,@ 000 people . Heavy rainfall in Cuba caused numerous mudslides and flooding , killing 10 people and leading to severe agriculture damage . Wind gusts over hurricane intensity resulted in widespread power outages , significant building damage , and major crop damage . Damage totaled roughly $ 400 million , making it the most damaging hurricane to strike the island in many decades . In preparation of the system , many hurricane watches and warnings were put into effect . Hundreds of thousands of residents were evacuated , and the governor of Florida declared a state of emergency for six counties in Florida ; this was later relinquished following the relatively minor impacts of Kate . In addition , many shelters were opened . When Kate struck the Florida Panhandle , it became the first hurricane to make landfall in that location since Hurricane Eloise in 1975 . Storm surge and flooding rains destroyed much of the oyster industry , causing many people to lose their jobs in the weeks after the storm . Gusts over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) contributed to downed trees and building damage , while a combination of the wind and rain led to downed power poles . Across the remainder of the Southeast United States , several inches of rainfall led to flash flooding , damage to roadways , and major tree damage . Overall , Kate resulted in 15 fatalities and $ 700 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Before the formation of Hurricane Kate , a ridge was located across the southeastern United States for much of the autumn of 1985 ; concurrently , a major trough persisted across the western portion of the country . As a result , weather conditions across the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic Ocean in November were more typical of the pattern in late September , including sea surface temperatures of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . On November 13 , a weak tropical wave began interacting with a trough to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles . It gradually organized due to the favorable conditions , and on November 15 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the area indicated the development of a tropical cyclone . As gale force winds were already present , the system was immediately declared Tropical Storm Kate , about 240 miles ( 385 km ) northeast of San Juan , Puerto Rico .
With a ridge to its north , Kate tracked westward after developing , and an upper @-@ level low developed to the southwest of the storm . The combination of the two provided favorable outflow , allowing Kate to quickly intensify . On November 16 , the storm attained hurricane status while moving through the southeastern Bahamas . After continued strengthening , Kate made landfall at 0600 UTC on November 19 over north @-@ central Cuba with a well @-@ defined eye . When it moved ashore , Kate had a pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) and winds of about 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The hurricane maintained its well @-@ defined eye while moving across northern Cuba , and about 12 hours after making landfall , it emerged into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico just east of Havana . Over the next 24 hours , Kate re @-@ intensified off the southwest coast of Florida as it passed about 85 mi ( 135 km ) southwest of Key West . On November 20 , the Hurricane Hunters observed winds as strong as 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , and a buoy recorded a gust of 136 mph ( 219 km / h ) ; this was the highest recorded wind gust from a buoy in the Gulf of Mexico until Hurricane Lili in 2002 . Based on these observations , it was estimated that Kate attained peak winds of about 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) around 1200 UTC on November 20 .
Hurricane Kate maintained peak intensity for about 18 hours . On November 21 , a cold front moving through the Mississippi Valley deflected the hurricane to the north and northeast . The combination of cooler waters and wind shear from the front weakened Kate to an intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) by the time the hurricane struck Crooked Island near Mexico Beach , Florida late on November 21 . After landfall , Kate continued to the northeast , crossing into Georgia and weakened into a tropical storm . Kate emerged from North Carolina into the Atlantic Ocean late on November 22 . Encountering even colder waters and continued shear , the storm weakened further while turning to the east @-@ southeast . On November 23 , Kate transitioned into an extratropical cyclone to the west of Bermuda , terminating at 1800 UTC that day .
Until 2011 , Kate 's was considered the second @-@ latest hurricane landfall in the United States , behind only a cyclone in 1925 that struck on December 1 ; however , a systematic reanalysis indicated the 1925 system was only a tropical storm . In turn , Kate took the record . With Kate 's landfall , the 1985 season had six hurricanes that struck the United States , only one short of the record seven in 1886 .
= = Preparations = =
By November 18 , a hurricane warning was in effect for the southeast and central Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands . Flood warnings were issued for northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . In preparation for the hurricane 's arrival , officials forced 360 @,@ 000 people to evacuate in north @-@ central Cuba .
While Kate was moving through the Bahamas , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a hurricane warning from Jupiter to Fort Myers , Florida , including the Florida Keys . Then @-@ Governor of Florida Bob Graham declared a state of emergency for six counties in South Florida . However , it was reversed following the relatively minor effects in South Florida . Officials recommended evacuation of the Florida Keys , leading to heavy traffic on the Overseas Highway and prompting the Red Cross to open 12 shelters . Three shelters were opened in Key West , but only 500 sought individuals utilized them during the storm . Most residents chose to endure the storm in their homes . In Fort Lauderdale , schools were closed and residents of mobile homes were required to leave .
Shortly after the storm reached its peak intensity on November 20 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch from Grand Isle , Louisiana , to Cedar Key , Florida . Later that day , a portion of the watch area was upgraded to a warning from Bay St. Louis , Mississippi to St. Marks , Florida . About 20 @,@ 000 employees on oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico were evacuated , many by helicopter . The USS Lexington left port from Naval Air Station Pensacola to ride out the storm in open waters , and aircraft in the region were flown inland . About 100 @,@ 000 people along the Florida Panhandle were told to leave their houses after Governor Bob Graham issued evacuation orders in 13 counties . About 2 @,@ 000 people stayed in 34 shelters in Panama City . Roads in the region suffered traffic jams from the large volume of evacuees . Portions of the Florida Gulf Coast were threatened by Hurricane Elena earlier in the season , and some evacuees of that storm intended not to leave during Kate due to the poor shelter conditions they had experienced . Governor Graham activated 300 members of the Florida National Guard to prevent looting and to assist in evacuations . One person died from a stress @-@ induced heart attack in Chipley after evacuating . Outside of Florida , about 2 @,@ 200 people fled Grand Isle , Louisiana .
After Kate moved ashore , the NHC issued gale warnings along the East Coast of the United States from St. Augustine , Florida to Chincoteague , Virginia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean and Turks and Caicos Islands = = =
Early in its duration , Hurricane Kate sank one boat near Puerto Rico and disabled three others . The crew of five on the sunken boat were rescued after 17 hours . Several homes in northern Puerto Rico were damaged , forcing hundreds to evacuate . Flooding was also reported in Dominican Republic , including around the capital Santo Domingo .
Heavy rainfall and winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were reported in the Turks and Caicos Islands . In Jamaica , heavy precipitation caused mudslides , which in turn blocked 23 major and minor roads and destroyed many bridges , culverts , and drains . Flooding in general caused severe damage to agriculture , especially in Clarendon , Manchester , Saint Ann , Saint Elizabeth , and Trelawny Parishes . Seven fatalities were reported , while the cost to repair damage was approximately $ 3 million ( 1985 USD ) .
As Kate moved across northern Cuba , it produced strong winds that peaked at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in Sagua La Grande . Wind gusts peaked at 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) in Varadero , and winds in the capital of Havana reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . In Havana , high winds caused power outages and destroyed buildings . Waves of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) affected the city 's waterfront . Outside of Havana , the hurricane damaged sugar mills and much of the sugar cane crop ; throughout the island , the winds destroyed 3 @,@ 653 miles2 ( 9461 km2 ) of sugar cane and 34 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 37 @,@ 000 tons ) of sugar . The storm also destroyed 141 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 139 @,@ 000 long tons ; 155 @,@ 000 short tons ) of bananas and 87 @,@ 078 tonnes ( 85 @,@ 703 long tons ; 95 @,@ 987 short tons ) of other fruits and vegetables . Across the island , Kate damaged 88 @,@ 207 houses and destroyed 4 @,@ 382 others , affecting 476 @,@ 891 people . Many public buildings , including schools , were damaged . Throughout the country , Kate killed 10 people and injured about 50 people . Damage was estimated at $ 400 million , which was the highest total from all landfalling hurricanes from 1903 to 1998 , unadjusted for inflation .
= = = Florida = = =
As Kate passed to the southwest of Key West , the storm produced winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) there , with unofficial wind gusts of 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . Rainfall totals in southwest Florida were generally around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , although Key West reported 2 @.@ 08 in ( 53 mm ) of precipitation . High winds downed trees and power lines , leaving areas between Key West and Big Pine Key without power . Electrical outages contributed to a mobile home being destroyed by fire , and one person died through electrocution . Above @-@ normal tides caused minor flooding and erosion along the Florida Keys . Two people died after their boat capsized in the lower Keys .
Kate was the first hurricane to make landfall in the Florida Panhandle since Hurricane Eloise in 1975 . In the region , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 8 @.@ 32 in ( 211 mm ) in Panama City . While Kate moved ashore , it produced an 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) storm surge at Cape San Blas , causing beach and dune erosion in Gulf County . Storm surge flooding left 150 houses uninhabitable in Wakulla County . The hurricane damaged a bridge to St. George Island that had been rebuilt after Hurricane Elena , and large portions of U.S. Routes 90 and 98 were washed out or damaged . Just two months after Elena ravaged the Apalachicola Bay shellfish harvesting industry , Hurricane Kate destroyed remaining oyster beds , leaving many oystermen in the area without jobs .
Strong winds buffeted the Florida Panhandle , accompanied by one tornado and several funnel clouds . In Panama City , wind gusts reached 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , damaging two houses , a motel , and a fishing pier . The winds were strong enough to remove the roof of a two @-@ story federal building . Sustained winds blew 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) at Cape San Blas , with gusts up to 108 mph ( 174 km / h ) . Across the area , Kate severely damaged 242 buildings , mostly in Franklin County , where the storm ranked as the most devastating of the late 1900s . The storm compromised about 5 @.@ 4 mi ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) of roads in the county , and throughout the region many roads were washed out . The intense winds brought down numerous trees , some of them onto adjacent structures . One fallen tree struck a car , killing one person and injuring another . The winds also downed power poles and lines . About 90 percent of Florida 's capital city Tallahassee , or about 80 @,@ 000 people , lost power , and along the coast from Panama City to Apalachicola , the storm left about 30 @,@ 000 homes and businesses without electricity . Overall , the hurricane destroyed 325 homes along the panhandle , and about 500 buildings were severely damaged .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Light rainfall of around 1 in ( 25 mm ) from the hurricane extended into southeastern Alabama . Rainfall was much heavier in Georgia , peaking at 7 @.@ 73 in ( 196 mm ) in Bainbridge . Portions of southwestern Georgia experienced heavy damage from flash flooding and winds , and several secondary roads were washed out . Gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) downed thousands of trees , and one fallen tree killed a man west of Thomasville . The cotton , soybean , and pecan crops suffered heavy losses , estimated at around $ 50 million . Property and utility damage was also assessed at $ 50 million , and damage from flash flooding was estimated at $ 1 million . There were scattered power outages in southern Georgia , affecting fewer than 3 @,@ 000 customers by Georgia Power Company 's estimation . While Kate was moving across southeastern Georgia , it produced a 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) wind gust in Savannah . The city also reported 1 @.@ 73 in ( 44 mm ) of rainfall .
Further northeast , Charleston , South Carolina reported a wind gust of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The highest rainfall total in the state was 6 @.@ 56 in ( 167 mm ) in Hampton . The rains caused flash flooding that washed out secondary roads and a bridge . The storm knocked tree limbs onto power lines , which left about 48 @,@ 000 people without power . In Beaufort , trees fell onto four cars and a mobile home , and high waves sunk a boat . In Wilmington , North Carolina , the storm dropped 1 @.@ 99 in ( 51 mm ) of precipitation . Rains across the state caused generally minor flooding , although several cars were swept off roadways . Rising floodwaters prompted the evacuation of a nursing home in Kannapolis . Rainfall extended northward into Virginia . Damage throughout the United States was estimated at $ 300 million .
As an extratropical cyclone , Kate moved north of Bermuda and produced wind gusts of 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) on the island .
= = Aftermath = =
In the month after Hurricane Kate struck the island , the government of Cuba issued a request to the United Nations ( UN ) World Food Council for international assistance . In response , various UN member nations collectively provided $ 60 @,@ 000 for pesticides ; $ 250 @,@ 000 for herbicides , fungicides , and potato seeds ; and $ 1 @.@ 381 million in cooking oils and beans to fulfill the dietary needs of over 475 @,@ 000 people for 60 days . The Soviet Union also donated about $ 15 million worth of rice and wheat flour .
Hurricane Kate delayed a runoff mayoral election in Key West by two weeks . Shortly after the storm , the police departments of both Leon and Jackson Counties ordered a nightly curfew . Two disaster relief centers were opened in Franklin County , one in Apalachicola and the other in Eastpoint . On December 3 , 1985 , then @-@ President of the United States Ronald Reagan declared seven Florida counties as disaster areas , making them eligible to receive federal aid .
Due to the widespread power outages along the Florida Panhandle , electrical companies enlisted extra workers to repair downed lines . Officials had put a curfew in place for Tallahassee due to power outages created by the hurricane , and the curfew was lifted on November 24 after power was gradually restored and roads were cleared of debris . Police officers in the city arrested 20 people for violating curfew or creating unrest .
Some sections of coastline already suffering from severe erosion lost additional swaths of beach to a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) storm surge and strong waves . Many fishermen before and after the storm encountered diminished fish catches after the hurricane .
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= Kauri gum =
Kauri gum is a fossilized resin detracted from kauri trees ( Agathis australis ) , which is made into crafts such as jewellery . Kauri forests once covered much of the North Island of New Zealand , before Māori and European settlers caused deforestation , causing several areas to revert to sand dunes , scrubs , and swamps . Even afterward , ancient kauri fields continued to provide a source for the gum and the remaining forests .
Kauri gum formed when resin from a kauri trees leaked out through fractures or cracks in the bark , hardening with the exposure to air . Lumps commonly fell to the ground and became covered with soil and forest litter , eventually fossilising . Other lumps formed as branches forked or trees were damaged , which released the resin .
= = Uses = =
The Māori had many uses for the gum , which they called kapia . Fresh gum was used as a type of chewing gum ( older gum was softened by soaking and mixing with juice of the puha thistle ) . Highly flammable , the gum was also used as a fire @-@ starter , or bound in flax to act as a torch . Burnt and mixed with animal fat , it made a dark pigment for moko tattooing . Kauri gum was also crafted into jewellery , keepsakes , and small decorative items . Like amber , kauri gum sometimes includes insects and plant material .
Kauri gum was used commercially in varnish , and can be considered a type of copal ( the name given to resin used in such a way ) . Kauri gum was found to be particularly good for this , and from the mid @-@ 1840s was exported to London and America . Tentative exports had begun a few years earlier , however , for use in marine glue and as fire @-@ kindlers ; gum had even made up part of an export cargo to Australia in 1814 .
Since the kauri gum was found to mix more easily with linseed oil , at lower temperatures , than other resins , by the 1890s , 70 percent of all oil varnishes made in England used kauri gum . It was used to a limited extent in paints during the late 19th century , and from 1910 was used extensively in the manufacture of linoleum . From the 1930s , the market for gum dropped as synthetic alternatives were found , but there remained niche uses for the gum in jewellery and specialist high @-@ grade varnish for violins .
Kauri gum was Auckland 's main export in the second half of the 19th century , sustaining much of the early growth of the city . Between 1850 and 1950 , 450 @,@ 000 tons of gum were exported . The peak in the gum market was 1899 , with 11 @,@ 116 tons exported that year , with a value of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 989 @,@ 700 ) . The average annual export was over 5 @,@ 000 tons , with the average price gained £ 63 ( $ 103 @.@ 91 ) per ton .
= = Appearance = =
The gum varied in color depending on the condition of the original tree . It also depended on where the gum had formed and how long it had been buried . Colors ranged from chalky @-@ white , through red @-@ brown to black ; the most prized was a pale gold , as it was hard and translucent . The size of each lump also varied greatly . Swamps tended to yield the small nuggets known as " chips " , whereas the hillsides tended to produce larger lumps . The majority were the size of acorns , although some were found which weighed a few pounds ; the largest ( and rarest ) were reported to weigh half a hundredweight . Kauri gum shares a few characteristics with amber , another fossilised resin found in the Northern Hemisphere , but where amber can be dated as millions of year old , carbon @-@ dating suggests the age of most kauri gum is a few thousand years .
= = Gumfields = =
Most of the gumfields were in Northland , Coromandel and Auckland , the site of the original kauri forests . Initially , the gum was readily accessible , commonly found lying on the ground . Captain Cook reported the presence of resinous lumps on the beach at Mercury Bay , Coromandel , in 1769 , although he suspected it came from the mangroves , and missionary Samuel Marsden spoke of their presence in Northland in 1819 .
By 1850 , most of the surface @-@ lying gum had been picked up , and people began digging for it . The hillsides yielded shallow @-@ buried gum ( about 1 m ) , but in the swamps and beaches , it was buried much further down ( 4 m or below ) .
= = Gum @-@ diggers = =
Gum @-@ diggers were men and women who dug for kauri gum , a fossilised resin , in the old kauri fields of New Zealand at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries . The gum was used mainly for varnish . The term may be a source for the nickname " Digger " given to New Zealand soldiers in World War I. In 1898 , a gum @-@ digger described " the life of a gum @-@ digger " as " wretched , and one of the last [ occupations ] a man would take to . "
Gum @-@ diggers worked in the old kauri fields , most of which were then covered by swamp or scrub , digging for the gum . Much of the population was transient , moving from field to field , and they lived in rough huts or tents ( which were called " whares " , after the Maori for ' house ' ) . It was extremely hard work and not very well paid , but it attracted many Maori and European settlers , including women and children . There were many Dalmatians , who had first come to work the South Island goldfields in the 1860s . They were transient workers , rather than settlers , and much of their income was sent out of the country , resulting in much resentment from the local workforce . In 1898 , the " Kauri Gum Industry Act " was passed , which reserved gum @-@ grounds for British subjects , and requiring all other diggers to be licensed . By 1910 , only British subjects could hold gum @-@ digging licences .
Gum @-@ digging was the major source of income for settlers in Northland , and farmers often worked the gumfields in the winter months to subsidise the poor income from their unbroken land . By the 1890s , 20 @,@ 000 people were engaged in gum @-@ digging , of which 7000 worked full @-@ time . Gum @-@ digging was not restricted to settlers or workers in the rural areas ; Auckland families would cross the Waitemata Harbour by ferry at weekends to dig in the fields around Birkenhead , causing damage to public roads and private farms , and leading to local council management of the problem .
= = = Gumdigging methods = = =
Most gum was dug from the ground using gum @-@ spears ( pointed rods to probe for gum ) and " skeltons " , defined as blade @-@ edged spades for cutting through old wood and roots as well as soil . Once the gum was retrieved it would need to be scraped and cleaned .
Digging in swamps was more complicated ; a longer spear ( up to 8m ) was often used , often fitted with a hooked end to scoop out the lumps . Scrub was often cleared first with fire ; some got out of control and swamp fires could burn for weeks . Holes were often dug by teams in both hills and swamps — often up to 12m deep — and some wetlands were drained to aid in the excavation of gum . As field gum became scarce , " bush gum " was obtained by purposely cutting the bark of kauri trees and returning months later to retrieve the hardened resin . Due to the damage caused to the trees by the cutting the practice was banned in state forests in 1905 . Gum chips , small lumps useful for the manufacture of linoleum , were difficult to find , and by 1910 , the process of washing and sieving to retrieve the chips became common . The process was later mechanised .
= = Gum merchants = =
Gumdiggers generally sold their gum to local gumbuyers , who transported it to Auckland ( generally by sea ) for sale to merchants and exporters . There were six major export firms in Auckland who dealt in gum , employing several hundred workers who graded and rescraped the gum for export , packing them in cases made from kauri timber .
As early as the 1830s and 1840s , merchants , including Gilbert Mair and Logan Campbell , were buying gum from local Māori for £ 5 ( $ 8 @.@ 25 ) a ton , or trading it for goods . The majority of the gum was exported to America and London ( from whence it was distributed throughout Europe ) , although smaller amounts were sent to Australia , Hong Kong , Japan and Russia .
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= Council of Lithuania =
The Council of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos Taryba , German : Litauischer Staatsrat , Polish : Rada Litewska ) , after July 11 , 1918 The State Council of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos Valstybės Taryba ) , was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917 . The twenty men initially composing the council were of different ages , social status , professions , and political affiliations . The council was granted the executive authority of the Lithuanian people and was entrusted to establish an independent Lithuanian state . On 16 February 1918 , the members of the council signed the Act of Independence of Lithuania and declared Lithuania an independent state based on democratic principles . 16 February is celebrated as Lithuania 's State Restoration Day . The council managed to establish the proclamation of independence despite the presence of German troops in the country until the autumn of 1918 . By the spring of 1919 , the council had almost doubled in size . The council continued its efforts until the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Steigiamasis Seimas ) first met on 15 May 1920 .
= = Historical background and Vilnius Conference = =
After the last Partition of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 , Lithuania had become part of the Russian Empire . During the 19th century , both the Poles and the Lithuanians attempted to restore their independence . They rebelled during the November Uprising in 1830 and the January Uprising in 1863 , but the first realistic opportunity came about during World War I. In 1915 , Germany occupied Lithuania as its troops marched towards Russia . After the Russian Revolution in 1917 , opportunities for independence opened up . Germany , avoiding direct annexation , tried to find a middle path that would involve some kind of union with Germany . In the light of upcoming peace negotiations with Russia , the Germans agreed to allow the Vilnius Conference , hoping that it would proclaim that the Lithuanian nation wanted to be detached from Russia and wished for a closer relationship with Germany . However , the conference , held between 18 and 23 September 1917 , adopted a resolution that an independent Lithuania should be established and that a closer relationship with Germany would depend on whether it recognized the new state . On 21 September , the attendees at the conference elected a 20 @-@ member Council of Lithuania to establish this resolution . The German authorities did not allow that resolution to be published , but they did permit the council to proceed . The authorities censored the council 's newspaper , Lietuvos aidas ( Echo of Lithuania ) , preventing the council from reaching a wider public audience . The Conference also resolved that a constituent assembly be elected " in conformity with democratic principles by all the inhabitants of Lithuania " .
= = Membership = =
The twenty men initially composing the council were of different ages ( the youngest was 25 ; the oldest 66 ) , social status , professions , and political affiliations . There were eight lawyers , four priests , three agronomists , two financiers , a doctor , a publisher , and an engineer . Eight of the members were Christian democrats and seven were not affiliated . All except one had gained degrees in tertiary education . The council 's last surviving member , Aleksandras Stulginskis , died in September 1969 .
During the first meeting on September 24 , Antanas Smetona was elected as the chairman of the council . The chairman , two vice @-@ chairmen , and two secretaries made up the presidium . The vice @-@ chairs and secretaries would change from time to time , but Smetona retained the chairmanship until 1919 when he was elected the first President of Lithuania . Smetona was succeeded by Stasys Šilingas as the chairman . He was not among the original twenty members . The first change in membership took place on 13 July 1918 , when six new members ( Martynas Yčas , Augustinas Voldemaras , Juozas Purickis , Eliziejus Draugelis , Jurgis Alekna and Stasys Šilingas ) were admitted and four ( Kairys , Vileišis , Biržiška , Narutavičius ) resigned . By the spring of 1919 , the council had almost doubled in size .
= = Declaration of Independence = =
Soon after the council was elected , major developments took place in Russia . The October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power . They signed a truce with Germany on December 2 , 1917 and started peace negotiations . Germany needed some documentation of its relationship with Lithuania . In the so @-@ called Berlin Protocol Germany offered to recognize Lithuanian independence if the latter agreed to form a firm and permanent federation with Germany , based on conventions concerning military affairs , transportation , customs , and currency . The council agreed , on condition that Lithuania would decide its own internal affairs and foreign policy . The Germans rejected this proposal . On December 11 , the council adopted a resolution agreeing to a " firm and permanent alliance " with Germany on the basis of the four conventions . Only fifteen members voted for this resolution , but all twenty signed it .
The Germans broke their promise and did not recognize the state and did not invite its delegation to the negotiations of Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . Lithuanians , including those living abroad , disapproved of the December 11 declaration . The declaration , seen as pro @-@ German , was an obstacle in establishing diplomatic relations with England , France and the United States , the enemies of Germany . On January 8 , the same day that Woodrow Wilson announced his Fourteen Points , the council proposed amendments to the declaration of December 11 calling for a constituent assembly . The amendments were rejected by the Germans and it was made clear that the council would serve only advisory functions . The council was torn apart and a few members threatened to leave . On February 16 , the council , temporarily chaired by Jonas Basanavičius , decided to re @-@ declare independence , this time mentioning nothing specific about a relationship with Germany . That was left for a constituent assembly to decide . February 16 is celebrated as Lithuania 's State Restoration Day .
= = Establishing independence = =
The Germans were not satisfied with the new declaration and demanded that the council go back to the December 11 decision . On March 3 , Germany and Bolshevik Russia signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . It declared that the Baltic nations were in the German interest zone and that Russia renounced any claims to them . On March 23 , Germany recognized independent Lithuania on the basis of the December 11 declaration . However , nothing in essence changed either in Lithuania or in Council 's status : any efforts to establish administration were hindered . The form of government , however , was left undecided . Germany , ruled by a kaiser , preferred a monarchy . It proposed a personal union with the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty . As an alternative , on June 4 the council voted to invite Duke Wilhelm of Urach , Count of Württemberg , to become the monarch of Lithuania . He agreed and was elected King of Lithuania ( Mindaugas II ) on July 13 , 1918 . The decision was very controversial and four members of the council left in protest .
Germany did not recognize the new king and its relationship with the council remained tense . The council was not allowed to determine the borders of Lithuania , establish an embassy in Berlin , or begin forming a stable administrative system . It received small funds to cover its expenses only in September 1918 . The situation changed when the German Revolution started and Germany lost the war in fall of 1918 – it was no longer in a position to dictate terms . On November 2 , the council adopted the first provisional constitution . The decision to invite King Mindaugas II was annulled and this helped to reconcile the political factions . The functions of government were entrusted to a three @-@ member presidium , and Augustinas Voldemaras was invited to form the first Cabinet of Ministers . The first government was formed on November 11 , 1918 , the day that Germany signed the armistice in Compiègne . The council began to organize an army , police , local government , and other institutions . It also expanded to include ethnic minorities ( Jews and Belarusians ) . There were no women in the council , despite a petition that gathered 20 @,@ 000 signatures .
The Freedom Wars started and political processes were derailed during the turmoil . Lithuanian elections to the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania were not held until April 1920 . The council was not replaced by a parliament ( Seimas ) until August 1 , 1922 , when the Constitution of Lithuania was adopted .
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= M @-@ 3 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 3 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Detroit metropolitan area of the US state of Michigan . For most of its length , the trunkline is known as Gratiot Avenue / ˈɡræʃᵻt / . The trunkline starts in Downtown Detroit and runs through the city in a northeasterly direction along one of Detroit 's five major avenues . The highway passes several historic landmarks and through a historic district . It also connects residential neighborhoods on the city 's east side with suburbs in Macomb County and downtown .
Gratiot Avenue in Detroit was one of the original avenues laid out by Judge Augustus Woodward after the Detroit fire in 1805 . It was later used as a supply road for Fort Gratiot in Port Huron under authorization from the US Congress in the 1820s . The roadway was included in the State Trunkline Highway System in 1913 and signposted with a number in 1919 . Later , it was used as a segment of US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) before that highway was functionally replaced by Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) in the 1960s . The M @-@ 3 designation was applied to the current highway in 1973 , and a southern section was reassigned to M @-@ 85 in 2001 .
= = Route description = =
The southern end of M @-@ 3 is at an intersection between Jefferson Avenue and Randolph Street near the near entrance to the Detroit – Windsor Tunnel , the Mariners ' Church , and the Renaissance Center in downtown Detroit . This intersection also serves as the termini for M @-@ 10 and Business Spur I @-@ 375 ( BS I @-@ 375 ) . M @-@ 3 follows Randolph Street northward under the Detroit People Mover past Cadillac Square . North of Monroe Avenue , the street runs through the Randolph Street Commercial Buildings Historic District before M @-@ 3 crosses under the People Mover again and turns northeasterly along Gratiot Avenue , one of Detroit 's five major thoroughfares . This street is a boulevard setup with four lanes divided with a median or center turn lane .
Gratiot Avenue runs northeasterly through downtown , past Ford Field . Near the stadium , the street passes over I @-@ 375 ( Chrysler Freeway ) without any direct connections . On the east side of the freeway , M @-@ 3 runs past the Historic Trinity Lutheran and St. John 's @-@ St. Luke 's Evangelical churches before intersecting the end of the Fisher Freeway , which at this location is an unnumbered connector to I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 375 . Gratiot continues past the freeway on the city 's east side , bordering residential neighborhoods along the way . Through this area , it had a continuous center turn lane , losing the grassy median it had in places downtown . The highway intersects Grand Boulevard near Dueweke Park , and at Van Dyke Avenue , it intersects the southern end of M @-@ 53 . Gratiot Avenue crosses I @-@ 94 at the latter 's exit 219 near the Coleman A. Young International Airport and an adjacent industrial area .
Past the airport , Gratiot Avenue once again runs through residential neighborhoods while being immediately bordered by commercial properties . The southern end of M @-@ 97 is at the intersection between Gratiot and Gunston avenues just northeast of the Outer Drive junction by the airport . The trunkline passes the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Church near a branch location of the Detroit Public Library at McNichols Street . Just before crossing M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , Gratiot Avenue widens back to a boulevard . This intersection marks the transition from Detroit and Wayne County to Eastpointe in Macomb County .
In Macomb County , M @-@ 3 follows a boulevard setup complete with Michigan lefts at the major intersections in the suburbs of Detroit . There are a series of commercial properties between 10 Mile Road and I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) that includes the Eastgate Shopping Center in Roseville . Near 13 Mile Road , there is a partial interchange with I @-@ 94 that allows eastbound traffic , which is physically traveling northbound to access northbound M @-@ 3 and southbound M @-@ 3 traffic to access westbound I @-@ 94 . The missing connections are possible through the adjacent interchange for Little Mack Avenue on I @-@ 94 which also connects to 13 Mile Road and Gratiot Avenue . North of 14 Mile Road , M @-@ 3 crosses into Clinton Charter Township next to the Hebrew Memorial Park , a cemetery .
North of the intersection with Metropolitan Parkway , Gratiot Avenue splits into a one @-@ way pairing of Northbound and Southbound Gratiot avenues as it crosses into Mount Clemens near the Clinton River . The two separate streets are one , two , or even three blocks apart through the city 's downtown area . North of the Patterson Street intersections , the two streets cross back into Clinton Township and merge back together in four @-@ lane street with a center turn lane . North of M @-@ 59 ( Hall Road ) . M @-@ 3 clips the southeastern corner of Macomb Township near Selfridge Air National Guard Base . The highway continues into Chesterfield Township . M @-@ 3 parts from Gratiot Avenue at the intersection with 23 Mile Road , turning eastward along that roadway to an intersection with I @-@ 94 . At exit 243 , M @-@ 3 terminates at this interchange and 23 Mile Road continues easterly as M @-@ 29 .
M @-@ 3 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 3 were the 73 @,@ 957 vehicles daily south of 14 Mile Road in Roseville ; the lowest counts were the 4 @,@ 609 vehicles per day north of Cadillac Square in downtown Detroit . All of M @-@ 3 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Original designation = = =
The first trunkline to be designated M @-@ 3 was Schaefer Highway in 1937 , running north – south from US 25 ( Dix Avenue ) in Melvindale to US 16 ( Grand River Avenue ) in western Detroit . Two years later , the highway became M @-@ 39 . Since M @-@ 39 was moved to Southfield Road in the end of the 1950s , Schaefer Highway has been a locally maintained road .
= = = Current designation = = =
The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the one connecting what are now Detroit and Port Huron was one of these thirteen trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principle streets of the city , the modern Gratiot Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . Gratiot Avenue , then also called Detroit – Port Huron Road , was authorized by the US Congress on March 2 , 1827 , as a supply road from Detroit to Port Huron for Fort Gratiot . Construction started in Detroit in 1829 , and the roadway was completed in the same year to Mount Clemens . The rest was finished in 1833 . The road was named for the fort near Port Huron , which was in turn named for Colonel Charles Gratiot , the supervising engineer in charge of construction of the structure in the aftermath of the War of 1812 .
On May 13 , 1913 , the Michigan Legislature passed the State Reward Trunk Line Highway Act , which included Gratiot Avenue as part of Division 1 of the initial highway system . When the Michigan State Highway Department signposted the first state highways in 1919 , the trunkline bore the M @-@ 19 designation for its entire length from Detroit to Port Huron . In 1926 , Gratiot Avenue was redesignated as part of US 25 , while the M @-@ 19 designation was relocated westward , connecting Yale with US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue ) just north of 31 Mile Road . In 1963 , the portion of US 25 north of 23 Mile Road was turned over to local control as US 25 was routed over the newly constructed I @-@ 94 freeway , with the exception of the stretch between New Haven and Muttonville , which was again designated M @-@ 19 as an extension of that route . Between Hall and 23 Mile roads , Gratiot Avenue was added to an extended M @-@ 59 .
M @-@ 3 returned to existence in 1973 , when US 25 , now concurrent with I @-@ 94 and I @-@ 75 for most of its length through Michigan and Ohio , was truncated at Cincinnati . The former US 25 section of Gratiot Avenue was redesignated M @-@ 3 , along with a southwestern extension down Fort Street to Clark Avenue ( I @-@ 75 exit 47A ) . This also provided an international connection via the Ambassador Bridge to Ontario 's Highway 3 . The signs were changed over in February 1974 to complete the change .
At the end of 2000 , MDOT proposed several highway transfers in Detroit . Some of these involved transferring city streets in the Campus Martius Park area under the department 's jurisdiction to city control ; another part of the proposal involved MDOT assuming control over a section of Fort Street from the then northern terminus of M @-@ 85 to the then southern terminus of M @-@ 3 at Clark Street . When these transfers were completed the following year , M @-@ 3 was severed into two discontinuous segments by the Campus Marius changes , and the southern segment between Clark and Griswold streets was added to an extended M @-@ 85 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Aarhus =
Aarhus ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈɒːhuːˀs ] ; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 31 December 2010 ) is the second @-@ largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus municipality . It is located on the east coast of the Jutland peninsula , in the geographical centre of Denmark , 187 kilometres ( 116 mi ) northwest of Copenhagen and 289 kilometres ( 180 mi ) north of Hamburg , Germany . The inner urban area contains 264 @,@ 716 inhabitants ( as of 1 January 2016 ) and the municipal population is 330 @,@ 639 ( as of 2016 ) . Aarhus is the central city in the East Jutland metropolitan area , which had a total population of 1 @.@ 378 million in 2016 .
The history of Aarhus began as a fortified Viking settlement founded in the 8th century and with the first written records stemming from the bishopric seated here from at least 948 . The city was founded on the northern shores of a fjord at a natural harbour and the primary driver of growth was for centuries seaborne trade in agricultural products . Market town privileges were granted in 1441 , but growth stagnated in the 17th century as the city suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish Wars . In the 19th century it was occupied twice by German troops during the Schleswig Wars but avoided destruction . As the industrial revolution took hold , the city grew to become the second @-@ largest in the country by the 20th century .
Today Aarhus is at the cultural and economic core of the region and the largest centre for trade , services and industry in Jutland . The city ranks as the 92nd largest city in the European Union , and as number 234 among world cities . It is also a top 100 conference city in the world . Aarhus is the principal industrial port of the country in terms of container handling and an important trade hub in Kattegat . Major Danish companies have based their headquarters here and people commute for work and leisure from a wide area in Region Midtjylland . It is a centre for research and education in the Nordic countries and home to Aarhus University , Scandinavia 's largest university , including Aarhus University Hospital and INCUBA Science Park . Being the Danish city with the youngest demographics , with 48 @,@ 482 inhabitants aged under 18 , Aarhus is also one of the fastest growing Danish cities , with an average growth of 4 @,@ 000 people per annum since 2010 .
Aarhus is notable for its musical history . In the 1950s many jazz clubs sprang up around the city , fuelled by the young population . By the 1960s , the music scene diversified into rock and other genres . In the 1970s and 1980s , Aarhus became the centre for Denmark 's rock music fostering many iconic bands such as TV @-@ 2 and Gnags . Aarhus is home to the annual eight @-@ day Aarhus International Jazz Festival , the SPoT Festival and the NorthSide Festival .
= = Etymology = =
In Valdemar 's Census Book ( 1231 ) the city was called Arus , and in Icelandic it was known as Aros , later written as Aars . It is a compound of the two words ār , genitive of ā ( " river " , Modern Danish å ) , and ōss ( " mouth " , in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for " river delta " ) . The name originates from the city 's location around the mouth of Aarhus Å ( Aarhus River ) . The spelling " Aarhus " is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th century .
Aarhus / Århus spelling
With the Danish spelling reform of 1948 , " Aa " was changed to " Å " . Some Danish cities resisted the new spelling of their names , notably Aalborg and Aabenraa . Århus city council explicitly embraced the new spelling , as it was thought to enhance an image of progressiveness . In 2010 , the city council voted to change the name from " Århus " to " Aarhus " in order to strengthen the international profile of the city . The renaming came into effect on 1 January 2011 .
Certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city , such as the Aarhus River , changed from " Århus Å " to " Aarhus Å " . It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative . Whichever spelling local authorities choose most newspapers and public institutions will accept it . Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee , publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary , still retain " Århus " as the main name , providing " Aarhus " as a new , second option , in brackets .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Founded in the early Viking Age , Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark , along with Ribe and Hedeby .
Achaeological evidence under the Aros settlement 's defences indicate the site was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th century , considerably earlier than had been generally supposed . Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig unearthed half - buried longhouses , firepits , glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s . Archaeologists have conducted several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s revealing wells , streets , homes and workshops . In the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers , everyday utensils like combs , jewellery and basic multi @-@ purpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been found .
The centre of Aarhus was once a pagan burial site until Aarhus ' first church , Holy Trinity Church , a timber structure , was built upon it during the reign of Frode , King of Jutland , around 900 . In the 900s an earth rampart for the defence of the early city was constructed , encircling the settlement , much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere . The rampart was later reinforced by Harald Bluetooth , and together with the town 's geographical placement , this suggests that Aros was an important trade and military centre . There are strong indications of a former royal residence from the Viking Age in Viby , a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre .
The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported the bishop Reginbrand attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany . The bishopric and the town 's geographical location propelled prosperous growth and development of the early medieval town . The finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000 , as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them . The era was turbulent and violent with several naval attacks on the city , such as Harald Hardrada 's assault around 1050 , when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
The growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus , with its bishopric , into a prosperous religious centre . Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the city ; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12th century by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen . In 1441 Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th century . The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus ' birth certificate .
The official and religious status spurred growth so in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts , ringing the town since the Viking age , were abandoned to accommodate expansion . Parts of the ramparts are still in existence today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside and they have also survived in some place names in the inner city , including the streets of Volden ( The Rampart ) and Graven ( The Ditch ) . Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th century . In 1657 octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades . Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling , with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares , Mejlgade and Studsgade . The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built .
In the 17th century , Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state . It was not until the middle of the 18th century growth returned in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city ; particularly grain proved to be a remunerative export . The first factories were established at this time as the industrial revolution reached the country and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade .
= = = Industrialisation = = =
Following the Napoleonic wars , Denmark lost Norway and was excluded from international trade for some years which caused a recession for Aarhus ' trade based economy that lasted until the 1830s . The economy turned around as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam @-@ driven machinery became more productive .
In 1838 , the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council . The rules were initially very strict allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run . In the 1844 elections only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7 @,@ 000 . The first city council , mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists , quickly looked to improve the harbour , situated along the Aarhus River . Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical . In 1840 , the harbour was moved to the coast , north of the river where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years . From the outset , the new harbour was controlled by the city council , as it is to this day .
During the First Schleswig War Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849 . The city was spared any fighting , but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland . The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets , particularly in Frederiksbjerg , are named after Danish officers of the time . Fifteen years later , in 1864 , the city was occupied again , this time for seven months , during the Second Schleswig War .
In spite of wars and occupation the city continued to develop . In 1851 octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade . Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun in 1830 and in 1862 Jutland 's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers .
In the second half of the 19th century industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products , especially oil and butter . Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus . The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus ' local brewery for more than 150 years , gradually expanding into an industrial district known as Ceres @-@ grunden ( lit . : the Ceres @-@ grounds ) . In 1896 local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet ( KFK ) , focused on grain and feedstuffs . KFK established departments all over the country , while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today . Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874 , focusing on butter export to England , China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883 , the first Danish margarine factory . The industry became an important employer , with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1 @,@ 000 in 1931 , effectively transforming the city from a regional trade hub into an industrial centre . Other new factories of note include the dockyard of Flydedokken and the oil mill of Århus Oliefabrik , both located at the harbour , and Frichs , a machine factory initiated in 1854 .
Aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the " Capital of Jutland " . The population increased from 15 @,@ 000 in 1870 to 52 @,@ 000 in 1901 and in response the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg , Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg . Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as the Aarhus Theatre ( 1900 ) , the national library ( 1902 ) , Aarhus University ( 1928 ) and several hospitals .
= = = Second World War = = =
On 9 April 1940 , Germany invaded Denmark , occupying Aarhus the following day and 5 years hence . The occupation was a destructive period with major disasters , loss of life and economic depression . The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany . Combined , these factors resulted in a strong German presence , especially in 1944 @-@ 45 . The first years were peaceful in conjunction with the policies of the Danish Protectorate Government , but following the enactment of the Communist Law in August 1941 , the first armed resistance and sabotage commenced , gradually growing in intensity over the years with repression and terror in response .
Small , independent resistance groups first appeared in 1941 @-@ 42 but the first to coordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group , responsible for most operations from early 1943 . The Samsing group , along with others in and around Aarhus , was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe " Thora " Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities . In response , requests for assistance was sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation . The 5 Kolonne group was established with assistance from Holger Danske to restore a resistance movement in Aarhus along with the L @-@ groups , tasked with assassinating collaborators . Resistance operations escalated from mid @-@ 1944 with most major sabotage operations and assassinations occurring in the period 1944 @-@ 45 . The growing resistance was countered with 19 Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter Group from August 1944 , including large @-@ scale fire bombings and murders . The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in 1944 , destroying much of the harbor and damaging the inner city . On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out in Aarhus between the resistance and German soldiers resulting in 22 dead . Order was restored by the end of the day and on 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city .
= = = Post @-@ World War II years = = =
In the 1980s the city entered a period of rapid growth and the service sector overtook trade , industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time . Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected . The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education . The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism ; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively , and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2 , Gnags , Thomas Helmig , Bamses Venner , Anne Dorte Michelsen , Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel .
Since the turn of the millennium both skyline and land use has changed as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts . Starting in 2007 , the former docklands are being converted to a new mixed use district dubbed " Aarhus Ø " ( Aarhus Docklands ) . The site of the former Royal Unibrew Ceres breweries began redevelopment in 2012 into " CeresByen " , a residential district with educational institutions . The former DSB repair facilities at Frederiks Plads have been demolished and are being developed into a new business district with high @-@ rise buildings scheduled for completion in 2017 . The main bus terminal is planned to be moved to the central railway station by 2018 and the current site will be made into a new residential district . Construction of the first light rail system in the city commenced in 2013 , with the first increment to be finished in 2017 . The light rail system is planned to eventually tie many of the suburbs closer to central Aarhus . The next phase will connect a large planned suburb west of Lisbjerg .
Accelerating growth since the early 2000s brought the inner urban area to roughly 260 @,@ 000 inhabitants by 2014 . The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = Geography = =
Aarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast . Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland . A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail , including Randers ( 38 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 9 mi ) by road north ) , Grenå ( northeast ) , Horsens ( 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south ) and Silkeborg ( 44 kilometres ( 27 mi ) east ) .
= = = Topography = = =
At Aarhus ' location , the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of 10 m ( 33 ft ) quite close to the shore . Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord , but the original fjord no longer exists , as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake , due to natural sedimentation . The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests , remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north . Several larger lakes extend west from the Skanderborg railway junction and the landscape rises to heights exceeding 152 metres ( 499 ft ) at Himmelbjerget , forming part of the larger region called Søhøjlandet .
The hilly area around Aarhus consists of a moranial plateau from the last ice age , broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys . The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south , stretching inland east @-@ west with the Aarhus River , Brabrand Lake and Tåstrup Sø ( Tåstrup Lake ) and the Egå Valley to the north , with the stream of Egåen , Kasted Mose ( Kasted Bog ) and Geding Sø ( Geding Lake ) . Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed , but recently some of the drainage was removed for environmental reasons . The valley system also includes the Lyngbygård Å ( Lyngbygård River ) in the west and valleys to the south of the city , following erosion channels from the pre @-@ quaternary . By contrast , the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys . The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene ( 57 to 24 million years ago ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Aarhus is in the humid continental climate zone ( Köppen : Dfb ) and the weather is influenced by low @-@ pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year . Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May , warmer summer months from June to August , frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months , often with snow and frost , from December to March . The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds , more fog , less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding , open land .
Western winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark . In addition , Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher , colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland . Combined these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country . Average temperature over the year is 8 @.@ 43 ° C ( 47 ° F ) with February being the coldest month ( 0 @.@ 1 ° C ) and August the warmest ( 15 @.@ 9 ° C ) . Temperatures in the sea can reach 17 to 22 degrees Celsius in June to August , but it is not uncommon for beaches to register 25 degrees Celsius locally .
The geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low @-@ lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located . Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result the valley has a very mild , temperate climate . The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist @-@ retaining boulder clay . These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1 – 2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides .
Because of the northern latitude , the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter . On the summer solstice , the sun rises at 04 : 26 and sets at 21 : 58 , providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight . On the winter solstice , it rises at 08 : 37 and sets at 15 : 39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight . The difference in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes .
= = Politics and administration = =
Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality and Aarhus City Council ( Aarhus Byråd ) is also the municipal government . The Mayor of Aarhus until 2017 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats . Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November . The city council consists of 31 members elected for four @-@ year terms . When an election has determined the composition of the council , it elects a mayor , two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks . Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality .
The first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919 . In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities . Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform , which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region ( Region Midtjylland ) , seated in Viborg .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
Aarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing ( national Parliament ) . The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality . Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9 . The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C , Aarhus N , Aarhus V , Viby J , Højbjerg and Brabrand .
= = = Environmental planning = = =
Aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning . The city council has identified a number of environmental targets for the coming years within energy efficiency and aquatic environment . The targets are designed to provide the guidelines for green growth in the city . In accordance with national policy , Aarhus aims to be CO2 neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030 . These goals have materialised in a plan to increase multiple @-@ source heat production and the waste and district heating service AffaldVarme Aarhus is building a combined heat and power plant running on biofuels .
Aarhus has been heavily involved with several large @-@ scale water treatment projects on many levels in the last two decades and more will follow in the future . The initiatives are part of a larger and broader action plan for Aarhus municipality , that aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle . This should protect against or clean up previous pollution and encourage green growth and self @-@ sufficiency . One of the main tasks is to deal with the large quantities of excessive nutrients in and around Aarhus , primarily nitrogen and phosphorus . A second task is to tackle the increasing levels of precipitation brought about by current and future climate change , and a third important task is to secure fresh , clean and safe drinking water for the future .
Aarhus Municipality and the city council have attacked the challenges from different angles in a constructive collaboration with private partners . Many new underground rainwater basins have been built across the city in recent years . The two lakes of Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively . Large expanses of forest have been planted in vulnerable land areas in order to secure drinking water and avoid groundwater pollution from pesticides and other sources . Since 1988 , the New Forests of Aarhus have been developed to assist in binding CO2 , securing drinking water , protecting groundwater from pollution , dealing with excessive nutrients , increasing biodiversity , creating an attractive countryside , providing easy access to nature and offering outdoor activities to the public . The afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners , under a larger national agenda , and there are new afforestation objectives to double the forest cover in Aarhus municipality , before the year 2030 .
= = Demographics = =
Aarhus has a population of 261 @,@ 570 on 91 square kilometres ( 35 sq mi ) for a density of 2 @,@ 874 / km2 ( 7 @,@ 444 / sq mi ) . Aarhus municipality has a population of 330 @,@ 639 on 468 km2 with a density of 706 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 829 / sq mi ) . Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area . The population of Aarhus is both younger and better @-@ educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions . More than 40 % of the population have an academic degree while only some 14 % have no secondary education or trade . The largest age group is 20- to 29 @-@ year @-@ olds and the average age is 37 @.@ 5 , making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities . Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years .
The city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist and Hindu communities . Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small . The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church , Church of Denmark , which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole . Some 20 % of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion , a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years .
Aarhus has the highest ratio of immigrants in Denmark , 14 @.@ 8 % of the population , outside the Copenhagen area . During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in recent years , there has been high growth in the overall immigrant community , from 27 @,@ 783 people in 1999 to 40 @,@ 431 in 2008 . The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world , comprising some 25 @,@ 000 people from 130 different nationalities , with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and north Africa . Some 15 @,@ 000 have come from within Europe , with Poland , Germany , Romania and Norway being the largest contributors .
Many immigrants have established themselves in Brabrand , Hasle and Viby , where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66 % since the year 2000 . This has resulted in several ' especially vulnerable residential areas ' ( a.k.a. ghettos ) , with Gellerup as the most notable neighbourhood . In Brabrand and Gellerup , two thirds of the population now have a non @-@ Danish ethnic background . The international cultures present in the community are an obvious and visible part of the city 's daily life and contribute many cultural flavours hitherto uncommon for the Nordic countries , including Bazar Vest , a market with shopkeepers predominantly of foreign descent .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge and service based , strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry . The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city is transitioning away from manufacturing . Trade and transportation remain important sectors benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network . Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture long has been a marginal employer within the municipality . The municipality is home to 175 @,@ 000 jobs with some 100 @,@ 000 in the private sector and the rest split between state , region and municipality . The region is a major agricultural producer , with many large farms in the outlying districts .
The job market is knowledge and service based and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services , trade , education , consulting , research , industry and telecommunications . The municipality has more high and middle income jobs , and fewer low income jobs , than the national average .
Today the majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade , transport and media . The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus , and the larger region of Midtjylland , and nationally most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area . The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality making it a central component in the local economy . The biotech industry is well established in the city with many small and medium @-@ sized companies mainly focused on research and development .
The city has become a leading centre for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries with expansive shopping centres , the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many specialty shops . People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers , Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities .
Several major companies have their headquarters in Aarhus such as Arla Foods , one of the largest dairy groups in Europe , Dansk Supermarked , Denmark 's largest retailer , Jysk , a world @-@ wide retailer specializing in household goods , bedding , furniture and interior design , Vestas , one of the major wind turbine producers worldwide , and several leading retail companies . In total four of the 10 largest companies in the country are based in the municipality . Since the early 2000s the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula . Other large employers of note include Krifa ( a trades union organisation ) and 5R , a telemarketing company , while metallurgy and electronics remain important sectors .
= = = Port of Aarhus = = =
The Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark , processing more than 50 % of Denmark 's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world . It is a municipal self @-@ governing port with independent finances . The facilities handle some 9 @.@ 5 million tonnes of cargo a year ( 2012 ) . Grain is the principal export , while feedstuffs , stone , cement and coal are among the chief imports . Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008 .
The ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand . It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830 . Currently Mols @-@ Linien operates the route and annually transports some 2 million passengers and a million vehicles . Additional roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals . Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea .
= = = Tourism = = =
The ARoS Art Museum , the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark 's top tourist attractions . With a combined total of almost 1 @.@ 4 million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular . The city 's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists , as are festivals , especially NorthSide and SPOT . Many visitors arrive on cruise ships : in 2012 , 18 vessels visited the port with over 38 @,@ 000 passengers .
In the 2010s there has been a significant expansion of tourist facilities , culminating in the opening of the 240 @-@ room Comwell Hotel in July 2014 , which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25 % . Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750 @,@ 000 a year , most of them Danes from other regions , the remainder coming mainly from Norway , Sweden , northern Germany and the United Kingdom . Overall , they spend about DKK 3 billion ( $ 540 million ) in the city each year . The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture , family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark . The average stay is little more than three days on average .
There are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city , some of them staffed , while others are on @-@ line , publicly accessible touch screens . The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAaarhus , a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations .
= = = Research parks = = =
Over the past ten years , Aarhus has been one of Denmark 's most rapidly developing centres of research in information technology , energy , media , life sciences , food , architecture and design . Enterprises in the Information and communications technology ( ICT ) sphere work in collaboration with the city 's research institutes . In 2007 the three largest research parks of Forskerpark Aarhus ( Science Park Aarhus ) , Forskerpark Skejby ( Science Park - Skejby ) and IT @-@ Huset Katrinebjerg , merged to form INCUBA Science Park . Forskerpark Skejby , which works in the field of biomedical research , and the Katrinebjerg department - focusing on ICT - has since been expanded and in 2014 the new department of INCUBA Navitas opened on the Aarhus Docklands .
One of the major research companies is Systematic A / S , working in the public sector , healthcare and defence . The IT City Katrinebjerg , fosters collaboration between research , education and industry through the university branches of Department of Computer Science , Department of Aesthetics and Communication and Alexandra Institute . In the clean energy sector , Aarhus is home to leading participants including Vestas , AVK , Amplex and Kamstrup . The Navitas Park at the docklands is a new information and innovation park bringing together players in the energy , environment and building sectors . The centre is sponsored by Aarhus University School of Engineering , Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering ( AAMS ) and INCUBA .
= = Cityscape = =
Aarhus has developed in stages , from the Viking age to modern times , all visible in the city today . Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque , Gothic , Renaissance , Baroque , Rococo , National Romantic , Nordic classicism , Neoclassical , Empire and Functionalism . The city has grown up around the main transport hubs , the harbour and later the railway station and as a result , the oldest parts of the city are also the most central and busiest today .
The streets Volden ( lit Rampart ) and Graven ( lit . Moat ) testify to the defences of the initial Viking settlement and Allégaderingen in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement . The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow , curved streets and low , dense housing by the river and coast . Vesterport ( lit . Western Gate ) still bears the name of a medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways Posthussmøgen and Telefonsmøgen are remnants of toll stations from that time . The inner city has the oldest preserved houses , especially the Latin Quarter , with buildings dating back to the early 17th century in Mejlgade and Skolegade . Medieval merchants ' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade , Studsgade and Skolegade .
= = = Landmarks = = =
Aarhus Cathedral ( Århus Domkirke ) in the centre of Aarhus , is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at 93 m ( 305 ft ) and 96 m ( 315 ft ) in length and height respectively . Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13th century , it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries . Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300 , it took more than a century to build ; the associated cathedral school of Aarhus Katedralskole was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world . Another important and historic church in the inner city , is the Church of our Lady ( Vor Frue Kirke ) also from the 13th century in Romanesque and Gothic style . It is smaller and less impressive , but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060 ; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia . Parts of this former church were excavated in the 1950s and can now be experienced as a crypt beneath the nave of Vor Frue Kirke . Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country ; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989 . Marselisborg Palace ( Marselisborg Slot ) , designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles , was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898 . The Aarhus Custom House ( Toldkammeret ) from 1898 , is said to be Hack Kampmann 's finest work .
Tivoli Friheden ( lit . Tivoli Freedom ) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction . Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark . The early buildings of Aarhus University , especially the main building completed in 1932 , designed by Kay Fisker , Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture . The City Hall ( Aarhus Rådhus ) from 1941 with an iconic 60 m ( 200 ft ) tower clad in marble , was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style .
= = Culture = =
Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals , museums , theatres and sports event and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark . There is a long tradition here in music of all genres and many Danish bands have emerged from Aarhus . Libraries , cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in , engage in or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds .
Selected as European Capital of Culture in 2017 , Aarhus prides itself on offering a combination of innovation , media and communication together with architecture and design , and has a wide variety of cultural institutions . The city is a member of the ICORN organisation ( International Cities of Refuge Network ) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin . The State Library ( Statsbiblioteket ) at the university campus has status of a national library .
= = = Museums = = =
Aarhus has many museums and two of the largest in the country measured by the number of visitors , Den Gamle By and ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum . Den Gamle By ( The Old Town ) , officially Danmarks Købstadmuseum ( Denmark 's Market Town Museum ) , presents Danish townscapes from the 16th century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods . 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right .
ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum , the city 's main art museum is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18th century to the present day as well as paintings , installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world . The iconic glass structure on the roof , Your Rainbow Panorama , was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city .
The Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark 's prehistory , including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man . Kvindemuseet , the Women 's Museum , from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history . The Occupation Museum ( Besættelsesmuseum ) presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War ; the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5 @,@ 000 species of animals , many in their natural surroundings ; and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium . Kunsthal Aarhus ( Aarhus Art Hall ) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting , sculpture , photography , performance art , film and video . Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre and one of the oldest in Europe , built and founded in 1917 .
= = = Libraries and community centres = = =
Libraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres . They play an active role in the cultural life and host many events , exhibitions , discussion groups , workshops , educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens . In June 2015 , the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front . Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services , commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place . The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has ever undertaken . Apart from this large main library , some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities , but on a more local scale .
There are also several cultural and community centres scattered throughout the city . This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken , facilitating events for and by non @-@ commercial associations , organisations and clubs , and activities for the elderly , the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard , with workshops , events and exhibitions , and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The city enjoys strong musical traditions , both classical and alternative , underground and popular , with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset , the opera of Den Jyske Opera , Aarhus Symfoniorkester ( Aarhus Symphony Orchestra ) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium ( Royal Academy of Music , Aarhus / Aalborg ) . Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia , with seating for 3 @,@ 000 people . Other major music venues include VoxHall , rebuilt in 1999 , the recently opened Atlas , Train nightclub at the harbourfront , and Godsbanen , a former railway station .
Since the 1970s , the city has seen major developments on the rock scene , with the arrival of many acclaimed bands such as Kliché , Under Byen , Gnags , TV @-@ 2 , Michael Learns to Rock , Nephew , Carpark North , Spleen United , VETO , Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to popular individual performers like Thomas Helmig , Anne Linnet and Medina . Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS ( Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik ) has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA ( Dansk Rock Samråd ) , which promotes Danish rock music in general .
The acting scene in Aarhus is diverse , with many groups and venues including Aarhus Teater , Svalegangen , EntréScenen , Katapult , Gruppe 38 , Godsbanen , Helsingør Teater , Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as several dance venues like Bora Bora and Granhøj Dans . The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival , International Living Theatre ( ILT ) , the next event being scheduled for 2017 . The former goods station of Aarhus Godsbanegård has recently been thoroughly renovated , redeveloped and expanded with a new building . Now known as Godsbanen , it functions as a cultural centre , and offers numerous workshops for the artist community and local citizens .
= = = Events and festivals = = =
Aarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals , concerts and events , with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide @-@ ranging , along with large sports events . It is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia , always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September , transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds .
Regarding music , the eight @-@ day Aarhus International Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city . It was founded in 1988 and takes place in either July , August or September every year . There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus . NorthSide Festival presents well known bands every year in mid June on large outdoor scenes . It is a new event , founded in 2010 , but grew from a one @-@ day event to a three @-@ day festival in its first three years , now with 35 @,@ 000 paying guests in 2015 . Spot festival is aiming to showcase up @-@ and @-@ coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city . The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark , including Aarhus . Danmarks grimmeste festival ( lit . Denmark 's ugliest Festival ) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen , Brabrand .
Apart from the Aarhus Festuge , Aarhus also hosts specific recurring events , dedicated to various art genres . Initiated in 2009 , Sculpture by the Sea , Aarhus is a very popular bi @-@ annual month @-@ long outdoor sculpture exhibition on the beaches south of Aarhus . The 2015 event included sculptures from 24 countries and attracted an estimated half a million visitors . International Living theatre ( ILT ) is another bi @-@ annual festival established in 2009 , but with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale . The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world , by presenting the best stage art companies of the world , while at the same time attracting stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large . The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival . Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits , concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities . There are several clubs , discos and cafés aimed at gays and lesbians , including Danish D @-@ lite ( sports ) , Gbar ( nightclub ) and Gaia Vandreklub ( hiking club ) .
= = = Parks , nature and recreation = = =
The beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills to the north and south , and apart from the city centre of Midtbyen , sandy beaches forms the coastline of the entire municipality . The public seabath of Den Permanente below Riis Skov and close to the harbour area , offers the only sand beach in the city centre . As in most of Denmark , there are no private beaches in the municipality , but access to the seabath requires a membership , except in the summer .
The relatively mild , temperate marine climate , allows for outdoor recreation year round , including walking , hiking , cycling and outdoor team sports . Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes . Watersports like sailing , kayaking , motor boating , etc. are also popular , and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter , they can also be practised most of the year . Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists , radiate from the city centre to the countryside , providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience . This includes the 30 kilometre long pathway of Brabrandstien , encircling the Brabrand Lake . The long @-@ range hiking route Aarhus @-@ Silkeborg , starts off from Brabrandstien .
Aarhus has an unusually high number of parks , 134 of them , covering a total area of around 550 ha ( 1 @,@ 400 acres ) . The central Botanical Gardens ( Botanisk Have ) from 1875 are a popular destination , as they include The Old Town open @-@ air museum and host a number of events throughout the year . Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens , they are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world , including a section devoted to native Danish plants . Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses , exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world . Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park , recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees . The Memorial Park ( Mindeparken ) at the coast below Marselisborg Palace , offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings , picnics or events . Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park ( Rådhusparken ) and Marienlyst Park ( Marienlystparken ) . Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988 , situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded , but it is the largest park in Aarhus , including woodlands , large open grasslands and soccer fields .
Marselisborg Forests and Riis Skov , has a long history for recreational activities of all kinds , including several restaurants , hotels and opportunities for green exercise . There are marked routes here for jogging , running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly . This includes running events , cycle racing and orienteering , the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars and the biennial event Sculpture by the Sea , Aarhus , all attracting thousands of people . A new event will replace Sculpture by the Sea in 2017 . Marselisborg Deer Park ( Marselisborg Dyrehave ) in Marselisborg Forests , comprises 22 ha ( 54 acres ) of fenced woodland pastures with free @-@ roaming sika and roe deer . Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests , is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands , presenting different eras of Denmark 's prehistory . Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present . Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves , buildings from the Iron Age , Viking Age and medieval times , with grazing goats , sheep and horses in between .
= = = Food , drink and nightlife = = =
Aarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world , especially Mediterranean and Asian , but also international gourmet cuisine , traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine . Among the oldest restaurants are Rådhuscafeen ( lit . The City Hall Café ) , opened in 1924 , serving a menu of traditional Danish meals and Peter Gift from 1906 , a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes . Former restaurant Malling & Schmidt was at the forefront of developing the New Nordic Cuisine for several years , but closed in 2012 when the couple relocated their restaurant to Skagen and later became involved with other projects , including cooking for the International Space Station . In Aarhus , New Nordic can currently be experienced at Kähler Villa Dining , Hærværk and Domestic , but local produce can be had at many places , especially at the twice weekly food markets on Frederiksbjerg .
Appraised high @-@ end gourmet restaurants serving an international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj , Restaurant Varna , Miró , Nordisk Spisehus , Det Glade Vanvid , La Pyramide , Restaurant ET and Dauphine , all considered among the best places to eat in Denmark . In Denmark , restaurants in Aarhus was the first outside Copenhagen to receive Michelin @-@ stars since 2015 .
Vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre , often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as Pølsevogne ( lit. sausage wagons ) , traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs , sausages and other fast food . There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi , kebab and currywurst . The city centre is packed with cafés , especially along the river and the Latin quarter . Some of them also includes an evening restaurant such as Café Casablanca , Café Carlton , Café Cross and Gyngen .
Aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife that tends to concentrate in the inner city , but not exclusively . The nightlife offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable night clubs serving champagne and cocktails and small or large music venues with bars , dance floors and lounges . Well established places where you can have a drink and socialise , include the relaxed Ris Ras Filliongongong offering waterpipes and an award winning beer selection , Fatter Eskild where you can experience a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock , the wine and book café of Løve 's in Nørregade , Sherlock Holmes , a British @-@ style pub with live music , the brew pub of Sct . Clemens with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant and Thorups Kælder , a tavern located in rooms built by Cistercian monks in the 1300s .
The Århus Set ( Danish : Århus Sæt ) is a set of drinks often ordered together , named for the city and consisting of two beverages , one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter , both originally from Aarhus . Ordering " a set " suffices in most bars and pubs . Aarhus Bryghus is a local microbrewery with a sizeable production . The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their brews are available there , in most larger well @-@ assorted stores in the city and in some bars and restaurants as well . They also export .
= = = Local dialect = = =
The Aarhus Danish dialect , commonly called Aarhusiansk ( Lit . : Aarhusian ) , is a Jutlandic dialect ( Danish : Jysk ) in the Mid @-@ Eastern Jutland dialect area , traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus . Aarhusian , as most local dialects in Denmark , has diminished in use through the 20th century and most people today speak some version of Standard Danish with regional features although it still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants .
Common or traditional Aarhusian words are : træls ( tiresome ) , noller ( silly or dumb ) and dælme ( Excl. damn me ) . The dialect is notable for single syllable words ending in " d " being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple syllable words is pronounced as " j " , i.e .. Odder is pronounced " Ojjer " . Like other dialects in East Jutland it has two grammatical genders , similar to Standard Danish , but different from West Jutlandic dialects which have only one .
In 2009 the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures , who best exemplify the dialect , including Jacob Haugaard , Thomas Helmig , Steffen Brandt , Stig Tøfting , Flemming Jørgensen , Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin . In popular culture the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros ' movie Aarhus By Night and 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard .
= = Sports = =
Aarhus has three major men 's professional sports teams : the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastik Forening ( AGF ) , Danish Handball League 's Aarhus GF Håndbold , and Danish Basketball League 's Bakken Bears . Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900 , Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub . NRGi Park has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men 's soccer team in 2006 and 2007 . The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre . The Bakken Bears have most recently won the Danish basketball championships in 2011 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 .
The municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city , providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports . The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one . Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics , Handball and Badminton .
In recent decades , many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city , such as street football , basketball , climbing walls , skateboarding and beach volley . Several natural sites also offer green exercise , with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking . The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example .
Aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship , the 2014 European Men 's Handball Championship , the 2013 Men`s European Volleyball Championships , the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships , the Denmark Open in badminton , the UCI Women 's Road Cycling World Cup , the 2006 World Orienteering Championships , the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup ( women 's handball ) . Aarhus is on average host to one or two international sailing competitions every year and hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships in 2008 and will in 2018 host the ISAF Sailing World Championships , the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines and an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics .
= = Education = =
Aarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region . It draws students from a large area , especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula . The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities . Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark , fully 12 % of those living there attending short , medium or long courses of study . In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education , several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business . The city is home to more than 55 @,@ 000 students .
On 1 January 2012 Aarhus University ( AU ) was the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled . It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings . The university has approximately 41 @,@ 500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1 @,@ 500 Ph.D. students . It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas , from the traditional spheres of natural science , humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry . Aarhus Tech is one of the largest business academies in Denmark , teaching undergraduate study programmes in English , including vocational education and training ( VET ) , continuing vocational training ( CVT ) , and human resource development . The Danish School of Media and Journalism ( DMJX ) is the oldest and largest of the colleges , offering journalism courses since 1946 . In 2014 it had approximately 1 @,@ 700 students . In 1974 it became an independent institution conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level . In 2004 , the school collaborated with Aarhus University to establish the Centre for University studies in Journalism , offering master ’ s courses in journalism , and granting degrees through the university .
The Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus ( Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium ) is a conservatoire , established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927 . In 2010 , it merged with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg , which was founded in 1930 . Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik , it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching , and solo and professional musicianship . VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds , throughout the Central Denmark Region . It offers over 50 higher educations , taught in Danish or sometimes in English , with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects . Aarhus School of Architecture ( Arkitektskolen Aarhus ) was founded in 1965 . Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen , it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark . With an enrolment of approximately 900 students , it teaches in five main departments : architecture and aesthetics , urban and landscape , architectonic heritage , design and architectural design . Also of note is KaosPilots and several other higher education centres .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transport = = =
The main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre . DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and beyond . Two local railways provide commuter services to Grenaa and Odder . The Aarhus Letbane is a planned tram @-@ train project that will link two railway lines with a new light rail route through the city . Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen ( lit . : The Central Station Square ) or both .
Regional and Inter @-@ city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal , located 900 metres north @-@ west of Banegårdspladsen , in front of the Radisson SAS Scandinavia hotel at Margrethepladsen . The long @-@ distance buses of linie888 connect Aarhus to other cities in Jutland and Zealand .
Ferries administered by Danish ferry company Mols @-@ Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand . The ferries comprises HSC KatExpress 1 and HSC KatExpress 2 , the world 's largest diesel powered catamarans , and HSC Max Mols .
Aarhus Airport , is located on Djursland , 40 km ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Aarhus near Tirstrup and provides transport to both Copenhagen and international destinations . The larger Billund Airport is situated 95 km ( 59 mi ) south @-@ west of Aarhus . There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to Aarhus for many years , but so far , no plans have been realised . In August 2014 , the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour .
Aarhus has a free bike sharing system , Aarhus Bycykler ( Aarhus City Bikes ) . The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in the release slot , like caddies in a supermarket . The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned . Bicycles can also be hired from many shops .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Aarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital , one of six Danish " Super Hospitals " officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector . The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the former hospitals Skejby Sygehus , the Municipal Hospital , the County Hospital , Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital . It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 150 patient beds , across five locations . In 2012 construction of Det Nye Universitetshospital ( The New University Hospital ) began which ending in 2019 will centralize all departments by expanding the former Skejby Sygehus to 410 @,@ 000 square metres ( 4 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with an additional 50 @,@ 000 square metres ( 540 @,@ 000 sq ft ) for a new psychiatric center . The hospital is divided in four clinical centers , a service center and one administrative unit along with twelve research centers . It was ranked the best hospital in Denmark in 2011 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 .
Private hospitals specialized in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well . Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark . Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6 @,@ 000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility . Aagaard Clinic , established in 2004 , is another private fertility and gynecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births . Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialized services in the areas of nutrition , exercise , sex , smoking and drinking , activities for the elderly , health courses and lifestyle .
= = Media = =
The first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was Århus Stiftstidende , established in 1794 as Aarhuus Stifts Adresse @-@ Contoirs Tidender , with a moderately conservative approach . Once one of Denmark 's largest , it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time , but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from Demokraten ( 1884 @-@ 1974 ) and Jyllands @-@ Posten , both published in Aarhus . In 1998 , it merged with Randers Amtsavis and is now run by Midtjyske Medier , part of Berlingske Media . The daily newspaper of Jyllandsposten ( today known as Jyllands @-@ Posten ) was established in 1871 in Aarhus , and takes a generally right @-@ wing editorial approach . With a reputation as a serious news publication , the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular , but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper ( Morgenavisen Jyllands @-@ Posten ) in the 1960s . Today it is one of the three leading serious newspapers in Denmark , the others being Berlingske and Politiken . Jyllands @-@ Posten publishes JP Aarhus , a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus , and the free cityguide website of Aarhusportalen ( The Aarhus Portal ) . The Copenhagen @-@ based media company of Politiken , also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden . In Aarhus , they publish a total of five local newspapers ; Aarhus Midt , Aarhus Nord , Aarhus Vest , Aarhus Syd and Aarhus Weekend .
Danmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees . It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme , provides local contributions to DR P4 , and produces local regional television programmes . In 1990 , TV 2 established its Jutland headquarters in Randers but moved to Skejby in northern Aarhus in 1999 . The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes . Since 2012 , it has run its own TV channel , TV 2 Østjylland . Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus , transmitting since 1984 . After an agreement on 1 July 2014 , TVAarhus can be watched by 130 @,@ 000 households in Aarhus , making it the largest cable transmitted local TV channel in Denmark .
With over 1 @,@ 700 students , the Danish School of Media and Journalism ( Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole ) is the country 's largest and oldest school of journalism . The school works closely with Aarhus University where the first journalism course was established in 1946 . In 2004 , the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism , which offers master 's courses .
= = Twin towns and consulates = =
Aarhus is home to 32 consulates and the city is twinned with seven cities , all co @-@ operating in the spheres of public schools , culture , welfare and commercial interests .
Twin towns / sister cities
Consulates
= = Notable people = =
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= Homer Defined =
" Homer Defined " is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 17 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer accidentally saves the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant from meltdown by arbitrarily choosing the emergency override button via a counting rhyme . He is honored as a hero and receives praise from his daughter Lisa , but he starts to feel unworthy because he knows that his so @-@ called heroism was just luck . Meanwhile , Bart is downhearted after learning that Milhouse 's mother has forbidden him to spend time with Bart anymore .
The episode was written by freelance writer Howard Gewirtz and directed by Mark Kirkland . Basketball player Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles Lakers made a guest appearance in the episode as himself , becoming the first professional athlete to do so on the show . He appears in two sequences , one of which sees him calling Homer to congratulate him on saving the plant . The second appearance comes later in the episode in a basketball game sequence that Lakers sportscaster Chick Hearn also guest stars in .
The episode has received generally positive reviews from critics , particularly Johnson 's appearance . In its original airing on the Fox network , " Homer Defined " acquired a 12 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating — the equivalent of being watched in approximately 11 @.@ 69 million homes — and finished the week ranked 36th .
= = Plot = =
At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , Homer is eating doughnuts . One of them splatters onto the nuclear reactor core 's temperature dial , which is nearing the red zone . Homer fails to see the warning and the plant approaches a nuclear meltdown . He seems to be the only person who can stop it , though he has no skills and cannot remember any of his training ( due to being distracted and occupied with a Rubik 's Cube at the time ) . In desperation , he chooses a button at random with a counting rhyme , which miraculously averts the meltdown . Springfield is saved and Homer is hailed as a hero . Mr. Burns names Homer " Employee of the Month " . Homer 's family is also proud of him , especially Lisa , who starts to see him as a role model . Meanwhile , Homer himself is troubled by the fact that his so @-@ called heroism was nothing but luck , and his gloomy mood deepens when he receives a congratulatory phone call from Magic Johnson , who tells Homer " People like that are eventually exposed as the frauds they are " .
Burns introduces Homer to Aristotle Amadopoulos , the owner of the nuclear power plant in Shelbyville , Springfield 's neighbor town . Amadopoulos wants Homer to give a pep talk to his plant 's lackluster workers . Homer is hesitant to accept , but Burns forces him into it . At the Shelbyville plant , he gives a fumbling motivational speech . Suddenly an impending meltdown threatens the Shelbyville plant . Amadopoulos and Homer go to the control room , and Amadopoulos asks Homer to avert the meltdown . In front of everyone , Homer repeats his rhyme and presses a button blindly . By luck , he again manages to avert a meltdown . Amadopoulos thanks Homer for saving the plant , but angrily berates him for his stupidity . Soon the phrase " to pull a Homer " , meaning " to succeed despite idiocy , " becomes widely used and is entered into the dictionary .
In the subplot , the relationship between Bart and his friend Milhouse has changed . On the bus ride to school , Bart is upset to discover that Milhouse had held a birthday party without inviting him . It turns out that Milhouse 's mother , Luann Van Houten , thinks Bart is a bad influence on Milhouse and has banned him from seeing Bart , a decision Milhouse is downbeat about but makes no effort to defy . Suddenly deprived of his friend , a depressed Bart resorts to playing with Maggie . When Marge finds out about the situation , she decides to visit Luann . Marge admits that Bart is a " bit of a handful , " and she explains that he and Milhouse are best friends and only have each other , so she asks Luann to allow the boys to play together . Later , Milhouse invites Bart over to his house , and Bart thanks Marge for standing up for him .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by freelance writer Howard Gewirtz . It was one of many stories he pitched to the producers of the show . According to executive producer Al Jean , Gewirtz 's script ended up featuring one of the longest first acts ( an act being the amount of time between commercial breaks ) in the history of the show when the episode was completed . Gewirtz 's script originally contained two uses of the word " ass " , once from Bart and once from Burns . This was the first time a character in the show had used this word , and it led to problems with the network censors . Eventually , the censors forced the producers to remove one instance , so that Bart 's line was changed to " bad influence , my butt . "
Basketball player Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles Lakers guest stars in the episode as himself . He was the first professional athlete to do so on the show . Johnson appears in two sequences : first in a scene in which he calls to congratulate Homer on saving the plant , and later in the episode during a basketball game when he " pulls a Homer " by accidentally getting the ball into the basket after slipping on the floor . The recording of the episode was done during the National Basketball Association 's regular season , so the producers had a hard time scheduling Johnson 's session . With the deadline approaching , the producers traveled to Johnson 's home to record his lines . According to the San Jose Mercury News , the recording equipment brought to his home did not work at first and " almost doomed the guest spot . " Lakers sportscaster Chick Hearn also guest stars in the episode , commentating on the game that Johnson plays .
Another guest star that appeared in the episode was actor Jon Lovitz , who provided the voice for Aristotle Amadopoulos and a minor character that appears in a soap opera . This was Lovitz 's third appearance on the show . The character Amadopoulos that he played was designed to look like the Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis . The character 's dialogue was written to emulate Lovitz 's comedic style , such as his ability for rapid mood swings . Amadopoulos returned a few episodes later in " Homer at the Bat " , though in that episode he was voiced by cast member Dan Castellaneta rather than Lovitz .
Milhouse 's mother , Luann Van Houten , makes her first appearance in this episode . She was designed to look very similar to Milhouse . Maggie Roswell was assigned to voice the character and she originally based it on Milhouse , who is voiced by Pamela Hayden . The producers felt that her impression sounded out of place so she ended up using a more normal sounding voice . It was Gewirtz who in this episode gave Milhouse his last name , Van Houten , which he got from one of his wife 's friends .
Director Mark Kirkland wanted the Springfield Power Plant to " look the best it had to date " and inserted shadows and back @-@ lighting effects to make the panels in Homer 's control room glow .
= = Reception and analysis = =
In its original airing on the Fox network , the episode acquired a 12 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 11 @.@ 69 million homes . It finished the week of October 14 – 20 , 1991 , ranked 36th , down from the season 's average rank of 32nd . It ranked second in its timeslot behind The Cosby Show , which finished 24th with a 15 @.@ 5 rating . The episode was tied with In Living Color as the highest rated show on Fox that week .
" Homer Defined " has received generally positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , described it as an excellent episode that added new depth to the show in the scene with Marge trying to convince Luann to let Milhouse play with Bart again . They added that Lisa 's " faith in her heroic father makes a nice change " , and said that the episode 's ending , in which Homer enters the dictionary , " is most satisfying . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide commented that after the episode " Bart the Murderer " , this episode marks a regression , saying it was almost inevitable that it would not match up to the previous episode . He went on to say that the subplot with Bart and Milhouse was more entertaining . Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 4 / 5 rating , writing that he enjoyed the Homer story but found the Bart and Milhouse subplot more interesting . He added that " Milhouse 's mom won 't allow him to play with Bart because she thinks Bart is a bad influence . It 's rare for the show to allow Bart to feel genuine emotion , but there is plenty of it in this episode that makes for a nice character oriented story . "
Johnson 's performance has also been praised . In 2004 , ESPN released a list of the top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking his appearance at number 27 . Sports Illustrated listed Johnson 's cameo as the fifth best athlete guest appearance on The Simpsons . Meyers wrote that the episode " makes a lot of good points about the public making heroes in a rash , hysterical manner , " and this point is made " with an amusing cameo by Earvin ' Magic ' Johnson " . The San Diego Union 's Fritz Quindt said the animators " did [ Johnson 's ] likeness good , " and noted that in the game the " colors on the Lakers jerseys and the Forum court were correct . Chick Hearn and Stu Lantz were almost lifelike , announcing at courtside in Sunday @-@ color @-@ comics sweaters . And Chick 's play @-@ by @-@ play was so real Stu couldn 't get a word in . " Johnson 's appearance was broadcast on CNN 's Sports Tonight the day before the episode originally aired , and host Fred Hickman stated that he did not find it humorous .
In his book Watching with The Simpsons : Television , Parody , and Intertextuality , Jonathan Gray discusses a scene from " Homer Defined " that shows Homer reading a USA Today with the cover story : " America 's Favorite Pencil – # 2 is # 1 " . Lisa sees this title and criticizes the newspaper as a " flimsy hodge @-@ podge of high @-@ brass factoids and Larry King " , to which Homer responds that it is " the only paper in America that 's not afraid to tell the truth : that everything is just fine . " In the book , Gray says this scene is used by the show 's producers to criticize " how often the news is wholly toothless , sacrificing journalism for sales , and leaving us not with important public information , but with America 's Favorite Pencil . "
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= From the Ages =
From the Ages is the third full @-@ length studio album by American rock band Earthless . It was released on October 8 , 2013 by Tee Pee Records . It had been six years since the band ’ s last full @-@ length studio album , Rhythms from a Cosmic Sky , as all three members of Earthless were pre @-@ occupied with other matters , including other bands .
The album comprises four songs , all instrumental , and was recorded in two days . Much of the album ’ s material had existed in the band ’ s live repertoire before – in particular the album 's title track had been released in an early form on the band 's 2008 live album Live at Roadburn – and the rest of it was created during the recording sessions and rehearsals . Despite the band 's preference for analog tape , the title track had to be recorded digitally to accommodate its length .
The album was released to mostly positive critical reaction , with criticisms usually directed at the length of the material ( and of the title track in particular ) amid praises for its composition and depth . A number of publications cited the album as one of the best 2013 releases on year @-@ end lists . Earthless earned two nominations at the San Diego Music Awards , and From the Ages became the band ’ s second album to win the Best Hard Rock Album award there .
= = Background and recording = =
Earthless ' last studio album , Rhythms from a Cosmic Sky , had come out in 2007 , and their live album Live at Roadburn ( on which an early version of " From the Ages " was recorded ) in 2008 ; further releases had been delayed since then as members of Earthless were becoming increasingly pre @-@ occupied with other matters . Constant touring in 2008 and 2009 kept the band out of the studio , drummer Mario Rubalcaba began playing with Off ! and guitarist Isaiah Mitchell became involved with Howlin ' Rain . Mitchell also moved to northern California , which reduced the available time to rehearse with Earthless ( who are based in San Diego ) . After three rehearsals , the band recorded the album in two days , recording much of it live the first day and additional details the following day , in San Francisco with producer Phil Manley in his studio , Lucky Cat Recording .
= = Song information = =
The songs on the album began as " very loose , general ideas " according to Rubalcaba , who also said " Violence of the Red Sea " was the most organized , structured song on the album ( although he later said the same of the title track ) . Eginton wrote the bass lines for " Violence of the Red Sea " , inspired by funk and " prog @-@ psych " bands from the UK and Europe . The song , which had been included in the band 's concert setlist for the last few years prior to recording , was named after the combination of riffs and tempos which " collid [ ed ] together like an angry sea " . The song 's finale was present in the band 's repertoire for almost a decade and was used to close the song for the tension it created , whereas the opening of the song was considered more of a " laid back groove " . After Rubalcaba and Eginton had outlined the song 's bass guitar and drum parts in Mitchell 's absence ( due to now living elsewhere ) , Mitchell was allowed to improvise lead guitar over them when he was able to play with the duo .
" Uluru Rock " was named after the Uluru rock formation in Australia , as an homage to the country , and was written by Mitchell and Eginton through improvisations while they waited for Rubalcaba to get on stage to begin the band 's first show in the country At the time the band had not been to the landmark . As a tribute to the natives , the song was specifically named Uluru as opposed to Ayers Rock , the landmark 's other official name . " Uluru Rock " became the opening song on the band 's setlist for all shows thereafter .
" Equus October " was born out of a song that the band were considering discarding because they were never able to finish it until they entered the studio and changed their minds , wanting more material on the album . They decided to use a riff from it only as an interlude that ran 30 seconds long , but they came up with more ideas about what to do with it during the mixing process , eventually increasing the length of the song . Rubalcaba explained that the bass guitar line remained a constant fixture on jam sessions between himself and Eginton , and they decided to give it a chance by recording it at the album 's sessions . Once Mitchell also began adding material to the song , Rubalcaba felt it started taking on a " strong & majestic yet mournful " sensation , almost as if it were about a ritualistic sacrifice . He later discovered the ritual of the October Horse and based the song 's title on that of the ritual . " It took on the feeling I had about the jam & how it just completely comes crashing down so abruptly at the end , " he explained . Expanding the song in the studio led the group to want to use it as an interlude that leads into the album 's title track .
" From the Ages " was recorded for the band 's live album Live at Roadburn five years before and , being very long , was described by Rubalcaba as " a bastard to play [ and relearn ] " . The band wanted to record it in as few takes as possible in spite of its length , which they addressed by recording the song in Pro Tools as they expected it could be up to forty minutes long ; in the past they used analog tape which only allowed for about twenty minutes of music but , according to Rubalcaba , yielded the best recording quality . Earthless rehearsed " From the Ages " for three days before recording it in about three takes . In the last five minutes of the song , the band very gently ease into the end , to avoid having to end the song abruptly . Although he had said the same of " Violence of the Red Sea " with respect to the album itself in a previous interview , Rubalcaba later described " From the Ages " as the most organized , planned song the band had yet ever recorded , let alone recorded for this album . He described the mixture of influences in the song as " A supreme psycho @-@ delic buffet served up with all the sour Kraut , all the freshest sushi Japan has to offer & what not " . Rubalcaba reiterated the " pre @-@ historic , caveman , dry & mysterious wasteland feel " that inspired the title . The song expanded constantly during rehearsals and evolved after its debut on Live at Roadburn .
= = Release and reception = =
From the Ages was released on October 8 , 2013 , by Tee Pee Records . The artwork was created by artist Alan Forbes , whose work Rubalcaba commended as " captur [ ing ] [ the phrase " From the Ages " ] to a T " .
From the Ages charted at # 25 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart for a week . Critical reaction to the album was largely positive , though the album 's length was commonly cited as a minor flaw . Metacritic reported a score of 84 based on five reviews , indicating " Universal acclaim " . " Though the silence may have been deafening for their small but devoted cadre of fans , the wait was worth every moment , " wrote Erik Highter for PopMatters , who described the chemistry between the band members as " near telepathic connections between the players " and the roles of Eginton and Rubalcaba as " pulling " Mitchell back from potential unrestrained solos . He rated the album 8 out of 10 , his only complaint being that listeners may consider the title track too long . Conversely , Grayson Currin of Pitchfork Media said that the rhythm section did not serve to restrain Mitchell at times , but to " instead follow his ecstatic lead everywhere , fellow travelers on his odyssey of enthusiasms " . He echoed Highter 's opinion with respect to the title track 's length , calling it " the one moment [ on the album ] where the band 's patience might test your own " and asked , regarding the length and repetitive nature of the album as a whole , " is there a need for an hour of three dudes tracing and retracing a melody ? " The length of " From the Ages " was also criticized by Exclaim ! reviewer Trystan MacDonald who cited it as the record 's " only flaw " and rated the album overall 8 out of 10 .
eMusic contributor Dan Epstein rated the album 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and described the interaction between band members similarly to Highter and Currin , saying that , while Mitchell 's guitar leads are prominent , Eginton and Rubalcaba are " locked @-@ in " with him and each other , " never los [ ing ] focus or intensity for a second — not even during the rolling 30 @-@ minute title track . " In his review for NOW Magazine , John Semley said that while inferior to Rhythms from a Cosmic Sky , the high point was the opening track , " Violence of the Red Sea " , and the album is " an essential record for anyone who likes the sound of guitars sounding like guitars " . Karen A. Mann also wrote , for the heavy metal section of About.com , that the opening track was the band 's peak performance on the album , which she rated 4 out of 5 . Rolling Stone referred to the album as one of the 20 best metal albums of 2013 , while Magnet named it the third best of the year 's top ten hard rock releases . Likewise , the Austin Chronicle ranked it ninth in the top ten metal releases of 2013 , and later reviewer Raoul Hernandez gave the album a perfect four @-@ star review . Earthless were again nominated for Best Hard Rock Artist at the 2013 San Diego Music Awards , and the record won the 2014 award for Best Hard Rock Album , becoming the band 's second record to do so ( their debut Sonic Prayer won the award in 2007 ) .
In support of the album , Earthless toured the west coast of the United States in October 2013 , with the Shrine in Australia from December 2013 to January 2014 , and the east coast of the US in August 2014 . They also embarked on a tour of Europe that fall . The band had planned a tour of Japan with Eternal Elysium , but were forced to cancel the engagement to tend to ill family members ; they rescheduled it for January 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Earthless .
" Violence of the Red Sea " – 14 : 46
" Uluru Rock " – 14 : 08
" Equus October " – 5 : 42
" From the Ages " – 30 : 55
= = Personnel = =
= = = Earthless = = =
Isaiah Mitchell – guitar
Mike Eginton – bass guitar
Mario Rubalcaba – drum kit
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Credits taken from the album 's liner notes .
Phil Manley – producer , mixer
Isaiah Mitchell – mixer
Mario Rubalcaba – mixer
Carl Saff – mastering
Alan Forbes – cover art
Mike Eginton – inside art
Ake Arndt – album layout
Operation Mindblow – liquid overlays
= = Chart positions = =
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= International System of Units =
The International System of Units ( French : Système international d 'unités , SI ) is the modern form of the metric system , and is the most widely used system of measurement . It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units . It defines twenty @-@ two named units , and includes many more unnamed coherent derived units . The system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units .
The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative that began in 1948 . It is based on the metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second system of units ( MKS ) rather than any variant of the centimetre @-@ gram @-@ second system ( CGS ) . SI is intended to be an evolving system , so prefixes and units are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the technology of measurement progresses and the precision of measurements improves . The 24th and 25th General Conferences on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) in 2011 and 2014 , for example , discussed a proposal to change the definition of the kilogram , linking it to an invariant of nature rather than to the mass of a material artefact , thereby ensuring long @-@ term stability .
The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems and the lack of coordination between the various disciplines that used them . The CGPM , which was established by the Metre Convention of 1875 , brought together many international organisations to not only agree on the definitions and standards of the new system but also agree on the rules for writing and presenting measurements in a standardised manner around the world .
The International System of Units has been adopted by most developed countries ; however , the adoption has not been universal in all English @-@ speaking countries . While metrication in the United States is consistent in science , medicine , government , and various fields of technology and engineering , common measurements are mostly performed in United States customary units , although these have officially been defined in terms of SI units . The United Kingdom has officially adopted a policy of partial metrication . Canada has adopted the SI for most governmental , medical and scientific purposes and for such varied uses as grocery weights , weather reports , traffic signs and gasoline sales , but imperial units are still legally permitted and remain in common use throughout many sectors of Canadian society , particularly in the building trade and the railway sector .
= = History = =
The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution ( 1790s ) with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length and mass respectively . In the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length , mass , and time . In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units . The inclusion of electrical units into the system was hampered by the customary use of more than one set of units , until 1900 when Giovanni Giorgi identified the need to define one single electrical quantity as a fourth base quantity alongside the original three base quantities .
Meanwhile , in 1875 , the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram and metre against agreed prototypes from French to international control . In 1921 , the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893 .
In 1948 , an overhaul of the metric system was set in motion which resulted in the development of the " Practical system of units " which , on its publication in 1960 , was given the name " The International System of Units " . In 1954 , the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) identified electric current as the fourth base quantity in the practical system of units and added two more base quantities — temperature and luminous intensity — making six base quantities in all . The units associated with these quantities were the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , kelvin and candela . In 1971 , a seventh base quantity , amount of substance represented by the mole , was added to the definition of SI .
= = = Early development = = =
The metric system was developed from 1791 onwards by a committee of the French Academy of Sciences , commissioned by the National Assembly and Louis XVI to create a unified and rational system of measures . The group , which included Antoine Lavoisier ( the " father of modern chemistry " ) and the mathematicians Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace and Adrien @-@ Marie Legendre , used the same principles for relating length , volume , and mass that had been proposed by the English clergyman John Wilkins in 1668 and the concept of using the Earth 's meridian as the basis of the definition of length , originally proposed in 1670 by the French abbot Mouton .
On 30 March 1791 , the Assembly adopted the committee 's proposed principles for the new decimal system of measure and authorised a survey between Dunkirk and Barcelona to establish the length of the meridian . On 11 July 1792 , the committee proposed the names metre , are , litre and grave for the units of length , area , capacity , and mass , respectively . The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal @-@ based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth and kilo for a thousand .
The law of 7 April 1795 ( loi du 18 germinal ) defined the terms gramme and kilogramme , which replaced the former terms gravet ( correctly milligrave ) and grave , and on 22 June 1799 ( after Pierre Méchain and Jean @-@ Baptiste Delambre had completed the meridian survey ) the definitive standard mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives were deposited in the Archives nationales . On 10 December 1799 ( a month after Napoleon 's coup d 'état ) , the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France ( loi du 19 frimaire ) was passed .
During the first half of the nineteenth century there was little consistency in the choice of preferred multiples of the base units – typically the myriametre ( 10000 metres ) was in widespread use in both France and parts of Germany , while the kilogram ( 1000 grams ) rather than the myriagram was used for mass .
In 1832 , the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss , assisted by Wilhelm Weber , implicitly defined the second as a base unit when he quoted the earth 's magnetic field in terms of millimetres , grams , and seconds . Prior to this , the strength of the earth ’ s magnetic field had only been described in relative terms . The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a suspended magnet of known mass by the earth ’ s magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity . The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass , length and time to the magnetic field .
In the 1860s , James Clerk Maxwell , William Thomson ( later Lord Kelvin ) and others working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , built on Gauss ' work and formalised the concept of a coherent system of units with base units and derived units . The principle of coherence was successfully used to define a number of units of measure based on the centimetre – gram – second ( CGS ) system of units ( CGS ) , including the erg for energy , the dyne for force , the barye for pressure , the poise for dynamic viscosity and the stokes for kinematic viscosity .
= = = Metre Convention = = =
A French @-@ inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention . Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram . A set of 30 prototypes of the metre and 40 prototypes of the kilogram , in each case made of a 90 % platinum @-@ 10 % iridium alloy , were manufactured by the British firm Johnson , Matthey & Co and accepted by the CGPM in 1889 . One of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively . Each member state was entitled to one of each of the remaining prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country .
The treaty established three international organisations to oversee the keeping of international standards of measurement :
General Conference on Weights and Measures ( Conférence générale des poids et mesures or CGPM ) – a meeting every four to six years of delegates from all member states that receives and discusses a report from the CIPM and that endorses new developments in the SI on the advice of the CIPM .
International Committee for Weights and Measures ( Comité international des poids et mesures or CIPM ) – a committee that meets annually at the BIPM and is made up of eighteen individuals of high scientific standing , nominated by the CGPM to advise the CGPM on administrative and technical matters
International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( Bureau international des poids et mesures or BIPM ) – an international metrology centre at Sèvres in France that has custody of the International prototype kilogram , provides metrology services for the CGPM and CIPM , houses the secretariat for these organisations and hosts their formal meetings . Initially its prime metrological purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres and kilograms against the international prototype .
In 1921 , the Metre Convention was extended to include all physical units , including the ampere and others defined by the Fourth International Conference of Electricians in Chicago in 1893 , thereby enabling the CGPM to address inconsistencies in the way that the metric system had been used .
The official language of the Metre Convention is French and the definitive version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French @-@ language version .
= = = Towards the SI = = =
At the close of the 19th century three different systems of units of measure existed for electrical measurements : a CGS @-@ based system for electrostatic units , also known as the Gaussian or ESU system , a CGS @-@ based system for electromechanical units ( EMU ) and an MKS @-@ based system ( " international system " ) for electrical distribution systems . Attempts to resolve the electrical units in terms of length , mass , and time using dimensional analysis was beset with difficulties — the dimensions depended on whether one used the ESU or EMU systems . This anomaly was resolved in 1900 when Giovanni Giorgi published a paper in which he advocated using a fourth base unit alongside the existing three base units . The fourth unit could be chosen to be electric current , voltage , or electrical resistance .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a number of non @-@ coherent units of measure based on the gram / kilogram , the centimetre / metre , and the second , such as the Pferdestärke ( metric horsepower ) for power , the darcy for permeability and the use of " millimetres of mercury " for the measurement of both barometric and blood pressure were developed or propagated , some of which incorporated standard gravity in their definitions .
At the end of the Second World War , a number of different systems of measurement were in use throughout the world . Some of these systems were metric system variations , whereas others were based on customary systems of measure . In 1948 , after representations by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) and by the French Government , the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) asked the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) to conduct an international study of the measurement needs of the scientific , technical , and educational communities and " to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention " .
On the basis of the findings of this study , the 10th CGPM in 1954 decided that an international system should be derived from six base units to provide for the measurement of temperature and optical radiation in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic quantities . Six base units were recommended : the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , degree Kelvin ( later renamed kelvin ) , and candela . In 1960 , the 11th CGPM named the system the International System of Units , abbreviated SI from the French name , Le Système International d 'Unités . The BIPM has also described SI as " the modern metric system " . The seventh base unit , the mole , was added in 1971 by the 14th CGPM .
= = = International System of Quantities = = =
The International System of Quantities ( ISQ ) is a system based on seven base quantities : length , mass , time , electric current , thermodynamic temperature , amount of substance , and luminous intensity . Other quantities such as area , pressure , and electrical resistance are derived from these base quantities by clear non @-@ contradictory equations . The ISQ defines the quantities that are measured with the SI units . The ISQ is defined in the international standard ISO / IEC 80000 , and was finalised in 2009 with the publication of ISO 80000 @-@ 1 .
= = SI Brochure and conversion factors = =
The CGPM publishes a brochure which defines and presents SI . Its official version is in French , in line with the Metre Convention . It leaves some scope for local interpretation , particularly regarding names and terms in different languages , so for example the United States ' National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) has produced a version of the CGPM document ( NIST SP 330 ) which clarifies local interpretation for English @-@ language publications that use American English and another document ( NIST SP 811 ) that gives general guidance for the use of SI in the United States and conversion factors between SI and customary units .
The writing and maintenance of the CGPM brochure is carried out by one of the committees of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) , the Consultative Committee for Units ( CCU ) . The CIPM nominates the chairman of this committee , but the committee includes representatives of various other international bodies rather than CIPM or CGPM nominees . This committee thus provides a forum for the bodies concerned to provide input to the CIPM in respect of ongoing enhancements to SI .
The definitions of the terms " quantity " , " unit " , " dimension " etc. that are used in the SI Brochure are those given in the International vocabulary of metrology , a publication produced by the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology ( JCGM ) , a working group consisting of eight international standards organisations under the chairmanship of the director of the BIPM . The quantities and equations that define the SI units are now referred to as the International System of Quantities ( ISQ ) , and are set out in the International Standard ISO / IEC 80000 Quantities and Units .
= = Units and prefixes = =
The International System of Units consists of a set of base units , a set of derived units with special names , and a set of decimal @-@ based multipliers that are used as prefixes . The term SI Units covers all three categories , but the term coherent SI units includes only base units and coherent derived units .
= = = Base units = = =
The SI base units are the building blocks of the system and all other units are derived from them . When Maxwell first introduced the concept of a coherent system , he identified three quantities that could be used as base units : mass , length and time . Giorgi later identified the need for an electrical base unit . Theoretically any one of electric current , potential difference , electrical resistance , electrical charge or a number of other quantities could have provided the base unit , with the remaining units then being defined by the laws of physics . In the event , the unit of electric current was chosen for SI . Another three base units ( for temperature , substance and luminous intensity ) were added later .
= = = Derived units = = =
The derived units in the SI are formed by powers , products or quotients of the base units and are unlimited in number . Derived units are associated with derived quantities , for example velocity is a quantity that is derived from the base quantities of time and length , so in SI the derived unit is metres per second ( symbol m / s ) . The dimensions of derived units can be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the base units .
Coherent units are derived units that contain no numerical factor other than 1 — quantities such as standard gravity and density of water are absent from their definitions . In the example above , one newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram by one metre per second squared . Since the SI units of mass and acceleration are kg and m · s − 2 respectively and F ∝ m × a , the units of force ( and hence of newtons ) is formed by multiplication to give kg · m · s − 2 . Since the newton is part of a coherent set of units , the constant of proportionality is 1 .
For the sake of convenience , some derived units have special names and symbols . Such units may themselves be used in combination with the names and symbols for base units and for other derived units to express the units of other derived quantities . For example , the SI unit of force is the newton ( N ) , the SI unit of pressure is the pascal ( Pa ) — and the pascal can be defined as " newtons per square metre " ( N / m2 ) .
= = = Prefixes = = =
Prefixes are added to unit names to produce multiple and sub @-@ multiples of the original unit . All multiples are integer powers of ten , and above a hundred or below a hundredth all are integer powers of a thousand . For example , kilo- denotes a multiple of a thousand and milli- denotes a multiple of a thousandth , so there are one thousand millimetres to the metre and one thousand metres to the kilometre . The prefixes are never combined , so for example a millionth of a metre is a micrometre , not a millimillimetre . Multiples of the kilogram are named as if the gram were the base unit , so a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram , not a microkilogram .
= = = Non @-@ SI units accepted for use with SI = = =
Although , in theory , SI can be used for any physical measurement , the CIPM has recognised that some non @-@ SI units still appear in the scientific , technical , and commercial literature , and will continue to be used for many years to come . In addition , certain other units are so deeply embedded in the history and culture of the human race that they will continue to be used for the foreseeable future . The CIPM has catalogued several such units and published them in the SI Brochure so that their use may be consistent around the world . These units have been grouped as follows :
Non @-@ SI units accepted for use with the SI ( Table 6 ) :
Certain units of time , angle , and legacy non @-@ SI metric units have a long history of consistent use . Most of mankind has used the day and its non @-@ decimal subdivisions as a basis of time and , unlike the foot or the pound , these were the same regardless of where they were being measured . The radian , being 1 / 2π of a revolution , has mathematical advantages but it is cumbersome for navigation , and , as with time , the units used in navigation have a large degree of consistency around the world . The tonne , litre , and hectare were adopted by the CGPM in 1879 and have been retained as units that may be used alongside SI units , having been given unique symbols . The catalogued units are
minute , hour , day , degree of arc , minute of arc , second of arc , hectare , litre , tonne , astronomical unit and [ deci ] bel
Non @-@ SI units whose values in SI units must be obtained experimentally ( Table 7 ) .
Physicists often use units of measure that are based on natural phenomena , particularly when the quantities associated with these phenomena are many orders of magnitude greater than or less than the equivalent SI unit . The most common ones have been catalogued in the SI Brochure together with consistent symbols and accepted values , but with the caveat that their physical values need to be measured.electronvolt , dalton / unified atomic mass unit , Planck constant , and electron mass
Other non @-@ SI units ( Table 8 ) :
A number of non @-@ SI units that had never been formally sanctioned by the CGPM have continued to be used across the globe in many spheres including health care and navigation . As with the units of measure in Tables 6 and 7 , these have been catalogued by the CIPM in the SI Brochure to ensure consistent usage , but with the recommendation that authors who use them should define them wherever they are used .
bar , millimetre of mercury , ångström , nautical mile , barn , knot and neper
Non @-@ SI units associated with the CGS and the CGS @-@ Gaussian system of units ( Table 9 )
The SI manual also catalogues a number of legacy units of measure that are used in specific fields such as geodesy and geophysics or are found in the literature , particularly in classical and relativistic electrodynamics where they have certain advantages : The units that are catalogued are :
erg , dyne , poise , stokes , stilb , phot , gal , maxwell , gauss , and œrsted .
= = Writing unit symbols and the values of quantities = =
Before 1948 , the writing of metric quantities was haphazard . In 1879 , the CIPM published recommendations for writing the symbols for length , area , volume and mass , but it was outside its domain to publish recommendations for other quantities . Beginning in about 1900 , physicists who had been using the symbol " μ " for " micrometre " ( or " micron " ) , " λ " for " microlitre " , and " γ " for " microgram " started to use the symbols " μm " , " μL " and " μg " , but it was only in 1935 , a decade after the revision of the Metre Convention that the CIPM formally adopted this proposal and recommended that the symbol " μ " be used universally as a prefix for 10 − 6 .
In 1948 , the ninth CGPM approved the first formal recommendation for the writing of symbols in the metric system when the basis of the rules as they are now known was laid down . These rules were subsequently extended by International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) and the International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC ) and now cover unit symbols and names , prefix symbols and names , how quantity symbols should be written and used and how the values of quantities should be expressed . Both ISO and the IEC have published rules for the presentation of SI units that are generally compatible with those published in the SI Brochure . As of August 2013 ISO and IEC were in the process of merging their standards for quantities and units into a single set of compatible documents identified as the ISO / IEC 80000 Standard . The rules covering printing of quantities and units are part of ISO 80000 @-@ 1 : 2009 .
= = = Unit names = = =
Names of units follow the grammatical rules associated with common nouns : in English and in French they start with a lowercase letter ( e.g. , newton , hertz , pascal ) , even when the symbol for the unit begins with a capital letter . This also applies to " degrees Celsius " , since " degree " is the unit . In German , however , the names of units , as with all German nouns , start with capital letters . The spelling of unit names is a matter for the guardians of the language concerned – the official British and American spellings for certain SI units differ – British English , as well as Australian , Canadian and New Zealand English , uses the spelling deca- , metre , and litre whereas American English uses the spelling deka- , meter , and liter , respectively .
Likewise , the plural forms of units follow the grammar of the language concerned : in English , the normal rules of English grammar are used , e.g. " henries " is the plural of " henry " . However , the units lux , hertz , and siemens have irregular plurals in that they remain the same in both their singular and plural form .
In English , when unit names are combined to denote multiplication of the units concerned , they are separated with a hyphen or a space ( e.g. newton @-@ metre or newton metre ) . The plural is formed by converting the last unit name to the plural form ( e.g. ten newton @-@ metres ) .
= = = Unit names as adjectives = = =
In English , a space is recommended between the number and the unit symbol when used as an adjective , e.g. " a 25 kg sphere " .
The normal rules of English apply to unit names , where a hyphen is incorporated into the adjectival sense , e.g. " a 25 @-@ kilogram sphere " .
= = = Chinese and Japanese = = =
Chinese uses traditional logograms for writing the unit names , while in Japanese unit names are written in the phonetic katakana script ; in both cases , symbols are also written using the internationally recognised Latin and Greek characters .
Chinese
The basic Chinese units are metre ( 米 mǐ ) , litre ( 升 shēng ) , gram ( 克 kè ) , and second ( 秒 miǎo ) , while others include watt ( 瓦 wǎ ) . Prefixes include deci- ( 分 fēn ) , centi- ( 厘 lí ) , milli- ( 毫 háo ) , micro- ( 微 wēi ) , kilo- ( 千 qiān ) , and mega- ( 兆 zhào ) . These are combined to form disyllabic characters , such as 厘米 límǐ " centimetre " or 千瓦 qiānwǎ " kilowatt " . In the 19th century , various compound characters were also used , similar to Japanese , either imported or formed on the same principles , such as 瓩 for 千瓦 qiānwǎ ( kilowatt ) or 糎 for 厘米 . These are generally not used today , but are occasionally found in older or technical writing .
Some units have different names in Taiwan . Meter ( 公尺 ) , centimeter ( 公分 ) , liter ( 公升 ) , kilogram ( 公斤 ) , gram ( 公克 ) and hectare ( 公頃 ) have the prefix " 公 " , which means " universal " . The prefixes " 兆 " , " 分 " and " 厘 " are not commonly used , and the use of " 千 " is limited to kilowatt ( 千瓦 ) .
Japanese
A set of characters representing various metric units was created in Japan in the late 19th century . Characters , same as the Chinese , exist for three base units : the metre ( 米 ) , litre ( 升 ) and gram ( 瓦 ) . These were combined with a set of six prefix characters – kilo- ( 千 ) , hecto- ( 百 ) , deca- ( 十 ) , deci- ( 分 ) , centi- ( 厘 ) and milli- ( 毛 ) – to form an additional 18 single @-@ character units . The seven length units ( kilometre to millimetre ) , for example , are 粁 , 粨 , 籵 , 米 , 粉 , 糎 and 粍 . These characters , however , are not in common use today ; instead , units are written in katakana , the Japanese syllabary used for foreign borrowings , such as キロメートル ( kiromētoru ) for kilometre , but are also written in standard prefixes such as " km " for kilometre . A few Sino @-@ Japanese words for these units remain in use in Japanese , most significantly " 平米 " ( heibei ) for " square metre " , but otherwise borrowed pronunciations are used .
These characters are examples of the rare phenomenon of single @-@ character loan words – a foreign word represented by a single Japanese character – and form the plurality of such words . Similar characters were also coined for other units , such as British units , though these also have fallen out of use ; see Single character gairaigo : Metric units and Single character gairaigo : Other units for a full list .
= = = Unit symbols and the values of quantities = = =
Although the writing of unit names is language @-@ specific , the writing of unit symbols and the values of quantities is consistent across all languages and therefore the SI Brochure has specific rules in respect of writing them . The guideline produced by the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) clarifies language @-@ specific areas in respect of American English that were left open by the SI Brochure , but is otherwise identical to the SI Brochure .
= = = = General rules = = = =
General rules for writing SI units and quantities apply to text that is either handwritten or produced using an automated process :
The value of a quantity is written as a number followed by a space ( representing a multiplication sign ) and a unit symbol ; e.g. , 2 @.@ 21 kg , 7 @.@ 3 × 102 m2 , 22 K. This rule explicitly includes the percent sign ( % ) and the symbol for degrees of temperature ( ° C ) . Exceptions are the symbols for plane angular degrees , minutes , and seconds ( ° , ′ , and ″ ) , which are placed immediately after the number with no intervening space .
Symbols are mathematical entities , not abbreviations , and as such do not have an appended period / full stop ( . ) , unless the rules of grammar demand one for another reason , such as denoting the end of a sentence .
A prefix is part of the unit , and its symbol is prepended to the unit symbol without a separator ( e.g. , k in km , M in MPa , G in GHz ) . Compound prefixes are not allowed .
Symbols for derived units formed by multiplication are joined with a centre dot ( · ) or a non @-@ breaking space ; e.g. , N · m or N m .
Symbols for derived units formed by division are joined with a solidus ( / ) , or given as a negative exponent . E.g. , the " metre per second " can be written m / s , m s − 1 , m · s − 1 , or m / s . Only one solidus should be used ; e.g. , kg / ( m · s2 ) and kg · m − 1 · s − 2 are acceptable , but kg / m / s2 is ambiguous and unacceptable .
The first letter of symbols for units derived from the name of a person is written in upper case ; otherwise , they are written in lower case . E.g. , the unit of pressure is named after Blaise Pascal , so its symbol is written " Pa " , but the symbol for mole is written " mol " . Thus , " T " is the symbol for tesla , a measure of magnetic field strength , and " t " the symbol for tonne , a measure of mass . Since 1979 , the litre may exceptionally be written using either an uppercase " L " or a lowercase " l " , a decision prompted by the similarity of the lowercase letter " l " to the numeral " 1 " , especially with certain typefaces or English @-@ style handwriting . The American NIST recommends that within the United States " L " be used rather than " l " .
Symbols of units do not have a plural form ; e.g. , 25 kg , not 25 kgs .
Uppercase and lowercase prefixes are not interchangeable . E.g. , the quantities 1 mW and 1 MW represent two different quantities ; the former is the typical power requirement of a hearing aid ( 1 milliwatt or 0 @.@ 001 watts ) , and the latter the typical power requirement of a suburban train ( 1 megawatt or 1000000 watts ) .
The 10th resolution of CGPM in 2003 declared that " the symbol for the decimal marker shall be either the point on the line or the comma on the line . " In practice , the decimal point is used in English @-@ speaking countries and most of Asia , and the comma in most of Latin America and in continental European languages .
Spaces should be used as a thousands separator ( 1000000 ) in contrast to commas or periods ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 or 1 @.@ 000 @.@ 000 ) to reduce confusion resulting from the variation between these forms in different countries .
Any line @-@ break inside a number , inside a compound unit , or between number and unit should be avoided . Where this is not possible , line breaks should coincide with thousands separators .
Since the value of " billion " and " trillion " can vary from language to language , the dimensionless terms " ppb " ( parts per billion ) and " ppt " ( parts per trillion ) should be avoided . No alternative is suggested in the SI Brochure .
= = = = Printing SI symbols = = = =
Further rules are specified in respect of production of text using printing presses , word processors , typewriters and the like .
Symbols are written in upright ( Roman ) type ( m for metres , s for seconds ) , so as to differentiate from the italic type used for quantities ( m for mass , s for displacement ) . By consensus of international standards bodies , this rule is applied independent of the font used for surrounding text .
In Chinese , Japanese , and Korean language computing ( CJK ) , some of the commonly used units , prefix – unit combinations , or unit – exponent combinations have been allocated predefined single characters taking up a full square . Unicode includes these in its CJK Compatibility and letter @-@ like symbols sub @-@ ranges for back compatibility , without necessarily recommending future usage . These are summarised in Unicode symbols . The cursive ℓ , a letter @-@ like symbol , has been used in a number of countries in addition to China and Japan as a symbol for the litre , but this is not currently recommended by any standards body .
In print , the space used as a thousands separator ( commonly called a thin space ) is typically narrower than that used between words .
= = Realisation of units = =
Metrologists carefully distinguish between the definition of a unit and its realisation . The definition of each base unit of the SI is drawn up so that it is unique and provides a sound theoretical basis on which the most accurate and reproducible measurements can be made . The realisation of the definition of a unit is the procedure by which the definition may be used to establish the value and associated uncertainty of a quantity of the same kind as the unit . A description of the mise en pratique of the base units is given in an electronic appendix to the SI Brochure .
The published mise en pratique is not the only way in which a base unit can be determined : the SI Brochure states that " any method consistent with the laws of physics could be used to realise any SI unit . " In the current ( 2016 ) exercise to overhaul the definitions of the base units , various consultative committees of the CIPM have required that more than one mise en pratique shall be developed for determining the value of each unit . In particular :
At least three separate experiments be carried out yielding values having a relative standard uncertainty in the determination of the kilogram of no more than 5 × 10 − 8 and at least one of these values should be better than 2 × 10 − 8 . Both the Watt balance and the Avogadro project should be included in the experiments and any differences between these be reconciled .
When the kelvin is being determined , the relative uncertainty of the Boltzmann constant derived from two fundamentally different methods such as acoustic gas thermometry and dielectric constant gas thermometry be better than one part in 10 − 6 and that these values be corroborated by other measurements .
= = Post @-@ 1960 changes = =
The preamble to the Metre Convention read " Desiring the international uniformity and precision in standards of weight and measure , have resolved to conclude a convention ... " . Changing technology has led to an evolution of the definitions and standards that has followed two principal strands – changes to SI itself and clarification of how to use units of measure that are not part of SI , but are still nevertheless used on a worldwide basis .
= = = Changes to the SI = = =
Since 1960 the CGPM has made a number of changes to SI . These include :
The 13th CGPM ( 1967 ) renamed the " degree Kelvin " ( symbol ° K ) to the " kelvin " ( symbol K )
The 14th CGPM ( 1971 ) added the mole ( symbol mol ) to the list of base units .
The 14th GCPM ( 1971 ) added the pascal ( symbol Pa ) for pressure and the siemens ( symbol S ) for electrical conductance to the list of named derived units .
The 15th CGPM ( 1975 ) added the becquerel ( symbol Bq ) for " activity referred to a radionuclide " and the gray ( symbol Gy ) for ionizing radiation to the list of named derived units
In order to distinguish between " absorbed dose " and " dose equivalent " , the 16th CGPM ( 1979 ) added the sievert ( symbol Sv ) to the list of named derived units as the unit of dose equivalent .
The 16th CGPM ( 1979 ) clarified that in a break with convention either the letter " L " or the letter " l " may be used as a symbol for the litre .
The 21st CGPM ( 1999 ) added the katal ( symbol kat ) for catalytic activity to the list of named derived units .
In its original form ( 1960 ) , the SI defined prefixes for values ranging from pico- ( symbol p ) having a value of 10 − 12 to tera- ( symbol T ) having a value of 1012 . The list was extended at the 12th CGPM ( 1964 ) , at the 15th CGPM ( 1975 ) and at the 19th CGPM ( 1991 ) to give the current range of prefixes .
In addition , advantage was taken of developments in technology to redefine many of the base units enabling the use of higher precision techniques .
= = = Retention of non @-@ SI units = = =
Although , in theory , SI can be used for any physical measurement , it is recognised that some non @-@ SI units still appear in the scientific , technical and commercial literature , and will continue to be used for many years to come . In addition , certain other units are so deeply embedded in the history and culture of the human race that they will continue to be used for the foreseeable future . The CIPM has catalogued such units and included them in the SI Brochure so that they can be used consistently .
The first such group comprises the units of time and of angles and certain legacy non @-@ SI metric units . Most of mankind has used the day and its subdivisions as a basis of time with the result that the second , minute , hour and day , unlike the foot or the pound , were the same regardless of where it was being measured . The second has been catalogued as an SI unit , its multiples as units of measure that may be used alongside the SI . The measurement of angles has likewise had a long history of consistent use – the radian , being 1 / 2π of a revolution , has mathematical niceties , but it is cumbersome for navigation , hence the retention of the degree , minute and second of arc . The tonne , litre and hectare were adopted by the CGPM in 1879 and have been retained as units that may be used alongside SI units , having been given unique symbols .
Physicists often use units of measure that are based on natural phenomena such as the speed of light , the mass of a proton ( approximately one dalton ) , the charge of an electron and the like . These too have been catalogued in the SI Brochure with consistent symbols , but with the caveat that their physical values need to be measured .
In the interests of standardising health @-@ related units of measure used in the nuclear industry , the 12th CGPM ( 1964 ) accepted the continued use of the curie ( symbol Ci ) as a non @-@ SI unit of activity for radionuclides ; the becquerel , sievert and gray were adopted in later years . Similarly , the millimetre of mercury ( symbol mmHg ) was retained for measuring blood pressure .
= = Global adoption = =
SI has become the world 's most widely used system of measurement , used in both everyday commerce and science . The change to SI had little effect on everyday life in countries that used the metric system – the metre , kilogram , litre and second remained unchanged as did the way in which they were used – most of the changes only affected measurements in the workplace . The CGPM has a role of recommending changes , but no formal role in the enforcement of such changes — another inter @-@ governmental organisation , the International Organization of Legal Metrology ( OIML ) provides a forum for harmonisation of national standards and legislation in respect of metrology .
Both the degree and rate of adoption of SI varied from country to country — countries that had not adopted the metric system by 1960 and subsequently adopted SI did so directly as part of their metrication programs while others migrated from the CGS system of units to SI . In 1960 , the world 's largest economy was that of the United States , followed by the United Kingdom , West Germany , France , Japan , China and India . The United States and the United Kingdom were non @-@ metric , France and Germany had been using the metric system for about a century , and China had been using the metric system for 35 years , while India and Japan had adopted the metric system within the preceding five years . Other non @-@ metric countries were those where the United Kingdom or the United States had considerable influence . These differences are brought out in the examples below :
= = = United Kingdom and the former British Empire = = =
Even though the use of metric units was legalised for trade in the UK in 1864 , the UK had signed the Metre Convention in 1884 and the UK Parliament had defined the yard and the pound in terms of the metre and the kilogram in 1897 , the UK continued to use the imperial system of measure and to export the imperial system of units to the Empire . In 1932 , the system of Imperial Preference was set up at the Ottawa Conference . Although Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1948 and South Africa in 1961 , both continued their close economic ties with the Commonwealth .
When the SI standard was published in 1960 , the only major Commonwealth country to have adopted the metric system was India . In 1863 , the first reading of a bill that would have made the metric system compulsory passed its first reading in the House of Commons by 110 votes to 75 . The bill , however , failed to make the statute book because of lack of parliamentary time . In 1965 , after this and similar false starts the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured the adoption of the metric system . The rationale behind the request was that 80 % of British exports were to countries that used the metric system or that were considering changing to the metric system . The Board of Trade , on behalf of the Government , agreed to support a ten @-@ year metrication programme . The government agreed to a voluntary policy requiring minimal legislation and costs to be borne where they fell . SI would be used from the outset . The rest of the Commonwealth , South Africa and Ireland followed within a few years ; in some countries such as South Africa and Australia metrication was mandatory rather than voluntary .
By 1980 all apart from the United Kingdom , Canada and Ireland had effectively completed their programs . In the United Kingdom the breakdown of voluntary metrication in the mid @-@ 1970s coincided with the United Kingdom 's obligations as part of the EEC to adopt the metric system , resulting in legislation to force metrication in certain areas and the Eurosceptic movement adopting an anti @-@ metrication stance and the United Kingdom seeking a number of derogations from the relevant EEC directives . Once the metrication of most consumer goods was completed in 2000 , aspects of British life , especially in government , commerce and industry used SI . Although imperial units are widely encountered in unregulated areas such as the press and everyday speech , SI or units approved for use alongside SI are used in most areas where units of measure are regulated . High @-@ profile exceptions include the sale of draught beer , the sale of milk in returnable containers , and United Kingdom road signs . Irish road signs ( road distances and speeds ) were converted to metric units during the first decade of the 21st century ; otherwise , the situation in Ireland is similar to that in the United Kingdom .
Canada has adopted it for most purposes , but imperial units are still legally permitted and remain in common use throughout a few sectors of Canadian society , particularly in the buildings , trades and railways sectors .
= = = European Union = = =
In 1960 , all the largest industrialised nations that had an established history of using the metric system were members of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) .
In 1972 , in order to harmonise units of measure as part of a programme to facilitate trade between member states , the EEC issued directive 71 / 354 / EEC . This directive catalogued units of measure that could be used for " economic , public health , public safety and administrative purposes " and also provided instructions for a transition from the existing units of measure that were in use . The directive replicated the CGPM SI recommendations and in addition pre @-@ empted some of the additions whose use had been recommended by the CIPM in 1969 , but had not been ratified by the CGPM . The directive also catalogued units of measure whose status would be reviewed by the end of 1977 ( mainly coherent CGS units of measure ) and also catalogued units of measure that were to be phased out by the end of 1977 , including the use of obsolete names for the sale of timber such as the stere , the use of units of force and pressure that made use of the acceleration due to gravity , the use of non @-@ coherent units of power such as the Pferdestärke ( PS ) , the use of the calorie as a measure of energy and the stilb as a measure of luminance . The directive was silent in respect of units that were specific to one or two countries including the pond , pfund , livre ( Dutch , German and French synonyms for 500 g ) , thereby effectively prohibiting their use as well .
When the directive was revisited during 1977 , some of the older units that were being reviewed ( such as millimetre of mercury for blood pressure ) were retained but others were phased out , thereby broadly aligning the allowable units with SI . The directive was however overhauled to accommodate British and Irish interests in retaining the imperial system in certain circumstances . It was reissued as directive 80 / 181 / EEC . During subsequent revisions , the directive has reflected changes in the definition of SI . The directive also formalised the use of supplementary units , which in 1979 were permitted for a period of ten years . The cut @-@ off date for the use of supplementary units was extended a number of times and in 2009 was extended indefinitely .
= = = India = = =
India was one of the last countries to start a metrication programme before the advent of SI . When it became independent in 1947 , both imperial and native units of measure were in use . Its metrication programme started in 1956 with the passing of the Standards of Weights and Measures Act . Part of the act fixed the value of the seer ( a legacy unit of mass ) to 0 @.@ 9331 kg exactly ; elsewhere the Act declared that from 1960 all non @-@ metric units of measure were to be illegal .
Four years after the Indian Government announced its metrication programme , SI was published . The result was that the initial metrication programme was a conversion to the CGS system of units and the subsequent adoption of SI has been haphazard . Fifty years later , many of the country 's schoolbooks still use CGS or imperial units . Originally the Indian Government had planned to replace all units of measure with metric units by 1960 . In 1976 a new Weights and Measures Act replaced the 1956 Act which , amongst other things , required that all weighing devices be approved before being released onto the market place . However , in 2012 , it was reported that traditional units were still encountered in small manufacturing establishments and in the marketplace alongside CGS , SI and imperial measures , particularly in the poorer areas .
The use of the Indian numbering system of crores ( 10000000 ) and lakhs ( 100000 ) , which do not map onto the SI system of prefixes , is widespread and is often found alongside or in place of the western numbering system .
= = = United States = = =
Even though Congress set up a framework for the use of the metric system in the nineteenth century , the United States continues to use US customary units , based on English measure passed by parliament under the reign of Queen Anne in 1706 , for most purposes apart from science and medicine . In Puerto Rico , metric units are widely used due to the vast majority of the population having Spanish heritage .
On 10 February 1964 , the National Bureau of Standards ( now the National Institute of Standards and Technology ) issued a statement that it was to use SI except where this would have an obvious detrimental effect . In 1968 Congress authorised the U.S. Metric Study the emphasis of which was to examine the feasibility of adopting SI . The first volume was delivered in 1970 . The study recommended that the United States adopt the International System of units , and in 1975 Congress passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 which established a national policy of coordinating and planning for the increased use of the metric measurement system in the United States . Metrication was voluntary and to be coordinated by the United States Metric Board ( USMB ) .
Efforts during the Ford and Carter administrations to force metrication were seized on by many newspaper editorialists as being dictatorial . Public response included resistance , apathy , and sometimes ridicule . The underlying reasons for this response include a relative uniformity of weights and measures ( though , notably , US liquid measure differed by about 20 % from British Imperial measure , which was adopted throughout the British Empire in 1824 ) inherited from the United Kingdom in 1776 , a homogeneous economy and the influence of business groups and populists in Congress caused the country to look at the short @-@ term costs associated with the change @-@ over , particularly those that would be borne by the consumer rather than long @-@ term benefits of efficiency and international trade . The Metrication Board was disbanded under President Ronald Reagan 's direction in 1982 .
The 1988 Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act removed international trade barriers and amended the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 , designating the metric system as " the Preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce " . The legislation stated that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry , especially small business , as it voluntarily converts to the metric system of measurement . Exceptions were made for the highway and construction industries ; the Department of Transportation planned to require metric units by 2000 , but this plan was cancelled by the 1998 highway bill TEA21 . However , the US military uses the metric system widely , partly because of the need to work with armed services from other nations . Although overall responsibility for labelling requirements of consumer goods lies with Congress and is therefore covered by federal law , details of labelling requirements for certain commodities are controlled by state law or by other authorities such as the Food and Drug Administration , Environmental Protection Agency and Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau . The federal Fair Packaging and Labeling Act ( FPLA ) , originally passed in 1964 , was amended in 1992 to require consumer goods directly under its jurisdiction to be labelled in both customary and metric units . Some industries are engaged in efforts to amend this law to allow manufacturers to use only metric labelling . The National Conference on Weights and Measures has developed the Uniform Packaging and Labeling Regulations ( UPLR ) which provides a standard approach to those sections of packaging law that are under state control . Acceptance of the UPLR varies from state to state – fourteen states accept it by merely citing it in their legislation .
During the first decade of the 21st century , the EU directive 80 / 181 / EEC had required that dual unit labelling of goods sold within the EU cease by the end of 2009 . This was backed up by requests from other nations including Japan and New Zealand to permit metric @-@ only labelling as an aid to trade with those countries . Opinion in the United States was split – a bill to permit metric @-@ only labelling at the federal level was to have been introduced in 2005 but significant opposition from the Food Marketing Institute , representing US grocers , has delayed the introduction of the bill . During a routine decennial review of the directive in 2008 , the EU postponed the sunset clause for dual units indefinitely .
Meanwhile , in 1999 the UPLR was amended to permit metric @-@ only labelling and automatically became law in those states that accept UPLR " as is " . By 1 January 2009 , 48 out of 50 states permit metric @-@ only labelling , either through UPLR or through their own legislation . As of February 2013 the use of metric ( and therefore SI ) units in the United States does not follow any pattern . Dual @-@ unit labelling on consumer goods is mandatory . Some consumer goods such as soft drinks are sold in metric quantities , but milk is sold in customary units . The engineering industry is equally split . The automotive industry is largely metric , but aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner were designed using customary units .
= = Redefinition of units = =
After the metre was redefined in 1960 , the kilogram remained the only SI base unit that relied on a specific physical artifact , the international prototype of the kilogram ( IPK ) , for its definition and thus the only unit that was still subject to periodic comparisons of national standard kilograms with the IPK . After the 1996 – 1998 recalibration , a clear divergence between the various prototype kilograms was observed .
At its 23rd meeting , held in 2007 , the CGPM recommended that the CIPM should continue to investigate methods to provide exact fixed values for physical constants of nature that could then be used in the definitions of units of measure in place of the IPK , thus enabling the transition from explicit unit definitions to explicit constant definitions .
At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom , in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI Brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The proposals that the CCU put forward were :
In addition to the speed of light , four constants of nature – the Planck constant , an elementary charge , the Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro number – be defined to have exact values .
The International prototype kilogram be retired
The current definitions of the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole be revised .
The wording of the definitions of all the base units be both tightened up and changed to reflect the change in emphasis from explicit unit to explicit constant definitions .
The CIPM meeting of October 2010 reviewed progress towards establishing fixed values for the constants but found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " .
At the 24th CGPM meeting , held in October 2011 , the CIPM sponsored a resolution in which the requisite definition changes were agreed to in principle and in which the conditions required to be met before the redefinitions could be implemented were restated .
By November 2014 the conditions set out at the 23rd meeting of the CGPM for the unit redefinitions had still not been met , and the 25th meeting of the CGPM , held in November 2014 , adopted a similar resolution encouraging further work towards establishing fixed values for the fundamental constants .
The redefinitions are expected to be adopted at the 26th CGPM in the fall of 2018 . The CODATA task group on fundamental constants has announced special submission deadlines for data to compute the values that will be announced at this event .
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= Drowned World Tour =
Drowned World Tour was the fifth concert tour by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna in support of her seventh and eighth studio albums Ray of Light and Music . It was also her first tour in eight years , following The Girlie Show World Tour in 1993 . The tour was supposed to start in 1999 , but was delayed until 2001 as Madonna gave birth to her son , got married to Guy Ritchie , was working on Music , and was busy filming The Next Best Thing . When the tour was decided , Madonna appointed Jamie King as choreographer and the tour was planned in a short timespan of three months , including signing up the dancers , musicians and technicians . Designer Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier was the costume designer who designed the costumes in such way that they indicated different phases of Madonna 's career . The poster and logo for the tour included references to Kabbalah , which Madonna studied .
The show was divided into five segments , namely Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish , and Ghetto . The setlist consisted mainly of songs from the last two studio albums released at that point , with two pre @-@ 1990s song added . The first segment displayed high @-@ energy performances with Madonna wearing a kilt and dominatrix style costumes . In the geisha segment performances Madonna wore a kimono and later performed airborne martial arts . Acoustic songs were performed in the country segment which featured Madonna in cowboy costumes . The Latin segment featured flamenco dancing and the last segment featured ghetto @-@ themed performances . Drowned World Tour was critically appreciated from contemporary critics who complimented her ability to re @-@ invent continuously .
The tour was a commercial success . It went on to become the highest @-@ grossing concert tour of 2001 by a solo artist . She grossed more than US $ 76 @.@ 8 million ( $ 102 @.@ 64 million in 2016 dollars ) , selling out summer shows and eventually playing in front of 730 @,@ 000 fans throughout the United States and Europe . It received Major Tour of the Year and Most Creative Stage Production awards nominations at the 2001 Pollstar awards , but lost them to U2 . The concert was broadcast live on HBO from The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan on August 26 , 2001 . A DVD titled Drowned World Tour 2001 was released in November 2001 .
= = Background = =
After the release of her seventh studio album Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , Madonna stated in a live interview with Larry King on January 19 , 1999 that " I am going to do a movie in April ; The Next Best Thing , and then I am going to rehearse to go on tour . And then I 'll probably play up until the millennium , New Year 's Eve . " The tour was delayed until 2001 , as she had , in her own words , " been distracted by having children and filming movies " . She also began a serious relationship with Guy Ritchie in 1999 . By 2000 , she had become pregnant with her son Rocco Ritchie , released her eighth studio album Music that year , and married Ritchie in December 2000 .
When Madonna finally decided to go on the tour , time was short and she had to prepare the show within three months . Auditioning for the dancers started around March 2001 . Jamie King was signed up as the creative director and the choreographer of the show . King said in an interview that the tour " was so hectic that I suffered from depressions and fell considerably ill . " Rehearsals continued for thirteen hours a day , five days a week , with more and more dancers joining for the show . In the end , ten dancers and two backup singers were used . Madonna had her guitarist Monte Pittman teach her to play the instrument , and she played both acoustic and electric guitar live in the show . French house music expert Stuart Price , who had worked with Madonna on remixes of her album Music , was signed as bassist and keyboards player . Clair Brothers Audio support was roped in for providing a mixture of high @-@ tech techno sound and fusion of acoustic and trance . Madonna clarified : " I don 't see the point of doing a show unless you offer something that is going to mind @-@ boggle the senses . It 's not enough to get on stage and sing a song . It 's all about theatre and drama and surprises and suspenses . "
The Drowned World Tour was originally scheduled to begin with two shows in the Kölnarena in Cologne , Germany but both concerts had to be canceled due to technical difficulties . As a result , 35 @,@ 000 tickets were refunded . Her show of August 3 at the Continental Airlines Arena in New Jersey was also cancelled , this time due to illness . Therefore , total tour dates numbered forty @-@ seven instead of fifty .
= = Development = =
The tour was divided into five segments , namely Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish and Ghetto . Each segment represented a phase of Madonna 's career . Madonna 's publicist Liz rosenberg announced that the tour was designed as the grandest spectacle amongst all the other Madonna tours . Designer Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier was signed up to create the costumes for the tour . He came up with the concept of creating the costumes of the tour as a fusion of punk and Scottish fashions . Other costumes designed by Gaultier had geisha , cowboy and Spanish themes in them . Other designers associated with the tour included Dean and Dan Caten , creaters of the DSquared2 fashion line . The dresses developed included a torn shirt and zippered black pants , indicating the early days of her career , and leather chapped jeans and ghetto fabulous costumes , indicating the phase of her career at that point of time . Black wigs and white makeup would demonstrate the Ray of Light and the geisha themes . A hybrid of clothes from the music video of the Madonna song " La Isla Bonita " ( 1987 ) and the 1996 Madonna starring musical Evita were also created . The setlist for the show consisted mainly of songs from the last two studio albums Ray of Light and Music . Among her pre @-@ 1990s hits , only " Holiday " and " La Isla Bonita " were added to the set list . Dave Kob , FOH engineer for the tour , commented that ,
" The show is extremely technical , extremely fast @-@ paced , and the variety of music is amazing . [ ... ] It goes from screaming heavy metal to techno dance , to Country and Western ; there 's even a flamenco hootenanny where everyone comes down front , beats on logs and plays acoustic guitars and pennywhistles . Then it goes back to ' Holiday ' which is an old dance number . It keeps you steppin ' . Madonna sings everything live . She 's been that way from the beginning of her career , even with all the athletic dancing . She 's a hard worker and she expects everybody else to work as hard or harder . I respect that . "
The stage was as huge as a tennis court and was made movable . Above the stage was a vast electrical grid , composed of truss sections , chain motors , cabling and the control devices that linked electronically or mechanically with the performances happening below . Four gigantic video monitors formed the backdrop of the stage . Other equipment included a mechanical bull and equipment for aerial movements . The sets were built in sections by three companies . A permanent crew of around hundred was hired . Monitor mixing was handled by four monitor engineers , with two of them for Madonna 's monitors . Blake Suib , one of the engineers , commented that Madonna was a perfectionist and she knew when a sound , coming from the speakers , sounded bad or good during rehearsals . By the suggestion of music director Pat Leonard , they tried out using 14 kHz of sound frequency in their live speakers , which was unusual to use at that point of time . Also they came up with the idea of using isolated amplifiers to pick up the sound of the instruments individually . Suib commented that " the creative process of coming up with new ideas , implementing them , and then soberly evaluating their results was time @-@ consuming but worth it . " The poster and the logo for the tour was developed by Chase Design Group . They wanted to make the logo as much aesthetic as possible . They developed a custom icon and logo type to convey the unique and ethereal qualities of Madonna 's show , which was described by the group 's founder Margo Chase as " a multilayered musical and spiritual journey through diverse worlds . " Chase commented that since " Madonna is a student of Kabbalah , she requested that we include references to that body of knowledge . " The resulting logo and poster included both Arabic and Hebrew references . A number of designs were prepared by Chase and the one ultimately chosen by Madonna made it to the main poster of the show , which featured Madonna 's face @-@ shot from the " What It Feels Like for a Girl " video shots .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show was divided into five sections : Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish and Ghetto . It began with a dramatic performance of " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " ; Madonna entered amidst billows of dry ice , dressed in a sleeveless black top , crossover top with one net sleeve , jeans with zips and bondage straps , a studded dog collar and a tartan kilt . She performed the song standing on the middle platform of the stage . Afterwards a chaotic cyberpunk @-@ themed performance of " Impressive Instant " started , with dancers in gas masks and headlights . She then played guitar for " Candy Perfume Girl " , leading to the performance of " Beautiful Stranger " featuring a lost stage technician . Backdrops displayed scenes from the movie Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me and psychedelic fluorescent whirls . The first section finished with " Ray of Light " where Madonna danced energetically across the stage .
The second segment opened with a video interlude of " Paradise ( Not for Me ) " and had nearly naked dancers hanging upside down from the ceiling . As the video ended , the dancers stood in front of the stage opening their mouth which was lit from inside . Madonna appeared on the stage wearing a short black wig and a hand @-@ painted kimono with fifty @-@ two @-@ feet long sleevespan , to sing " Frozen " . The backdrops display silhouettes of burning trees against racing , blood @-@ red clouds . A short intro of " Open Your Heart " lead to " Nobody 's Perfect " where Madonna was portrayed to be sacrificed for her sins . This was followed by " Mer Girl " which turned into the fast @-@ action , ninja / samurai martial arts battle performance of " Sky Fits Heaven " , transforming back into the slow @-@ tempo " Mer Girl " . This section was inspired by the Chinese film Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon ( 2000 ) . Madonna 's battered and bruised face is shown in the backdrops as she emerged with a shotgun from the battle on stage and shot her dancer . As Madonna disappeared into the floor , a violent , sexually explicit Japanese animation dance remix interlude of " What It Feels Like for a Girl " was shown , featuring footage from the Japanese anime film Perfect Blue ( 1997 ) .
Madonna appeared as a cowgirl , wearing a stars and stripes vest , for an acoustic guitar performance of " I Deserve It " and dedicated it to her then husband Guy Ritchie . This was followed by line dancing with her dancers dressed as cowboys during " Don 't Tell Me " where she accessorized herself with a raccoon 's tail . For " Human Nature " , she rode a mechanical bull . After the performance , she addressed the audience in a mocking southern accent and sang a macabre themed song titled " The Funny Song " . The next song was " Secret " , which featured scenes of riverside baptism , Sufi dervish ceremonies and Buddhist prayers in the backdrops . She finished off the segment with " Gone " , which was replaced with " You 'll See " on some select U.S. venues . Dancers started the Evita tango interlude of " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " . A number of candles were lit along the side of the stage . Madonna appeared in a half @-@ dress and performed the Spanish version of " What it Feels Like For a Girl " titled " Lo Que Siente La Mujer " . She finished the segment with an acoustic version of " La Isla Bonita " accompanied by flamenco dancing .
Madonna appeared on stage , in a halter D & G T @-@ shirt that read " Mother " on the front and " F * cker " on the back and a fur coat , singing a mash @-@ up of Stardust 's " Music Sounds Better With You " and " Holiday " . She and her entourage finished the show with a ghetto @-@ themed " Music " , introduced by Ali G , as her music video images flashed onscreen behind her . The song was mashed up with Kraftwerk 's song " Trans @-@ Europe Express " . The phrase " The End " appeared on the backdrops , and signified the show was over .
Several changes were made to the final shows in Los Angeles after the September 11 attacks : Madonna wore an American flag kilt during the show 's opening segment as a display of patriotism , the closing of " Mer Girl " ( part II ) was altered to remove the staged shooting of a character ; Madonna instead put the gun down , hugged him and they left the stage together . The macabre cannibalism @-@ themed " Funny Song " was removed . Additionally , as a surprise for Madonna at the final concert date , her husband at the time , Guy Ritchie , appeared as the lost technician at the end of " Beautiful Stranger " , the Samurai during " Sky Fits Heaven " wore Los Angeles Lakers jerseys . Also , all of the dancers joined in for the final dance section of " Holiday " , which usually only featured Madonna and her two backing singers . During the New York City performance of " Secret " , she dedicated the song to its inhabitants .
= = Critical reception = =
The tour received positive reviews and critical acclaim . Cory Moss from MTV wrote that " music might make the world go round , but costumes and theatrics make it more fun . Nobody knows this better than the Material Girl . " Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH commented that " you 'd struggle to find a better show than Drowned World and you 'd find it difficult to find a mainstream artist who can command near @-@ universal respect for anything like as long as this fine lady . One could almost judge the artist by what was left out [ ... ] she displayed that temptress quality which has beguiled us for nearly two decades and that , combined with her exquisite music , is why Madonna is so special . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine wrote : " Though her Cowgirl image is easily her least significant incarnation to date , Drowned World proves that Madonna is still unmatched in her ability to lift cultural iconography into the mainstream . [ ... ] Those who thought Madonna hung up her handcuffs along with the notorious Sex book should look again closely . With its themes of chaos , dominance , and , ultimately , celebration , Madonna 's Drowned World explores her ever @-@ fervid intrigue with both imposed and pious restraint . "
Simon Price from The Independent said that the tour " is a triumph of hydraulics , bungee rope acrobatics and cutting @-@ edge choreography . " However , he felt that the setlist consisting of mainly current songs implied that Madonna was doing " a paranoid attempt to frame herself as part of the present and not the past ? The irony here is that , given the ever @-@ decreasing spirals of pop revivalism , in order to be truly contemporary , rather than eschewing her past , Madonna would need to be ripping herself off circa 1984 . " John McAlley from Entertainment Weekly commented that the music was " loud , energetic , well @-@ sung , and perhaps a little too often beside the point " and that " [ it ] struggle [ d ] to rise above its [ the show 's ] theatrics . " He added that one will be " awed by Madonna 's palpable life force and intelligence . [ ... ] There are plenty of reasons to bow at this artist 's feat . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that " through the concert , Madonna made a display of arrogance , tossing off profanities , striking tough postures and glaring more often than she smiled . She represents self @-@ love backed by plenty of gym time and a whole troupe of devoted flunkies , all laboring to delight an audience she only seems to disdain . Music makes the people come together , she sang in the finale – together , that is , if Madonna is clearly in charge . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian felt that " with its perfect dance routines , special effects , devoted audience and hint of bullish arrogance , the Drowned World show befits the world 's most famous woman . "
= = Commercial response = =
Tour dates were limited to cities in Europe and North America . This decision caused some resentment among fans in other parts of the world . Drowned World became the first ( and only ) Madonna tour to skip over Canada completely . For many weeks prior to the launch of the tour dates , Arthur Fogel from Live Nation himself attempted to book dates in Toronto at the Air Canada Centre between the Sunrise , Atlanta , and Detroit dates , though no free bookings were available . In the end no dates were scheduled in Toronto , to the disappointment of many Canadian fans . Ticket sales were swift in London on April 25 , as Madonna sold out her dates at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in record time – six shows in six hours . Madonna made history with the fastest @-@ selling show ever at Earl 's Court , as 97 @,@ 000 tickets were sold .
The first show sold out in just fifteen minutes , and the online ticket website took one million hits in the first ten minutes while thirty million attempts were made to phone Madonna hotlines . All dates of Madonna 's Drowned World Tour sold out within minutes of going on sale . After the tour was over , industry reports presented that it earned US $ 76 @.@ 8 million ( $ 102 @.@ 64 million in 2016 dollars ) in total , from forty @-@ seven summer sold @-@ out shows and eventually played in front of 730 @,@ 000 people throughout North America and Europe , averaging at $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( $ 2 @.@ 14 million in 2016 dollars ) per show . Drowned World Tour became the highest @-@ grossing concert tour of 2001 by a solo artist , as well as the fourth highest @-@ grossing among all , behind U2 , N Sync and the Backstreet Boys . Drowned World received the Major Tour of the Year and Most Creative Stage Production awards nominations at the 2001 Pollstar awards , but lost them to U2 .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
The concert was broadcast live on HBO from The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan on August 26 , 2001 . Known as Madonna Live ! – Drowned World Tour 2001 , the broadcast was announced by Nancy Geller , senior vice president of HBO Original Programming . She commented , " It 's a thrill for us to have Madonna back , because we know it is going to be a spectacular show , with that combination of her amazing talent and extravagant style which only Madonna can bring . " It was produced by Marty Callner and directed by Hamish Hamilton . " Gone " was performed for the television broadcast and DVD release . The broadcast won the Best TV Concert category at the 2002 AOL TV Viewer Awards .
The Drowned World Tour 2001 DVD was released in all regions on November 13 , 2001 . Three audio tracks were made available : a DTS track , a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 track , and a Dolby Digital 2 @.@ 0 Stereo track . A photo gallery was included as a bonus feature . Like the original airing of the show , the DVD received very good reviews . The photographs used on the DVD packaging were taken by Madonna 's friend Rosie O 'Donnell . The DVD was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units .
= = Set list = =
" Drowned World / Substitute for Love " ( contains elements of " Music " , " Human Nature " " Ray of Light " and " Impressive Instant " )
" Impressive Instant "
" Candy Perfume Girl "
" Beautiful Stranger " ( contains elements of " Soul Bossa Nova ( Dim 's Space @-@ A @-@ Nova ) " )
" Ray of Light " ( ends with a reprise of " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " )
" Paradise ( Not for Me ) " ( Video Interlude )
" Frozen " ( Stereo MC 's Remix )
" Open Your Heart Swell "
" Nobody 's Perfect "
Medley :
" Mer Girl " ( Part I )
" Sky Fits Heaven "
" Mer Girl " ( Part II )
" What It Feels Like for a Girl " ( Remix ) ( Video Interlude )
" I Deserve It "
" Don 't Tell Me "
" Human Nature "
" The Funny Song "
" Secret "
" Gone "
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " ( Instrumental Interlude )
" Lo Que Siente La Mujer " ( Spanish Version of " What It Feels Like for a Girl " )
" La Isla Bonita "
" Holiday " ( contains elements from " Fate " and " Music Sounds Better with You " )
" Music " ( contains elements from " Trans @-@ Europe Express " )
The set list and the samples used in each performance is as per the track listing present in the Drowned World Tour 2001 live video release .
Additional notes
" Gone " was replaced by " You 'll See " in some U.S. shows .
" The Funny Song " was not performed during the Los Angeles shows after the September 11 attacks .
= = Shows = =
= = Cancelled shows = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Main
Conception – Madonna
Creative Director – Jamie King
Video Director – Dago Gonzalez
Musical Direction – Stuart Price
Costume Design – Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier , Dean and Dan Caten of D @-@ Squared , Dolce & Gabbana , Donatella Versace , Catherine Malandrino
Choreographer – Alex Magno
Band
Keyboards – Marcus Brown , Stuart Price
Drums – Steve Sidelnyk
Guitar – Monte Pittman , Stuart Price
Bass – Raymond Hudson
Percussion – Ron Powell
Backing vocals – Niki Haris , Donna De Lory
Head Dancer – Christian Vincent
Dancers – Ruthy Inchaustegui , Nito Larioza , Tamara Levinson , Anthony Jay Rodriguez , Jamal Story , Kemba Shannon , Eko Supriyanto , Jull Weber , Addie Yungmee
Technology Director and Additional Keyboards – Mike McKnight
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= Mat Latos =
Mathew Adam Latos ( / ˈleɪtoʊs / LAY @-@ tohs ; born December 9 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher who is in the Washington Nationals organization . He has played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the San Diego Padres from 2009 through 2011 , the Cincinnati Reds from 2012 through 2014 , and the Miami Marlins , Los Angeles Dodgers and Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in 2015 and Chicago White Sox in 2016 .
Born in Alexandria , Virginia , Latos ' family moved to Florida when he was young . He played baseball at Coconut Creek High School , where he became one of the best high school players in the state . Highly regarded for his talent before the 2006 MLB draft , he fell to the 11th round due to questions about his maturity . After pitching at Broward College for a season , the San Diego Padres signed him for a $ 1 @.@ 25 million bonus . He debuted for the Padres in 2009 , and established himself in their starting rotation . The Reds traded four players , including three prospects , to acquire Latos before the 2012 season . The Marlins traded for Latos before the 2015 season and then traded him to the Dodgers in July 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Latos is the only child born to Lisa and Rich Latos . He is originally from Alexandria , Virginia . When Latos was 12 years old , his grandfather insisted that he play in a baseball tournament rather than stay at his bedside the day he died .
= = High school and college = =
Latos attended Coconut Creek High School in Coconut Creek , Florida , despite being recruited to attend high schools with more prestigious baseball programs . He was named the ace starting pitcher of the Coconut Creek baseball team 's as a freshman . That year , he pitched to a 3 – 4 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 68 earned run average ( ERA ) , with 41 strikeouts and 26 walks in 39 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His fastball reached 88 to 89 miles per hour ( 142 – 143 km / h ) . He improved his fastball command and velocity as a sophomore , reaching 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) and his statistics improved to a 5 – 2 record , a 1 @.@ 23 ERA , 89 strikeouts , and 21 walks in 68 innings .
Heading into his junior year , Latos improved his training regimen and diet . He pitched to a 7 – 4 record with a 0 @.@ 76 ERA as a junior with 128 strikeouts and 17 walks in 83 innings . Eleven of his thirteen starts were complete games . Coconut Creek reached the regional quarterfinals , and Latos was named an Aflac All @-@ American and All @-@ Broward County by the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel and Miami Herald . By his senior year , Latos could throw his fastball as high as 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) . He was an honorable mention by the Florida Sports Writers Association for the All @-@ State team . As a senior , Latos had a 7 – 3 record with 110 strikeouts and a 0 @.@ 64 ERA in 69 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He appeared in the Broward County Athletics Association All @-@ Star Game , and was named South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel 's player of the year .
Latos committed to attend the University of Oklahoma to play college baseball for the Oklahoma Sooners baseball team . However , many scouts expected Latos to be a first @-@ round pick in the 2006 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . SchoolSports.com ranked Latos the fifth best high school pitcher available in the 2006 Major League Baseball draft . The San Diego Padres selected Latos in the 11th round ( 333rd overall ) . He fell in the draft since his personality made him difficult to handle in high school , as he was considered immature , and often yelled at teammates who made errors and reacted poorly when the umpire made a call he disagreed with .
After the draft , Latos demanded a $ 3 million signing bonus from the Padres . When the Padres did not meet his demands , Latos enrolled at Broward College , a junior college , to pitch for their baseball team . As the Padres retained the right to sign Latos until the start of the 2007 MLB draft , the Padres sent scout Joe Bochy to observe every start Latos made . Latos had a 10 – 3 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 03 ERA . Feeling that Latos was worth the gamble , the Padres paid Latos $ 1 @.@ 25 million a few days before he would have re @-@ entered the draft in 2007 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Latos started his professional career in minor league baseball with the Eugene Emeralds , the Padres ' Class A @-@ Short Season affiliate in the Northwest League , in 2007 . Pitching in 16 games for Eugene , Latos had a 1 – 4 record and a 3 @.@ 83 ERA . In 2008 , Latos started the season with the Fort Wayne Wizards of the Class A Midwest League , but missed playing time during the season due to abdominal and shoulder injuries .
The Padres invited Latos to spring training in 2009 , but he suffered a minor ankle sprain that limited his appearances . Latos started the 2009 season in Fort Wayne , and allowed only one run in four starts . He was then promoted to the San Antonio Missions of the Class AA Texas League . At San Antonio , Latos had a 5 – 1 win – loss record , and threw five perfect innings in his last start for San Antonio on July 9 . Between Fort Wayne and San Antonio , Latos had an 8 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 38 ERA , 73 strikeouts , and a .168 batting average against ( BAA ) . The Padres named Latos their Padres Minor League Pitcher of the Month for May . Latos was selected to play in the 2009 All @-@ Star Futures Game , and threw one scoreless inning .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
The Padres promoted Latos to make his major league debut on July 19 , 2009 , against the Colorado Rockies . In his major league debut , Latos pitched four innings , allowing three hits and two runs while striking out four , while throwing 75 pitches . He recorded his first major league win on July 24 . Latos became the first pitcher in Padres history to win four of his first five career starts . Latos made ten starts for the Padres in 2009 , pitching to a 4 – 5 record and a 4 @.@ 68 ERA . Latos irritated his veteran teammates with his " know @-@ it @-@ all " and abrasive personality .
Latos changed his attitude by the 2010 season , and became willing to take advice from his teammates . On May 13 , 2010 , Latos threw a complete game shutout against the division foe San Francisco Giants . The only hit he allowed was an infield single . The Padres won the game 1 – 0 . After posting a 5 @.@ 47 ERA through May 1 , Latos lowered his ERA down to 2 @.@ 45 right before the All Star Break , also leading the league in BAA and WHIP ( .193 and 0 @.@ 97 respectively ) . On September 7 , 2010 , Latos set a major league record with a seven – inning , 10 – strikeout performance in a win against the Dodgers . The victory was Latos ' 15th consecutive start logging at least five innings and allowing two or fewer earned runs , which was at the time the longest streak in modern baseball history ( since 1900 ) according to the Elias Sports Bureau . The record would be broken by Félix Hernández , who recorded 17 such straight outings during the 2014 season . Previously the mark had been set by Greg Maddux ( 1993 – 94 ) and Mike Scott ( 1986 ) , who had such streaks lasting 14 starts . On the season , Latos pitched to a 14 – 10 win – loss record in 31 games started , with a 2 @.@ 92 ( ERA ) , 1 @.@ 08 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) , and 189 strikeouts in 184 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He placed eighth in voting for the National League Cy Young Award .
However , Latos lost his last five starts of the 2010 season , culminating with a 3 – 0 loss to the San Francisco Giants on October 3 that , combined with an Atlanta Braves win , eliminated the Padres from playoff contention . The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune attributed his struggles at the end of the year to fatigue , as his 189 2 ⁄ 3 innings for the season were 66 2 ⁄ 3 more than he pitched in 2009 .
Latos started 2011 on the disabled list due to a spring training shoulder injury . He lost his first four starts of the season , extending his losing streak to nine consecutive starts dating back to 2010 . The streak tied the longest streak in Padres history , held by Andy Benes and Dennis Rasmussen . Latos had a no @-@ decision in his next start after the bullpen blew a save opportunity , preventing him from earning a win . He lost another decision for a 10 @-@ game losing streak that was one less than the club record held by Gary Ross . Latos won on May 15 against the Colorado Rockies to end his losing streak . He ended the 2011 season with a 9 – 14 record and a 3 @.@ 47 ERA .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
After the 2011 season , the Cincinnati Reds were looking for another frontline starter to pair with Johnny Cueto in their starting rotation . On December 17 , 2011 , the Padres traded Latos to the Reds in exchange for prospects Yonder Alonso , Yasmani Grandal , and Brad Boxberger , along with veteran starting pitcher Edinson Vólquez .
In the last week of June 2012 , Latos pitched two complete games . He was named the National League Player of the Week for the week ending July 1 . Latos finished the 2012 season with a 14 – 4 win – loss record a 3 @.@ 48 ERA . The Reds reached the playoffs , and faced the San Francisco Giants in the 2012 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) . On October 11 , 2012 , Latos gave up a grand slam to Buster Posey in a 6 @-@ run top of the fifth inning in the elimination game of the NLDS . Latos took the loss in this game , as the Reds were eliminated .
The Reds signed Latos to a two @-@ year contract worth $ 11 @.@ 5 million for the 2013 and 2014 seasons . Latos had a 21 @-@ game streak without a loss , extending from August 2012 to June 2013 . He finished the 2013 season with a 14 – 7 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 16 ERA in 210 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Though he suffered an abdominal strain on June 30 , he continued to pitch without missing any starts . He revealed the injury after a poor outing against the Pittsburgh Pirates in September . The Reds reached the 2013 National League Wild Card Game , opposing Pittsburgh . Reds ' manager Dusty Baker wanted to start Latos for that game , but a bone spur in his elbow prevented him from being available . Baker chose Cueto as his starter . The Reds lost the game , ending their season .
Latos had surgery to remove bone chips from his elbow during the offseason . During spring training in 2014 , Latos tore cartilage in his left knee , which was repaired with surgery . His knee had not fully recovered in time for Opening Day of the 2014 season , which he started on the disabled list . He began a rehabilitation assignment with the Louisville Bats of the Class AAA International League on May 26 , and made his 2014 season debut with the Reds on June 14 . Latos said that he came back at " 80 – 90 percent " effectiveness due to his desire to help his team , but experienced setbacks with his knee during the season . He averaged 90 @.@ 7 miles per hour ( 146 @.@ 0 km / h ) on his fastball , down from 92 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 148 @.@ 9 km / h ) during the 2013 season . His last start came on September 7 , as he suffered a bone bruise on the elbow of his pitching arm . His 2014 season ended with a 5 – 5 record and a 3 @.@ 25 ERA in 16 starts .
= = = Miami Marlins = = =
With the goal of reducing their payroll , and with Latos eligible for free agency after the 2015 season , the Reds traded Latos to the Miami Marlins in exchange for Anthony DeSclafani and Chad Wallach during the 2014 Winter Meetings . Latos sought a $ 10 @.@ 4 million salary for the 2015 season in salary arbitration , but the arbiters sided with the Marlins , who proposed a salary of $ 9 @.@ 4 million .
Latos had 90 cubic centimeters of fluid drained from his left knee during spring training . He allowed seven runs in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning in his first start for Miami , and struggled through knee pain through May . He went on the disabled list after his May 21 start to rest his knee , and returned in mid @-@ June . Latos missed a start in July after a foul ball struck him in his foot while he was sitting in the dugout .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers and Angels = = =
On July 30 , 2015 , in a three @-@ team trade , the Los Angeles Dodgers acquired Latos , Michael Morse , Bronson Arroyo , Alex Wood , Jim Johnson , Luis Avilán , and José Peraza , while the Marlins acquired minor league pitchers Victor Araujo , Jake Brigham , and Kevin Guzman , while the Atlanta Braves received Héctor Olivera , Paco Rodriguez , minor league pitcher Zachary Bird , and a competitive balance draft pick for the 2016 MLB draft . He made five starts and one relief appearance for the Dodgers and was 0 – 3 while allowing 19 runs in 24 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He lost his starting job due to his poor performance and was designated for assignment on September 17 . The Dodgers released Latos on September 25 .
On September 28 , 2015 , Latos signed a contract with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim that would allow him to pitch the last week of the season for them . Latos was not eligible to pitch for the Angels in the postseason . He made his first appearance for the Angels as a relief pitcher on September 29 .
= = = Chicago White Sox = = =
Latos signed a one @-@ year contract worth $ 3 million with the Chicago White Sox prior to the 2016 season . Latos pitched to a 0 @.@ 74 ERA in his first four starts for the White Sox , but then struggled , allowing 29 earned runs in his next 36 innings pitched since April 30 . After acquiring James Shields , the White Sox designated Latos for assignment on June 9 .
= = Pitching style = =
Latos throws five pitches . He throws a four @-@ seam fastball ( 91 to 96 miles per hour ( 146 to 154 km / h ) ) , a two @-@ seam fastball ( 90 to 94 miles per hour ( 145 to 151 km / h ) ) , a slider ( 84 to 87 miles per hour ( 135 to 140 km / h ) ) , a curveball ( 78 to 82 miles per hour ( 126 to 132 km / h ) ) , and a changeup ( 82 to 85 miles per hour ( 132 to 137 km / h ) ) . He mostly relies on his four @-@ seamer and slider against right @-@ handed hitters while adding considerable variety against lefties . The 42 % whiff rate on his slider is one of the best among major league starters .
Latos is 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) tall and uses an over @-@ the @-@ top delivery . Latos has one of the highest delivery points in baseball . Latos has compiled good strikeout totals in his career as a starter , finishing in the NL 's top 10 in strikeouts per 9 innings pitched rate twice .
= = Personal = =
Latos married in 2010 . He and his wife , Dallas , met through her then @-@ roommate and Mat 's friend , a minor league baseball player , who were dating . Mat and Dallas participated in the NOH8 Campaign in 2013 . The couple own a cat , named Cat Latos . They purchased a home in Indian Hill , Ohio , in 2013 . They had their first child , a son named Landon Marshall Latos , in August 2014 .
Latos honors his grandfather by writing his initials on the pitching mound and with a tattoo of his grandfather 's initials . He enjoys drawing , especially airbrushing , and stated a desire to work on tattoos . Latos has many tattoos , and was described by Tim Sullivan of the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune as " the righthanded tattoo canvas . "
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= Central Valley Project =
The Central Valley Project ( CVP ) is a federal water management project in the U.S. state of California under the supervision of the United States Bureau of Reclamation . It was devised in 1933 in order to provide irrigation and municipal water to much of California 's Central Valley — by regulating and storing water in reservoirs in the water @-@ rich northern half of the state , and transporting it to the water @-@ poor San Joaquin Valley and its surroundings by means of a series of canals , aqueducts and pump plants , some shared with the California State Water Project ( SWP ) . Many CVP water users are represented by the Central Valley Project Water Association .
In addition to water storage and regulation , the system has a hydroelectric capacity of over 2 @,@ 000 megawatts , provides recreation , and provides flood control with its twenty dams and reservoirs . It has allowed major cities to grow along Valley rivers which previously would flood each spring , and transformed the semi @-@ arid desert environment of the San Joaquin Valley into productive farmland . Freshwater stored in Sacramento River reservoirs and released downriver during dry periods prevents salt water from intruding into the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta during high tide . There are eight divisions of the project and ten corresponding units , many of which operate in conjunction , while others are independent of the rest of the network . California agriculture and related industries now directly account for 7 % of the gross state product for which the CVP supplied water for about half .
Despite the benefits of the Project , many CVP operations have resulted in disastrous environmental and historical consequences . The salmon population in four major California rivers have declined as a result , and many natural river environments , such as riparian zones , meanders and sandbars no longer exist . Many archaeological and historic sites , as well as Native American tribal lands , now lie submerged under reservoirs for the CVP , which has received heavy criticism for promoting high @-@ water @-@ demand irrigated industrial farming that in turn has polluted rivers and groundwater . USBR has also been known to stretch the boundaries of many state and federal regulations in its operations of the CVP . The Central Valley Project Improvement Act , passed in 1992 , intends to alleviate some of the problems associated with the CVP with programs like the Refuge Water Supply Program .
In recent years , a combination of drought and regulatory decisions passed based on the Endangered Species Act of 1973 have forced Reclamation to turn off much of the water for the west side of the San Joaquin Valley in order to protect the fragile ecosystem in the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta and keep alive the dwindling fish populations of Central Valley rivers .
= = Overview = =
= = = Operations = = =
The CVP stores about 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water in 20 reservoirs in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada , the Klamath Mountains and the California Coast Ranges , and passes about 7 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 9 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water annually through its canals . Of the water transported , about 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 6 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 dam3 ) goes to about 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 ha ) of irrigated agricultural fields , 600 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 740 @,@ 000 dam3 ) supplies municipal uses , and 800 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 990 @,@ 000 dam3 ) is released into rivers and wetlands in order to comply with state and federal ecological standards .
Two large reservoirs , Shasta Lake and Trinity Lake , are formed by a pair of dams in the mountains north of the Sacramento Valley . Water from both of these lakes are released into the Sacramento River , which flows to the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta , at controlled rates . There , before it can flow on to San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean , some of the water is intercepted by a diversion channel and transported to the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal , which conveys water southwards through the San Joaquin Valley , supplying water to San Luis Reservoir ( a SWP @-@ shared facility ) and the San Joaquin River at Mendota Pool in the process , eventually reaching canals that irrigates farms in the valley . Friant Dam crosses the San Joaquin River upstream of Mendota Pool , diverting its water southwards into canals that travel into the Tulare Lake area of the San Joaquin Valley , as far south as the Kern River . Finally , New Melones Lake , a separate facility , stores water flow of a San Joaquin River tributary for use during dry periods . Other smaller , independent facilities exist to provide water to local irrigation districts .
= = = History = = =
Despite the rich soils and favorable weather of the 42 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 110 @,@ 000 km2 ) Central Valley , inhabitants of the valley who were unfamiliar with its natural rainfall patterns and started to practice intense irrigated agriculture on the arid land soon found themselves troubled by frequent floods in the Sacramento Valley and a general lack of water in the San Joaquin Valley . The Sacramento River , which drains the northern part , receives between 60 @-@ 75 % of the precipitation in the Valley , despite the Sacramento Valley covering less area than the much larger San Joaquin Valley , drained by the San Joaquin River , which receives only about 25 % of the rainfall . Furthermore , cities drawing water from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta faced problems in dry summer and autumn months when the inflowing water was low . In order to continue to sustain the valley 's economy , there needed to be systems to regulate flows in the rivers and equally distribute water among the north and south parts of the valley .
In 1873 , Barton S. Alexander completed a report for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers that was the first attempt at creating a Central Valley Project . In 1904 , the Bureau of Reclamation ( then the Reclamation Service ) first became interested in creating such a water project , but did not get far involved until a series of droughts and related disasters occurred in the early 1920s . The State of California passed the Central Valley Project Act in 1933 , which authorized Reclamation to sell revenue bonds in order to raise about $ 170 million for the project . Unfortunately , because of insufficient money in the state 's treasury and the coincidence with the Great Depression , California turned to the national government for funding to build the project . This resulted in several transfers of the project between California and the federal government , and between Reclamation and the Army Corps of Engineers . The first dams and canals of the project started going up in the late 1930s , and the last facilities were completed in the early 1970s . Other features of the project were never constructed , some lie partly finished , or are still awaiting authorization .
= = Facilities in the Sacramento Valley = =
= = = Sacramento River = = =
Shasta Division consists of a pair of large dams on the Sacramento River north of the city of Redding . The Shasta Dam is the primary water storage and power generating facility of the CVP . It impounds the Sacramento River to form Shasta Lake , which can store over 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 5 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water , and can generate 680 MW of power . Shasta Dam functions to regulate the flow of the Sacramento River so that downstream diversion dams and canals can capture the flow of the river more efficiently , and to prevent flooding in the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta where many water pump facilities for San Joaquin Valley aqueducts are located . The Keswick Dam functions as an afterbay ( regulating reservoir ) for the Shasta Dam , also generating power .
The Sacramento Canals Division of the CVP takes water from the Sacramento River much farther downstream of the Shasta and Keswick Dams . Diversion dams , pumping plants , and aqueducts provide municipal water supply as well as irrigation of about 98 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 dam2 ) . The Red Bluff Diversion Dam diverts part of the Sacramento River into the 110 @-@ mile ( 180 km ) Tehama @-@ Colusa Canal , the 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) Corning Canal and a small reservoir formed by Funks Dam . Five pump plants take water from the canal and feed it to the Colusa County water distribution grid .
= = = Trinity River = = =
Trinity River Division is the second large CVP department for the northern Sacramento Valley . The primary purpose of the division is to divert water from the Trinity River into the Sacramento River drainage downstream of Shasta Dam in order to provide more flow in the Sacramento River and generating peaking power in the process . Trinity Dam forms Trinity Lake , the second largest CVP water @-@ storage reservoir , with just over half the capacity of Shasta and a generating capacity of 140 MW . Lewiston Dam , downstream of Trinity Dam , diverts water into the Clear Creek Tunnel , which travels to empty into a third reservoir , Whiskeytown Lake on Clear Creek , a tributary of the Sacramento River , generating 154 MW of power in the process . Whiskeytown Lake ( formed by Clair . A Hill Whiskeytown Dam ) in turn provides water to the Spring Creek Tunnel , which travels into the lowermost extreme of Spring Creek , a stream that flows into Keswick Reservoir , generating another 180 MW of electricity . From there the water from the Trinity River empties into Keswick Reservoir and the Sacramento River . In 1963 , the Spring Creek Debris Dam was constructed just upstream of the outlet of the Spring Creek Tunnel , to prevent acid mine drainage from the Iron Mountain Mine from continuing downstream and contaminating the river .
= = = American River = = =
The American River Division is located in north @-@ central California , on the east side of the Great Central Valley . Its structures use the water of the American River , which drains off the Sierra Nevada and flows into the Sacramento River . The division is further divided into three units : the Folsom , Sly Park and Auburn @-@ Folsom South . The American River Division stores water in the American River watershed , to both provide water supply for local settlements , and supply it to the rest of the system . The dams also are an important flood control measure . Hydroelectricity is generated at Folsom and Nimbus dams , and marketed to the Western Area Power Administration .
The Folsom Unit consists of Folsom Dam , its primary water storage component , and Nimbus Dam , which serves as its downstream forebay . The Folsom Dam is located on the American River , and stores 1 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water in its reservoir , Folsom Lake . Folsom Lake covers 11 @,@ 550 acres ( 4 @,@ 670 ha ) and is located inside the Folsom Lake State Recreational Area . Eight additional earthfill saddle dams are required to keep the reservoir from overflowing . The dam also generates 200 MW from three generators . About 7 mi ( 11 km ) downstream of Folsom Dam is the Nimbus Dam , forming Lake Natoma . The dam generates 7 @.@ 7 MW from two Kaplan turbines on the north side of the river . The Nimbus Fish Hatchery is located downstream of Nimbus Dam , to compensate for the two dams ' destruction of American River spawning grounds .
The Sly Park Unit includes Sly Park Dam , Jenkinson Lake , the Camp Creek Diversion Dam , and two diversion tunnels . The Sly Park Dam and its similarilly @-@ sized auxiliary dam form Jenkinson Lake , which covers 650 acres ( 260 ha ) . Jenkinson Lake feeds the Camino Conduit , a 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) aqueduct . The Camp Creek Diversion Dam diverts some water from Camp Creek into Jenkinson Lake .
The third unit is the Auburn @-@ Folsom South Unit , consisting of several dams on American River tributaries . These include Sugar Pine Dam and Pipeline ( supplying water to Foresthill ) , and the uncompleted Folsom South Canal . The primary component of the unit , concrete thin @-@ arch Auburn Dam , was to be located on the North Fork of the American , but was never built because of the significant risk of earthquakes in the area , and general public opposition to the project . However , the high Foresthill Bridge , built as part of the preliminary work for Auburn Dam , still stands . County Line Dam , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Folsom Dam , was also never built .
= = Facilities in the San Joaquin Valley = =
= = = Delta and canal system = = =
One of the most important parts of the CVP 's San Joaquin Valley water system is the series of aqueducts and pumping plants that take water from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta and send it southwards to supply farms and cities . The Delta Cross Channel intercepts Sacramento River water as it travels westwards towards Suisun Bay and diverts it south through a series of man @-@ made channels , the Mokelumne River , and other natural sloughs , marshes and distributaries . From there , the water travels to the C.W. Bill Jones Pumping Plant , which raises water into the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal , which in turn travels 117 miles ( 188 km ) southwards to Mendota Pool on the San Joaquin River , supplying water to other CVP reservoirs about midway . A facility exists at the entrance of the pump plant in order to catch fish that would otherwise end up in the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal . A second canal , the Contra Costa Canal , captures freshwater near the central part of the delta , taking it 48 miles ( 77 km ) southwards , distributing water to the Clayton and Ygnacio Canals in the process , and supplying water to Contra Loma Dam , eventually terminating at Martinez Reservoir .
= = = San Joaquin River = = =
The CVP also has several dams on the San Joaquin River — which has far less average flow than the Sacramento — in order to divert its water to southern Central Valley aqueducts . The Friant Dam , completed in 1942 , is the largest component of the Friant Division of the CVP . The dam crosses the San Joaquin River where it spills out of the Sierra Nevada , forming Millerton Lake , which provides water storage for San Joaquin Valley irrigators as well as providing a diversion point for a pair of canals , the Friant @-@ Kern Canal and the Madera Canal . The Friant @-@ Kern Canal sends water southwards through the Tulare Lake area to its terminus at Bakersfield on the Kern River , supplying irrigation water to Tulare , Fresno , and Kern counties . The Madera Canal takes water northwards to Madera County , emptying into the Chowchilla River .
= = = Stanislaus River = = =
On the Stanislaus River , a major tributary of the San Joaquin , lies the relatively independent East Side Division and New Melones Unit of the CVP . The sole component of the division / unit is New Melones Dam , forming New Melones Lake , which , when filled to capacity , holds nearly 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water , about equal to the storage capacity of Trinity Lake . The dam functions to store water during dry periods and release it downstream into the northern San Joaquin Valley according to water demand . The dam generates 279 MW of power with a peaking capacity of 300 MW .
= = = Offstream storage and aqueducts = = =
The CVP has a significant amount of facilities for storing and transporting water on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley , in the foothills of the California Coast Ranges . The West San Joaquin Division and San Luis Unit consist of several major facilities that are shared with the federal California State Water Project ( SWP ) . San Luis Dam ( or B.F. Sisk Dam ) is the largest storage facility , holding 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water . Although called an offstream storage reservoir by BoR , the reservoir floods part of the San Luis Creek valley . San Luis Creek , however , is not the primary water source for the reservoir . Downstream of San Luis Reservoir is O 'Neill Forebay , which is intersected by the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal , a separate CVP facility . Water is pumped from the canal into the Forebay and uphill into San Luis Reservoir , which functions as an additional water source during dry periods .
Water released from San Luis and O 'Neill reservoirs feeds into the San Luis Canal , the federally built section of the California Aqueduct , which carries both CVP and SWP water . The San Luis Canal terminates at Kettleman City , where it connects with the state @-@ built section of the California Aqueduct . With a capacity of 13 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 370 m3 / s ) , it is one of the largest irrigation canals in the United States . The Coalinga or Pleasant Valley Canal branches off the San Luis Canal towards the Coalinga area . A pair of separate dams , Los Baños Detenton Dam and Little Panoche Detention Dam , provide flood control in the Los Baños area . The San Luis Drain was a separate project by BoR in an attempt to keep contaminated irrigation drainage water out of the San Joaquin River , emptying into Kesterson Reservoir where the water would evaporate or seep into the ground . Because of environmental concerns , the system was never completed .
The CVP also operates a San Felipe Division to supply water to 63 @,@ 500 acres ( 25 @,@ 700 ha ) of land in the Santa Clara Valley west of the Coast Ranges . San Justo Dam stores water diverted from San Luis Reservoir through the Pacheco Tunnel and Hollister Conduit , which travel through the Diablo Range . A separate canal , the Santa Clara Tunnel and Conduit , carries water to the Santa Clara Valley .
= = Controversy = =
Once , profuse runs of anadromous fish — salmon , steelhead , and others — migrated up the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers to spawn in great numbers . The construction of CVP dams on the two rivers and many of their major tributaries — namely Friant Dam and Shasta Dam — mostly ended the once @-@ bountiful Central Valley salmon run . From north to south , the Sacramento upriver of Shasta Dam , the American upriver of Folsom Dam , the Stanislaus upriver of New Melones Dam , and the San Joaquin upriver of Mendota — have become inaccessible to migrating salmon . In three of these cases , it is because the dams are too high and their reservoirs too large for fish to bypass via fish ladders . The San Joaquin River , however , had a different fate . Almost 60 mi ( 97 km ) of the river is dry because of diversions from Friant Dam and Millerton Lake . Even downstream of Mendota , where the Delta @-@ Mendota Canal gives the river a new surge of water from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta , irrigation runoff water , contaminated with pesticides and fertilizer , has caused the river to become heavily polluted . To make matters worse , efforts by the California Department of Fish and Game to route the San Joaquin salmon run into the Merced River in the 1950s failed , because the salmon did not realize the Merced as their " home stream " .
Not only on the San Joaquin River have CVP facilities wreaked environmental havoc . On the Sacramento River , Red Bluff Diversion Dam in Tehama County , while not as large or as impacting as Friant Dam , was once a barrier to the migration of anadromous fish . The original fish passage facilities of the dam continually experienced problems from the beginning of operation in 1966 , and introduced species that prey on young smolt often gather at the base of the dam , which reduced the population of outmigrating juvenile salmon into the Pacific . The Red Bluff Diversion Dam has since been replaced with a fish screen and pumping plant , thus allowing unimpaired passage through Red Bluff . Further upstream , Keswick and Shasta Dams form total barriers to fish migration . Even out of the Central Valley watershed , the CVP 's diversion of water from the Trinity River from Lewiston Dam into Whiskeytown Lake has significantly hurt the Klamath River tributary 's salmon run . Over three @-@ quarters of the river 's flow is diverted through the Clear Creek Tunnel and away from the Trinity River , causing the river below the dam to become warm , silty , shallow and slow @-@ flowing , attributes that hurt young salmon . Furthermore , the Trinity Dam forms a blockade that prevents salmon from reaching about 109 miles ( 175 km ) of upriver spawning grounds . In the early years of the 21st century , the Bureau of Reclamation finally began to steadily increase the water flow downstream from Lewiston Dam . While providing less water for the CVP altogether , the new flow regime allows operations to meet the line drawn by Reclamation itself in 1952 stating that at least 48 % of the river 's natural flow must be left untouched in order for Trinity River salmon to survive . The lack of flow in the Trinity up to then was also a violation of the authorization that Congress made over the operation of the dam . The " ... legislation required that enough be left in the Trinity for in @-@ basin needs , including preservation of the salmon fishery . "
In the early years of the 21st century , the Bureau of Reclamation studied the feasibility of raising Shasta Dam . One of the proposed heights was 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) greater than its current size , thus increasing the storage capacity of Shasta Lake by 636 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 784 @,@ 000 dam3 ) . The agency also proposed a smaller raise of 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) that would add 290 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 360 @,@ 000 dam3 ) . Previously , a 200 ft ( 61 m ) raise of the dam , increasing storage to 13 @,@ 890 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 17 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 dam3 ) , was considered , but deemed uneconomical . When Shasta Dam was first built , it was actually planned to be two hundred feet higher than it is now , but Reclamation stopped construction at its present height because of a shortage of materials and workers during World War II . The raising of the dam would further regulate and store more Sacramento River water for dry periods , thus benefiting the entire operations of the CVP , and also generating additional power . However , the proposed height increase was fought over for many reasons . Raising the dam would cost several hundred million dollars and raise the price of irrigation water from Shasta Lake . It would drown most of the remaining land belonging to the Winnemem Wintu tribe — 90 percent of whose land already lies beneath the surface of the lake — and flood several miles of the McCloud River , protected under National Wild and Scenic River status . Buildings , bridges , roads and other structures would have to be relocated . The added capacity of the reservoir would change flow fluctuations in the lower Sacramento River , and native fish populations , especially salmon , would suffer with the subsequent changes to the ecology of the river .
New Melones Dam has come under even greater controversy than Shasta Dam , mainly because of the project 's conflicts with federal and state limits and its impact on the watershed of the Stanislaus River . The original Melones Dam , submerged underneath New Melones Lake ( hence the name New Melones Dam ) is the source of one of these problems . The disused Melones Dam blocks cold water at the bottom of the lake from reaching the river , especially in dry years when the surface of the lake is closer to the crest of the old dam . This results in the river below the dam attaining a much higher temperature than usual , hurting native fish and wildlife . To solve this problem , Reclamation shuts off operations of the dam 's hydroelectric power plant when water levels are drastically low , but this results in power shortages . Originally , after the dam was constructed , the State of California put filling the reservoir on hold because of enormous public opposition to what was being inundated : the limestone canyon behind the dam , the deepest of its kind in the United States , contained hundreds of archaeological and historic sites and one of California 's best and most popular whitewater rafting runs . Thus the reservoir extended only to Parrot 's Ferry Bridge , 9 mi ( 14 km ) below its maximum upriver limit , until the El Niño event of 1982 @-@ 1983 , which filled it to capacity within weeks and even forced Reclamation to open the emergency spillways , prompting the state and federal governments to repeal the limits they had imposed on the reservoir . Furthermore , the project allows a far smaller sustainable water yield than originally expected , and Reclamation calls the dam " a case study of all that can go wrong with a project " .
In response to these environmental problems , Congress passed in 1992 the Central Valley Project Improvement Act ( CVPIA ) , Title 34 of Public Law 102 @-@ 575 , to change water management practices in the CVP in order to lessen the ecological impact on the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers . Actions mandated included the release of more water to supply rivers and wetlands , funding for habitat restoration work ( especially for anadromous fish spawning gravels ) , water temperature control , water conservation , fish passage , increasing the service area of the CVP 's canals , and other items .
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= Balans ( song ) =
" Balans " ( pronounced " balance " ) is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her eponymous and second studio album , Alesta ( 2016 ) . Released on 2 March 2016 through Global Records , the track features the vocal collaboration of Swedish @-@ Congolese singer @-@ songwriter Mohombi . " Balans " was produced by Play & Win members Sebastian Barac and Marcel Botezan , while the writing process was handled by the latter two in collaboration with Mohombi and Breyan Isaac .
A dance @-@ pop song incorporating tropical music and latin music influences into its sound , the recording was compared by critics to the works of fellow Romanian female singer Inna . An official music video for " Balans " was shot by Anton San and was uploaded on 9 March 2016 onto YouTube in order to accompany the single 's release . It portrays both Stan and Mohombi being present at a party held in a hall filled halfway by water . Following its release , the song received a mixed review by RnB Junkie ; they commended the collaboration , but criticized its lack of innovation and formulaic production . Commercially , the song peaked in Japan and Russia .
= = Background and reception = =
" Balans " , the third single released from Stan 's debut record , Alesta ( 2016 ) , was written by Play & Win members Sebastian Barac and Marcel Botezan , Mohombi and Breyan Isaac , while production was handled by both Barac and Botezan . The artwork used to commercialize the track in Japan was a photograph picked up from the photo shooting for her album , while the international cover sees Stan and Mohombi sporting the outfits from the official music video . The track is an up @-@ tempo dance @-@ pop song , which includes musical elements of tropical music and latin music .
Upon its release , the recording received a mixed review from Italian publication Rnb Junkie writer Umberto Olivio , who commended that the song resembles the works of fellow Romanian female singer Inna . He went on into praising Stan 's collaboration with Mohombi , but also saying that the " formula " for the recording was " nothing innovative " , with him describing the track as " quite obvious " . Olivio as well named " the level of palatability " of the tune " a lot weaker than the other songs from Alesta " , and denied the possible success of the track in mainstream clubs .
= = Promotion and music video = =
Stan included " Balans " on the setlist for her Japanese one @-@ week concert tours that promoted the release of her studio album , Alesta , in that territory . Stan performed an acoustic version of the song on Romanian radio station Pro FM . After this , she had also performed a live acoustic version of " Be the One " by English recording artist Dua Lipa .
An accompanying music video for " Balans " was directed by Anton San and released onto Stan 's YouTube channel on 2 March 2016 ; by May 2016 , the clip amassed over one million views . The clip was filmed in an abandoned warehouse or a polygon where the inside temperature was of 6 ° C. About the video , Stan particularly confessed that " [ it ] is very dinamic and colored , the way that the life of a pop artist looks like . " The clip commences with Stan standing on a pickup , with fellow background dancers being present inside the car . Following their leaving , she looks from above at a partying crowd in a hall , which appears to be halfway filled with water , while sporting pink and red clothing . Subsequently , Stan is displayed dressing a pink fur coat and pants , while walking in the surroundings and finally discovering Mohombi . Following this , he provides his singing part when flirting with Stan , with her dancing around him . Following this , the crowd is once again shown dancing together to the song , and the clip closes with Stan being left alone in the room . Scenes interspersed through the main video show her posing in front of a blue wall or her lying atop the pickup car , with her head being placed on a golden purse . Italian publication RnB Junk writer , Umberto Olivio , criticized the clip for not having a plot and for being " unrealistic " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Alesta .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Camus Cross =
The Camus Cross , otherwise known as the Camuston or Camustane Cross , is an Early Medieval Scottish standing stone located on the Panmure Estate near Carnoustie in Angus , Scotland . First recorded in the 15th century in a legal document describing the boundaries between Camuston and the barony of Downie , and described in the 17th century by Robert Maule , it is a freestanding cross , rare in Eastern Scotland .
The cross is thought to date from the tenth century , and exhibits distinctive Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission influences , in common with several other monuments in the area . Tradition and folk etymology suggest that the cross marked the burial site of Camus , leader of the Norse army purportedly defeated by King Malcolm II at the apocryphal Battle of Barry . The name of the stone is likely to derive from the extinct village of Camuston , which has a Celtic toponymy .
= = Location = =
The Camus Cross is in the Downie Hills , approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) northwest of Carnoustie in Angus , Scotland . It is situated at the centre of a 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) long avenue leading east @-@ north @-@ east through Camuston Wood from the Panmure Testimonial to the Craigton to Carnoustie road , at ( grid reference NO519379 ) . The avenue is part of Panmure Estate and leads , beyond the road , to the former site of Panmure House .
= = Description = =
The freestanding cross is carved from Old Red Sandstone and stands 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high , approximately 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) wide at the base , 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) wide at the arms , and approximately 0 @.@ 2 metres ( 0 @.@ 66 ft ) thick . It stands on a low earth mound , 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) wide ( east to west ) , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) wide ( north to south ) and 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high , in the centre of the Camuston Wood avenue , facing east to west . All faces and sides are sculpted . The cross has suffered significant weathering , most notably on the west face , which has obscured some of the designs .
The stone bears no idiomatic Pictish symbols and , under J Romilly Allen and Joseph Anderson 's classification system , it is a class III stone . Intact freestanding crosses of this age are comparatively rare , perhaps due to their vulnerability to damage , and the only ones in Eastern Scotland are the Camus Cross and the Dupplin Cross in Strathearn . Fragmentary remains of other crosses include heads found at Forteviot , St Vigeans and Strathmartine and shaft fragments found at Monifieth , Abernethy , Carpow and Invermay , as well as some socketed stones where crosses once stood .
The western face is divided into three sections . The uppermost section is almost completely weathered . The antiquarian Alexander Gordon , who described the stone in 1726 in his Itinerarium Septentrionale , records this panel as holding a crucifixion scene , with the figure of a man at the right hand side and the left side completely defaced . Below this is a depiction of a centaur holding a bow , with the lowest panel having a symmetrical floral scroll design .
The eastern face is usually interpreted as a depiction of Christ flanked by angels above the four evangelists , although Robert Maule , in the earliest description of the stone , described the scene as Moses giving out the Law .
The carving on the Camus Cross shows distinct similarities with those on the Brechin Hogback stone and point to an Irish Ecclesiastical influence . The foliar designs on the north and south edges , originally seen as Ringerike @-@ like ( and hence , Scandinavian in origin ) , consist of tendrils and volutes with " wave @-@ crest " thickening . These features bear closest similarity with Irish insular art of the late tenth century , and the treatment of the symmetrical foliar scroll design on the lower portion of the west face is diagnostically Irish . The full @-@ face figures on the east face are of an identical type to those on the Brechin Hogback . In the case of the Brechin Hogback , the figures are carrying objects that are characteristic of early medieval Irish monasticism .
= = History = =
The Camus Cross is currently thought to be a late Pictish / early Gaelic era monument , dating from the 10th century . The earliest record of it is in a legal document of 1481 , describing the boundary of the lands of Camuston , owned by Sir Thomas Maule , and the barony of Downy , owned by the Earl of Crawford . The boundary was described as running " a magna cruce lapidea de Cambiston " ( ' from the great stone cross of Camuston ' ) . It was mentioned in the context of the Battle of Barry in Hector Boece 's Historia Gentis Scotorum in 1527 , and first described in detail by the antiquarian Robert Maule , who erected it at its present position in 1620 , after moving it six feet to centralise it within the Camuston Wood avenue .
The croce standis southe and northe , sa the bread syd thear of the ane to the east and the wther to the west ; that syd quhilk lowkes to the east is dewydit be mwllers of steane in thre stages ; the firs and hiest part quharof is the portrait of ane man , rudlie vroght in reasit work , at the southe arme quharof as apperis , the figure of ane fowle , to the quhilk the handis neir ; the second sectione or stage hes tua pourtraits of men lyk to the first , vithe the forme of ane quadrat or four noket breist plat on thear breist , lyk wnto that quhar withe Moses is painted , in the quhilk wes ingrawen the nems of the tuel tribes of Israel , and lykuayes the lawest and thrid rank efter the sam maner . On thear heads thay heawe clos bonnets twrnand hard thearto , quhilk appeirandly is Moses representine the lawe befor the cominge of Christ , and thearfor ar set towardis the east as representine the begininge and infancie of the world ; then on the west syd in the first rank and hiest is the Crucifix. opposit to Moses , signifiinge the latter dayes to approche and the declyninge age . In the second rank wnder the Crucifix ane man on hors bak , lyand bak owir , drawand ane bowe , the head of the arrowe wery grytm that it semes rather to be ane bolt then arrowe , albeit the bowe dois rather appeir to be ane hand bow nor cros bowe . In the lawest and thrid rank tehar is only the draught of ane floure , weil done , wpone aa rud ane stone . On the southe and northe sydes of the sam , quhar the croce is mor narrowe , ane prettie work efter the forme that browdinsters do vse [ ... ]
Camus was the supposed leader of a Norse expeditionary force defeated by the armies of King Malcolm II at the Battle of Barry . Tradition , popularised in the sixteenth century by historian Hector Boece , states that Camus fled the battle scene when defeat was imminent , and was caught and slain at the point where the cross now stands . The battle , and its main protagonists , including Camus , are now known to be historically inauthentic .
The name of the cross is likely to derive from the village of Camuston . No trace of this village can be seen today , and it had ceased to exist by the time of the first Ordnance Survey map , published in 1888 , but surveyed in 1857 to 1859 . Its former location is indicated in the 1794 map by Ainslie , about half a mile to the east of the cross . Camuston can be found with earlier spelling variations , for example , ' Cambistown ' as it is called in documents from 1425 and 1426 , and has a Celtic rather than Scandinavian etymology .
A burial disinterred in 1598 , near the Camus cross , was attributed by Maule as being the body of Camus :
Not far thearfra in the bank of Camstone , the zeir of God Im fywe hundrethe nyntie and aught zeiris , thear wos ane greawe fownd withe ane bread stone on eury quarter thearof efter the forme of ane malt cobile , quharin did ly the heale bons of ane man of gryt statwre , the thee bone quharof ves neir als longue as bothe the schank and thee bone of any reasonable man of this age , the harne pan gryte , and vanted the palme bread of ane hand thearof , quhilk had beine the straik as appeirithe of ane sword , it wes thought to heawe beine Cames the chief mans bwriel .
Little information of the burial exists , but goods found in the cist were kept at Brechin Castle . These were sketched by Jervise and are typical of Bronze Age artifacts , found fairly commonly in the area .
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= Up All Night Tour =
The Up All Night Tour was the first headlining concert tour by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction , showcasing their debut album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) . It began in December 2011 and was One Direction 's first solo tour after being formed in the seventh series of The X Factor and being signed to Syco Records . The concert tour was announced in September 2011 by concert producer Nik Tzimas Hatziefstathiou , with the initial British and Irish dates being revealed . The concert tour was managed by Modest ! Management , the shows were backed by a five @-@ piece musical band , and the creative assessments were handled by Caroline Watson and Lou Teasdale , among others . After the initial concert tour concluded in January 2012 , shortly afterwards , the concert tour expanded with legs in Oceania and North America . They ultimately played over 60 shows in Europe , Oceania and North America .
The setlist encompassed songs from One Direction 's debut album and five covers . Commentators commended One Direction 's singing abilities and stage presence , and the production of the show . The Up All Night Tour was a commercial success , with additional matinée and evening shows being performed at several venues . A recording of the Up All Night Tour was filmed during One Direction 's January 2012 show at the International Centre in Bournemouth . Documenting the whole concert with intersperses of backstage footage , a video album , Up All Night : The Live Tour , was released on DVD in May 2012 . The video concert DVD was a global success , topping the charts in twenty @-@ five countries and setting an unprecedented US chart record . By August 2012 , the video album had sold in excess of one million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , One Direction were signed to Syco Music . The group and nine other contestants from the series participated in The X Factor Live Tour 2011 from February 2011 to April 2011 . The tour saw the group performing for 500 @,@ 000 people throughout the UK . While touring on The X Factor Live Tour 2011 in April 2011 , the group disclosed that they would be embarking on a solo tour " soon " .
One Direction 's debut headline UK concert tour , the Up All Night Tour , was officially announced on 27 September 2011 . Set for December 2011 and January 2012 , the tour would showcase their then @-@ upcoming debut album , and would commence on 18 December 2011 in Watford , England and end 26 January 2012 in Belfast , Northern Ireland . One Direction announced the solo tour shortly after releasing their first single , " What Makes You Beautiful " . Shows in the UK and Ireland were an instant success — many rumoured to have sold out in under 10 seconds . Additional shows were added , including an expansion into Australia and New Zealand . In February 2012 , One Direction announced the Oceania leg , the tour dates set for April 2012 , scheduled to visit cities Sydney , Brisbane , Melbourne , Auckland and Wellington . While promoting the tour , band member Liam Payne stated the group wanted this trek to be a " world tour " . To kick off the tour , the band performed a rehearsal show in Watford . Once the first leg of the tour was complete , the band joined Big Time Rush as the opening act on the Better With U Tour .
During a break from concerts , One Direction promoted their album in the United States . Following an appearance on The Today Show , Up All Night was released in the US and One Direction became the first ever UK group to have their debut album bow atop the Billboard 200 . This led to the group extending the tour into North America . On 21 March 2012 , One Direction announced the North American leg of the tour . The North American leg would start on 24 May 2012 and compromise out of 26 shows . Shortly after the announcement British recording artist Olly Murs was confirmed to be the opening act for select dates on tour .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The concerts in England and Ireland received mixed feedback from critics . Kitty Empire ( The Observer ) was not impressed with the show at Windsor Hall . Empire wrote , " It 's easy to sneer at boy bands , but always worth considering their appeal . It goes without saying that One Direction are slick , and often bland . With the exception of their persuasive No 1 single , " What Makes You Beautiful " , their songs aren 't wildly distinctive " . For the concert at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London , James Robertson ( Daily Mirror ) gave the band a positive review . He states , " The room shook with hair raising , ear drum piercing and ( if there had been windows ) glass @-@ shattering screams . Each took a turn walking forward to embrace the cries from the sold @-@ out Hammersmith Apollo while singing the lame @-@ named Na , Na , Na . It was impossible to tell which one of the five boys had the biggest ovation but the loudest cheer came when Niall played acoustic guitar as they sang solo around an artificial camp fire " . Another glowing review was done by Alexandra Ryan ( Evening Herald ) for the concert at Dublin 's The O2 . She says , " THEY came , they saw , they conquered . Dreams came true for thousands of Irish female fans as their pop idols One Direction took to the stage at the O2 . Swarms of screaming girls flocked to the sold @-@ out venue last night as Zayn , Harry , Louis , Liam and Mullingar teen Niall Horan performed for 14 @,@ 000 fans " .
As the tour progressed to Oceania and North America , many commentators remarked on the band 's popularity and their singing abilities . For the concert at Sydney 's Hordern Pavilion , Mike Wass ( Idolator ) felt One Direction 's " surprisingly accomplished effort " of Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " proved that One Direction are " more than capable " of evolving their sound . Cameron Adams ( Herald Sun ) wrote a positive review for the concert in Melbourne at the Hisense Arena . He assessed that One Direction represented a " cleverly cast pop band with plenty of personality unleashed at the perfect time and seizing their moment . " He opined that the covers performed showcased " strong pop voices . " Adams concluded as follows : " Who knows if they 'll progress beyond the usual boy band lifespan . But for now they 're making a lot of people very happy . " Reviewing the concert in Fairfax at the Patriot Center , Chris Richards ( The Washington Post ) elaborated on the concert synopsis . He wrote , " Over the course of umpteen songs , its members didn 't work the stage so much as loiter on it . They looked comfortable . No silly choreography , just a few ensemble fist @-@ pumps . No ridiculous costumes , just letterman jackets , cardigans and khakis . A no @-@ nonsense backing band — guitar , bass , keyboards and drums — provided steady renditions of nearly all of the songs on the group 's debut album , " Up All Night " , as well as a few covers , including Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " and Natalie Imbruglia 's " Torn . "
Lars Brandle ( Billboard ) reviewed the concert at the BBEC Great Hall in Brisbane . Brandle predominantly noted the band 's popularity : " To say [ 1D ] is the hottest boy @-@ band on the scene , doesn 't quite grasp the situation . " On fire " is closer to the mark . " Brandle commended the show for being " all slick , clean fun " . Erica Futterman ( Rolling Stone ) wrote in a title for the concert at the Beacon Theatre in New York , " U.K. boy band relies on vocal prowess and charisma to keep fan base loyal . " Futterman highlighted their acoustic performances , which " showed off Horan 's ability to play guitar , as well as One Direction 's admirable live vocals " .Futterman concluded that there " was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note , a pleasant realization at a pop show " . Jane Stevenson ( Canoe.ca ) maintained that the show at the Molson Canadian Amphitheatre in Toronto had " none of that choreographed dance move nonsense " , and complimented the " naturally , classy , low @-@ key " production . Melody Lau ( National Post ) reviewed the same concert . Lau opined , " It 's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost @-@ too @-@ put @-@ together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love @-@ struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and , to a certain extent , entertain . " Lau additionally noted One Direction 's lack of original material to perform , " the group falls back on a handful of covers to fill in their set , including Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " , Gym Class Heroes ' " Stereo Hearts " and , surprisingly , Natalie Imbruglia 's " Torn " . Not straying too far away from the originals , the mid @-@ show medley definitely felt like the boys randomly belting out songs for the sake of filler but girls didn 't mind . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
When tickets for the shows in the UK and Ireland went on sale , many agencies reported sell @-@ outs within minutes . News site Stuff.co.nz reported nearly 10 @,@ 000 tickets were sold in 10 minutes for the band 's shows in Auckland and Wellington . The sellout success continued in Australia . There , the band 's shows in Sydney , Melbourne and Brisbane sold out in three minutes . Shows in the United States also sold out within minutes .
= = Recording = =
A recording of the Up All Night Tour was filmed during One Direction 's January 2012 show at the International Centre in Bournemouth . Documenting the whole concert with intersperses of backstage footage , a video album , Up All Night : The Live Tour , was released on DVD in May 2012 . The video concert DVD topped the charts in twenty @-@ five countries . In Australia , it debuted at number one on the ARIA DVD chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 90 @,@ 000 units in its first week of sale . In the United States , it debuted at number one on the Billboard DVD chart , selling 76 @,@ 000 copies , surpassing sales of the Billboard 200 number one album , John Mayer 's Born and Raised , which sold 65 @,@ 000 copies . One Direction made US chart history as the feat marks the first time a music DVD outsold the Billboard 200 number one album . The opening sales also makes it the highest music DVD debut of 2012 and the second highest debut in the past five years behind Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall , which launched at number one in December 2011 , with 96 @,@ 000 copies . As of August 2012 , the video album had sold in excess of 1 million copies worldwide . In the week ending 27 January 2013 , Up All Night : The Live Tour claimed its 30th week on top the Top Music Videos Chart , which is longer than any other title since the chart originated in March 1995 . It surpassed Ray Stevens ' Comedy Video Classics , which logged 29 weeks on top in 1993 – 1994 . The recording was ultimately certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 29 May 2013 , indicating shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Opening acts = =
Boyce Avenue ( United Kingdom & Ireland )
Camryn ( North America , select dates )
Justice Crew ( Australia )
Matt Lonsdale ( United Kingdom & Ireland )
Annah Mac ( New Zealand )
Manika ( North America , select dates )
Olly Murs ( North America , select dates )
Johnny Ruffo ( Australia )
= = Setlist = =
" Na Na Na "
" Stand Up "
" I Wish "
Medley : " I Gotta Feeling " / " Stereo Hearts " / " Valerie " / " Torn "
" Moments "
" Gotta Be You "
" More than This "
" Up All Night "
" Tell Me a Lie "
" Everything About You "
" Use Somebody "
" One Thing "
" Save You Tonight "
" What Makes You Beautiful "
Encore
15 . " I Want "
Sources :
Notes
During the concert at the 1 @-@ 800 @-@ ASK @-@ GARY Amphitheatre in Tampa Florida , Horan performed a cover of Ed Sheeran 's " The A Team " .
During the concert on June 26 the boys sang Michael Jackson 's Man in the Mirror .
= = Tour dates = =
Cancellations and rescheduled shows
= = = Box office score data = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
( Credits taken and adapted from Official Tour Programme . )
Raean Martinez ( Clothing Assistant )
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= Bobby Fischer =
Robert James " Bobby " Fischer ( March 9 , 1943 – January 17 , 2008 ) was an American chess grandmaster , the eleventh World Chess Champion . Many consider him the greatest chess player of all time . In 1972 , he captured the World Chess Championship from Boris Spassky of the USSR in a match held in Reykjavík , Iceland , publicized as a Cold War confrontation which attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since . In 1975 , Fischer refused to defend his title when an agreement could not be reached with FIDE , the game 's international governing body , over one of the conditions for the match . This allowed Soviet GM Anatoly Karpov , who had won the qualifying Candidates ' cycle , to become the new world champion by default under FIDE rules .
Fischer showed skill at an early age . At age 13 he won a " brilliancy " that became known as " The Game of the Century " . Starting at age 14 , Fischer played in eight United States Championships , winning each by at least a one @-@ point margin . At age 15 , Fischer became both the youngest grandmaster up to that time and the youngest candidate for the World Championship .
At age 20 , Fischer won the 1963 – 64 U.S. Championship with 11 / 11 , the only perfect score in the history of the tournament . His book My 60 Memorable Games ( published 1969 ) became an icon of American chess literature and is regarded a masterwork . Fischer won the 1970 Interzonal Tournament by a record 3 ½ -point margin and won 20 consecutive games , including two unprecedented 6 – 0 sweeps in the Candidates Matches . In July 1971 , he became the first official FIDE number @-@ one @-@ rated player .
After losing his title as World Chess Champion , Fischer became reclusive and sometimes erratic , disappearing from both competitive chess and the public eye . In 1992 he reemerged to win an unofficial rematch against Spassky . It was held in Yugoslavia , which was under a United Nations embargo at the time . His participation led to a conflict with the U.S. government , which sought income tax on Fischer 's match winnings , and ultimately issued a warrant for his arrest . After that , he lived his life as an émigré . In the 1990s , Fischer patented a modified chess timing system that added a time increment after each move , now a standard practice in top tournament and match play . He also invented a new variant of chess named Fischerandom Chess . Fischer made many additional contributions to chess .
= = Early years = =
Bobby Fischer was born at Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago , Illinois , on March 9 , 1943 . His birth certificate listed his father as Hans @-@ Gerhardt Fischer , also known as Gerardo Liebscher , a German biophysicist . His mother , Regina Wender Fischer , was a U.S. citizen ; Regina was born in Switzerland , to Jewish parents from Poland and Russia . Raised in St. Louis , Missouri , Regina became a teacher , registered nurse , and later a physician .
After graduating from college in her teens , Regina traveled to Germany to visit her brother . It was there she met geneticist and future Nobel Prize winner , Hermann Joseph Muller , who persuaded Regina to move to Moscow to study medicine . She enrolled at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University , where she met Hans @-@ Gerhardt , whom she married in November 1933 . In 1938 , Hans and Regina had a daughter , Joan Fischer . The reemergence of anti @-@ Semitism under Joseph Stalin prompted Regina to go with Joan to Paris , France , where Regina became an English teacher . The threat of a German invasion led her and Joan to go to the United States in 1939 . Hans @-@ Gerhardt attempted to follow the pair but his German citizenship barred him from entering the United States . Regina and Hans @-@ Gerhardt had separated in Moscow , although they did not officially divorce until 1945 .
At the time of her son 's birth , Regina was " homeless " and shuttled to different jobs and schools around the country to support her family . She engaged in political activism , and raised both Bobby and Joan as a single parent .
In 1949 , the family moved to Brooklyn , New York , where she studied for her master 's degree in nursing and subsequently began working in that field .
= = = Paul Nemenyi as Fischer 's father = = =
Sources implying that Paul Nemenyi , a Hungarian Jewish physicist and an expert in fluid and applied mechanics , may have been Fischer 's biological father were first made public in a 2002 investigation by Peter Nicholas and Clea Benson of The Philadelphia Inquirer . Throughout the 1950s , the FBI investigated Regina and her circle for her alleged communist sympathies , as well as her previous life in Moscow . The FBI files identify Paul Nemenyi as Bobby Fischer 's biological father , showing that Hans @-@ Gerhardt Fischer never entered the United States , having been refused admission by U.S. immigration officials due to his alleged Communist sympathies . Not only were Regina and Nemenyi reported to have had an affair in 1942 , but Nemenyi made monthly child support payments to Regina and paid for Bobby 's schooling until his own death in 1952 . Nemenyi had lodged complaints with social workers , saying he was concerned about the way that Regina was raising Bobby , to the point that , on at least one occasion , Nemenyi broke down in tears . Later on Bobby told the Hungarian chess player Zita Rajcsányi that Paul Nemenyi would sometimes show up at the family 's Brooklyn apartment and take him on outings . After Paul Nemenyi died in 1952 , Regina Fischer wrote a letter to Paul Nemenyi 's first son ( Peter ) , asking if Paul had left money for Bobby in his will :
Bobby was sick 2 days with fever and sore throat and of course a doctor or medicine was out of the question . I don 't think Paul would have wanted to leave Bobby this way and would ask you most urgently to let me know if Paul left anything for Bobby .
On one occasion , Regina told a social worker that the last time she had ever seen Hans @-@ Gerhardt Fischer was in 1939 , four years before Bobby was born . On another occasion , she told the same social worker she had traveled to Mexico to see Hans @-@ Gerhardt in June 1942 and that Bobby was conceived during that meeting . According to Bobby Fischer 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Russell Targ , who was married to Bobby 's half @-@ sister , Joan , for 40 years , Regina concealed the fact that Nemenyi was Bobby 's father because she wanted to avoid the stigma of an out @-@ of @-@ wedlock birth .
= = = Chess beginnings = = =
= = = = Impoverished childhood = = = =
In March 1949 , 6 @-@ year @-@ old Bobby and his sister Joan learned how to play chess using the instructions from a set bought at a candy store . When Joan lost interest in chess and Regina did not have time to play , it left Fischer to play many of his first games against himself . When the family vacationed at Patchogue , Long Island that summer , Bobby found a book of old chess games and studied it intensely . Fischer biographer Frank Brady describes the family 's move from Manhattan to Brooklyn in 1950 :
In the fall of 1950 , Regina moved the family out of Manhattan and across the bridge to Brooklyn , where she rented an inexpensive apartment near the intersection of Union and Franklin streets . It was only temporary : She was trying to get closer to a better neighborhood . Robbed of her medical degree in Russia because of the war , she was now determined to acquire a nursing diploma . As soon as she enrolled in the Prospect Heights School of Nursing , the peripatetic Fischer family , citizens of nowhere , moved once again — its tenth transit in six years — to a $ 52 @-@ a @-@ month two @-@ bedroom flat at 560 Lincoln Place in Brooklyn .
The family resided in apartment Q , a " small , basic , but habitable " apartment . It was there that " Fischer soon became so engrossed in the game that Regina feared he was spending too much time alone " . As a result , on November 14 , 1950 , Regina sent a postcard to the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper , seeking to place an ad inquiring whether other children of Bobby 's age might be interested in playing chess with him . The paper rejected her ad because no one could figure out how to classify it , but forwarded her inquiry to Hermann Helms , the " Dean of American Chess " , who told her that Master Max Pavey , former Scottish champion , would be giving a simultaneous exhibition on January 17 , 1951 . Fischer played in the exhibition . Although he held on for 15 minutes , even drawing a crowd of onlookers , he eventually lost to the chess master .
One of the spectators was Brooklyn Chess Club President , Carmine Nigro , an American chess expert of near master strength and an instructor . Nigro was so impressed with Fischer 's play that he introduced him to the club and began teaching him . Fischer noted of his time with Nigro : " Mr. Nigro was possibly not the best player in the world , but he was a very good teacher . Meeting him was probably a decisive factor in my going ahead with chess . "
Nigro hosted Fischer 's first chess tournament at his home in 1952 . In the summer of 1955 , Fischer , then 12 years old , joined the Manhattan Chess Club , the strongest chess club in the country . Fischer 's relationship with Nigro lasted until 1956 , when Nigro moved away .
= = = = Mentorship from Lombardy = = = =
Nigro introduced Fischer to future grandmaster William Lombardy , and , starting in September 1954 , Lombardy began coaching Fischer in private . " We spent hours in our sessions , simply playing over quality games , " said Lombardy . " I tried to instill in Bobby the secret of my own speedy rise . Eidetic Imagery and Total Immersion . " Based on a 1956 game Lombardy played against Povilas Vaitonis ( in which he agreed to a draw offer after only 13 moves ) , Lombardy told Fischer : " Do not accept draw offers . For an ambitious and talented player , accepting a draw is death to a top result . Opponents fear an uncompromising opponent and thus make more mistakes . Act as I advise and do not copy my timidity . " Lombardy played a key part in Fischer 's becoming World Champion . He was Fischer 's aide at Portorož where they analyzed Fischer 's games . He was Bobby 's second in Reykjavik , where he analyzed with Fischer , and helped keep Fischer in the match .
= = = The Hawthorne Chess Club = = =
In June 1956 , Fischer began attending the Hawthorne Chess Club , based in master John " Jack " W. Collins ' home . For years it was believed that Collins was Fischer 's teacher and coach , even though Collins stated that he did not teach Fischer . It is now believed that Collins was Fischer 's mentor , not his teacher or coach . A mentor and a friend , Fischer played thousands of blitz and offhand games with Collins and other strong players , studied the books in Collins ' large chess library , and ate almost as many dinners at Collins ' home as his own .
Future grandmaster Arnold Denker was also a mentor to young Bobby , often taking him to watch the New York Rangers play hockey at Madison Square Garden . Bobby enjoyed those treats and never forgot them ; the two became lifelong friends .
= = Young champion = =
In 1956 , Fischer experienced a " meteoric rise " in his playing strength . On the tenth national rating list of the United States Chess Federation ( USCF ) , published on May 20 , 1956 , Fischer 's rating was 1726 , more than 900 points below top @-@ rated Samuel Reshevsky ( 2663 ) .
In March 1956 , the Log Cabin Chess Club of Orange , New Jersey , took Fischer on a tour to Cuba , where he gave a 12 @-@ board simultaneous exhibition at Havana 's Capablanca Chess Club , winning ten games and drawing two . On this tour the club played a series of matches against other clubs . Fischer played second board , behind International Master Norman Whitaker . Whitaker and Fischer were the leading scorers for the club , each scoring 5 ½ points out of 7 games .
In July 1956 , Fischer won the U.S. Junior Chess Championship , scoring 8 ½ / 10 at Philadelphia to become the youngest @-@ ever Junior Champion at age 13 . At the 1956 U.S. Open Chess Championship in Oklahoma City , Bobby scored 8 ½ / 12 to tie for 4 – 8th places , with Arthur Bisguier winning . In the first Canadian Open Chess Championship at Montreal 1956 , Bobby scored 7 / 10 to tie for 8 – 12th places , with Larry Evans winning . In November , Fischer played in the 1956 Eastern States Open Championship in Washington , D.C. , tying for second with William Lombardy , Nicholas Rossolimo , and Arthur Feuerstein , with Hans Berliner taking first by a half @-@ point .
Fischer accepted an invitation to play in the Third Lessing J. Rosenwald Trophy Tournament in New York City ( 1956 ) , a premier tournament limited to the 12 players considered the best in the country . Although Fischer 's rating was not among the top 12 in the country , he received entry by special consideration . Playing against top opposition , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old Fischer could only score 4 ½ / 11 , tying for 8 – 9th place . Yet , Bobby won the brilliancy prize for his ' " immortal " ' game against International Master Donald Byrne , in which Bobby sacrificed his queen to unleash an unstoppable attack . Hans Kmoch called it " The Game of the Century " . Wrote Kmoch , " The following game , a stunning masterpiece of combination play performed by a boy of 13 against a formidable opponent , matches the finest on record in the history of chess prodigies " . " ' The Game of the Century ' has been talked about , analyzed , and admired for more than fifty years , and it will probably be a part of the canon of chess for many years to come . " " In reflecting on his game a while after it occurred , Bobby was refreshingly modest : ' I just made the moves I thought were best . I was just lucky . ' "
In 1957 , Fischer played a two @-@ game match against former World Champion Max Euwe at New York , losing ½ – 1 ½ . On the USCF 's eleventh national rating list , published on May 5 , 1957 , Fischer was rated 2231 — over 500 points higher than his rating a year before . This made him the country 's youngest ever chess master , up to that point . In July , Bobby successfully defended his U.S. Junior title , scoring 8 ½ / 9 at San Francisco . As a result of his strong tournament results , Fischer 's rating went up to 2298 , " making him among the top ten active players in the country " . In August , Fischer scored 10 / 12 at the U.S. Open Chess Championship in Cleveland , winning on tie @-@ breaking points over Arthur Bisguier . This made Bobby the youngest ever U.S. Open Champion . Bobby won the New Jersey Open Championship , scoring 6 ½ / 7 . He then defeated the young Filipino master Rodolfo Tan Cardoso 6 – 2 in a New York match sponsored by Pepsi @-@ Cola .
= = = Wins first U.S. title = = =
Based on Fischer 's rating and strong results , the USCF invited him to play in the 1957 – 58 U.S. Championship . The tournament included such luminaries as six @-@ time U.S. champion Samuel Reshevsky , defending U.S. champion Arthur Bisguier , and William Lombardy , who in August had won the World Junior Championship with the only perfect score ( 11 – 0 ) in the history of the event . Bisguier predicted that Fischer would " finish slightly over the center mark " . Despite all the predictions to the contrary , Fischer scored eight wins and five draws to win the tournament by a one @-@ point margin , with 10 ½ / 13 . Still two months shy of his 15th birthday , Fischer became the youngest ever U.S. Champion . Since the championship that year was also the U.S. Zonal Championship , Fischer 's victory earned him the title of International Master . Fischer 's victory in the U.S. Championship sent his rating up to 2626 , making him the second highest rated player in the United States , behind only Reshevsky ( 2713 ) , and qualified him to participate in the 1958 Portorož Interzonal , the next step toward challenging the World Champion .
= = Grandmaster , candidate , author = =
Bobby wanted to go to Moscow . At his pleading , " Regina wrote directly to the Soviet leader , Nikita Khrushchev , requesting an invitation for Bobby to participate in the World Youth and Student Festival . The reply — affirmative — came too late for him to go . " Regina did not have the money to pay the airfare , but in the following year Fischer was invited onto the game show I 've Got a Secret , where , thanks to Regina 's efforts , the producers of the show arranged two round @-@ trip tickets to Russia .
Once in Russia , Fischer was invited by the Soviet Union to Moscow , where International Master Lev Abramov would serve as a guide to Bobby and his sister , Joan . Upon arrival , Fischer immediately demanded that he be taken to the Moscow Central Chess Club , where he played speed chess with " two young Soviet masters " , Evgeni Vasiukov and Alexander Nikitin , winning every game . Chess author V. I. Linder writes about the impression Fischer gave grandmaster Vladimir Alatortsev when he played blitz against the Soviet masters : " Back in 1958 , in the Central Chess Club , Vladimir Alatortsev saw a tall , angular 15 @-@ year @-@ old youth , who in blitz games , crushed almost everyone who crossed his path ... Alatortsev was no exception , losing all three games . He was astonished by the play of the young American Robert Fischer , his fantastic self @-@ confidence , amazing chess erudition and simply brilliant play ! On arriving home , Vladimir said in admiration to his wife : ' This is the future world champion ! ' "
Fischer demanded to play against Mikhail Botvinnik , the reigning World Champion . When told that this was impossible , Fischer asked to play Keres . " Finally , Tigran Petrosian was , on a semi @-@ official basis , summoned to the club ... " where he played speed games with Fischer , winning the majority . " When Bobby discovered that he wasn 't going to play any formal games ... he went into a not @-@ so @-@ silent rage " , saying he was fed up " with these Russian pigs " , which angered the Soviets who saw Fischer as their honored guest . It was then that the Yugoslavian chess officials offered to take in Fischer and Joan as early guests to the Interzonal . Fischer took them up on the offer , arriving in Yugoslavia to play two short training matches against masters Dragoljub Janošević and Milan Matulović . Fischer drew both games against Janošević and then defeated Matulović in Belgrade by 2 ½ – 1 ½ .
The top six finishers in the Interzonal would qualify for the Candidates Tournament . Most observers doubted that a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with no international experience could finish among the six qualifiers at the Interzonal , but Fischer told journalist Miro Radoicic , " I can draw with the grandmasters , and there are half @-@ a @-@ dozen patzers in the tournament I reckon to beat . " Despite some bumps in the road and a problematic start , Fischer succeeded in his plan : after a strong finish , he ended up with 12 / 20 ( + 6 − 2 = 12 ) to tie for 5 – 6th . The Soviet grandmaster Yuri Averbakh observed ,
In the struggle at the board this youth , almost still a child , showed himself to be a full @-@ fledged fighter , demonstrating amazing composure , precise calculation and devilish resourcefulness . I was especially struck not even by his extensive opening knowledge , but his striving everywhere to seek new paths . In Fischer 's play an enormous talent was noticeable , and in addition one sensed an enormous amount of work on the study of chess .
Soviet grandmaster David Bronstein said of Fischer 's time in Portorož : " It was interesting for me to observe Fischer , but for a long time I couldn 't understand why this 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy played chess so well " . Fischer became the youngest person ever to qualify for the Candidates and the youngest ever grandmaster at 15 years , 6 months , 1 day . " By then everyone knew we had a genius on our hands . "
Before the Candidates ' Tournament , Fischer won the 1958 – 59 U.S. Championship ( scoring 8 ½ / 11 ) . He tied for third ( with Borislav Ivkov ) in Mar del Plata ( scoring 10 / 14 ) , a half @-@ point behind Ludek Pachman and Miguel Najdorf . He tied for 4 – 6th in Santiago ( scoring 7 ½ / 12 ) behind Ivkov , Pachman , and Herman Pilnik .
At the Zürich International Tournament , spring 1959 , Fischer finished a point behind future World Champion Mikhail Tal and a half @-@ point behind Yugoslavian grandmaster Svetozar Gligorić . Tal recalled Fischer 's uncompromising style : " In his game with the oldest competitor , the Hungarian grandmaster Gedeon Barcza , Fischer had no advantage , but , not wishing to let his opponent go in peace , played on to the 103rd move . The game was adjourned three times and the contestants used up two score sheets , but even when there were only the kings left on the board , Fischer made two more moves ! Draw ! Stunned by such a fanatical onslaught , Barcza could barely get up from his chair , but Bobby nonchalantly suggested : ' Let 's have a look at the game from the beginning ... ' Barcza then began pleading : ' Look , I have a wife and children . Who 's going to support them in the event of my untimely death ! ' "
Although Fischer had ended his formal education at age 16 , dropping out of Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn , he subsequently taught himself several foreign languages so he could read foreign chess periodicals . According to Latvian chess master Alexander Koblencs , even he and Tal could not match the commitment that Fischer had made to chess . Recalling a conversation from the tournament : " ' Tell me , Bobby , ' Tal continued , ' what do you think of the playing style of Larissa Volpert ? ' ' She 's too cautious . But you have another girl , Dmitrieva . Her games do appeal to me ! ' Here we were left literally open @-@ mouthed in astonishment . Misha and I have looked at thousands of games , but it never even occurred to us to study the games of our women players . How could we find the time for this ? ! Yet Bobby , it turns out , had found the time ! ' "
Until late 1959 , Fischer " had dressed atrociously for a champion , appearing at the most august and distinguished national and international events in sweaters and corduroys . " A director of the Manhattan Chess Club had once banned Fischer for not being " properly accoutered " , forcing Denker to intercede to get him reinstated . Now , encouraged by Pal Benko to dress more smartly , Fischer " began buying suits from all over the world , hand @-@ tailored and made to order . " He told journalist Ralph Ginzburg that he had 17 hand @-@ tailored suits and that all of his shirts and shoes were handmade .
At the age of 16 , Fischer finished equal fifth out of eight ( the top non @-@ Soviet player ) at the 1959 Candidates Tournament in Bled / Zagreb / Belgrade , Yugoslavia , scoring 12 ½ / 28 . He was outclassed by tournament winner Tal , who won all four of their individual games . That year , Fischer released his first book of collected games : Bobby Fischer 's Games of Chess , published by Simon & Schuster .
= = = Drops out of school = = =
Bobby 's interest in chess became more important than schoolwork , to the point that " by the time he reached the fourth grade , he 'd been in and out of six schools . " In 1952 , Regina got Bobby a scholarship ( based on his chess talent and " astronomically high IQ " ) to Brooklyn Community Woodward . Fischer later attended Erasmus Hall High School at the same time as Barbra Streisand and Neil Diamond . In 1959 , its student council awarded him a gold medal for his chess achievements . The same year , Fischer dropped out of high school when he turned age 16 , the earliest he could legally do so . He later explained to Ralph Ginzburg , " You don 't learn anything in school . "
When Fischer was 16 , his mother moved out of their apartment to pursue medical training . Her friend Joan Rodker , who had met Regina when the two were " idealistic communists " living in Moscow in the 1930s , believes that Fischer resented his mother for being mostly absent as a mother , a communist activist and an admirer of the Soviet Union and that this led to his hatred for the Soviet Union . In letters to Rodker , Fischer 's mother states her desire to pursue her own " obsession " of training in medicine and writes that her son would have to live in their Brooklyn apartment without her : " It sounds terrible to leave a 16 @-@ year @-@ old to his own devices , but he is probably happier that way " . The apartment was on the edge of Bedford @-@ Stuyvesant , a neighborhood that had one of the highest homicide and general crime rates in New York City . Despite the alienation from her son , Regina , in 1960 , protested the practices of the American Chess Foundation and staged a five @-@ hour protest in front of the White House , urging President Dwight Eisenhower to send an American team to that year 's chess Olympiad ( set for Leipzig , East Germany , behind the Iron Curtain ) and to help support the team financially .
= = U.S. Championships = =
Fischer played in eight U.S. Championships , winning all of them , by at least a one @-@ point margin . His results were :
Fischer missed the 1961 – 62 Championship ( he was preparing for the 1962 Interzonal ) , and there was no 1964 – 65 event . Out of eight U.S. Chess Championships , Fischer lost only three games ; to Edmar Mednis in the 1962 – 63 event , and in consecutive rounds to Samuel Reshevsky , and Robert Byrne in the 1965 championship , culminating in a total score of 74 / 90 ( 61 wins , 26 draws , 3 losses ) .
= = Olympiads = =
Fischer refused to play in the 1958 Munich Olympiad when his demand to play first board ahead of Samuel Reshevsky was rejected . Some sources claim that 15 @-@ year @-@ old Fischer was unable to arrange leave from attending high school . Fischer would later represent the United States on first board at four Men 's Chess Olympiads , winning two individual Silver and one individual Bronze medals :
Out of four Men 's Chess Olympiads , Fischer scored + 40 − 7 = 18 , for 49 / 65 : 75 @.@ 4 % . In 1966 , Fischer narrowly missed the individual gold medal , scoring 88 @.@ 23 % to World Champion Tigran Petrosian 's 88 @.@ 46 % , even though he played four games more than Petrosian , faced stiffer opposition , and would have won the gold if he had accepted Florin Gheorghiu 's draw offer , rather than declining it and suffering his only loss .
At the 1962 Varna Olympiad , Fischer predicted that he would defeat Argentinian GM Miguel Najdorf in 25 moves . Fischer actually did it in 24 , becoming the only player to beat Najdorf in the tournament . Ironically , Najdorf lost the game whilst employing the very opening variation named after him : the Sicilian Najdorf .
Fischer had planned to play for the U.S. at the 1968 Lugano Olympiad , but backed out when he saw the poor playing conditions . Both former World Champion Tigran Petrosian and Belgian @-@ American International Master George Koltanowski , the " leader of the American team " that year , felt that Fischer was " justified " in not participating in the Olympiad . According to Lombardy , Fischer 's non @-@ participation was due to Reshevsky 's refusal to " yield first board " .
= = 1960 – 61 = =
In 1960 , Fischer tied for first place with Soviet star Boris Spassky at the strong Mar del Plata Tournament in Argentina , winning by a two @-@ point margin , scoring 13 ½ / 15 ( + 13 − 1 = 1 ) , ahead of David Bronstein . Fischer lost only to Spassky ; this was the start of their lifelong friendship .
Fischer experienced the only failure in his competitive career at the Buenos Aires Tournament ( 1960 ) , finishing with 8 ½ / 19 ( + 3 − 5 = 11 ) , far behind winners Viktor Korchnoi and Samuel Reshevsky with 13 / 19 . According to Larry Evans , Fischer 's first sexual experience was with a girl to whom Evans introduced him during the tournament . Pal Benko says that Fischer did horribly in the tournament " because he got caught up in women and sex . Afterwards , Fischer said he 'd never mix women and chess together , and kept the promise . " Fischer concluded 1960 by winning a small tournament in Reykjavík with 4 ½ / 5 , and defeating Klaus Darga in an exhibition game in West Berlin .
In 1961 , Fischer started a 16 @-@ game match with Reshevsky , split between New York and Los Angeles . Reshevsky , 32 years Fischer 's senior , was considered the favorite , since he had far more match experience and had never lost a set match . After 11 games and a tie score ( two wins apiece with seven draws ) , the match ended prematurely due to a scheduling dispute between Fischer and match organizer and sponsor Jacqueline Piatigorsky . Reshevsky was declared the winner , by default , and received the winner 's share of the prize fund .
Fischer was second in a super @-@ class field , behind only former World Champion Tal , at Bled , 1961 . Yet , Fischer defeated Tal head @-@ to @-@ head for the first time in their individual game , scored 3 ½ / 4 against the Soviet contingent , and finished as the only unbeaten player , with 13 ½ / 19 ( + 8 − 0 = 11 ) .
= = 1962 : success , setback , accusations of collusion = =
Fischer won the 1962 Stockholm Interzonal by a 2 ½ -point margin , going undefeated , with 17 ½ / 22 ( + 13 − 0 = 9 ) . He was the first non @-@ Soviet player to win an Interzonal since FIDE instituted the tournament in 1948 . Russian grandmaster Alexander Kotov said of Fischer :
I have discussed Fischer 's play with Max Euwe and Gideon Stahlberg . All of us , experienced ' tournament old @-@ timers ' , were surprised by Fischer 's endgame expertise . When a young player is good at attacking or at combinations , this is understandable , but a faultless endgame technique at the age of 19 is something rare . I can recall only one other player who at that age was equally skillful at endgames — Vasily Smyslov .
Fischer 's victory made him a favorite for the Candidates Tournament in Curaçao . Yet , despite his result in the Interzonal , Fischer only finished fourth out of eight with 14 / 27 ( + 8 − 7 = 12 ) , far behind Tigran Petrosian ( 17 ½ / 27 ) , Efim Geller , and Paul Keres ( both 17 / 27 ) . Tal fell very ill during the tournament , and had to withdraw before completion . Fischer , a friend of Tal , was the only contestant who visited him in the hospital .
= = = Accuses Soviets of collusion = = =
Following his failure in the 1962 Candidates , Fischer asserted , in an August 20 , 1962 Sports Illustrated article , entitled " The Russians Have Fixed World Chess " , that three of the five Soviet players ( Tigran Petrosian , Paul Keres , and Efim Geller ) had a prearranged agreement to quickly draw their games against each other in order to conserve their energy for playing against Fischer . It is generally thought that this accusation is correct . Fischer stated that he would never again participate in a Candidates ' tournament , since the format , combined with the alleged collusion , made it impossible for a non @-@ Soviet player to win . Following Fischer 's article , FIDE , in late 1962 , voted to implement a radical reform of the playoff system , replacing the Candidates ' tournament with a format of one @-@ on @-@ one knockout matches ; the format that Fischer would dominate in 1971 .
Fischer defeated Bent Larsen in a summer 1962 exhibition game in Copenhagen for Danish TV . Later that year , Fischer beat Bogdan Śliwa in a team match against Poland in Warsaw .
In the 1962 – 63 U.S. Championship , Fischer experienced his first single @-@ game loss ( to Edmar Mednis ) in round one . Bisguier was in excellent form , and Fischer caught up to him only at the end . Tied at 7 – 3 , the two met in the final round . Bisguier stood well in the middlegame , but blundered , handing Fischer his fifth consecutive U.S. championship .
= = Semi @-@ retirement in the mid @-@ 1960s = =
Influenced by ill will over the aborted 1961 match against Reshevsky , Fischer declined an invitation to play in the 1963 Piatigorsky Cup tournament in Los Angeles , which had a world @-@ class field . He instead played in the Western Open in Bay City , Michigan , which he won with 7 ½ / 8 . In August – September 1963 , Fischer won the New York State Championship at Poughkeepsie , with 7 / 7 , his first perfect score , " ahead of Bisguier and Sherwin " .
In the 1963 – 64 U.S. Championship , Fischer achieved his second perfect score , this time against the top @-@ ranked chess players in the country : " This tournament became , as they say , the stuff of legend . The fact that Fischer won his sixth U.S. title was no surprise . The way he did it was spectacular . " " One by one Fischer mowed down the opposition as he cut an 11 – 0 swathe through the field , to demonstrate convincingly to the opposition that he was now in a class by himself . " This result brought Fischer heightened fame , including a profile in Life magazine . Sports Illustrated diagrammed each of the 11 games in its article , " The Amazing Victory Streak of Bobby Fischer " . Such extensive chess coverage was groundbreaking for the top American sports ' magazine . His 11 – 0 win in the 1963 – 64 Championship is the only perfect score in the history of the tournament , and one of about ten perfect scores in high @-@ level chess tournaments ever . David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld called it " the most remarkable achievement of this kind " . Fischer recalls : " Motivated by my lopsided result ( 11 – 0 ! ) , Dr. [ Hans ] Kmoch congratulated [ Larry ] Evans ( the runner up ) on ' winning ' the tournament ... and then he congratulated me on ' winning the exhibition ' . "
International Master Anthony Saidy recalled his last round encounter with the undefeated Fischer :
Going into the final game I certainly did not expect to upset Fischer . I hardly knew the opening but played simply , and he went along with the scenario , opting for a N @-@ v @-@ B [ i.e. , Knight vs. Bishop ] endgame with a minimal edge . In the corridor , Evans said to me , ' Good . Show him we 're not all children.'
At adjournment , Saidy saw a way to force a draw , yet " sealed a different , wrong move " , and lost . " The rest is history . " " Chess publications around the world wrote of the unparalleled achievement . Only Bent Larsen , always a Fischer detractor , was unimpressed : ' Fischer was playing against children ' " .
Fischer , eligible as U.S. Champion , decided against his participation in the 1964 Amsterdam Interzonal , taking himself out of the 1966 World Championship cycle , even after FIDE changed the format of the eight @-@ player Candidates Tournament from a round @-@ robin to a series of knockout matches , which eliminated the possibility of collusion . Instead , Fischer embarked on a tour of the United States and Canada from February through May , playing a simultaneous exhibition , and giving a lecture in each of more than 40 cities . His 94 % winning percentage over more than 2 @,@ 000 games is one of the best ever achieved . Fischer declined an invitation to play for the U.S. in the 1964 Olympiad in Tel Aviv .
= = Successful return = =
Fischer wanted to play in the Capablanca Memorial Tournament , Havana in August and September 1965 . Since the State Department refused to endorse Fischer 's passport as valid for visiting Cuba , he proposed , and the tournament officials and players accepted , a unique arrangement : Fischer played his moves from a room at the Marshall Chess Club , which were then transmitted by teleprinter to Cuba . Luděk Pachman observed that Fischer " was handicapped by the longer playing session resulting from the time wasted in transmitting the moves , and that is one reason why he lost to three of his chief rivals . " The tournament was an " ordeal " for Fischer , who had to endure eight @-@ hour and sometimes even twelve @-@ hour playing sessions . Despite the handicap , Fischer tied for second through fourth places , with 15 / 21 ( + 12 − 3 = 6 ) , behind former World Champion Vasily Smyslov , whom Fischer defeated in their individual game . The tournament received extensive media coverage .
In December , Fischer won his seventh U.S. Championship ( 1965 ) , with the score of 8 ½ / 11 ( + 8 − 2 = 1 ) , despite losing to Robert Byrne and Reshevsky in the eighth and ninth rounds . Fischer also reconciled with Mrs. Piatigorsky , accepting an invitation to the very strong second Piatigorsky Cup ( 1966 ) tournament in Santa Monica . Fischer began disastrously and after eight rounds was tied for last with 3 / 8 . He then staged " the most sensational comeback in the history of grandmaster chess " , scoring 7 / 8 in the next eight rounds . In the end , World Chess Championship finalist Boris Spassky edged him out by a half point , scoring 11 ½ / 18 to Fischer 's 11 / 18 ( + 7 − 3 = 8 ) . Now aged 23 , Fischer would win every match or tournament he completed for the rest of his life .
Fischer won the U.S. Championship ( 1966 – 67 ) for the eighth and final time , ceding only three draws ( + 8 − 0 = 3 ) , In March – April and August – September , Fischer won strong tournaments at Monte Carlo , with 7 / 9 ( + 6 − 1 = 2 ) , and Skopje , with 13 ½ / 17 ( + 12 − 2 = 3 ) . In the Philippines , Fischer played nine exhibition games against master opponents , scoring 8 ½ / 9 .
= = = Withdrawal while leading Interzonal = = =
Fischer 's win in the 1966 – 67 U.S. Championship qualified him for the next World Championship cycle .
At the 1967 Interzonal , held at Sousse , Tunisia , Fischer scored 8 ½ points in the first 10 games , to lead the field . His observance of the Worldwide Church of God 's seventh @-@ day Sabbath was honored by the organizers , but deprived Fischer of several rest days , which led to a scheduling dispute , causing Fischer to forfeit two games in protest and later withdraw , eliminating himself from the 1969 World Championship cycle . Communications difficulties with the highly inexperienced local organizers were also a significant factor , since Fischer knew no French and the organizers had very limited English . No one in Tunisian chess had previous experience running an event of this stature .
Since Fischer had completed less than half of his scheduled games , all of his results were annulled , meaning players who had played Fischer had those games cancelled , and the scores nullified from the official tournament record .
= = = Second semi @-@ retirement = = =
In 1968 , Fischer won tournaments at Netanya , with 11 ½ / 13 ( + 10 − 0 = 3 ) , and Vinkovci , with 11 / 13 ( + 9 − 0 = 4 ) , by large margins . Fischer then stopped playing for the next 18 months , except for a win against Anthony Saidy in a 1969 New York Metropolitan League team match . That year , Fischer ( assisted by grandmaster Larry Evans ) released his second book of collected games : My 60 Memorable Games , published by Simon & Schuster . The book " was an immediate success " .
= = World Champion = =
In 1970 , Fischer began a new effort to become World Champion . His dramatic march toward the title made him a household name and made chess front @-@ page news for a time . He won the title in 1972 , but forfeited it three years later .
= = = Road to the World Championship = = =
The 1969 U.S. Championship was also a zonal qualifier , with the top three finishers advancing to the Interzonal . Fischer , however , had sat out the U.S. Championship because of disagreements about the tournament 's format and prize fund . Benko , one of the three qualifiers , agreed to give up his spot in the Interzonal in order to give Fischer another shot at the World Championship . " When it was suggested to Fischer that Benko was considering the gesture based on a large sum of money to be paid to him , Bobby replied that Benko would not give up his berth for money alone . It was a matter of honor " . " Lombardy , who was next in line with the right to participate , was queried as to whether he would also step aside . ' I would like to play , ' he answered , ' but Fischer should have the chance . ' "
In 1970 and 1971 , Fischer " dominated his contemporaries to an extent never seen before or since " .
Before the Interzonal , in March and April 1970 , the world 's best players competed in the USSR vs. Rest of the World match in Belgrade , Yugoslavia , often referred to as " the Match of the Century " . There was much surprise when Fischer decided to participate :
Fischer had not played competitive chess for eighteen months , and many thought he would never return . Then , to general surprise and delight , he agreed to participate in the Soviet Union vs. the Rest of the World in 1970 in Belgrade .
With Evans as his second , Fischer flew to Belgrade with the intention of playing board one for the rest of the world . Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen , however , ( due to his recent tournament victories ) demanded to play first board instead of Fischer , even though Fischer had the higher Elo rating . To the surprise of everyone , Fischer agreed . Although the USSR team eked out a 20 ½ – 19 ½ victory , " On the top four boards , the Soviets managed to win only one game out of a possible sixteen . Bobby Fischer was the high scorer for his team , with a 3 – 1 score against Petrosian ( two wins and two draws ) " . " Fischer left no doubt in anyone 's mind that he had put his temporary break from the tournament circuit to good use . Petrosian was almost unrecognizable in the first two games , and by the time he had collected himself , although pressing his opponent , he could do no more than draw the last two games of the four @-@ game set " .
After the USSR versus the Rest of the World Match , the unofficial World Championship of Lightning Chess ( 5 @-@ minute games ) was held at Herceg Novi . " [ The Russians ] figured on teaching Fischer a lesson and on bringing him down a peg or two " . Petrosian and Tal were considered the favorites , but Fischer overwhelmed the super @-@ class field with 19 / 22 ( + 17 − 1 = 4 ) , far ahead of Tal ( 14 ½ ) , Korchnoi ( 14 ) , Petrosian ( 13 ½ ) , and Bronstein ( 13 ) . Fischer lost only one game ( to Korchnoi , who was also the only player to achieve an even score against him in the double round robin tournament ) . Fischer " crushed such blitz kings as Tal , Petrosian and Vasily Smyslov by a clean score " . Tal marveled that , " During the entire tournament he didn 't leave a single pawn en prise ! " , while the other players " blundered knights and bishops galore " . For Lombardy , who had played many blitz games with Fischer , Fischer 's 4 ½ -point margin of victory " came as a pleasant surprise " .
In April – May 1970 , Fischer won at Rovinj / Zagreb with 13 / 17 ( + 10 − 1 = 6 ) , by a two @-@ point margin , ahead of Gligorić , Hort , Korchnoi , Smyslov , and Petrosian . In July – August , Fischer crushed the mostly grandmaster field at Buenos Aires , winning by a 3 ½ -point margin , scoring 15 / 17 ( + 13 − 0 = 4 ) . Fischer then played first board for the U.S. Team in the 19th Chess Olympiad in Siegen , where he won an individual Silver medal , scoring 10 / 13 ( + 8 − 1 = 4 ) , with his only loss being to World Champion Boris Spassky . Right after the Olympiad , Fischer defeated Ulf Andersson in an exhibition game for the Swedish newspaper Expressen . Fischer had taken his game to a new level .
Fischer won the Interzonal ( held in Palma de Mallorca in November and December 1970 ) with 18 ½ / 23 ( + 15 − 1 = 7 ) , far ahead of Larsen , Efim Geller , and Robert Hübner , with 15 / 23 . Fischer finished the tournament with seven consecutive wins . Setting aside the Sousse Interzonal ( which Fischer withdrew from while leading ) , Fischer 's victory gave him a string of eight consecutive first prizes in tournaments . Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik was not , however , impressed by Fischer 's results , stating : " Fischer has been declared a genius . I do not agree with this ... In order to rightly be declared a genius in chess , you have to defeat equal opponents by a big margin . As yet he has not done this " . Despite Botvinnik 's remarks , " Fischer began a miraculous year in the history of chess " .
In the 1971 Candidates matches , Fischer was set to play against Soviet grandmaster and concert pianist Mark Taimanov in the quarter @-@ finals . " Their match was to begin in May 1971 in Vancouver , Canada , on the beautiful campus of the University of British Columbia " . " Analysts and players alike predicted that Fischer would win the Candidates , but not without a struggle . Tal predicted that Fischer would win 5 ½ – 4 ½ against Taimanov " . " [ Fischer ] saw himself as the firm favorite in the Taimanov match . He was not alone ; the noncommunist press was of the same mind . Only Taimanov insisted that he could win , dismissing Fischer as a mere computer " . Taimanov had reason to be confident . He was backed by the firm guidance of Botvinnik , who " had thoroughly analysed Fischer 's record and put together a ' dossier ' on him " , from when he was in talks to play Fischer in a match " a couple of years earlier " . After Fischer defeated Taimanov in the second game of the match , Taimanov asked Fischer how he managed to come up with the move 12 . N1c3 , to which Fischer replied " that the idea was not his — he had come across it in the monograph by the Soviet master Alexander Nikitin in a footnote " . Taimanov said of this : " It is staggering that I , an expert on the Sicilian , should have missed this theoretically significant idea by my compatriot , while Fischer had uncovered it in a book in a foreign language ! " With the score at 4 – 0 , in Fischer 's favor , the fifth game adjournment was a sight to behold . Schonberg explains the scene :
Taimanov came to Vancouver with two seconds , both grandmasters . Fischer was alone . He thought that the sight of Taimanov and his seconds was the funniest thing he had ever seen . There Taimanov and his seconds would sit , six hands flying , pocket sets waving in the air , while variations were being spouted all over the place . And there sat Taimanov with a confused look on his face . Just before resuming play [ in the fifth game ] the seconds were giving Taimanov some last @-@ minute advice . When poor Taimanov entered the playing room and sat down to confront Fischer , his head was so full of conflicting continuations that he became rattled , left a Rook en prise and immediately resigned .
Fischer beat Taimanov by the score of 6 – 0 . " The record books showed that the only comparable achievement to the 6 – 0 score against Taimanov was Wilhelm Steinitz 's 7 – 0 win against Joseph Henry Blackburne in 1876 in an era of more primitive defensive technique . " " Who would have imagined that any challenger 's match would ever have been decided by a perfect score , when the participants are all to be ranked among the strongest players in the world ? " " It is difficult to portray to non @-@ chess players the magnitude of such a shutout . A typical result between well @-@ matched players might be , say , six wins to four , with nine draws " . Taimanov later recalled , " When Grand Masters play , they see the logic of their opponent 's moves . One 's moves may be so powerful that the other may not be able to stop him , but the plan behind the moves will be clear . Not so with Fischer . His moves did not make sense ... "
Upon losing the final game of the match , Taimanov shrugged his shoulders , saying sadly to Fischer : " Well , I still have my music . " As a result of his performance , Taimanov " was thrown out of the USSR team and forbidden to travel for two years . He was banned from writing articles , was deprived of his monthly stipend ... [ and ] the authorities prohibited him from performing on the concert platform . " " The crushing loss virtually ended Taimanov 's chess career . "
Fischer was next scheduled to play against Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen . " Spassky predicted a tight struggle : ' Larsen is a little stronger in spirit . ' " Before the match , Botvinnik had told a Soviet television audience :
It is hard to say how their match will end , but it is clear that such an easy victory as in Vancouver [ against Taimanov ] will not be given to Fischer . I think Larsen has unpleasant surprises in store for [ Fischer ] , all the more since having dealt with Taimanov thus , Fischer will want to do just the same to Larsen and this is impossible .
Fischer beat Larsen by the score of 6 – 0 . Robert Byrne writes : " To a certain extent I could grasp the Taimanov match as a kind of curiosity – almost a freak , a strange chess occurrence that would never occur again . But now I am at a loss for anything whatever to say ... So , it is out of the question for me to explain how Bobby , how anyone , could win six games in a row from such a genius of the game as Bent Larsen " . Just a year before , Larsen had played first board for the Rest of the World team ahead of Fischer , and had handed Fischer his only loss at the Interzonal . Garry Kasparov later wrote that no player had ever shown a superiority over his rivals comparable to Fischer 's " incredible " 12 – 0 score in the two matches . Chess statistician Jeff Sonas concludes that the victory over Larsen gave Fischer the " highest single @-@ match performance rating ever " .
On August 8 , 1971 , while preparing for his last Candidates match with former World Champion Tigran Petrosian , Fischer played in the Manhattan Chess Club Rapid Tournament , winning with 21 ½ / 22 against a strong field .
Despite Fischer 's results against Taimanov and Larsen , his upcoming match against Petrosian seemed a daunting task . Nevertheless , the Soviet government was concerned about Fischer . " Reporters asked Petrosian whether the match would last the full twelve games ... ' It might be possible that I win it earlier , ' Petrosian replied " , and then stated : " Fischer 's [ nineteen consecutive ] wins do not impress me . He is a great chess player but no genius " . Petrosian played a strong theoretical novelty in the first game , gaining the advantage , but Fischer eventually won the game after Petrosian faltered . This gave Fischer a run of 20 consecutive wins against the world 's top players ( in the Interzonal and Candidates matches ) , a winning streak topped only by Steinitz 's 25 straight wins in 1873 – 82 . Petrosian won the second game , finally snapping Fischer 's streak . After three consecutive draws , Fischer swept the next four games to win the match 6 ½ – 2 ½ ( + 5 − 1 = 3 ) . Sports Illustrated ran an article on the match , highlighting Fischer 's domination of Petrosian as being due to Petrosian 's outdated system of preparation :
Fischer 's recent record raises the distinct possibility that he has made a breakthrough in modern chess theory . His response to Petrosian 's elaborately plotted 11th move in the first game is an example : Russian experts had worked on the variation for weeks , yet when it was thrown at Fischer suddenly , he faced its consequences alone and won by applying simple , classic principles .
Upon completion of the match , Petrosian remarked : " After the sixth game Fischer really did become a genius . I on the other hand , either had a breakdown or was tired , or something else happened , but the last three games were no longer chess . " " Some experts kept insisting that Petrosian was off form , and that he should have had a plus score at the end of the sixth game ... " to which Fischer replied , " People have been playing against me below strength for fifteen years . " Fischer 's match results befuddled Botvinnik : " It is hard to talk about Fischer 's matches . Since the time that he has been playing them , miracles have begun . " " When Petrosian played like Petrosian , Fischer played like a very strong grandmaster , but when Petrosian began making mistakes , Fischer was transformed into a genius . "
Fischer gained a far higher rating than any player in history up to that time . On the July 1972 FIDE rating list , his Elo rating of 2785 was 125 points above ( World No. 2 ) Spassky 's rating of 2660 . His results put him on the cover of Life magazine , and allowed him to challenge World Champion Boris Spassky , whom he had never beaten ( + 0 − 3 = 2 ) .
= = = World Championship match = = =
Fischer 's career @-@ long stubbornness about match and tournament conditions was again seen in the run @-@ up to his match with Spassky . Of the possible sites , Fischer 's first choice was Belgrade , Yugoslavia , while Spassky 's was Reykjavík , Iceland . For a time it appeared that the dispute would be resolved by splitting the match between the two locations , but that arrangement failed . After that issue was resolved , Fischer refused to appear in Iceland until the prize fund was increased . London financier Jim Slater donated an additional US $ 125 @,@ 000 , bringing the prize fund up to an unprecedented $ 250 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 414 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , and Fischer finally agreed to play .
Before and during the match , Fischer paid special attention to his physical training and fitness , which was a relatively novel approach for top chess players at that time . He had developed his tennis skills to a good level , and played frequently during off @-@ days in Reykjavík . He had also arranged for exclusive use of his hotel 's swimming pool during specified hours , and swam for extended periods , usually late at night . According to Soviet grandmaster Nikolai Krogius , Fischer " was paying great attention to sport , and that he was swimming and even boxing ... "
The match took place in Reykjavík from July to September 1972 and was the first to receive an American broadcast in prime time . Fischer lost the first two games in strange fashion : the first when he played a risky pawn @-@ grab in a drawn endgame , the second by forfeit when he refused to play the game in a dispute over playing conditions . Fischer would likely have forfeited the entire match , but Spassky , not wanting to win by default , yielded to Fischer 's demands to move the next game to a back room , away from the cameras whose presence had upset Fischer . After that game , the match was moved back to the stage and proceeded without further serious incident . Fischer won seven of the next 19 games , losing only one and drawing eleven , to win the match 12 ½ – 8 ½ and become the 11th World Chess Champion .
The Cold War trappings made the match a media sensation . It was called " The Match of the Century " , and received front @-@ page media coverage in the United States and around the world . Fischer 's win was an American victory in a field that Soviet players had dominated for the previous quarter @-@ century ; players closely identified with , and subsidized by , the Soviet state . Kasparov remarked , " Fischer fits ideologically into the context of the Cold War era : a lone American genius challenges the Soviet chess machine and defeats it " . Dutch grandmaster Jan Timman calls Fischer 's victory " the story of a lonely hero who overcomes an entire empire " . Fischer 's sister observed , " Bobby did all this in a country almost totally without a chess culture . It was as if an Eskimo had cleared a tennis court in the snow and gone on to win the world championship " .
Upon Fischer 's return to New York , a Bobby Fischer Day was held . He was offered numerous product endorsement offers worth " at least $ 5 million " ( all of which he declined ) . He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with American Olympic swimming champion Mark Spitz . Fischer also made an appearance on a Bob Hope TV special . Membership in the U.S. Chess Federation doubled in 1972 , and peaked in 1974 ; in American chess , these years are commonly referred to as the " Fischer Boom " . Fischer won the ' Chess Oscar ' ( an award , started in 1967 , given to the best chess player , determined through votes from chess media and leading players ) for 1970 , 1971 , and 1972 . This match attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since .
= = = Forfeiture of title = = =
Fischer was scheduled to defend his title in 1975 against Anatoly Karpov , who emerged as his challenger . Fischer , who had played no competitive games since his World Championship match with Spassky , laid out a proposal for the match in September 1973 , in consultation with FIDE official Fred Cramer . He made three principal ( non @-@ negotiable ) demands :
The match continues until one player wins 10 games , draws not counting .
No limit to the total number of games played .
In case of a 9 – 9 score , the champion ( Fischer ) retains the title , and the prize fund is split equally .
A FIDE Congress was held in 1974 during the Nice Olympiad . The delegates voted in favor of Fischer 's 10 @-@ win proposal , but rejected his other two proposals , and limited the number of games in the match to 36 . In response to FIDE 's ruling , Fischer sent a cable to Euwe on June 27 , 1974 .
As I made clear in my telegram to the FIDE delegates , the match conditions I proposed were non @-@ negotiable . Mr. Cramer informs me that the rules of the winner being the first player to win ten games , draws not counting , unlimited number of games and if nine wins to nine match is drawn with champion regaining title and prize fund split equally were rejected by the FIDE delegates . By so doing FIDE has decided against my participation in the 1975 World Chess Championship . Therefore , I resign my FIDE World Chess Championship title . Sincerely , Bobby Fischer .
The delegates responded by reaffirming their prior decisions , but did not accept Fischer 's resignation and requested that he reconsider . Many observers considered Fischer 's requested 9 – 9 clause unfair because it would require the challenger to win by at least two games ( 10 – 8 ) . Botvinnik called the 9 – 9 clause " unsporting " . Korchnoi , David Bronstein , and Lev Alburt considered the 9 – 9 clause reasonable .
Due to the continued efforts of U.S. Chess Federation officials , a special FIDE Congress was held in March 1975 in Bergen , Netherlands in which it was accepted that the match should be of unlimited duration , but the 9 – 9 clause was once again rejected , by a narrow margin of 35 votes to 32 . FIDE set a deadline of April 1 , 1975 , for Fischer and Karpov to confirm their participation in the match . No reply was received from Fischer by April 3 . Thus , by default , Karpov officially became World Champion . In his 1991 autobiography , Karpov professed regret that the match had not taken place , and claimed that the lost opportunity to challenge Fischer held back his own chess development . Karpov met with Fischer several times after 1975 , in friendly but ultimately unsuccessful attempts to arrange a match since Karpov would never agree to play to 10 .
Brian Carney opined in The Wall Street Journal that Fischer 's victory over Spassky in 1972 left him nothing to prove , except that perhaps someone could someday beat him , and he was not interested in the risk of losing . And that Fischer 's refusal to recognize peers also allowed his paranoia to flower : " The world championship he won ... validated his view of himself as a chess player , but it also insulated him from the humanizing influences of the world around him . He descended into what can only be considered a kind of madness " .
Bronstein felt that Fischer " had the right to play the match with Karpov on his own conditions " . Korchnoi stated :
Was Fischer right in demanding that the world title be protected by a two point handicap – that the challenger would be considered the winner with a 10 – 8 score and that the champion would retain his title in the event of a 9 – 9 draw ? Yes , this was quite natural : the champion deserves this , not to mention the fact that further play to the first win in the event of an even score would be nothing short of a lottery – the winner in that case could not claim to have won a convincing victory .
Soviet grandmaster Lev Alburt felt that the decision to not concede to Fischer 's demands rested on Karpov 's " sober view of what he was capable of " . Years later , in his 1992 match against Spassky , Fischer said that Karpov " refused to play against [ him ] under [ his ] conditions " .
= = Sudden obscurity = =
After the 1972 World Chess Championship , Fischer did not play a competitive game in public for nearly 20 years . In 1977 in Cambridge , Massachusetts , he played three games against the MIT Greenblatt computer program , winning them all .
On May 26 , 1981 , while walking in Pasadena , Fischer was arrested by a police patrolman , allegedly because Fischer matched the description of a man who had just committed a bank robbery in the area . Fischer , who alleged that he was slightly injured during the arrest , said that he was held for two days , subjected to assault and various types of mistreatment , and released on $ 1 @,@ 000 bail . Fischer published a 14 @-@ page pamphlet detailing his alleged experiences and saying that his arrest had been " a frame up and set up " .
In 1981 , Fischer stayed at the home of grandmaster Peter Biyiasas , where , over a period of four months , he beat Biyiasas seventeen times in a series of speed games . In an interview with Sports Illustrated reporter William Nack , Biyiasas assessed Fischer 's play :
He was too good . There was no use in playing him . It wasn 't interesting . I was getting beaten , and it wasn 't clear to me why . It wasn 't like I made this mistake or that mistake . It was like I was being gradually outplayed , from the start . He wasn 't taking any time to think . The most depressing thing about it is that I wasn 't even getting out of the middle game to an endgame . I don 't ever remember an endgame . He honestly believes there is no one for him to play , no one worthy of him . I played him , and I can attest to that .
= = 1992 Spassky rematch = =
Fischer emerged after twenty years of isolation to play Spassky ( then tied for 96th – 102nd on the FIDE rating list ) in a " Revenge Match of the 20th century " in 1992 . This match took place in Sveti Stefan and Belgrade , Yugoslavia , in spite of a United Nations embargo that included sanctions on commercial activities . Fischer demanded that the organizers bill the match as " The World Chess Championship " , although Garry Kasparov was the recognized FIDE World Champion . Fischer insisted he was still the true World Champion , and that for all the games in the FIDE @-@ sanctioned World Championship matches , involving Karpov , Korchnoi , and Kasparov , the outcomes had been prearranged . The purse for the rematch was US $ 5 million , with $ 3 @.@ 35 million of the purse to go to the winner .
According to grandmaster Andrew Soltis :
[ The match games ] were of a fairly high quality , particularly when compared with Kasparov 's championship matches of 1993 , 1995 and 2000 , for example . Yet the games also reminded many fans of how out of place Fischer was in 1992 . He was still playing the openings of a previous generation . He was , moreover , the only strong player in the world who didn 't trust computers and wasn 't surrounded by seconds and supplicants .
Fischer won the match with 10 wins , 5 losses , and 15 draws . Kasparov stated , " Bobby is playing OK , nothing more . Maybe his strength is 2600 or 2650 . It wouldn 't be close between us " . Yasser Seirawan believed that the match proved that Fischer 's playing strength was " somewhere in the top ten in the world " .
Fischer and Spassky gave ten press conferences during the match . Seirawan attended the match and met with Fischer on several occasions ; the two analyzed some match games and had personal discourse . Seirawan later wrote : " After September 23 [ 1992 ] , I threw most of what I 'd ever read about Bobby out of my head . Sheer garbage . Bobby is the most misunderstood , misquoted celebrity walking the face of the earth . " He further wrote that Fischer was not camera shy , smiled and laughed easily , was " a fine wit " and " wholly enjoyable conversationalist " .
The U.S. Department of the Treasury warned Fischer before the start of the match that his participation was illegal , that it would violate President George H. W. Bush 's Executive Order 12810 imposing United Nations Security Council Resolution 757 sanctions against engaging in economic activities in Yugoslavia . In response , during the first scheduled press conference on September 1 , in front of the international press , Fischer spat on the U.S. order , saying " this is my reply " . His violation of the order led U.S. Federal officials to initiate a warrant for his arrest upon completion of the match , citing , in pertinent part , " Title 50 USC § § 1701 , 1702 , and 1705 and Executive Order 12810 " .
Prior to the rematch against Spassky , Fischer had won a training match against Svetozar Gligorić in Sveti Stefan with six wins , one loss and three draws .
= = Life as an émigré = =
After the 1992 match with Spassky , Fischer , now a fugitive , slid back into relative obscurity , taking up residence in Budapest , Hungary , and allegedly having a relationship with young Hungarian chess master Zita Rajcsányi .
Fischer claimed that standard chess was stale and that he now played blitz games of chess variants , such as Chess960 . He visited with the Polgár family in Budapest and analyzed many games with Judit , Zsuzsa , and Zsófia Polgár .
From 2000 to 2002 , Fischer lived in Baguio City in the Philippines , residing in the same compound as the Filipino grandmaster Eugenio Torre , a close friend who acted as his second during his 1992 match with Spassky . Torre introduced Fischer to a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Marilyn Young . On May 21 , 2001 Marilyn Young gave birth to a daughter named Jinky Young . Her mother claimed that Jinky was Fischer 's daughter , citing as evidence Jinky 's birth and baptismal certificates , photographs , a transaction record dated December 4 , 2007 of a bank remittance by Fischer to Jinky , and Jinky 's DNA through her blood samples . On the other hand , Magnús Skúlason , a friend of Fischer 's , said that he was certain that Fischer was not the girl 's father . On August 17 , 2010 , it was reported that a DNA test revealed that Jinky Young was not the daughter of Bobby Fischer .
= = = Anti @-@ semitic statements = = =
Fischer made numerous anti @-@ Jewish statements and professed a general hatred for Jews since at least the early 1960s . Jan Hein Donner wrote that at the time of Bled 1961 , " He idolized Hitler and read everything about him that he could lay his hands on . He also championed a brand of anti @-@ semitism that could only be thought up by a mind completely cut off from reality " . Donner took Fischer to a war museum , which " left a great impression , since [ Fischer ] is not an evil person , and afterwards he was more restrained in his remarks — to me , at least . "
Although Fischer described his mother as Jewish in a 1962 interview , he later denied his Jewish ancestry . In 1984 , Fischer denied being a Jew in a letter to the Encyclopaedia Judaica , insisting that they remove his name and accusing them of " fraudulently misrepresenting me to be a Jew [ ... ] to promote your religion " .
From the 1980s on , Fischer 's comments about Jews were a major theme in his public and private remarks . He openly denied the Holocaust , and called the United States " a farce controlled by dirty , hook @-@ nosed , circumcised Jew bastards " . Between 1999 and 2006 , Fischer 's primary means of communicating with the public was radio interviews . He participated in at least 34 such broadcasts , mostly with radio stations in the Philippines , but also in Hungary , Iceland , Colombia , and Russia . In 1999 , he gave a radio call @-@ in interview to a station in Budapest , Hungary , during which he described himself as the " victim of an international Jewish conspiracy " . In another radio interview , Fischer said that it became clear to him in 1977 , after reading The Secret World Government by Count Cherep @-@ Spiridovich , that Jewish agencies were targeting him . Fischer 's sudden reemergence was apparently triggered when some of his belongings , which had been stored in a Pasadena , California storage unit , were sold by the landlord who claimed it was in response to nonpayment of rent .
Fischer 's library contained anti @-@ semitic and racist literature such as Mein Kampf , The Protocols of the Elders of Zion , and The White Man 's Bible and Nature 's Eternal Religion by Ben Klassen , founder of the World Church of the Creator . A notebook written by Fischer contains sentiments such as " 8 / 24 / 99 Death to the Jews . Just kill the Motherfuckers ! " and " 12 / 13 / 99 It 's time to start randomly killing Jews " . Despite his views , Fischer remained on good terms with Jewish chess players .
= = = Anti @-@ American and anti @-@ Israel statements = = =
Shortly after midnight on September 12 , 2001 , Philippines local time ( approximately four hours after the September 11 , 2001 attacks in the U.S. ) , Fischer was interviewed live by Pablo Mercado on the Baguio City station of the Bombo Radyo network . Fischer stated that he was happy that the airliner attacks had happened , while expressing his view on U.S. and Israeli foreign policy , saying " I applaud the act . Look , nobody gets ... that the U.S. and Israel have been slaughtering the Palestinians ... for years . " He also said " The horrible behavior that the U.S. is committing all over the world ... This just shows you , that what goes around , comes around even for the United States . " Fischer also referenced the movie Seven Days in May and said he hoped for a military coup d 'état in the U.S. , " [ I hope ] the country will be taken over by the military , they 'll close down all the synagogues , arrest all the Jews , execute hundreds of thousands of Jewish ringleaders . " In response to Fischer 's statements about 9 / 11 , the U.S. Chess Federation passed a motion to cancel his right to membership in the organization . Fischer 's right to become a member was reinstated in 2007 .
= = = Detention in Japan = = =
Fischer lived for a time in Japan . On July 13 , 2004 , acting in response to a letter from U.S. officials , he was arrested by Japanese immigration authorities at Narita International Airport near Tokyo for allegedly using a revoked U.S. passport while trying to board a Japan Airlines flight to Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Manila , Philippines . Fischer resisted arrest , claiming to have sustained bruises , cuts and a broken tooth in the process . At the time , Fischer had a passport ( originally issued in 1997 and updated in 2003 to add more pages ) that , according to U.S. officials , had been revoked in November 2003 due to his outstanding arrest warrant for the Yugoslavia sanctions violation . Despite the outstanding arrest warrant in the U.S. , Fischer said that he believed the passport was still valid . The authorities held Fischer at a custody center for 16 days before transferring him to another facility . Fischer claimed that his cell was windowless and he had not seen the light of day during that period , and that the staff had ignored his complaints about constant tobacco smoke in his cell .
Tokyo @-@ based Canadian journalist and consultant John Bosnitch set up the " Committee to Free Bobby Fischer " after meeting Fischer at Narita Airport and offering to assist him . Boris Spassky wrote a letter to U.S. President George H. W. Bush , asking " For mercy , charity " , and , if that was not possible , " to put [ him ] in the same cell with Bobby Fischer " and " to give [ them ] a chess set " . It was reported that Fischer and Miyoko Watai , the President of the Japanese Chess Association ( with whom he had reportedly been living since 2000 ) wanted to become legally married . ( It was also reported that Fischer had been living in the Philippines with Marilyn Young during the same period . ) Fischer applied for German citizenship on the grounds that his father was German . Fischer stated that he wanted to renounce his U.S. citizenship , and appealed to U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to help him do so , though to no effect . Japan 's Justice Minister rejected Fischer 's request for asylum and ordered him deported .
= = = Asylum in Iceland = = =
Seeking ways to evade deportation to the United States , Fischer wrote a letter to the government of Iceland in early January 2005 , requesting Icelandic citizenship . Sympathetic to Fischer 's plight , but reluctant to grant him the full benefits of citizenship , Icelandic authorities granted him an alien 's passport . When this proved insufficient for the Japanese authorities , Althing ( the Icelandic Parliament ) , at the behest of William Lombardy , agreed unanimously to grant Fischer full citizenship in late March for humanitarian reasons , as they felt he was being unjustly treated by the U.S. and Japanese governments , and also in recognition of his 1972 match , which had " put Iceland on the map " .
After arriving in Reykjavík , Fischer gave a press conference . Fischer lived a reclusive life in Iceland , avoiding entrepreneurs and others who approached him with various proposals . Fischer moved into an apartment in the same building as his close friend and spokesman , Garðar Sverrisson . Garðar 's wife , Kristín Þórarinsdóttir , was a nurse and later looked after Fischer as a terminally ill patient . Garðar 's two children , especially his son , were very close to Fischer . Fischer also developed a friendship with Magnús Skúlason , a psychiatrist and chess player who later recalled long discussions with Fischer on a wide variety of subjects .
On December 10 , 2006 , Fischer telephoned an Icelandic television station and pointed out a winning combination , missed by the players and commentators . In 2005 , some of Fischer 's belongings were auctioned on eBay . Fischer claimed , in 2006 , that those belongings were worth millions of U.S. dollars .
= = Personal life = =
Fischer was eccentric . He made a large number of demands for the playing conditions at his 1972 World Championship match with Spassky . He became more erratic in his years after losing his World Championship title .
= = = Religious affiliation = = =
Although Fischer 's mother was Jewish , Fischer disavowed having Jewish roots . In an interview in the January 1962 issue of Harper 's , Fischer was quoted as saying , " I read a book lately by Nietzsche and he says religion is just to dull the senses of the people . I agree . "
Fischer joined the Worldwide Church of God in the mid @-@ 1960s . The church prescribed Saturday Sabbath , and forbade work ( and competitive chess ) on Sabbath . According to his friend and colleague Larry Evans , in 1968 Fischer felt philosophically that " the world was coming to an end " and he might as well make some money by publishing My 60 Memorable Games ; Fischer thought that the Rapture was coming soon . During the mid 1970s Fischer contributed significant money to the Worldwide Church of God . In 1972 one journalist stated that " Fischer is almost as serious about religion as he is about chess " , and the champion credited his faith with greatly improving his chess . Yet , prophecies by Herbert W. Armstrong went unfulfilled , and the church was rocked by revelations of a series of sex scandals involving Garner Ted Armstrong . Fischer eventually left the church in 1977 , " accusing it of being ' Satanic ' , and vigorously attacking its methods and leadership . "
= = = Death , estate dispute , and exhumation = = =
On January 17 , 2008 , Fischer died from renal failure at the Landspítali Hospital ( National University Hospital of Iceland ) in Reykjavík . He originally had a urinary tract blockage but refused surgery or medications . Magnús Skúlason reported Fischer 's last words as " Nothing is as healing as the human touch . "
On January 21 , Fischer was buried in the small Christian cemetery of Laugardælir church , outside the town of Selfoss , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) southeast of Reykjavík , after a Catholic funeral presided over by Fr . Jakob Rolland of the diocese of Reykjavík . In accordance with Fischer 's wishes , only Miyoko Watai , Garðar Sverrisson , and Garðar 's family were present .
Fischer 's estate was estimated at 140 million ISK ( about 1 million GBP , or $ 2 million USD ) . It quickly became the object of a legal battle involving claims from four parties , with Miyoko Watai ultimately inheriting what remained of Fischer 's estate after government claims . The four parties were Fischer 's apparent Japanese wife Miyoko Watai , his alleged Filipino daughter Jinky Young and her mother Marilyn Young , his two American nephews Alexander and Nicholas Targ and their father Russell Targ , and the U.S. government ( claiming unpaid taxes ) .
According to a press release issued by Samuel Estimo , an attorney representing Jinky Young , the Supreme Court of Iceland ruled , in December 2009 , that Watai 's claim of marriage to Fischer was invalidated because of her failure to present the original copy of their alleged marriage certificate . On June 16 , 2010 , the Court ruled in favor of a petition on behalf of Jinky Young to have Bobby Fischer 's remains exhumed . The exhumation was performed on July 5 , 2010 , in the presence of a doctor , a priest , and other officials . A DNA sample was taken and Fischer 's body was then reburied . On August 17 , 2010 , the Court announced that based on the DNA sample it was determined that Fischer was not the father of Jinky Young . On March 3 , 2011 , an Icelandic district court ruled that Miyoko Watai and Fischer had married on September 6 , 2004 , and that , as Fischer 's widow and heir , Watai was therefore entitled to inherit Fischer 's estate . Fischer 's nephews were ordered to pay Watai 's legal costs , amounting to ISK 6 @.@ 6 million ( approximately $ 57 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = Psychology = = =
Fischer ’ s views and behavior attracted widespread comment Reuben Fine , psychologist and chess player , who met Fischer many times , said that " Some of Bobby 's behavior is so strange , unpredictable , odd and bizarre that even his most ardent apologists have had a hard time explaining what makes him tick . " and described him as " a troubled human being " with " obvious personal problems " .
Valery Krylov , advisor to Anatoly Karpov and a specialist in the " psycho @-@ physiological rehabilitation of sportsmen " , believed Bobby suffered from schizophrenia . Psychologist Joseph G Ponteretto , from second @-@ hand sources , concludes that " Bobby did not meet all the necessary criteria to reach diagnoses of schizophrenia or Asperger 's Disorder . The evidence is stronger for paranoid personality disorder . "
= = Contributions to chess = =
= = = Opening theory = = =
For most of his career , Fischer was predictable in his use of openings and variations of those openings . Despite this seeming disadvantage , it was very difficult for opponents to exploit this limitation , because Fischer 's knowledge of the openings and variations that he used was extensive .
As Black , Fischer would usually play the Najdorf Sicilian against 1.e4 , and the King 's Indian Defense against 1.d4 , only rarely venturing into the Nimzo @-@ Indian ( 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 ) , Benoni , Grünfeld or Neo @-@ Grünfeld . As White , Fischer almost exclusively played 1.e4 throughout his career .
Fischer was a master of playing with , and against , the Sicilian Defense . The next most common defense against Fischer 's 1.e4 was the Caro @-@ Kann Defense ( 1.e4 c6 ) , against which Fischer had a good record . Fischer 's worst record was against the French Defense ( 1.e4 e6 ) , especially the Winawer Variation ( 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4 ) . Fischer maintained that the Winawer was unsound because it exposed Black 's kingside , and that , in his view , " Black was trading off his good bishop with 3 ... Bb4 and ... Bxc3 . " Later on Fischer said : " I may yet be forced to admit that the Winawer is sound . But I doubt it ! The defense is anti @-@ positional and weakens the K @-@ side . "
Fischer was renowned for his opening preparation and made numerous contributions to chess opening theory . He was one of the foremost experts on the Ruy Lopez . A line of the Exchange Variation ( 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 ) is sometimes called the " Fischer Variation " after he successfully resurrected it at the 1966 Havana Olympiad . Fischer 's lifetime score with the move 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 in tournament and match games was eight wins , three draws , and no losses : ( 86 @.@ 36 % ) .
Fischer was a recognized expert in the black side of the Najdorf Sicilian and the King 's Indian Defense . He used the Grünfeld Defense and Neo @-@ Grünfeld Defense to win his celebrated games against Donald and Robert Byrne , and played a theoretical novelty in the Grünfeld against reigning World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik , refuting Botvinnik 's prepared analysis over @-@ the @-@ board . In the Nimzo @-@ Indian Defense , the line beginning with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e3 b6 5.Ne2 Ba6 was named after him .
Fischer established the viability of the so @-@ called Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian ( 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 ) . This bold queen sortie , to snatch a pawn at the expense of development , had been considered dubious , but Fischer succeeded in proving its soundness . Out of ten tournament and match games as Black in the Poisoned Pawn , Fischer scored 70 % , winning five , drawing four , and losing only one : the 11th game of his 1972 match against Spassky . Following Fischer 's use , the Poisoned Pawn Variation became a respected line , utilized by many of the world 's leading players .
On the white side of the Sicilian , Fischer made advances to the theory of the line beginning 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 ( or e6 ) 6.Bc4 , which has sometimes been named after him . In 1961 , prompted by a loss the year before to Spassky , Fischer wrote an article entitled " A Bust to the King 's Gambit " for the first issue of the American Chess Quarterly , in which he stated , " In my opinion , the King 's Gambit is busted . It loses by force . " Fischer recommended 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 d6 , which has since become known as the Fischer Defense , as a refutation to the King 's Gambit . Fischer later played the King 's Gambit as White in three tournament games , winning them all .
= = = Endgame = = =
Fischer had excellent endgame technique . International Master Jeremy Silman listed him as one of the five best endgame players ( along with Emanuel Lasker , Akiba Rubinstein , José Capablanca , and Vasily Smyslov ) , calling Fischer a " master of bishop endings " . The endgame of a rook , bishop , and pawns against a rook , knight , and pawns has sometimes been called the " Fischer Endgame " because of several instructive wins by Fischer ( with the bishop ) , including three against Mark Taimanov in 1970 and 1971 .
= = = Fischer clock = = =
In 1988 , Fischer filed for U.S. Patent 4 @,@ 884 @,@ 255 for a new type of chess clock , which gave each player a fixed period at the start of the game and then added a small increment after each completed move . Used in the 1992 rematch between Fischer and Spassky , the " Fischer clock " soon became standard in most major chess tournaments .
= = = Fischerandom Chess = = =
Fischer heavily disparaged chess as it was currently being played ( at the highest levels ) . As a result , on June 19 , 1996 , in Buenos Aires , Argentina , Fischer announced and advocated a variant of chess called Fischerandom Chess ( later known as Chess960 ) . The goal of Fischerandom Chess was to ensure that a game between two players is a contest between their understandings of chess , rather than their abilities to memorize opening lines or prepare opening strategies .
In a 2006 Icelandic Radio interview , Fischer explained his reasons for advocating Fischerandom Chess :
In chess so much depends on opening theory , so the champions before the last century did not know as much as I do and other players do about opening theory . So if you just brought them back from the dead they wouldn ’ t do well . They ’ d get bad openings . You cannot compare the playing strength , you can only talk about natural ability . Memorisation is enormously powerful . Some kid of fourteen today , or even younger , could get an opening advantage against Capablanca , and especially against the players of the previous century , like Morphy and Steinitz . Maybe they would still be able to outplay the young kid of today . Or maybe not , because nowadays when you get the opening advantage not only do you get the opening advantage , you know how to play , they have so many examples of what to do from this position ... and that is why I don ’ t like chess any more ... It is all just memorization and prearrangement ...
= = = Legacy = = =
Kasparov calls Fischer " perhaps the most mythologically shrouded figure in chess " . Some leading players and some of Fischer 's biographers have ranked him as the greatest player who ever lived . Other writers have said that he was arguably the greatest player ever , without reaching a definitive conclusion . Leonard Barden wrote , " Most experts place him the second or third best ever , behind Kasparov but probably ahead of Karpov . "
Some grandmasters compared Fischer 's play to that of a computer ; a player without noticeable weaknesses .
Although international ratings were just introduced in 1970 , Chessmetrics ( a website that uses algorithms to rank performances retrospectively and uniformly throughout chess history ) determined that Fischer 's peak rating was 2895 in October 1971 — the highest in history . His one @-@ year peak ( 1971 ) average was 2881 , the highest of all time . His three @-@ year peak average was 2867 , from January 1971 to December 1973 — the second highest ever , just behind Garry Kasparov . Fischer was ranked as the number one player in the world for a total of 109 different months , running ( not consecutively ) from February 1964 until July 1974 .
Fischer 's great rival Mikhail Tal praised him as " the greatest genius to have descended from the chess heavens " . American grandmaster Arthur Bisguier wrote " Robert James Fischer is one of the few people in any sphere of endeavour who has been accorded the accolade of being called a legend in his own time . " Former World Champion Tigran Petrosian stated that Fischer put more time into chess than the entire Soviet team .
Biographers David Edmonds and John Eidinow wrote :
Faced with Fischer 's extraordinary coolness , his opponents [ sic ] assurance would begin to disintegrate . A Fischer move , which at first glances looked weak , would be reassessed . It must have a deep master plan behind it , undetectable by mere mortals ( more often than not they were right , it did ) . The U.S. grandmaster Robert Byrne labeled the phenomenon " Fischer @-@ fear " . Grandmasters would wilt , their suits would crumple , sweat would glisten on their brows , panic would overwhelm their nervous systems . Errors would creep in . Calculations would go awry . There was talk among grandmasters that Fischer hypnotized his opponents , that he undermined their intellectual powers with a dark , mystic , insidious force .
Kasparov wrote that Fischer " became the detonator of an avalanche of new chess ideas , a revolutionary whose revolution is still in progress " . In January 2009 , reigning World Champion Viswanathan Anand described him as " the greatest chess player who ever lived " . Serbian grandmaster Ljubomir Ljubojević called Fischer , " A man without frontiers . He didn 't divide the East and the West , he brought them together in their admiration of him . "
German grandmaster Karsten Müller wrote :
Fischer , who had taken the highest crown almost singlehandedly from the mighty , almost invincible Soviet chess empire , shook the whole world , not only the chess world , to its core . He started a chess boom not only in the United States and in the Western hemisphere , but worldwide . Teaching chess or playing chess as a career had truly become a respectable profession . After Bobby , the game was simply not the same .
Fischer was a charter inductee into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in Washington , D.C. in 1985 . After routing Taimanov , Larsen , and Petrosian in 1971 , Fischer achieved a then @-@ record Elo rating of 2785 . After beating Spassky by the score 12 ½ – 8 ½ in their 1972 match , his rating dropped to 2780 .
St. Louis philanthropist Rex Sinquefield offered a $ 64 @,@ 000 Fischer Memorial Prize for any player who could win all nine of their games at the 2009 U.S. Chess Championship . By the fifth day of the championship , all 24 participants became ineligible for the prize , having drawn or lost at least one game .
= = = Head @-@ to @-@ head record versus selected grandmasters = = =
( Rapid , blitz and blindfold games not included ; listed as + wins − losses = draws . ) Players who have been World Champions in boldface
= = = Internet Bobby Fischer theory = = =
In 2001 , Nigel Short wrote in The Sunday Telegraph chess column that he believed he had been secretly playing Fischer on ICC in speed chess matches . Fischer denied ownership of the account .
National Masters R.O. Mitchell and Lionel Davis both claimed to have played Fischer on ICC , with Mitchell providing his alleged conversation with the supposed Fischer . Chessbase.com did a study where they concluded that the user was more likely a hoax , and not the real Bobby Fischer .
= = In popular culture = =
The musical Chess , with lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson , tells the story of two chess champions , referred to only as " The American " and " The Russian " . The musical is loosely based on the 1972 World Championship match between Fischer and Spassky .
During the 1972 Fischer – Spassky match , the Soviet bard Vladimir Vysotsky wrote an ironic two @-@ song cycle " Honor of the Chess Crown " . The first song is about a rank @-@ and @-@ file Soviet worker 's preparation for the match with Fischer ; the second is about the game . Many expressions from the songs have become catchphrases in Russian culture .
Bobby Fischer is referred to in the chorus of the song " Cosby Sweater " by Australian hip hop band Hilltop Hoods . Another Australian band , Lazy Susan , released a song " Bobby Fischer " on their 2001 album Long Lost .
Matthew Good , in his song " Invasion 1 " from the 1997 Underdogs album , sings : " Drops off the face of the earth - Bobby is my hero for that " in reference to Fischer 's reclusion .
In 2015 the Comedy Central program Drunk History portrayed Bobby Fischer on Season 3 , Episode 6 .
= = = In film = = =
The 1993 film Searching for Bobby Fischer uses Fischer 's name in the title , even though the film is about the life of chess prodigy Joshua Waitzkin . Outside of the United States , it was released as Innocent Moves . The title refers to the search for Fischer 's successor after his disappearance from competitive chess . The author feels that his son could be that successor . Fischer never saw the film and complained bitterly that it was an invasion of his privacy by using his name without his permission . Fischer never received any compensation from the film , calling it " a monumental swindle " .
In April 2009 , the film Me and Bobby Fischer , about Bobby Fischer 's last years as his old friend Saemundur Palsson gets him out of jail in Japan and helps him settle in Iceland , was premiered in Iceland . The film was produced by Friðrik Guðmundsson with music by Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson , Björk Guðmundsdóttir and Einar Arnaldur Melax .
In October 2009 , the biographical film Bobby Fischer Live was released , with Damien Chapa directing and starring as Fischer .
In 2011 , documentary film @-@ maker Liz Garbus released Bobby Fischer Against the World , which explores the life of Fischer , with interviews from Garry Kasparov , Anthony Saidy , and others .
On September 16 , 2015 the American biographical film Pawn Sacrifice was released , starring Tobey Maguire as Fischer , Liev Schreiber as Boris Spassky , Lily Rabe as Joan Fischer , and Peter Sarsgaard as William Lombardy .
= = Writings = =
Bobby Fischer 's Games of Chess ( Simon and Schuster , New York , 1959 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 923891 @-@ 46 @-@ 3 . An early collection of 34 lightly annotated games , including " The Game of the Century " against Donald Byrne .
" A Bust to the King 's Gambit " ( American Chess Quarterly , Vol . 1 , No. 1 ( Summer 1961 ) , pp. 3 – 9 ) .
" The Russians Have Fixed World Chess " ( Sports Illustrated magazine , 20 August 1962 ) . This is the controversial article in which Fischer asserted that several of the Soviet players in the 1962 Curaçao Candidates ' tournament had colluded with one another to prevent him [ Fischer ] from winning the tournament .
" The Ten Greatest Masters in History " ( Chessworld , Vol . 1 , No. 1 ( January – February 1964 ) , pp. 56 – 61 ) . An article in which Fischer named Paul Morphy , Howard Staunton , Wilhelm Steinitz , Siegbert Tarrasch , Mikhail Chigorin , Alexander Alekhine , José Raúl Capablanca , Boris Spassky , Mikhail Tal , and Samuel Reshevsky as the greatest players of all time . Fischer 's criteria for inclusion on his list was his own subjective appreciation of their games rather than their achievements .
" Checkmate " column from December 1966 to December 1969 in Boys ' Life , later assumed by Larry Evans .
My 60 Memorable Games ( Simon and Schuster , New York , 1969 , and Faber and Faber , London , 1969 ; Batsford 2008 ( algebraic notation ) ) . Studied by Kasparov at a young age ; " A classic of painstaking and objective analysis that modestly includes three of his losses . "
I Was Tortured in the Pasadena Jailhouse ! ( 1982 ) a self @-@ published " essay in a fourteen @-@ page booklet " on Fischer 's time in a Pasadena jail — he was " booked for vagrancy " .
= = = Under Fischer 's name = = =
Numerous books list Fischer as a co @-@ author or endorser . One such book is Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess , co @-@ authored by Donn Mosenfelder and Stuart Margulies .
= = Tournament and match summaries = =
= = = Tournaments = = =
= = = Matches = = =
= = = Team events = = =
= = Notable games = =
Donald Byrne – Fischer , New York 1956 , Grünfeld , 5.Bf4 ( D92 ) , 0 – 1 " The Game of the Century " . Chess magazine called this " a game of great depth and brilliancy " .
Svetozar Gligoric – Fischer , Bled 1961 , King 's Indian Defense : Orthodox Variation . Classical System Misc . Lines ( E98 ) , ½ – ½
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7 4.e4 d6 5.Nf3 0 @-@ 0 6.Be2 e5 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc6 8.d5 Ne7 9.Ne1 Nd7 10.Nd3 f5 11.exf5 Nxf5 12.f3 Nf6 13.Nf2 Nd4 14.Nfe4 Nh5 15.Bg5 Qd7 16.g3 h6 17.Be3 c5 18.Bxd4 exd4 19.Nb5 a6 20.Nbxd6 d3 21.Qxd3 Bd4 + 22.Kg2 Nxg3 ( see diagram ) 23.Nxc8 Nxf1 24.Nb6 Qc7 25.Rxf1 Qxb6 26.b4 Qxb4 27.Rb1 Qa5 28.Nxc5 Qxc5 29.Qxg6 + Bg7 30.Rxb7 Qd4 31.Bd3 Rf4 32.Qe6 + Kh8 33.Qg6 ½ – ½
Robert Byrne – Fischer , 1963 – 64 U.S. Championship , Neo @-@ Grünfeld , 0 – 1 annotated From an almost symmetrical position , Fischer beats a strong grandmaster in just 21 moves — " a game that was immediately recognized as an all @-@ time classic " .
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.g3 c6 4.Bg2 d5 5.cxd5 cxd5 6.Nc3 Bg7 7.e3 0 @-@ 0 8.Nge2 Nc6 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 b6 10.b3 Ba6 11.Ba3 Re8 12.Qd2 e5 13.dxe5 Nxe5 14.Rfd1 Nd3 15.Qc2 Nxf2 16.Kxf2 Ng4 + 17.Kg1 Nxe3 18.Qd2 ( see diagram ) Nxg2 19.Kxg2 d4 20.Nxd4 Bb7 + 21.Kf1 Qd7 0 – 1
Fischer – Svetozar Gligorić , Havana Olympiad 1966 , Spanish Game : Exchange . Gligoric Variation ( C69 ) , 1 @-@ 0 Fischer revived the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez in this tournament and some later events ; it is still important in opening theory .
Fischer – Mark Taimanov , Vancouver Candidates Final 1971 , 4th match game , Sicilian Defense : Paulsen . Bastrikov Variation ( B47 ) , 1 – 0 Fischer 's patient and accurate handling of bishop vs. knight , first in the rook and minor piece endgame , and then after rooks were exchanged , has become a staple of endgame instructional literature .
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Qc7 5.Nc3 e6 6.g3 a6 7.Bg2 Nf6 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nxd4 9.Qxd4 Bc5 10.Bf4 d6 11.Qd2 h6 12.Rad1 e5 13.Be3 Bg4 14.Bxc5 dxc5 15.f3 Be6 16.f4 Rd8 17.Nd5 Bxd5 18.exd5 e4 19.Rfe1 Rxd5 20.Rxe4 + Kd8 21.Qe2 Rxd1 + 22.Qxd1 + Qd7 23.Qxd7 + Kxd7 ( see diagram ) 24.Re5 b6 25.Bf1 a5 26.Bc4 Rf8 27.Kg2 Kd6 28.Kf3 Nd7 29.Re3 Nb8 30.Rd3 + Kc7 31.c3 Nc6 32.Re3 Kd6 33.a4 Ne7 34.h3 Nc6 35.h4 h5 36.Rd3 + Kc7 37.Rd5 f5 38.Rd2 Rf6 39.Re2 Kd7 40.Re3 g6 41.Bb5 Rd6 42.Ke2 Kd8 43.Rd3 Kc7 44.Rxd6 Kxd6 45.Kd3 Ne7 46.Be8 Kd5 47.Bf7 + Kd6 48.Kc4 Kc6 49.Be8 + Kb7 50.Kb5 Nc8 51.Bc6 + Kc7 52.Bd5 Ne7 53.Bf7 Kb7 54.Bb3 Ka7 55.Bd1 Kb7 56.Bf3 + Kc7 57.Ka6 Ng8 58.Bd5 Ne7 59.Bc4 Nc6 60.Bf7 Ne7 61.Be8 Kd8 62.Bxg6 Nxg6 63.Kxb6 Kd7 64.Kxc5 Ne7 65.b4 axb4 66.cxb4 Nc8 67.a5 Nd6 68.b5 Ne4 + 69.Kb6 Kc8 70.Kc6 Kb8 71.b6 1 – 0
Fischer – Tigran Petrosian , Buenos Aires Candidates Final 1971 , 7th match game , Sicilian Defense : Kan . Modern Variation ( B42 ) , 1 – 0 This game includes " 22.Nxd7 + ! ! " which is " perhaps Fischer 's most famous and instructive move and is still being cited today " .
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 a6 5.Bd3 Nc6 6.Nxc6 bxc6 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 d5 8.c4 Nf6 9.cxd5 cxd5 10.exd5 exd5 11.Nc3 Be7 12.Qa4 + Qd7 13.Re1 Qxa4 14.Nxa4 Be6 15.Be3 0 @-@ 0 16.Bc5 Rfe8 17.Bxe7 Rxe7 18.b4 Kf8 19.Nc5 Bc8 20.f3 Rea7 21.Re5 Bd7 ( see diagram ) 22.Nxd7 + Rxd7 23.Rc1 Rd6 24.Rc7 Nd7 25.Re2 g6 26.Kf2 h5 27.f4 h4 28.Kf3 f5 29.Ke3 d4 + 30.Kd2 Nb6 31.Ree7 Nd5 32.Rf7 + Ke8 33.Rb7 Nxf4 34.Bc4 1 – 0
Fischer – Boris Spassky , World Chess Championship 1972 , 6th match game , Queen 's Gambit Declined , Tartakower ( D59 ) , 1 – 0 Further analysis on the 1972 match page Saidy called this game " [ the ] finest artistic achievement of the whole match " .
Boris Spassky – Fischer , World Chess Championship 1972 , 13th match game , Alekhine Defense : Modern , Alburt Variation ( B04 ) , 0 – 1 Further analysis on the 1972 match page Botvinnik called this game " the highest creative achievement of Fischer " . He resolved a drawish opposite @-@ colored bishops endgame by sacrificing his bishop and trapping his own rook . " Then five passed pawns struggled with the white rook . Nothing similar had been seen before in chess . "
Fischer – Boris Spassky , 1992 , 1st match game , Spanish Game : Morphy Defense . Breyer Defense Zaitsev Hybrid ( C95 ) , 1 – 0 Further analysis on the 1992 match page
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= The Boat Race 1993 =
The 139th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1993 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge , using " cleaver blades " for the first time in the history of the race , won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a victory that was described in The Times as " crushingly conclusive " . The winning time of 17 minutes exactly was the fourth @-@ fastest time in the event . In winning the event , Cambridge prevented Oxford making it seventeen wins from the last eighteen races and levelling the overall score for the first time since the 1929 race .
Oxford 's crew featured two Olympic gold medallists and saw changes in their rowers and cox in the lead @-@ up to the event . The race was umpired by the former Oxford Blue Mark Evans who controversially instigated changes to the start procedure of the race .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1992 race by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford had won 16 of the previous 17 races , a run interrupted by Cambridge 's seven @-@ length victory in the 1986 race .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but the event did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Cambridge selected cleaver blades for the first time in the history of the race , following the successful use of the oars in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . The surface area of the cleaver was approximately 20 % larger than the conventional macon blades . Oxford practised with cleaver blades in some of their outings leading up to the race , and were prepared to use them should the weather conditions be suitable , but on the day itself they opted to remain with the macon blades .
The umpire for the race was the Canadian Olympic gold medallist and former Oxford Blue Mark Evans who had rowed in the 1983 and 1984 races . He caused controversy by instigating a new starting method whereby he would hold the crews for up to ten seconds between the conventional " set " and " go " commands . Evans had umpired the 1991 race in which he had also used his own starting method in preference to the traditional Amateur Rowing Association instructions . In response to any potential delay at the start during which time the boats will be dragged along with the tide , one of the stake @-@ boat men , Bob Hastings , responsible for holding the boats until the " go " command is given stated : " If the boats start to drag I will let go , before I am dragged out of the stake @-@ boat " . Both Alan Inns , former coach and advisor to Cambridge , and Steve Royle , Oxford 's director of rowing , expressed concerns over Evans ' methodology .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of nearly 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . Oxford 's Matthew Pinsent was the heaviest rower while Cambridge 's Sinclair Gore was the youngest , aged 19 . Cambridge 's crew featured three returning Blues in Dirk Bangert , David Gillard and James Behrens , while Oxford saw five former Boat Race rowers return . Overall , half of the rowers were non @-@ British ( six nationalities representing Oxford , three representing Cambridge ) and the same number were postgraduates . The Cambridge boat club president Behrens claimed : " All our boat are at Cambridge on academic merit . They came for a particular course ... and they also row . " In contrast , an editorial in The Times claimed : " The performers are no longer ingenuous native undergraduates but supercharged , international , professional rowing machines . " Oxford 's Bruce Robertson ( men 's eight ) and Pinsent ( coxless pair ) were both gold medallists at the Barcelona Olympics .
A late change in the Oxford cox saw Samantha Benham replace Gordon Buxton to steer the Dark Blues , becoming the eighth female cox in the history of the race . Oxford 's Royle noted that Buxton 's form had declined in the run @-@ in to the race , while Benham was " handling the pressure a lot better . " Cambridge cox , Martin Haycock , suggested that female coxes were not as accomplished as their male counterparts : " We had one cox who was exceptionally good at giving massages but on the whole ... they 're not aggressive or tough enough . " Oxford also saw a change to their crew in the week preceding the race . Old Etonian undergraduate Ed Haddon ( who had rowed for Isis in 1992 ) was dropped in favour of German Philipp Schuller . Schuller had arrived at Oxford just two months earlier , but rejected suggestions that his late inclusion was symptomatic of the recent influx of " professionals " to the race . Of his selection , he noted : " You can 't have one of the most respected races in the world and then limit it to English people between the ages of 19 and 21 ... on the day we went for whoever would make the boat go fastest . It was done entirely on merit . " Schuller 's compatriot and opponent Dirk Bangert had struggled with the move to cleavers , finding it difficult to adjust his timing : " I nearly didn 't make it . I couldn 't get this rhythm until about three weeks ago and was not sure of my place . "
Oxford 's finishing coach was Mike Spracklen who had assisted the Dark Blues in five victorious races , while Cambridge had New Zealander Harry Mahon in charge for the first time , assisted by John Wilson ( who had helped coach Oxford to a win in the 1991 race ) , and Sean Bowden , who was subsequently credited with " being half of the team which first turned Cambridge round " . Oxford 's head coach Patrick Sweeney noted : " If [ Cambridge ] get away , they will be hard to beat . If they don 't , they 're dead meat . "
= = Race = =
Oxford were strong pre @-@ race favourites , having won 16 of the last 17 races . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Two minutes after the start , and in cold , overcast conditions , Cambridge 's cox Martin Haycock was level with Oxford 's Jo Michels who occupied the number two seat in the Dark Blue boat . Responding to a call to push on , Cambridge were clear upon reaching the Mile Post in record time , and moved in front of Oxford . Further record times were set as the Light Blues passed under Hammersmith Bridge and by Chiswick Steps before they passed the finishing post three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths clear in 17 minutes . It was Cambridge 's first victory since the 1986 race and just their second victory in eighteen years . The winning time was the fourth fastest in the history of the event , surpassed only by Oxford in the 1991 , 1984 and 1976 races , and was Cambridge 's fastest time ever . Cambridge 's victory prevented the overall score from being levelled for the first time since 1929 .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won by nine lengths over Isis , their sixth victory in seven years . Cambridge won the 48th Women 's Boat Race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 6 minutes and 10 seconds , their fourth victory in five years .
= = Reaction = =
The journalist David Miller , writing for The Times , described Cambridge 's victory as " crushingly conclusive " . Cambridge 's Malcolm Baker said : " We knew we could do it after about 25 strokes . " Behrens explained " Our strength was that we were more uniform than Oxford . We have proved that you do not have to be an Olympic champion to win the Boat Race . " The Oxford Boat Club president Pinsent conceded : " They put right a lot of mistakes they have made in the past , and they rowed outstandingly well . " Spracklen agreed : " Cambridge got too far away . They were a better boat in that race . All credit to them . " Cambridge 's number two , David Gillard , said " there was a lot of revenge out there " .
Writing in The Independent , the journalist Chris Arnot noted that the Cambridge crew had used creatine supplements in order to attempt to enhance their performance . Used extensively at the 1992 Olympics , by athletes including Linford Christie and Sally Gunnell , and given to horses and greyhounds , creatine was believed to provide legal energy @-@ enhancing effects to the crew .
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= Alanya =
Alanya ( Turkish pronunciation : [ aˈɫanja ] ) , formerly Alaiye , is a beach resort city and a component district of Antalya Province on the southern coast of Turkey , in the country 's Mediterranean Region , 138 kilometres ( 86 mi ) east of the city of Antalya . As of Turkey 's 2010 Census , the city had a population of 98 @,@ 627 , while the district that includes the city and its built @-@ up region had an area of 1 @,@ 598 @.@ 51 km2 and 248 @,@ 286 inhabitants .
Because of its natural strategic position on a small peninsula into the Mediterranean Sea below the Taurus Mountains , Alanya has been a local stronghold for many Mediterranean @-@ based empires , including the Ptolemaic , Seleucid , Roman , Byzantine , and Ottoman Empires . Alanya 's greatest political importance came in the Middle Ages , with the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm under the rule of Alaeddin Kayqubad I , from whom the city derives its name . His building campaign resulted in many of the city 's landmarks , such as the Kızıl Kule ( Red Tower ) , Tersane ( Shipyard ) , and Alanya Castle .
The Mediterranean climate , natural attractions , and historic heritage make Alanya a popular destination for tourism , and responsible for nine percent of Turkey 's tourism sector and thirty percent of foreign purchases of real estate in Turkey . Tourism has risen since 1958 to become the dominant industry in the city , resulting in a corresponding increase in city population . Warm @-@ weather sporting events and cultural festivals take place annually in Alanya . In 2014 Mayor Adem Murat Yücel , of the Nationalist Movement Party unseated Hasan Sipahioğlu , of the Justice and Development Party , who had previously led the city since 1999 .
= = Names = =
The city has changed hands many times over the centuries , and its name has reflected this . Alanya was known in Latin as Coracesium or in Greek as Korakesion from the Luwian Korakassa meaning " point / protruding city " . The Roman Catholic Church still recognizes the Latin name as a titular see in its hierarchy . Under the Byzantine Empire it become known as Kalonoros or Kalon Oros , meaning " beautiful / fine mountain " in Greek . The Seljuks renamed the city Alaiye ( علائیه ) , a derivative of the Sultan Alaeddin Kayqubad I 's name . In the 13th and 14th centuries , Italian traders called the city Candelore or Cardelloro . In his 1935 visit , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk finalized the name in the new alphabet as Alanya , changing the ' i ' and ' e ' in Alaiye , reportedly because of a misspelled telegram in 1933 .
= = History = =
Finds in the nearby Karain Cave indicate occupation during the Paleolithic era as far back as 20 @,@ 000 BC , and archeological evidence shows a port existed at Syedra , south of the modern city , during the Bronze Age around 3 @,@ 000 BC . A Phoenician language tablet found in the district dates to 625 BC , and the city is specifically mentioned in the 4th @-@ century BC Greek geography manuscript , the periplus of Pseudo @-@ Scylax . The castle rock was likely inhabited under the Hittites and the Achaemenid Empire , and was first fortified in the Hellenistic period following the area 's conquest by Alexander the Great . Alexander 's successors left the area to one of the competing Macedonian generals , Ptolemy I Soter , after Alexander 's death in 323 BC . His dynasty maintained loose control over the mainly Isaurian population , and the port became a popular refuge for Mediterranean pirates . The city resisted Antiochus III the Great of the neighboring Seleucid kingdom in 199 BC , but was loyal to the pirate Diodotus Tryphon when he seized the Seleucid crown from 142 to 138 BC . His rival Antiochus VII Sidetes completed work in 137 BC on a new castle and port , begun under Diodotus .
The Roman Republic fought Cilician pirates in 102 BC , when Marcus Antonius the Orator established a proconsulship in nearby Side , and in 78 BC under Servilius Vatia , who moved to control the Isaurian tribes . The period of piracy in Alanya finally ended after the city 's incorporation into the Pamphylia province by Pompey in 67 BC , with the Battle of Korakesion fought in the city 's harbor . Isaurian banditry remained an issue under the Romans , and the tribes revolted in the fourth and fifth centuries AD , with the largest rebellion being from 404 to 408 .
With the spread of Christianity Coracesium , as it was called , became a bishopric . Its bishop Theodulus took part in the First Council of Constantinople in 381 , Matidianus in the Council of Ephesus in 431 , Obrimus in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 , and Nicephorus ( Nicetas ) in the Third Council of Constantinople in 680 . Coracesium was a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Side , the capital of the Roman province of Pamphylia Prima , to which Coracesium belonged . It continued to be mentioned in the Notitiae Episcopatuum as late as the 12th or 13th century . No longer a residential bishopric , Coracesium is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see .
Islam arrived in the 7th century with Arab raids , which led to the construction of new fortifications . The area fell from Byzantine control after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 to tribes of Seljuk Turks , only to be returned in 1120 by John II Komnenos .
Following the Fourth Crusade 's attack on the Byzantines , the Christian Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia periodically held the port , and it was from an Armenian , Kir Fard , that the Turks took lasting control in 1221 when the Anatolian Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin Kayqubad I captured it , assigning the former ruler , whose daughter he married , to the governance of the city of Akşehir . Seljuk rule saw the golden age of the city , and it can be considered the winter capital of their empire . Building projects , including the twin citadel , city walls , arsenal , and Kızıl Kule , made it an important seaport for western Mediterranean trade , particularly with Ayyubid Egypt and the Italian city @-@ states . Alaeddin Kayqubad I also constructed numerous gardens and pavilions outside the walls , and many of his works can still be found in the city . These were likely financed by his own treasury and by the local emirs , and constructed by the contractor Abu ' Ali al @-@ Kattani al @-@ Halabi . Alaeddin Kayqubad I 's son , Sultan Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev II , continued the building campaign with a new cistern in 1240 .
At the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1242 , the Mongol hordes broke the Seljuk hegemony in Anatolia . Alanya was then subject to a series of invasions from Anatolian beyliks . Lusignans from Cyprus briefly overturned the then ruling Hamidid dynasty in 1371 . The Karamanids sold the city in 1427 for 5 @,@ 000 gold coins to the Mamluks of Egypt for a period before General Gedik Ahmed Pasha in 1471 incorporated it into the growing Ottoman Empire . The city was made a capital of a local sanjak in the eyalet of Içel . The Ottomans extended their rule in 1477 when they brought the main shipping trade , lumber , then mostly done by Venetians , under the government monopoly . On September 6 , 1608 , the city rebuffed a naval attack by the Order of Saint Stephen from the Republic of Venice .
Trade in the region was negatively impacted by the development of an oceanic route from Europe around Africa to India , and in the tax registers of the late sixteenth century , Alanya failed to qualify as an urban center . In 1571 the Ottomans designated the city as part of the newly conquered province of Cyprus . The conquest further diminished the economic importance of Alanya 's port . Traveler Evliya Çelebi visited the city in 1671 / 1672 , and wrote on the preservation of Alanya Castle , but also on the dilapidation of Alanya 's suburbs . The city was reassigned in 1864 under Konya , and in 1868 under Antalya , as it is today . During the 18th and 19th centuries numerous villas were built in the city by Ottoman nobility , and civil construction continued under the local dynastic Karamanid authorities . Bandits again became common across Antalya Province in the mid @-@ nineteenth century .
After World War I , Alanya was nominally partitioned in the 1917 Agreement of St.-Jean @-@ de @-@ Maurienne to Italy , before returning to the Turkish Republic in 1923 under the Treaty of Lausanne . Like others in this region , the city suffered heavily following the war and the population exchanges that heralded the Turkish Republic , when many of the city 's Christians resettled in Nea Ionia , outside Athens . The Ottoman census of 1893 listed the number of Greeks in the city at 964 out of a total population of 37 @,@ 914 . Tourism in the region started among Turks who came to Alanya in the 1960s for the alleged healing properties of Damlataş Cave , and later the access provided by Antalya Airport in 1998 allowed the town to grow into an international resort . Strong population growth through the 1990s was a result of immigration to the city , and has driven a rapid modernization of the infrastructure .
= = Geography = =
Located on the Gulf of Antalya on the Anatolian coastal plain of Pamphylia , the town is situated between the Taurus Mountains to the north and the Mediterranean Sea , and is part of the Turkish riviera , occupying roughly 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) of coastline . From west to east , the Alanya district is bordered by the Manavgat district along the coast , the mountainous Gündoğmuş inland , Hadim and Taşkent in the Province of Konya , Sarıveliler in the Province of Karaman , and the coastal Gazipaşa district . Manavgat is home to the ancient cities of Side and Selge . East of the city , the Dim River flows from the mountains in Konya on a south @-@ west route into the Mediterranean .
The Pamphylia plain between the sea and the mountains is an isolated example of an Eastern Mediterranean conifer @-@ sclerophyllous @-@ broadleaf forest , which include Lebanon Cedar , evergreen scrub , fig trees , and black pine . The Alanya Massif refers to the area of metamorphic rocks east of Antalya . This formation is divided into three nappes from lowest to highest , the Mahmutlar , the Sugözü , and the Yumrudağ . The similar lithology extends beneath the city in a tectonic window . Bauxite , an aluminum ore , is common to the area north of city , and can be mined .
The town is divided east – west by a rocky peninsula , which is the distinctive feature of the city . The harbor , city center , and Keykubat Beach , named after the Sultan Kayqubad I , are on the east side of the peninsula . Damlataş Beach , named for the famous " dripping caves " , and Kleopatra Beach are to the west . The name " Cleopatra " possibly derives from either the Ptolemaic princess ' visit here or the area 's inclusion in her dowry to Mark Antony . Atatürk Bulvarı , the main boulevard , runs parallel to the sea , and divides the southern , much more touristic side of Alanya from the northern , more indigenous side that extends north into the mountains . Çevre Yolu Caddesi , another major road , encircles the main town to the north .
= = = Climate = = =
Alanya has a typical hot @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ) . Located at the Mediterranean Basin , the subtropical high pressure zone ensures that most rain comes during the winter , leaving the summers long , hot , and dry , prompting the Alanya board of Tourism to use the slogan " where the sun smiles " . Storm cells sometimes bring with them fair weather waterspouts when close to the shore . The presence of the Taurus Mountain in close proximity to the sea causes fog , in turn creating visible rainbows many mornings . The height of the mountains creates an interesting effect as snow can often be seen on them even on hot days in the city below . The sea at Alanya has an average temperature of 21 @.@ 4 ° C ( 71 ° F ) annually , with an average August temperature of 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) .
= = Architecture = =
On the peninsula stands Alanya Castle , a Seljuk era citadel dating from 1226 . Most major landmarks in the city are found inside and around the castle . The current castle was built over existing fortifications and served the double purpose of a palace of local government and as a defensive structure in case of attack . In 2007 , the city began renovating various sections of the castle area , including adapting a Byzantine church for use as a Christian community center . Inside the castle is the Süleymaniye mosque and caravanserai , built by Suleiman the Magnificent . The old city walls surround much of the eastern peninsula , and can be walked . Inside the walls are numerous historic villas , well preserved examples of the classical period of Ottoman architecture , most built in the early 19th century .
The Kızıl Kule ( Red Tower ) is another well @-@ known building in Alanya . The 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) high brick building stands at the harbor below the castle , and contains the municipal ethnographic museum . Sultan Kayqubad I brought the accomplished architect Ebu Ali from Aleppo , Syria to Alanya to design the building . The last of Alanya Castle 's 83 towers , the octagonal structure specifically protected the Tersane ( dockyard ) , it remains one of the finest examples of medieval military architecture . The Tersane , a medieval drydock built by the Seljuk Turks in 1221 , 187 by 131 feet ( 57 by 40 m ) , is divided into five vaulted bays with equilateral pointed arches . The Alara Castle and caravanserai near Manavgat , also built under Kayqubad 's authority , has been converted into a museum and heritage center .
Atatürk 's House and Museum , from his short stay in the city on February 18 , 1935 is preserved in its historic state and is a good example of the interior of a traditional Ottoman villa , with artifacts from the 1930s . The house was built between 1880 and 1885 in the " karniyarik " ( stuffed eggplant ) style . Bright colors and red roofs are often mandated by neighborhood councils , and give the modern town a pastel glow . Housed in a 1967 Republican era building , The Alanya Museum is inland from Damlataşh Beach . With its rich architectural heritage , Alanya is a member of the Norwich @-@ based European Association of Historic Towns and Regions . In 2009 , city officials filed to include Alanya Castle and Tersane as UNESCO World Heritage Sites , and were named to the 2009 Tentative List .
= = Demographics = =
From only 87 @,@ 080 in 1985 , the district has surged to hold a population of 384 @,@ 949 in 2007 . This population surge is largely credited to immigration to the city as a result or byproduct of the increased prominence of the real estate sector and the growth of the housing market bubble . The city itself has a population of 134 @,@ 396 , of which 9 @,@ 789 are European expatriates , about half of them from Germany and Denmark . 17 @,@ 850 total foreigners own property in Alanya . The European expatriate population tends to be over fifty years old . During the summer the population increases due to large numbers of tourists , about 1 @.@ 1 million each year pass through the city . Both Turks and Europeans , these vacationers provide income for much of the population .
The city is home to many migrants from the Southeastern Anatolia Region and the Black Sea region . In the first decade of the 21st century , the town has seen a surge in illegal foreign immigrants from the Middle East and South Asia , both to stay and to attempt to enter European Union countries . As of 2006 , 1 @,@ 217 migrants claim residence in Alanya while working abroad . Yörük nomads also live in the Taurus Mountains north of the city on a seasonal basis . Additionally , there is a small African community descendant from imported Ottoman slaves .
The city is nearly 99 % Muslim , and although many ancient churches can be found in the district , there are no weekly Christian services . In 2006 , a German language Protestant church with seasonal service opened with much fanfare , after receiving permission to do so in 2003 , a sign of the growing European population in the city . In 2015 , the town began renovations of the Greek Orthodox Agios Georgios Church in the village of Hacı Mehmetli , and the church has been used for a monthly Russian Orthodox service . Alanya also provides the Atatürk Cultural Center to Christian groups on a regular basis for larger religious ceremonies .
= = Education and health = =
The city has 95 % literacy , with public and private schools , and a roughly 1 : 24 student @-@ teacher ratio . Rural villages are , however , disadvantaged by the limited number of secondary schools outside the city center . Alantur Primary School , which opened in 1987 , was built and is maintained under the Turkish " Build Your Own School " initiative , supported by the foundation of Ayhan Şahenk , the founder of Doğuş Holding .
In 2005 , Akdeniz University of Antalya launched the Alanya Faculty of Business , as a satellite campus that focuses on the tourism industry . The school hosts an International Tourism Conference annually in coordination with Buckinghamshire New University . The city also has plans to open a private university in 2012 . Georgetown University operates an annual study abroad program for American students known as the McGhee Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies , named for the United States Ambassador to Turkey from 1952 – 53 George C. McGhee , and based in his villa . Başkent University Medical and Research Center of Alanya , a teaching hospital run by Başkent University in Ankara is one of nineteen hospitals in Alanya . Other major hospitals include the 300 @-@ bed Alanya State Hospital and the 90 @-@ bed Private Hayat Hospital .
= = Culture = =
Alanya 's culture is a subculture of the larger Culture of Turkey . The city 's seaside position is central to many annual festivals . These include the Tourism and Arts Festival , which marks the opening of the tourism season from at the end of May or beginning of June . At the opposite end of the season , the Alanya International Culture and Art Festival is held in the last week of May , and is a notable Turkish festival . Other regular festivals include the Alanya Jazz Days , which has been held since 2002 in September or October at the Kızıl Kule , which is otherwise home to the municipal ethnographic museum . The Jazz Festival hosts Turkish and international jazz musicians in a series of five free concerts .
The Alanya Chamber Orchestra , formed of members of the Antalya State Opera and Ballet , gave its inaugural performance on December 7 , 2007 . The International Alanya Stone Sculpture Symposium , begun is 2004 , is held over the month of November . The Alanya Documentary Festival was launched in 2001 by the Alanya Cinémathèque Society and the Association of Documentary Filmmakers in Turkey . Onat Kutlar , Turkish poet and writer , and founder of the Istanbul International Film Festival was born in Alanya , as was actress Sema Önür .
Atatürk 's visit to Alanya is also celebrated on its anniversary each February 18 , centered on Atatürk 's House and Museum . The Alanya Museum is home to archaeology found in and around the city , including a large bronze Hercules statue , ceramics , and Roman limestone ossuaries , as well as historic copies of the Qur 'an . European residents of Alanya also often celebrate their national holidays , such as Norwegian Constitution Day , and the city set up a Christmas market in December 2010 . Iranians also celebrate the Persian New Year , Nevruz , in Alanya .
= = Government = =
Alanya was set up as a municipality in 1872 , electing its first mayor in 1901 . Today , Alanya is governed by a mayor and a municipality council made up of thirty @-@ seven members . Eighteen councilors are from the far @-@ right Nationalist Movement Party , seven are from the center @-@ left Republican People 's Party , and twelve are of the Justice and Development Party ( AK Party ) , which is currently in power in the national government . Mayor Adem Murat Yücel of the Nationalist Movement Party was elected in 2014 by unseating the incumbent Hasan Sipahioğlu , who had previously been mayor since 1999 . Elections are held every five years , with the next to be held in March 2019 . Alanya also has a deputy mayor , who often represents the city at its sporting events , and together the mayor and his team represent Alanya in the provincial assembly in Antalya .
Alanya District is divided up into 17 municipalities , including the city center , and 92 villages . Alanya is greatly influenced by the provincial government in Antalya , and the national government in Ankara , which appoints a governor for the district , currently Dr. Hulusi Doğan . Although Alanya has been part of Antalya Province since the Ottoman Empire , many local politicians have advocated a separate Alanya Province , a position supported by associations of foreign residents .
Nationally , in the 2007 election , the province voted with the Justice and Development Party , who were followed closely by the Republican People 's Party and the True Path Party . Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu , of the Justice and Development Party , is the only native Alanyalilar Member of Parliament representing Antalya Province in the Grand National Assembly , where he chairs the Committee on Migration , Refugees and Population . Çavuşoğlu is the current Turkish Foreign Minister and also served as the president of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe .
= = Economy = =
The tourist industry in Alanya is worth just under 1 @.@ 1 billion euros per year , and is therefore the principal industry . The area is further known for its many fruit farms , particularly lemons and oranges , and large harvests of tomatoes , bananas and cucumbers . About 80 @,@ 000 tonnes of citrus fruits were produced in 2006 across 16 @,@ 840 hectares ( 41 @,@ 600 acres ) . The greengage plum and the avocado are increasingly popular early season fruits where citrus fruits are becoming unprofitable .
Despite the seaside location , few residents make their living on the sea , and fishing is not a major industry . In the early 1970s , when fish stocks ran low , a system of rotating access was developed to preserve this sector . This innovative system was part of Elinor Ostrom 's research on economic governance which led to her 2009 Nobel Prize in Economics . In 2007 , locals protested the establishment of some larger chain supermarkets and clothing stores , which have opened branches in Alanya .
Beginning in 2003 , with the provisional elimination of restrictions on land purchases by non @-@ nationals , the housing industry in the city has become highly profitable with many new private homes and condominiums being built for European and Asian part @-@ time residents . Sixty @-@ nine percent of homes purchased by foreign nationals in the Antalya Province and 29 @.@ 9 % in all of Turkey are in Alanya . Buyers are primarily individuals , rather than investors . This housing boom put pressure on the city 's many gecekondu houses and establishments as property values rise and property sales to locals fall . A height restriction in the city limits most buildings to 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 5 m ) . This keeps high rise hotels to the east and west of the city , preserving the central skyline at the expense of greater tourist potential . The fringes of the city however have seen uncontrolled expansion .
= = = Tourism = = =
Since the first modern motel was built in 1958 , considered the first year of the tourist industry in Alanya , hotels have raced to accommodate the influx of tourists , and the city as of 2007 claims 157 @,@ 000 hotel beds . Damlataş Cave , which originally sparked the arrival of outsiders because of the cave 's microclimate , with an average temperature of 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) and 95 % humidity , is accessible on the west side of the peninsula with trails from Damlataş Beach . Many tourists , especially Scandinavians , Germans , Russians , and Dutch , regularly vacation in Alanya during the warmer months . They are drawn to the area because of property prices , warm weather , sandy beaches , access to Antalya 's historic sites , and fine cuisine .
Other outdoor tourist activities include wind surfing , parasailing , and banana boating . Attractions include Europe 's largest waterpark , Sealanya , and Turkey 's largest go @-@ kart track . Hunting season also attracts some tourist for wild goat , pig and partridge hunting in area nature reserves .
For various reasons , tourist seasons after 2005 have been disappointing for Alanya 's tourism industry . Among the reasons blamed were increased PKK violence , the H5N1 bird flu found in Van , and the Mohammad cartoon controversy . Alanya officials have responded with a variety of publicity initiatives , including baking the world 's longest cake on April 26 , 2006 , a Guinness World Record . The economy has also suffered due to investment in more than 20 @,@ 000 surplus properties . Israeli tourists , commonly arriving via cruise ship , have also declined sharply by about 85 % from 2009 to 2011 due in part to strained relations between Turkey and Israel .
= = Media = =
Alanya has 10 local daily newspapers . One of these is Yeni Alanya , which includes the news and lifestyles magazine Orange and is available in English , German and Turkish . Two native German language newspapers are published in Alanya , the Aktuelle Türkei Rundschau and Alanya Bote for the community of German speaking residents and visitors . A monthly magazine Hello Alanya published in Alanya for foreigners , appearing in English and Dutch . The free regional newspaper , Riviera News , is printed in English and is widely available in Alanya .
Five radio stations broadcast from the city . Alanya FM Radyo broadcasts on 106 @.@ 0 FM and is partnered with Radio Flash , on 94 @.@ 0 FM , both broadcasting popular music . Other stations include Alanya RadyoTime on 92 @.@ 3 FM , which broadcasts a variety of Turkish music , news , and talk programming . Two television stations are local to Alanya , Kanal Alanya , and Alanya Televizyonu , abbreviated ATV , which is partnered with Alanya RadyoTime .
= = Transportation = =
The D 400 Highway , the Alanya – Mersin Route , connects Alanya from the east and west , encircling it , and linking through the city center via Atatürk Bulvarı . The D695 , the Ankara – Akşehir Route , runs north – south and reaches the sea 41 kilometres ( 25 mi ) west of the city near Side , connecting with the D400 . Antalya Airport is 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) away and connects internationally . The new Antalya Gazipaşa Airport , first begun in 1992 , is only 14 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) from the city , and was expected to have its first regular domestic flights on May 22 , 2010 , although international flights were not expected before the start of the 2011 tourist season . No train routes go to Alanya or Antalya Province , and there are no train stations in the district .
There are bus and dolmuş systems out of Alanya 's two bus depots , but buses are usually limited to the major roads , and inside the city transportation is by car , taxi , or foot , as many roads in the old town are closed to vehicle traffic . The harbor includes cruise ship piers , and also seasonal ferries and hydrofoils depart for Kyrenia in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . Cruise ships docking at Alanya have increased 50 % in 2013 , with 53 estimated to have brought 56 @,@ 000 passengers the end of the year . Further west of the city is the Alanya Marina , which started services in 2008 while still under construction , completing its expansion in 2010 . The 85 @-@ km2 ( 33 @-@ sq @-@ mi ) marina allowed Alanya to participate in the 2008 Eastern Mediterranean Yacht Rally . The city is also investing in a community bicycle program with 150 bicycles and twenty terminals .
= = Sports = =
Alanya is home to a woman 's basketball team , Alanya Belediye , which started in the first division but was relegated after the 2002 season . The city hosts a Süper Lig soccer team , Alanyaspor . The club was founded in 1948 , and play home games at Milli Egemenlik Stadium . It played in the Second League between 1988 @-@ 1997 and 2014 @-@ 2016 . The club finally promoted to top level in 2015 @-@ 16 season . In 2007 , the city began constructing a new soccer facility with the intention of hosting winter competitions between major teams . The public Alanya Municipality Sports Facility is located adjacent to Milli Egemenlik Stadium , which is one of thirteen facilities .
Alanya 's waterfront location makes it suitable for certain events , and is perhaps most famous for its annual triathlon , part of the International Triathlon Union series , which has been held every October since 1990 . Marathon swimming competitions have also been connected to the triathlon since 1992 . Building on the triathlon 's success , Alanya hosted a modern pentathlon in 2009 . Alanya is also the regular host of The Turkish Open , part of the Nestea European Beach Volleyball championship tour , which takes place in May . In 2007 , the Turkish Volleyball Federation persuaded the European Volleyball Confederation to build a beach volleyball training facility in Alanya , and make it the exclusive " center of beach volleyball in Europe " .
The city is also a frequent host to national events , such as the annual beach handball tournament . Alanya is the traditional finish site of the seven @-@ day Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey , though organizers reversed the route in 2012 , and started the event in Alanya instead . Other cycling events include the Alanya International Mountain Bike Race . Additionally , the European Cycling Union had its 2010 European road cycling championship and 2010 ordinary congress meeting in Alanya .
= = Sister cities = =
Since making agreements with Talsi , Trakai , and Keszthely in 2006 , Borås in 2007 , and Rovaniemi , Špindlerův Mlýn , and Moscow in 2009 , Alanya increased its number of sister cities to twelve , ten of which are located within the European Union . In 2005 Alanya applied with Sister Cities International for an additional sister city from the United States . The most significant tie is with the city of Nea Ionia , where many of Alanya 's Christians were resettled in 1923 after the Treaty of Lausanne . Soccer teams from sister cities Wodzisław Śląski and Schwechat have also come to train and scrimmage in Alanya . Wodzisław , Schwechat , Gladbeck , Fushun , and Alanya form a " family " in that most are partnered with the others . During the annual Tourism and Culture Festival , Alanya dedicates the year to focus on one country , and has involved sister cities , such as Trakai when 2009 was declared the " Year of Lithuania , " and Talsi , which was the focus of the 12th annual Tourism Parade in 2012 .
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= Hu Die =
Hu Die ( Chinese : 胡蝶 ; Wade – Giles : Hu Tieh ; 1907 or 1908 – April 23 , 1989 ) , also known by her English name Butterfly Wu , was one of the most popular Chinese actresses during the 1920s and 1930s . She starred in The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple , which started a craze for martial arts films , Sing @-@ Song Girl Red Peony , China 's first sound film , and what is considered her best film , Twin Sisters . She was voted China 's first " Movie Queen " in 1933 , and won the Best Actress Award at the 1960 Asian Film Festival for her performance in Rear Door .
= = Early life = =
Hu Die was born Hu Ruihua ( Chinese : 胡瑞华 ; Wade – Giles : Hu Jui @-@ hua ) in Shanghai in 1907 or 1908 , and moved to Guangzhou ( Canton ) when she was nine . Her father then became the general inspector of the Beijing – Fengtian Railway , and she spent much of her adolescence in northern cities including Beijing , Tianjin and Yingkou , and learned to speak perfect Mandarin , which later proved to be a great advantage when the Chinese cinema transitioned from silent films to talkies .
In 1924 , Hu Ruihua moved back to Shanghai with her family . When China ( Zhonghua ) Film School , the country 's first film actor training school , opened , she was the first student to enroll . She adopted the professional name " Hu Die " , meaning " butterfly " , and Butterfly Wu in English ( Wu is the Shanghainese pronunciation of Hu ) .
= = Early career = =
Hu Die played her first role in the film Success , as a supporting actress . She played her first major role in the film Autumn Stirs Resentments ( Qiu Shan Yuan ) , and fell in love with her co @-@ star Lin Xuehuai . The relationship did not work out , and the local newspapers were filled with rumours when they broke off their engagement .
In 1926 , Hu Die had her big break when she was signed by Tianyi ( Unique ) Film Company , one of the major studios of Shanghai , headed by Runje Shaw ( Shao Zuiweng ) . Tianyi catered to the tastes of the common people with rapid production of films . Hu Die starred in 15 films within the two years she worked for Tianyi . Many of them , such as The Traumatic Romance of Liang and Zhu ( 1926 ) and Lady Meng Jiang ( 1927 ) , were popular , but not considered artistically worthy .
= = Mingxing Studio = =
In 1928 , Hu Die declined to renew her contract with Tianyi , and signed with the rival Mingxing ( Star ) Film Company , led by the shrewd businessman and director Zhang Shichuan , and the talented writer Zheng Zhengqiu . She had a salary of $ 1 @,@ 000 a month , a large sum at the time . Her first film with Mingxing was Tower in the White Clouds ( 1928 ) . She befriended her co @-@ star Ruan Lingyu ; the two women would become China 's biggest film stars of the 1930s . Her role as Red Girl in the film The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple ( 1928 ) propelled her to stardom . The film was such a success that the studio made 17 sequels of the same name between 1928 and 1931 . It started a craze for martial arts films , but also attracted criticism from intellectuals when children neglected their schoolwork to study martial arts or devote themselves to martial arts fiction .
In 1931 , Hu Die starred in Sing @-@ Song Girl Red Peony ( dir . Zhang Shichuan ) , the first Chinese sound film ( although it was sound @-@ on @-@ disc , not sound @-@ on @-@ film ) . Compared with other silent @-@ era film stars , who were mostly southerners with poor Mandarin , Hu Die made the transition to sound with ease . She appeared in more sound films and was able to sing in The Flower of Freedom , a real sound film of much higher quality .
Hu Die starred in Twin Sisters ( Zimei Hua , dir . Zheng Zhengqiu ) in 1934 , in which she skilfully played the double role of twin sisters with very different personalities . The film was not only extremely popular but also won critical acclaim . It is generally considered her best film .
= = Mukden Incident = =
On 18 September 1931 , Hu Die arrived in Tianjin en route to Beijing , where Mingxing was planning to shoot the film Marriage of Tears and Laughter , an adaptation of the novel by Zhang Henshui . On the same day , the Japanese engineered the Mukden Incident , and used it as pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria . Zhang Xueliang , the " young marshal " who was the head of the northeastern army , ordered his soldiers to retreat rather than fight the Japanese . There was rumour that on the evening that the Japanese took Mukden , Marshal Zhang was dancing with Hu Die in Beijing , a serious charge which threatened to damage her reputation . Hu Die had to purchase space on Shen Bao , Shanghai 's biggest newspaper , to dispel the rumour , which she believed was started by the Japanese media in order to discredit Zhang Xueliang . Her account was corroborated by other Mingxing actors and employees . Years later , memoirs of people close to Zhang Xueliang indicated that he had never met Hu Die in his life , and Zhang was ordered by Chiang Kai @-@ shek not to resist the much stronger enemy .
= = Movie Queen = =
In 1933 , the newspaper Star Daily ( 明星日报 ) conducted China 's first public poll for the most popular movie stars . Fans across the country , as well as some from Japan , participated in the poll , and the results were unveiled in a public ceremony on 28 February . Hu Die was the runaway winner with 21 @,@ 334 votes , more than twice as many as the first runner @-@ up Chen Yumei , and almost three times the votes her friend Ruan Lingyu received . She was crowned China 's first " Movie Queen " .
= = European tour = =
In February 1935 , Hu Die was invited to join a Chinese delegation to participate in the Moscow International Film Festival in the Soviet Union . She was the only film star in the delegation , which mainly comprised influential men of the industry . She arrived too late for the festival , but received a warm welcome , and her films Twin Sisters and Orchid in a Remote Valley ( Konggu Lan ) were shown in Moscow and Leningrad . From Moscow she went on to tour Germany , France , England , Switzerland and Italy , receiving significant public attention and VIP treatment from the Europeans , to whom Chinese film stars were novelties . She took many notes and photographs , and published a travelogue after returning to China .
= = Marriage = =
In 1931 , a cousin introduced Hu Die to Pan Yousheng ( 潘有声 ) , a young employee of a Shanghai trading firm . Hu Die was careful about her personal life and their relationship progressed slowly until autumn 1935 , when they announced their impending marriage . Their wedding was the most important social event in Shanghai of that year . Famous film stars served as bridesmaids and groomsmen , and child stars were their flower girls and page boys . Hu Die was ready to retire from the film industry , as was customary at the time after an actress ' marriage , but with her husband 's support , she signed a contract with Mingxing to make one film per year . She only made one more film under the new contract , before the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War broke out , and the hard @-@ fought Battle of Shanghai completely destroyed Mingxing and other Shanghai studios in 1937 .
= = Sino @-@ Japanese War = =
As the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied Shanghai and much of east China , Hu Die and Pan Yousheng fled to British Hong Kong . Hu Die gave birth to a daughter and a boy during this time . Pan worked for a trading firm in Hong Kong , while she also made two films . After the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 , Hong Kong also fell to the Japanese . The Japanese pressured her to make a documentary film entitled Hu Die Touring Tokyo for their war propaganda , but Hu Die refused to become a collaborator , and secretly escaped to inland Chongqing , the war @-@ time capital of the Republic of China resistance . It was a long and circuitous journey through a war zone . She entrusted her belongings to the underground , and casually walked out of her Hong Kong home one day . Resistance partisans guided her through the New Territories to Guangdong province . She stayed in Shaoguan for a year and a half before leaving for Guilin in Guangxi , and did not reach Chongqing until the end of 1943 .
Soon after arriving in Chongqing , Hu Die starred in the film The Road to Nation Building to aid the war effort . While she was filming on location in Guilin , the Japanese launched a major offensive in the area . The film crew lost all their equipment , and had to join the tens of thousands of refugees fleeing the war front on foot . The Road to Nation Building was Hu Die 's only unfinished film , and she later described the incident as " the most tragic moment of my life " .
While in Chongqing , Hu Die became connected with the powerful spy master Dai Li . She had been previously introduced to Dai Li in Shanghai by her colleague Xu Lai , who was married to a close friend of Dai Li 's . According to the memoir of Dai Li 's lieutenant Shen Zui , Hu Die became Dai Li 's mistress during the period .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
Hu Die returned to Shanghai after the surrender of Japan in 1945 . Dai Li was killed in a plane crash in March 1946 . In the midst of the Chinese Civil War , Hu Die again moved with her husband to Hong Kong in 1946 . Pan Yousheng started a company making thermoses with the brand Butterfly , and she actively promoted her namesake product in Hong Kong and Southeast Asia . They lived a few happy years together , until Pan died soon after being diagnosed with liver cancer in 1958 .
After her husband 's death , Hu Die returned to the film industry in 1959 , now taking roles as older women , which took her some time to adjust to . She made several films for Shaw Brothers Studio , a successor company of Tianyi , and her performance in Li Han @-@ hsiang 's Rear Door ( Houmen ) won her the Best Actress Award at the Seventh Asian Film Festival held in Tokyo in 1960 . It also won the Best Film Award .
Hu Die retired in 1966 , after a career spanning more than four decades . It was said that in 1967 she married an admirer named Zhu Fangkun ( or Song Kunfang ) , who had given her financial support in the difficult period following Pan Yousheng 's death . She emigrated to Vancouver , Canada in 1975 to join her son . She lived a low @-@ key life and avoided attention by using the name Pan Baojuan . She dictated her memoir in 1986 , which first appeared in Taiwan 's United Daily News in serials , and was published in mainland China in 1987 . She died on 23 April 1989 , after suffering a stroke .
= = Daughter = =
Hu Die had an illegitimate daughter named Hu Ruomei ( 胡若梅 ) , later renamed to Hu Yousong ( 胡友松 ) , who was born in 1939 . The identity of her father is unknown . She was raised by a foster mother and stayed in mainland China while Hu Die moved to Hong Kong . In 1966 , Hu Yousong married Li Zongren , who had briefly served as president of the Republic of China , and was 49 years her senior . After Li Zongren died in 1969 , she was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution , and later became a Buddhist nun .
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= Maya stelae =
Maya stelae ( singular stela ) are monuments that were fashioned by the Maya civilization of ancient Mesoamerica . They consist of tall sculpted stone shafts and are often associated with low circular stones referred to as altars , although their actual function is uncertain . Many stelae were sculpted in low relief , although plain monuments are found throughout the Maya region . The sculpting of these monuments spread throughout the Maya area during the Classic Period ( 250 – 900 AD ) , and these pairings of sculpted stelae and circular altars are considered a hallmark of Classic Maya civilization . The earliest dated stela to have been found in situ in the Maya lowlands was recovered from the great city of Tikal in Guatemala . During the Classic Period almost every Maya kingdom in the southern lowlands raised stelae in its ceremonial centre .
Stelae became closely associated with the concept of divine kingship and declined at the same time as this institution . The production of stelae by the Maya had its origin around 400 BC and continued through to the end of the Classic Period , around 900 , although some monuments were reused in the Postclassic ( c . 900 – 1521 ) . The major city of Calakmul in Mexico raised the greatest number of stelae known from any Maya city , at least 166 , although they are very poorly preserved .
Hundreds of stelae have been recorded in the Maya region , displaying a wide stylistic variation . Many are upright slabs of limestone sculpted on one or more faces , with available surfaces sculpted with figures carved in relief and with hieroglyphic text . Stelae in a few sites display a much more three @-@ dimensional appearance where locally available stone permits , such as at Copán and Toniná . Plain stelae do not appear to have been painted nor overlaid with stucco decoration , but most Maya stelae were probably brightly painted in red , yellow , black , blue and other colours .
Stelae were essentially stone banners raised to glorify the king and record his deeds , although the earliest examples depict mythological scenes . Imagery developed throughout the Classic Period , with Early Classic stelae ( c . 250 – 600 ) displaying non @-@ Maya characteristics from the 4th century onwards , with the introduction of imagery linked to the central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan . This influence receded in the 5th century although some minor Teotihuacan references continued to be used . In the late 5th century , Maya kings began to use stelae to mark the end of calendrical cycles . In the Late Classic ( c . 600 – 900 ) , imagery linked to the Mesoamerican ballgame was introduced , once again displaying influence from central Mexico . By the Terminal Classic , the institution of divine kingship declined , and Maya kings began to be depicted with their subordinate lords . As the Classic Period came to an end , stelae ceased to be erected , with the last known examples being raised in 909 – 910 .
= = Function = =
The function of the Maya stela was central to the ideology of Maya kingship from the very beginning of the Classic Period through to the very end of the Terminal Classic ( 800 – 900 ) . The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the stelae of the Classic period site of Piedras Negras played a key part in the decipherment of the script , with stelae being grouped around seven different structures and each group appearing to chart the life of a particular individual , with key dates being celebrated , such as birth , marriage and military victories . From these stelae , epigrapher Tatiana Proskouriakoff was able to identify that they contained details of royal rulers and their associates , rather than priests and gods as had previously been theorised .
Epigrapher David Stuart first proposed that the Maya regarded their stelae as te tun , " stone trees " , although he later revised his reading to lakamtun , meaning " banner stone " , from lakam meaning " banner " in several Mayan languages and tun meaning " stone " . According to Stuart this may refer to the stelae as stone versions of vertical standards that once stood in prominent places in Maya city centres , as depicted in ancient Maya graffiti . The name of the modern Lacandon Maya is likely to be a Colonial corruption of this word .
Maya stelae were often arranged to impress the viewer , forming lines or other arrangements within the ceremonial centre of the city . Maya cities with a history of stonecarving that extended back into the Early Classic preferred to pair their stelae with a circular altar , which may have represented a cut tree trunk and have been used to perform human sacrifice , given the prevalence of sacrificial imagery on such monuments . An alternative interpretation of these " altars " is that they were in fact thrones that were used by rulers during ceremonial events . Archaeologists believe that they probably also served as ritual pedestals for incense burners , ceremonial fires and other offerings .
The core purpose of a stela was to glorify the king . Many Maya stelae depict only the king of the city , and describe his actions with hieroglyphic script . Even when the individual depicted is not the king himself , the text or scene usually relates the subject to the king . Openly declaring the importance and power of the king to the community , the stela portrayed his wealth , prestige and ancestry , and depicted him wielding the symbols of military and divine power . Stelae were raised to commemorate important events , especially at the end of a k 'atun 20 @-@ year cycle of the Maya calendar , or to mark a quarter or a half k 'atun . The stela did not just mark off a period of time ; it has been argued that it physically embodied that period of time . The hieroglyphic texts on the stelae describe how some of the calendrical ceremonies required the king to perform ritual dance and bloodletting . At Tikal , the twin pyramid groups were built to celebrate the k 'atun ending and reflected Maya cosmology . These groups possessed pyramids on the east and west sides that represented the birth and death of the sun . On the south side , a nine @-@ doored building was situated in order to represent the underworld . On the north side was a walled enclosure that represented the celestial region ; it was left open to the sky . It was in this celestial enclosure that a stela @-@ altar pair was placed , the altar being a fitting throne for the divine king . Calakmul practised a tradition that was unusual in the Maya area , that of raising twin stelae depicting both the king and his wife .
The iconography of stelae remained reasonably stable during the Classic Period , since the effectiveness of the propaganda message of the monument relied upon its symbolism being clearly recognisable to the viewer . However , at times a shift in the sociopolitical climate induced a change in iconography . Stelae were an ideal format for public propaganda since , unlike earlier architectural sculpture , they were personalised to a specific king , could be arranged in public spaces and were portable , allowing them to be moved and reset in a new location . An important feature of stelae was that they were able to survive different phases of architectural construction , unlike architectural sculpture itself . With the ability to portray an identifiable ruler bearing elite goods , accompanied by hieroglyphic text and carrying out actions in service of the kingdom , stelae became one of the most effective ways of delivering public propaganda in the Maya lowlands . In 7th @-@ century Copán , king Chan Imix K 'awiil raised a series of seven stelae that marked the boundary of the most fertile land in the Copán valley , an area of approximately 25 to 30 square kilometres ( 9 @.@ 7 to 11 @.@ 6 sq mi ) . As well as marking the boundary , they defined the sacred geometry of the city and referred to important seats of deities in the ceremonial centre of the Copán .
= = = Ritual significance = = =
Stelae were considered to be invested with holiness and , perhaps , even to contain a divine soul @-@ like essence that almost made them living beings . Some were apparently given individual names in hieroglyphic texts and were considered to be participants in rituals conducted at their location . Such rituals in the Classic Period appear to have included a k 'altun binding ritual , in which the stela was wrapped in bands of tied cloth . This ritual was closely tied to the k 'atun @-@ ending calendrical ceremony . A k 'altun ritual is depicted carved onto a peccary skull deposited as a funerary offering at Copán , the scene shows two nobles flanking a stela @-@ altar pair where the stela seems to have been bound with cloth . The act of wrapping or binding a sacred object was of considerable religious importance across Mesoamerica , and is well attested among the Maya right up to the present day . The precise meaning of the act is not clear , but may be to protect the bound object or to contain its sacred essence . The binding of stelae may be linked to the modern K 'iche ' Maya practice of wrapping small divinatory stones in a bundle .
A stela was not just considered a neutral portrait , it was considered to be ' owned ' by the subject , whether that subject was a person or a god . Stela 3 from El Zapote in Guatemala is a small monument dating from the Early Classic period , the front of the stela bears a portrait of the rain god Yaxhal Chaak , " Clear Water Chaak " . The accompanying text describes how the deity Yaxhal Chaak himself was dedicated , not just his image on the stela . This could be taken to imply that the stela was seen as the embodiment of the deity and is also true of those stelae bearing royal portraits , which were seen to be the supernatural embodiment of the ruler they represented . The stela , combined with any accompanying altar , was a perpetual enactment of royal ceremony in stone . David Stuart has stated that stelae " do not simply commemorate past events and royal ceremonies but serve to perpetuate the ritual act into eternity " , thus ascribing a magical effectiveness to stela depictions . In the same vein , stelae bearing royal portraits may have been magically loaded extensions of the royal person ( uba ' his self ' ) , extremely powerful confirmations of political and religious authority . Stelae bearing images of multiple people , for instance of several nobles performing a ritual or of a king with his war captives , were likely to be exceptions to this idea of the stela as sacred embodiment of the subject .
At times , when a new king came to power , old stelae would be respectfully buried and replaced with new ones , or they might be broken . When a Maya city was invaded by a rival , it was pillaged by the victors . One of the most striking archaeological markers of such an invasion is the destruction of the defeated city 's stelae , which were broken and cast down . At the end of the Preclassic , around 150 AD , this fate appears to have befallen the important city of El Mirador , where most of the stelae were found smashed .
= = Manufacture = =
Royal artisans were sometimes responsible for sculpting stelae ; in some cases these sculptors were actually the sons of kings . In other cases it is likely that captive artisans from defeated cities were put to work raising stelae for the victors , as evidenced by the sculptural style of one city appearing upon monuments of its conqueror soon after its defeat . This appears to have been the case in Piedras Negras where Stela 12 depicting war captives submitting to the victorious king is carved in the style of Pomoná , the defeated city . Archaeologists believe that this may also have been the case with Quiriguá after its surprise defeat of its overlord Copán .
Stelae were usually crafted from quarried limestone , although in the Southern Maya area other types of stone were preferred . Volcanic tuff was used at Copán to craft their stelae in three dimensions . Both limestone and tuff were easily worked when first quarried and hardened with exposure to the elements . At Quiriguá a hard red sandstone was used that was unable to reproduce the three @-@ dimensionality of Copán but was of sufficient strength that the kings of the city were able to raise the tallest free @-@ standing stone monuments in the Americas . The Maya lacked beasts of burden and did not employ the wheel ; therefore the freshly quarried blocks of stone had to be transported on rollers along the Maya causeways . Evidence of this has been found on the causeways themselves , where rollers have been recovered . The blocks were sculpted to their final form while still soft and they then hardened naturally with time . Stone was usually quarried locally but was occasionally transported over great distances . Calakmul in Mexico was one of two powerful cities that shaped the political landscape of the Classic Period , the other being Tikal . It imported black slate for one stela from the Maya Mountains , more than 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) away . Although Calakmul raised the greatest number of stelae known from any Maya city , they were sculpted from poor quality limestone and have suffered severe erosion , rendering most of them illegible . Stelae could be of substantial size ; Quiriguá Stela E measures 10 @.@ 6 metres ( 35 ft ) from the base to the top , including the 3 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) buried portion holding it in place . This particular monument has a claim to being the largest free @-@ standing stone monument in the New World and weighs about 59 tonnes ( 65 short tons ) . Stela 1 at Ixkun is one of the tallest monuments in the Petén Basin , measuring 4 @.@ 13 metres ( 13 @.@ 5 ft ) high , not including the buried portion , and is roughly 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 39 metres ( 1 @.@ 3 ft ) thick .
Maya stelae were worked with stone chisels and probably with wooden mallets . Hammerstones were fashioned from flint and basalt and were used for shaping the softer rocks used to make stelae , while fine detail was completed with smaller chisels . Originally most were probably brightly painted in red , yellow , black , blue and other colours using mineral and organic pigments . At Copán and some other Maya cities , some traces of these pigments were found upon the monuments .
Generally all sides of a stela were sculpted with human figures and hieroglyphic text , with each side forming a part of a single composition . Undecorated stelae in the form of plain slabs or columns of stone are found throughout the Maya region . These appear never to have been painted or to have been decorated with overlaid stucco sculpture .
= = History = =
= = = Preclassic origins = = =
The Maya sculptural tradition that produced the stelae emerged fully formed and had probably been preceded by sculpted wooden monuments . However the tradition of raising stelae had its origin elsewhere in Mesoamerica , among the Olmecs of the Gulf Coast of Mexico . In the Late Preclassic it then spread into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and southwards along the Pacific Coast to sites such as Chiapa de Corzo , Izapa and Takalik Abaj where Mesoamerican Long Count calendar dates began to be carved onto the stelae . Although at Izapa the stelae depicted mythological scenes , at Takalik Abaj they began to show rulers in Early Classic Maya posture accompanied by calendrical dates and hieroglyphic texts . It was also at Takalik Abaj and Izapa that these stelae began to be paired with circular altars . By approximately 400 BC , near the end of the Middle Preclassic Period , early Maya rulers were raising stelae that celebrated their achievements and validated their right to rule . At El Portón in the Salamá Valley of highland Guatemala a carved schist stela ( Monument 1 ) was erected , the badly eroded hieroglyphs appear to be a very early form of Maya writing and may even be the earliest known example of Maya script . It was associated with a plain altar in a typical stela @-@ altar pairing that would become common across the Maya area . Stela 11 from Kaminaljuyu , a major Preclassic highland city , dates to the Middle Preclassic and is the earliest stela to depict a standing ruler . The sculpted Preclassic stelae from Kaminaljuyu and other cities in the region , such as Chalchuapa in El Salvador and Chocolá in the Pacific lowlands , tend to depict political succession , sacrifice and warfare .
These early stelae depicted rulers as warriors or wearing the masks and headdresses of Maya deities , accompanied by texts that recorded dates and achievements during their reigns , as well as recording their relationships with their ancestors . Stelae came to be displayed in large ceremonial plazas designed to display these monuments to maximum effect . The raising of stelae spread from the Pacific Coast and adjacent highlands throughout the Maya area . The development of Maya stelae coincides with the development of divine kingship among the Classic Maya . In the southern Maya area , the Late Preclassic stelae impressed upon the viewer the achievements of the king and his right to rule , thus reinforcing both his political and religious power .
At the Middle Preclassic city of Nakbe in the central lowlands , Maya sculptors were producing some of the earliest lowland Maya stelae , depicting richly dressed individuals . Nakbe Stela 1 has been dated to around 400 BC . It was broken into pieces , but originally represented two elaborately dressed figures facing each other , and perhaps represents the transference of power from one ruler to his successor , however it also has features that recall the myth of the Maya Hero Twins , and would be the earliest known presentation of them . Around 200 BC the enormous nearby city of El Mirador had started to erect stela @-@ like monuments , bearing inscriptions that appear to be glyphs but that are so far unreadable . A stela has also been discovered at El Tintal , another major Preclassic city in the Mirador Basin .
On the Pacific Coast El Baúl Stela 1 features a date in its hieroglyphic text that equates to 36 AD . It depicts a ruler bearing a sceptre or a spear with a double column of hieroglyphic text before him . At Takalik Abaj are two stelae ( Stela 2 and Stela 5 ) depicting the transfer of power from one ruler to another ; they both show two elaborately dressed figures facing each other with a column of hieroglyphic text between them . The Long Count date on Stela 2 dates it to the 1st century BC at the latest , while Stela 5 has two dates , the latest of which is 126 AD . The stela was associated with the burial of a human sacrifice and other offerings . Stela 13 at Takalik Abaj also dates to the Late Preclassic ; a massive offering of more than 600 ceramic vessels was found at its base , together with 33 obsidian prismatic blades and other artefacts . Both the stela and the offering were associated with a nearby Late Preclassic royal tomb . At Cuello in Belize , a plain stela was raised around 100 AD in an open plaza .
At the very end of the Preclassic Period , around 100 – 300 AD , cities in the highlands and along the Pacific Coast ceased to raise sculpted stelae bearing hieroglyphic texts . This cessation in the production of stelae was the most dramatic symptom of a general decline in the region at this time . This decline has been linked to the intrusion of peoples from the western highlands combined with the disastrous eruption of the Ilopango Volcano that severely affected the entire region .
= = = Early Classic = = =
In the central Petén lowlands , the rise of individual rule at cities like Tikal required the development of new forms of public imagery . Preclassic imagery had involved largely anonymous , impersonal sculpture as an architectural element . The existing Preclassic Petén styles of architectural sculpture were combined with features of the highland and Pacific Coast tradition to produce the Early Classic Maya stela . Features formerly found on architectural sculpture , such as the giant masks adorning Preclassic pyramids , were adapted for use on stelae . For example , the so @-@ called " Jester God " was transferred to the headdress of the ruler portrayed on Tikal Stela 29 , which bears the oldest Long Count date yet found in the Maya lowlands – equating to 292 AD . At some Maya cities the first appearance of stelae corresponded with the foundation of dynastic rule .
The standard form of the Maya stela incorporating art , calendrical dates and hieroglyphic text onto a royal monument only began to be erected in the Maya lowlands after 250 AD . The late 4th century saw the introduction of non @-@ Maya imagery linked to the giant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico . This foreign influence is seen at Tikal , Uaxactun , Río Azul and El Zapote , all in the Petén Department of Guatemala . At Tikal this was initiated by the king Yax Nuun Ayiin I , from there it spread to his vassal cities . In the 5th century , this strongly Teotihuacan @-@ linked imagery was abandoned by Yax Nuun Ayiin I 's son Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II , who reintroduced imagery associated with the Pacific Coast and adjacent highlands . Minor references to Teotihuacan continued , for example in the form of Teotihuacan war emblems . His Stela 31 was originally erected in 445 but was later broken from its butt and was found buried in the city centre , almost directly above his tomb . It depicts the crowning of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II , with his father hovering above him as a supernatural being and is executed in traditional Maya style . On the sides of the stela are carved two portraits of his father in a non @-@ Maya style , dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior , bearing the central Mexican atlatl spear @-@ thrower not adopted by the Maya , and carrying a shield adorned with the face of the Mexican god Tlaloc . The reverse of the stela bears a lengthy hieroglyphic inscription detailing the history of Tikal , including the Teotihuacan invasion that established Yax Nuun Ayiin I and his dynasty .
In the Early Classic period the Maya kings began to dedicate a new stela , or other monument , to mark the end of each k 'atun cycle ( representing 7 @,@ 200 days , just under 20 sidereal years ) . At Tikal , the first to do so was king Kan Chitam who ruled in the late 5th century . Stela 9 from the city is the first dated monument raised to mark off a period of time , it was raised in 475 .
= = = Late Classic = = =
In the Late Classic the sculpted images of rulers on stelae remained much the same as in the Early Classic , appearing in profile in the foreground and filling almost the entire available space , which is delimited by a frame . Imagery associated with the Mesoamerican ballgame started to appear in the Maya lowlands in the Late Classic Period . Maya kings are depicted as warriors wearing costume from the Mexican highlands , including elements such as the foreign god Tlaloc and the Teotihacan serpent . Such imagery appears in the Late Classic on stelae from Naranjo , Piedras Negras and the Petexbatún cities of Dos Pilas and Aguateca . At Dos Pilas , a pair of stelae represent the king of the city in costume forming a jaguar and eagle pairing , characteristic of the Mexican warrior cult . Stelae were being erected by the Maya across the entire central and southern Maya lowlands by 790 , an area that encompassed 150 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 58 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .
In the north , Coba on the eastern side of the Yucatán Peninsula raised at least 23 large stelae . Although badly eroded their style and texts link them to cities from the Petén Basin . At the southern periphery of the Maya region , Copán developed a new high @-@ relief style of stelae and in 652 the twelfth king Chan Imix K 'awiil arranged a series of these stelae to define the sacred geometry of the city , and to celebrate his royal rule and his ancestors . His son and successor Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil further developed this new high @-@ relief style of sculpture and erected a series of intricately decorated stelae in the city 's Great Plaza that brought the carving of stelae close to full in @-@ the @-@ round three @-@ dimensional sculpture . Both of these kings focused on their own images on their stelae and emphasised their place in the dynastic sequence to justify their rule , possibly linked to a break in the dynastic sequence with the death of the eleventh king of Copán .
After Quiriguá defeated its overlord Copán in 738 , it brought massive blocks of red sandstone from quarries 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from the city and sculpted a series of enormous stelae that were the biggest monolithic monuments ever raised by the Maya . Stela E stands over 10 metres ( 33 ft ) high and weighs more than 60 tons . These stelae were shaped into a square cross @-@ section and were decorated on all four faces . These stelae usually bear two images of the Quiriguá king , on the front and the back , in a lower relief than that found at Copán . They feature highly complex panels of hieroglyphic text that are among the most skillfully executed of all Maya inscriptions in stone . The stelae have weathered well and display fine precision on the part of the sculptors .
= = = Terminal Classic = = =
The decline in the erection of stelae is linked to the decline in the institution of divine kingship , which began in the Late Preclassic . Originally the stelae depicted the king with symbols of power , sometimes standing over defeated enemies and occasionally accompanied by his wives or his heir . By the Terminal Classic , kings were sharing stelae with subordinate lords , who also played a prominent role in the events depicted . This reflected a decentralisation of power and the bargaining between high @-@ ranking nobles so that the king could maintain power , but led to a progressive weakening of the king 's rule . As the position of the king became weaker and that of his vassals and subordinates became stronger , the latter began to erect their own stelae , a function that was formerly the exclusive preserve of the king himself . Some of these subordinates broke away to form their own petty states , but even this did not last and they also ceased to erect monuments .
In the Pasión River region of Petén , rulers began to be portrayed as ballplayers on stelae . Seibal was the first site in the region to depict its rulers thus . Seventeen stelae were erected at Seibal between 849 and 889 , and show a mix of Maya and foreign styles , including a lord wearing the beaked mask of Ehecatl , the central Mexican wind god , with a Mexican @-@ style speech scroll emerging from the mouth . Some of these have a stylistic affinity with the painted murals at Cacaxtla , a non @-@ Maya site in the central Mexican state of Tlaxcala . This hybrid style seems to indicate that the kings of Seibal were Maya lords adapting to changing political conditions by adopting a mix of symbols originating from both lowland Maya and central Mexican sources . Some of the more foreign @-@ looking stelae even bear non @-@ Maya calendrical glyphs . Stelae at Oxkintok , to the north in the Puuc region of the Yucatán Peninsula , divided the face of the stela into up to three levels , each of which contained a different scene , usually of a lone figure that could be either male or female . The representation of the human figure differed from the formal treatment in the south , and were simplified , coarse representations lacking individuality amongst sociopolitical and religious symbols .
As the Classic Maya collapse swept across the Maya region , city after city ceased to erect stelae recording its dynastic achievements . At the important city of Calakmul , two stelae were raised in 800 and three more in 810 , but these were the last and the city fell into silence . At Oxkintok the last stela was raised in 859 . Stela 11 , dated to 869 , was the last monument to ever be erected at the once great city of Tikal . The last known Maya stelae bearing a Long Count calendrical date are Toniná Monument 101 , which was erected in 909 to mark the k 'atun ending that year , and Stela 6 from Itzimté , dated to 910 .
= = = Postclassic = = =
At Copán ritual offerings were deposited around the city 's stelae until at least 1000 , which may represent the offerings of a surviving elite that still remembered its ancestors , or may be due to highland Maya still regarding the city as a place of pilgrimage long after it had fallen into ruin . At Lamanai in Belize , Classic period stelae were repositioned upon two small Postclassic platforms dating to the 15th or 16th century . At La Milpa , also in Belize , at around the time of Spanish contact in the late 16th century a tiny remnant Maya population started to make offerings of Conquest @-@ period pottery to stelae , perhaps in an effort to invoke the ancestors to help resist the Spanish onslaught . A plain stela in Twin Pyramid Group R at Tikal was removed by the local inhabitants some time during the Postclassic ; its accompanying altar was also moved but abandoned some distance from its original location . Some plain stelae were raised at Topoxté in the Petén Lakes region of Guatemala in the Postclassic ; these were perhaps covered in stucco and painted . This may represent a revival of the katun @-@ ending ceremonies that occurred in the Classic Period , and reflected ties with the northern Yucatán .
= = Discovery = =
One of the earliest accounts of Maya stelae comes from Diego Garcia de Palacio , a Spanish colonial official who described six of the stelae at Copán in a letter to king Philip II of Spain written in 1576 . Juan Galindo , governor of Petén , visited Copán in 1834 and noted the sculpted high @-@ relief stelae there . Five years later , American diplomat John Lloyd Stephens and British artist Frederick Catherwood arrived in war @-@ torn Central America and set out for Copán , describing fifteen stelae in Stephens ' Incidents of Travel in Central America , Chiapas and Yucatán , published in 1841 . Stephens and Catherwood noticed the presence of red pigment on some of the Copán stelae . Stephens unsuccessfully attempted to buy the ruins of Quiriguá , and purchased Copán for US $ 50 ( $ 1 @,@ 100 in 2016 ) with the idea of shipping the stelae to New York for display in a new museum . In the event , he was prevented from shipping the monuments down the Copán River by the discovery of impassable rapids and all the stelae remained at the site . While Stephens was engaged on business elsewhere , Catherwood carried out a brief investigation of the stelae at Quiriguá but found them very difficult to draw without a camera lucida due to their great height . Ambrosio Tut , governor of Petén , and colonel Modesto Méndez , the chief magistrate , visited the ruins of Tikal in 1848 accompanied by Eusebio Lara , who drew some of the monuments there . In 1852 Modesto Méndez went on to discover Stela 1 and Stela 5 at Ixkun . English explorer Alfred Maudslay arrived at Quiriguá in 1881 and cleared the vegetation from the stelae , then travelled on to see the stelae at Copán . In the early 20th century , an expedition by the Carnegie Institution led by American Mayanist Sylvanus Morley discovered a stela at Uaxactun . This period marked a change from the efforts of individual explorers to those of institutions that funded archaeological exploration , excavation and restoration .
= = Collections = =
Notable collections of stelae on public display include an impressive series of 8th @-@ century monuments at Quiriguá and 21 stelae collected in the sculpture museum at Tikal National Park , both of which are World Heritage Sites in Guatemala . Calakmul , in Mexico , is another World Heritage site that also includes many stelae regarded as outstanding examples of Maya art . Copán in Honduras , also a World Heritage Site , possesses over 10 finely carved stelae in the site core alone .
The Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología ( " National Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology " ) in Guatemala City displays a number of fine stelae , including three 9th @-@ century stelae from Machaquilá , an 8th @-@ century stela from Naranjo and other stelae from Ixtutz , Kaminaljuyu , La Amelia , Piedras Negras , Seibal , Tikal , Uaxactun and Ucanal . The Museo Nacional de Antropología ( " National Museum of Anthropology " ) in Mexico City has a small number of Maya stelae on display . The San Diego Museum of Man in California contains replicas of the stelae from Quiriguá that were made in 1915 for the Pacific @-@ California Exhibition .
Many Maya archaeological sites have stelae on display in their original locations , in Guatemala these include , but are not limited to , Aguateca , Dos Pilas , El Chal , Ixkun , Nakum , Seibal , Takalik Abaj , Uaxactun , and Yaxha . In Mexico , stelae may be seen at Yaxchilan , and the site museum at Toniná .
= = Looting = =
Stelae have become threatened in modern times by plundering for sale on the international art market . Many stelae are found in remote areas and their size and weight prevents them from being removed intact . Various methods are used to cut or break a stela for easier transport , including power saws , chisels , acid and heat . When a monument is well preserved , the looters attempt to cut off its face for transport . Even when successful , this results in damage to inscriptions on the sides of the stela . At worst , this method results in complete fragmentation of the stela face with any recoverable sculpture removed for sale . Traceable fragments of well known monuments have been purchased by American museums and private collectors in the past . When such monuments are removed from their original context , their historical meaning is lost . Although museums have justified their acquisition of stelae fragments with the argument that such objects are better preserved in an institution , no stela has been sold in as good a condition as it was in its original location . After 1970 there was a sharp drop in Maya stelae available on the New York art market due to the ratification of a treaty with Mexico that guarantees the return of stolen pre @-@ Columbian sculpture that was removed from the country after the ratification date . In the early 1970s some museums , such as that of the University of Pennsylvania , responded to international criticism by no longer purchasing archaeological artefacts that lack a legally documented history , including place of origin , previous owners and an export license . Harvard University also instituted a similar policy in the early 1970s .
In 1972 , the initially well preserved Stela 5 at Ixkun was smashed into pieces by looters , who heated it until it shattered and then stole various pieces . A number of remaining fragments of the monument were rescued by archaeologist Ian Graham and transferred to the mayor 's office in Dolores , Petén , where they were eventually used as construction material before once again being recovered , this time by the Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala in 1989 , and moved to their archaeological laboratory . At the nearby site of Ixtonton , 7 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) from Ixkun , most of the stelae were robbed before the site 's existence was reported to the Guatemalan authorities . By the time archaeologists visited the site in 1985 only 2 stelae remained .
In 1974 , a dealer in pre @-@ Columbian artefacts by the name of Hollinshead arranged for the illegal removal of Machaquilá Stela 2 from the Guatemalan jungle . He and his co @-@ conspirators were prosecuted in the United States under the National Stolen Property Act and they were the first people to be convicted under this act with reference to national patrimony laws . The act states :
" whoever transports , transmits , or transfers in interstate or foreign commerce any goods ... of the value of $ 5 @,@ 000 or more , knowing the same to have been stolen , converted or taken by fraud ... [ s ] hall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than ten years , or both ... " [ w ] hoever receives , possesses , conceals , stores , barters , sells , or disposes of any goods .. . which have crossed a State or United States boundary after being stolen , unlawfully converted , or taken , knowing the same to have been stolen , unlawfully converted , or taken ( is subject to fine or imprisonment ) . "
The act was originally intended to discourage the handling of stolen property but several courts have judged that the National Stolen Property Act is sufficiently broad in scope to apply to goods crossing into the United States from a foreign nation , and is therefore applicable in the case of stolen cultural property .
Under Guatemalan law , Maya stelae and other archaeological artefacts are property of the Guatemalan government and may not be removed from the country without its permission . In the case of Machaquilá Stela 2 , the monument was well known before it was stolen and its illegal removal was easy to prove . The stela itself was cut into pieces , with the face being sawn off and moved to a fish packing factory in Belize , where it was packed into boxes and shipped to California . There it was seized by the Federal Bureau of Investigation after being offered for sale to various institutions . The stolen portion of the stela was returned to Guatemala and is now in storage at the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City .
Looting has been linked to the economic and political stability of the possessing nation , with levels of looting increasing during times of crisis . It also appears that art collectors have stelae , or portions of them , stolen to order by browsing archaeological books and catalogues for desirable pieces . Examples of this may be found at Aguateca and El Perú , both in Guatemala 's Petén department , where only the better preserved hieroglyphs and human faces were cut away .
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= Alone ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Alone " is the nineteenth episode of the eight season and the 180th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on May 6 , 2001 on Fox , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on June 14 , 2001 . It was written and directed by executive producer Frank Spotnitz . " Alone " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 and was viewed by 12 @.@ 7 million viewers . It received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — as well as ex @-@ FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Doggett is paired with an enthusiastic young agent named Leyla Harrison who knows everything about the X @-@ Files , when Scully goes on maternity leave . Harrison 's apotheosis of Mulder and Scully leads to Doggett learning a thing or two . But when Harrison and Doggett disappear , Mulder defies orders in an attempt to find them .
" Alone " marked the directorial debut of Spotnitz , who had been a writer on the show for several years . In addition , the episode would be the last Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week episode to feature an appearance by David Duchovny as Fox Mulder . The character of Leyla Harrison was named after an X @-@ Files fan who died of cancer in 2001 .
= = Plot = =
In Ellicott , New York , Arlen Sacks is killed by an unknown creature that sprays venom on its victims , and his son Gary goes missing . In the meantime , at the FBI headquarters , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , preparing for maternity leave , packs up her belongings at the X @-@ Files office . Scully finds a medallion commemorating the Apollo 11 space flight that was given to her for her birthday by Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Scully gives John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) the medallion , explaining that it symbolizes teamwork . After Scully leaves , Special Agent Leyla Harrison arrives and tells Doggett that she is his new partner . The two are soon assigned to investigate Sacks ' bizarre murder .
At the crime scene , Doggett and Harrison search for clues . Doggett finds evidence of the venom , which is sent to an FBI lab for analysis . Harrison explains to Doggett that in her previous job she processed Mulder and Scully 's travel expenses during their time on the X @-@ Files , and has thus gained an encyclopedic knowledge of their investigations . Following a wooded trail from the crime scene , Doggett and Harrison stumble upon an upscale mansion and make their way inside . A strange creature clinging to the wall secretly observes their every move . Doggett discovers a study full of biology journals and a copy of the anthropologist Richard Leakey 's book The Sixth Extinction . Doggett pulls out his gun , sensing that something is amiss , and finds Harrison in the hallway . He then instructs Harrison to position herself outside while he tries to flush the creature out of the house . Moments after Doggett instructs Harrison to stand guard he hears gun shots being fired . Rushing outside , he cannot find Harrison anywhere in the yard . He walks farther to the edge and falls through a trap door at the edge of the front lawn .
During an autopsy , Scully correctly deduces that Arlen was blinded by reptile venom . Meanwhile , Doggett and Harrison , having fallen into old bootlegger tunnels below the mansion grounds , encounter the creature and are sprayed with venom , temporarily blinding them . The two find Gary Sacks in dire need of medical attention nearby . Noting Doggett and Harrison 's absence , Mulder searches the area around the mansion for clues and encounters the owner , Herman Stites , who identifies himself as a biologist . Mulder soon leaves the area as Stites notices Doggett about to escape the tunnels and knocks him back in . Mulder waits in his car in Stites ' driveway until dark , telling Scully that he found the Apollo medallion near Stites ' estate and is convinced Doggett is somewhere nearby . He spots the creature and chases it to the mansion where it climbs up to a second floor . Mulder follows the creature into the house and down into the tunnels , where he encounters Harrison and Doggett . With the creature approaching , Mulder tells the still @-@ blinded Doggett to open fire at him on his command . The blinded Doggett then shoots the creature as it leaps at Mulder ; the deceased creature then turns into Stites .
Later , Scully and Mulder meet Doggett , who has now fully recovered , at the hospital . He tells them that Harrison will make a full recovery as well but that she is transferring herself off of the X @-@ Files . Mulder attempts to give Doggett the Apollo medallion , but Doggett insists that it be given to Harrison instead . Mulder and Scully then present it to Harrison together , who accepts it in awe .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and directing = = =
The episode was written by executive producer Frank Spotnitz , and marked his directorial debut . Because of his position as both the writer of the episode and the director , Spotnitz later noted that it was hard to achieve perfection when filming the episode . However , he did note that , as both the writer and director , he had more creative control than usual . Originally Spotnitz did not have plans to direct the episode but was encouraged to do so by David Duchovny ; Duchovny reminded Spotnitz that it would be the last Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ( stand alone ) episode to feature his character , Fox Mulder . After production and shooting was finalized , the rough cut of " Alone " was nine minutes over time and in order to compensate for the time , various sections were cut during final editing . Robert Patrick was very pleased with Spotnitz 's work , stating , " You 're talking about some incredibly intelligent individuals , and they were very willing to let you , as an artist , discover what they were trying to do with the role . That 's a wonderful environment to work in . "
For the episode , Gillian Anderson 's character Dana Scully was written off as a member of The X @-@ Files office , since the next season would mark the creation of the " new " X @-@ Files with Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish taking over for Duchovny and Anderson . Because of this change , Spotnitz called " Alone " the last of the " old " X @-@ Files stand @-@ alone episodes . As with many other episodes , Duchovny did not want his character to have all the answers , giving the reason that it looked too easy for him . Duchovny and Spotnitz later had a long discussion on how to remove the scenes or tweak them . Unfortunately , because the episode was the last stand @-@ alone episode to feature the character of Fox Mulder , Duchovny did not care as much as " usual " about creating a " mystery " for the episode .
= = = Casting = = =
Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) appeared in the episode only because Spotnitz did not want to miss the opportunity to direct an episode of The X @-@ Files that featured his character . However , because the episode was over time , Spotnitz ended up editing a large majority of his more " prominent " scenes out . In addition , another section that was scripted but ultimately cut was a scene between Anderson and Duchovny . Jolie Jenkins ' character , Leyla Harrison , was created and named in memory of a The X @-@ Files internet fan and prolific writer of fan fiction of the same name , who died of cancer on February 10 , 2001 . Jenkins ' characterization , according to Spotnitz , brought out the " Clint [ Eastwood ] " of Robert Patrick 's character John Doggett and her performance was called " near perfection " by Spotnitz during the audio commentary for this episode .
Due to Harrison 's extensive knowledge of the X @-@ Files , the episode contains several references to previous episodes . While looking through her desk drawer , Scully finds the merged coin from the sixth season entry " Dreamland " ; the Apollo 11 space flight medallion , which was given to her by Mulder in the fourth season episode " Tempus Fugit " ; and her dog Queequeg 's name tag , which she was given in the third season episode " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " . While investigating , Harrison mentions a liver @-@ eating mutant that produced bile and died under an escalator , a reference to Eugene Victor Tooms , who appeared in the first season episodes " Squeeze " and " Tooms " ; aliens that shed their skin and leave behind a residue similar to mucus , a reference to the alien from " The Beginning " ; and subterranean men in Florida who took people underground , as featured in " Detour " . While searching through Stites ' house , Doggett finds a book entitled The Sixth Extinction , a potential reference to the seventh season episode of the same name . In the episode 's final scene , Harrison asks Mulder how he and Scully managed to return to America after escaping from a spaceship in Antarctica , a reference to an event that took place at the end of the 1998 X @-@ Files feature film .
= = Reception = =
" Alone " debuted on Fox on May 6 , 2001 in the United States . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 56 million households , and 12 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 35th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending May 6 . On June 14 , 2001 , the episode premiered in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 and received 480 @,@ 000 viewers making it the sixth most watched episode that week , behind Star Trek : Voyager and The Simpsons . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Don 't watch alone . "
The episode was met with mixed to positive reviews . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , applauded Duchovny 's apparent energy to be acting on the series once again . However , he felt that the " overtness " of the episode resulted in many scenes coming off as too on @-@ the @-@ nose or strained . Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – rating but slightly criticized the way Fox was using Duchovny , sardonically writing , " I don 't know if you 're aware of this , but David Duchovny stars in The X @-@ Files . Did you know that ? Because they 've really been keeping it under wraps at Fox . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 rating . Keegan called the episode a " homage to fandom " and described the tone as " warm [ and ] fuzzy . " Because of this , he concluded that " [ o ] verall , this was an episode that dealt with the emotional needs of the audience in a way that was less effective than it might have been . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three and a half stars out of five and called it " an exercise in nostalgia " . The two called the episode " touching " and noted that many of the in @-@ jokes in the script , such as Harrison asking the agents how they got back from Antarctica , were " very funny " . Shearman and Pearson , however , did slightly critique the way the X @-@ Files were presented noting that the case was comparatively a " rather low @-@ key humdrum affair " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a positive review , writing , " The future of The X @-@ Files is unsettled , but ' Alone ' served as a pleasant reminder of what has come before and why the journey to this point has , for the most part , been so wonderful . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one star out of four . She derided the plot , writing " Why ? Who knows ? Who cares ? " Vitaris further criticized the episode incorporation of the fandom and suggested that some of the questions asked by Harrison were meant to be " making fun " of " fannish questions " .
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= Quiriguá =
Quiriguá ( Spanish pronunciation : [ kiɾiˈɣwa ] ) is an ancient Maya archaeological site in the department of Izabal in south @-@ eastern Guatemala . It is a medium @-@ sized site covering approximately 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) along the lower Motagua River , with the ceremonial center about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) from the north bank . During the Maya Classic Period ( AD 200 – 900 ) , Quiriguá was situated at the juncture of several important trade routes . The site was occupied by 200 , construction on the acropolis had begun by about 550 , and an explosion of grander construction started in the 8th century . All construction had halted by about 850 , except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early Postclassic ( c . 900 – c . 1200 ) . Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of Copán , with whose history it is closely entwined .
Quiriguá 's rapid expansion in the 8th century was tied to king K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat 's military victory over Copán in 738 . When the greatest king of Copán , Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil or " 18 @-@ Rabbit " , was defeated , he was captured and then sacrificed in the Great Plaza at Quiriguá . Before this , Quiriguá had been a vassal state of Copán , but it maintained its independence afterwards . The ceremonial architecture at Quiriguá is quite modest , but the site 's importance lies in its wealth of sculpture , including the tallest stone monumental sculpture ever erected in the New World .
= = Name and location = =
The archaeological site of Quiriguá is named after the nearby village of the same name , and is located a little over 200 km ( 120 mi ) northeast of Guatemala City ; it lies in the municipality of Los Amates in the department of Izabal and has an elevation of 75 m ( 246 ft ) above mean sea level .
Positioned on the north bank of the lower reaches of the Motagua River , Quiriguá is situated at the point where the valley broadens into a flood plain , which has exposed the site to periodic flooding over the centuries . Although the river passed close to the site during the period of the city 's occupation , it has since changed course and now flows 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) south of the ceremonial centre . Quiriguá is 48 km ( 30 mi ) north of Copán , and is located 15 @.@ 7 km ( 9 @.@ 8 mi ) north @-@ west of the international border with Honduras .
The local bedrock is a hard red sandstone , which the inhabitants used in the construction of monuments and architecture . This local sandstone is very strong and not prone to shearing or fracturing , allowing the sculptors at Quiriguá to erect the tallest freestanding stone monuments in the Americas . Quiriguá was built directly over the Motagua Fault and the city suffered damage in ancient times as a result of major earthquakes .
= = Population = =
Although the Quiriguá elite were clearly Maya in ethnicity , the site lies on the southern periphery of the Mesoamerican area and the population was at least bi @-@ ethnic , with ethnic Maya in a minority . The majority of the population belonged ethnically to the less complex Intermediate Area lying beyond the eastern border of Mesoamerica . The population density of the site has been estimated at 400 to 500 per square kilometer ( 1040 to 1300 per square mile ) in the centre of the city during the Late Classic with an estimated peak population of 1200 – 1600 ; surveys have revealed an average of 130 structures per square kilometer ( 338 per square mile ) at the site , compared with 1449 structures / km2 ( 3767 per square mile ) in central Copán . The low population density indicates that Quiriguá served as the focus for a dispersed rural population .
The population levels of the Quiriguá valley increased rapidly after the successful rebellion against Copán in 738 , although it was never a heavily populated site . In the 9th century there was a severe decline in population , culminating in the abandonment of the city .
= = Economy = =
The Motagua River flows down from the western Guatemalan highlands , and Quiriguá was ideally positioned to control the trade of uncut jade , the majority of which was found in the middle reaches of the Motagua Valley , as well as controlling the flow of other important commodities up and down the river such as cacao , which was produced as a local cash crop . Although cacao was produced for trade , maize remained the primary local crop due to its central role in the Maya diet . In addition , maize probably formed an important component in the site 's tribute payments to its overlords at Copán , a city that was exhausting its own local resources . Although little jade has been recovered from the site , there is evidence for trade in obsidian originating from the Ixtepeque source situated near the upper reaches of the Motagua .
In the Classic Period , the location of the site would have placed Quiriguá on a crossroads between the trading route from the highlands to the Caribbean coast and the route from Copán to the major cities of the Petén Basin .
= = Known rulers = =
As recorded on hieroglyphic inscriptions at Quiriguá , all dates are AD . Maya inscriptions for rulers sometimes include reference to a number ( " hel @-@ number " or count , named after its main glyph ) that are believed to specify the position of that ruler in the sequence of dynastic succession to the rulership of the site . Thus a hel @-@ number of five indicates the ruler was fifth in the line of dynastic succession .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
There is evidence that Quiriguá was occupied as early as the Late Preclassic ( 400 BC – AD 200 ) . Although no structures have been securely dated to this period , a number of Late Preclassic artifacts have been recovered , including 63 figurines and a chert blade . Early Classic ceramics from Quiriguá are similar to finds at both Copán and Chalchuapa in El Salvador , while jade hunchback figurines from the same period resemble those found in central Honduras and in the Guatemalan highlands . These early finds demonstrate the participation of Quiriguá in the wider southeastern Maya region from the Late Preclassic onwards .
A combination of hieroglyphic texts from Tikal , Copán and Quiriguá , together with architectural styles and chemical tests of the bones of the founder of the Copán dynasty all suggest that Quiriguá and Copán were founded by elite colonists from the great city of Tikal as a part of its expansion into the southeastern border area of the Maya region . The recorded history of Quiriguá starts in 426 , in the Early Classic ( c . 200 – c . 600 ) ; according to hieroglyphic inscriptions at other sites , on 5 September of that year K 'inich Yax K 'uk ' Mo ' was enthroned as king of Copán . Just three days later he installed " Tok Casper " , the first known king of Quiriguá , upon the throne . From this it is evident that right from the beginning of its recorded history Quiriguá was subservient to its southern neighbour , and was founded to bring the lucrative trade route of the Motagua River under the control of Copán and , indirectly , of Tikal . During the next few centuries , about which little is known , the ceremonial architecture at Quiriguá was limited to the hilltop Group A and a broad earthen platform on the valley floor . It is recorded that a stela , as yet undiscovered , was erected in 455 by Tutuum Yohl K 'inich , the second king of Quiriguá . An early monument records the supervision of a ritual in 480 by the then overlord from Copán , demonstrating Quiriguá 's continued status as a vassal of that city . A hieroglyphic text dating to 493 mentions two further kings of Quiriguá , but interruptions in the text make the reading and decipherment of their names particularly difficult .
There are close parallels between the 5th @-@ century architecture and monuments of Quiriguá and Uaxactun in the northern Petén , a site that fell under the domination of Tikal in the late 4th century . The similarities show that Quiriguá remained strongly aligned with the great Tikal alliance network .
= = = Hiatus and recovery = = =
Quiriguá suffered a hiatus from the turn of the 6th century that lasted through to the middle of the 7th century . This may be linked to the Tikal hiatus of the Middle Classic caused by Tikal 's defeat by Calakmul . There is evidence that Quiriguá suffered an attack by unknown enemies in this period , as demonstrated by the apparently deliberate defacement of Stela U and Monument 26 , characteristic of damage inflicted by invading warriors . No monuments were erected during this hiatus , which lasted from 495 to 653 .
In the 6th or early 7th century a natural disaster caused a devastating flood of the Motagua Valley and buried the surface of the site under a deep layer of silt , completely changing the landscape . Only those buildings that stood above the mud continued in use , including group A , saved by its hilltop location . The earthen platform on the valley floor also continued in use , at least those parts of it that stood above the silt , and it was one of the site 's smaller complexes that grew to become the new centre of Quiriguá , as represented by the monuments visible to this day .
A revival can be identified by the dedication of the first new monument in a century and a half , raised by the otherwise unknown king , K 'awiil Yopaat , in 653 . Continued contact with Copán is evident , as well as longer distance contacts , possibly with Caracol in Belize . At about the same time major construction work was undertaken in the acropolis , including the building of the site 's first ballcourt .
= = = Apogee = = =
Quiriguá traditionally had been subordinate to its southern neighbour , Copán , and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , king of Copán , installed K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá 's throne as his vassal . As early as 734 , however , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as k 'ul ahaw , holy lord , instead of using the lesser term ahaw , subordinate lord ; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph . These early assertions of independence can only have been made if Quiriguá had managed to form an external alliance .
Indeed , this local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between the two Maya " superpowers " , the great cities of Tikal and Calakmul . In 736 , only two years later , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K 'awiil , the high king of distant Calakmul , while Copán was one of Tikal 's oldest allies . The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant , falling between the accession of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow . This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá 's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley . It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne , since Quiriguá experienced rapid growth soon after , suggesting that Quiriguá already was receiving external support .
In 738 the interlinked fortunes of Quiriguá and Copán took a stunning change of direction when K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , reigning lord of Quiriguá , captured the powerful , but elderly 13th king of Copán , Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , who had installed him on his throne in 725 . This coup does not seem to have affected either Copán or Quiriguá physically , there is no evidence that either city was attacked at this time and the victor seems not to have received any detectable tribute . Quiriguá seems rather to have gained its independence and the control of important trade routes . An inscription at Quiriguá , although difficult to interpret , suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738 , when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán 's patron deities . All of this seems to imply that K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat managed to somehow ambush Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , rather than to have defeated him in outright battle . In the Classic Period the statues of Maya deities often were carried into battle on palanquins , facilitating their capture in the event of defeat . It has been suggested that the king of Copán was attempting to attack another site in order to secure captives for sacrifice , and was ambushed by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat and his Quiriguá warriors .
The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual . The sacrificial offering of the blood of such a powerful overlord greatly enhanced the standing of Quiriguá and its royal family throughout the region and it proclaimed Quiriguá as the new capital of the south @-@ eastern Maya region . After this , Quiriguá engaged in a major monument @-@ building programme , closely mimicking the sculptural style of Copán , possibly using captured Copán sculptors to carry out the work . The population of Quiriguá and of other sites in the valley rapidly increased after the events of 738 , although Quiriguá was always a small centre and its total population probably never exceeded 2 @,@ 000 .
In the Late Classic ( c . 600 – c . 900 ) , alliance with Calakmul frequently was associated with the promise of military support . The fact that Copán , a much more powerful city than Quiriguá , failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul . Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state , even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán . The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage , Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence .
In 718 , the city of Xkuy – an as yet undiscovered site – was attacked and burned by Copán under the leadership of king Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil . After the king of Copán was sacrificed in 738 , Xkuy seems to have become a loyal vassal of Quiriguá and in 762 K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat supervised the accession of " Sunraiser Jaguar " to the subservient city 's throne .
K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , who had so dramatically changed the destiny of his city , died on 27 July 785 . Zoomorph G is his memorial stone and it describes how he was buried 10 days later in the 13 Kawak House , a building that has not been identified . The great king was succeeded by " Sky Xul " , a king whose name has not been properly identified . " Sky Xul " became the reigning lord of Quiriguá 78 days after the death of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , who is thought to have been his father . His reign lasted from 10 to 15 years and was a period of continued activity . In most of the Maya region cities already were suffering terminal decline , engulfed by the Classic Maya collapse , but in Quiriguá " Sky Xul " dedicated three great zoomorph sculptures and two altars , considered marvels of Maya stoneworking . " Sky Xul " died some time between 795 and 800 .
= = = Decline and collapse = = =
Little is known of " Jade Sky " , who succeeded " Sky Xul " and was the last recorded ruler of Quiriguá . The city 's power already was waning , as evidenced by the two stunted stelae erected during his reign , which indicate that the kingdom no longer had access to the kind of resources needed to produce monuments of a similar quality to those of his predecessors . " Jade Sky " did build two of the largest structures in the acropolis , however .
Quiriguá apparently retained its independence from Copán and continued to flourish until the beginning of the 9th century . Relations between the two cities had improved somewhat by 810 , when king Yax Pasaj Chan Yopaat of Copán visited Quiriguá in order to carry out a k 'atun @-@ ending ritual . However , 810 was also the year when the last hieroglyphic texts were raised at Quiriguá , although a reduced level of construction continued in the city centre . After this , Quiriguá falls into silence , engulfed by the greater phenomenon of the Classic Maya collapse – it had lost its reason for existence when trade no longer flowed along the Motagua ; within a few years Quiriguá was all but deserted and sites throughout the Motagua Valley suffered severe decline or abandonment .
= = = Postclassic = = =
In the early Postclassic Period ( c . 900 – c . 1200 ) , Quiriguá was occupied by peoples closely linked to the Caribbean coastal areas of the Yucatán Peninsula and Belize , perhaps due to Chontal Maya control of a trade network that included the Yucatán coast and the Motagua Valley . During their brief reoccupation of the site they made substantial additions to the acropolis complex . Finds associated with their occupation include a reclining chacmool sculpture and ceramics from the east coast of Yucatán , artifacts that demonstrate a close link with the distant city of Chichen Itza . Some copper bells and ornaments were recovered from Quiriguá , they are among the earliest finds of metal artifacts in the Maya area . They have been dated to either the Terminal Classic ( c . 800 – c . 950 ) or the Early Postclassic .
= = = Modern history = = =
The first European visitor to publish an account of Quiriguá was English architect and artist Frederick Catherwood , who reached the ruins in 1840 . The previous landowner , by the surname of Payés , had related the existence of the ruins to his sons and to Carlos Meiney , a Jamaican Englishman resident in Guatemala . The elder Payés had recently died and passed the land to his sons and , since neither Meiney nor Payés ' sons had visited the land containing the ruins , they invited John Lloyd Stephens and Catherwood to join them on their first trip to the site . Stephens had other duties to attend to , but Catherwood was able to accompany the Payés brothers to Quiriguá . Due to adverse conditions he was only able to stay a short time at the ruins , but made drawings of two of the stelae , which were published with a short account of Catherwood 's visit in John Lloyd Stephens 's book Incidents of Travel in Central America , Chiapas , and Yucatan in 1841 . Quiriguá was the first site that Stephens and Catherwood could claim to have discovered themselves . A longer account of the ruins was made in 1854 by Dr. Karl Scherzer .
Explorer and archaeologist Alfred Maudslay visited Quiriguá for three days in 1881 ; they were the first pre @-@ Columbian ruins that he saw and they were sufficiently impressive to inspire him to take up a permanent interest in Central American archaeology . He was able to return on three further occasions , the last being in 1894 , and he made the first efforts to clear the monuments before recording them . He carried out a very thorough examination and made a photographic record of all visible monuments , carried out some minor excavations , made paper and plaster molds of the hieroglyphic inscriptions and surveyed the principal sculptures ; these molds were then shipped to the Victoria and Albert Museum , with casts being transferred to the British Museum .
In 1910 , the United Fruit Company bought Quiriguá and all the land for a great distance around the site for banana production ; they set aside 75 acres ( 30 ha ) around the ceremonial centre as an archaeological park , leaving an island of jungle among the plantations . More archaeological work was carried out from 1910 to 1914 by Edgar Lee Hewett and Sylvanus Morley for the School of American Archaeology in Santa Fe . Duplicates of the stelae of Quiriguá made from Hewitt 's plaster casts of the originals were exhibited at the Panama @-@ California Exposition in San Diego , California , in 1915 . The casts are still on display at the San Diego Museum of Man in their " Maya : Heart of Sky , Heart of Earth " exhibition . The Carnegie Institution conducted several intermittent projects at Quiriguá from 1915 through 1934 . Aldous Huxley , writing after visiting the site in the early 1930s , noted that Quiriguá 's stelae commemorated " man 's triumph over time and matter and the triumph of time and matter over man . " Quiriguá was among the first Maya archaeological sites to be studied intensively , although little restoration was carried out and the ruins once again became overgrown with jungle .
Quiriguá was declared a National Monument in 1970 under Ministerial Accord 1210 , this was followed on 19 June 1974 by its declaration as an Archaeological Park under Governmental Accord 35 @-@ 74 .
From 1974 through 1979 , an extensive archaeological project was conducted at Quiriguá sponsored by the University of Pennsylvania , the National Geographic Society , and the Guatemalan Instituto de Antropología e Historia . Directed by Robert Sharer and William R. Coe , the project excavated the acropolis , cleaned the monuments , and studied outlying groups . It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981 , and in 1999 UNESCO approved one @-@ off funding of US $ 27 @,@ 248 for " emergency assistance for the rehabilitation of the archaeological site of Quiriguá " . One of the site 's stelae is depicted on the Guatemalan 10 centavo coin .
The 34 @-@ hectare ( 84 @-@ acre ) area included within the Archaeological Park of Quiriguá has been developed for tourism with the construction of a car park , site museum , and sanitation facilities and is open to the public on a daily basis .
= = The site = =
= = = Architecture = = =
After Quiriguá 's pivotal victory over Copán in 738 , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat rebuilt the main group in the image of Copán itself . Thus , the acropolis , palace , and ballcourt all lie at the southern end of the Great Plaza . The ceremonial centre is laid out around three plazas , the northernmost is the Great Plaza . This plaza measures 325 m ( 1 @,@ 066 ft ) from north to south and is the largest plaza in the whole Maya region . At the southern end of the Great Plaza is the Ballcourt Plaza , surrounded on three sides by structures associated with the acropolis . The Acropolis Plaza is a fully enclosed plaza within the acropolis itself . The area to the west of the Ballcourt Plaza was probably the riverside docking area and there is evidence that the southern part of the Great Plaza was a marketplace . A number of ceramic @-@ lined wells have been excavated close to the site core , these were all built in the 8th century and although some continued in use into the 9th century , none are known to have been built that late .
1A @-@ 1 is an enormous platform forming the northern part of the Great Plaza . It measures 100 by 85 metres ( 328 by 279 ft ) and rises 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 20 in ) above the level of the southern part of the plaza . It forms the northern portion of the Great Plaza , being built by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat when he extended the plaza northward . The platform was built from river cobbles and was paved with stone slabs . Platform 1A @-@ 1 supported the stelae A , C , D , E and F and Zoomorph B. The platform was built in two phases over about 20 years .
1A @-@ 3 is a large mound marking the northern edge of the Great Plaza . It originally measured 82 @.@ 5 by 20 metres ( 271 by 66 ft ) and was 7 metres ( 23 ft ) high . A 63 @-@ metre ( 207 ft ) wide stairway climbed the southern face of the structure from the plaza . The structure was later extended to the north but this second phase of construction was never finished .
The acropolis is the largest architectural complex at Quiriguá , it lies at the southern limit of the ceremonial centre of the city . It is a complex construction , with new buildings and features being added over time . Construction of the acropolis began in 550 and continued through to 810 when the site was abandoned . The acropolis was a palace complex used primarily as an elite residence and for administrative purposes . The acropolis complex includes structures 1B @-@ 1 , 1B @-@ 2 , 1B @-@ 3 , 1B @-@ 4 , 1B @-@ 5 and 1B @-@ 6 . Excavations of the acropolis encountered the fallen remains of corbel arches , but none are still standing .
1B @-@ sub.1 is also known as the K 'inich Ahau Wall . It was a free @-@ standing wall over 23 metres ( 75 ft ) long and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 ft ) thick , it stood on top of the western platform of the acropolis . The western side of the wall overlooked the river and bore five alternating mosaic masks representing solar deities and serpents with human arms . These masks were supported by a frieze consisting of two concentric ovals flanked by serpent heads . The wall was completed around 750 , during the reign of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat .
1B @-@ sub.4 Excavations at the acropolis discovered a completely buried ballcourt under the structures on the western side of the Acropolis Plaza , a rare example of a ballcourt having been built over by subsequent construction , in this case by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . This was the first ballcourt at the site and dates to the middle of the 7th century . It was built with blocks of rhyolite . This ballcourt is a close copy of the ballcourts at Copán , being built in the same style , to the same dimensions , and with the same orientation . The ballcourt was buried when K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat built the massive western platform to restrict access to the acropolis .
1B @-@ 1 is a structure which forms the southern limit of the Acropolis Plaza , a broad stairway leads down to the plaza from the northern side of the building . The lower walls of the structure are still standing and it has three entrances , each of which opens onto a small chamber . Each of the three chambers has a hieroglyphic step on the back wall leading to another small chamber . Originally the building had an external band of hieroglyphs . Both the exterior and internal glyphs bear the last known date recorded at Quiriguá , falling in June 810 . This building was built during the reign of " Jade Sky " .
1B @-@ 2 also lies south of the Acropolis Plaza , in the southwest corner . It is smaller than structure 1B @-@ 1 , which it adjoins , and its lower walls also are still standing . It was a small residential building that was elaborately decorated with sculptured stonework . This structure was probably the residence of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat .
1B @-@ 3 and 1B @-@ 4 are structures on the west side of the Acropolis Plaza , only the lower walls remain . Between these two structures is an older free @-@ standing wall . This wall has a westward facing mosaic frieze that bears damaged and now headless depictions of Kinich Ahau , the sun god .
1B @-@ 5 lies to the north of the Acropolis Plaza , at the south @-@ eastern corner of the Ballcourt Plaza . This structure was accessed via a broad stairway from the Acropolis Plaza to the south , which rises to a single entrance opening onto seven interconnected chambers . This is the largest building at Quiriguá and its walls are still standing . It was built during the reign of " Jade Sky " .
1B @-@ 6 lies to the east of the Acropolis Plaza and contained an ancestral shrine , reflecting a long established tradition first seen at Tikal . Located under the building was a tomb lined with slabs of schist , which contained an elite burial . The remains probably belonged to a male , the teeth were inlaid with jade , and a bead of the same material had been placed in the mouth . Associated ceramic offerings date this tomb to the Early Classic .
1B @-@ 7 is a ballcourt , built by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to replace the ballcourt buried under his expansion of the acropolis . The ballcourt lies in the Ballcourt Plaza , to which it gives its name , to the northwest of the acropolis . The ballcourt has an east – west orientation that is unusual in the Maya region , where ballcourts traditionally are aligned north – south .
3C @-@ 1 is a broad earthen platform on the valley floor , it dates to the middle of the Classic Period and is one of the earlier constructions at the site , parts of it continuing in use after a catastrophic flood .
3C @-@ 7 is a group dating to the Early Classic . It is on the floodplain some distance to the north of the acropolis .
3C @-@ 8 is another Early Classic group located to the north of the acropolis .
Locus 011 and Locus 057 may have been watchposts , they were situated at the points where the Quiriguá and the Jubuco rivers entered the Motagua Valley and may have been used to control passing traffic on these routes . Locus 057 was situated on one of the most probable routes to Copán and may have been a watchpost to look out for enemy warriors after the defeat of Copán by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat .
Locus 122 and Locus 123 are groups located on the floodplain south of the river . Locus 122 , although unexcavated , is a compound consisting of a pyramidal mound and a NE – SW oriented plaza , similar to some Preclassic complexes in the highlands , for which reason it is presumed to date from that period .
Groups A , B and C lie at a distance of one to three miles from the site core .
Group A is a hilltop complex roughly dating to the early Classic Period . A stela found in this group dates to 493 .
Group B , also known as Group 7A @-@ 1 , is to the north of the site core . It is the location of the badly eroded Stela S , which was moved here from the Great Plaza in ancient times .
Group C has an unsculptured stela .
= = = Monuments = = =
The monuments at Quiriguá include unusually large stelae elaborately carved from single blocks of red sandstone , brought from quarries 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) away . The characteristics of this hard rock allowed the local sculptors to produce low @-@ relief sculptures enhanced by three @-@ dimensional faces , in contrast with the contemporary two @-@ dimensional sculpture of the Petén region . After the defeat and execution of the king of Copán in 738 , the sculptural style of Quiriguá closely resembled that of its former overlord . The enormous stelae at Quirigá originally would have been visible from the Motagua River , which once flowed past the west side of the Great Plaza , announcing the new @-@ found power of the city to passing traders . The monuments include long panels of glyphic text that are considered among the most complex and beautiful of all Maya stone inscriptions . A characteristic of these texts is the use of full @-@ figure glyphs in which the normal bar and dot number glyphs of Maya script are replaced with exquisitely carved representations of the deities . However , by the latter part of the 8th century Quiriguá had developed an original style with the production of boulders elaborately sculpted into the forms of composite mythological animals bearing elements of toads , jaguars , crocodiles , and birds of prey ; these sculptures are referred to as zoomorphs and were completed by two later kings after the death of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat in 785 .
There also are various altars and sculptures used as decoration in the facades of buildings ; most Quiriguá monuments have a grand formal monumentality that is rather stiff compared to the naturalistic grace of the art of some other Maya sites . Traces of red pigment have been found on some of the monuments and most of the monuments were likely to have been painted red , the colour of birth , sacrifice , and renewal .
Stela A was erected in 775 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . Stela A and Stela C form a pair and were both dedicated on 29 December 775 .
Zoomorph B was dedicated in 780 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , it is a multi @-@ ton boulder sculptured into a half @-@ crocodile half @-@ mountain beast . The hieroglyphic text on this monument consists entirely of full @-@ figure glyphs . Traces of red pigment have been found on this zoomorph , which is 4 metres ( 13 ft ) long . A dedication cache was found buried in a pit under Zoomorph B , it included seven flint blades between 14 and 46 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 and 18 @.@ 1 in ) in length .
Stela C was erected in 775 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . The hieroglyphic text contains references to 455 and Tutuum Yohl K 'inich , an early king . The stela also bears a reference to the date 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 4 Ahaw 8 Kumk 'u ( 13 August 3114 BC ) . This date is recorded throughout the entire Maya area as the beginning of the current creation , when the deities were placed in order . Stela C forms a pair with Stela A and was dedicated on the same date .
Stela D dates to 766 , during the reign of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . It is distinguished by the relatively rare , extravagant , full @-@ figure anthropomorphic versions of Maya hieroglyphics on the upper parts of its sides , which are particularly well preserved . Stela D is roughly 6 metres ( 20 ft ) in height .
Stela E stands in the northern half of the Great Plaza . This stela was dedicated on 24 January 771 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . Its total shaft measures 10 @.@ 6 metres ( 35 ft ) in height , including the buried portion holding it in place , which measures just under 3 metres ( 10 ft ) . This enormous monolith is the largest stone ever quarried by the ancient Maya and weighs approximately 65 tons , it may even be the largest free @-@ standing worked monolith in the New World . In 1917 this stela , already tilting away from vertical , finally fell over completely after heavy rains , although it remained unbroken . In 1934 an attempt was made to raise the stela using a winch and steel cables , during which the cables snapped and the monolith fell and was broken into two pieces , which have since been joined back together using concrete . This stela bears portraits of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat on its front and back .
Stela F is an enormous 7 @.@ 3 @-@ metre ( 24 ft ) high monolith carved from sandstone . It bears representations of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat on its north and south sides and hieroglyphic inscriptions on its east and west sides . It dates to 761 and when it was raised it was the tallest monument ever erected by the Maya ; it was only surpassed when Stela E was erected 10 years later .
Zoomorph G is the memorial monument to K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , dedicated during the reign of " Sky Xul " . It shows the face of the dead king emerging from the maw of an enormous jaguar . The text of this monument describes the death and burial of Quiriguá 's greatest king .
Stela H dates to 751 , during the reign of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . Its glyphs are arranged in a rare mat pattern , copied from Copán . The stela is executed in the wrap @-@ around style . A flint blade was found buried under the stela butt , buried as an offering when the stela was dedicated . The hieroglyphic inscriptions on Stela H are badly damaged .
Stela J was erected by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat in 756 and is carved in the wrap @-@ around style . It stands 5 metres ( 16 ft ) high and is located in the southern part of the Great Plaza . The dedicatory cache consisted of a house @-@ shaped clay box with unknown contents .
Altar L is fairly crudely worked and dates to 653 . The text bears the name of king K 'awiil Yopaat and also mentions " Smoke Imix " , the 12th king of Copán . The altar is a rhyolite disk 1 metre ( 39 in ) in diameter and 0 @.@ 25 metres ( 10 in ) thick . The sculptural style of this altar is unique , and shows affinities with the distant site of Caracol in Belize .
Altar M this modest monument is the earliest known monument dedicated by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . The importance of this monument lies in its text , in which this preeminent king of Quiriguá claimed the title of k 'uhul ajaw , holy lord , and began his bid for independence from Copán . This rhyolite sculpture was dedicated on 15 September 734 and has the form of a monstrous head , possibly that of a crocodilian .
Altar N is another small rhyolite sculpture stylistically similar to Altar M. This sculpture has the form of a turtle shell with a skeletal head with a mirror on its forehead emerging sideways from one end and an elderly figure from the other . This is a representation of the bicephalic deity Pawatun ( God N ) , a prominent underworld deity .
Zoomorph O is a crocodile @-@ mountain hybrid monster , dedicated in 790 by king " Sky Xul " . It is accompanied by an altar depicting a lightning god . It is located in the Ballcourt Plaza , just south of the ballcourt itself .
Zoomorph P ( which explorer Maudslay nicknamed The Great Turtle ) was dedicated in 795 by " Sky Xul " and is a masterpiece of Mesoamerican art . It weighs around 20 tons . On one side it depicts a larger @-@ than @-@ life portrait of " Sky Xul " himself seated cross @-@ legged in the open jaws of an enormous crocodile @-@ mountain hybrid monster . The design of this zoomorph is incredibly intricate and the whole monument is covered with skilfully executed sculpture . It is located in the Ballcourt Plaza , just south of the ballcourt . Zoomorph P is accompanied by an altar depicting an unidentified deity leaping from a split in the earth . A hieroglyphic text on the zoomorph describes the founding of Quiriguá under the supervision of the king of Copán . Traces of red pigment have been found on this monument , suggesting that it was originally painted red .
Altar Q and Altar R are two small rhyolite disks that probably served as ballcourt markers for the earliest ballcourt , the buried Structure 1B @-@ sub.4. Together with a third stone they would have marked the central axis of the ballcourt . They both bear seated cross @-@ legged figures carved in shallow relief .
Stela S is the earliest surviving monument of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , it dates to 746 . It was originally located in the northern half of the Great Plaza but was moved to an outlying group in ancient times . It is heavily eroded , some of the damage may have been inflicted by the process of moving it . It was fashioned from sandstone and bears the figure of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat on the front , the other three sides being covered by hieroglyphic text . Unfortunately , due to the heavy erosion most of the text is illegible . Stela S is 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 ft ) high ( not including the part of the stela buried in the ground ) and the dimensions of the base are 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) by 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , making it the earliest of the huge stelae that were to characterise Quiriguá , although it is significantly smaller than those that were to follow .
Stela T was dedicated in 692 by an unknown ruler . It is a badly eroded schist sculpture bearing mostly unreadable glyphs accompanying a poorly preserved figure . The stela is conservative in style , being similar to the much older Stela U.
Stela U comes from Group A and bears a heavily eroded portrait of a king in wrap @-@ around style ( extending over three sides of the stela ) . This style originated in Tikal and indicates contact with the central Petén region . This stela has an identifiable date , corresponding to 18 April 480 , and a reference to a ritual taking place that was supervised by the king of Copán . This stela is carved from schist and is broken in two pieces , being snapped off at the knees – apparently deliberately during an attack by unknown enemies . It was originally 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 9 ft ) in height .
Monument 25 is a plain round column carved from schist . It is about 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft ) long and 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft ) in diameter . It was found in Locus 011 .
Monument 26 is a stela in wrap @-@ around style found close to structure 3C @-@ 1 . A date corresponding to 493 is contained in the hieroglyphic text on its back , this text mentions the third and fourth rulers of Quiriguá but their names are currently unreadable . It is carved from schist and was originally 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high but the stela was broken in ancient times , apparently deliberately . It was broken off at the knees and the left eye of the ruler 's portrait was scratched away , damage characteristic of that inflicted by invading warriors . Only two pieces have been recovered , an upper section measuring 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) and a lower section measuring 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft ) .
Monument 29 and Monument 30 are heavily eroded columnar sculptures fashioned from schist , each measuring a little over 1 m in length . They were found together in a modern drainage ditch to the north and northwest of the ceremonial centre of Quiriguá . They apparently were sculptures of anthropomorphs or monkeys standing on pedestals with their hands clasped on their chests . It is thought on stylistic grounds that these two monuments date to the Late Preclassic .
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= Ohio State Route 365 =
State Route 365 ( SR 365 ) is a very short two @-@ lane east – west state highway in western Ohio . Its western terminus is at a T @-@ intersection with the SR 235 / SR 366 concurrency one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the village of Lakeview . After running east and south for less than 980 feet ( 300 m ) , the highway arrives at its eastern terminus in Indian Lake State Park , serving a boat launch on the western shore of Indian Lake .
This spur route was created in 1934 , and runs exclusively in Logan County . At a length of just 0 @.@ 16 miles ( 260 m ) , SR 365 is one of the shortest state highways in Ohio .
= = Route description = =
All of SR 365 exists within Stokes Township in northwestern Logan County . The short spur route is not a part of the National Highway System . Around 230 vehicles use the route on average each day . SR 365 is one of the shortest state routes in Ohio , and there are no reassurance markers directly on SR 365 . There is only one location marker on the route , at the beginning of the road . All of SR 365 is paved in asphalt concrete .
SR 365 begins at a T @-@ intersection with the concurrency of SR 235 and SR 366 about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Lakeview . The highway travels amidst a neighborhood of cottages as it heads east , with side streets radiating from it . After several jaunts , SR 365 proceeds south . The highway then arrives at its endpoint at a parking lot for a boat launch serving Indian Lake State Park on the west side of Indian Lake . A small driveway at SR 365 's terminus leads back to SR 235 / 366 . Due to the lack of reassurance markers on SR 365 , there are no markers marking the end of the route .
= = History = =
The spur route was designated in 1934 along the short path that it currently runs ; no significant changes have taken place to SR 365 since its inception .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Stokes Township , Logan County .
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= William D. Boyce =
William Dickson " W. D. " Boyce ( June 16 , 1858 – June 11 , 1929 ) was an American newspaper man , entrepreneur , magazine publisher , and explorer . He was the founder of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) and the short @-@ lived Lone Scouts of America ( LSA ) . Born in Allegheny County , Pennsylvania , he acquired a love for the outdoors early in his life . After working as a schoolteacher and a coal miner , Boyce attended Wooster Academy in Ohio before moving to the Midwest and Canada . An astute businessman , Boyce successfully established several newspapers , such as The Commercial in Winnipeg , Manitoba and the Lisbon Clipper in Lisbon , North Dakota . With his first wife , Mary Jane Beacom , he moved to Chicago to pursue his entrepreneurial ambitions . There he established the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company and the weekly Saturday Blade , which catered to a rural audience and was distributed by thousands of newspaper boys . With his novel employment of newsboys to boost newspaper sales , Boyce 's namesake publishing company maintained a circulation of 500 @,@ 000 copies per week by 1894 . Boyce strongly supported worker rights , as demonstrated by his businesses ' support of labor unions and his concern for his newsboys ' well @-@ being .
By the early years of the 20th century , Boyce had become a multi @-@ millionaire and had taken a step back from his businesses to pursue his interests in civic affairs , devoting more time to traveling and participating in expeditions . In 1909 , he embarked on a two @-@ month trip to Europe and a large photographic expedition to Africa with photographer George R. Lawrence and cartoonist John T. McCutcheon . Over the next two decades , Boyce led expeditions to South America , Europe , and North Africa , where he visited the newly discovered tomb of King Tutankhamun .
Boyce learned about Scouting while passing through London during his first expedition to Africa in 1909 . According to somewhat fictionalized legend , Boyce had become lost in the dense London fog , but was guided back to his destination by a young boy , who told him that he was merely doing his duty as a Boy Scout . Boyce then read printed material on Scouting , and on his return to the United States , he formed the B.S.A. From its start , Boyce focused the Scouting program on teaching self @-@ reliance , citizenship , resourcefulness , patriotism , obedience , cheerfulness , courage , and courtesy in order " to make men " . After clashing over the Scouting program with the first Chief Scout Executive James E. West , he left the B.S.A. and founded the L.S.A. in January 1915 , which catered to rural boys who had limited opportunities to form a troop or a patrol . In June 1924 , five years before Boyce 's death , a merger was completed between the B.S.A. and the struggling L.S.A. Boyce received many awards and memorials for his efforts in the U.S. Scouting movement , including the famed " Silver Buffalo Award " .
= = Personal life = =
Boyce was born on June 16 , 1858 in New Texas , Pennsylvania — now Plum Borough — to a Presbyterian farm couple , David and Margaret Jane Bratton Boyce . The Boyces had three children : William Dickson , Mary , and John . During his rural childhood , Boyce acquired a love for the outdoors . He began teaching school at the age of 16 and then worked briefly as a coal miner . He returned to teaching before joining his sister at Wooster Academy in Ohio , which — according to school records — he attended from 1880 to 1881 . It is uncertain if he graduated or was expelled . He then worked as a teacher , lumberjack , secretary , and salesman in the Midwest and Canada before settling in Chicago , where he quickly became known as a persuasive and shrewd salesman and learned business quickly . His books on business , travel , and expeditions often used the phrase " We pushed on . " On January 1 , 1884 , Boyce married Mary Jane Beacom ( 1865 – 1959 ) , whom he had known since his Pennsylvania childhood . Boyce called her Betsy , but to many her nickname was " Rattlesnake Jane " because she matched his skill in poker , was an expert shot , and rode horses cross saddle . They had one son and two daughters : Benjamin Stevens ( 1884 – 1928 ) , Happy ( 1886 – 1976 ) and Sydney ( 1889 – 1950 ) . Boyce 's personal activities included hunting , yachting , Odd Fellows , Freemasonry , Shriners , golf , country clubs and the Chicago Hussars — an independent equestrian military organization .
In 1903 , Boyce purchased a four @-@ story mansion on 38 acres ( 15 ha ) in Ottawa , Illinois , which became the center of his family and social activities . Thereafter , he showed little interest in Chicago and its social activities ; he would only go there on business . Boyce and Mary led increasingly separate lives and eventually divorced , which was reported on the front page of the Chicago Tribune because of the prominence he had attained by that time . The divorce was finalized in a Campbell County , South Dakota court in September 1908 ; his wife 's property settlement was close to $ 1 million ( USD ) .
After the divorce was finalized , Boyce courted Virginia Dorcas Lee , a vocalist from Oak Park , Illinois , who was 23 years his junior and the eldest child of Virginia and John Adams Lee , a former Lieutenant Governor of Missouri . Both Virginia 's parents and Boyce 's son Ben opposed the relationship . In May 1910 , after the planned marriage was announced , an infuriated Ben scuffled with his father outside the Blackstone Hotel and Boyce sustained a facial wound . Ben was arrested for disorderly conduct and fined $ 5 and court costs . Two days later , Boyce and Virginia married and went to Europe on an extended honeymoon . Almost immediately , there was speculation amongst family members and in newspapers about problems within the marriage . On April 9 , 1911 , Boyce and Virginia had a daughter , whom they named Virginia . A few months later , in December 1911 , Boyce signed an agreement to support and educate their infant daughter . After Boyce 's wife filed for divorce in March 1912 , she moved to Santa Barbara , California , with their daughter and her parents . Boyce did not contest the divorce and arranged for a $ 100 @,@ 000 settlement . Years later , the elder Virginia married Richard Roberts , a New York banker , and moved with her and Boyce 's daughter to Greenwich , Connecticut . The younger Virginia took the surname Roberts . She did not meet her natural father , Boyce , until she was eight years old .
Ben married Miriam Patterson of Omaha , Nebraska , on June 11 , 1912 . Both Boyce and his first wife attended the ceremony . At this time Boyce 's first wife , Mary , exchanged some of her Chicago property for the home in Ottawa , which sparked speculation that she and Boyce might reconcile . The next year they remarried on June 14 , 1913 , in Ottawa . They then departed on a honeymoon to Alaska , Hawaii , the Philippines , Panama , and Cuba , with their daughter Happy , son Ben , and his wife Miriam .
= = Business enterprises = =
As Boyce traveled , he often started a newspaper wherever he went . His first venture into commercial publishing was compiling a city directory . He also worked briefly for a publisher in Columbus , Ohio , and a newspaper publisher in Kensington , Pennsylvania , part of Philadelphia . He then boarded a train for Chicago and worked as a secretary and salesman for " Western " magazine . Restless again , he moved to Saint Paul , Minnesota , and sold advertisements for a publisher for a short time and then spent a month in Fargo , North Dakota , and Grand Forks , North Dakota . Further north in Canada , in Winnipeg , Manitoba , he and local resident James W. Steen co @-@ founded " The Commercial " in 1881 , a newspaper that lasted for 70 years . He sold his share of " The Commercial " to his partner in 1882 and returned to Fargo where he became a reporter . In December 1882 , Boyce moved to Lisbon , North Dakota , where he bought the Dakota Clipper .
Beginning in December 1884 , Boyce managed reporters and news releases at the " Bureau of Correspondence " at the six @-@ month @-@ long World 's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition in New Orleans , Louisiana . Countries from all over the world sent displays . Boyce was responsible for providing news stories on events and displays to over 1 @,@ 200 newspapers around the country . He returned to North Dakota after the Exposition concluded , but by early 1886 he had moved back to Chicago . He often returned in North Dakota for publishing business deals and deer- and duck @-@ hunting vacations .
In Chicago , he founded the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company in 1886 which provided advertisements and articles to over 200 newspapers . In 1887 , he established the weekly " Saturday Blade " , an illustrated newspaper aimed at rural audiences and sold by thousands of newsboys — an innovation at the time . By 1892 , the Saturday Blade had the largest circulation of any weekly newspaper in the United States . Boyce 's detailed reports of his foreign travels provided articles for the " Saturday Blade " and were reprinted in books by atlas / map publisher Rand McNally . The success of the " Saturday Blade " spawned the W. D. Boyce Publishing Company , which Boyce used to buy or start several newspapers and magazines . In 1892 , Boyce bought out the " Chicago Ledger " , a fiction weekly publication . In January 1903 he founded the international " Boyce 's Weekly " , which advocated worker 's rights . Boyce 's prominence as a supporter of labor attracted labor / union leaders such as John Mitchell of the United Mine Workers and Henry Demarest Lloyd as writers and editors for " Boyce 's Weekly " . Eight months later , " Boyce 's Weekly " was consolidated with the " Saturday Blade . " Boyce also established the selected subject / topical newspapers " Farm Business " in 1914 and " Home Folks Magazine " in 1922 . Dwindling sales led to the 1925 merger of the " Blade " and " Ledger " into the monthly " Chicago Blade & Ledger " , which was published until 1937 . As Boyce 's enterprises grew , he insisted on looking after the welfare of about 30 @,@ 000 delivery boys , who were key to his financial success . Working with them may have helped him gain an understanding of America 's youth . Boyce felt that delivering and selling newspapers taught a youth important responsibilities such as being polite , reading human nature , and handling money . Boyce 's focused determination was evident in the advice he gave to young men : " There are many obstacles to overcome , but toil , grit and endurance will help you to overcome them all . Help yourself and others will help you . " and " whatever trade you have selected ; never swerve from that purpose a single moment until it is accomplished " .
In 1891 , Boyce began working on his own 12 @-@ story office building at 30 North Dearborn Street , known as the " Boyce Building " , it was designed by architect Henry Ives Cobb . Even 20 years later , this building was recognized as the most expensive building ( in terms of dollars per cubic foot ) in Chicago . In 1907 , Boyce consolidated his business operations into another office building , also known as the Boyce Building , at 500 – 510 North Dearborn Street . A new four @-@ story office building — designed by the architectural firm of Daniel Burnham — was built on this location in 1912 and expanded during 1913 – 14 with an additional six stories . This building was later listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 29 , 1996 , maintained by the United States Department of the Interior and its National Park Service .
At a time when women had trouble finding work and workers were often oppressed , Boyce felt their rights were important : his businesses employed many women and he supported labor unions . His newspapers often carried stories about the " nobility of labor " . His businesses were able to pay out wages and benefits during the Panic of 1893 , a time when many businesses were laying off workers and cutting wages . During the Pullman Strike of the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894 , which spread to 20 companies in over half the states , Boyce called Eugene V. Debs , the socialist labor national leader of the American Railway Union , a " great labor leader " and industrialist George Pullman , inventor of the railroad passenger and sleeping car , the man " who caused all the trouble " ( then current labor and social / political strife of the 1890s ) . In 1901 when the Boyce Paper Manufacturing Company in Marseilles , Illinois , burned down , he paid the workers immediately and then hired them back as construction workers to rebuild the paper mill so they would not lose income . Yet , he was also protective of his money . In late 1894 , when two of his workers were injured by a fallen smokestack and won $ 2 @,@ 000 each in a court judgment , Boyce appealed the case all the way to the Supreme Court of Illinois , and lost . He was also persistent in getting what he wanted ; in 1902 , he sued the Marseilles Land and Power Company for not supplying enough water power to his mills and won a $ 65 @,@ 300 judgment . By 1903 , the Marseilles Land and Power Company fell into receivership and Boyce bought the company up .
Boyce hired his son , Ben , when he was 20 years old , giving him high @-@ level positions in his water and power businesses in and around Marseilles and Ottawa . However , their relationship was often strained by Boyce 's high expectations and Ben 's carelessness with his funds in activities such as betting on horse races .
During June – August 1906 , the government proposed quadrupling the postage rate for second @-@ class mail , which included newspapers , from one cent to four cents per pound . In response , Boyce proposed buying the Post Office Department for $ 300 million ( USD ) , claiming that he would reduce postal rates by half , eliminate chronic deficits by applying business methods to postal operations , establish a rural postal express , pay rent to the United States Department of the Treasury for postal buildings , and return profits over seven percent . This offer was rejected by the government , but it did halt their planned second @-@ class postage rate increase .
Boyce was a multi @-@ millionaire by the early 1900s and by 1909 became more interested in civic affairs and less in finance . He also began to travel , often as part of hunting expeditions . He leased hunting lodges at Fort Sisseton , South Dakota , where he had hunted as a young man . He often hosted friends and relatives , especially his son , for activities such as hunting , fishing , dinner , poker , and plentiful liquor . These changes may have been in part caused by the destruction of his Ottawa mansion by fire in early 1908 , which was soon rebuilt , followed three months later by the sale of his Marseilles paper mill due to a new law that prevented railroads from negotiating with shippers , and his September 1908 announcement that he and his wife , Mary Jane , were separating .
In 1914 Boyce bought two more newspapers , the " Indianapolis Sun " , which he renamed the " Indianapolis Daily Times " , and the " Inter Ocean Farmer " , which he renamed " The Farming Business " . By 1920 , the majority of Americans lived in cities instead of rural areas . Lone Scout , " Saturday Blade " , and " Chicago Ledger " all focused on rural customers and began to falter . Boyce launched " Home Folks Magazine " in an attempt to regain customers . By June 1925 , sales had slipped so much that he merged the latter two titles into the " Blade and Ledger " , which caused sales to rise again . This encouraged Boyce to start " Movie Romances " , one of the first tabloid magazines about movie star romances .
Boyce 's success in the publishing business lay in his ability to organize the administration of a business and delegate details to subordinates . He eventually amassed a fortune of about $ 20 million USD . Boyce 's life paralleled Theodore Roosevelt 's in many ways : Both men were products of the Progressive Era , internationally prominent , had concern for children , supported Scouting , were adventurers and outdoorsmen , ( modern @-@ day " environmentalists " ) , and were interested in civic reform . Although Boyce admired and sought to surpass Roosevelt , his only foray into politics was the 1896 Republican primary for a United States Representative ( congressman ) in the U.S. House of Representatives — a bitterly fought campaign which he lost to first @-@ term incumbent George E. Foss . In all likelihood , Boyce met Roosevelt at the Union League Club of Chicago , of which the former had become a member in 1891 . His ambivalent attitude towards government was a common one of the general public during the Progressive Era . However , Boyce 's Republican credentials and monetary contributions earned him an invitation to the presidential inauguration and ball of newly elected successor to " T.R. " , the 27th President , William Howard Taft in March 1909 .
= = Expeditions = =
Boyce financed an expedition of the explorer Frederick Schwatka to Alaska in 1896 . Schwatka discovered gold near Nome and Boyce reported this success in his newspapers , which led him to finance other Schwatka expeditions as well as those of other adventurers , including a failed expedition to the Yukon River in 1898 . Boyce soon began to carry out his own expeditions . When the United States entered the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Boyce set sail for Cuban waters aboard the ship Three Friends . The nature of the activities of Boyce and this ship are unknown .
In March 1909 , Boyce embarked on a two @-@ month trip to Europe , which included a visit to his daughters , who were in Rome . On returning to America , Boyce organized a photographic expedition to Africa with the innovative aerial photographer George R. Lawrence . Boyce met with safari organizers and outfitters and provisioned his expedition in London and Naples . His son Benjamin and Lawrence 's son Raymond were part of the expedition . Cartoonist John T. McCutcheon joined the expedition while they were sailing from Naples to Africa . The group disembarked at Mombasa , Kenya , and was in Nairobi by September . After hiring local porters and guides , the entire expedition totaled about 400 people , about three @-@ fourths of whom were servants . It required 15 train cars to move the people and equipment to the area the expedition was going to explore near Kijabi and Lake Victoria . The expedition was a failure because a telephoto lens was neither brought nor subsequently procured , the hot air balloons were not suitable for the conditions on the plains of East Africa , and the cameras were so large and noisy to move into position that the animals were scared away . The members of the expedition had to resort to buying photographs of big game animals from shops in cities such as Nairobi . The expedition did manage to successfully hunt several species of big game animals .
In December 1910 , Boyce led a nine @-@ month , 50 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 80 @,@ 000 km ) expedition to South America that was extensively reported in his newspapers . In late January 1915 , Boyce sailed to England because of his concern over World War I. He received permission from the American Legation in Switzerland to travel into Germany and Austria for six weeks to report on the industrial and commercial effects of the war on those countries . He sent extensive reports to his newspapers and returned home around April – May .
In late 1922 , Boyce departed on another expedition to Africa , this time for six months . Morocco reminded him of the Dakotas , Kansas , Texas , Florida , and Arizona . In Egypt he visited the tomb of Tutankhamun , which had been discovered just a few months earlier . His expedition then went to Luxor and sailed up the Nile River to Edfu , where the houses had no roofs and while he was there it rained and hailed for the first time in decades . Boyce stated that between his two expeditions to Africa , he had shot at least one of every game animal .
= = Scouting = =
As Boyce 's interest in philanthropy grew , he turned to his childhood experiences in the outdoors as a resource , but could not find a way to channel his charitable ideas and dreams until a fateful stop to England while en route to what became the failed photographic expedition to Africa . Events in London on the way to and from this expedition would lead to the founding of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) , one of many civic and professional organizations formed during the Progressive Era to fill the void of citizens who had become distended from their rural roots . Many youth organizations such as the Woodcraft Indians and Sons of Daniel Boone formed in America in the early 1900s focusing on outdoor character @-@ building activities . The writings and adventures of Theodore Roosevelt contributed to these movements , with their outdoor , nature , and pioneer themes . By the time of his 1922 expedition to Africa , Boyce was so well respected in Scouting that French Boy Scouts in Algeria saluted him and offered to escort him along a trail when they found out he was the founder of BSA and LSA in America .
= = = Unknown Scout legend = = =
According to legend , Boyce was lost on a foggy street in London in 1909 when an unknown Scout came to his aid , guiding him back to his destination . The boy then refused Boyce 's tip , explaining that he was merely doing his duty as a Boy Scout . Soon thereafter , Boyce met with Robert Baden @-@ Powell , who was the head of the Boy Scout Association at that time . Boyce returned to America , and , four months later , founded the Boy Scouts of America on February 8 , 1910 . He intended to base the program around American Indian lore . This version of the legend has been printed in numerous BSA handbooks and magazines . There are several variations of it , including ones that claim Boyce knew about Scouting before this encounter and that the Unknown Scout took him to Scout headquarters .
In actuality , Boyce stopped in London en route to a safari in British East Africa . It is true that an unknown Scout helped him and refused a tip . But this Scout only helped him cross a street ; he did not take him to the Scout headquarters and Boyce never met Baden @-@ Powell . Upon Boyce 's request , the unknown Scout did give him the address of the Scout headquarters , where Boyce went and picked up a copy of Scouting For Boys and other printed material on Scouting . He read this while on safari and was so impressed that instead of making his return to America an around @-@ the @-@ world trip via San Francisco , he returned to the Scout headquarters in London . He volunteered to organize Scouting in America and was told that he could use their manual . While Boyce 's original account does not mention fog , a 1928 account says there was fog . Climatologists report no fog on that day in London .
= = = Boy Scouts of America = = =
The Boy Scouts of America was incorporated on February 8 , 1910 , but it struggled from shortages of cash and leadership in the beginning . Boyce personally donated $ 1 @,@ 000 a month to keep the organization running on the condition that boys of all races and creeds be included , which was at odds with his own expressed belief in the superiority of whites . He was not interested in directing the organization , and turned over the running of the organization to Edgar M. Robinson of the YMCA , who proceeded to recruit the permanent executive board of the BSA . The much @-@ needed leadership and management arrived when the Sons of Daniel Boone and Woodcraft Indians merged with the BSA .
Boyce felt that Scouting 's emphasis on outdoor activity was crucial in producing the type of leaders that America needed because youth reared in cities had too much done for them , whereas those from the country had to learn to do things for themselves . Scouting was focused on teaching self @-@ reliance , citizenship , resourcefulness , patriotism , obedience , cheerfulness , courage , and courtesy in order " to make men " .
= = = Lone Scouts of America = = =
Boyce clashed with James E. West , the BSA 's Chief Scout Executive , over a program for boys who lived too far from town to join a troop . Boyce offered to publish a magazine for the BSA , as long as it was published in Chicago . The National Executive Board of the BSA turned this offer down and shortly thereafter Boyce ceased being active in administrative activities of the BSA , though he remained a staunch supporter of the program . As a result of this and his desire to serve boys who had limited opportunities as he himself did when he was young , Boyce started a new Scouting @-@ related venture : the Lone Scouts of America ( LSA ) on January 9 , 1915 . Reliance on Native American themes gave LSA a distinct Native American flavor : Lone Scouts could form small groups known as " tribes " , the tribe 's treasurer was known as the " wampum @-@ bearer " , and LSA taught boys to respect the environment . Boyce 's annual contribution to the LSA grew to $ 100 @,@ 000 . In both the BSA and the LSA , Boyce was a manager and had little direct contact with the Boy Scouts . Upon his return from reporting on World War I , Boyce immediately began expanding the LSA by starting Lone Scout magazine and hiring Frank Allan Morgan , a noted Chicago Scoutmaster , to lead the LSA . By November 1915 , the LSA had over 30 @,@ 000 members . Warren conferred upon Boyce the title Chief Totem . Youths could join the LSA simply by mailing in some coupons and five cents . By 1916 , the BSA and the LSA were in direct competition for members . In the summer of 1917 , during his annual Dakota hunt , the Gros Ventres Indian tribe made Boyce an honorary chief with the name " Big Cloud " during a three @-@ day ceremony . With America at war , Boyce agreed to the creation of a Lone Scout uniform in late 1917 . Though he had a uniform made for himself , he stipulated that no Lone Scout was required to purchase one .
Boyce felt that Lone Scout was the best magazine he had ever done . Lone Scout was so popular that it could not handle all the material that was submitted , so many local and regional Tribe Papers were started . By 1922 , Boyce 's newspaper business was suffering and Lone Scout was losing money — it switched from a weekly to a monthly . Boyce 's racial prejudice was revealed when the racial tensions in Chicago increased in the 1920s . The LSA issued a formal proclamation in late 1920 that it would only accept whites and in 1922 changed the masthead of Lone Scout from " A Real Boys ' Magazine " to " The White Boys Magazine " .
The fortunes of the LSA had begun to decline by 1920 when Boyce hired the first professional editor for Lone Scout , George N. Madison . Madison discovered that the LSA 's membership roster was wildly inaccurate : it was full of duplications and inactive members . The reported 490 @,@ 000 Lone Scouts in 1922 was a vastly inflated number . Boyce finally accepted West 's annual offer to merge with the BSA in April 1924 , with the merger formalized on June 16 , 1924 . Some Lone Scouts did not transfer to the BSA , but the BSA continued Lone Scouting as a separate division for another decade , gradually losing its unique programs . Present day Lone Scouts use the standard Cub Scouting and Boy Scouting programs and activities , but are not part of a pack or troop on a regular basis because of factors such as distance , weather , time , disability or other difficulties .
= = Legacy = =
Benjamin Boyce died in 1928 of a heart embolism . His father did not arrive home until after his son 's death . Boyce was so saddened over his son 's death that his own health suffered . One of Boyce 's last efforts was to publish his son 's letters from his South Seas expeditions : Dear Dad Letters from New Guinea . Boyce died from bronchial pneumonia on June 11 , 1929 , in Chicago and was buried in his adopted hometown of Ottawa , Illinois , on June 13 , 1929 , in the Ottawa Avenue Cemetery , with West delivering the eulogy . Boy Scouts maintained an honor guard with an American flag in a heavy rainstorm in two @-@ hour shifts at his Ottawa home and 32 Boy Scouts were chosen as honorary pallbearers . BSA officials sent his widow a telegram that said the entire American nation owed him a debt of gratitude . A statue that commemorates his contribution to the Boy Scouts of America was placed near his grave on June 21 , 1941 , which West dedicated .
Boyce was recognized with the Silver Buffalo Award in 1926 , the first year it was awarded , for his efforts in starting the BSA . He was the third recipient , after Baden @-@ Powell and the Unknown Scout . During the BSA 's 50th anniversary in 1960 , 15 @,@ 000 Scouts and several of Boyce 's descendants gathered in Ottawa for a Boyce Memorial weekend . Illinois governor William Stratton delivered the key address and Bridge Street was renamed Boyce Memorial Drive . In 1985 , about 2 @,@ 500 Scouts attended a 75th anniversary pilgrimage in Ottawa , attended by his last surviving child , Virginia , and the Union League of Chicago named Boyce its first Hall of Fame member . Boyce had been a member from 1891 until he died . On December 6 , 1997 , a Scouting museum opened in Ottawa . The W. D. Boyce Council of the BSA is named in his honor . A Pennsylvania State Historical Marker located on Boyce Campus of Community College of Allegheny County in Monroeville , Pennsylvania , recognizes his achievements to Scouting . Not far from the marker is a county park , Boyce Park , that was named for him . A medallion of Boyce is near the White House as part of the The Extra Mile – Points of Light Volunteer Pathway . In 2005 , the BSA introduced the William D. Boyce New Unit Organization Award , presented to the organizer of any new Scouting unit .
= = Works = =
Boyce , William D. ( 1883 ) . Lisbon and Her Industries . Lisbon , Dakota : Clipper Steam Printing and Publishing .
Boyce , William D. ( 1894 ) . A Strike . Chicago : Lakeside Press , R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1912 ) . Illustrated South America . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated United States Colonies and Dependencies . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co . , also in four volumes :
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated Alaska and the Panama Canal . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated Hawaiian Islands and Porto Rico . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated Philippine Islands . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1914 ) . Illustrated United States Dependencies . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1922 ) . Illustrated Australia and New Zealand . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
Boyce , William D. ( 1925 ) . Illustrated Africa , North , Tropical , South . Chicago : Rand McNally & Co .
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= Bill Lange =
William Alexander " Bill " Lange ( / ˈlæŋ / ; June 6 , 1871 – July 23 , 1950 ) , also known as " Little Eva " , was an American Major League Baseball center fielder , who played his entire seven @-@ year career for the Chicago Colts and Orphans from 1893 to 1899 . During his time in the Majors , he once led the National League in stolen bases , and was among the seasonal leaders in several other offensive categories including home runs , and batting average .
Lange was noted for having a combination of great speed and power , especially for his size . His 6 @-@ foot @-@ 1 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) , 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) frame was considered large for his era . He is best known for retiring from baseball during the prime of his career to get married , as his future father @-@ in @-@ law forbade his daughter to marry a baseball player . Despite the short @-@ lived marriage , he refused all offers to return as a player .
He became a successful businessman after his retirement from baseball . In addition to his success in real estate and insurance , he became a leading figure in Major League Baseball 's efforts to generate interest in the game worldwide . He was enlisted by the leading baseball figures of the day to assist in establishing leagues in several European countries , that could eventually compete against American teams , while also scouting for undiscovered talent .
= = Early life = =
Born in the Presidio District of San Francisco , California , he ran away from home while still in grammar school to live with his brother in Port Townsend , Washington . It was from there that he moved up to play Minor League Baseball for the Seattle Reds of the Northwestern Baseball League in the early 1890s . When the Northwestern League folded , Lange return the Bay area to play for the Oakland Colonels of the California League . He played one season for the Colonels , then was signed by the Chicago Colts of the National League .
= = Major League career = =
Lange made his Major League debut on April 27 , 1893 for the Colts , and enjoyed a successful inaugural Major League season . He scored 92 times , hit eight home runs , had 88 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , while also finishing seventh in stolen bases with 47 , and batted .281 . This was the only time he batted under .300 during his Major League career . In the field that season , he played at second base , in right field and center field . He did not start playing center field exclusively until the following season . Lange continued his success in 1894 by raising his batting average to .328 and finishing fifth in the league with 65 stolen bases .
Lange achieved his highest league rankings in 1895 . His .389 batting average was fifth in the league and is still the top individual season average in Chicago Cubs 's history . He also finished second in the league in stolen bases with 67 , fifth in home runs with 10 , fifth in on @-@ base percentage with .456 , hit 16 triples , scored 120 runs , and batted in 98 RBIs .
Lange had several notable moments during the 1896 season . On July 4 , he stole five bases in one game against the Louisville Colonels , although it was two stolen bases short of the record of seven set by George Gore and Billy Hamilton . During a game on August 31 , he entered baseball lore with a feat that he never actually performed . The game was scoreless in the bottom of the 10th inning when Lange made a diving catch in center field to keep the game scoreless . Later in the inning , Chicago 's first baseman , George Decker attempted to field a thrown ball from third baseman Barry McCormick , but it bounced off and broke his wrist instead . In an effort to get Decker to the hospital adjacent the ballpark , his teammates knocked down several wooden slats of the outfield fence to expedite his journey . However , the two events were confused and it became legend that Lange had crashed through the fence making that acrobatic catch in tenth . Lange finished the season with a .326 batting average , while also stealing 84 bases , second in the league , and finished eighth in league with 16 triples .
His success continued into the 1897 season , as he batted .340 , scored 119 runs , and led the league in stolen bases for the only time in his career . His production dropped his last two seasons in the Majors as his runs scored fell to 79 in 1898 and 81 in 1899 , although he still kept his batting averages of .319 and .325 respectively .
While he was very popular , his career as a baseball player was not without controversy . He was ejected from a game on at least two occasions , one of which occurred on May 23 , 1897 when he had an on @-@ field fight with Washington Senators second baseman John O 'Brien . On September 16 , 1899 , in a game against the Brooklyn Superbas , umpire Ed Swartwood called the game because of darkness with Brooklyn up by two runs . Lange , and other Chicago player surrounded Swartwood and proceeded to " knock him around " , with Lange notably " tweaking " the umpire 's ear .
= = Retirement = =
Lange finished his career on October 15 , 1899 , having announced a few days earlier his intention to retire after the season . His team played a doubleheader that day , winning 7 – 0 against the St. Louis Perfectos , then losing to the Louisville Colonels later that day in a game shortened by darkness .
He retired from the game at age 28 , during the prime of his career , so he could marry a woman whose father forbade her to marry a baseball player . In the eyes of the 19th century public , baseball players were popular , but were often looked upon as low class . Lange 's future wife was from his hometown of San Francisco , and her family was very well @-@ to @-@ do . Also , with the prospect of entering into the world of real estate and insurance , he could make much more money than he did as a ball player . Though the marriage ended in a divorce a short time later , he would not take any offers to return to Major League Baseball , despite Chicago 's salary offer of $ 3 @,@ 500 that would have made him the highest paid player in the league . Although his career lasted only seven years , he finished as the decade leader among 1890s Chicago players in batting average , on @-@ base percentage , slugging percentage , and stolen bases .
= = Post @-@ career = =
Lange became successful in both real estate and insurance in his hometown of San Francisco after he retired from baseball . Lange is also credited in several sources , as being the person who discovered future Chicago Cubs first baseman , manager , and Hall of Famer , Frank Chance , after having watched him play for the local Fresno , California team during the off @-@ season of 1897 . Lange had recommended Chance to the team owner , Jim Hart , but Hart disputed this claim , saying that Henry Harris had recommended Chance to him while Harris was an owner of a San Francisco team in the fall of 1897 .
In 1907 , the California State League , a minor league , was declared by organized baseball to be an " outlaw " league . Organized baseball accused the league of harboring players from the Majors Leagues who had violated the reserve clause to join a number of their teams . The league had become a rival to the already established Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , who , after being an " outlaw " league themselves , had signed the National Agreement with organized baseball , agreeing that they would not harbor blacklisted or banned players from the Major Leagues . A national commission decided that the best way to deal with this situation was to dissolve this outlaw league . They did this by lifting the blacklist on any player already in the State League , which would create competition among all known leagues , for these players . This commission enlisted Lange , who used his influence with the sports editors in the local area to speed up the process . The attempt worked as the PCL successfully lured the Sacramento , California team into joining their league , with many of the players soon to follow .
Later , John McGraw of the New York Giants enlisted Lange as his chief European baseball scout , hoping to discover any hidden talent in that untapped market . In 1919 , Ban Johnson , the American League president enlisted Lange as his chief organizer of baseball teams in Europe , mainly in England , France , Belgium , and Italy . Johnson 's plan was for Lange to evaluate talent and establish an International Baseball League that could compete against the American League pennant winning team in an effort to generate greater interest in the game . Lange became part of the board of directors at the YMCA , which helped fund the expedition . Additionally , Washington Senators owner Clark Griffith donated $ 40 @,@ 000 worth of equipment to assist in supplying the new league .
Lange died at the age of 79 in his hometown of San Francisco , and is interred at the Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma , California . Two of his nephews played Major League ball as well , Ren , and George " Highpockets " Kelly . George later gained induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973 .
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= New York State Route 141 =
New York State Route 141 ( NY 141 ) is a north – south state highway in Westchester County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 3 @.@ 49 miles ( 5 @.@ 62 km ) from an interchange with NY 9A in the hamlet of Hawthorne to an intersection with NY 117 in the village of Pleasantville . The route has a very short overlap with NY 100 west of Hawthorne and connects to the southbound direction of the Taconic State Parkway by way of a partial interchange in Hawthorne . Most of NY 141 is a two @-@ lane road that serves residential and commercial areas ; however , the southwesternmost 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) is a four @-@ lane divided highway .
NY 141 was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , extending from Hawthorne to Pleasantville as it does today . At one time , the route extended as far south as the hamlet of Eastview 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 02 km ) southwest of Hawthorne .
= = Route description = =
NY 141 begins at a trumpet interchange with NY 9A on the western edge of the hamlet of Hawthorne , located within the town of Mount Pleasant . This junction also serves as the south end of NY 9A 's overlaps with NY 100 . NY 141 initially heads to the northeast as an independent route , following the two ramps not carrying either direction of NY 100 . After just 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) , all four ramps merge into a four @-@ lane divided highway , creating a short overlap between NY 141 and NY 100 . The divided highway ends at Brighton Avenue , the first road that it intersects . NY 100 splits from NY 141 here , following Brighton Avenue southward while NY 141 heads southeastward along the two @-@ lane Broadway , passing through a lightly developed commercial area . After one block , the route intersects Bradhurst Avenue , here a state @-@ maintained street serving as a one @-@ block spur of NY 100 .
Just east of Bradhurst Avenue , NY 141 connects to the Taconic State Parkway by way of a partial interchange . The junction has only two connections ; the first links NY 141 to the southbound parkway , while the second leads from the northbound direction of the parkway to NY 141 via West Cross Street . Continuing eastward , the highway passes under the parkway and enters the commercial center of Hawthorne . Here , NY 141 crosses over the Metro @-@ North Railroad before turning northward onto Elwood Avenue . Over the next 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , NY 141 closely parallels the railroad 's Harlem Line , serving its Hawthorne station as the road heads north . After three blocks , the road and railroad turn to the northeast and begin to run alongside the Saw Mill River Parkway . Elwood Avenue ends shortly after the curve , giving way to Commerce Street .
As Commerce Street , NY 141 continues to head to the northeast , passing by a line of businesses in an otherwise residential area between the hamlets of Hawthorne and Thornwood . The route eventually enters the latter 's central business district , where the Saw Mill Parkway and the Harlem Line turn northwestward toward the center of the nearby village of Pleasantville . NY 141 continues on a northern track , however , becoming known as Broadway again as it heads through mostly residential areas on its way into the eastern portion of Pleasantville . It retains the Broadway name to a junction with Bedford Road , from where the route continues as Bedford Road for two blocks before ending at an intersection with NY 117 . Westbound NY 117 enters from the west on Manville Road , while NY 117 east turns north to follow Bedford Road .
= = History = =
The alignment of NY 141 between Fort Washington Avenue in Hawthorne and the Pleasantville village line was constructed up to state highway standards during the early 20th century . Designated State Highway 1308 ( SH 1308 ) , August 31 , 1915 , the State of New York let a contract to upgrade the 2 @.@ 14 miles ( 3 @.@ 44 km ) alignment with new pavement . The alignment would have 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) of pavement on 29 feet ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) of right @-@ of @-@ way . Construction was completed in 1918 , and the state accepted the alignment into the state highway system on March 15 .
NY 141 was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It originally followed Marble Avenue from Thornwood to Pleasantville ; however , it was realigned in the 1940s to follow Broadway between Thornwood and NY 117 , then routed on Bedford Road , in Pleasantville . In the late 1930s , NY 141 was extended southwestward to Eastview by way of modern NY 9A and the now @-@ dismantled Old Saw Mill River Road . This change was reverted on January 1 , 1949 when most of the highway became part of a realigned NY 9A . On September 1 , 1980 , NY 141 was extended two blocks northward after NY 117 was rerouted to follow Manville Road through Pleasantville .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
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= USS Philippine Sea ( CV @-@ 47 ) =
USS Philippine Sea ( CV / CVA / CVS @-@ 47 , AVT @-@ 11 ) was one of 24 Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers of the United States Navy , and the first ship to be named for the Battle of the Philippine Sea . She was launched on 5 September 1945 , after the end of World War II and sponsored by the wife of the Governor of Kentucky .
During her career , Philippine Sea served first in the Atlantic Ocean and saw several deployments to the Mediterranean Sea as well as a trip to Antarctica as a part of Operation Highjump . Sent to the Korean Peninsula at the outbreak of the Korean War , she sent aircraft in support of United Nations ground troops , first during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter and then during the Inchon Landings and the Second Battle of Seoul . She subsequently supported UN troops during the surprise Chinese attack and the Chosin Reservoir Campaign . Philippine Sea saw three tours to Korea during the war , receiving nine battle stars for her service .
For the remainder of her service , she operated primarily out of San Diego and San Francisco , seeing several deployments to the Far East and being redesignated an anti @-@ submarine warfare carrier . She was decommissioned on 28 December 1958 and sold for scrap in 1970 .
= = Construction = =
Philippine Sea was the last of the 24 Essex @-@ class ships to be completed , among the largest and most numerous capital ships produced for World War II . CV @-@ 47 was ordered simultaneously to Valley Forge and Iwo Jima in June 1943 .
The ship was one of the " long @-@ hull " designs of the class , which had begun production after March 1943 . This " long hull " variant involved lengthening the bow above the waterline into a " clipper " form . The increased rake and flare provided deck space for two quadruple 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) mounts ; these units also had the flight deck slightly shortened forward to provide better arcs of fire . Of the Essex @-@ class ships laid down after 1942 , only Bon Homme Richard followed the original " short hull " design . The later ships have been variously referred to as the " long @-@ bow units " , the " long @-@ hull group " , or the " Ticonderoga class " . However , the U.S. Navy never maintained any institutional distinction between the long @-@ hull and short @-@ hull members of the Essex class , and applied postwar refits and upgrades to both groups equally . The ship was powered by eight 600 psi Babcock & Wilcox boilers , and Westinghouse geared steam turbines that developed 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower that turned four propellers . Like other Essex @-@ class carriers , she had a maximum speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The ship 's cost is estimated at $ 68 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to $ 78 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
Like other " long @-@ hull " Essex @-@ class carriers , Philippine Sea had a displacement of 27 @,@ 100 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 700 long tons ; 29 @,@ 900 short tons ) . She had an overall length of 888 feet ( 271 m ) , a beam of 93 feet ( 28 m ) and a draft of 39 feet ( 12 m ) . The ship was powered by 150 @,@ 000 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) steam turbines with a designed range of 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) . While Essex @-@ class carriers typically had a designed maximum speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) , Philippine Sea only made 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) on sea trials . The ship had a total crew complement of 3 @,@ 310 . Like other Essex @-@ class ships , she was armed with twelve 38 @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) dual purpose guns arrayed in four twin and four single mountings , as well as 8 quadruple Bofors 40 mm guns and a variable number of Oerlikon 20 mm cannon . Unlike her sisters , however , Philippine Sea substituted additional Bofors guns for the Oerlikons with forty @-@ four 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns arrayed in 10 quadruple and two double mounts .
The keel of CV @-@ 47 was laid down 19 August 1944 at the Bethlehem Steel Company in Quincy , Massachusetts . Originally , the ship was to be named USS Wright in honor of the Wright brothers , but following the 19 June 1944 Battle of the Philippine Sea , the Navy decided that the ship be named after the battle , and on 13 February 1945 , she was renamed . Construction on the ship continued throughout the summer of 1945 , but Philippine Sea was not completed at the time of V @-@ E Day . The ship was launched on 5 September 1945 , only days after V @-@ J Day and the end of World War II . She was christened by the wife of Governor of Kentucky Albert " Happy " Chandler .
= = Service history = =
Philippine Sea commissioned on 11 May 1946 , when Rear Admiral Morton Deyo placed the ship under the command of Captain Delbert Strother Cornwell at the Boston Navy Yard in South Boston , Massachusetts . The ship remained drydocked at the yard for two weeks before sailing for Naval Air Station Quonset Point on 13 June . However , a shortage of men following the post @-@ World War II demobilization forced her to remain at reduced operational status until 23 September when she embarked for sea trials .
Returning from trials on 27 September , the carrier embarked Carrier Air Group 20 , which flew two squadrons of Grumman F8F Bearcat fighter aircraft as well as a squadron each of Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers and Grumman TBM @-@ 3E Avenger torpedo bombers , about 90 aircraft total . She left port 30 September and commenced training en route to Norfolk , Virginia . CVG @-@ 20 Commander Robert M. Milner made the first takeoff from the carrier on 1 October aboard a Bearcat . Philippine Sea departed Norfolk Naval Shipyard 12 October for Cuban waters where she conducted an abbreviated shakedown cruise and training exercises for CVG @-@ 20 's Grumman F8F Bearcats and Curtiss SB2C Helldivers until 20 November .
Following these trials , Philippine Sea was assigned to Operation Highjump . She returned to Quonset and disembarked CVG @-@ 20 before sailing for Boston for repairs and alterations . She then headed to Norfolk where Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd boarded her and she took on six Douglas R4D @-@ 5 Skytrain transports , two Stinson OY @-@ 1 Sentinel liaison aircraft , and a Sikorsky HO3S @-@ 1 helicopter along with cargo , spare parts , skis and Task Force 68 personnel . She left Norfolk 29 December and stood out of Hampton Roads 2 January 1947 en route to Antarctica . Philippine Sea passed through the Panama Canal 8 January and cleared Balboa by 10 January . By 12 January the ship had crossed the equator in an elaborate ceremony , but on 22 January its HO3S @-@ 1 was lost due to pilot error , though the crew was recovered . Two days later , it met the remaining ships of Task Force 68 . The ship arrived on station on 29 January , 660 miles ( 1 @,@ 060 km ) from Little America , and launched its R4Ds in the next few days to explore the Arctic . Commander William M. Hawkes and Byrd both disembarked from Philippine Sea aboard the aircraft to begin their expedition . After her aircraft departed , Philippine Sea returned to Quonset , passing through Balboa again on 22 February and arriving back in port on 27 February .
In late March , the carrier embarked Carrier Air Group 9 , which flew two squadrons of Gruman F8F Bearcats and Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters as well as a squadron each of SB2C Helldivers and TBM Avengers , and a detachment of HO3S helicopters for a total of about 100 aircraft . She completed her shakedown cruise at Guantanamo Bay until late May . She continued sea trials in the area until 1 July when she arrived at Gravesend Bay , New Jersey for refit . She was refitted for most of the year at New York Naval Shipyard and Bayonne , New Jersey through 15 November 1947 before conducting trials and training around Quonset and Guantanamo Bay through February 1948 . That month , she became flagship of Carrier Division Four led by Rear Admiral Ralph E. Jennings , who established his command aboard her on 4 February . On 20 February she departed for her first deployment in the Mediterranean Sea as part of Vice Admiral Forrest Sherman 's 6th Fleet . Here she logged 8 @,@ 534 flight hours , including 85 hours of night operations . She returned to Quonset 26 June and for repairs to her catapult machinery . She spent the remainder of the year as a part of the Operational Development Force testing new carrier aircraft doctrine , and her pilots logged 750 hours in 670 carrier controlled approach tests and 314 successful landings . On 22 October she was sent to the North Atlantic to conduct cold @-@ weather landing tests and tested problem landing scenarios along the Arctic Circle until 23 November 1948 .
In January 1949 , Philippine Sea returned to Carrier Division Four under Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark and embarked Carrier Air Group 7 for another tour in the Mediterranean , which had a similar fighter complement . She sailed 4 January with the aircraft carrier Midway and supporting ships . There , she conducted joint exercises with carriers of the British fleet . She returned in late May and began an overhaul at the Boston Naval Shipyard . That fall , the ship returned to the Caribbean to shake down with its new upgrades , this time with Carrier Air Group 1 . For the rest of the year , she continued fleet exercises in the North Atlantic and testing for new jet engine powered fighter aircraft to test their abilities to operate on aircraft carriers .
Operating again from her base at Quonset Point , Philippine Sea spent early 1950 qualifying new carrier pilots . During February and most of March , she took part in more fleet exercises throughout the Atlantic . During April and May 1950 she conducted demonstration cruises for guests of the Secretary of the Navy , the Armed Forces Industrial College , Air War College , and the Armed Forces Staff College . On 24 May 1950 , Philippine Sea sailed from Norfolk through the Panama Canal , arriving at her new home port of San Diego to join the Pacific Fleet . She was replaced in the Atlantic Fleet by Oriskany . She was scheduled to begin a tour in the Far East in October 1950 before she was called to combat duty .
= = = Korean War = = =
With the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 , Philippine Sea was ordered to Naval Base Pearl Harbor . She sailed for Hawaiian waters on 5 July with Carrier Air Group 11 embarked , flying four squadrons of Vought F4U Corsair fighter @-@ bombers . The ship departed for Japan on 24 July . Leaving Pearl Harbor , Philippine Sea sailed at full speed for the Western Pacific , reaching Okinawa on 4 August . During this time , she took command of Carrier Division One . She was the third aircraft carrier to arrive in Korea , as her sister ship Valley Forge as well as HMS Triumph had arrived in July . By the time Philippine Sea arrived in Korea , the UN forces had established superiority in the air and sea .
Philippine Sea arrived in Korean waters on 1 August , and became flagship of Task Force 77 on 5 August . She immediately began launching air strikes against strategic targets , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter began and United Nations and United States Army forces fought a defensive battle against the North Korean Korean People 's Army . Her first strikes were against Iri , Mokpo , and Kunsan . The strikes were at first planned to target North Korean lines of communication but the intensity of the battle at Pusan Perimeter forced the carrier to fly primarily close air support missions for troops on the front lines . They also hit targets of opportunity , such as North Korean boats , bridges and dams spotted during missions . As many as 140 sorties a day were launched from the carrier . Except for brief rests to re @-@ arm , refuel , or repair , Philippine Sea was in action continuously . She was put in a rotation of continuous action with Valley Forge to assure at least one was launching aircraft at all times . Following the beginning of The Great Naktong Offensive on 31 August , the two carriers launched 263 sorties to prevent the North Koreans from overrunning Pusan Perimeter . The ship sent sorties to defend Masan during the Battle of Masan , in spite of being 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the area . The ship steamed to the southern tip of the Peninsula at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) on 1 September to support the Masan area more easily during the North Korean attacks .
With the other carriers of Task Force 77 , Philippine Sea targeted rail and communication centers around North Korean @-@ controlled Seoul to Wonsan in September . The strikes were part of a deception plan to draw North Korean attention away from the UN force massing for an attack on Inchon . Stationed in the Yellow Sea , she sent numerous air attacks on Inchon and Wolmi @-@ do in preparation for Operation Chromite . The day of the operation , 15 September , Philippine Sea dispatched planes far inland to destroy North Korean positions and prevent reinforcements from countering the Inchon landings . Following the initial assault , she continued to provide close air support for the thrust inland to recapture Seoul . During this time , she was joined by Boxer . They were part of a massive invasion force of some 230 ships and hundreds of aircraft .
= = = = F9F @-@ 2 Miracle Landing = = = =
On 17 September 1950 a pair of Grumman F9F @-@ 2 Panthers launched from the deck of Philippine Sea . VF @-@ 112 Ensign Edward D. Jackson Jr. was leading a section dispatched to strafe an airfield near North Korea 's capital , Pyongyang . Flying on his wing was Ensign Dayl E. Crow . The airfield turned out to be little more than a grass strip littered with burned and shattered Soviet @-@ built war machines . After strafing a locomotive and setting it ablaze , the jets turned north and started down the Han River . Soon , Jackson spotted about 75 river boats . When they starting receiving small arms fire from " passengers " on the vessels , Crow followed Jackson down as they made a low strafing pass , splintering many of the small craft with 20 mm cannon fire . After the pass both attackers started to climb from 50 feet ( 15 m ) AGL . Jackson then flew through an aerial booby trap : steel cables strung across the Han to " clothesline " low flying planes . The Panther ripped through the cables like twine , but the whipsawing cable strands caught the starboard wing , shredded the wingtip tank and snapped across the canopy , punching out the windscreen and side windows . The impact knocked Jackson unconscious with severe facial injuries . Crow , flying just astern noticed something wrong , then saw the crushed wing tank and shattered canopy , its inner surface misted with blood . After 20 seconds Jackson regained consciousness and found himself blinded by shards of Plexiglas and blood . Crow was able to guide his leader towards the Yellow Sea , but Jackson was fading in and out of consciousness . With only the left flap down due to damage to the right wing the Panther approached the ship and with the help of LSO Lt.j.g. " Les " Bruestle and Crow the blind pilot trapped the # 4 wire on the first attempt . Jackson survived with 36 stitches and an emergency blood transfusion .
In November 1950 when China surprised the United Nations ground troops with an unexpected counterattack from the Yalu River by the People 's Liberation Army , Philippine Sea planes saw heavy action . The US Navy had sent Valley Forge and several other ships away from Korea , expecting the conflict to end , and so the unprepared forces remaining in the area were heavily engaged . Throughout the long retreat from the Yalu River , the four carriers ' Panthers , Skyraiders and Corsairs provided close air support for the trapped X Corps at Chosin Reservoir . Though the increasingly cold weather proved a problem for Philippine Sea , the ship continued to support the troops as they tried to evacuate from the reservoir and then cleared the path for their retreat to Hungnam . The carriers provided support with hundreds of aircraft sorties as 150 @,@ 000 UN troops and civilians were evacuated , and then destroyed the port . During this support , Valley Forge and Philippine Sea were tightly clustered with Leyte and Princeton and commanders worried that they would be a target for air attack by North Korean MiG @-@ 15 fighters , prompting a large screen of 32 destroyers .
For the rest of 1950 and early 1951 , she launched numerous attacks against Chinese forces around the 38th Parallel hoping to slow their advance as UN troops retreated . With only brief stops for repair and rest , the carrier continued numerous sorties against Chinese targets . On 25 February , command of Task Force 77 was transferred to Valley Forge . During this time , the cold weather hampered operations and blizzards occasionally shut them down completely . Putting into Yokosuka Naval Base , Japan , in late March 1951 for repair and refit , Philippine Sea exchanged Air Group 11 for Carrier Air Group 2 from Valley Forge , a group which consisted mostly of Vought F4U Corsair fighter @-@ bombers . The same date as the transfer on 28 March , Philippine Sea became flagship of Vice Admiral H. M. Martin , the commander of the 7th Fleet .
Returning to the Sea of Japan in April , Philippine Sea led Task Force 77 as well as other ships of the 7th Fleet through the Strait of Formosa to the South China Sea . From the Formosa Strait , planes flew in parades over Formosa as part of a show of support for the newly formed nation of Taiwan , in an effort to boost morale of the nation . She steamed back to Korea three days later , in time to lend close air support to UN forces throughout early 1951 as they faced repeated offensives by the Chinese .
Philippine Sea completed her first deployment to Korea and arrived at San Francisco on 9 June 1951 . It conducted refits , repairs and patrol operations along the West Coast continued for the remainder of the year . On 19 December , she was the site of a test for an emergency nuclear weapon assembly , the first such test involving a nuclear weapon aboard a US Navy ship . The ship departed from San Diego on 31 December 1951 . Arriving at Pearl Harbor on 8 January 1952 , Philippine Sea continued on to Yokosuka for a second deployment to Korea , arriving 20 January 1952 with Carrier Air Group 11 , which flew five squadrons of the F4U Corsair , about 100 aircraft . During this tour , the front lines in Korea had largely stabilized , and instead the ship directed its aircraft against strategic targets , including the 23 June attack on the Sui @-@ ho Dam in conjunction with Boxer , Princeton , and Bon Homme Richard , and sending aircraft against targets in Pyongyang .
Philippine Sea returned to San Diego in August 1952 . Her designation was changed to CVA , denoting an " attack aircraft carrier " in October . With five more Corsair squadrons of Carrier Air Group 9 embarked , she began a third cruise to the Far East early in December 1952 with about 100 aircraft . In this third tour in Korea , Philippine Sea focused primarily on interdiction attacks against rail and communication lines in North Korea , hoping to limit supplies to the front lines . The North Korean offensive , begun at the same time truce talks began at Panmunjom , marked the beginning of a series of " round the clock " air sorties designed to weaken North Korean and Chinese front line troops and support UN troops when under attack . This mission continued until an armistice was signed in the summer of 1953 , resulting in the de jure cessation of open warfare .
= = = Post @-@ Korea = = =
Following the end of her tour in Korea , the ship arrived in Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda , California on 14 August 1953 to offload Air Group 9 , then entered drydock at Hunters Point in San Francisco for overhaul . On 9 January 1954 , Philippine Sea once more began training off the coast of San Diego . She then steamed west on 12 March , for her fourth tour in the Far East . She operated out of U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay near Olongapo , The Philippines . She was part of Carrier Division 3 and operated alongside Hornet around French Indochina .
The most significant event of the tour occurred in late July 1954 . Chinese airplanes had shot down a Douglas DC @-@ 4 passenger aircraft operated by Cathay Pacific Airways near Hainan Island off the Chinese coast . The Chinese military had believed it to be a Taiwanese military airplane . Philippine Sea was ordered into the area as part of a search mission to recover some of the 19 on board . While engaged in the search mission , a flight of the ship 's Douglas AD Skyraiders was attacked by two Chinese fighter aircraft . The Skyraiders returned fire and shot down the airplanes . Later this came to be known unofficially as the " Hainan Incident " .
Following this duty , the ship sailed for Hawaii , where she was used as a prop in the movie Mister Roberts . The ship returned to San Diego in November . Remaining in the area for four months , Philippine Sea conducted several training operations off the California coast . She then began her fifth cruise of the Far East on 1 April 1955 en route to Yokosuka . She operated in waters of Japan , Okinawa , and Taiwan for most of 1955 , with Air Task Group 2 consisting of VF @-@ 123 , VF @-@ 143 and VA @-@ 55 , VF @-@ 123 flying the F9F @-@ 2 Panther jet fighter @-@ bomber , VF @-@ 143 flying the Grumman F9F @-@ 6 Cougar jet fighter , and VA @-@ 55 flying the AD @-@ 6 Skyraider propellor attack bomber . During this time , she made trips to Hong Kong , Keelung and Formosa . On 23 November , she was redesignated as a CVS , or an anti @-@ submarine warfare carrier . Her aircraft complement was replaced with several dozen S2F Tracker anti @-@ submarine aircraft and HSS @-@ 1 Seabat helicopters . She returned to San Diego on 23 November 1955 . Throughout 1956 she saw little activity as crew went on leave and she was docked for upkeep , and only conducted several routine training operations off the coast of southern California . In late 1956 she moved to Hawaii for more training operations .
In March 1957 , she sailed for the western Pacific on a sixth tour to the area with the HSS @-@ 1s and S2Fs of VS @-@ 21 , VS @-@ 23 , and VS @-@ 37 . She was there for two months before returning to San Diego and resuming training missions off the west coast in summer 1957 . In November 1957 , she found some debris of Pan Am Flight 7 , an airline flight that disappeared en route to Hawaii . In January 1958 , she steamed west on her last 7th Fleet deployment . Remaining six months , she returned to San Diego on 15 July and commenced inactivation . She was decommissioned 28 December 1958 and berthed with the United States Reserve Fleet at Long Beach , California . She was redesignated AVT @-@ 11 , an auxiliary aircraft transport and landing training ship , on 15 May 1959 . After 10 years docked at the reserve fleet , she was struck from the Naval Vessel Registry on 1 December 1969 and sold for scrapping on 23 March 1971 to Zidell Explorations Corporation in Portland , Oregon .
Philippine Sea received nine battle stars for Korean War service . During her career , she logged 82 @,@ 000 launches , including 33 @,@ 575 catapult shots , and 82 @,@ 813 landings . In April 1987 , a new USS Philippine Sea ( CG @-@ 58 ) was launched , a Ticonderoga @-@ class guided missile cruiser . An organization was also formed of veterans who had served aboard the ship , the Philippine Sea Association .
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= Battle of Quebec ( 1775 ) =
The Battle of Quebec ( French : Bataille de Québec ) was fought on December 31 , 1775 , between American Continental Army forces and the British defenders of Quebec City early in the American Revolutionary War . The battle was the first major defeat of the war for the Americans , and it came with heavy losses . General Richard Montgomery was killed , Benedict Arnold was wounded , and Daniel Morgan and more than 400 men were taken prisoner . The city 's garrison , a motley assortment of regular troops and militia led by Quebec 's provincial governor , General Guy Carleton , suffered a small number of casualties .
Montgomery 's army had captured Montreal on November 13 , and early in December they joined a force led by Arnold , whose men had made an arduous trek through the wilderness of northern New England . Governor Carleton had escaped from Montreal to Quebec , the Americans ' next objective , and last @-@ minute reinforcements arrived to bolster the city 's limited defenses before the attacking force 's arrival . Concerned that expiring enlistments would reduce his force , Montgomery made the end @-@ of @-@ year attack in a blinding snowstorm to conceal his army 's movements . The plan was for separate forces led by Montgomery and Arnold to converge in the lower city before scaling the walls protecting the upper city . Montgomery 's force turned back after he was killed by cannon fire early in the battle , but Arnold 's force penetrated further into the lower city . Arnold was injured early in the attack , and Morgan led the assault in his place before he became trapped in the lower city and was forced to surrender . Arnold and the Americans maintained an ineffectual blockade of the city until spring , when British reinforcements arrived .
In the battle and the following siege , French @-@ speaking Canadians were active on both sides of the conflict . The American forces received supplies and logistical support from local residents , and the city 's defenders included locally raised militia . When the Americans retreated , they were accompanied by a number of their supporters ; those who remained behind were subjected to a variety of punishments after the British re @-@ established control over the province .
= = Background = =
Shortly after the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775 , a small enterprising force led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured the key fortress at Ticonderoga on May 10 . Arnold followed up the capture with a raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean not far from Montreal , alarming the British leadership there . These actions stimulated both British and rebel leaders to consider the possibility of an invasion of the Province of Quebec by the rebellious forces of the Second Continental Congress , and Quebec 's governor , General Guy Carleton , began mobilizing the provincial defenses . After first rejecting the idea of an attack on Quebec , the Congress authorized the Continental Army 's commander of its Northern Department , Major General Philip Schuyler , to invade the province if he felt it necessary . As part of an American propaganda offensive , letters from Congress and the New York Provincial Assembly were circulated throughout the province , promising liberation from their oppressive government . Benedict Arnold , passed over for command of the expedition , convinced General George Washington to authorize a second expedition through the wilderness of what is now the state of Maine directly to Quebec City , capital of the province .
The Continental Army began moving into Quebec in September 1775 . Its goal , as stated in a proclamation by General Schuyler , was to " drive away , if possible , the troops of Great Britain " that " under the orders of a despotic ministry ... aim to subject their fellow @-@ citizens and brethren to the yoke of a hard slavery . " Brigadier General Richard Montgomery led the force from Ticonderoga and Crown Point up Lake Champlain , successfully besieging Fort St. Jean , and capturing Montreal on November 13 . Arnold led a force of 1 @,@ 100 men from Cambridge , Massachusetts on the expedition through Maine towards Quebec shortly after Montgomery 's departure from Ticonderoga .
One significant expectation of the American advance into Quebec was that the large French Catholic Canadian population of the province and city would rise against British rule . Since the British took control of the province , during the French and Indian War in 1760 , there had been difficulties and disagreements between the local French Catholics and the Protestant English @-@ speaking British military and civilian administrations . However , these tensions had been eased by the passage of the Quebec Act of 1774 , which restored land and many civil rights to the Canadians ( an act which had been condemned by the thirteen rebelling colonies ) . The majority of Quebec 's French inhabitants chose not to play an active role in the American campaign , in large part because , encouraged by their clergy , they had come to accept British rule with its backing of the Catholic Church and preservation of French culture .
= = British preparations = =
= = = Defense of the province = = =
General Carleton had begun preparing the province 's defenses immediately on learning of Arnold 's raid on St. Jean . Although Carleton concentrated most of his modest force at Fort St. Jean , he left small garrisons of British regular army troops at Montreal and Quebec . Carleton followed the American invasion 's progress , occasionally receiving intercepted communications between Montgomery and Arnold . Lieutenant Governor Hector Cramahé , in charge of Quebec 's defenses while Carleton was in Montreal , organized a militia force of several hundred to defend the town in September . He pessimistically thought they were " not much to be depended on " , estimating that only half were reliable . Cramahé also made numerous requests for military reinforcements to the military leadership in Boston , but each of these came to nought . Several troop ships were blown off course and ended up in New York , and Vice Admiral Samuel Graves , the commander of the fleet in Boston , refused to release ships to transport troops from there to Quebec because the approaching winter would close the Saint Lawrence River .
When definitive word reached Quebec on November 3 that Arnold 's march had succeeded and that he was approaching the city , Cramahé began tightening the guard and had all boats removed from the south shore of the Saint Lawrence . Word of Arnold 's approach resulted in further militia enlistments , increasing the ranks to 1 @,@ 200 or more . Two ships arrived on November 3 , followed by a third the next day , carrying militia volunteers from St. John 's Island and Newfoundland that added about 120 men to the defense . A small convoy under the command of the frigate HMS Lizard also arrived that day , from which a number of marines were added to the town 's defenses .
On November 10 , Lieutenant Colonel Allen Maclean , who had been involved in an attempt to lift the siege at St. Jean , arrived with 200 men of his Royal Highland Emigrants . They had intercepted communications from Arnold to Montgomery near Trois @-@ Rivières , and hurried to Quebec to help with its defense . The arrival of this experienced force boosted the morale of the town militia , and Maclean immediately took charge of the defenses .
= = = Carleton arrives at Quebec = = =
In the wake of the fall of Fort St. Jean , Carleton abandoned Montreal and returned to Quebec City by ship , narrowly escaping capture . Upon his arrival on November 19 , he immediately took command . Three days later , he issued a proclamation that any able @-@ bodied man in the town who did not take up arms would be assumed to be a rebel or a spy , and would be treated as such . Men not taking up arms were given four days to leave . As a result , about 500 inhabitants ( including 200 British and 300 Canadians ) joined the defense .
Carleton addressed the weak points of the town 's defensive fortifications : he had two log barricades and palisades erected along the Saint Lawrence shoreline , within the area covered by his cannons ; he assigned his forces to defensive positions along the walls and the inner defenses ; and he made sure his inexperienced militia were under strong leadership .
= = Arnold 's arrival = =
The men Arnold chose for his expedition were volunteers drawn from New England companies serving in the Siege of Boston . They were formed into two battalions for the expedition ; a third battalion was composed of riflemen from Pennsylvania and Virginia under Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Morgan 's command . The trek through the wilderness of Maine was long and difficult . The conditions were wet and cold , and the journey took much longer than either Arnold or Washington had expected . Bad weather and wrecked boats spoiled much of the expedition 's food stores , and about 500 men of the original 1 @,@ 100 turned back or died . Those who turned back , including one of the New England battalions , took many of the remaining provisions with them . The men who continued on were starving by the time they reached the first French settlements in early November . On November 9 , the 600 survivors of Arnold 's march from Boston to Quebec arrived at Point Levis , on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence opposite Quebec City . Despite the condition of his troops , Arnold immediately began to gather boats to make a crossing . He was prepared to do so on the night of November 10 , but a storm delayed him for three days . Once on the other side of the Saint Lawrence , Arnold moved his troops onto the Plains of Abraham , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) from the city walls .
The troops approaching Quebec 's walls were significantly under @-@ equipped . Arnold had no artillery , each of his men carried only five cartridges , more than 100 muskets were unserviceable , and the men 's clothing had been reduced to rags . Despite being outnumbered two to one , Arnold demanded the city 's surrender . Both envoys sent were shot at by British cannons , signifying that the demand had been rebuked . Arnold concluded that he could not take the city by force , so he blockaded the city on its west side . On November 18 , the Americans heard a ( false ) rumour that the British were planning to attack them with 800 men . At a council of war , they decided that the blockade could not be maintained , and Arnold began to move his men 20 miles ( 32 km ) upriver to Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles ( " Aspen Point " ) to wait for Montgomery , who had just taken Montreal . Henry Dearborn , who later became U.S. Secretary of War under President Thomas Jefferson was present at the battle and wrote his famous journal , The Quebec Expedition , which outlined the long and difficult march to the battle and the events that occurred there .
= = Montgomery 's arrival = =
On December 1 , Montgomery arrived at Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles . His force consisted of 300 men from the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd New York regiments , a company of artillery raised by John Lamb , about 200 men recruited by James Livingston for the 1st Canadian Regiment , and another 160 men led by Jacob Brown who were remnants of regiments disbanded due to expiring enlistments . These were supplemented several days later by a few companies detached by Major General David Wooster , whom Montgomery had left in command at Montreal . The artillery Montgomery brought included four cannons and six mortars , and he also brought winter clothing and other supplies for Arnold 's men ; the clothing and supplies were a prize taken when most of the British ships fleeing Montreal were captured . The commanders quickly turned towards Quebec , and put the city under siege on December 6 . Montgomery sent a personal letter to Carleton demanding the city 's surrender , employing a woman as the messenger . Carleton declined the request and burned the letter unread . Montgomery tried again ten days later , with the same result . The besiegers continued to send messages , primarily intended for the populace in the city , describing the situation there as hopeless , and suggesting that conditions would improve if they rose to assist the Americans .
On December 10 , the Americans set up their largest battery of artillery 700 yards ( 640 m ) from the walls . The frozen ground prevented the Americans from entrenching the artillery , so they fashioned a wall out of snow blocks . This battery was used to fire on the city , but the damage it did was of little consequence . Montgomery realized he was in a very difficult position , because the frozen ground prevented the digging of trenches , and his lack of heavy weapons made it impossible to breach the city 's defenses . The enlistments of Arnold 's men were expiring at the end of the year , and no ammunition was on the way from the colonies . Furthermore , it was very likely that British reinforcements would arrive in the spring , meaning he would either have to act or withdraw . Montgomery believed his only chance to take the city was during a snowstorm at night , when his men could scale the walls undetected .
While Montgomery planned the attack on the city , Christophe Pélissier , a Frenchman living near Trois @-@ Rivières , came to see him . Pélissier was a political supporter of the American cause who operated the St. Maurice Ironworks . He and Montgomery discussed the idea of holding a provincial convention to elect representatives to Congress . Pélissier recommended against this until after Quebec City had been taken , as the habitants would not feel free to act in that way until their security was better assured . The two agreed that Pélissier 's ironworks would provide munitions ( ammunition , cannonballs , and the like ) for the siege . This Pélissier did until the Americans retreated in May 1776 , at which time he also fled , eventually returning to France .
A snowstorm arrived on the night of December 27 , prompting Montgomery to prepare the troops for the attack . However , the storm subsided , and Montgomery called off the assault . That night , a sergeant from Rhode Island deserted , carrying the plan of attack to the British . Montgomery consequently drafted a new plan ; this one called for two feints against Quebec 's western walls , to be led by Jacob Brown and James Livingston , while two attacks would be mounted against the lower town . Arnold would lead one attack to smash through the defenses at the north end of the lower town , and Montgomery would follow along the Saint Lawrence south of the town . The two forces would meet in the lower town and then launch a combined assault on the upper town by scaling its walls . The new plan was revealed only to the senior officers .
= = Battle = =
= = = Montgomery 's attack = = =
A storm broke out on December 30 , and Montgomery once again gave orders for the attack . Brown and Livingston led their militia companies to their assigned positions that night : Brown by the Cape Diamond bastion , and Livingston outside St. John 's Gate . When Brown reached his position between 4 am and 5 am , he fired flares to signal the other forces , and his men and Livingston 's began to fire on their respective targets . Montgomery and Arnold , seeing the flares , set off for the lower town .
Montgomery led his men down the steep , snow @-@ heaped path towards the outer defenses . The storm had turned into a blizzard , making the advance a struggle . Montgomery 's men eventually arrived at the palisade of the outer defenses , where an advance party of carpenters sawed their way though the wall . Montgomery himself helped saw through the second palisade , and led 50 men down a street towards a two @-@ story building . The building formed part of the city 's defenses , and was in fact a blockhouse occupied by 15 Quebec militia armed with muskets and cannons . The defenders opened fire at close range , and Montgomery was killed instantly , shot through the head by a burst of grapeshot . The few men of the advance party who survived fled back towards the palisade ; only Aaron Burr and a few others escaped unhurt . Many of Montgomery 's officers were injured in the attack ; one of the few remaining uninjured officers led the survivors back to the Plains of Abraham , leaving Montgomery 's body behind .
= = = Arnold 's attack = = =
While Montgomery was making his advance , Arnold advanced with his main body towards the barricades of the Sault @-@ au @-@ Matelot at the northern end of the lower town . They passed the outer gates and some British gun batteries undetected . However , as the advance party moved around the Palace Gate , heavy fire broke out from the city walls above them . The height of the walls made it impossible to return the defenders ' fire , therefore Arnold ordered his men to run forward . They advanced down a narrow street , where they once again came under fire as they approached a barricade . Arnold received a shot in the ankle as he was organizing his men in an attempt to take the barricade and was carried to the rear , after transferring command of his detachment to Daniel Morgan . Under Morgan 's command , they captured the barricade , but had difficulty advancing further because of the narrow twisting streets and damp gunpowder , which prevented their muskets from firing . Morgan and his men holed up in some buildings to dry out their powder and rearm , but they eventually came under increasing fire ; Carleton had realized the attacks on the northern gates were feints and began concentrating his forces in the lower town . A British force of 500 sallied from the Palace Gate and reoccupied the first barricade , trapping Morgan and his men in the city . With no avenue of retreat and under heavy fire , Morgan and his men surrendered . The battle was over by 10 am .
This was the first defeat suffered by the Continental Army . Carleton reported 30 Americans killed and 431 taken prisoner , including about two @-@ thirds of Arnold 's force . He also wrote that " many perished on the River " attempting to get away . Allan Maclean reported that 20 bodies were recovered in the spring thaw the following May . Arnold reported about 400 missing or captured , and his official report to Congress claimed 60 killed and 300 captured . British casualties were comparatively light . Carleton 's initial report to General William Howe mentioned only five killed or wounded , but other witness reports ranged as high as 50 . Carleton 's official report listed five killed and 14 wounded .
General Montgomery 's body was recovered by the British on New Year 's Day 1776 and was given a simple military funeral on January 4 , paid for by Lieutenant Governor Cramahé . The body was returned to New York in 1818 .
= = Siege = =
Arnold refused to retreat ; despite being outnumbered three to one , the sub @-@ freezing temperature of the winter and the mass departure of his men after their enlistments expired , he laid siege to Quebec . The siege had relatively little effect on the city , which Carleton claimed had enough supplies stockpiled to last until May . Immediately after the battle , Arnold sent Moses Hazen and Edward Antill to Montreal , where they informed General Wooster of the defeat . They then travelled on to Philadelphia to report the defeat to Congress and request support . ( Both Hazen and Antill , English @-@ speakers originally from the Thirteen Colonies who had settled in Quebec , went on to serve in the Continental Army for the rest of the war . ) In response to their report , Congress ordered reinforcements to be raised and sent north . During the winter months , small companies of men from hastily recruited regiments in New Hampshire , Massachusetts , and Connecticut made their way north to supplement the Continental garrisons at Quebec and Montreal . The presence of disease in the camp outside Quebec , especially smallpox , took a significant toll on the besiegers , as did a general lack of provisions . Smallpox ravaged Montgomery and Arnold 's forces largely due to exposure to infected civilians released from Quebec . Governor Carleton condoned this practice , realizing it would severely weaken the American siege effort . In early April , Arnold was replaced by General Wooster , who was himself replaced in late April by General John Thomas .
Governor Carleton , despite appearing to have a significant advantage in manpower , chose not to attack the American camp , and remained within Quebec 's walls . Montgomery , in analysing the situation before the battle , had observed that Carleton served under James Wolfe during the 1759 Siege of Quebec , and knew that the French General Louis @-@ Joseph de Montcalm had paid a heavy price for leaving the city 's defenses , ultimately losing the city and his life in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . British General James Murray had also lost a battle outside the city in 1760 ; Montgomery judged that Carleton was unlikely to repeat their mistakes . On March 14 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Chasseur , a miller from the southern shore of the Saint Lawrence , reached Quebec City and informed Carleton there were 200 men on the south side of the river ready to act against the Americans . These men and more were mobilized to make an attack on an American gun battery at Point Levis , but an advance guard of this Loyalist militia was defeated in the March 1776 Battle of Saint @-@ Pierre by a detachment of pro @-@ American local militia .
When General Thomas arrived , the conditions in the camp led him to conclude that the siege was impossible to maintain , and he began preparing to retreat . The arrival on May 6 of a small British fleet carrying 200 regulars ( the vanguard of a much larger invasion force ) , accelerated the American preparations to depart . The retreat was turned into a near rout when Carleton marched these fresh forces , along with most of his existing garrison , out of the city to face the disorganized Americans . The American forces , ravaged by smallpox ( which claimed General Thomas during the retreat ) , eventually retreated all the way back to Fort Ticonderoga . Carleton then launched a counteroffensive to regain the forts on Lake Champlain . Although he defeated the American fleet in the Battle of Valcour Island and regained control of the lake , the rear guard defense managed by Benedict Arnold prevented further action to capture Ticonderoga or Crown Point in 1776 .
= = Aftermath = =
On May 22 , even before the Americans had been completely driven from the province , Carleton ordered a survey to identify the Canadians who had helped the American expedition in and around Quebec City . François Baby , Gabriel @-@ Elzéar Taschereau , and Jenkin Williams travelled the province and counted the Canadians who actively provided such help ; they determined that 757 had done so . Carleton was somewhat lenient with minor offenders , and even freed a number of more serious offenders on the promise of good behavior ; however , once the Americans had been driven from the province , measures against supporters of the American cause became harsher , with forced labor to repair American destruction of infrastructure during the army 's retreat being a frequent punishment . These measures had the effect of minimizing the public expression of support for the Americans for the rest of the war .
Between May 6 and June 1 , 1776 , nearly 40 British ships arrived at Quebec City . They carried more than 9 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of General John Burgoyne , including about 4 @,@ 000 German soldiers ; so @-@ called Hessians from Brunswick and Hanau under the command of Baron Friedrich Adolf Riedesel . These forces , some of which having participated in Carleton 's counteroffensive , spent the winter of 1776 – 77 in the province , putting a significant strain on the population , which numbered only about 80 @,@ 000 . Many of these troops were deployed in 1777 for Burgoyne 's campaign for the Hudson Valley .
Three current United States Army National Guard units ( Company A of the 69th Infantry Regiment , the 181st Infantry Regiment , and the 182nd Infantry ) trace their lineage to American units that participated in the Battle of Quebec .
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= Carpenter House ( Norwich , Connecticut ) =
The Carpenter House , also known as the Gardiner ( Gardner ) Carpenter House and the Red House , is a Georgian style house in Norwichtown area of Norwich , Connecticut . A house was previously on the site , but it was removed by Gardner Carpenter to construct the house in 1793 . The three @-@ story Flemish bond Georgian house 's front facade consists of five bays with a gabled porch over the main entrance and supported by round columns . The gambrel roof and third story addition were added around 1816 by Joseph Huntington . In 1958 , a modern one @-@ story rear wing was added to the back of the house . The interior of the house is a center hall plan with 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high ceilings and has been renovated , but retains much of its original molding , paneling and wrought iron hardware . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and added to the Norwichtown Historic District in 1973 .
= = History = =
Historical records for Gardner Carpenter 's life are sparse in detail , but the Vital records of Norwich , 1659 @-@ 1848 Part II provide some information . Gardner Carpenter married Mary Huntington , daughter of Benjamin Huntington Jr . , on October 29 , 1791 . Carpenter was a local business man who operated his mercantile business in a shop that was shared with his brother , Joseph Carpenter , the silversmith . The Carpenters ' shared shop is historically significant and is known as the Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop . A 1906 paper titled Norwich : early homes and history identified Gardner Carpenter as the builder of the store and noted that Gardner Carpenter was one of the first traders of Norwich . In 1793 , the house which is now known as the Carpenter House was constructed on the property after a previous house on the land was removed . Gardner and Mary Carpenter would have six children together ; their first son , George , was born in 1795 and their first and only daughter , Mary Elizabeth , in 1797 . Another son , Gardner Carpenter , was born in 1802 and was followed by Henry in 1804 , John in 1807 and Charles in 1810 . Gardiner Carpenter served as a pay master in the 17th Connecticut Regiment in the American Revolutionary War and he was the postmaster of Norwich from 1799 to 1814 , shortly before his death in 1815 . His wife , Mary Carpenter , died in 1838 . The house was sold to Joseph Huntington after Carpenter 's death , who would add a third story around 1816 . The house was sold again to Reverend Hiram P. Arms in 1841 .
= = Design = =
The Georgian house is built on the north end of the Norwichtown green and faces East Town Street . The walls of the three @-@ story house are made of brick laid in Flemish bond and painted a cranberry red . The front facade consist of five bays with a gabled porch over the main entrance and supported by round columns . The doorway is not original , but has a transom of six lights on top . The windows of the house are double hung six @-@ over @-@ six sash with the windows on the first floor have flat splayed lintels mimicking the gabled porch . The third story is also the attack and has an oversized gambrel roof that over hangs the two stories , the roof was covered with asphalt shingles at the time of its nomination in 1970 . This addition of the third story was done about 1816 when the house was owned by Joseph Huntington . A modern one @-@ story rear wing is at the back of the house , the last addition dating to 1958 . Four chimneys arise from the roof of the house , with two interior chimneys and a rear chimney on the main house with a smaller fourth chimney on the one @-@ story rear addition . The interior of the house is a typical center hall plan which retains much of its original moldings , paneling and wrought iron hardware . The 1958 addition added a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) by 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) family room .
The interior of the house comprises 3 @,@ 200 square feet ( 300 m2 ) and was renovated sometime after its addition to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . Circa 1980 , the home was purchased by the Chassanoff family and underwent a historical restoration . The Chassanoffs ' restoration included removing the wallpaper , applying historic paint colors and stripping and refinishing the original floor 's wooden planks . The renovations also included using wood shingles to preserve the authenticity of the house . The interior consists of 11 rooms and includes 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high ceilings . Four rooms are on the second floor , including a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) by 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) master bedroom . The house has a total of six known fireplaces with another two likely concealed under plaster . The floors were restored and some planks had to be replaced in the process .
= = Importance = =
The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 6 , 1970 . It was made a part of the Norwichtown Historic District on January 17 , 1973 , but was unaccredited as a separately listed property at the time . On the district nomination the house is spelled alternatively as the " Gardner House " . Luyster writes , " This is a good example of Georgian housing of the colonial period . Its value is increased because of the historical and architectural value of the buildings which surround it since it is located next to the Norwich town green which is the focal point of the historic district in that area . " The home was featured as part of a historic house tour in 1993 's " More Reflections on the Past . " In 2002 , the house was available for purchase and remains a private residence as of 2014 .
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= Deep Space Homer =
" Deep Space Homer " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 24 , 1994 . It was directed by Carlos Baeza and was the only episode of The Simpsons written by David Mirkin , who was also the executive producer at the time . In the episode , NASA is concerned by the decline in public interest in space exploration , and therefore decides to send an ordinary person into space . Homer is selected and chaos ensues when the navigation system on his space shuttle is destroyed . Buzz Aldrin and James Taylor both guest starred as themselves . The critically acclaimed episode became the source of the Overlord meme , and features numerous film parodies , mostly of The Right Stuff and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . A copy of the episode is available for astronauts to watch at the International Space Station .
= = Plot = =
At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , it is time for the ceremony for the " Worker of the Week " award and Homer , the only employee who has never won the award , is confident he will win . However , Mr. Burns gives the award to an ' inanimate carbon rod ' . The dejected Homer , feeling that no one respects him , turns to TV for solace and comes across a live space shuttle launch , which he finds dull . Meanwhile , NASA , frustrated over its drop in the Nielsen ratings , decides to send an " average shmoe " into space as the solution . At that moment , Homer telephones NASA to complain about their " boring space launches " , as well as asking if they know where he can find some Tang , and NASA chiefs realize they have found their man . When they arrive at Moe 's Tavern in search of Homer , who is currently calling Bill Clinton to ask about Tang , he believes he is in trouble for making a prank call to NASA and blames Barney for the incident . The NASA employees ask Barney to be an astronaut , and when Homer realizes what the proposal entails , he steps in and takes credit for the call .
NASA takes both Homer and Barney to Cape Canaveral for training . As only one of them can go into space , they soon find themselves in competition . Under NASA 's alcohol ban , the newly sober Barney quickly develops superior skills and is selected to fly with astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Race Banyon . However , when Barney toasts his victory with non @-@ alcoholic champagne , he inexplicably reverts to his normal alcoholic self and escapes , stealing a jetpack and crashing into a nearby pillow factory . Homer wins by default and is selected for space flight , but after watching an episode of Itchy and Scratchy involving space exploration , he becomes very nervous about going . Just as they prepare to take off in the Corvair space shuttle , Homer runs away . He talks with Marge on the phone , and she says that he ought to take advantage of the opportunity . He agrees , and the launch , which is also a Nielsen ratings smash , proceeds .
Finally in space , Homer reveals he has smuggled potato chips on board . He opens the bag , but is unaware that , due to the effects of weightlessness , they will spread around and clog the instruments . His appetite seems to save the day as he floats after the chips , eating them , but he manages to fly into an experimental ant farm , letting the ants loose in the shuttle . James Taylor comes in over the radio to sing " You 've Got a Friend " , but the disaster continues on board as the ants destroy the navigation system . James Taylor suggests that they blow the bugs out the front hatch , which the astronauts do , but Homer fails to put on his harness and is nearly blown out of the open hatch before grabbing its handle and clinging for life . Buzz pulls him inside , but due to the vacuum 's sheer force , Homer bends the hatch handle , preventing the door from closing and potentially resulting in the shuttle 's destruction on re @-@ entry . When Race declares he will attack Homer in frustration , Homer pulls a rod out of the wall to defend himself , and he inadvertently uses it to seal the door shut . With the problems solved , the shuttle successfully returns to Earth , making a convenient crash @-@ landing through the roof of a press reporters ' convention .
Although Buzz Aldrin declares Homer a hero , the press only have eyes for the inanimate carbon rod he used . The rod is featured on magazine covers with the headline " In Rod We Trust " and is given its own ticker @-@ tape parade . Back at home , Homer is disappointed that he did not get as much respect as he had hoped , but the family still honors him for his achievement .
= = Production = =
" Deep Space Homer " was written by then @-@ executive producer David Mirkin . Mirkin had worked on the idea for the episode for a long time , basing the story on NASA 's Teacher in Space Project scheme to send ordinary civilians into space in order to spark interest amongst the general public . There was some controversy amongst the show 's writing staff during production . Some of the writers felt that having Homer go into space was too large an idea . Matt Groening felt that the idea was so big that it gave the writers " nowhere to go " . Several silly gags were therefore toned down to make the episode feel more realistic , including an idea that everyone at NASA was as stupid as Homer . The writers focused more upon the relationship between Homer and his family and Homer 's attempts to be a hero .
Buzz Aldrin , the second man to walk on the Moon , and musician James Taylor both guest star as themselves in this episode . Some of the writers were concerned about Aldrin 's line , " second comes right after first " , feeling it was insulting to Aldrin . An alternative line was written : " first to take a soil sample " , but Aldrin had no problem with saying the original line . A version of James Taylor 's " Fire and Rain " was recorded specifically for the episode containing some altered lyrics . Taylor 's original recording session was included as an extra on the DVD .
Although the episode was directed by Carlos Baeza , the potato chip sequence was directed by David Silverman . Some computer animation created using an Amiga was used in the sequence in order to make the potato chip rotation as smooth as possible .
= = Cultural references = =
The two blue collar TV shows the people at NASA watch are Home Improvement and Married ... with Children . In the scene where the family arrives at Cape Canaveral , the car is a parody of The Beverly Hillbillies , with Marge sitting in Granny 's position . Homer and Barney 's duel is a reference to the classic Star Trek episode " The Gamesters of Triskelion " , complete with one of Star Trek 's fight themes ( originally from the episode " Amok Time " ) and the NASA administrators betting on the combatants in " quatloos " . Homer running while lying on the floor and trying to read the back of his head is a homage to the Three Stooges , particularly Curly . The TV anchor is a parody of Tom Brokaw , and is voiced by Harry Shearer . A lot of words containing the letter L were intentionally written into the dialogue because the writers " enjoy the way Tom says them " . Astronaut Race Banyon is a parody of Jonny Quest character Race Bannon .
The music at the start of the episode of the Itchy & Scratchy cartoon parodies the theme from the original Star Trek series . Itchy bursts out of Scratchy 's stomach in a parody of the creature from the Alien films . Homer hopes that his crew will not be sent to " that terrible Planet of the Apes " , only to suddenly figure out the film 's ending ; he then unwittingly performs Charlton Heston 's final scene in the film . Much of the episode parodies The Right Stuff , with sequences such as Barney and Homer 's training , Homer 's walk to the shuttle and the shuttle 's re @-@ entry paying homage to the film . Barney sings the first part of the Major @-@ General 's Song from Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Pirates of Penzance while doing flips to show how fit he is , while Homer responds with cartwheels , reciting " There once was a man from Nantucket ... " .
The episode also contains numerous other references to Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 film 2001 : A Space Odyssey : in the space shuttle , Homer floats in zero gravity , eating potato chips ( this echoes the docking scene in 2001 , with the use of the music piece The Blue Danube ) ; Itchy comes out to torture Scratchy in an EVA pod much like those aboard the Discovery craft ; and at the end of the episode , Bart throws a marker into the air - in slow motion , it rotates in mid @-@ air , before a match cut replaces it with a cylindrical satellite ( this parodies a similar transition scene between " The Dawn of Man " and the future sequence in the film , including the use of the famous Richard Strauss piece Also sprach Zarathustra ) .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Deep Space Homer " finished 32nd in ratings for the week of February 21 – 27 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Living Single .
NASA loved the episode , and astronaut Edward Lu asked for a copy of it to be sent on a supply ship to the International Space Station . The DVD remains there for astronauts to view . " Deep Space Homer " is MSNBC 's fourth favorite episode , citing Homer 's realization that Planet of the Apes is set on Earth as " pure genius " . Empire magazine named it a " contender for greatest ever episode " , and listed it as the third best movie parody in the show . In his book , Planet Simpson , Chris Turner names the episode as being one of his five favorites , saying it is " second to none " , despite listing " Last Exit to Springfield " as his favorite episode . He described the long sequence that begins with Homer eating potato chips in the space shuttle and ends with Kent Brockman 's dramatic speech as being " simply among the finest comedic moments in the history of television " . The Daily Telegraph also named the episode among their ten favorites .
Both Buzz Aldrin and James Taylor received praise for their guest performances . IGN ranked James Taylor as being the twenty @-@ first best guest appearance in the show 's history . The Phoenix.com published their own list of " Top 20 guest stars " and Taylor placed eighteenth . Among The Simpsons staff , the episode is a favorite of David Silverman . On the other hand , it also contains one of Matt Groening 's least favorite jokes , when Homer 's face changes into Popeye and Richard Nixon while exposed to G @-@ force .
" Deep Space Homer " is the source of the " Overlord meme " , which is lifted from Kent Brockman 's line and is commonly used on Internet forums to express mock submission , usually for the purpose of humor or when a " participant vastly overstates the degree of oppression or social control expected to arise from the topic in question " . The term was used by New Scientist magazine , and was referenced on the February 16 , 2011 episode of Jeopardy ! by Ken Jennings in acknowledgment of the accomplishments of the computer Watson .
In 2014 , 20 years after the production of this episode , NASA did indeed send ants to the International Space Station to conduct behavioral experiments about collective search in microgravity . The results of this experiment were published in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution .
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= Typhoon Rusa =
Typhoon Rusa was the most powerful typhoon to strike South Korea in 43 years . It was the 21st JTWC tropical depression , the 15th named storm , and the 10th typhoon of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season . It developed on August 22 from the monsoon trough in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , well to the southeast of Japan . For several days , Rusa moved to the northwest , eventually intensifying into a powerful typhoon . On August 26 , the storm moved across the Amami Islands of Japan , where Rusa left 20 @,@ 000 people without power and caused two fatalities . Across Japan , the typhoon dropped torrential rainfall peaking at 902 mm ( 35 @.@ 5 in ) in Tokushima Prefecture .
After weakening slightly , Rusa made landfall on Goheung , South Korea with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 minute sustained ) . It was able to maintain much of its intensity due to warm air and instability from a nearby cold front . Rusa weakened while moving through the country , dropping heavy rainfall that peaked at 897 @.@ 5 mm ( 35 @.@ 33 in ) in Gangneung . A 24 @-@ hour total of 880 mm ( 35 in ) in the city broke the record for the highest daily precipitation in the country ; however , the heaviest rainfall was localized . Over 17 @,@ 000 houses were damaged , and large areas of crop fields were flooded . In South Korea , Rusa killed at least 233 people , making it the deadliest typhoon there in over 43 years , and caused $ 4 @.@ 2 billion in damage . The typhoon also dropped heavy rainfall in neighboring North Korea , leaving 26 @,@ 000 people homeless and killing three . Rusa also destroyed large areas of crops in the country already affected by ongoing famine conditions . The typhoon later became extratropical over eastern Russia on September 1 , dissipating three days later .
= = Meteorological history = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on August 22 north of Bikini Atoll and southwest of Wake Island . It moved to the west @-@ northwest , a movement it would maintain for much of its duration . Early on August 23 , it intensified into Tropical Storm Rusa , about 1 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) east of Guam . At 1800 UTC on August 25 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded Rusa to a typhoon while the system was northeast of the Northern Marianas Islands . The next day , the agency estimated that the typhoon attained peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph 10 minute sustained ) . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph 1 minute sustained ) .
While at peak intensity , Rusa struck the Japanese island of Amami Ōshima . After maintaining the peak winds for about 12 hours , Rusa weakened slightly as it continued to the west @-@ northwest , but on August 28 the JMA again reported the typhoon attained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph 10 minute sustained ) . Despite forecasts that it would weaken , Rusa maintained its intensity while passing south of Japan , due to minimal wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures of up to 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) . The typhoon again weakened slightly on August 29 while passing between the Amami Islands and Japan . Thereafter , Rusa turned to the north toward the Korean Peninsula . Warm , moist air blew across the peninsula ahead of the storm , which prevented significant weakening , and an approaching cold front contributed to atmospheric instability . At around 0800 UTC on August 31 , Rusa made landfall on Goheung , South Korea , with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 minute sustained ) . According to the JTWC , Rusa was the most powerful typhoon to hit the country since 1959 . The typhoon rapidly weakened while crossing the country , deteriorating into a tropical depression early on September 1 . Around that time , the JTWC issued its last advisory on the system . The depression turned to the northeast , and after moving through the Sea of Japan , Rusa became extratropical over Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East late on September 1 . The extratropical remnants continued northeast and dissipated on September 4 over the Kamchatka Peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although damage was heaviest in South Korea , Typhoon Rusa first affected Japan . The threat from the storm prompted the Okinawa government to cancel a disaster drill for the island . On the island , high seas from Rusa left two United States marines missing ; a later news report included the two missing as storm @-@ related fatalities . In the Anami Islands , Rusa destroyed six houses , forcing 38 people to evacuate . The storm left 20 @,@ 000 people without power and cancelled several flights . Winds reached 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) in Nomozaki , Nagasaki . Rains fell for seven days in the country , peaking at 902 mm ( 35 @.@ 5 in ) in Tokushima Prefecture . The heaviest of the precipitation fell in Nara Prefecture , where a station reported 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in one hour . At least 275 houses were flooded , and 137 houses were damaged . During its passage , Rusa injured 12 people , 4 seriously . The typhoon also produced light rain and high seas along the coast of Taiwan .
Before Rusa affected South Korea , the Korea Meteorological Administration ( KMA ) issued high sea warnings on August 29 . Airports were closed in the southern portion of the country , and dams let out water to prevent excessive flooding . Typhoon Rusa affected much of South Korea with heavy rainfall and high winds . Jeju Island off the country 's southern coast reported 660 mm ( 26 in ) of rainfall , producing flash flooding that flooded cars . On the island , high winds downed trees and left 60 @,@ 000 people without power . All lower and middle schools on the island were closed , and residents were stranded after officials halted ferry and airline service . On the South Korean mainland , winds reached as high as 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . High amounts of rainfall were reported on Jeju Province and along the country 's southern coast , although the heaviest rainfall was only reported in a small region . In Gangneung , located in the eastern portion of the country , severe thunderstorms developed due to high instability resulting from humid air from the east interacting with the Taebaek Mountains , producing high amounts of precipitation . The city reported the highest rainfall total in the country with 897 @.@ 5 mm ( 35 @.@ 33 in ) , of which 880 mm ( 35 in ) was observed in one day . The total represented 62 % of Gangneung 's average yearly rainfall , and became the highest daily rainfall in the country 's history , exceeding the previous record set in 1981 by 300 mm ( 12 in ) . In the South Korea interior , rainfall rates were considered a 1 in 200 year event .
Damage in South Korea was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 2 billion ( ₩ 5 @.@ 15 trillion KRW ) . Damage was heaviest in Gangneung , where about 36 @,@ 000 homes and 622 military buildings were flooded . At the airbase in Gangneung , floods submerged 16 jet fighters . Along the coast , high winds damaged 640 boats and about 200 @,@ 000 marine buildings , and 265 industrial buildings were also damaged . The heavy rainfall left mudslides in the country , one of which covered ten cars in Gangneung . Flooding and the landslides disrupted the country 's infrastructure ; the storm destroyed 274 bridges and damaged roads and rails at 164 locations . Rusa killed 300 @,@ 000 livestock and flooded 85 @,@ 000 hectares ( 210 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , representing 6 % of the country 's agricultural lands , mostly affecting fruit and vegetables . The storm caused the Vana H Cup KBC Augusta golf tournament to end early , and a stadium to be used for the 2002 Asian Games was damaged . Across the country , 88 @,@ 625 people were forced to evacuate due to the typhoon , and 17 @,@ 046 houses were damaged . High winds left 1 @.@ 25 million people after blowing down 24 @,@ 000 power lines . There were 213 deaths in the country , and another 33 were missing and presumed dead ; This made Rusa the deadliest typhoon in the country in more than 43 years .
In neighboring North Korea , Rusa produced winds of 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) and heavy rainfall reaching 700 mm ( 28 in ) in mountainous areas of Kangwon Province ; rainfall totaled 530 mm ( 21 in ) in the county of Kosong . The rains caused flash flooding and increased surface runoff . This occurred about a month after similarly heavy rains caused severe damage in the country . The rains from Rusa damaged and flooded thousands of houses and many public buildings , and destroyed 86 @,@ 000 tonnes of crop fields ; the latter was most significant due to the country 's ongoing famine conditions . Damage was heaviest in Kangwon Province , and the typhoon affected four provinces and one administrative city . More than 26 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the country , although advance warning allowed for evacuations . Rusa disrupted transportation by destroying 25 km ( 16 mi ) of roads and 24 bridges ; however , most of the damage was isolated to a small region . There were three deaths in North Korea .
The typhoon also affected the Russian Far East . On Sakhalin island , Rusa 's remnants dropped heavy rainfall , the equivalence of two months average precipitation . The rains flooded 350 houses , but there were no deaths in the region .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , damaged buildings polluted rivers in South Korea with chemicals and heavy metals . The country utilized 30 @,@ 000 soldiers to assist in cleaning up and repairing storm damage . President Kim Dae @-@ jung authorized emergency funding for disaster aid . Much of Gangneung lost power and water ; as a result , relief supplies were sent to the affected citizens . By ten days after Rusa struck the country , power lines were restored and transportation returned to normal . After an appeal to other residents in the country , the South Korea Red Cross chapter received $ 49 million in donations ( ₩ 58 billion won ) , mostly from the country 's northwest portion . The agency provided 50 @,@ 680 meals to 16 @,@ 919 families , as well as clothing and cooking supplies . Residents in the country raised about $ 60 million ( ₩ 72 @.@ 1 billion won ) in disaster relief , the highest such total for a disaster in the nation . The Chinese Red Cross sent $ 20 @,@ 000 to the South Korean Red Cross in the weeks after the storm . On September 13 , the South Korean government declared 203 cities and counties as disaster zones , which entitled 8 @,@ 714 families who sustained storm damage to receive government loans . The combined storm damage and floods preceding the storm caused the nation 's economy to contract during the third quarter of 2002 . The 2003 fiscal year reported a $ 300 million deficit for non @-@ life insurance companies , mostly due to losses from the typhoon . Crop damage from Rusa caused the price of rice to increase to their highest levels since 1980 . In the year after the storm , the South Korean government worked to reconstruct damaged roads and provided monthly assistance payments to families who lost their homes . However , many residents remained homeless and were residing in temporary shelters . The country 's Habitat for Humanity built 69 houses for storm victims in 2003 , although that was only for a small portion of the overall number of people affected . About a year after Rusa hit , Typhoon Maemi also struck South Korea with stronger winds , causing $ 3 @.@ 74 billion in damage and 117 deaths . The damage total was less than from Rusa but was more significant to industrial areas .
In North Korea , the Red Cross provided relief supplies to residents affected by flooding . The agency 's international disaster relief fund provided FR75,000 ( 2002 CHF ( $ 50 @,@ 000 USD ) .. Soldiers were used to assist in search and rescue missions and to repair damaged infrastructure . Due to storm damage , the Red Cross in North Korea distributed over 2 @.@ 1 million water purification tablets and over 11 @,@ 000 water containers . The agency also provided 32 @,@ 753 blankets and 4 @,@ 931 kitchen units . After the storm , people left homeless by the storm sought shelter with neighbors or in shelters . A South Korean dairy company donated 42 @,@ 000 cans of baby formula to North Korea .
The name Rusa was retired after its usage in 2002 , and was replaced with Nuri in 2004 .
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= Francis Bok =
Francis Piol Bol Bok ( born February 1979 ) , a Dinka tribesman and native of South Sudan , was a slave for ten years but is now an abolitionist and author living in the United States . On May 15 , 1986 , he was captured and enslaved at the age of seven during an Arab militia raid on the village of Nyamlel in South Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil War . Bok lived in bondage for ten years before escaping imprisonment in Kurdufan , Sudan , followed by a journey to the United States by way of Cairo , Egypt .
Bok was aided by people of diverse cultures and faiths in his journey to freedom . His earliest steps towards the United States were helped by a Northern Sudanese Muslim family that believed that slavery was wrong and provided him a bus ticket to Khartoum . Upon arriving in Khartoum , Bok was aided by a fellow Dinka tribesman and members of the Fur people , and his trip to the United States was paid for by members of the Lutheran church . His first point of contact in the United States was a refugee from Somalia who helped him get settled in Fargo , North Dakota .
Bok has testified before the United States Senate and met with George W. Bush , Madeleine Albright and Condoleezza Rice , telling them his story of slavery . He has been honored by the United States Olympic Committee , the Boston Celtics and colleges and universities throughout the United States and Canada . Francis now lives in the U.S. state of Kansas , where he works for the American Anti @-@ Slavery Group ( AASG ) and Sudan Sunrise , an organization that works for peace in Sudan . Bok 's autobiography , Escape from Slavery : The True Story of My Ten Years in Captivity and My Journey to Freedom in America , published by St. Martin 's Press , chronicles his life , from his early youth , his years in captivity , to his work in the United States as an abolitionist .
= = Childhood and abduction = =
Francis Bok was raised in a large Catholic family of cattle herders in the Dinka village of Gurion in Southern Sudan . His father , Bol Buk Dol , managed several herds of cattle , sheep and goats . When Bok was captured at the age of 7 on May 15 , 1986 , he could not count beyond 10 and knew very little of the outside world .
Bok was captured after his mother , Adut Al Akok , had sent him to the village of Nyamlell to sell eggs and peanuts in the village market with some older siblings and neighbors . This was Bok 's first trip to the village without his mother , and it was the first time he was allowed to sell some of the family 's goods at the market .
Bok went to the market , where he heard adults say that they had seen smoke coming from nearby villages and had heard gunfire in the distance . People began fleeing the market as Francis saw horsemen with machine guns . The gunmen surrounded the market and shot the men in Nyamlell . The raiders were part of an Islamic militia from the northern part of Sudan that conducted periodic raids on the villages of their Dinka neighbors , who were Christians or animists of Sub @-@ Saharan African descent .
= = Life as a slave = =
Seven @-@ year @-@ old Bok was captured by Giemma , a member of the slave hunting militia , who forced him to join a caravan of slaves , stolen produce , livestock and wares that the militia had captured in their raid of the Dinka settlement . When the members of the militia split up to return to their homes , Bok was taken by Giemma . Upon arriving at Giemma 's residence , Francis was beaten by his captor 's children with sticks and was called abeed . The word literally means " slave " and the stereotype is that of an inferior , demeaned , Negroid race . Francis was given quarters in a hovel near the pens of Giemma 's livestock .
Bok began a ten @-@ year period of slavery at the hands of Giemma and his son Hamid . He was forced to tend the family 's herds of livestock . He had to take them to pastures in the area and to local watering holes , where he saw other Dinka boys who were also forced to tend herds of livestock . He began to suspect that his life was going to change forever and that his father was not going to be able to save him . His attempts to speak to the other Dinka boys were futile , as they were speaking Arabic , which he could not understand ; they also seemed afraid to speak to him .
According to Bok , as he grew older , Giemma and Hamid began to place more trust in his abilities as a herdsman . Care of the cattle , horses and camels was passed to Bok and he was able to spend more time alone with the animals . Previously he had been under the careful supervision of Hamid and sometimes Giemma . In addition to having him serve as his slave , Giemma forced Francis to convert to Islam and to take the Arabic name of Abdul Rahman , meaning " servant of the compassionate one . " In his autobiography , Francis states that although he was forced to convert to Islam , that he never stopped praying to God for strength to get him through his ordeal .
Bok tried twice to flee from slavery at the age of 14 . The first instance happened early one morning after he had been sent out with the cattle . Bok blindly ran down a road for several miles before he was captured by one of Giemma 's fellow militia members . Giemma 's peer returned Francis to the Giemma 's compound , where he was beaten with a bullwhip . Bok attempted to escape once again just two days later , when he fled in the opposite direction of his previous escape . He once again fled for several miles , this time keeping to the forest . He stopped for water at a local stream crossing , where he was spotted by Giemma who happened to be there as well . Giemma forced Francis back to his home , this time promising to kill him . Francis was beaten again , but Giemma chose not to kill him , as Francis had become too valuable to the family as a slave .
= = Escape = =
Francis Bok waited three years , until 1996 , before he tried to escape again . During the intervening three years he tended to the herds and regained Giemma 's trust . Giemma regularly praised Bok 's work with the animals yet still forced him to live a life of slavery .
Bok finally escaped from Giemma when he was 17 years old by walking through the forest to the nearby market town of Mutari . Bok went to the local police department to seek help , and asked the police to help him find his people . Instead of helping him , the police made him their slave for two months . Bok escaped from the police by simply taking their donkeys to the well , tying them , and leaving them behind as he walked into the crowded marketplace .
Bok asked a man with a truck to give him a ride out of Mutari . The man , a Muslim named Abdah , agreed to help him . Abdah thought that slavery was wrong and agreed to transport Bok to the town of Ed @-@ Da 'Ein in the back of his truck amongst his cargo of grain and onions . Bok stayed with Abdah , his wife and two sons for two months while Abdah tried to find a way to take Bok to Khartoum , the capital city of Sudan . When he could not find a friend to provide passage to Khartoum , Abdah bought a bus ticket to Khartoum for Bok . Francis Bok arrived in Khartoum with no money , no place to go , and did not know where to turn . Fortunately for Francis , another stranger helped him find his way to his fellow Dinka tribespeople in Khartoum in the Jabarona settlement .
= = Journey to the United States = =
Jabarona was filled with Dinka refugees who had fled the fighting in the south of Sudan and were forced to live together in sub @-@ standard conditions . Bok settled among people who were from the Aweil area of North Bahr al Ghazal and began using his Christian name of Francis once again . Bok was quickly arrested by the Sudanese police for telling his friends and neighbors that he was a slave . Slavery in Sudan is a subject that was largely denied by the government in Khartoum and anybody that spoke of it could be arrested or even killed . Francis was interrogated numerous times while he was imprisoned and each time he denied that he was a slave . He was finally released from prison after seven months . Once he was released Bok decided that he must leave Sudan . Through the help of some Dinka tribesman he was able to acquire a Sudanese passport on the black market and obtain a ticket for passage to Cairo .
Upon arriving in Cairo in April 1999 , Bok was directed to Sacred Heart Catholic Church . This church was well known among the Dinka in Khartoum as a place of refuge in Cairo . While staying at Sacred Heart , Bok began to learn some English and made important contacts among the Dinka population of Cairo . He also began practicing his Christian faith without fear of reprisal . He eventually moved out of the church compound and into an apartment with other Dinka who were also seeking UN refugee status in order to leave Africa for the United States , Great Britain or Australia .
Bok applied for and received UN refugee status on September 15 , 1999 , and after several months of waiting , the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service agreed to allow Francis to move to the U.S. Bok flew from Cairo to New York City on August 13 , 1999 , and from there he flew to Fargo , North Dakota . His journey was sponsored by Lutheran Social Services and a United Methodist Church , both worked together to provide an apartment for Francis in Fargo and helped him find a job . Bok worked several jobs , making pallets and plastic knobs for the gearshift of cars . He heard of a large population of Dinka in Ames , Iowa , and moved to Ames after several months in Fargo . It was while living in Ames that he was contacted by Charles Jacobs , founder of the American Anti @-@ Slavery Group based in Boston , Massachusetts .
= = Work as an abolitionist = =
Jesse Sage , associate director of the American Anti @-@ slavery Group , and Jacobs persuaded Bok to move to Boston to work with the AASG . He was initially hesitant to leave his new friends in Ames , but according to Bok , the people at AASG were persistent . He arrived in Boston on May 14 , 2000 , AASG helped him find an apartment . A week after moving to Boston , he was invited to speak at a Baptist church in Roxbury and was interviewed by Charles A. Radin of The Boston Globe . Two days after his speech in Roxbury , Bok was asked to meet with supporters of AASG on the steps of the United States Capitol in Washington , D.C. He returned to Washington on September 28 , 2000 , and became the first escaped slave to speak before the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations . Francis was invited to Washington again in 2002 for the signing of the Sudan Peace Act and met with President George W. Bush . It was during this trip to the White House that Bok became the first former slave to meet with a U.S. President since the 19th century .
Francis Bok has spoken at churches and universities throughout the United States and Canada and he has helped launch the American Anti @-@ Slavery Group 's website iAbolish.org at a Jane 's Addiction concert before an audience of 40 @,@ 000 on April 28 , 2001 . Perry Farrell was a key early supporter of the iAbolish movement . Bok has also been honored by the Boston Celtics and was chosen to carry the Olympic Torch past Plymouth Rock prior to the 2002 Winter Olympics . His autobiography , Escape from Slavery : The True Story of My Ten Years in Captivity and My Journey to Freedom in America , was published in 2003 by St. Martin 's Press .
Bok currently lives with his wife , Atak , and their two young children , Buk and Dhai , in Kansas . He is now working in the AASG 's first extension office in Kansas . He also works with Sudan Sunrise , a Lenexa , Kansas @-@ based organization that seeks to work for peace and unity in Sudan .
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= Ray Emery =
Ray Emery ( born September 28 , 1982 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender who is currently an unrestricted free agent . Emery was chosen 99th overall by the National Hockey League ( NHL ) Ottawa Senators in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . During the 2006 – 07 season , he led the Ottawa Senators to the Stanley Cup finals in 2007 . It was the Senators ' first appearance in the finals since 1927 . His teammates and fans often refer to him as " Razor " or " Sugar Ray " for his aggressive playing style . He won a Stanley Cup with the Chicago Blackhawks in 2013 .
Emery has received numerous awards and accolades . In April 2013 , he won the William M. Jennings Trophy along with teammate Corey Crawford , awarded to the goaltender or goaltenders who give up the fewest goals in the season . Emery finished the season with a 1 @.@ 94 goals against average and a 0 @.@ 922 save percentage . His 17 wins included 12 straight to start the year , the best such streak in NHL history . Emery is a two @-@ time Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy finalist for his dedication and perseverance .
= = Early life = =
Emery was born in Cayuga , Ontario . His parents are Sharlene and Paul Emery . He has two younger brothers . He grew up in a century @-@ old farmhouse , he excelled in school , being offered a scholarship and sports . He played many sports other than hockey , including golf , baseball , and soccer . In ice hockey , he originally played defence , but switched to goaltender at nine years old due to a shortage of goaltenders in his league .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Pre @-@ NHL = = =
Emery decided to commit to hockey on the advice of his mother , after a potential scholarship during his pursuit for higher education pushed him to take advantage of his natural ability . At 16 years old , Emery landed with OJHL team Junior C Dunnville Terriers after unsuccessful trying out for eight different junior teams . Emery was named the league 's " Rookie of the Year "
Emery was drafted by Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) ' s Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds in the fifth round of the 1999 OHL Draft . Emery split the 1999 – 2000 season between the Welland Cougars of the OHA and the Greyhounds in the OHL . In 2000 – 01 with the Greyhounds . During his last season in junior , 2001 – 02 , Emery gained notoriety for his fighting ability . He was named OHL 's " Goaltender of the Year " , setting a record of 33 wins and a GAA of 2 @.@ 73 .
In 2001 , Emery was drafted by the Ottawa Senators after enjoying his most successful OHL season in 2001 – 02 .
In 2002 – 03 , Emery joined the Binghamton Senators of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) and immediately assumed the position of starting Goaltender for his first professional season with the team . He was named to the AHL All @-@ Star team , made the league 's all @-@ rookie team & became Binghamton 's MVP .
Emery was suspended twice for on @-@ ice incidents the same season . Once for bumping a referee which suspended him for three games . The other incident was an altercation with Denis Hamel of the Rochester Americans when Hamel admittedly uttered a racial slur . Emery retaliated and was suspended for three games . Emery and Hamel later became teammates in Binghamton , and Hamel apologized " for not thinking about what I was saying , in the heat of a game "
= = = Ottawa Senators ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = =
Emery was chosen 99th overall by the Senators in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . During the 2006 – 07 season , Emery signed a three @-@ year deal with the Senators worth $ 9 @.@ 5 million .
Emery began his NHL career in 2005 – 06 by setting a record for wins to start a career , winning his first 9 games , moving ahead of Bob Froese , who started the 1982 – 83 season with eight wins while playing for the Philadelphia Flyers . In March of the same season , Emery won 12 games , tying Bernie Parent 's 1974 record for the most wins in a month .
At the beginning of the 2005 – 06 season , Emery had won nine @-@ straight games during the regular season as the back @-@ up to Dominik Hašek . When Hašek injured his groin during the 2006 Winter Olympics , Emery became the team 's de facto starter , with Mike Morrison , claimed off of waivers from the Edmonton Oilers , as Emery 's backup . Emery would be the starting goaltender for the rest of the season , leading the Senators to the second round of the 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs .
After the 2005 – 06 season , the Senators opted not to bring back Hašek , instead acquiring Martin Gerber to compete with Emery for the starter position . Gerber was the starter at the beginning of the season , but due to his poor play , Emery replaced him in mid @-@ November . On February 10 , 2007 , Emery was suspended three games from the NHL for striking Montreal Canadiens forward Maxim Lapierre with his stick on his face after Lapierre crashed into Emery 's net .
Twelve days later , after his suspension had ended , Emery was involved in a mêlée between the Senators and the Buffalo Sabres . He and Sabres goaltender Martin Biron left their creases to fight each other . After the first fight was finished , Sabres ' enforcer Andrew Peters grabbed Emery and a second fight ensued . Both goaltenders received game misconducts , and Emery had the rare feat ( for a goaltender ) of receiving two five @-@ minute majors for fighting in the same incident . In total , Emery received 22 penalty minutes ( two five @-@ minute majors for fighting , a two @-@ minute minor for leaving the crease and the 10 @-@ minute game misconduct ) for this altercation . After the altercation , fans and media have dubbed him " Sugar Ray " in reference to retired boxer Sugar Ray Robinson and Emery 's reputation as a fighter . Then @-@ teammate Brian McGrattan opined that if Emery were a position player and not a goalie , he would likely rank among the top five fighters in the NHL .
Prior to the 2007 playoffs , Emery and the Senators won 5 – 2 against Montreal on March 30 , 2007 , which was his 100th NHL game . Emery 's strong play in the season continued in the playoffs , as the Senators defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins , New Jersey Devils and Buffalo Sabres each in five @-@ game series en route to their first Stanley Cup Final appearance since the team returned to the NHL in 1992 , where the Senators ultimately lost to the Anaheim Ducks in five games . He became a restricted free agent after the end of the season and filed for salary arbitration , later agreeing to a three @-@ year deal with the Senators worth $ 9 @.@ 5 million before the hearings were held .
By the pre @-@ season of the 2007 – 08 campaign , Emery was injured for a lengthy time due to a wrist injury that limited him to just 40 minutes of the pre @-@ season and forced him to miss several games early in the Senators ' season .
On April 18 , 2008 , Murray announced to the media in an end @-@ of @-@ season press conference that Emery would not return to the Senators for the 2008 – 09 season . On June 20 , 2008 , Emery was waived by the Senators , and cleared them three days later ; as a result , he became a free agent .
= = = Atlant Moscow ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =
Emery signed a one @-@ year , $ 2 million contract with Atlant Moscow Oblast of the newly formed Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) on July 9 , 2008 . As a foreign goaltender , Emery was only allowed to play in 65 % of his team 's 56 regular season games due to rules that encourage the development of Russian goaltenders . He split duties for the season with former Colorado Avalanche goaltender Vitaly Kolesnik and completed the season as a top goaltender in the KHL with a .926 save percentage & 1 @.@ 86 GAA .
= = = Philadelphia Flyers ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
On June 10 , 2009 , the Philadelphia Flyers announced that they had agreed to terms on a one @-@ year contract worth $ 1 @.@ 5 million with Emery . After a successful training camp , he marked his return to the NHL with a 2 – 0 shutout victory against the Carolina Hurricanes in the first game of the season . In his second regular season game with the Flyers , against the New Jersey Devils , he stopped 24 of 26 shots in a 5 – 2 victory .
On December 8 , Emery was placed on injured reserve to have surgery on a torn muscle in his abdomen . Originally expected to miss about six weeks , the prognosis changed when it was discovered that he had avascular necrosis . In March 2010 , Flyers General Manager Paul Holmgren announced that Emery would be out for remainder of the season due to the diagnosis and that a bone graft would be done to alleviate his hip issues .
Doctors were able to catch the disease early on before it spread , unlike the case of baseball and American football player Bo Jackson . As a result , in April , doctors announced an extremely successful surgery . Jackson spoke out about Emery , speculating that they were the only two athletes to come back after the disease . Jackson added , " I take my hat off [ to him ] . I want him to know I am in his corner . It 's a lot of hard work . To come back and play , it takes a very , very special and driven person . He 's got a different makeup to want to do all the little things he needs to compete on a professional level . " Unlike Jackson , who required numerous hip replacements , Emery had the benefit of advancements in modern medicine , undergoing a very specialized and complex procedure that involved removing 13 centimetres from his right fibula , and then grafting it to the femur to re @-@ introduce a proper blood supply to the area . Holmgren said that while the surgery went better than expected , he did not know exactly how long Emery 's recovery would take .
On July 1 , Emery became an unrestricted free agent as his injury deemed him unable to play until he recuperates . In August , he was given the go ahead to begin the grueling and tedious workout and rehabilitation process . In November 2010 , TSN visited Emery during an on @-@ ice workout and were surprised to see him get down into the butterfly position and play for the first time since surgery . Emery stated that he did not " care if [ he could ] walk in seven years , " and he " just [ wanted ] to play . " To the surprise of his doctors and trainers , Emery has been doing better than expected . In January 2011 , Emery began skating with an OHL team , taking shots and training with Eric Lindros , working with personal trainer Matt Nichol and goalie coach Eli Wilson . According to Wilson , Emery was " as sharp and ready now as he was the summer before Ottawa 's Stanley Cup Final run . "
In March 2011 , Emery 's injury and undefeated return to the NHL with the Anaheim Ducks garnered much media attention and fascination , with a special segment featured on CBC 's Hockey Night in Canada . Remarkably , Emery currently has 13 centimetres of bone missing from his leg . This later garnered him a nomination for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy .
= = = Anaheim Ducks ( 2011 ) = = =
On February 7 , 2011 , Emery signed a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract with the Anaheim Ducks , allowing him to the standard two @-@ week conditioning AHL stint . Three other NHL teams showed interest in signing Emery . He was then assigned to the Syracuse Crunch to begin conditioning . Emery went on to play a total of five games for the Crunch in their 2010 – 11 season , posting a 4 – 1 – 0 , 1 @.@ 98 GAA and .943 save percentage .
On February 23 , 2011 , upon completion of his conditioning stint , Emery was called to the Anaheim Ducks . Emery made his Anaheim Ducks debut on March 11 , 2011 , against the Phoenix Coyotes when he replaced goaltender Dan Ellis making it his first NHL appearance since he last played in March 2010 with the Flyers .
Emery went on to win six straight starts to open his Anaheim career , falling one shy of matching the Ducks record for consecutive wins by a goaltender , to Guy Hebert .
In the week of March 14 , Emery was honored with NHL 's Second Star of the Week after going 2 – 0 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 99 GAA and .968 save percentage .
Emery led the Ducks into the playoffs , finishing tied for fourth in the League and posting a 7 – 2 – 0 record with 2 @.@ 28 GAA and .926 save percentage in 10 regular season NHL appearances .
In April , Emery 's remarkable comeback was recognized when the Anaheim chapter of the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association ( PHWA ) named Ray Emery as their nominee for the 2011 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy . The NHL also nominated Emery for the Masterton , making him one of three finalists .
= = = Chicago Blackhawks ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = =
On July 27 , 2011 , Emery signed a tryout contract with the Chicago Blackhawks . He was then signed to a one @-@ year contract for the 2011 – 12 season on October 3 .
By the end of season , Emery compiled a 15 – 9 – 4 record and 2 @.@ 81 GAA in 34 regular @-@ season appearances , posting a 10 – 0 – 3 record and 2 @.@ 15 GAA in 16 appearances at Chicago 's United Center . Emery was again nominated , this time by the Chicago Blackhawks , for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , honoring dedication and perseverance .
In April 2012 , the Blackhawks signed Emery to a one @-@ year extension worth $ 1 @.@ 15 million to continue into the 2012 – 13 season .
In March 2013 , Emery made NHL history becoming the first goaltender to ever start a season with 10 straight wins , going 10 – 0 – 0 . Emery improved his NHL record , with 11 straight wins , going 11 – 0 – 0 against the Colorado Avalanche on March 18 . Emery surpassed his own record making NHL history yet again , going 12 – 0 – 0 in a shutout win against the Calgary Flames which happened to be his 200th NHL start On April 10 , Emery made franchise history recording his third shutout in the last five games helping him third overall in the NHL for GAA , posting a 1 @.@ 90 and seventh in save percentage at .924 with a 15 – 1 – 0 record . Emery proved his previous injuries were no longer an issue , posting career highs .
In April 2013 , Emery won the award for the NHL 's best combined GAA , the 2013 William M. Jennings Trophy awarded to the goaltender who give up the fewest goals in the season , along with teammate Corey Crawford . Emery finished the season with a 1 @.@ 94 GAA and a .922 save percentage . His 17 wins included 12 @-@ straight to start the year , the best such streak in NHL history . Emery won his first Stanley Cup when the Blackhawks defeated the Boston Bruins in six games during the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals .
= = = Return to Philadelphia ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 5 , 2013 , Emery signed a one @-@ year deal with the Philadelphia Flyers worth $ 1 @.@ 65 million to serve as the backup to starting goaltender Steve Mason . On July 1 , 2014 , he re @-@ signed for another year in the same role for $ 1 million .
= = = 2015 @-@ 2016 = = =
On September 8 , 2015 , the Tampa Bay Lightning announced that Emery would be attending training camp on a PTO ( professional tryout ) . Following the conclusion of camp he was released from this PTO on September 27 . In October & November 2015 , Emery trained with the Ontario Reign of the AHL , affiliate to the Los Angeles Kings It was announced on December 18 , 2015 , that Emery had signed a professional tryout agreement with the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , who are associated with the Toronto Maple Leafs . Emery has been credited with his leadership & mentoring abilities , on January 24 , 2016 , upon goaltender Corey Crawford recording his league leading seventh shutout of the season with the Chicago Blackhawks after a win against the Blues , Crawford credited Emery for turning around his work habits . Crawford cited his focus & preparation before a game & during practice to Emery 's work habits , stating " As a goalie , I 've never seen a guy be so focused and ready for a game , " Crawford said . " I was kind of doing the opposite — being nonchalant and doing other stuff and not having a routine . You get in that physical routine that just makes you ready mentally . You trick yourself into knowing that it 's game time and time to play . " Kyle Dubas , assistant GM of the Toronto Marlies cited Emery for his mentorship towards the team . On February 5 , 2016 , Emery signed with Adler Mannheim of the German elite league Deutsche Eishockey Liga for the remainder of the season , thus ending his professional tryout with the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) On March 29 , 2016 , he signed a tryout contract with the Philadelphia Flyers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) and on April 1 , 2016 , the Philadelphia Flyers announced signing Emery for the remainder of the season
= = Personal life = =
In June 2010 , Emery began dating Canadian singer Keshia Chanté .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Richard D 'Oyly Carte =
Richard D 'Oyly Carte ( 3 May 1844 – 3 April 1901 ) was an English talent agent , theatrical impresario , composer and hotelier during the latter half of the Victorian era . Rising from humble beginnings , Carte built two of London 's theatres and a hotel empire , while also establishing an opera company that ran continuously for over a hundred years and a management agency representing some of the most important artists of the day .
Carte started his career working for his father , Richard Carte , in the music publishing and musical instrument manufacturing business . As a young man , he conducted and composed music , but he soon turned to promoting the entertainment careers of others through his management agency . Carte believed that a school of wholesome , well @-@ crafted , family @-@ friendly , English comic opera could be as popular as the risqué French works dominating the London musical stage in the 1870s . To that end , he brought together the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and composer Arthur Sullivan and , together with his wife Helen Carte , he nurtured their collaboration on a series of thirteen Savoy operas . He founded the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company and built the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Savoy Theatre to host the Gilbert and Sullivan operas .
Carte also built the Savoy Hotel in London , and acquired other luxury hotels . In addition , he erected the Palace Theatre , London , which he had intended to be the home of a new school of English grand opera , although this ambition was not realised beyond the production of a single grand opera by Sullivan , Ivanhoe . Nevertheless , his partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan , and his careful management of their operas and relationship , created a series of works whose success was unprecedented in the history of musical theatre . His opera company , later operated by Helen and then by his son , Rupert , and granddaughter , Bridget , promoted those works for over a century , and they are still performed regularly today .
= = Early life = =
Carte was born in Greek Street in the West End of London on 3 May 1844 . He was the eldest of six children . His father , Richard Carte ( originally Cart ; 1808 – 1891 ) , was a flautist , and his mother was the former Eliza Jones ( 1814 – 1885 ) ; they had eloped , to the disappointment of her father , Thomas Jones , a clergyman . His siblings were Blanch ( 1846 – 1935 ) , Viola ( 1848 – 1925 ) , Rose ( b . 1854 ) , Henry ( 1856 – 1926 ) and Eliza ( 1860 – 1941 ) . Carte was of Welsh and Norman ancestry ; D 'Oyly is a Norman French name which " was a forename ( not part of a double surname ) " . To supplement his income as a performer , Carte 's father joined the firm of Rudall , Rose & Co . , musical instrument makers and music publishers , in 1850 . After he became a partner in the business , it changed its name to Rudall , Rose , Carte and Co. and later to Rudall , Carte & Co .
Carte was brought up in Dartmouth Park Road . His cultured mother exposed her family to art , music and poetry , and young Carte studied the violin and then the flute at an early age . The family spoke French at home two days a week , and his parents often took their children to the theatre . He was educated at University College School , which he left in 1860 . In 1861 , he achieved First Class level in the matriculation examination and then attended University College , London . However , he left later that year to work in his father 's business , along with his brother , Henry . He studied music during this time and composed some pieces , which he dedicated to the actress Kate Terry . He also acted in amateur theatricals .
= = Career = =
Between 1868 and 1877 , Carte wrote and published the music for a number of his own songs and instrumental works , as well as several comic operas : Doctor Ambrosias – His Secret , at St. George 's Hall ( 1868 ) ; Marie , with librettist E. Spencer Mott , at London 's Opera Comique in 1871 ; and Happy Hampstead , with librettist Frank Desprez , which debuted on an 1876 provincial tour and then played at the Royalty Theatre in 1877 . On tour in 1871 , Carte conducted Cox and Box by composer Arthur Sullivan and dramatist F. C. Burnand , in tandem with English adaptations of two Offenbach pieces , called Rose of Auvergne and Breaking the Spell , in which Carte 's client Selina Dolaro appeared . Carte 's musical talent would be helpful later in his career , as he was able to audition singers himself from the pianoforte .
During the late 1860s and early 1870s , from within his father 's firm in Charing Cross and , by late 1874 , from a nearby address in Craig 's Court , Carte began to build an operatic , concert and lecture management agency . His two hundred clients eventually included Charles Gounod , Jacques Offenbach , Adelina Patti , Mario , Clara Schumann , Antoinette Sterling , Edward Lloyd , Mr. and Mrs. German Reed , George Grossmith , Matthew Arnold , James McNeill Whistler and Oscar Wilde . Hesketh Pearson said of Carte : " His acute business sense was aided by a frank and agreeable manner .... He took what other people thought were risks , but he felt were certainties . He knew everyone worth knowing ... and his practical judgement was as sure as his sense of artistry . "
= = = Founding his opera company = = =
In 1874 , Carte leased the Opera Comique , a small theatre off the Strand , where he presented a Brussels company in the British premiere of the operetta Giroflé @-@ Giroflà by Charles Lecocq , followed by The Broken Branch , an English adaptation of Gaston Serpette 's La branche cassée . Carte announced his ambitions on the front of the programme for the latter : " It is my desire to establish in London a permanent abode for light Opera . " The Observer reported , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte is not only a skilful manager , but a trained musician , and he appears to have grasped the fact that the public are beginning to become weary of what is known as a genuine opera bouffe , and are ready to welcome a musical entertainment of a higher order , such as a musician might produce with satisfaction " .
Carte later said it was " the scheme of my life " to found a school of high @-@ quality , family @-@ friendly English comic opera , in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas that dominated the London musical stage at that time . His experience in writing operettas , however , had convinced him that his own creative talents were inadequate for the task . He later wrote to dramatist W. S. Gilbert , " I envy your position but I could never attain it . If I could be an author like you I would certainly not be a manager . I am simply the tradesman who sells your works of art . " Furthermore , in 1874 Carte did not yet have the resources to make his idea into reality , and after his season at the Opera Comique , he terminated his lease . In the same year , he arranged for his client , Offenbach , to collaborate with H. B. Farnie to write a new operetta on the theme of Dick Whittington and His Cat , which played during the Christmas season at the Alhambra Theatre .
In 1875 , Carte became the business manager of the Royalty Theatre , under the direction of his client , the popular singing actress Madame Selina Dolaro . There he programmed Offenbach 's La Périchole . To fill out the evening ( as long programmes were the fashion in Victorian theatre ) , he needed another piece . He remembered a libretto for a one @-@ act comic opera that W. S. Gilbert had written and shown to him in 1873 , called Trial by Jury . Meanwhile , Sullivan 's popular 1867 opera , Cox and Box , had been revived at the Gaiety Theatre in 1874 , and Carte had already asked him to write a piece for the Royalty . Carte knew that Gilbert had worked with Sullivan to create Thespis in 1871 , and he now suggested that Sullivan could write the music for Trial by Jury . Because Gilbert and Sullivan shared his vision of increasing the quality and respectability of English musical theatre , and so broadening its audience through the promotion of well @-@ crafted English light operas , Carte gave them wider authority as director and music director than was customary at that time . Trial by Jury , a comic treatment of an English courtroom , was an unexpected hit , outrunning La Périchole , and becoming the first step in Carte 's scheme to establish a new genre of English comic opera .
Carte managed the first tour of Trial by Jury , which stopped at the Theatre Royal in Dublin , Ireland , in September 1875 . While there , he met a young Scottish actress , Susan Couper Black , who used the stage name Helen Lenoir . She became fascinated by his vision for establishing a company to promote English comic opera and gave up her next engagement to join his theatrical organisation as his secretary . Well @-@ educated , with an organisational ability , business acumen , focus on detail and diplomatic skills that surpassed even Carte 's , Lenoir gradually became intensely involved in all of his business affairs . Carte and Lenoir married in 1888 , three years after the death of his first wife .
Even after the initial production of Trial by Jury , however , Carte continued to produce continental operetta , touring in the summer of 1876 with a repertoire consisting of English adaptations of French opera bouffe ( Offenbach ’ s La Périchole , and La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein , Lecocq 's La fille de Madame Angot and Léon Vasseur 's La Timbale d 'argent ) , paired with two one @-@ act English after @-@ pieces ( Happy Hampstead and Trial by Jury ) . Carte acted as the musical director of this travelling company that included W.H. Denny .
Encouraged by the success of Trial by Jury , Carte made attempts in 1875 – 76 to raise money for either a revival of Thespis or a new piece . A year later , he finally found four backers and formed the " Comedy Opera Company " to produce the future works of Gilbert and Sullivan , along with the works of other British author / composer teams . This allowed Carte to lease the Opera Comique and to give Gilbert and Sullivan firm terms for a new opera . By this time , Helen Lenoir had been promoted from Carte 's secretary to his assistant . The first comic opera produced by the new company was Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Sorcerer in 1877 , with a plot involving a tradesmanlike London magician and his patented love potion . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte were able to select their own cast , instead of using the players under contract to the theatre where the work was produced , as had been the case with their earlier works . They chose talented actors , few of whom were well @-@ known stars , and Carte 's agency provided many of the artists . The reception of the piece showed that Carte had been right : there was a promising future in family @-@ friendly English comic opera .
The Sorcerer was followed by H.M.S. Pinafore in 1878 . Business for the new opera was slow at first . Carte 's investors in the Comedy Opera Company advocated cutting their losses and closing the show . After promotional efforts by Carte and Sullivan , who included some of the Pinafore music in several promenade concerts at Covent Garden , Pinafore became a hit . Carte persuaded Gilbert and Sullivan that when their original agreement with the Comedy Opera Company expired in July 1879 , a business partnership among the three of them would be to their advantage . The three each put up £ 1 @,@ 000 and formed a new partnership under the name " Mr Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's Opera Company " . Under the partnership agreement , once the expenses of mounting the productions had been deducted , each of the three men was entitled to one third of the profits .
On 31 July 1879 , the last day of their agreement with Carte , the directors of the Comedy Opera Company attempted to repossess the Pinafore set by force during a performance , causing a celebrated fracas . Carte 's stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery and props . The Comedy Opera Company opened a rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore in London , but it was not as popular as the D 'Oyly Carte production and soon closed . Legal action over the ownership of the rights ended in victory for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan . From 1 August 1879 , the new company , later called the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , became the sole authorised producer of the works of Gilbert and Sullivan .
= = = Early opera successes ; property interests = = =
H.M.S. Pinafore was so successful that Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces . The opera ran for 571 performances in London , the second @-@ longest run in musical theatre history up to that time . Over 150 unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone , but because American law then offered no copyright protection to foreigners , Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan were not able to demand royalties from , or to control the artistic content of , these productions .
To try to counter this copyright piracy and make some money from the popularity of their opera in America , Carte travelled to New York with the authors and the company to present an " authentic " production of Pinafore there , beginning in December 1879 , as well as American tours . Carte 's assistant , Helen Lenoir , who became his wife in 1888 , made fifteen visits to America in the 1880s and 1890s to promote Carte 's interests , superintending arrangements for American productions and tours of each of the new Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Beginning with Pinafore , Carte licensed the J. C. Williamson company to produce the works in Australia and New Zealand .
In an effort to head off unauthorised American productions of their next opera , The Pirates of Penzance , Carte and his partners opened it in New York on 31 December 1879 , prior to its 1880 London premiere . They hoped to forestall further " piracy " by establishing the authorised production and tours in America before others could copy it and by delaying publication of the score and libretto . They did succeed in keeping for themselves the direct profits of the venture , but they tried without success for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas . Pirates was an immediate hit in New York , and later London , becoming one of the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan operas . To secure the British copyright , there was a perfunctory performance the afternoon before the New York premiere , at the Royal Bijou Theatre , Paignton , Devon , organised by Helen Lenoir .
The next Gilbert and Sullivan opera , Patience , opened at the Opera Comique in April 1881 and was another big success , usurping Pinafore 's position as the longest running piece in the series with the second @-@ longest run in musical theatre history . Patience satirised the self @-@ indulgent aesthetic movement of the 1870s and ' 80s in England . To popularise the opera in America , in 1882 Carte sent one of the artistes under his management , the young poet Oscar Wilde , on a lecture tour to explain to Americans what the aesthetic movement was about . Carte told an interviewer at that time that he had fifteen theatrical companies and performers touring simultaneously in Europe , America and Australia .
Carte had been planning to build a new theatre for several years to promote English comic opera and , in particular , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . With profits from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and his concert and lecture agency , he bought property along the Strand in 1880 with frontage onto the Thames Embankment , where he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 . Carte chose the name in honour of the Savoy Palace , which had been built on the site in the thirteenth century by Peter , Count of Savoy . It later passed to John of Gaunt but was destroyed in the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 . The Savoy Theatre was a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility , setting a new standard for technology , comfort and decor . It was the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electric lights and seated nearly 1 @,@ 300 people ( compared to the Opera Comique 's 862 ) .
Patience was the first production at the new theatre , transferring there on 10 October 1881 . The first generator proved too small to power the whole building , and though the entire front of house was electrically lit , the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881 . At that performance , Carte stepped on stage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of the new technology . The Times concluded that the theatre " is admirably adapted for its purpose , its acoustic qualities are excellent , and all reasonable demands of comfort and taste are complied with . " Carte and his manager , George Edwardes ( later famous as manager of the Gaiety Theatre ) , introduced several innovations at the theatre including free programme booklets , the orderly " queue " system with numbered tickets for the pit and gallery ( an American idea ) , tea served at the interval and a policy of no tipping for cloakroom or other services . Daily expenses at the theatre were about half the possible takings from ticket sales . The last eight of Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas were premiered at the Savoy , and all of their operas came to be known as Savoy operas .
The Savoy Hotel , designed by the architect Thomas Edward Collcutt , opened in 1889 . Financed by profits from The Mikado , it was the first hotel lit by electric lights and the first with electric lifts . In the 1890s , under its famous manager , César Ritz , and chef Auguste Escoffier , it became a well @-@ known luxury hotel and would generate more income and contribute more to the D 'Oyly Carte fortunes than any other enterprise , including the opera companies . Carte later acquired and refurbished Claridge 's ( 1893 ) , The Grand Hotel in Rome ( 1896 ) , Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand ( 1898 ) and The Berkeley ( 1900 ) .
= = = Peak years for the opera company = = =
During the years when the Gilbert and Sullivan operas were being written , Richard D 'Oyly Carte also produced operas and plays by other writing teams , as well as other works to fill the Savoy Theatre in between new operas . Many of these were companion pieces to the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , as the Victorian audiences preferred long evenings in the theatre . Some , however , were new full @-@ length pieces either for the Savoy or for Carte 's touring companies , which toured the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , and these new works , extensively . Carte and Lenoir also continued to run his management agency . As an example of their level of activity , an 1881 souvenir programme commemorating the 250th performance of Patience in London and its 100th performance in New York states that , in addition to these two productions of Patience , Carte was simultaneously producing many other projects . These included two companies touring with Patience , two touring with other Gilbert and Sullivan operas , one touring with the operetta Olivette ( co @-@ produced with Charles Wyndham ) , one with Claude Duval in America , a production of Youth running at a New York theatre , a lecture tour by Archibald Forbes ( a war correspondent ) and productions of Patience , Pirates , Claude Duval and Billee Taylor in association with J. C. Williamson in Australia , among other things .
Carte also introduced the practice of licensing amateur theatrical societies to present works for which he held the rights , increasing the works ' popularity and the sales of scores and libretti , as well as the rental of band parts . This had an important influence on amateur theatre in general . Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that , prior to the creation of the Savoy operas , amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals . After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the operas , professionals recognised that the amateur societies " support the culture of music and the drama . They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage , and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present @-@ day favourites . " Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to " the popularity of , and infectious craze for performing , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas " . The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in 1899 . It reported , in 1914 , that nearly 200 British societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas that year .
After Patience , Carte produced Iolanthe , which opened in 1882 . During its run , in February 1883 , Carte signed a five @-@ year partnership agreement with Gilbert and Sullivan , obliging them to create new operas for him upon six months ' notice . Sullivan had not intended to immediately write a new work with Gilbert , but he suffered a serious financial loss when his broker went bankrupt in November 1882 and must have felt the long @-@ term contract necessary for his security . Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther comments , " Effectively , [ the contract ] made [ Gilbert and Sullivan ] Carte 's employees – a situation which created its own resentments . " The partnership 's next opera , Princess Ida , opened in January 1884 . Carte soon saw that Ida was running weakly at the box office and invoked the agreement to call upon his partners to write a new opera . The musical establishment constantly pressured Sullivan to abandon comic opera in favour of serious music , and after he was knighted in 1883 , the pressure only increased . He soon regretted having signed the five @-@ year contract . In March 1884 , Sullivan told Carte that " it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . "
During this conflict and others during the 1880s , Carte and Helen Lenoir frequently worked to smooth over the partners ' differences using a mixture of friendship and business acumen . Sullivan asked to be released from the partnership on several occasions . Nevertheless , Carte was able to coax eight comic operas out of his partners in the 1880s . When Princess Ida closed after a comparatively short run of nine months , for the first time in the partnership 's history , the next opera was not ready . Gilbert first suggested a plot in which people fell in love against their wills after taking a magic lozenge – a scenario that Sullivan had previously rejected . Gilbert eventually came up with a new idea and began work in May 1884 .
Carte produced the first revival of The Sorcerer , together with Trial by Jury , and matinees of The Pirates of Penzance played by a cast of children , while he waited for his partners to finish writing the new work . This became the partnership 's most successful opera , The Mikado , which opened in March 1885 . The piece satirised British institutions by setting them in a fictional Japan and took advantage of the Victorian craze for the exotic and " picturesque " Far East . The Mikado became the partnership 's longest @-@ running hit , lasting for 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre , and supplanting Patience as the second @-@ longest @-@ running work of musical theatre up to that time . It was extraordinarily popular in the US and worldwide and remains the most frequently performed Savoy Opera .
The partnership 's next opera was Ruddigore , which opened in January 1887 . The piece , though a financial success , was a relative disappointment after the extraordinary run of The Mikado . When Ruddigore closed after nine months , Carte mounted revivals of earlier Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy for almost a year . After another attempt by Gilbert to persuade Sullivan to set a " lozenge plot " , Gilbert met his collaborator half way by writing a serio @-@ comic plot for The Yeomen of the Guard , which premiered in October 1888 . The opera ran for over a year , with strong New York and touring productions . This was a happy time for Carte , with a long @-@ running opera , new marriage and new hotel and opera house under construction . When Carte asked his partners for a new work , Sullivan again expressed reluctance to write another comic opera , asking if Gilbert would write a " dramatic work on a larger musical scale " . Gilbert declined but offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted : the two would write a light opera for the Savoy , and at the same time , Sullivan could work on a grand opera that Carte would produce at a new theatre he was planning to build to present British grand opera . The new comic opera was The Gondoliers , which opened in December 1889 and became one of the partnership 's greatest successes .
During these years , Carte was not just the manager of the theatre . He was a full participant in the producing partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan , involved in casting and finding designers ; in charge of publicity ; directing and hiring designers for the non @-@ Gilbert works , including the many companion pieces ( sometimes with the help of assistants ) ; and casting , directing and rehearsing the touring companies , among other duties . According to Henry Lytton , " Mr. Carte was a great stage manager . He could take in the details of a scene with one sweep of his eagle eye and say unerringly just what was wrong . " The quality of Carte 's productions created a national and international taste for them , and he sent touring companies throughout the British provinces , to America ( generally managed by Helen ) , Europe and elsewhere . Queen Victoria honoured the company by calling for a Royal Command Performance of The Gondoliers at Windsor Castle in 1891 . Following the libretto closely , she noticed additions to the text made by some of the actors and asked Carte to explain why this was done . Carte replied that they " are what we call ' gags ' " . The queen answered that she had always understood that " gags were things that were put by authority into people 's mouths . " Carte rejoined , " These gags , Your Majesty , are things people put into their own mouths without authority . " George Bernard Shaw , writing in The World in October 1893 , stated :
Those who are old enough to compare the Savoy performances with those of the dark ages , taking into account the pictorial treatment of the fabrics and colors on the stage , the cultivation and intelligence of the choristers , the quality of the orchestra , and the degree of artistic good breeding , so to speak , expected from the principals , best know how great an advance has been made by Mr. D 'Oyly Carte .
= = = End of the partnership and last years = = =
On 22 April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , Gilbert discovered that maintenance expenses for the theatre , including a new £ 500 carpet for the front lobby of the theatre , were being charged to the partnership instead of borne by Carte . Gilbert angrily confronted Carte , but Carte refused to reconsider the accounts . Even though the amount of the charge was not great , Gilbert felt that it was a moral issue involving Carte 's integrity , and he could not look past it . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " Matters deteriorated further , and Gilbert brought a lawsuit . Sullivan sided with Carte , who was building the Royal English Opera House , the inaugural production of which was to be Sullivan 's forthcoming grand opera . Gilbert won the dispute and felt vindicated , but his actions had been hurtful to his partners , and the partnership disbanded .
Carte 's first production at the Royal English Opera House was of Sullivan 's only grand opera , Ivanhoe , which opened in January 1891 . It played for an initial run of 155 performances , a record for an opera , but no other operas shared the new opera house with it . Instead , Ivanhoe was presented every night with alternating casts . When Ivanhoe finally closed in July , Carte had no new work ready to play at the opera house , and so it had to close . The opera house re @-@ opened in November 1891 with André Messager 's La Basoche at first alternating in repertory with Ivanhoe , and then La Basoche played alone , closing in January 1892 . Carte again had no new opera to present at the house , and the venture soon failed . Sir Henry Wood , who had been répétiteur for the production , recalled in his autobiography , " If D 'Oyly Carte had had a repertory of six operas instead of only one , I believe he would have established English opera in London for all time . Towards the end of the run of Ivanhoe I was already preparing The Flying Dutchman with Eugène Oudin in the name part . He would have been superb . However , plans were altered and the Dutchman was shelved . " Carte leased the theatre to Sarah Bernhardt for a season and finally abandoned the project . He sold the opera house at a loss to producer Augustus Harris . It was then converted into a music hall , the Palace Theatre of Varieties , and later became the Palace Theatre .
Because of the carpet quarrel , Gilbert had vowed to write no more for the Savoy . When The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Carte needed new authors and composers to write works for the Savoy Theatre . He turned to old friends George Dance , Frank Desprez and Edward Solomon for his next piece , The Nautch Girl , which ran for a satisfying 200 performances in 1891 – 92 . Carte then revived Solomon and Sydney Grundy 's The Vicar of Bray , which ran through the summer of 1892 . Next came Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall , which held the stage until April 1893 . While Carte presented new pieces and revivals at the Savoy , his touring companies continued to play throughout Britain and in America . In 1894 , for example , Carte had four companies touring Britain and one playing in America .
Gilbert 's aggressive , though successful , legal action had embittered Carte and Sullivan , but the partnership had been so profitable that Carte and his wife eventually sought to reunite the author and composer . After several attempts by the Cartes , the reconciliation finally came through the efforts of Tom Chappell , who published the sheet music to their operas . In 1893 , Gilbert and Sullivan produced their penultimate collaboration , Utopia , Limited . While Utopia was being prepared , Carte produced Jane Annie , by J. M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle , with music by Ernest Ford . Despite the popularity of Barrie and Conan Doyle , the show was a flop , closing after only 51 performances .
Utopia was Carte 's most expensive production to date , but it ran for a comparatively disappointing 245 performances , until June 1894 . Carte then played first Mirette , composed by André Messager , then The Chieftain , by F. C. Burnand and Sullivan . These ran for 102 and 97 performances , respectively . The company then toured the London suburbs , and the theatre was dark during the summer of 1895 , reopening in November for a revival of The Mikado . This was followed in 1896 by The Grand Duke , which ran for 123 performances and was Gilbert and Sullivan 's only financial failure . The Gondoliers turned out to be Gilbert and Sullivan 's last big hit , and after The Grand Duke , the two men never collaborated again . At the Savoy , Carte produced His Majesty ( 1897 ) , The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein ( 1897 ) , The Beauty Stone ( 1898 ) and The Lucky Star ( 1899 ) , as well as revivals of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas .
Though the 1890s brought Carte more disappointments than hits in the theatre , his hotel business prospered and grew . He acquired Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand and Claridge 's Hotel , both of which he entirely rebuilt . There was one grave setback , in 1897 , when he had to dismiss his manager , Ritz , and his star chef , Escoffier , for financial misconduct . Carte 's choice as successor to Ritz was George Reeves @-@ Smith , manager and part @-@ owner of the Berkeley Hotel . To secure his services , Carte bought the Berkeley in 1900 and promoted Reeves @-@ Smith to be managing director of the whole Savoy Group . Carte had used the same method , a year earlier , to secure a new maître d 'hôtel . He was determined to engage M. Joseph , proprietor of the Marivaux Restaurant in Paris , then at the height of its fame . Carte was seriously ill , but he insisted on being carried to the boat @-@ train . In Paris he bought the Marivaux and returned with Joseph to the Savoy .
Throughout the later 1890s , Carte 's health was in decline , and Helen assumed more and more of the responsibilities for the opera company . She profitably managed the theatre and the provincial touring companies . In 1894 , Carte had hired his son , Rupert , as an assistant . While Carte was ill , in 1897 , Rupert assisted Mrs. Carte and W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy . The Savoy put on a number of shows for comparatively short runs during this period , including Sullivan 's The Beauty Stone , which ran for only 50 performances , in 1898 . In 1899 , Carte finally had a new success with Sullivan and Basil Hood 's The Rose of Persia , which ran for 213 performances . Neither Carte nor Sullivan lived to see the production of the next piece by Hood , The Emerald Isle , for which Edward German completed Sullivan 's unfinished score .
= = Personal life = =
Carte was married twice . His first wife was Blanche Julia Prowse ( 1853 – 1885 ) , the daughter of William Prowse , a piano manufacturer , music publisher and booking agent . As a teenager , she had participated in amateur theatricals with Carte . They married in 1870 and had two sons , Lucas ( 1872 – 1907 ) and Rupert . Blanche died of pneumonia in 1885 , and in 1888 , Carte married his assistant , Helen . Their wedding took place in the Savoy Chapel , with Arthur Sullivan as the best man . Rupert received training in an accounting firm and then became his father 's assistant in 1894 . Lucas , who was not involved in the family businesses , became a barrister . He was appointed Private Secretary to Lord Chief Justice Charles Russell in 1899 in connection with the Venezuelan boundary arbitration in Paris . There he contracted tuberculosis and later died of that disease at the age of 34 .
Carte 's London house was at the Adelphi , not far from the Savoy . Passionate about the visual arts as well as the performing arts , Carte invited his friend , the artist James McNeill Whistler , to decorate the house . Whistler had the entire billiard room painted the colour of the billiard cloth , and elsewhere painted his favourite yellow with his own hand . Equally enthusiastic for technological innovation , Carte installed a lift , the first in a private house in England . Around 1890 , he bought a small island in the River Thames , between Weybridge and Shepperton , called Folly Eyot , which he renamed D 'Oyly Carte Island . He wanted to use the island as an annex to his new Savoy Hotel , but the local authorities refused to grant him a drinks licence for the property . Instead , he built Eyot House , a large house and garden on the island , that he used as a residence . In later years , Carte displayed his macabre sense of humour by keeping a crocodile on the island .
= = Death and legacy = =
Carte died at his London home from dropsy and heart disease in 1901 , just short of his 57th birthday . He is buried in the churchyard of St. Andrew 's church in Fairlight , East Sussex , near his parents ' graves . A memorial service was held at the Chapel Royal of the Savoy , where a memorial stained glass window was later dedicated to him . He left an estate valued at £ 250 @,@ 000 .
Carte was instrumental in bringing the British theatre from its low status in the mid @-@ Victorian age to a position of respectable eminence , with knighthoods for actors , such as Henry Irving , and for dramatists , including Gilbert . George Bernard Shaw wrote of Carte 's theatrical legacy , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte founded a new school of English comic opera ; raised operatic inscenation to the rank of a fine art ; and finally built a new English Opera House and made a magnificent effort to do for English grand opera what he had done for comic opera . " In Carte 's obituary , The Times noted , " By his refined taste he raised the reputation of the mise en scène of the Savoy operas to a very high pitch . He set a high standard " . Beyond this , however , Carte 's influence , through the production of the Savoy operas , heavily influenced the course of the development of modern musical theatre .
Carte was also a prime mover in making hotels respectable and respected : in the words of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography : " Led by the prince of Wales [ the Savoy ] became the meeting place for London high society and the nouveaux riches of the British empire .... [ The ] food and the ambience lured people from the clubs to dine in public and give great parties there . It allowed ladies , hitherto fearful of dining in public , to be seen in full regalia in the Savoy dining and supper rooms . "
Carte left the theatre , opera company , hotels and his other business interests to Helen . Her London and touring companies continued to present the Savoy Operas in Britain and overseas . In 1901 she leased the Savoy Theatre to William Greet , overseeing his management of a revival of Iolanthe and several new comic operas . Rupert became chairman of the Savoy Hotel by 1903 , which Helen continued to own . In late 1906 , Helen staged a Gilbert and Sullivan repertory season at the Savoy Theatre . The season , and the following one , which were both directed by Gilbert , earned excellent reviews and sold well , revitalising the company . After the second repertory season concluded in 1909 , however , the company did not perform in London again until 1919 , only touring throughout Britain during that time .
At her death in 1913 , Helen passed the family businesses to Carte 's son , Rupert . He maintained the hotel business , disposing of the Grand Hotel in Rome , but expanding the group in London . The Savoy Group remained under the control of the Carte family and its associates until 1994 . Carte 's hotels have remained among the most prestigious in London , with the London Evening Standard calling the Savoy " London 's most famous hotel " in 2009 .
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte refreshed the opera company 's productions and added London seasons , beginning in 1919 , as well as provincial and foreign tours . In 1948 Rupert died , leaving a strong company to his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . However , the rising costs of mounting professional light opera without any government support eventually became too much for the company . Bridget was forced to close the company in 1982 . Nevertheless , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English @-@ speaking world and beyond , and Carte 's vision of wholesome light operas that celebrate Great Britain endures .
= = Compositions = =
= = = Operettas = = =
Dr. Ambrosius – His Secret ( 1868 )
Marie ( 1871 ) , with librettist E. Spencer Mott
Happy Hampstead ( 1876 ) , with librettist Frank Desprez ( Carte wrote the music for this short piece under the pen name " Mark Lynne " ) .
= = = Songs = = =
Carte 's Parlour songs include :
" Come Back to Me " , words and music by Carte .
" Diamond Eyes " , words by L. H. F. du Terraux .
" The Maiden 's Watch " , words by Amy Thornton , composed for and sung by Adelaide Newton
" The Mountain Boy " , sung by Florence Lancia
" Pourquoi ? " Chansonette , dedicated to Selina Dolaro
" Questions " , words by Desprez
" The Setting Sun " ( with obbligato flute accompaniment )
" Stars of the Summer Night " , Serenade , with poetry by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
" Twilight " , Canzonet
" Waiting " , words by Adelaide Procter .
" Wake , Sweet Bird " ( with obbligato flute accompaniment )
" Why so pale and wan , fond lover "
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= New York State Route 86 =
New York State Route 86 ( NY 86 ) is a 39 @.@ 11 @-@ mile ( 62 @.@ 94 km ) long state highway located within Adirondack Park in northern New York , in the United States , linking Franklin County to Essex County . The western terminus of the route is at NY 30 in the hamlet of Paul Smiths . The eastern terminus is at NY 9N in Jay . Although largely a two @-@ lane road , NY 86 is one of only two east – west highways in the High Peaks area of the Adirondack Park ( the other being NY 73 ) , providing a major link between hamlets and tourist destinations .
NY 86 was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , largely replacing a realigned NY 3 . North of Saranac Lake , NY 86 initially followed modern NY 186 before being rerouted onto its modern alignment . The portion of NY 86 north of Harrietstown was once NY 192 .
= = Route description = =
NY 86 begins at NY 30 in Paul Smiths , Franklin County . The route heads east through the town of Brighton , providing mountain views of Adirondack Park . After passing through the tiny communities of Easy Street and Gabriels and traversing the southern edge of Paul Smiths College , NY 86 turns south to serve Harrietstown , where it meets NY 186 at the hamlet of the same name . NY 86 continues southward to Saranac Lake , the largest community on NY 86 in Franklin County . Moving through Saranac Lake , the business and tourism anchor for the area , NY 86 is well marked , but follows local roads to an intersection with NY 3 in the village center . The routes briefly overlap before splitting at the northern edge of Lake Flower .
East of NY 3 , NY 86 becomes the primary lakeside roadway as it follows the northern and eastern extents of Lake Flower into Essex County . Roughly 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) into the county , NY 86 leaves the lakeshore and turns northeastward toward the small hamlet of Ray Brook . Farther east , the highway travels through the Clifford R. Pettis Memorial Forest before arriving in the village of Lake Placid as Saranac Avenue .
NY 86 proceeds eastward through the village , coming within view of Lake Placid before turning south onto Main Street at the western shore of Mirror Lake . As Main , NY 86 runs through the village and along Mirror Lake as the major tourist thoroughfare , passing numerous businesses and the sites of the 1936 and 1980 Winter Olympics . At the southern edge of the village , Route 86 intersects the western terminus of NY 73 .
Outside of Lake Placid , NY 86 enters the town of Wilmington , home of the Olympic Ski Center at Whiteface Mountain . Through Wilmington , the road largely follows the Ausable River northeastward , providing scenic views as it heads through " Wilmington Notch , " noted for trout fishing . At an intersection with the eastern terminus of NY 431 in the hamlet of Wilmington , NY 86 turns eastward and crosses into the town of Jay , where it terminates at NY 9N at the town 's village green .
Route 86 runs adjacent to the west branch of the Ausable River through a stretch that Trout Unlimited 's Guide to America 's 100 Best Trout Streams describes as one of the finest river fishing spots in the United States .
= = History = =
What is now NY 86 from Paul Smiths to Jay via Saranac Lake and Lake Placid was originally part of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway , an auto trail extending across the North American continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , NY 3 was assigned to the entirety of the highway within New York .
NY 3 remained in place up to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it was rerouted onto its modern alignment through the North Country . The portion of former NY 3 from Harrietstown to Jay , as well as a section of former NY 10 ( modern NY 186 ) from Harrietstown to Lake Clear , was redesignated as NY 86 . North of Harrietstown , the former alignment of NY 3 became NY 408 from Harrietstown to Gabriels and the western half of NY 192 from Gabriels to Paul Smiths . NY 408 was co @-@ designated as part of NY 365 c . 1932 , and ultimately supplanted by NY 365 c . 1938 . NY 365 was rerouted in the mid @-@ 1940s , leaving the Harrietstown – Gabriels roadway unnumbered .
In the early 1950s , NY 365 's old routing between Harrietstown and Gabriels was designated as NY 192A , a spur route of NY 192 . NY 192A was removed from the state highway system on January 7 , 1980 , when NY 192 was rerouted east of Gabriels to follow NY 192A . On March 28 , 1989 , NY 192 was eliminated in much the same way as its spur route as NY 86 was rerouted to follow NY 192 through Gabriels to Paul Smiths . NY 86 's former routing past the Adirondack Regional Airport became NY 186 .
= = NY 86A = =
NY 86A was a spur route connecting NY 86 in Lake Placid to NY 9N in Keene . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and replaced by an extended NY 73 in the mid @-@ 1950s .
= = Major intersections = =
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= The Climb ( Miley Cyrus song ) =
" The Climb " is a song performed by American singer Miley Cyrus , for the 2009 film Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song was written by Jessi Alexander and Jon Mabe , and produced by John Shanks . It was released on March 12 , 2009 , as the lead single of the film 's soundtrack by Walt Disney Records . The song is a power ballad with lyrics that describe life as a difficult but rewarding journey . It is styled as a country pop ballad , and was Cyrus ' first solo song to be released to country radio . The instrumentation includes piano , guitar and violins .
The song received a nomination for the Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media at the 52nd Grammy Awards . However , the song was withdrawn from consideration by Walt Disney Records because it had not been written specifically for a movie as the category 's eligibility rules required . The song became a top ten single on charts in Australia , Canada , Norway and the United States . In the United States , it peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and became the eighth best selling digital single of 2009 . Five months after its release , the single was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Matthew Rolston , and depicts scenes of Cyrus climbing a mountain or singing , intercut with clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie . Cyrus promoted the song with several live performances . The first , at the Kids Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event on January 19 , 2009 , was the first time the song had ever been publicly heard . Cyrus also performed the song as the closing number of her Wonder World Tour . The song was also performed during the Gypsy Heart Tour . " The Climb " has been covered by several artists and was the most popular choice of song among auditioners for the ninth season of the American singing contest , American Idol , with Hollie Cavanagh performing it in the top 6 of the eleventh season . Simon Cowell , creator of the British television talent show The X Factor , chose " The Climb " to be the debut single of the winner of the competition 's sixth series . Winner Joe McElderry 's cover , released on December 14 , 2009 by Syco Music , was produced by Quiz & Larossi and topped the Irish Singles Chart and the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background = =
" The Climb " was not intentionally written for the 2009 musical film Hannah Montana : The Movie . Co @-@ writer Jessi Alexander conceived the song 's melody while driving to the home of songwriting partner Jon Mabe . Once she arrived , she and Mabe developed a song about overcoming life 's obstacles inspired by their personal struggles in the music industry . Alexander referred to the process as a form of " therapy " and recalled ,
" I was just driving to work one day . It 's just a typical day , nothing really special about that day . And I just had this melody in my head . And I couldn 't get to my co @-@ writer Jon Mabe or my guitar fast enough because I just wanted to play what I was hearing . And , you know , we just kinda put it down pretty fast and didn 't really think anything about it . The lyrics kinda started to come , I think for both of us , being kinda underdogs in the business . My co @-@ writer was a songplugger , just turned songwriter , and I 'd had record deals and ups and downs in the music business . I think for both of us , we just came from a place of , you know , ' it 's not a race ' . "
The song they created was titled " It 's the Climb " and was written in third person . Alexander described the original song as " more spiritual " than the version that was released , and said it contained lines about prayer . However , she claimed she knew it was pop and suitable for The Walt Disney Company .
Before reaching Cyrus , the song had been rejected by several country artists . It was eventually picked up by Peter Chelsom , director of Hannah Montana : The Movie , who gave it to Cyrus to record for the film . Chelsom found what would become " The Climb " while visiting Nashville , Tennessee , during a quest to find eleven new songs for Hannah Montana : The Movie . After hearing Alexander 's music , Chelsom asked her to submit songs for consideration . Alexander recorded " It 's the Climb " on a CD and gave it to him . Several weeks later , Chelsom called to say that " the song was gonna be an integral part of the movie " . However , he wanted Mabe and Alexander to rework some of the song 's content and to change the song from third person to first person . Alexander felt the changes amounted to a " substantial amount of the song " and commented , " For me , when you change something from third person to first person , it can change the whole meaning of a line . " She and Mabe " wrestl [ ed ] over taking words out " and how much they could change while maintaining the song 's integrity . After a number of drafts , Mabe and Alexander finally created a version they felt was " perfect for the movie " .
Upon receiving the final draft , filmmakers told the songwriters , " This is perfect for Miley , it ’ s gonna change her life , gonna change your life . " Chelsom commented that the song " turned up " the film 's music level by tapping into Cyrus 's newfound vocal range . As with the other songs featured in Hannah Montana : The Movie , the song is " tightly woven into the fabric of the story and the characters " . In the film , Cyrus plays Miley Stewart , a character with a secret double life as superstar Hannah Montana . Keeping this secret causes trouble between Miley and many of the other characters in the film , and leaves Miley confused and contrite . She expresses her emotions by writing " The Climb " . According to film producer Alfred Gough , " The song is her journey , the lessons she 's learned in the movie . It 's an epic [ ... ] power ballad that encapsulates Miley 's journey and the message of the film . "
" The Climb " was chosen as the lead single from the soundtrack due to its country elements , which introduced Cyrus to listeners beyond her usual pop audience . The song is Cyrus 's first solo effort marketed directly to country radio , though she had previously recorded and released a country duet with her father , Billy Ray Cyrus , which was titled " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " , in 2007 . Warren Truitt of About.com referred to the song as " Miley 's serious attempt to break into the contemporary country world . " " The Climb " was leaked to the Internet on February 4 , 2009 , two days prior to its official release for airplay . In October 2009 , it was re @-@ released to countries outside the United States in the international version of Cyrus ' extended play , The Time of Our Lives .
= = Composition = =
" The Climb " is a country pop power ballad that incorporates soft rock and pop rock styles and lasts three minutes and 55 seconds . However , at two minutes and forty @-@ five seconds , a " sudden , spiky burst of violins " enters the song , and the song switches to full power . Todd Martens , co @-@ editor of The Los Angeles Times music column , says Cyrus uses " a raspy voice [ that ] brings a bit of country grit " to the song . " The Climb " is set in common time at a moderate tempo of 80 beats per minute . The song is sung in the key of E major and Cyrus 's vocals span one and a half octaves , from E3 to C # 5 . The song uses a standard issue ballad arrangement with the chord progression , E5 — Asus2 — F ♯ 7sus .
According to music reviewer Fraser McAlpine of the BBC , the song 's lyrics assert that life should be viewed as " a journey which is difficult but rewarding " . Both Martens and McAlpine took special interest in the line " It 's always gonna be an uphill battle / Sometimes I 'm gonna have to lose " . Martens interpreted the line as an acknowledgment by the singer of her own mistakes in life , while McAlpine wrote , " In this song which is about plugging away at things , the writers have slipped in [ ... ] that the occasional setback isn 't the end of the world . "
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reception for the song was generally positive . Fraser McAlpine of the BBC felt the song 's lyrics were generic , but complimented Cyrus vocals : " Miley acquits herself well vocally — there are moments where her voice sounds a tad strained , but it 's good to hear her on a track that 's a little more subdued and with less frantic production than the uptempo , sassy pop songs we 're used to . " Michael Menachem of Billboard magazine called the song " one of the year 's strongest ballads " . Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe praised " The Climb " for being a " pretty liberation anthem " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said , " On tunes like [ ... ] ' The Climb ' , the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Tennessee native turns up her homegrown inflections , but a few elongated r 's won 't exactly shut out her huge pop audience . " Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times believed that " The Climb " was " buried in cheese " and described it as " pre @-@ Valentine 's Day gooeyness " . However , Martens said , " ' The Climb ' is the rare Miley ballad that 's on par with some of her more spunky teen pop . "
Heather Phares of Allmusic said , " the best songs that Cyrus sings on the soundtrack have her own name on them " . She also made musical comparisons to Shania Twain and described the song as " natural , [ ... ] down to earth and grown @-@ up " . While reviewing The Time of Our Lives , Michael Hann of The Guardian called " The Climb " a " one rather superior ballad " , compared to " When I Look at You " and " Obsessed " . Hann said the song was added to the extended play in order to " add some ballast since this collection 's US release . " Jon Caraminica of The New York Times described " The Climb " as an " appealing new single [ that ] is just the sort of demure , inspirational country @-@ rock that could easily be mistaken for self @-@ reckoning . " While reviewing a concert performance , James Reed of The Boston Globe called the song " bland but inspirational fare " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" The Climb " won " Best Song from a Movie " at the 2009 MTV Movie Awards and " Music Choice : Single " at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards . At the 52nd Grammy Awards , " The Climb " received a nomination for the Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media , a songwriter 's award . However , Walt Disney Records withdrew the song from consideration because the song was not " written specifically for a motion picture , television or other visual media " , as the Grammy eligibility rules dictated . According to Rolling Stone magazine , " The Climb " was submitted for consideration by mistake . The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences ( NARAS ) , the presenters of the Grammy Awards , released a statement stating , " Walt Disney Records was proactive and forthcoming to our awards department and verified that the song was not written specifically for the film Hannah Montana : The Movie . Based on this information , the Academy has complied with the label 's request . " NARAS replaced the nomination with the song with the next highest initial vote count , " All is Love " , which was written by Karen O and Nick Zinner for the film Where the Wild Things Are . Dan Milliken of Country Universe gave the song a D + . His review consisted solely of two motivational posters : one reading " Life : Its [ sic ] not about the destination , but the journey " to describe the song 's content , and a mock poster reading " Success : Everything is easy when you 're cute " for his actual review . He later expanded his review , calling it " a soulless rephrasing of an extremely famous philosophical message ( so famous it borders on cliche ) that doesn ’ t provide an emotionally coherent context or justification " . Milliken gave the song a higher grade because " she ’ s a pretty good singer for someone her age " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending March 7 , 2009 , " The Climb " debuted at number 48 on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs . It was , incidentally , the same week that " Back to Tennessee " , by Cyrus 's father , Billy Ray Cyrus , debuted at number 59 , the first time a father and daughter had separate charting songs on the chart since Johnny and Rosanne Cash charted in 1990 with " Silver Stallion " and " One Step over the Line " , respectively . " The Climb " eventually peaked at number 25 on the country @-@ genre chart . For the week ending March 21 , 2009 , the song debuted at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 due to sales of 166 @,@ 000 digital downloads , thus making " The Climb " Cyrus 's highest @-@ charting effort at the time , surpassing her previous best @-@ charting effort " 7 Things " , which peaked at number nine in July 2008 . For the week ending May 2 , 2009 , the song reached its peak at number four on the Hot 100 . " The Climb " also peaked at number seven on the Pop 100 chart , 42 on Hot Christian Songs , and at number one for 15 consecutive weeks on Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks . Cyrus became the youngest artist to top Adult Contemporary since LeAnn Rimes entered the chart in 1997 with " How Do I Live " . According to Billboard , " The Climb " was the eighth best selling digital single of 2009 . The single was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the sales of over two million copies . As of January 2014 , " The Climb " has sold 3 @,@ 709 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , " The Climb " entered at number 17 and eventually peaked at number five . The single was certified triple platinum by Music Canada for the sales of 240 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
" The Climb " was also a success in Australia and New Zealand . The song made its debut on the Australian Singles Chart at number 46 on April 19 , 2009 . After ten weeks on the chart , " The Climb " reached number five on the chart , where it stayed for two consecutive weeks . " The Climb " was placed at number 84 on the decade @-@ end Australian Singles Chart . The song has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales above 70 @,@ 000 . " The Climb " debuted in the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 25 on April 13 , 2009 and reached its peak at number 12 on June 15 , 2009 . On September 4 , 2009 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales exceeding 7 @,@ 500 copies .
In the UK Singles Chart , " The Climb " made its entry at number 82 on March 28 , 2009 and reached its peak at number 11 on June 16 , 2009 . With its peak at number 11 , it tied for Cyrus 's best @-@ charting effort on the chart with " See You Again " from October 2008 . The single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipment of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , the song also peaked at number 11 . In mainland Europe , the song peaked at number 23 on Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , number eleven on Belgian Tip Singles Chart ( Flanders ) , and number five on Norwegian Singles Chart . The song experienced similar commercial outcomes throughout the rest of Europe ; it appeared within the top 30 of charts in Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , and France .
= = Music video = =
Matthew Rolston directed the music video for " The Climb " , which premiered on Cyrus 's Myspace page on February 11 , 2009 . The video commences with a shot of Cyrus holding a guitar and a suitcase as she begins to walk down a long path extending through a valley . At the end of the valley , the sun breaks out over a distant mountain . The entire scene is enhanced with computer @-@ generated imagery . Cyrus has her hair tied in a bun and wears a traveling jacket , a gray tank top and cowboy boots . In a separate setting , Cyrus , wearing a gray short sleeve shirt and her hair loose , begins to sing " The Climb " beneath a blue spotlight in a purple room . The two settings alternate throughout the video . A vignetted scene from Hannah Montana : The Movie appears in front of Cyrus as she walks on the path . The video zooms into the scene and a montage of film clips plays , featuring Cyrus 's character and her love interest , Travis Brody ( played by Lucas Till ) horseback riding . The video returns to Cyrus walking ; she picks up a rose fallen on the path , then throws it behind her . As the video progresses , she also sees things such as a herd of horses and a shooting star cross her path . A new setting enters the video in which Cyrus dances in a purple room with a countdown or , occasionally , film clips projected on the wall behind her . Rain begins to pour in the path setting . Cyrus puts down her jacket , guitar case , suitcase and boots , and continues onwards with only her guitar strapped to her shoulder . More film clip montages play in the same manner as the first . As the last montage ends , Cyrus finally reaches the summit of a reddish , CGI mountain and triumphantly looks over the cliff 's edge to watch the sun shining over a shimmering lake . An alternate version of the music video excluding the Hannah Montana : The Movie clips exists and was sent to several channels , including VH1 .
Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times wrote that while he enjoyed the song , he was unsure about the video . He commented that while the video was an improvement since Cyrus 's video for " 7 Things " ( 2008 ) , the settings in " The Climb " music video looked as though they had been painted by Thomas Kinkade and Cyrus 's dancing appeared off @-@ beat . Travis of MTV described the video as " beautifully shot ( although heavily digitized ) " . Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo ! Music remarked that the summit setting was similar to that of the music video for Britney Spears ' " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " . Parker also felt the scene in which Cyrus looks out over the cliff , shot using large sweeps with an aerial camera , had been " lifted straight out of an ' 80s Bon Jovi video " . In 2009 , the video received a MuchMusic Video nomination for Best International Artist Video , but lost to Lady Gaga 's music video for " Poker Face " .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus opened the Kids ' Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event with the premiere of " The Climb " . The event was held on January 19 , 2009 , in Washington D.C. at the Verizon Center to celebrate the inauguration of Barack Obama as President of the United States . Cyrus , dressed in an embroidered red ball gown made by Reem Acra , dedicated the song to Obama 's daughters , Sasha and Malia Obama . Following the song 's official release in March 2009 , Cyrus resumed promotion for " The Climb " , performing live for shows including American Idol , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , the 44th annual Academy of Country Music Awards , Good Morning America , and Live with Regis and Kelly throughout April . On April 13 , Cyrus performed " The Climb " as part of her set for the AOL Sessions . On April 24 , Cyrus sang " The Climb " and other songs in a London Apple Store . The performances were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as a live extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On June 7 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at the 20th annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , an outdoor carnival supporting the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . Cyrus also sang " The Climb " on The Today Show on August 28 and at the first D23 Expo on September 11 , 2009 .
To promote the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack , Cyrus performed " The Climb " on a six @-@ day , five @-@ city acoustic radio promo tour that reached over 250 radio shows . The song was also used as the closing number of Cyrus ' 2009 Wonder World Tour , her first world tour . During the tour performances , Cyrus performed in a white tank top and shorts , boots , and a metallic vest , while giant overhead video screens displayed sunsets . After finishing , Cyrus exited through a passageway in the stage while the images of shooting stars and the earth in space appeared on the screen . Melinda M. Thompson of The Oregonian described the performance as " really a moment to remember — Miley 's soulful and touching rendition of ' The Climb ' " , while Jim Harrington of The Oakland Tribune said the performance was a " tender closer " that drew a large response at the September 18 concert in Oakland , California , at the Oracle Arena . Cyrus later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concert in Lisbon , Portugal and the London , England nightclubs Heaven and G @-@ A @-@ Y.
Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour . She also performed this song on CNN Heroes on December 11 , 2011 .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Cover versions = =
" The Climb " has been covered by several amateurs and established acts . Mirror Image Records ' indie rock group HelenaMaria covered the song and released it as a digital single in March 2009 . At auditions for the ninth season of the television singing competition American Idol , " The Climb " was the most popular choice of song amongst contestants . Mandi Bierly , writing for Entertainment Weekly , commented , " it sounds like we could get an Idol whose voice actually suits the inspirational tune that he or she will be forced to record as a first single . ( Though the odds of that song being anywhere as good as ' The Climb ' ... ) " . While informing Cyrus of its popularity on American Idol , the series ' host Ryan Seacrest commented that the contestants " believe [ it is ] a song that will make an impression and [ ... ] will get them into that next level " . Cyrus said she was pleased because the song was about " following your dreams and not giving up " .
= = Joe McElderry version = =
= = = Background and composition = = =
In the same year of " The Climb " ' s original release , British executive Simon Cowell chose for Joe McElderry , Olly Murs , and Stacey Solomon , the three finalists of the sixth series of the British television talent contest The X Factor , to record the song in preparation for a single release as soon as the winner was announced . After Solomon 's elimination , Murs and McElderry sang the song on December 13 , 2009 , as their final performance in the competition . Upon winning the competition , McElderry 's version of " The Climb " , produced by Quiz & Larossi , was released on December 14 , 2009 by Syco Music as the first single from his debut studio album Wide Awake ( 2010 ) .
McElderry said that the lyrics to " The Climb " meant a lot to him : " It 's an emotional song because it 's what 's been happening in the last few months . It all feels very , very surreal . " According to Peter Robinson of The Guardian , the cover has a " plinky " piano in its introduction . In regards to lyrics , Robinson interpreted , " lines about ' uphill battles ' and ' having to lose ' do seem to talk of Joe 's probable future . "
= = = Reception = = =
Peter Robinson of The Guardian described " The Climb " as a " controversially uncontroversial choice " for a cover and continued , " While ' The Climb ' might be a suitable choice for a winner 's single , the fact that it 's a cover of such a recent song means that it 's still slightly odd . "
On the week ending 26 December 2009 , " The Climb " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart ; its debut position was influenced by a campaign composed of Facebook group members , aimed at getting Rage Against the Machine 's 1992 single " Killing in the Name " to the top position during Christmas week . In the following week , the song reached number one , becoming the final number one of the 2000s decade , where it maintained for a week . The single was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments exceeding 600 @,@ 000 copies . The song has sold 810 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of January 2015 .
" The Climb " debuted at number one on the Irish Singles Chart on the week ending December 17 , 2009 , where it maintained in the top position for four consecutive weeks . In mainland Europe , the song charted in the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles at number four on the week ending January 9 , 2010 .
= = = Music video = = =
The video was shot on 16 December 2009 , in London , England . The video begins with footage from The X Factor and then transitions to a close @-@ up shot of McElderry in the main setting , a flooded cityscape — the scene was shot in a flooded set with a cityscape backdrop . McElderry is clothed by a grey vest and a grey shirt , as he stands in the setting and performs . Throughout the entire video , scenes alternate between the flooded cityscape setting and recycled footage from The X Factor , which are in black and white until it shows him in the live shows in colour . The video concludes with McElderry being informed he won the competition , hugging his peers .
= = = Track listings = = =
Digital download
" The Climb " – 3 : 36
CD single
" The Climb " – 3 : 36
" Somebody to Love " – 2 : 38
" Don 't Let the Sun Go Down on Me " – 2 : 27
= = = Charts and certifications = = =
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= Philippine Idol =
Philippine Idol is the first version of the Idol series in the Philippines , the 35th country in the world to air a local Idol adaptation and the sixth in Asia . The franchise was first awarded by FremantleMedia , 19 Entertainment and CKX , Inc. to ABC Development Corporation ( ABC now TV5 ) in 2006 and then to GMA Network in 2008 . Just like the premise of original show Pop Idol , Philippine Idol aims to find the best singer in the country who can be defined as the " national " singer . Local television personality Ryan Agoncillo hosted the program . Ryan Cayabyab ( musical composer ) , Pilita Corrales ( singer , known as Asia 's Queen of Songs ) and Francis Magalona ( rapper and producer ) were also judges of the show . Agoncillo , Corrales and Magalona auditioned to be part of the program , while Cayabyab was chosen by the program 's producers . Meanwhile , actress Heart Evangelista hosted the daily updates program I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive . Composer Mel Villena was the show 's musical director .
Mau Marcelo , an aspiring singer from Lucena City , defeated two other contenders on the show 's Finale to become the first Philippine Idol . FremantleMedia subsequently awarded the franchise to GMA Network and their version of the program was named Pinoy Idol , which does not recognize the results of ABC 's franchise .
= = Production = =
ABC started negotiating with FremantleMedia in order to acquire a Philippine franchise of Idol in 2004 , when Filipino @-@ American Jasmine Trias placed third in American Idol 's third season . It reportedly cost millions of dollars . During the program 's development stage , notable personalities in music and recording industries tried out to become Idol judges , including former Eraserheads vocalist Ely Buendia , singer @-@ actress Pinky Marquez , and talent manager Wyngard Tracy . The chosen judges were addressed according to their agreed @-@ upon nicknames : Cayabyab was called " Mr. C " , Corrales called " Mamita " , and Magalona , " Kiko " .
Before it was launched , there was skepticism among the local entertainment press about Philippine Idol as singing contests are common in local television , with recent ones branded as Idol knockoffs . The Filipino culture of " westernized conservatism " was also noted , as Pinoys tend to shy away from direct criticism especially in front of cameras . Promotion began during the Finale of American Idol season 5 . One of its taglines reads , " Hindi lang STAR , hindi lang SUPERSTAR , kundi PHILIPPINE IDOL " ( Not just a STAR , not just a SUPERSTAR , but a PHILIPPINE IDOL ) . This was in reference to two singing contests being held during that time — Search for the Star in a Million on ABS @-@ CBN and Pinoy Pop Superstar on GMA Network . Initially , the program was scheduled to begin on July 29 , 2006 , but ABC moved it to July 30 , 2006 . On its premiere , Philippine Idol registered a 7 @.@ 7 % rating according to an independent survey , in contrast to GMA Network 's Mel and Joey at 21 % and ABS @-@ CBN 's Rated K at 26 @.@ 7 % . ABC officials , however , were overwhelmed at the results , considering they were up against " giant networks " . They also noted that ratings for Philippine Idol increased to as much as 12 % towards the final 30 minutes of first episode .
Early reviews compared the show with American Idol , which was shown locally on ABC . Entertainment writers said that the local Idol franchise was not as glossy as its American counterpart , but it was able to succeed because of promising elements such as human interest , talent , and proper casting of judges and host . Meanwhile , reviews during the Finale were mixed , with Nestor Torre of the Philippine Daily Inquirer commenting that the Performance Show was phlegmatic and anticlimactic as the Final Three failed to rise up to the challenge and instead played safe , while Results Show was stretched out with one unspectacular number after another . He also noticed sound glitches , which he blamed on faulty equipment and lax personnel . In contrast , Billy Balbastro of Abante Tonite wrote that he was impressed with the show 's " flow " , song choices , pacing , and camera shots . He also noted that the Finale did not have melodrama and lingering shots for the sake of effects .
= = Auditions = =
The main auditions were held in three cities , each representing a major island group : Pasay ( advertised as Manila ) for Luzon , on June 3 , 2006 , in Philippine International Convention Center ; Davao for Mindanao , on June 23 , 2006 , in Waterfront Insular Hotel ; and Cebu for Visayas , on July 4 , 2006 , in Bigfoot Entertainment ’ s International Academy of Film and Television . Meanwhile , Fast @-@ Track Screenings were also held in SM Supermalls located in Baguio , Lucena , Batangas , Iloilo , and Cagayan de Oro between May and June 2006 . Screenings were also held in cities without an SM Mall such as Dagupan , Ilagan in Isabela , Tacloban , and Zamboanga . Applicants were asked to fill out necessary forms and perform two songs before a set of judges , usually from local radio and music industries . Successful applicants were given a pass for the Main Auditions . ABC and its media partners Radio Mindanao Network and Manila Broadcasting Company provided free transportation , food and lodging to those who were eligible for Theater Eliminations .
The Luzon Main Auditions and Fast @-@ Tracks yielded over 10 @,@ 000 registrants , with Contestant no . 0001 arriving at the audition venue at 1 : 00 a.m. , auditions starting at 9 : 00 a.m. The Main Auditions were composed of three stages — passing the first two stages gave the participant a blue form , allowing them to face the Idol judges about a week later . The Idol judges were so overwhelmed with the amount of talent presented to them that it was difficult for them to say " no " to hopefuls who did not pass their standards . Cayabyab exasperatedly stated during the Luzon Main Auditions ,
He admitted becoming angry at times and felt like he was the anti @-@ hero because of intense reactions from rejects who viewed the competition as a ticket out of poverty . The judges even allowed candidates to sing up to five " redemption songs " after saying " no " for the first time . After seeing the auditions , FremantleMedia supervising producer Sheldon Bailey said that she was amazed at the abundance of musical talent in the Philippines as well as the amount of touching human stories .
= = Theater round = =
The Theater Round was held between August 1 and August 3 , 2006 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines . A total of 169 competitors received the Gold Pass from the three main judges , 119 from Luzon and Metro Manila , 17 from Davao , and 33 from Cebu . However , only 157 showed up for the Theater Round as other Gold Passers either backed out or were allegedly " pirated " to join rival talent search Pinoy Dream Academy . They were billeted at the Bayview Park Hotel , where Gold Passers from outside Luzon arrived after a first @-@ class trip in Super Ferry , while the Luzon contenders were picked up in selected SM Malls . The contestants were divided into 11 groups with 15 members . Each contestant performed an a cappella , after which the judges selected who would go home and advance to the next round . From 157 contestants , 84 were chosen to proceed to the group performance , with each group having three members . The list was trimmed down further to 40 contestants , each of which sang solo with a piano accompaniment . Eventually the judges selected the 24 contestants who would compete in the Semi @-@ Final Round . The Top 24 was officially announced on August 27 , 2006 .
= = Semifinal round = =
The Semi @-@ Finalists were then divided by gender , with the two groups performing alternately at SM Megamall Cinema 3 on a stage built specifically for the live shows . The viewers voted for their favorites by dialing a toll @-@ free telephone number or sending an SMS as often as possible from the end of the show until 8 : 30 p.m. the following day . The four contestants of each group who received the highest number of votes entered the Finals . Ten of the remaining 16 semi @-@ finalists then performed in a Wildcard round , with four contestants with the highest number of votes completing the Top 12 Finalists . Candidates for the Wildcard were announced after the second Semi @-@ Finals Results Show , although it was shown on television a day later in Philippine Idol : Exclusive .
= = Final round = =
The Final Round started on September 30 , 2006 , in which each finalist sang one to three songs within a specified theme and received comments from each of the judges . The viewers continued to vote for their favorites until 8 : 30 p.m. the following day , which was shortened to two hours from the Fifth Finals Week . The finalist with the lowest number of votes was eliminated during the Results Show every week . However , there were special circumstances that did not result in eliminations during the Results Show , but then the votes were carried over the week after and eventually eliminated two finalists . The 12 Finalists also recorded a compilation album entitled Philippine Idol : The Final 12 , consisting of Original Pilipino Music songs they have performed during the first Finals Week . The remaining three contenders , namely Gian Magdangal , Jan Nieto , and Mau Marcelo , competed in the Finale , instead of the usual two contestants in most Idol shows , held on December 9 and December 10 , 2006 , at the Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City .
= = = Weekly themes = = =
September 30 – OPM songs dedicated to a special someone
October 7 – Soul / R & B
October 14 – Songs from the Metropop Song Festival
October 21 – Contemporary Filipino rock
October 29 – Personal theme songs
November 5 – Dance music
November 12 – Radio hits
November 19 – Movie themes , and Broadway show tunes
November 26 – Big band
December 9 – Personal choice , Judges ' and Musical director 's choice , and Record company 's choice
= = = Guest judges = = =
A guest judge was enlisted each week for five weeks beginning on October 14 while resident judge Magalona was away on a tour in Europe . Additionally , a sixth guest judge supplemented the panel on the week of Magalona 's return . Each guest judge generally had expertise relating to that week 's theme .
October 14 – Hajji Alejandro ( interpreter of the first winning song of the Metropop Song Festival )
October 21 – Wency Cornejo ( songwriter and front man of AfterImage )
October 29 – Luke Mejares ( solo artist and former vocalist of South Border )
November 5 – Regine Tolentino ( professional dancer , former MTV VJ and TV personality )
November 12 – Mo Twister ( radio DJ and talk show host )
November 19 – Lea Salonga ( Tony Award @-@ winning singer and musical theatre performer )
= = = Notable events = = =
On the first Finals Week , no contestants were eliminated due to disrupted telephone and mobile phone services in many areas of Luzon , caused by Typhoon Xangsane . In the results show , finalists still went through a familiar elimination routine . Agoncillo called three contestants to an area dubbed the " Hot Spot " before revealing that no one would be eliminated and the votes would be carried over to the succeeding week . This was done because there were no official results to be announced . According to sources from the network , the votes were not yet counted at the time . ABC @-@ 5 Director for Creative and Entertainment Production Perci Intalan stated that the three finalists who were put in the " Hot Spot " ( Marcelo , Armarie Cruz and Jelli Mateo ) were not necessarily the Bottom Three . Intalan said , " We were not allowed to announce who the Bottom Three were because the votes will be carried over next week and it might affect the voting if people knew who the Bottom Three were . " As a result , two contenders — Stef Lazaro and Drae Ybañez — were eliminated the following week . Another non @-@ elimination occurred on the fourth Finals Week due to reports of disrupted voting ( among Sun Cellular and Smart subscribers ) . The votes amassed for this week were carried over to Week 5 . Through the rest of the results night , each of the judges picked one finalist to give an encore performance : Cornejo picked Cruz , Corrales chose Marcelo , and Cayabyab picked Magdangal .
Schedules were changed starting the Fifth Finals Week , with performances held on Sundays while elimination nights were on Mondays , as opposed to the previous arrangement of Saturday performances and Sunday eliminations . The voting time was also shortened from 21 to 2 hours . Agoncillo explained that this change was adopted ( partly due to public clamor ) from the voting period of American Idol . Mateo and Cruz were eliminated because of the non @-@ elimination on the previous week .
On the Seventh Finals Week , each finalist sang a song chosen for them by a fellow Idol based on these assigned pairings : Magdangal and Nieto , Marcelo and Mendoza , Chavez and Dingle . After the night 's performances , guest judge Mo Twister confidently said that Dingle would be eliminated the next night and even wagered that he would go to work in a dress for a week if his prediction proved wrong . Dingle was indeed eliminated the following night . The Big Band Week became a " mini @-@ concert " , as each of the remaining four finalists performed two song numbers with a short spiel to the audience in between . The following week featured special segments about the final three contenders : Marcelo , Magdangal , and Nieto .
= = = Finale = = =
Philippine Idol held its Performance Night Finale on December 9 , 2006 , at the Araneta Coliseum , which was dubbed The Big 3 at the Big Dome . Each of the three remaining contenders performed three songs , one personally chosen by the contestant , one by the judges and one by Sony BMG Music Philippines . Agoncillo hosted the performance night alone ; he was joined the next night by Heart Evangelista . Each song was performed with Villena 's " mega band " and the San Miguel Philharmonic Orchestra . The next night at the same venue , the star @-@ studded results show was held , headlined by Magdangal , Marcelo , and Nieto together with the rest of the Final 12 . The show also included performances from Cueshé , Aiza Seguerra , the SexBomb Girls , G Toengi , Hajji Alejandro , and Gary Valenciano , as well as resident judges Francis Magalona and Pilita Corrales . Ryan Cayabyab also performed his compositions by joining the finalists through his piano accompaniment . In what can be regarded as the climax of the show , the Final 12 and resident judges Corrales and Cayabyab performed a medley of songs composed by Cayabyab , including an original one which he made with finalist Miguel Mendoza entitled " Here I Am " .
Marcelo was voted as the first Philippine Idol , amassing about 35 @.@ 26 % of the vote . The vote was a hotly contested one with the runners @-@ up earning about 33 @.@ 84 % and 30 @.@ 90 % of the votes . It was not revealed , however , which runner @-@ up garnered which percentage , but they each received ₱ 250 @,@ 000 . Aside from the title , Marcelo also earned a contract with Sony BMG Music Philippines , a management contract with an agency of FremantleMedia 's choice , a ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 non @-@ exclusive contract with ABC , and ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash prize .
= = Elimination chart = =
1 Due to the power interruptions and network problems , no elimination was held on October 1 . All votes cast for the week were carried over to the following week.2 Two contestants were eliminated this week in lieu of the non @-@ elimination the week before.3 Due to network problems , no contestant was eliminated . All votes caat for the week were carried over to the following week . This serves as Philippine Idol 's Second Non @-@ elimination week.4 Two contestants were eliminated this week in lieu of the non = elimination the week before . This also marks the first Monday elimination , as performance nights were moved to Sundays , with eliminations moved to Mondays .
= = Kakaibang Idol = =
Kakaibang Idol was a special episode of Philippine Idol held on September 23 , 2006 , a week after the Top 12 Finalists have been named . It was an interactive reality singing competition consisting of notable auditionees who either did not pass or failed to make it through Semifinals . The program was named Kakaibang Idol ( A Different Kind of Idol ) because the seven contestants made an impact among viewers . The twelve finalists were present that night , but only performed at the beginning and end of the show . Likewise , Magalona , Corrales , and Cayabyab took a back seat , appearing in clips taking their " times off " . Taking over jury duties that night were comedic performers Ethel Booba , Arnell Ignacio , and Tuesday Vargas . Although the event served as a breather , voting was still active , involving viewers picking the performer who should be proclaimed Kakaibang Idol . The next night , with finalists and judges present , Kenneth Paul " Yova " Alonzo — a transgender call center agent from Cebu City — was chosen by viewers as Kakaibang Idol .
= = I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive = =
I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive , originally Philippine Idol : Exclusive , is a thirty @-@ minute daily program that features updates , news and behind @-@ the @-@ scene footages of the show . Since its premiere on August 14 , 2006 , a male voice talent ( who also voices the plugs for ABC programs ) has been facilitating the program , with appearances by Jmie Mempin who is also a production associate of Philippine Idol . Actress Heart Evangelista took over on September 4 , 2006 . Accordingly , Philippine Idol : Exclusive was renamed I Love Philippine Idol : Exclusive with a heart shape reflecting the new host .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Auditions = = =
A Fast @-@ Track audition that was to be held at SM City Sta . Mesa was canceled , leading to complaints from hopefuls and their parents . After hours of waiting , a representative of ABC arrived and relocated each of the 160 frustrated applicants to other scheduled screening . Meanwhile , Filipinos living in Mindanao reacted negatively to what Philippine Idol judges said after a low Gold Pass turnout at the Davao Main Auditions , with Corrales ( a Cebuana herself ) saying that " Davao is not the place to look for an Idol " and " all the good ones are in Cebu " . Corrales later clarified in the Wildcard Round that she said such a statement because of the low turnout in the Davao auditions and the even lower Gold Pass output . She added that " Davao 's best talents " might have probably auditioned earlier in Manila .
= = = Talent piracy = = =
ABC confirmed that a Gold Passer ( later identified in the show 's official website as Czarina Rose Rosales ) was pirated by ABS @-@ CBN 's Pinoy Dream Academy , the Philippine franchise of Star Academy . Sources said that representatives of ABS @-@ CBN even approached a judge to " just let ( some of ) the contestants go " . This came after news that ABS @-@ CBN wanted to co @-@ produce Philippine Idol with ABC , but was denied . ABS @-@ CBN sent a letter to the Philippine Daily Inquirer , which published the said report denying the allegations . The network added that they successfully staged competitions without taking contestants from other contests and would fully respect a contestant 's choice as to which competition they would join . Auditions for Pinoy Dream Academy were being held before the Theater eliminations . ABC then sent a formal letter of complaint to ABS @-@ CBN , alleging that three Gold Passers of Philippine Idol became contestants of Pinoy Dream Academy . The latter did not comment on the letter , as neither of the three talents questioned became a finalist of that show .
= = = Vote padding = = =
Upon the announcement of the first four male finalists , there were viewers of the show who had negative reactions regarding its format . They were shocked , disappointed , and were left complaining as two of the contestants that were favored by the judges based on their performances failed to make the cut . Instead , two others who had rather bad reviews from the jurors took the spots . Viewers critical to the program concluded that it was just another " popularity contest " rather than a singing competition . Cayabyab mentioned that people should not be complacent regarding the contestants ' status on the show , and advised them to keep on voting for their favorites because of the show 's uncertainty . This criticism was also reflected during the Women 's Semi @-@ finals , as talent critics believed two contenders that failed to make the cut should have become finalists . Critics also noted that viewers did not take heed to the judges ' remarks about performance . Torre stated in his article that the results of Philippine Idol Semi @-@ finals revealed that viewers were not yet knowledgeable or objective enough to pick the first Idol , and pointed to the compromised voting based on " subjective campaigns " from some of the semi @-@ finalists ' backers . He later commented that the show did not affirm a contestant 's popularity but " the determination and deep pockets of his supporters . " This was supported on a report published by the Manila Bulletin about contestants who " buy their way to the top " . Cayabyab divulged that he did not expect the way people voted and would see if that trend would continue in the coming weeks . However , he admitted that such campaigns were part of the game .
= = = Looks over talent = = =
During the Results Show of the Wildcard Round , Marcelo jokingly said that Philippine Idol is not a singing contest but a " pagandahan " ( beauty contest ) , which received a thunderous applause and laughter ( especially from Cayabyab ) . Her statement was interpreted in two ways : as a way of venting out her frustrations in the voting process or as a means of sarcasm . She later made it to the Finals . In a later interview in I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive , she said that she did not mean anything . Marcelo later apologized for her remarks during the Finale 's post @-@ results show press conference . The judges were also scored by viewers for their constant comments about contestants who should lose weight , especially Marcelo . Marcelo admitted getting hurt by comments on so @-@ called physical flaws , adding that she entered a " singing contest " not a " dancing competition " . Cayabyab said that he avoids commenting on the singer 's physical attributes .
= = = Cayabyab losing cool = = =
Cayabyab had shown signs of frustration during Results Shows where the best performers of the previous night got eliminated . He finally expressed his disgust over the results after Sajor 's elimination , calling it " dreadful " . He also appeared to have surrendered the prospect of finding the best singer in the contest , predicting that it would be a " lightweight competition " with contestants singing nursery rhymes .
= = Transition to Pinoy Idol = =
Although it had previously announced that it would , ABC did not produce a second season of Philippine Idol ' Sources stated that ABC had incurred large losses producing the first season due to lower than expected advertising revenue .
On September 16 , 2007 , FremantleMedia officially announced that the Idol franchise would be given to GMA Network under the name Pinoy Idol . FremantleMedia representative Geraldine Bravo said that it was " very fortunate " to find a new partner , while GMA Network 's Senior Vice President for Entertainment Wilma Galvante added that both parties agreed that the network " has the experience , the resources , and the people to mount talent @-@ search programs " . Reports said that GMA was planning to treat Pinoy Idol as a completely different show , without referring to Philippine Idol as its " first season " and not recognizing Marcelo as the " first winner " . Agoncillo and Cayabyab would not reprise their roles in the new Idol show as they appeared in the second season of Pinoy Dream Academy .
In an article published before Pinoy Idol 's premiere , Torre gave the lapses in Philippine Idol which he hoped Pinoy Idol should not replicate , such as Agoncillo 's less than effective hosting style and the somewhat scripted and less wise comments of Magalona and Corrales .
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= Båtsfjord Airport =
Båtsfjord Airport ( Norwegian : Båtsfjord lufthavn , IATA : BJF , ICAO : ENBS ) is a regional airport serving Båtsfjord in Finnmark , Norway . It consists of a 1 @,@ 000 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 by 98 ft ) runway and served 12 @,@ 363 passengers in 2014 . Scheduled services are provided by Widerøe using the Dash 8 to Kirkenes , Hammerfest and other communities in Finnmark . The airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor .
It is the second airport in Båtsfjord . The first was built in 1973 , but only had a gravel runway . When Widerøe replaced their smaller de Havilland Canada Twin Otters with the Dash 8 , a new airport was needed to serve Båtsfjord . The new airport cost 178 million Norwegian krone and opened on 9 September 1999 .
= = History = =
The first airline to operate to Båtsfjord was Varangfly , later renamed Norving , who flew seaplane taxi and ambulance flights in the early 1960s . Construction of an airfield in Båtsfjorddalen was started by the aviation club Båtsfjord Flyklubb in 1972 and completed in May 1973 . It consisted of an 800 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) gravel runway and was served with regular flights by Norving . The municipality took over ownership of the airport in 1976 . Norving remained the sole operator until 1990 , when the routes were taken over by Widerøe using the Twin Otter .
The Ministry of Transport and Communications announced in February 1993 that they were considering taking over ownership and operations of the airport through the Civil Aviation Administration ( CAA , later renamed Avinor ) . In December , Widerøe articulated that Båtsfjord Airport did not meet the demands for future operation as it lacked proper navigational aids and an asphalt runway . Widerøe stated that with the introduction of the Dash 8 , which would be phased in between 1993 and 1995 , they would no longer be able to serve the airport . The CAA stated , instead , that the new airport should be built , estimated to cost between 70 and 80 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The main reason was that the former airport was poorly located in relation to the terrain , being located in a valley . In April 1994 the ministry stated that they were considering closing many of the smallest regional airports , including Båtsfjord .
In April 1995 , when Parliament decided to nationalize twenty @-@ six regional airports owned by their respective municipalities , they also debated a proposal to build a new airport in Båtsfjord . At the time Widerøe was obliged to operate routes to the airport until 31 March 1997 . In December 1995 , Widerøe took delivery of their fifteenth Dash 8 and thus their only need for a Twin Otter was to serve Båtsfjord . From 1994 to 1997 , the cost estimates for the new airport increased from NOK 95 to 125 million . By June 1998 , Parliament approved additional funding which brought the cost to NOK 178 million , including a new county road for NOK 8 million . The airport opened on 9 September 1999 . From the opening Widerøe used the Twin Otter until 1 April 2000 , when the route was taken over by larger Dash 8 aircraft . Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 .
= = Facilities = =
The terminal consists of a single building , with an integrated control tower , capable of handling 120 passengers per hour . The facade is covered in Russian larch ; the focus on wood as a dominant material was common for Norwegian architecture the 1990s , and is also seen at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen ( opened in 1998 ) and for the venues of the 1994 Winter Olympics . The terminal was designed by Alta @-@ based architect Solveig Thorsen and is shaped like an aircraft wing , similar to the terminal building at Gardermoen . There is a single gate at the airport , which prior to the installation of security control was 17 steps from the entrance .
The airport resides at an elevation of 149 meters ( 489 ft ) above mean sea level . The runway is designated 03 – 21 , with an asphalt surface measuring 1 @,@ 000 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 by 98 ft ) . SCAT @-@ I , a Global Positioning System @-@ based landing system , is under deployment . It is possible to extend the runway to 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) if desirable in the future . The tarmac has space for three simultaneous aircraft . The airport is located ten minutes ' drive ( 7 km / 4 mi ) from the town center . There are taxis , paid parking and car rental available , but no bus service .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
All services from the airport are operated by Widerøe with 39 @-@ seat Dash @-@ 8 @-@ 100 aircraft . All routes , though not necessarily direct , fly to either Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen , Hammerfest Airport or Tromsø Airport . The routes from Båtsfjord are operated on a public service obligation with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . The airport served 12 @,@ 363 passengers , 2 @,@ 494 aircraft movements and handled 3 tons of cargo in 2012 . The airport operated with a deficit of NOK 20 million in 2012 .
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= Maryland Route 16 =
Maryland Route 16 ( MD 16 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 51 @.@ 06 miles ( 82 @.@ 17 km ) from Taylors Island east to the Delaware state line in Hickman , where the highway continues as Delaware Route 16 ( DE 16 ) . MD 16 connects Cambridge with several communities in northern Dorchester County and southwestern Caroline , including East New Market and Preston . The state highway runs concurrently with U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) near Cambridge , MD 331 between East New Market and Preston , and both MD 404 and MD 313 near Andersontown . MD 16 was constructed between Church Creek and Preston as one of the original state roads in the early and mid @-@ 1910s . The highway was extended in both directions in the late 1910s : north to what was to be designated MD 313 near Denton and west to Taylors Island . MD 16 was extended through Andersontown to the Delaware state line in the early 1930s . MD 16 's bypass of Cambridge was constructed in the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MD 16 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from Dailsville Road at the western city limit of Cambridge east to US 50 in Cambridge . The highway is also a part of the main National Highway System along its concurrencies with US 50 near Cambridge and MD 404 near Denton .
= = = Dorchester County = = =
MD 16 begins on Taylors Island a short distance west of the bridge over Slaughter Creek to the mainland . The roadway continues west as county @-@ maintained Hoopers Neck Road , which provides access to the historic Ridgeton Farm , Grace Episcopal Church Complex , and Bethlehem Methodist Episcopal Church . MD 16 heads northeast from the island as two @-@ lane Taylors Island Road . The state highway crosses Parsons Creek and passes through the hamlets of Madison and Woolford on its way to the town of Church Creek , where MD 16 intersects MD 335 ( Golden Hill Road ) . MD 16 continues northeast as Church Creek Road toward Cambridge , where the state highway intersects MD 341 ( Race Street ) , which is the old alignment of MD 16 , just beyond Cambridge @-@ South Dorchester High School along the southern edge of the city . MD 16 continues east and intersects the Seaford Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad , then curves north to US 50 ( Ocean Gateway ) . The state highway joins US 50 in a concurrency along the four @-@ lane divided highway . US 50 and MD 16 intersect Bucktown Road , which leads southeast to Cambridge @-@ Dorchester Airport , and both ends of MD 750 ( Old Route 50 ) before reaching the eastern end of the concurrency in the community of Whitehall , also known as Mount Holly .
MD 16 heads northeast from US 50 as two @-@ lane Mount Holly Road . As the state highway approaches East New Market , the western terminus of MD 14 ( Secretary Road ) heads north toward Secretary and MD 392 ( East New Market Bypass ) heads northeast toward Hurlock . MD 16 turns north into the town , where the highway passes through the East New Market Historic District as Main Street . The stat just west of the town of La Plata east to US 301 in La Plata.e highway intersects MD 14 ( Railroad Avenue ) before leaving town as East New Market Ellwood Road . MD 16 crosses the Warwick River and Cabin Creek before meeting MD 331 ( Waddells Corner Road ) at Waddells Corner . MD 16 joins MD 331 in a concurrency that crosses Gravel Creek and passes Beulah Road , the old alignment of MD 16 and MD 331 through Ellwood . After an at @-@ grade crossing of the Preston Branch of the Seaford Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad , the two state highways intersect MD 318 ( Preston Road ) and continue northwest as Preston Road , which passes near the Jacob and Hannah Leverton House before crossing Hunting Creek into Caroline County .
= = = Caroline County = = =
The MD 16 – MD 331 concurrency continues northwest through Linchester , where the highway passes both ends of MD 817 ( Linchester Road ) , which provides access to the historic Linchester Mill . The state highways continue through the town of Preston as Main Street . Unsigned MD 324 ( Maple Avenue ) heads south from MD 16 and MD 331 before the two highways split on the west side of town . MD 16 heads north as Harmony Road through the hamlet of Grove and intersects MD 578 ( Bethlehem Road ) in the community of Harmony . The state highway crosses Fowling Creek and Robins Creek and passes through the hamlet of Two Johns , which is also known as Bureau .
As MD 16 passes to the west of Williston Lake , an impoundment of Mill Creek , the highway closely parallels its old alignment , MD 617 . The state highway passes through the Williston Mill Historic District just east of the community of Williston , which contains the historic homes Potter Hall and Memory Lane . MD 16 continues northeast until reaching an intersection with MD 404 and MD 313 ( Shore Highway ) south of Denton . MD 16 turns southeast onto Shore Highway , a four @-@ lane divided highway that reduces to two lanes east of the intersection , to form a triple state highway concurrency . The three state highways continue east to Andersontown , where MD 313 heads south as Federalsburg Highway . A short distance to the east , MD 404 continues straight southeast while MD 16 turns northeast onto Greenwood Road . Shortly thereafter , MD 16 reaches its eastern terminus at the Delaware state line in Hickman . The highway continues east as DE 16 ( Hickman Road ) toward Greenwood .
= = History = =
The portion of MD 16 between Church Creek and East New Market via Cambridge was chosen as one of the original state roads by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The portion of the highway between Bureau and the western junction with MD 313 and MD 404 south of Denton was also included in the planned state road system ; that piece of highway was the first part of modern MD 16 completed in 1910 . MD 16 was completed from Mount Holly to East New Market in 1911 , from Cambridge to Mount Holly in 1913 , from East New Market to Preston via Linchester in 1914 , and from Church Creek to Cambridge in 1915 . The gap in the state highway within East New Market was closed in 1917 . The segment of highway between Preston and Grove was surfaced by 1915 . MD 16 between Grove and Bureau was under construction by 1919 and finished around 1920 . The state highway was constructed from the bridge to Taylor 's Island to Church Creek between 1917 and 1919 .
When numbers were assigned to state highways in Maryland in 1927 , MD 16 had a concurrency with US 213 between Waddell 's Corner and Preston . Greenwood Road from MD 404 in Andersontown to the Delaware state line was built between 1930 and 1933 , concurrent with the completion of the connecting section of MD 404 . MD 16 was extended north and east through Andersontown to the Delaware state line by 1939 , giving the state highway additional concurrencies with MD 313 and MD 404 . Also in 1939 , US 213 between Easton and Vienna was transferred to a new route via Cambridge ; the old portion of US 213 was designated MD 331 and the new section of US 213 became concurrent with MD 16 between Cambridge and Mount Holly . Within Cambridge , MD 16 followed Race Street north to Washington Street , which the highway followed east toward Mount Holly .
The next changes in MD 16 occurred in the 1950s . MD 16 was extended west across Slaughter Creek to Taylors Island when a new bridge was completed in 1950 . MD 313 was moved to its present alignment between Federalsburg and Denton in 1954 ; as a result , MD 16 became the sole route from Bureau to MD 404 south of Denton and part of a triple concurrency from there to Andersontown . US 50 , which had replaced US 213 from Ocean City to Wye Mills in 1949 , was expanded to a divided highway along its concurrency with MD 16 by 1955 . MD 331 and MD 16 were realigned around Ellwood and Linchester around 1960 . MD 16 was relocated to bypass Cambridge in 1967 ; the state highway 's old route through the city was transferred to newly designated MD 341 and an extension of MD 343 east to US 50 . MD 16 was relocated at Williston Lake shortly after the construction of a new bridge across the lake 's outlet , Mill Creek , in 1968 . The state highway was straightened out through Madison in 1970 , leaving behind Old Madison Road .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 16A is the designation for the 0 @.@ 04 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 064 km ) section of Beauchamp Branch Road between MD 16 and its old alignment , MD 617 , just south of Williston Lake near Williston .
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= The Make @-@ Up =
The Make @-@ Up was an American post @-@ punk band from Washington , D.C. formed in 1995 , consisting of ex @-@ Nation of Ulysses frontman Ian Svenonius on vocals , James Canty on guitar and organ , Steve Gamboa on drums , and Michelle Mae on bass guitar . The Make @-@ Up were joined in late 1999 by a fifth member , Alex Minoff ( of the groups Golden and Extra Golden ) , who played guitar with the group until the band 's dissolution in early 2000 .
The Make @-@ Up combined garage rock , soul , and a self @-@ styled liberation theology to make a new genre they called " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh " . This style led to an emphasis on live performances and interaction between the band and their audience , incorporating the audience into the performances as a " fifth member " , creating what one reviewer described as " " highly energetic and participatory live shows " . Parallel to the band 's gospel musical stylings , the Make @-@ Up produced music under a communism @-@ influenced political philosophy that they saw as counter to the capitalist form of modern rock and roll and pop music .
The Make @-@ Up released four studio albums , two live albums , a compilation release collecting several singles and B @-@ sides , and a number of vinyl singles , all released on independent record labels such as Dischord Records , K Records , and Southern Records . Svenonius , Mae , and Minoff are now part of the group Weird War . Svenonius has since released a solo album under the pseudonym David Candy . Canty went on to play with Ted Leo and the Pharmacists and French Toast . The Make @-@ Up , after much prodding by Les Savy Fav , reformed in 2012 to perform at I 'll Be Your Mirror .
= = History = =
Before the formation of the Make @-@ Up , Svenonius , Canty , and Gamboa were members of The Nation of Ulysses and the short @-@ lived Cupid Car Club . Before joining the Make @-@ Up , Mae played with the Northwest group The Frumpies . In a post @-@ Nation of Ulysses interview , Svenonius explained the formation of the Make @-@ Up from the ashes of his former band : " Nation of Ulysses broke up because the epoch changed with the advent of digital music and the Nirvana explosion . We were faced with what 's now known as indie rock , a sort of vacuous form . We had to determine our next move and this [ the forming of Make @-@ Up ] is it " . The Make @-@ Up released records through many independent record labels , most notably Dischord Records , K Records , Southern Records , and their own Black Gemini Records . On their numerous releases , the Make @-@ Up recorded with a number of producers , including Brendan Canty , Calvin Johnson , Guy Picciotto , Royal Trux ( " Adam and Eve " ) , John Loder , and Ian MacKaye . They toured extensively with many groups such as Dub Narcotic Sound System , Royal Trux , Sonic Youth , Fugazi , Ted Leo , Slant 6 , Lungleg , Mr. Quintron , Les Savy Fav , Blonde Redhead , among others .
In 2000 , after releasing their fifth studio album , the Make @-@ Up dissolved , reportedly " due to the large number of counter @-@ gang copy groups which had appropriated their look and sound and applied it to vacuous and counter @-@ revolutionary forms " . Svenonius also added in retrospect , " [ The Make @-@ Up ] went on for five years . We had a five year plan like Stalin . It was becoming redundant and people were copying us . That 's fine . We don 't have to do it anymore because they can " .
= = Recordings = =
During the Make @-@ Up 's five years of activity , they released four studio albums , a live album , a compilation of singles and B @-@ sides , and a number of singles and splits . A posthumous live album was also released in 2006 . The band was also the subject of the short film Blue is Beautiful by James Schneider , later repackaged as part of In Film / On Video in 2006 .
While the Make @-@ Up released both " live " and " studio " records , their recordings were all created with an eye to spontaneity . Most studio songs were cut as they occurred to the group at that moment . Therefore , the Make @-@ Up 's studio records were in a sense , quite " live " .
The Make @-@ Up 's first release in 1995 was " Blue is Beautiful " , a 7 @-@ inch single released on the band 's own Black Gemini Records – a label which only released a handful of the Make @-@ Up 's releases , many of which used a characteristically simple single @-@ color album sleeve . Their second and third releases were also 7 @-@ inch singles : a split with the Meta @-@ Matics , again on Black Gemini , and another split with Slant 6 on Time Bomb Records .
The band 's first full @-@ length studio album , Destination : Love - Live ! At Cold Rice , was released in 1996 . The album was touted as a live release , though it was actually recorded in a studio with " live " sounds added into the mix later . In 1997 , the band released two more albums less than a month apart : After Dark , a live @-@ recording from London , and Sound Verite , a studio album . The two albums shared a number of tracks , recorded either live or in @-@ studio . The same year the Make @-@ Up released " Free Arthur Lee , " a 7 @-@ inch single promoting the release from jail of Love singer Arthur Lee , who was incarcerated in 1996 . Also in 1997 , the Make @-@ Up were the subject of James Schneider 's fictionalized tour @-@ documentary Blue is Beautiful .
The following year , The Make @-@ Up released their fourth studio album , In Mass Mind , as well as a split 7 @-@ inch with Scottish band Lungleg . In 1999 , the Make @-@ Up released I Want Some , a compilation album of previous singles and B @-@ sides . A month later , the band released what would be their fifth and final studio album Save Yourself .
A posthumous live album , Untouchable Sound , was released in 2006 by Drag City and Sea Note . The album included the addition of Alex Minoff on guitar . The same year , Dischord Records released In Film / On Video , a DVD collection of live performances , music videos , and Blue is Beautiful .
= = Politics = =
As the Make @-@ Up 's frontman and mouthpiece , Ian Svenonius often contextualized the band 's music in terms of larger socio @-@ political themes . Svenonius typically described the band and its gospel attitude in Marxist and socialist terms , in opposition of what he saw as the capitalist , bourgeois , machismo paradigm of rock and roll . This political position was typically presented during live performances and interviews with Svenonius , rather than in the music itself or its lyrics . Svenonius compared the Make @-@ Up 's ideology to the Situationist International group of the 1950s and 1960s , since both presented a critique of the modern , capitalist lifestyle , specifically of capitalism 's effect on popular and consumable culture , such as rock and roll and pop music . When asked if , in line with the title of The Nation of Ulysses ' 1991 album 13 @-@ Point Program to Destroy America , he still hoped to " destroy America " , Svenonius responded simply : " Of course " . This aversion to American culture was crystallized through their self @-@ style musical genre " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh , " a belief system through which they advocated to their audience to " get theirs " and to " off the pigs in all their forms " .
The Make @-@ Up 's aversion to capitalist American culture was echoed in the 1998 short film Blue is Beautiful , in which the band starred . The film follows the band 's fictionalized escape from America as " cultural refugees " , where they are hunted by mysterious government agencies and find refuge in coffeehouses and underground night clubs . Much like the assumed personae and personalities of all of Svenonius ' bands and projects , a make @-@ believe mythos and back @-@ story surrounds the Make @-@ Up , primarily based on the band 's gospel approach and its pseudo @-@ political , socialist aesthetics . The political identity of the Make @-@ Up was ideologically and semantically similar to Svenonius ' other bands and projects , all of which culminate in his collection of essays , The Psychic Soviet , published through Drag City Press in 2006 .
= = Musical ideology and style = =
The Make @-@ Up intended to create ad @-@ lib performances in order to re @-@ energize what they saw as the stale , bland , and formal ritual of rock and roll . Appropriating gospel music 's use of the congregate as a " fifth member " , the Make @-@ Up incorporated audience participation through call and response vocals , lyrical " discussion " techniques , and destruction of the fourth wall by physical transgression .
Discussing the appropriation of the form of gospel music ( as opposed to its content ) , Svenonius said :
One concern of the group was to keep their music " stripped down " and minimal . This was indicative of the Make @-@ Up 's aversion to letting communication be upstaged by technology . Svenonius explained that " the problem is that the high creatures are the server mechanisms of the technology and the system they have created , meaning that we 're dictated to as much by cars . We 've turned the world into a parking lot . Similarly we use musical technology that we create , and it finds a use for itself " .
Due to the Make @-@ Up 's consideration of the audience and the special techniques they applied to performing , their live shows exhibited a convergence of soul , surf , and punk – an example of which is their single " I Want Some " from their 1999 album of the same name . Citing the Make @-@ Up 's soul influences , one reviewer stated " If you didn 't know it , you 'd swear that the four members of The Make Up had stolen the soul from James Brown himself " . The Make @-@ Up were also highly influenced by bubblegum music , particularly the French variety called Yé @-@ yé . The factory style of production Yé @-@ yé music had utilized interested the group , who were interested in expanding the labor force involved in the production of pop music , a movement which they saw as in opposition to the rock and roll trend ( begun by The Beatles ) toward self @-@ sufficiency and " downsizing " labor . Through the synthesis of these two disparate and contradictory forms – gospel and Yé @-@ yé – the Make @-@ Up devised a hybrid style they called " Gospel Yeh @-@ Yeh " . Live interpretations of this style can be found on the Make @-@ Up 's two full @-@ length live releases , After Dark and Untouchable Sound , including " They Live by Night , " a song recorded both in studio and live , on Destination : Love - Live ! and Untouchable Sound respectively .
= = Live performances = =
The Make @-@ Up 's gospel attitude was related to utilization of the audience as a group member , which Svenonius likened to the rise of the 90s dance music scene : " We 're not interested in countering it . It makes sense to me that techno , rave and dance music should go over in the face of rock and roll because it 's democratic for everybody to express themselves . Whereas a lot of rock and roll isn 't even entertaining at all , let alone allowing people the voice for expression . That 's what the Make @-@ Up has come to remedy . We want to be at once entertaining and inclusive in terms of using the gospel form to sort of breathe life into the old Frankenstein monster " . Svenonius would often interact with the audience in a number of ways , including call and response lyrics , direct address , and leaving the stage and going out into the crowd .
Despite the band 's " gospel " and " ad @-@ libbed " approach to recording , the Make @-@ Up 's live performances were often quite structured , as opposed to the typical " jam session " . Svenonius explained that " there 's a skeleton that we create and the form of our shows is unchanging - there 's an intro , an outro , a middle break . It 's very vaudevillian in form " . The Make @-@ Up always wore matching uniforms on stage . Like most of the Make @-@ Up 's identity , the uniforms were an ideological statement , meant to " [ destroy ] individualism . Instead of there being this person [ or ] this member , and them having their separate personalities , or having them as separate entities . We 're trying to create a unification . A one @-@ ness . That 's basically what it is : they 're uniforms " .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Destination : Love - Live ! at Cold Rice ( Dischord ) ( 1996 )
Sound Verite ( K Records ) ( 1997 )
In Mass Mind ( Dischord ) ( 1998 )
Save Yourself ( K Records ) ( 1999 )
= = = Compilations = = =
I Want Some ( singles compilation ) ( K Records - 1999 , M 'lady 's Records - re @-@ issued 2012 )
= = = Live albums = = =
After Dark ( Dischord ) ( 1997 )
Untouchable Sound ( Drag City / Sea Note ) ( 2006 )
= = = DVD / video = = =
Blue is Beautiful ( included on In Film / On Video ) ( Dischord ) ( 1998 )
In Film / On Video ( Dischord ) ( 2006 )
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= 1924 – 25 Nelson F.C. season =
The 1924 – 25 season was the 44th in the history of Nelson Football Club , and their fourth as a professional team in the Football League . The campaign saw the team return to the Third Division North , having finished in the relegation zone of the Second Division in 1923 – 24 . Despite losing only one match all season at Seedhill , Nelson 's home ground , the team struggled in away matches . Nelson ended the campaign on 53 points , with a record of 23 wins , 7 draws and 12 losses , and finished as runners @-@ up to Darlington in the league table . Nelson reached the Sixth Qualifying Round of the FA Cup , beating non @-@ League Winsford United before being knocked out of the competition by Coventry City . The team progressed past the first round of the Lancashire Senior Cup with a win against Wigan Borough , but were defeated in the following round by Blackburn Rovers .
A total of 23 different players were used by Nelson during their 44 competitive matches , less than half of whom had played for the club in previous campaigns . Goalkeeper Harry Abbott and half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood were the two ever @-@ presents for Nelson during 1924 – 25 . Centre forward Joe Eddleston scored 26 goals in 43 games to become the team 's top goalscorer for the fourth consecutive season . Two Nelson records were set during the campaign , although one was later broken ; the seven @-@ goal winning margin against Crewe Alexandra was never bettered in Football League matches , while the attendance of 13 @,@ 500 for the visit of Darlington in April 1925 was the largest ever seen at Seedhill at that time .
= = Background = =
The 1924 – 25 season marked Nelson 's return to the Football League Third Division North following their relegation from the Second Division at the end of the previous campaign . It was the club 's fourth season in the Football League , having previously competed in the Central League . Former Scotland international defender David Wilson retired from his player @-@ manager role in the summer of 1924 in order to take up the managerial post full @-@ time . Thomas Jacques , who had played for Nelson during their inaugural season in the Football League , was hired as the assistant coach and groundsman . Unlike the previous summer , when Nelson had embarked on a pre @-@ season tour of Spain , the team did not play any friendly matches during the build @-@ up to the campaign . The club strip remained unchanged from the previous season ; a blue jersey , white shorts and black socks with white and blue trim .
While there were several changed to the playing staff , the core of the team that had played in the Second Division remained intact . Centre forward Joe Eddleston , Nelson 's top goalscorer in each of the previous three seasons , was retained along with captain Clem Rigg , Welsh half @-@ back Jack Newnes and goalkeeper Harry Abbott . The two most senior squad members , David Wilson and goalkeeper Joseph Birds , retired from professional football aged 40 and 36 respectively . Inside forward Dick Crawshaw , who had been the team 's second @-@ highest scorer in 1923 – 24 with five goals , moved to Stalybridge Celtic . Scottish forward Mike McCulloch ended his two @-@ year association with the club by joining Chesterfield on a free transfer , while half @-@ back Leigh Collins signed for New Brighton . Other players , including William Lammus and Ernest Gillibrand , left Nelson having failed to establish themselves in the first @-@ team during their time with the club . Manager Wilson spent a total of £ 750 ( £ 35 @,@ 000 as of 2011 ) on new players in the summer of 1924 . Billy Bottrill and Bill Ellerington arrived from Middlesbrough , while Barrow full @-@ back James Phizacklea was signed to bolster the defensive line . Several young players were acquired from local non @-@ League football during the close season , including Ambrose Harris from Briercliffe and Billy Harper , formerly of Feniscowles . The Nelson squad was considered by the local newspaper to be stronger than the one which had won the Third Division North two seasons earlier .
= = = Transfers = = =
= = Football League Third Division North = =
Nelson began their league campaign on 30 August 1924 with an away match at Southport , who had ended the previous season in seventh position . New signings Billy Bottrill , Bill Ellerington and Joseph O 'Beirne went straight into the starting line @-@ up but they could not prevent Southport winning by a single goal from Jack Barber , giving them their first ever League win against Nelson . A week later , Nelson played their first home game of the season , in which James Phizacklea made his debut for the club . A crowd of around 6 @,@ 000 saw Ashington beaten 4 – 0 thanks to goals from Bottrill , Joe Eddleston , Jack Newnes and Sid Hoad . Three days later , Eddleston scored twice as Doncaster Rovers were defeated by three goals to nil in the first midweek match of the campaign . However , Nelson could not continue their winning streak as they lost 0 – 2 against Accrington Stanley at Peel Park in the following fixture . On 16 September , Nelson achieved their biggest victory in the Football League at that time with a 7 – 1 win over Durham City at Seedhill . The game saw Eddleston score his first hat @-@ trick since the 3 – 0 victory away at Rochdale in January 1923 , and O 'Beirne and Eddie Cameron score their first goals of the season . Four days later , Nelson suffered their third consecutive defeat away from home , losing 0 – 3 to Barrow at Holker Street . The team continued their good home form the following week with a narrow win against Lincoln City . Nelson named the same team for the seventh game in succession for the trip to Tranmere Rovers on 4 October , but the side were beaten for the fourth straight away match thanks to goals from Dixie Dean and Jimmy Moreton .
A week later Eddleston took his tally of goals to eight , scoring twice as Nelson overcame Walsall 2 – 1 at Seedhill . He scored again in the next match as the team gained their first point of the season away from home , drawing 1 – 1 at Wigan Borough , who had been Nelson 's first ever opponents in the Football League over three years previously . Half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood scored his first goal of the campaign in the 2 – 1 win against Halifax Town . Eddie Cameron also scored for the home side , and Walter Moore made his senior debut in the match . November began badly for Nelson as they suffered their heaviest defeat of the season , a 0 – 5 loss away at New Brighton . Allan Mathieson and Joe Wilcox scored two goals each as New Brighton won the first ever competitive meeting between the two sides . Nelson moved up to sixth place in the league following the next match , a 1 – 0 win at home to Grimsby Town . However , the team continued their poor form away from Seedhill , losing 1 – 3 to table @-@ topping Darlington on 15 November . Seven days later , Bottrill scored the only goal of the match as Nelson beat Rochdale to record their eighth consecutive home win .
In the first game of December , Nelson failed to win at Seedhill for the first time in the season . Despite a tenth goal of the campaign from Eddleston and a penalty kick scored by captain Clem Rigg , the team could only draw with Bradford Park Avenue . After a two @-@ week break from League football because of the FA Cup , Nelson returned to action with a 4 – 1 home win over Rotherham County in the only match ever played between the two sides at Seedhill . On Christmas Day , half @-@ back Ambrose Harris made his first appearance for Nelson as the side beat Chesterfield 1 – 0 thanks to Bill Ellerington 's first goal for the club . The same team was defeated by the same scoreline the following day in the reverse fixture at Saltergate . Inside forward Arthur Wolstenholme scored the only goal of the match as Nelson recorded their first away victory of the season in the final fixture of 1924 .
Nelson started the new year with a 1 – 1 draw at Ashington ; Ellerington scored for the second time in three matches but it was cancelled out by a goal from Bill Watson . A week later , half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood netted his first of the season as the team secured another 1 – 1 draw away at Wrexham 's Racecourse Ground . In the first home match of the new year , on 17 January 1925 , Nelson atoned for their defeat to Accrington Stanley earlier in the season with a 4 – 1 win thanks to two goals from Eddleston , one from Chadwick , and a first goal in almost three months for Cameron . Clem Rigg scored two penalties the following week as the side beat Barrow to move above Bradford Park Avenue into fifth position in the Third Division North . On 7 February Nelson won their third consecutive home fixture , beating Tranmere Rovers by four goals to one . Left @-@ half Herbert Butterworth made his senior debut for the club against Tranmere , despite signing from Wolverhampton Wanderers almost two years previously , while Chadwick scored twice in one game for the first time . A trip to Walsall seven days later brought a first away victory of 1925 for the team as goals from Chadwick and Hoad gave Nelson a 2 – 1 win , which elevated them to third place in the league . A narrow win against Wigan Borough at Seedhill on 21 February lifted Nelson further up the table into second position , behind only Darlington . The team ended a successful February with a fourth victory of the month , beating Halifax Town 4 – 2 before a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 spectators at The Shay .
Nelson carried their good form into March ; Bottrill scored for the first time in over two months to help the team defeat New Brighton by five clear goals . This seventh straight win closed the gap between Nelson and Darlington to five points , with the league leaders having played three more matches . In an attempt to push for the title the Nelson directors invested in two new players in March ; inside forward John Stevenson arrived from Second Division side Bury for a fee of £ 500 , while Fred Laycock joined Nelson from Barrow . However , the team suffered their first loss of 1925 in of the following match away at Grimsby Town as goals from Joe Cooper and Frank McKenna gave the home side a 2 – 0 win . This was followed by another defeat four days later ; a goal on debut for Stevenson could not prevent Lincoln City winning by two goals to one . On 21 March Nelson returned to winning ways with a 2 – 0 defeat of Hartlepools United at Seedhill , and later the same week Eddleston scored his second hat @-@ trick of the campaign as struggling Hartlepools were beaten 4 – 2 in the reverse fixture . A first goal in Nelson colours for Laycock secured a third successive win away at Rochdale on 28 March .
A then @-@ record crowd of 13 @,@ 500 descended on Seedhill for the visit of Darlington on 4 April , but the top two teams in the division could not be separated as the game finished in a 1 – 1 draw . Nelson remained second in the table going into the Easter period , during which teams played four matches in the space of five days . The first of these games ended in a 2 – 1 defeat away at Crewe Alexandra , despite Newnes ' first goal since September . John Stevenson then scored his second Nelson goal the following day in a 1 – 1 draw with Bradford Park Avenue . On 13 April , the team avenged their loss to Crewe with a comprehensive 7 – 0 victory at Seedhill , their biggest winning margin in the Football League . Joe Eddleston opened the scoring and went on to net his third hat @-@ trick of the season , taking his tally of goals to 25 , a total that would never be beaten during Nelson 's time in the League . The other goals were added by Laycock , who scored twice , Chadwick and Cameron , who netted his last goal for Nelson . However , the team then took just three out of an available ten points at the end of the season , ending their hopes of returning to the Second Division . Following a 1 – 1 draw at Doncaster Rovers , Nelson suffered their first and only home defeat of the season , losing 4 – 2 to Wrexham . On 21 September the team achieved their final win of the campaign , beating Southport 2 – 1 thanks to two goals from Laycock . The 1924 – 25 season ended with consecutive away losses at Durham City and bottom @-@ of @-@ the @-@ league Rotherham County , leaving Nelson with second in the Third Division North on 53 points , ahead of third @-@ placed New Brighton on goal average .
= = = Match results = = =
Key
Results
= = = Final league position = = =
= = Other first @-@ team matches = =
Nelson 's first match outside the league in the 1924 – 25 season came in the Lancashire Senior Cup . The team entered the competition in the First round , and were drawn against Wigan Borough at Seedhill . Nelson progressed to the next stage of the cup with a comprehensive 4 – 0 win and were handed another home tie in the second round , against First Division side Blackburn Rovers . A 2 – 1 win for the away team ended Nelson 's participation in the cup for the season .
Nelson entered the FA Cup , the foremost cup competition in England , in the Fifth Qualifying Round along with all the other teams in the Third Division North . For their first match , played on 29 November 1924 , the team was drawn to play Winsford United of the Cheshire County League at Seedhill . Nelson won the first ever meeting between the two clubs 4 – 1 with goals from Braidwood , Eddleston , O 'Beirne and Wolstenholme , to progress to the Sixth Qualifying Round for the first time in three years . In the next round Nelson were again given a home tie , against Second Division outfit Coventry City , who would be relegated to the Third Division North at the end of the 1924 – 25 campaign . Nelson made only one change from the side that had defeated Winsford , with Eddie Cameron replacing Arthur Wolstenholme . In front of a crowd of 7 @,@ 000 spectators , one of the highest attendances at Seedhill of the season , Coventry won 1 – 0 to progress to the first round proper of the competition .
= = = Match results = = =
Results
= = Player details = =
Nelson used a total of 23 players during the 1924 – 25 season and there were 13 different goalscorers . There were also four squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . The team played in a 2 – 3 – 5 formation ( the standard formation at the time ) throughout the campaign , with two full @-@ backs , three half @-@ backs , two outside forwards , two inside forwards and a centre forward . Two players , goalkeeper Harry Abbott and half @-@ back Ernie Braidwood , appeared in all 44 Third Division and FA Cup matches . Joe Eddleston missed just one game , the defeat against Durham City on 29 April , while Welsh international Jack Newnes made 42 appearances in the season . Two players played only once during the season ; Fred Smith deputised for Edgar Chadwick at inside @-@ left in the win against Southport on 21 April , and Allan Bottrill appeared in the final match of the season in place of Eddleston . Neither ever played another senior match for the club .
The team scored a total of 88 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Eddleston , with 26 goals , followed by Chadwick , who scored 10 goals in 20 outings . Billy Bottrill netted eight times during his first season as a Nelson player , while Fred Laycock scored seven despite only playing for the last two months of the campaign . Club captain Clem Rigg was the highest @-@ scoring defender , netting four penalties .
= = = Statistics = = =
Key to positions
Statistics
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= Nathan F. Cobb =
The Nathan F. Cobb was a three @-@ masted schooner named after the shipbuilder and founder of Cobb ’ s Salvaging Company whose many rescues of stranded ships help lead to the formation of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service . Despite its namesake 's history of shipwreck rescues , the Nathan F. Cobb capsized in heavy seas on 1 December 1896 en route from Brunswick , Georgia to New York with a cargo of timber and cross ties . The cook and a shipmate drowned when they were swept overboard in violent seas . The crew righted the vessel by removing the three masts and they drifted for four days until they became grounded on a sandbar off Ormond Beach , Florida . Rescue attempts led to the drowning of volunteer Ferd Waterhouse , whose body was never recovered , but no other crew members were lost . A plaque commemorates Ferd Waterhouse ’ s rescue efforts . The Cobb Cottage , a structure built using materials salvaged from the ship , is part of Ormond Beach ’ s Historic Trail .
= = History = =
Nathan F. Cobb of Rockland , Maine was a three @-@ masted , square rigged schooner constructed in 1890 . Information related to many ships built in Rockland between the years of 1837 and 1920 is generally sparse . In his six volume set titled Merchant Sail , William Armstrong Fairburn describes the landscape regarding construction and registration information for ships built in Rockland during the aforementioned era :
It is to be regretted that the desired data covering construction and registration at most Maine ports have not been preserved , recorded , and made available for inspection locally ; that the records still in existence — and that have not been destroyed or lost — are scattered ; the tabulations of the data on hand attempted during recent years by the P.W.A. ( Pemaquid Watershed Association ) are incomplete ; and that such records as have been made available are for vessels catalogued alphabetically instead of chronologically .
Fairburn cites Customhouse Records with recording information about 275 vessels registered as built in Rockland between 1837 and 1920 . Among the vessels listed is the Nathan F. Cobb , which ranged 167 @.@ 2 feet ( 51 m ) in length , weighed 656 tons , drafted 12 @.@ 7 feet ( 4 m ) of water and had a beam width of 35 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 m ) .
= = Final voyage = =
On its last voyage the Cobb was scheduled to transport a cargo of timber and cross ties from Brunswick , Georgia to New York . On Tuesday , 1 December 1896 , after leaving port from Brunswick , the schooner fell victim to the strong winds and high seas associated with Nor 'easters . Gale force winds ripped the vessel 's sails from their masts and rough seas capsized the ship to its beam ends . The crew was able to right the distressed vessel by removing the main and mizzen masts , but this left the Cobb vulnerable since it was powerless and waterlogged . Despite the cabin being swept away by the sea , the ship 's hull was kept relatively intact during this sequence of events . Unfortunately , both a cook and a shipmate drowned in the violent seas . On the morning of 5 December 1896 the Nathan F. Cobb ran aground on a near shore sandbar roughly 1000 feet off the coast of Ormond Beach , Florida .
= = Rescue efforts = =
J.D. Price and John Anderson built the Ormond Hotel in 1888 and sold it to Henry Flagler in 1891 . While Flagler took over ownership responsibilities , he retained Price as the hotel 's manager . On the morning of 5 December 1896 , then Ormond Hotel manager J.D. Price , noticed the stranded vessel in the surf and gathered a group of people to assist in the rescue efforts . After learning of the disaster , Superintendent Hiram B. Shaw of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service 's Seventh Life @-@ Saving District , hastened to the scene to assess the situation . Shaw quickly telegraphed for permission to have a life saving beach apparatus sent to him by train from Jupiter , Florida where the Jupiter Inlet Life Saving Station was located , approximately 180 miles south of Ormond Beach . This was quickly granted by General Superintendent Sumner Increase Kimball . Because of the proximity and travel time from the Jupiter Inlet Station to Ormond Beach , Shaw had his small surf boat wheeled down to the beach on a man @-@ drawn wagon . He then went into town to procure necessary equipment and rope lines for the rescue .
In total , about fifty people came together on the beach . Due to the tumultuous conditions , it was decided that no rescue attempts would be made until low tide at 11 : 00 a.m. The first rescue boat set out at nearly low tide . With a rope attached to its stern from shore , hotel painter Edward DeCourcy and another hotel staff member manned Shaw 's small rowboat . Although they successfully made it beyond the breakers , the rowboat succumbed to the strong southerly current ; missing the float line thrown from the schooner by five feet . They were forced to come in . Five more unsuccessful attempts were made to reach the grounded vessel .
Next , a small metallic dingy , known as an iron yawl , was carried down to the beach . Tom Fagen and Freed Waterhouse manned the yawl , in another attempt to reach the grounded schooner . Through skilled seamanship , they made it to the second set of breakers , only a short distance from the vessel . When they tried to reach the float line , a large wave struck them leaving their boat filled with water . The two men abandoned their yawl . Fagen managed to swim ashore and was met by volunteers close to the beach half @-@ drowned . Waterhouse decided against swimming to shore . When he saw that the yawl had flipped , he swam back to it and straddled the hull . The men on the shore began pulling the flipped boat in , but another wave broke on top of it throwing Waterhouse into the water and righting the yawl . Waterhouse climbed back into the boat and began getting pulled in again , only to be capsized shortly thereafter . This time Waterhouse surfaced , appearing dazed and grasping onto an oar . Shaw 's rescue boat was put back in the water , but Waterhouse had already gone under and presumably drowned to death a short time later . F Waterhouse 's body was never recovered , despite several searches .
Hiram B. Shaw had just returned to the beach when this casualty occurred . After supplying his small rescue boat with more rope lines , he and Edward DeCourcy removed their outer clothing and prepared to embark . The men on the Cobb , who had just witnessed Waterhouse 's drowning , prompted the captain of the schooner to give an impassioned address in which he said , " They have sacrificed one man in their efforts to save us ; now I 'll risk my life in an attempt to get ashore . " The captain tied a rope around his waist and jumped into the water , just as the rescue boat had set out from shore . After battling against the current and waves , he was met by Shaw 's rescue boat and clung to its stern until they reached land . Making use of the captain 's line , the men on shore tied a life preserver to it . One at a time , the five stranded crewmen pulled the flotation device out to the schooner , fastened it to their bodies and were pulled to safety by the people on the shore . After receiving a cup of hot coffee , a drink of whiskey and a blanket , the Cobb 's crew were taken to Coquina , Ormond Beach 's area hospital .
Upon hearing the story , General Superintendent Sumner Increase Kimball of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service wrote a letter of praise to Edward DeCourcy for his selflessness and bravery ; also acknowledging the many others involved .
= = Cobb Cottage = =
The Cobb Cottage was built using materials salvaged from the ship . William " Billy " C. Fagen was given permission to use the material to aid in the construction of the three bedroom cottage . Materials used from the wreck included railroad ties to form the exterior and railings for porch decorations . The schooner 's wooden name plate , with " Nathan F. Cobb " engraved into it , hangs over the fireplace . The house is now part of Ormond Beach 's Historic Trail .
= = Location = =
The location of Nathan F. Cobb 's wreck is designated by a sign to warn swimmers . It is anchored in or near the water 's edge depending on the tide . The hull of the ship became visible for brief period in May 2004 after shifting sands and a very low tide coincided simultaneously . The sign is located at 29 ° 16 ′ 38 ″ N 81 ° 1 ′ 53 ″ W on Ormond Beach . Previously , a large boulder had been sent from Freed Waterhouse 's hometown of Cape Elizabeth , Maine , decorated with a bronze plaque commemorating his brave rescue efforts . This monument was prominently placed in the sand dunes near the site where the ship ran aground , but in July 1972 the plaque was vandalized and broken off . After the plaque was reattached to the boulder , it was relocated to the east side of the Casa Del Mar Beach Resort , where it currently sits . The sign is on the wall north of the steps leading up to the pool .
= = Newspaper coverage = =
Despite limited information about its service routes and construction , the Nathan F. Cobb was the subject of two separate New York Times articles during its short career . One article reported the wreck the day after it occurred , the other article came from 20 June 1892 and chronicled a disturbance between mates . The Cobb was still in tow only three miles outside Mobile Bay , beginning its route from Mobile , Alabama to New York , when mate Henry Shaffer jumped over board to avoid a beating . Another mate , J. Trott had already used a belaying pin to half kill another seaman on the schooner and Shaffer was fearful for his life . Shaffer began swimming towards a nearby light house and was picked up nearly five miles from where he jumped over board . The captain of the towboat reported that Captain Cookson of the Cobb , mentioned incidentally they had lost a crewman . Both Cookson and Trott already had pending charges against them for cruelty and marooning of sailors , stemming from an incident in May 1891 at Calcasieu Pass , Louisiana .
= = Forerunner of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service = =
Nathan F. Cobb was named after a ship builder , born in 1797 from Eastham , Massachusetts on Cape Cod . Cobb and his family moved from Eastham to Northampton County , Virginia before purchasing Sand Shoal Island , which later became Cobb Island . It was on Cobb Island , in 1839 , that Nathan founded Cobb 's Salvaging Company with his sons . They specialized in wrecking and salvaging stranded vessels along the shallow Mid @-@ Atlantic coastline . The Cobbs had a remarkable record ; not one person drowned in any of the rescue efforts for the 37 or more ships stranded off their island . The success of the salvaging company earned them the sobriquet " Rothschilds among the toilers of the sea " . Despite the company 's notable prosperity , the Cobbs were often praised for their humanity and general regard for human life , " Often a crew of ten or twenty would be landed on the island from stranded vessels without a penny , and they were tenderly cared for as though they were millionaires . " This practice was a rare creed among wreckers in the 19th century . The Cobbs and others like them transformed the act of salvaging which led way to the forming of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service ; this later merged into what is now the United States Coast Guard .
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= Amanita ceciliae =
Amanita ceciliae , commonly called snakeskin grisette and strangulated amanita , is a basidiomycete fungus in the genus Amanita . First described in 1854 by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome , it was given its current name by Cornelis Bas in 1984 . It is characterized by bearing a large fruit body with a brown cap 5 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) across . The cap has charcoal @-@ grey patches , which are easily removable . The stipe is 7 – 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , white in colour , and there is no ring on it . It is slightly tapered to the top , and has irregular cottony bands girdling the base . The universal veil is grey . Spores are white , spherical in shape , non @-@ amyloid , and measure 10 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 micrometres . The mushrooms are considered edible , but field guides typically advise caution in selecting them for consumption , due to risks of confusion with similar toxic species . A. ceciliae is found in woods throughout Europe and North America , where it fruits during summer and autumn .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Amanita ceciliae was first described by Miles Joseph Berkeley , an English cryptogamist and clergyman , and Christopher Edmund Broome , a British mycologist , in 1854 . It is placed in the genus Amanita and section Vaginatae . Section Vaginatae consists of mushrooms with special characteristics – such as the absence of a ring , and very few clamp connections at the bases of the basidia .
The name Amanita inaurata , given by Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan in 1833 , has also been used for this species . In 1978 , the name was declared nomenclaturally incorrect according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . Other synonyms are Agaricus ceciliae , Amanitopsis inaurata and Amanitopsis ceciliae . The present name , Amanita ceciliae , was given by Cornelis Bas , a Dutch mycologist , in 1984 .
The species is commonly called " snakeskin grisette " . Another common name is " strangulated amanita " , referring to the tightly clasping volva . It is also called Cecilia 's ringless amanita after Cecilia Berkeley , the wife of M. J. Berkeley . The name was meant " to record the services which have been rendered to Mycology by many excellent illustrations and in other ways " .
= = Description = =
Amanita ceciliae is characterized by bearing a large fruit body with a brown cap 5 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) across . The cap has charcoal @-@ grey patches , which are easily removable . The stipe is 7 – 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , white in colour , and there is no ring on it . It is slightly tapered to the top , and has irregular cottony bands girdling the base .
The universal veil is grey . Spores are white , spherical in shape , non @-@ amyloid , and measure 10 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 micrometres .
The cap is 5 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) across , shape ranging from convex to flat . It is upturned , and has a deep @-@ coloured margin . There is a low umbo . It is grey to a brownish black in colour , darkest in the center and paler towards the margin . Generally smooth , the cap surface is slightly sticky when moist . The cap surface is characterized by having loose , fleecy , charcoal @-@ grey patches of volval remnants scattered across it . The patches are easily removed . The margin is strongly striated . The cap colour may vary , and pale forms are known to exist , for example , as in the types A. c. f. decolora and A. c. var. pallida . A. c. var. royeri , first described by mycologist L. Maire in 2008 and occurring in France , is a cinder black @-@ capped variation .
Gills are free and closely spaced , and white in colour . They can be thick , and are often forked . The stem is 7 – 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , and 120 – 200 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) x 20 – 40 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 57 in ) thick . It is lightly stuffed ( filled with a cottony tissue ) and then hollow , and there is a slight tapering to the top . It is white in colour , with flat grey hairs , often in a zig @-@ zag pattern . It does not bear a ring and has fragile , cottony , brownish or charcoal @-@ coloured oblique girdles of volval remnants around the stem base and lower stem . The volva is white to grey , powdery and delicate . The flesh is white and does not change colour when cut . Although it lacks any distinctive odor , it tastes sweet .
Spores are white in colour , spherical and are not amyloid . They measure 10 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 µm . A few large @-@ sized spores are commonly found in a mount of gill tissue . Clamps are not found at bases of basidia .
= = = Lookalikes = = =
Amanita sinicoflava ( occurring in North America ) looks quite similar , but it has a sack @-@ like volva , unlike A. ceciliae . A. antillana , of the Antilles islands , is somewhat the same , but it has ellipsoid spores unlike the spherical ones of A. ceciliae . A. ceciliae is often used as a misnomer for A. borealisorora , which largely occurs in North America . A. borealisorora is a provisional name , and the species has not yet been validly published . The spores of A. ceciliae highly resemble those of A. cinctipes ( mainly found in Singapore ) , though the former has larger spores . The discolouration in the volva of A. colombiana ( from Colombia , as its name states ) probably shows a relationship between the mushroom and A. ceciliae . A. sorocula is another lookalike . This Colombian and Mesoamerican species is often mistaken for A. ceciliae , as both mushrooms have a volva with a weak structure and greying gills . The notable difference is the strong yellow colour of the cap in immature A. ceciliae mushrooms . A. sorocula is not yet validly published , and currently is a newly accepted name . The Chinese species A. liquii is similar but the yellow @-@ brown , red @-@ brown or green @-@ brown coloured cap of A. ceciliae are much different from the brown @-@ black cap of A. liquii . Also , the volval remnants of A. ceciliae converge at the base to form a ring @-@ like zone , unlike A. liquii . Apart from this , the cellular pigments in the sterile strip around the gills and volval remnants are much darker in colour compared to A. ceciliae .
= = = Edibility = = =
Amanita ceciliae is considered an edible mushroom and used as food , although many field guides recommend to avoid eating it . A study of 16 edible mushrooms was done to learn about their chemical compositions and antioxidant activities . Among these species , A. ceciliae and Pleurotus ostreatus were the two mushrooms that showed most powerful radical scavenging activities .
= = Ecology and habitat = =
Europe
In Europe , Amanita ceciliae is widespread everywhere , though infrequently encountered . It often inhabits deciduous forests with hornbeam ( Carpinus ) , oak ( Quercus ) , beech ( Fagus ) and birch ( Betula ) , but it can also rarely occur with conifers : pine ( Pinus ) , fir ( Abies ) , spruce ( Picea ) and cedar ( Cedrus ) . It has a preference for neutral to calcareous soils .
North America
In North America , it is found mainly in areas east of the Mississippi River , but similar mushrooms also occur in the Pacific Northwest , the Southwest , and Texas . Its range also stretches south into Mexico . They are ecologically mycorrhizal , and habitats include hardwood forests and coniferous forests . The mushroom grows alone , scattered , or in groups during summer and autumn . It is primarily eastern in distribution but also reported in the Pacific Northwest , the Southwest , and Texas ( with an apparent association with pecan trees ) .
= = = Introduced species = = =
Apart from its native area , A. ceciliae has also been reported from Asia . These regions include Japan , Azad Kashmir and Iran . There is speculation that North American collections could possibly be an undescribed species differing from the European A. ceciliae .
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= Pre @-@ dreadnought battleship =
Pre @-@ dreadnought battleships are sea @-@ going battleships built between the mid- to late 1880s and 1905 , before the launch of HMS Dreadnought . Pre @-@ dreadnoughts replaced the ironclad battleships of the 1870s and 1880s . Built from steel , and protected by hardened steel armour , pre @-@ dreadnought battleships carried a main battery of very heavy guns in barbettes ( open or with armored gunhouses ) supported by one or more secondary batteries of lighter weapons . They were powered by coal @-@ fuelled triple @-@ expansion steam engines .
In contrast to the chaotic development of ironclad warships in preceding decades , the 1890s saw navies worldwide start to build battleships to a common design as dozens of ships essentially followed the design of the British Majestic class . The similarity in appearance of battleships in the 1890s was underlined by the increasing number of ships being built . New naval powers such as Germany , Japan , the United States , and – to a lesser extent – Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary , began to establish themselves with fleets of pre @-@ dreadnoughts , while the navies of Britain , France , and Russia expanded to meet these new threats . The decisive clash of pre @-@ dreadnought fleets was between the Imperial Russian Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905 .
These battleships were abruptly made obsolete by the arrival of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 . Dreadnought followed the trend in battleship design to heavier , longer @-@ ranged guns by adopting an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " armament scheme of ten 12 @-@ inch guns . Her innovative steam turbine engines also made her faster . The existing pre @-@ dreadnoughts were decisively outclassed , and new and more powerful battleships were from then on known as dreadnoughts while the ships that had been laid down before were designated pre @-@ dreadnoughts .
= = Evolution = =
The pre @-@ dreadnought developed from the ironclad battleship . The first ironclads — the French Gloire and HMS Warrior — looked much like sailing frigates , with three tall masts and broadside batteries , when they were commissioned at the start of the 1860s . Only eight years later HMVS Cerberus , the first breastwork monitor , was launched . Only three years later followed HMS Devastation , a turreted ironclad which more resembled a pre @-@ dreadnought than previous and contemporary turretless ironclads . Each ship lacked masts and carried four heavy guns in two turrets fore and aft . Devastation was the first ocean @-@ worthy breastwork monitor , built to attack enemy coasts and harbours ; because of her very low freeboard , she could not fight on the high seas as her decks would be swept by water and spray , interfering with the working of her guns . Navies worldwide continued to build masted , turretless battleships which had sufficient freeboard and were seaworthy enough to fight on the high seas .
The distinction between coast @-@ assault battleship and cruising battleship became blurred with the Admiral class , ordered in 1880 . These ships reflected developments in ironclad design , being protected by iron @-@ and @-@ steel compound armour rather than wrought iron . Equipped with breech @-@ loading guns of between 12 @-@ inch and 16 ¼ -inch ( 305 mm and 413 mm ) calibre , the Admirals continued the trend of ironclad warships towards gigantic weapons . The guns were mounted in open barbettes to save weight . Some historians see these ships as a vital step towards pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; others view them as a confused and unsuccessful design .
The subsequent Royal Sovereign class of 1889 retained barbettes but were uniformly armed with 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns ; they were also significantly larger ( at 14 @,@ 000 tons displacement ) and faster ( due to triple @-@ expansion steam engines ) than the Admirals . Just as importantly , the Royal Sovereigns had a higher freeboard , making them unequivocally capable of the high @-@ seas battleship role .
The pre @-@ dreadnought design reached maturity in 1895 with the Majestic class . These ships were built and armoured entirely of steel , and their guns were mounted in fully enclosed barbettes , inevitably referred to as turrets . They also adopted a 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main gun , which , due to advances in casting and propellant , was lighter and more powerful than the previous guns of larger calibre . The Majestics provided the model for battleship building in the Royal Navy and many other navies for years to come .
= = Armament = =
Pre @-@ dreadnoughts carried guns of several different calibres , for different roles in ship @-@ to @-@ ship combat . The main armament was four heavy guns , mounted in two centre @-@ line turrets fore and aft . Very few pre @-@ dreadnoughts deviated from this arrangement . These guns were slow @-@ firing , and initially of limited accuracy ; but they were the only guns heavy enough to penetrate the thick armour which protected the engines , magazines , and main guns of enemy battleships .
The most common calibre for the main armament was 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) s , although some ships used smaller guns because they could attain higher rates of fire ; British battleships from the Majestic class onwards carried this calibre , as did French ships from the Charlemagne class ( laid down in 1894 ) . Japan , importing most of its guns from Britain , used 12 @-@ inch guns . The United States used both 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) and 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns for most of the 1890s until the Maine class ( not to be confused with the earlier Maine of Spanish – American War notoriety ) , laid down in 1899 , after which the 12 in. gun was universal . The Russians used both 12 and 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) as their main armament ; the Petropavlovsk class , Retvizan , Tsesarevich , and Borodino class had 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main batteries while the Peresvet class mounted 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns . The first German pre @-@ dreadnought class used an 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) gun but decreased to a 9 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 239 mm ) gun for the two following classes and returned to 11 @-@ inch guns with the Braunschweig class .
While the calibre of the main battery remained quite constant , the performance of the guns improved as longer barrels were introduced . The introduction of slow @-@ burning nitrocellulose and cordite propellant allowed the employment of a longer barrel , and therefore higher muzzle velocity — giving greater range and penetrating power for the same calibre of shell . Between the Majestic class and Dreadnought , the length of the British 12 @-@ inch gun increased from 35 calibres to 45 and muzzle velocity increased from 706 metres ( 2 @,@ 317 ft ) per second to 770 metres ( 2 @,@ 525 ft ) per second .
Pre @-@ dreadnoughts also carried a secondary battery . This consisted of smaller guns , typically 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , though any calibre from 4 to 9 @.@ 4 inches ( 100 to 240 mm ) could be used . Virtually all secondary guns were " quick firing " , employing a number of innovations to increase the rate of fire . The propellant was provided in a brass cartridge , and both the breech mechanism and the mounting were suitable for rapid aiming and reloading . The role of the secondary battery was to damage the less well @-@ armoured parts of an enemy battleship ; while unable to penetrate the main armour belt , it might score hits on lightly armoured areas like the bridge , or start fires . Equally important , the secondary armament was to be used against enemy cruisers , destroyers , and even torpedo boats . A medium @-@ calibre gun could expect to penetrate the light armour of smaller ships , while the rate of fire of the secondary battery was important in scoring a hit against a small , manoeuvrable target . Secondary guns were mounted in a variety of ways ; sometimes carried in turrets , they were just as often positioned in fixed armoured casemates in the side of the hull , or in unarmoured positions on upper decks .
Some of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts carried an " intermediate " battery , typically of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) to 10 @-@ inch calibre . The intermediate battery was a method of packing more heavy firepower into the same battleship , principally of use against battleships or at long ranges . The United States Navy pioneered the intermediate battery concept in the Indiana , Iowa , and Kearsarge classes , but not in the battleships laid down between 1897 and 1901 . Shortly after the USN re @-@ adopted the intermediate battery , the British , Italian , Russian , French , and Japanese navies laid down intermediate @-@ battery ships . This later generation of intermediate @-@ battery ships almost without exception finished building after Dreadnought , and hence were obsolete before completion .
During the ironclad age , the range of engagements increased ; in the Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 5 battles were fought at around 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) , while in the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904 , the Russian and Japanese fleets fought at ranges at 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) . The increase in engagement range was due in part to the longer range of torpedoes , and in part to improved gunnery and fire control . In consequence , shipbuilders tended towards heavier secondary armament , of the same calibre that the " intermediate " battery had been ; the Royal Navy 's last pre @-@ dreadnought class , the Lord Nelson class , carried ten 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns as secondary armament . Ships with a uniform , heavy secondary battery are often referred to as " semi @-@ dreadnoughts " .
The pre @-@ dreadnought 's armament was completed by a tertiary battery of light , rapid @-@ fire guns . These could be of any calibre from 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) down to machine guns . Their role was to give short @-@ range protection against torpedo boats , or to rake the deck and superstructure of a battleship .
In addition to their gun armament , many pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were armed with torpedoes , fired from fixed tubes located either above or below the waterline . By the pre @-@ dreadnought era the torpedo was typically 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) in diameter and had an effective range of several thousand meters . However , it was virtually unknown for a battleship to score a hit with a torpedo .
= = Protection = =
Pre @-@ dreadnought battleships carried a considerable weight of steel armour . Experience showed that rather than giving the ship uniform armour protection , it was best to concentrate armour over critical areas . The central section of the hull , which housed the boilers and engines , was protected by the main belt , which ran from just below the waterline to some distance above it . This " central citadel " was intended to protect the engines from even the most powerful shells . The main armament and the magazines were protected by projections of thick armour from the main belt . The beginning of the pre @-@ dreadnought era was marked by a move from mounting the main armament in open barbettes to an all @-@ enclosed , turret mounting .
The main belt armour would normally taper to a lesser thickness along the side of the hull towards bow and stern ; it might also taper up from the central citadel towards the superstructure . The deck was typically lightly armoured with 2 to 4 inches of steel . This lighter armour was to prevent high @-@ explosive shells from wrecking the superstructure of the ship .
The battleships of the late 1880s , for instance the Royal Sovereign class , were armoured with iron and steel compound armour . This was soon replaced with more effective case @-@ hardened steel armour made using the Harvey process developed in the United States . First tested in 1891 , Harvey armour was commonplace in ships laid down in 1893 – 5 . However , its reign was brief ; in 1895 , the German Kaiser Friedrich III pioneered the even better Krupp armour . Europe adopted Krupp plate within five years , and only the United States persisted in using Harvey steel into the 20th century . The improving quality of armour plate meant that new ships could have better protection from a thinner and lighter armour belt ; 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of compound armour provided the same protection as just 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 190 mm ) of Harvey or 5 @.@ 75 inches ( 133 mm ) of Krupp .
= = Propulsion = =
Almost all pre @-@ dreadnoughts were powered by reciprocating steam engines . Most were capable of top speeds between 16 and 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) . The ironclads of the 1880s used compound engines , and by the end of the 1880s the even @-@ more efficient triple expansion compound engine was in use . Some fleets , though not the British , adopted the quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine .
The main improvement in engine performance during the pre @-@ dreadnought period came from the adoption of increasingly higher pressure steam from the boiler . Scotch marine boilers were superseded by more compact water @-@ tube boilers , allowing higher @-@ pressure steam to be produced with less fuel consumption . Water @-@ tube boilers were also safer , with less risk of explosion , and more flexible than fire @-@ tube types . The Belleville @-@ type water @-@ tube boiler had been introduced in the French fleet as early as 1879 , but it took until 1894 for the Royal Navy to adopt it for armoured cruisers and pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; other water @-@ tube boilers followed in navies worldwide .
The engines drove either two or three screw propellers . France and Germany preferred the three @-@ screw approach , which allowed the engines to be shorter and hence more easily protected ; they were also more maneuverable and had better resistance to accidental damage . Triple screws were , however , generally larger and heavier than the twin @-@ screw arrangements preferred by most other navies . The French also built the only class of turbine powered pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , the Danton class of 1907 .
Coal was the almost exclusive fuel for the pre @-@ dreadnought period , though navies made the first experiments with oil propulsion in the late 1890s . An extra knot or two of speed could be gained by applying a ' forced draught ' to the furnaces , where air was pumped into the furnaces , but this risked damage to the boilers .
= = Pre @-@ dreadnought fleets and battles = =
The pre @-@ dreadnought battleship in its heyday was the core of a very diverse navy . Many older ironclads were still in service . Battleships served alongside cruisers of many descriptions : modern armoured cruisers which were essentially cut @-@ down battleships , lighter protected cruisers , and even older unarmoured cruisers , sloops and frigates whether built out of steel , iron or wood . The battleships were threatened by torpedo boats ; it was during the pre @-@ dreadnought era that the first destroyers were constructed to deal with the torpedo @-@ boat threat , though at the same time the first effective submarines were being constructed .
The pre @-@ dreadnought age saw the beginning of the end of the 19th century naval balance of power in which France and Russia vied for competition against the massive British Royal Navy , and saw the start of the rise of the ' new naval powers ' of Germany , Japan and the USA . The new ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy and to a lesser extent the U.S. Navy supported those powers ' colonial expansion .
While pre @-@ dreadnoughts were adopted worldwide , there were no clashes between pre @-@ dreadnought battleships until the very end of their period of dominance . The First Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1894 – 95 influenced pre @-@ dreadnought development , but this had been a clash between Chinese battleships and a Japanese fleet consisting of mostly cruisers . The Spanish – American War of 1898 was also a mismatch , with the American pre @-@ dreadnought fleet engaging Spanish cruisers . Not until the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 did pre @-@ dreadnoughts engage on an equal footing . This happened in three battles : the Russian tactical victory during the Battle of Port Arthur on 8 – 9 February 1904 , the indecisive Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August 1904 , and the decisive Japanese victory at the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905 . These battles upended prevailing theories of how naval battles would be fought , as the fleets began firing at one another at much greater distances than before ; naval architects realized that plunging fire ( explosive shells falling on their targets largely from above , instead of from a trajectory close to horizontal ) was a much greater threat than had been thought .
Gunboat diplomacy was typically conducted by cruisers or smaller warships . A British squadron of three protected cruisers and two gunboats brought about the capitulation of Zanzibar in 1896 ; and while battleships participated in the combined fleet Western powers deployed during the Boxer rebellion , the naval part of the action was performed by gunboats , destroyers and sloops .
= = = Europe = = =
European navies remained dominant in the pre @-@ dreadnought era . The British Royal Navy remained the world 's largest fleet , though both Britain 's traditional naval rivals and the new European powers increasingly asserted themselves against its supremacy .
In 1889 , Britain formally adopted a ' Two Power Standard ' committing it to building enough battleships to exceed the two largest other navies combined ; at the time , this meant France and Russia , who became formally allied in the early 1890s . The Royal Sovereign class and Majestic class were followed by a regular programme of construction at a much quicker pace than in previous years . The Canopus , Formidable , Duncan and King Edward VII classes appeared in rapid succession from 1897 to 1905 . Counting two ships ordered by Chile but taken over by the British , the Royal Navy had 39 pre @-@ dreadnought battleships ready or building by 1904 , starting the count from the Majestics . Over two dozen older battleships remained in service . The last British pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the Lord Nelson class , appeared after Dreadnought herself .
France , Britain 's traditional naval rival , had paused its battleship building during the 1880s because of the influence of the Jeune Ecole doctrine , which favoured torpedo boats to battleships . After the Jeune Ecole 's influence faded , the first French battleship laid down was Brennus , in 1889 . Brennus and the ships which followed her were individual , as opposed to the large classes of British ships ; they also carried an idiosyncratic arrangement of heavy guns , with Brennus carrying three 13 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and the ships which followed carrying two 12 @-@ inch and two 10 @.@ 8 @-@ inch in single turrets . The Charlemagne class , laid down 1894 – 96 , were the first to adopt the standard four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun heavy armament . The Jeune Ecole retained a strong influence on French naval strategy , and by the end of the 19th century France had abandoned competition with Britain in battleship numbers . The French suffered the most from the Dreadnought revolution , with four ships of the Liberté class still building when Dreadnought launched , and a further six of the Danton class begun afterwards .
Germany 's first pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the Brandenburg class , were laid down in 1890 . By 1905 , a further 19 battleships were built or under construction , thanks to the sharp increase in naval expenditure justified by the 1898 and 1900 Navy Laws . This increase was due to the determination of the navy chief Alfred von Tirpitz and the growing sense of national rivalry with the UK . Besides the Brandenburg class , German pre @-@ dreadnoughts include the ships of the Kaiser Friedrich III , Wittelsbach , and Braunschweig classes — culminating in the Deutschland class , which served in both World Wars . On the whole , the German ships were less powerful than their British equivalents but equally robust .
Russia equally entered into a programme of naval expansion in the 1890s ; one of Russia 's main objectives was to maintain its interests against Japanese expansion in the Far East . The Petropavlovsk class begun in 1892 took after the British Royal Sovereigns ; later ships showed more French influence on their design , such as the Borodino class . The weakness of Russian shipbuilding meant that many ships were built overseas for Russia ; the best ship , the Retvizan , being largely constructed in America . The Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 was a disaster for the Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; of the 15 battleships completed since Petropavlovsk , eleven were sunk or captured during the war . One of these , the famous Potemkin , mutinied and was scuttled , however she was later raised and recommissioned . After the war , Russia completed four more pre @-@ dreadnoughts after 1905 .
Between 1893 and 1904 , Italy laid down eight battleships ; the later two classes of ship were remarkably fast , though the Regina Margherita class was poorly protected and the Regina Elena class lightly armed . In some ways , these ships presaged the concept of the battlecruiser . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire also saw a naval renaissance during the 1890s , though of the nine pre @-@ dreadnought battleships ordered only the three of the Habsburg class arrived before Dreadnought herself made them obsolete .
= = = America and the Pacific = = =
The United States started building its first battleships in 1891 . These ships were short @-@ range coast @-@ defence battleships that were similar to the British HMS Hood except for an innovative intermediate battery of 8 @-@ inch guns . The US Navy continued to build ships that were relatively short @-@ range and poor in heavy seas , until the Virginia class laid down in 1901 – 02 . Nevertheless , it was these earlier ships that ensured American naval dominance against the antiquated Spanish fleet — which included no pre @-@ dreadnoughts — in the Spanish – American War , most notably at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba . The final two classes of American pre @-@ dreadnoughts ( the Connecticuts and Mississippis ) were completed after the completion of the Dreadnought and after the start of design work on the USN 's own initial class of dreadnoughts . The US Great White Fleet of 16 pre @-@ dreadnought battleships circumnavigated the world from 16 December 1907 , to 22 February 1909 .
Japan was involved in two of the three major naval wars of the pre @-@ dreadnought era . The first Japanese pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , the Fuji class , were still being built at the outbreak of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 , which saw Japanese armoured cruisers and protected cruisers defeat the Chinese Beiyang Fleet , composed of a mixture of old ironclad battleships and cruisers , at the Battle of the Yalu River . Following their victory , and facing Russian pressure in the region , the Japanese placed orders for four more pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; along with the two Fujis these battleships formed the core of the fleet which twice engaged the numerically superior Russian fleets at the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima . After capturing eight Russian battleships of various ages , Japan built several more classes of pre @-@ dreadnought after the Russo @-@ Japanese War .
= = Obsolescence = =
In 1906 , the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought brought about the obsolescence of all existing battleships . Dreadnought , by scrapping the secondary battery , was able to carry ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns rather than four . She could fire eight heavy guns broadside , as opposed to four from a pre @-@ dreadnought ; and six guns ahead , as opposed to two . The move to an ' all @-@ big @-@ gun ' design was a logical conclusion of the increasingly long engagement ranges and heavier secondary batteries of the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; Japan and the United States had designed ships with a similar armament before Dreadnought , but were unable to complete them before the British ship . It was felt that because of the longer distances at which battles could be fought , only the largest guns were effective in battle , and by mounting more 12 @-@ inch guns Dreadnought was two to three times more effective in combat than an existing battleship .
The armament of the new breed of ships was not their only crucial advantage . Dreadnought used steam turbines for propulsion , giving her a top speed of 21 knots , against the 18 knots typical of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . Able both to outgun and outmaneuver their opponents , the dreadnought battleships decisively outclassed earlier battleship designs .
Nevertheless , pre @-@ dreadnoughts continued in active service and saw significant combat use even when obsolete . Dreadnoughts and battlecruisers were believed vital for the decisive naval battles which at the time all nations expected , hence they were jealously guarded against the risk of damage by mines or submarine attack , and kept close to home as much as possible . The obsolescence and consequent expendability of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts meant that they could be deployed into more dangerous situations and more far @-@ flung areas .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , a large number of pre @-@ dreadnoughts remained in service . The advances in machinery and armament meant that a pre @-@ dreadnought was not necessarily the equal of even a modern armoured cruiser , and was totally outclassed by a modern dreadnought battleship or battlecruiser . Nevertheless , the pre @-@ dreadnought played a major role in the War .
This was first illustrated in the skirmishes between British and German navies around South America in 1914 . While two German cruisers menaced British shipping , the Admiralty insisted that no battlecruisers could be spared from the main fleet and sent to the other side of the world to deal with them . Instead the British dispatched a pre @-@ dreadnought of 1896 vintage , HMS Canopus . Intended to stiffen the British cruisers in the area , in fact her slow speed meant that she was left behind at the disastrous Battle of Coronel . Canopus redeemed herself at the Battle of the Falkland Islands , but only when grounded to act as a harbour @-@ defence vessel ; she fired at extreme range ( 13 @,@ 500 yards ) on the German cruiser SMS Gneisenau , and while the only hit was from an inert practice shell which had been left loaded from the previous night ( the ' live ' shells of the salvo broke up on contact with water ; one inert shell ricocheted into one of Gneisenau 's funnels ) , this certainly deterred Gneisenau from a potentially damaging raid on a British squadron which was still taking on coal . The subsequent battle was decided by the two Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers which had been dispatched after Coronel . This appears to have been the only meaningful engagement of an enemy ship by a British pre @-@ dreadnought .
In the Black Sea five Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts saw brief action against the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz during the Battle of Cape Sarych in November 1914 .
The principle that disposable pre @-@ dreadnoughts could be used where no modern ship could be risked was affirmed by British , French and German navies in subsidiary theatres of war . The German navy used its pre @-@ dreadnoughts frequently in the Baltic campaign . However , the largest number of pre @-@ dreadnoughts was engaged at the Gallipoli campaign . Twelve British and French pre @-@ dreadnoughts formed the bulk of the force which attempted to ' force the Dardanelles ' in March 1915 . The role of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts was to support the brand @-@ new dreadnought HMS Queen Elizabeth engaging the Turkish shore defences . Three of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts were sunk by mines , and several more badly damaged . However , it was not the damage to the pre @-@ dreadnoughts which led to the operation being called off . The two battlecruisers were also damaged ; since Queen Elizabeth could not be risked in the minefield , and the pre @-@ dreadnoughts would be unable to deal with the Turkish battlecruiser lurking on the other side of the straits , the operation had failed . Pre @-@ dreadnoughts were also used to support the Gallipoli landings , with the loss of three more : HMS Goliath , HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic .
A squadron of German pre @-@ dreadnoughts was present at the Battle of Jutland in 1916 ; German sailors called them the " five minute ships " , which was the amount of time they were expected to survive in a pitched battle . In spite of their limitations , the pre @-@ dreadnought squadron played a useful role . As the German fleet disengaged from the battle , the pre @-@ dreadnoughts risked themselves by turning on the British battlefleet as dark set . Nevertheless , only one of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts was sunk : SMS Pommern went down in the confused night action as the battlefleets disengaged .
Following the November 1918 Armistice , the U.S. Navy converted fifteen older battleships , eight armoured cruisers and two larger protected cruisers for temporary service as transports . These ships made one to six trans @-@ Atlantic round @-@ trips each , bringing home a total of more than 145 @,@ 000 passengers .
= = = World War II = = =
After World War I , most battleships , dreadnought and pre @-@ dreadnought alike , were disarmed under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . Largely this meant the ships being broken up for scrap ; others were destroyed in target practice or relegated to training and supply duties . One , Mikasa , was given a special exemption to the Washington Treaty and was maintained as a museum and memorial ship .
Germany , which lost most of her fleet under the terms of the Versailles treaty , was allowed to keep eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts ( of which only six could be in active service at any one time ) which were counted as armoured coast @-@ defence ships ; two of these were still in use at the beginning of World War II . One of these , Schleswig @-@ Holstein , shelled the Polish Westerplatte peninsula during the opening of the German invasion of Poland . Schleswig @-@ Holstein served for most of the War as a training ship ; she was sunk while under refit in December 1944 , and broken up in situ in January 1945 . The other , Schlesien , was mined and then scuttled in March 1945 .
A number of the inactive or disarmed pre @-@ dreadnoughts were nevertheless sunk in action during World War II , such as the Greek pre @-@ dreadnoughts Kilkis and Lemnos , bought from the U.S. Navy in 1914 . While neither of the ships was in active service , they were both sunk by German divebombers after the German invasion in 1941 . In the Pacific , the U.S. Navy submarine USS Salmon sank the disarmed Japanese pre @-@ dreadnought Asahi in May 1942 . A veteran of Tsushima , she was serving as a repair ship .
= = = Post World War II = = =
No pre @-@ dreadnoughts served post – World War II as armed ships , the last serving pre @-@ dreadnought was the former SMS Hessen , which was used as a target ship by the Soviet union into the early 1960s as the Tsel . The hulk of the ex @-@ USS Oregon ( BB @-@ 3 ) was used until 1956 , after which she was scrapped .
= = Lone survivor = =
The only pre @-@ dreadnought preserved today is the Japanese Navy 's flagship at the Battle of Tsushima , the Mikasa , which is now located in Yokosuka , where it has been a museum ship since 1925 . Two smaller cruisers from a similar period are also preserved , the USS Olympia , and the Russian cruiser Aurora — itself a survivor of the Battle of Tsushima against the IJN .
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= Squeeze ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Squeeze " is the third episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on September 24 , 1993 . " Squeeze " was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong and directed by Harry Longstreet , with Michael Katleman directing additional footage . The episode featured the first of two guest appearances by Doug Hutchison as the mutant serial killer Eugene Victor Tooms , a role he would reprise in " Tooms " . " Squeeze " is the first " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode of The X @-@ Files , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' overarching mythology .
The show 's main characters are FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a series of ritualistic killings by somebody seemingly capable of squeezing his body through impossibly narrow gaps . The agents deduce that their suspect may be a genetic mutant who has been killing in sprees for ninety years .
Production of " Squeeze " was problematic ; creative differences between Longstreet and the crew led to him being replaced as director , while some missing scenes needed to be shot after the initial filming . Because of this turbulence , the completion of the episode relied on post @-@ production techniques . However , " Squeeze " has received positive reviews from critics , mostly focusing on Hutchison 's performance and the resonance of his character . The episode has subsequently been described by The Star as " the episode that really sold The X @-@ Files idea to the masses " . Academics have examined " Squeeze " for its portrayal of the politics of law enforcement , highlighting the tension — evident throughout the series — between the agents ' desire to find the truth and their duty to secure criminal convictions .
= = Plot = =
In Baltimore , businessman George Usher arrives at his office building . He is watched from a storm drain by someone who then sneaks into the building by climbing through the elevator shaft into the ventilation system , and kills Usher by removing his liver . The investigation into Usher 's murder — the latest of three such killings — is assigned to careerist FBI agent Tom Colton ( Donal Logue ) , who turns to academy colleague Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) for help .
The case baffles Colton , as the only common elements in the murders are the lack of entry points and the apparent removal of the victims ' livers with bare hands . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) looks over the case and notes their similarity to earlier murder sprees that occurred in 1933 and 1963 . At the crime scene , Mulder notices an elongated fingerprint on the air vent , which he also finds to be similar to some documented in the X @-@ Files . He concludes that because five murders occurred during the earlier sprees , the investigators should expect two more .
Because Scully believes that the killer will return to the scenes of his earlier crimes , she and Mulder wait in the parking garage of Usher 's office building . There , they catch a man named Eugene Victor Tooms ( Doug Hutchison ) climbing through the air vents . Tooms is given a polygraph test , which includes questions written by Mulder linking him to murders dating as far back as 1903 . After Tooms passes the test easily , Colton dismisses Mulder 's queries as being ridiculous and lets Tooms go . However , Mulder later digitally elongates and narrows Tooms ' fingerprints to show Scully that they match the prints at the crime scene . Mulder believes that Tooms is able to stretch and squeeze his body through narrow spaces . That night , Tooms demonstrates this by squeezing down a chimney to claim another victim .
Mulder and Scully find no documentation on Tooms ' life . They visit Frank Briggs ( Henry Beckman ) , a former detective , who recounts his experiences of the investigation into the 1933 murders . Briggs brings out old photographs of Tooms — who has not aged in sixty years — and gives them the address of Tooms ' former apartment building . There , Mulder and Scully find a " nest " constructed out of newspaper and bile in the building 's crawl space , as well as several trophy items taken from past victims . Mulder suspects that Tooms is a mutant who can hibernate for thirty years at a time after consuming five human livers . As the two leave , Tooms , who is hiding in the rafters , stealthily takes the necklace Scully is wearing as a new trophy .
Mulder and Scully put the apartment under surveillance , but Colton has them taken off the job . Mulder finds Scully 's necklace in Tooms ' apartment and tries to call his partner , but her phone line has been cut . Tooms breaks into her apartment through a tiny air vent to kill her , but Mulder rushes there and apprehends him first . Tooms is put in an institution for the criminally insane where he begins to build another nest using newspaper . At the institution , Scully informs Mulder that medical tests on Tooms show an abnormal skeletal and muscle system , and a rapidly declining metabolism . When Tooms is given food through a slot in the door , he stares at the thin slot and grins .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Coming after two episodes focused on the series ' " mythology " , or fictional history , " Squeeze " helped establish that the show could cover other paranormal subjects , and was the first " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode of The X @-@ Files . Series creator Chris Carter thought that the show could not sustain its momentum unless it branched out from the previously UFO @-@ centered plots . Co @-@ writers Glen Morgan and James Wong were inspired to write the episode when they looked at a ventilation shaft outside of their office and thought about whether someone could crawl inside it . Although the episode has parallels with the second Kolchak film , The Night Strangler ( 1973 ) , which featured a man who commits murders every 21 years , Morgan and Wong have stated they were inspired by the serial killers Jack the Ripper and Richard Ramirez . After eating foie gras during a trip to France , Carter proposed the idea that the villain should consume human livers . Morgan noted that the writers settled on the liver because it was " funnier " than any other organ . The idea to have Tooms use a nest for hibernation came from Morgan and Wong ; they liked that if the agents were unable to catch Tooms , he could return after weeks of dormancy .
Actor Doug Hutchison was 33 when he auditioned for the part of Tooms , but the producers initially considered him too young for the role ; Glen Morgan thought that Hutchinson " looks twelve years old " . However Hutchison impressed the writers with his ability to suddenly transition into attacking behavior , which convinced them to hire him . He related that his portrayal of Tooms was inspired by the " stillness " of Anthony Hopkins ' acting in The Silence of the Lambs .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode 's establishing exterior shots , and those of Tooms ' house , were filmed around Hastings Street in Vancouver . When filming the first shot of Tooms ' eyes glowing from a storm drain , the production crew arrived too late to secure the street for filming , and a nearby construction crew were temporarily drafted to guard the area . The ventilation system through which the first victim is attacked at night was meant to be of a multistory car park . However , to avoid a costly tenting operation to simulate night @-@ time , a replica of the necessary parts of the ventilation system was built in a lower level of the car park . Exterior shots of Scully 's apartment were also filmed in Vancouver , at the same location used in the pilot episode . However , this location 's use was later discontinued owing to the limited range of shots it afforded ; most reverse angles would show a large car park across the street .
Wong was disappointed with director Harry Longstreet , claiming he did not have respect for the script . Longstreet had failed to film one of the script 's scenes , and had not obtained additional camera coverage for the scenes which had been filmed . As a result , Wong and another director , Michael Katleman , re @-@ shot several scenes for additional coverage to complete the episode , and filmed the omitted scene and some inserts . Hutchison also had difficulty with Longstreet 's directing ; he found the acting instructions he was given " ridiculous " . Morgan said that the episode 's production was problematic , feeling that " Squeeze " " was truly saved in postproduction " . Duchovny also found issue with Longstreet 's direction , and disagreed with the director 's take on how Fox Mulder should be portrayed . Describing their different opinions , Duchovny noted " the director wanted me to be mad about this horrible serial killer . I was like , ' No , this is an amazing discovery ! He 's not morally culpable , because he 's genetically driven . ' I judge no one " .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
For the shot in which Tooms slides through a chimney , the producers hired a contortionist who could squeeze through small spaces . They filmed the shot with the camera standing below the contortionist . The chimney , which was " more like a belt than a pipe " , was made to look much narrower than it actually was . Using computer @-@ generated imagery , they were able to produce and elongate shots of the contortionist 's fingers . Producer R. W. Goodwin believed that the contortionist — known only as " Pepper " — would only have limited success in fitting down the chimney set and would work mostly as a photo double . However , he was able to fit entirely inside the chimney ; the production crew only needed to add some sound effects " of bones snapping and cracking " .
The scene in which Tooms enters Scully 's home was initially filmed in Hutchison 's absence . The crew shot his entrance later , using a larger blue screen set . These shots were digitally merged so that Tooms would appear to emerge from a much smaller hatch than was filmed . The effect was kept to a minimum ; Hutchison 's footage was not " squeezed " too much , as both Carter and visual effects supervisor Mat Beck have stated their belief that " less is more : just a hint of the supernatural is all that is required " .
= = Themes = =
Although it did not directly impact the ongoing storyline of The X @-@ Files , " Squeeze " introduced key thematic elements to the series . " Squeeze " has been described as " the episode where Dana Scully must publicly pick a side " . She had previously confronted military officials in " Deep Throat " , and has " carefully worded " her reports to protect her partner Mulder from ridicule , but an encounter with former colleague Tom Colton forces her to openly choose between Mulder and the politics of careerism . These developments with Colton " [ tether ] another thread between her career and the rest of the FBI " , highlighting a sense of " exasperation and derision " from her colleagues , whose mindsets represent " institutionally acceptable " models of reality .
This hostility suggests that the series ' problems are " not epistemological ; they are political " — the agents , Scully in particular , have to balance a search for " the truth " with the need to secure criminal convictions in their cases . This balancing act " between investigating to discover the truth and gathering evidence to support a court case " has been compared to the perceived stance of the FBI during the series ' tenure . The bureau had at this time seen itself as a law enforcement agency responsible for amassing evidence to prosecute criminal cases . There is a disparity between this approach and public perception of the FBI 's role as an organization investigating an objective and apolitical truth ; this led to public frustration " because [ people ] incorrectly believe that a courtroom is designed to discover the truth " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Squeeze " premiered on the Fox network on September 24 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 3 , 1994 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 8 million households and 11 @.@ 1 million viewers . " Squeeze " earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 , with a 13 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode .
Glen Morgan was very pleased with Hutchison 's performance , describing him as an " ace in the hole " and calling his work " outstanding " . Morgan went on to write " Tooms " , another first season episode in which the character returns . The Vince Gilligan @-@ penned second season episode " Soft Light " would also make reference to the character . Hutchison wrote a prequel to " Squeeze " titled " Dark He Was and Golden @-@ Eyed " and sent it to Carter , but the script was returned unread for legal reasons . " Squeeze " has been described as the first episode of The X @-@ Files to branch out into horror , which came to be one of the defining genres of The X @-@ Files . The plot of " Squeeze " was adapted as a novel for young adults in 1996 by Ellen Steiber . The episode also inspired " Folding Man " , a first season episode of the television series Sanctuary .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Squeeze " was rated B + ; it was called " an important episode " , and Hutchison 's portrayal of Tooms was described as " profoundly creepy " . However , Thomas Sutcliffe of The Independent was more critical , deriding the premise as " entirely ludicrous " , and sarcastically described Mulder 's deduction of Tooms ' abilities as " clearly another triumph for the deductive method " . An article in the Vancouver Sun listed " Squeeze " as one of the best stand @-@ alone episodes of the show , saying , " The X @-@ Files became known for its creepy , monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week episodes , and Squeeze was the one that started it all " , and that , together with " Tooms " , it " remains one of the scariest things ever seen on television " . Connie Ogle from PopMatters listed Tooms amongst the greatest monsters of the series .
Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the episode , rated it an A − , and described Hutchison 's role as " the part that would launch [ him ] as a go @-@ to character actor for creep parts " . Phipps felt the climactic scene in which Tooms infiltrates Scully 's home is " the scene that makes the episode " , noting that there was " a real sense of peril " despite it being clear that Scully , a lead character , was not going to come to harm . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , note that the episode 's premise is the first in the series " not to rely upon accepted urban legends " . It conveys its " absurd " plot through suggestion , leaving any special @-@ effects sequences of Tooms ' abilities until the audience is " already suitably adjusted to the absurdity " . However , Shearman and Pearson found the monologue likening the crimes committed by Tooms to the Holocaust , given by the retired detective Briggs , to be " not only unnecessary but tasteless to boot " . They rated the episode four stars out of five . Mumtaj Begum , writing for Malaysia 's The Star , described " Squeeze " as " the episode that really sold The X @-@ Files idea to the masses " , and called it " simply brilliant " .
The character of Eugene Tooms has also attracted positive criticism . In a guest column for Entertainment Weekly 's 1000th issue , author Neil Gaiman listed Tooms as one of his favorite monsters , while UGO Networks listed the character in a countdown of the " Best TV Serial Killers " , and described Hutchison 's acting as " uber @-@ creepy " . IGN 's Christine Seghers listed Hutchison as the fourth @-@ best guest star of the series in a top @-@ ten countdown , complimented his " brilliantly perverse " performance , and wrote : " Even when he doesn 't appear to be doing anything , Hutchinson [ sic ] can still make your skin crawl with his dead , shark @-@ like stare " .
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= Little Girl in the Big Ten =
" Little Girl in the Big Ten " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 12 , 2002 . In the episode , Lisa befriends two college students at a gym and attends college with them . Meanwhile , after being bitten by a mosquito from a Chinese @-@ made toy , Bart is infected with the " panda virus " and is placed in a plastic bubble to prevent others from infection .
" Little Girl in the Big Ten " was directed Lauren MacMullan and written by Jon Vitti . The episode 's main plot was pitched by Vitti , who suggested an episode in which Lisa meets girls who thought she was a college student . The subplot was pitched by the Simpsons writing staff , who wanted it to be completely different from the main story . The episode features former three @-@ time U.S. Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky as himself . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 6 @.@ 8 million viewers and finished in 40th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its home video release on August 24 , 2010 , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Lisa finds herself unable to do any sports in PE class , taught by Brunella Pommelhorst , and finds herself failing physical education . She then signs up to do gymnastics with Coach Lugash . There , she receives encouragement from the ghost of John F. Kennedy in a vision . With boosted self @-@ confidence , and her large head which gives her perfect balance , Lisa passes with flying colors . Lisa also meets two girls and becomes friends with them , but with their fractals and parking permits , she realizes they are college students " with small gymnast bodies ! " They give Lisa a ride home , and she acts like a college student to keep their friendship . The two girls invite her to a poetry reading by Robert Pinsky soon after . Lisa begins to wear a beret to help her fit in better .
Meanwhile , Bart gets bitten by a Chinese mosquito that was in his Krusty @-@ saurus toy , and becomes infected with " Panda virus " . To prevent others from getting sick , Dr. Hibbert puts Bart in a plastic bubble . Bart has trouble adapting to life in the bubble even though Hibbert emphasized just how " normal " it would feel ; he has trouble eating and Homer gives him a bath by filling up the bubble with the hose and rolling Bart around outside of the house . Lisa is able to keep up her double life , attending a poetry reading by former Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky at night and attending her second grade class during the day . While going to Springfield University , she is tracked by Milhouse , Martin , and Database when Milhouse saw Lisa ride away . At a lecture about Itchy & Scratchy cartoons , Milhouse blows Lisa 's cover and she is no longer welcome by her college friends .
Lisa tries to convince Homer and Marge that college suits her , but they refuse to listen , saying that college is no place for her . Lisa is also ridiculed by Groundskeeper Willie and all of her friends at school , saying that she is too " college for them " . In the meantime , Bart gets used to his bubble , as it brings him a lot of popularity . Bart tells Lisa what she should do to get her friends back : she has to pull a prank on Principal Skinner . The next day , Chalmers is dedicating the Seymour Skinner parking annex . While Martin takes pictures of Skinner posing next to a giant chocolate cake in his dress polyester , Bart rolls Lisa ( inside his bubble ) to the edge of the school 's roof . He then pushes her over the edge , splattering the cake all over Skinner . Lisa gets her friends back , while Bart goes paranoid after being outside of his bubble for the first time in days . He stays in an air vent , but gets sucked in .
= = Production = =
" Little Girl in the Big Ten " was written by producer Jon Vitti and directed by Lauren MacMullan . The idea for the episode was pitched by Vitti , who suggested an episode in which Lisa meets girls who thought she was a college student . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 12 , 2002 . Jean thought the idea was " brilliant " , and the subplot involving Bart in a " germ @-@ free " plastic bubble was conceived by the writers wanting to make " the most different subplot from [ ... ] an intellectual college plot " they could think of . A scene in the episode shows Lisa talking to Bart on the branch of a tree in their garden . Bart says the line " You can 't believe what that sunset looks like to me " , to which Lisa replies " That 's not a sunset , that 's a bird on fire . " Originally , Lisa 's line read " [ ... ] that 's a plane on fire , " however , after the September 11 attacks , the line was considered offensive and was changed . " [ ... ] since we work so far ahead we usually do these things that are sort of timeless stories , " Jean said , " but every once in a while there 's something that turns out to be ironic in a bad way , then we have to change it . "
The Itchy & Scratchy cartoon " Butter Off Dead " was , according to Jean , " completely improv [ ise ] d " by director MacMullan . Usually , the episodes are too " narrow " for there to be any room for improvisation , but MacMullan was an exception , since her improvisations " always turned out great " . The writers came up with the cartoons title and its " template " , however " the way the death proceeded and the different digestion [ s ] " were " All Lauren [ MacMullan ] " . The sequence in which Pinsky is reading the poem was " very hard to do " , since the animators did not have access to computers at the time . One of the audience members in the scene was designed after staff writer Matt Warburton .
The episode features former poet laureate Robert Pinsky as himself . Pinsky was chosen to guest star because the writers wanted an intellectual reference for Lisa , and because they knew that Pinsky was a fan of the show , having read an article of The Time in which Pinsky stated that he " admired the writing " of The Simpsons . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Pinsky stated that he flew to the Simpsons recording studios in Los Angeles on September 10 , 2001 , and , following the September 11 attacks , was " stranded " there for four days , since no planes were flying following the attacks . Pinsky enjoyed his stay however ; " Ian [ Maxtone @-@ Graham ] and The Simpsons people were very nice to me , " he said . " ... One of the things they did for me is they invited me to a table @-@ read of another episode [ ... ] Thursday the 13th [ ... ] I remember everybody laughed like hell [ ... ] It felt really good . People just went to work and everybody laughed a lot . "
Pinsky stated that he felt " really inept " when recording his dialogue . He said : " Amongst my friends I 'm funny . In that context of Dan Castellaneta ... I would say it was like a disaster movie , and I was that character played by Susan Hayward . " The poem Pinsky reads in the episode was picked by the Simpsons writing staff , " The poem has two jokes in it , " Pinsky said , " and when I say jokes I don 't mean witty remarks . It 's more like an optician , the pope and a zebra go into the bar and then there 's a punch line at the end . " He stated that the poem was " an elegy for a friend of mine who liked jokes " . He added that his appearance on the show gave him " a lot more prestige " when visiting high schools and colleges . The episode also features Karl Wiedergott as the professor at the Springfield University .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's subplot was based on the 1976 made @-@ for @-@ TV movie The Boy in the Plastic Bubble ( Lenny also addresses as Bart as Bubble Boy in one scene , which was the name of the film 's 2001 remake ) in which a boy born with an improperly functioning immune system lives out his life in incubator @-@ like conditions . In one of Lisa 's college courses , the students are watching an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon title " Butter Off Dead " . The lecture was a reference to college courses which include The Simpsons episodes in their teachings . The gate to Springfield University was based " loosely " on the ivy gate at Harvard University . The episode also parodies the British anarcho @-@ punk band Chumbawamba , with Homer singing his own version of their song " Tubthumping " .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on May 12 , 2002 , " Little Girl in the Big Ten " received a 6 @.@ 4 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 6 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode finished in 40th place in the ratings for the week of May 6 – 12 , 2002 , making it the most watched program of the network tied with Malcolm in the Middle and Boston Public . On August 24 , 2010 , " Little Girl in the Big Ten " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set . Al Jean , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Matt Selman , Tom Gammill , Max Pross and Robert Pinsky participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Little Girl in the Big Ten " received mixed reviews from critics . Nate Boss of Project @-@ Blu called it " An average episode , for the series as a whole , making it a great one for this season , " praising " a superb Chumbawumba parody " which he thought was " way better than the R.E.M. lyrics gag earlier in the season . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote " Lisa @-@ based shows definitely fall into the hit or miss category , and “ Ten ” stays within those confines . " While he praised some of Homer 's scenes , including " his drunken versions of pop songs , " he maintained that " not much else connects . " He concluded his review by writing " Though we find the occasional laugh , the overall impact remains lackluster . " DVD Verdict 's Jennifer Malkowski gave the episode a B- , and wrote that " Homer 's answer to the rhetorical question about gymnastics ' Who wants to put on a leotard and get screamed at ? ' " was the episode 's " highlight " .
In March 2014 , The Simpsons writers picked " Butter Off Dead " from this episode as one of their nine favorite " Itchy & Stratchy " episodes of all time .
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= Jonathan Pryce =
Jonathan Pryce , CBE ( born John Price ; 1 June 1947 ) is a Welsh actor and singer . After studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and meeting his longtime girlfriend , English actress Kate Fahy , in 1974 , he began his career as a stage actor in the 1970s . His work in theatre , including an award @-@ winning performance in the title role of the Royal Court Theatre 's Hamlet , led to several supporting roles in film and television . He made his breakthrough screen performance in Terry Gilliam 's 1985 cult film Brazil .
Critically lauded for his versatility , Pryce has participated in big @-@ budget films including Evita , Tomorrow Never Dies , Pirates of the Caribbean , The New World , GI Joe : The Rise of Cobra , GI Joe : Retaliation as well as independent films including Glengarry Glen Ross and Carrington . His career in theatre has also been prolific , and he has won two Tony Awards — the first in 1977 for his Broadway debut in Comedians , the second for his 1991 role as The Engineer in the musical Miss Saigon . Beginning in 2015 , Pryce became a guest actor on the HBO series Game of Thrones as the High Sparrow before being upgraded to a regular cast member in 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Born John Price in Carmel , Flintshire , he is the son of Margaret Ellen ( née Williams ) and Isaac Price , a former coal miner who , along with his wife , ran a small general grocery shop . Price has two older sisters . He was educated at Holywell Grammar School ( today Holywell High School ) , and , at the age of 16 , he went to art college and then started training to be a teacher at Edge Hill College ( now Edge Hill University ) in Ormskirk . While studying , he took part in a college theatre production . When he joined Equity , the British actors ' trade union , he used Jonathan Pryce as a stage name because Equity can only have one actor with any particular name on its books .
An impressed tutor suggested he became an actor and on Pryce 's behalf sent off to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art for an application form , and Pryce was awarded a scholarship to RADA . While at RADA Pryce worked as a door @-@ to @-@ door salesman of velvet paintings . Pryce was part of ' new wave ' of actors to emerge from the Academy . Others included Bruce Payne , Juliet Stevenson , Alan Rickman , Anton Lesser , Kenneth Branagh and Fiona Shaw .
Despite finding RADA " straight @-@ laced " , and being told by his tutor that he could never aspire to do more than playing villains in Z @-@ Cars , when he graduated he joined the Everyman Theatre Liverpool Company , eventually becoming the theatre 's Artistic Director and went on to perform with the Royal Shakespeare Company and at the Nottingham Playhouse .
To gain his Equity card to work in Liverpool , he made his first screen appearance in a minor role on a 1972 episode of the British science fiction programme Doomwatch , called " Fire & Brimstone " . He then starred in two television films , both directed by Stephen Frears , Daft as a Brush and Playthings . After the Everyman , Pryce joined the director Sir Richard Eyre at the Nottingham Playhouse and starred in the Trevor Griffiths play Comedians in a role specially written for his talents , Gethin Price . The production then transferred to London 's Old Vic Theatre and in 1976 he reprised the role on Broadway , this time directed by Mike Nichols , for which he won the 1977 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play , his first Tony Award . It was around this time that he appeared in his first movie role , playing the character Joseph Manasse in the film drama Voyage of the Damned , starring Faye Dunaway . He did not , however , abandon the stage , appearing from 1978 to 1979 in the Royal Shakespeare Company 's productions of The Taming of the Shrew as Petruchio , and Antony and Cleopatra as Octavius Caesar .
= = Career = =
= = = 1980s = = =
In 1980 , his performance in the title role of Hamlet at the Royal Court Theatre won him an Olivier Award , and was acclaimed by some critics as the definitive Hamlet of his generation . That year , Pryce had a small but pivotal role as Zarniwoop in the 12th episode of the Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy radio series , one that he reprised for the Quintessential Phase which was broadcast in 2005 . In his original role as Zarniwoop , Pryce 's character questions the " ruler of the Universe " , a solipsist who has been chosen to rule arguably because of either his inherent manipulability , or immunity therefrom , on his philosophical opinions . Around the same time , he also appeared in the film Breaking Glass ( 1980 ) .
Pryce played the role of the sinister Mr. Dark in Something Wicked This Way Comes ( 1983 ) , based on the Ray Bradbury novel of the same title . After appearing mostly in films , such as the Ian McEwan @-@ scripted The Ploughman 's Lunch , and Martin Luther , Heretic ( both also 1983 ) , he achieved a breakthrough with his role as the subdued protagonist Sam Lowry in the Terry Gilliam film , Brazil ( 1985 ) . After Brazil , Pryce appeared in the historical thriller The Doctor and the Devils ( also 1985 ) and then in the Gene Wilder @-@ directed film Haunted Honeymoon ( 1986 ) . During this period of his life , Pryce continued to perform on stage , and gained particular notice as the successful but self @-@ doubting writer Trigorin in a London production of Anton Chekhov 's The Seagull in late 1985 . From 1986 to 1987 Pryce played the lead part in the Royal Shakespeare Company 's production of Macbeth , which also starred Sinéad Cusack as Lady Macbeth . Also in 1986 he starred in the film Jumpin ' Jack Flash .
Pryce worked once again with Gilliam in The Adventures of Baron Munchausen ( 1988 ) , playing " The Right Ordinary Horatio Jackson " . The film was a notorious financial fiasco , with production costing more than $ 40 million , when the original budget was $ 23 @.@ 5 million . The following year Pryce appeared in three of the earliest episodes of the improvisation show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? , alongside Paul Merton and John Sessions , and in Uncle Vanya , again a play by Chekhov , at the Vaudeville Theatre .
= = = 1990s = = =
After a series of major dramatic roles on stage , including Vanya and Macbeth , Pryce decided he wanted to do musicals after seeing his friend Patti LuPone in the original London production of Les Misérables . He would successfully return to the stage originating the role of The Engineer , a Eurasian pimp , in the West End musical Miss Saigon . His performance was praised in England where he won the Olivier and Variety Club awards , but when the production transferred to Broadway the Actors ' Equity Association ( AEA ) would not allow Pryce to portray The Engineer because , according to their executive secretary , " [ t ] he casting of a Caucasian actor made up to appear Asian is an affront to the Asian community . " Cameron Mackintosh , the show 's producer , decided to cancel the $ 10 million New York production because , he said , he would not let the freedom of artistic expression be attacked . Realizing that its decision would result in the loss of many jobs , and after Pryce received much support from the acting community ( both Charlton Heston and John Malkovich threatened to leave the union if Pryce was not allowed to perform ) the AEA decided to make a deal with Mackintosh , allowing Pryce to appear in the production . He would then , in 1991 , win a Tony Award for his performance . Made in the same period , Pryce starred in the ITV mini @-@ series Selling Hitler ( 1991 ) as Gerd Heidemann . Pryce returned to the London stage the following year to star for one night only at the Royal Festival Hall for an AIDS charity alongside Elaine Paige and Lilliane Montivecchi in the 1992 revival of the Federico Fellini @-@ inspired musical Nine .
Pryce featured , alongside Kathy Burke and Minnie Driver , in the BBC serial Mr. Wroe 's Virgins ( 1993 ) , directed by Danny Boyle . Pryce played Henry Kravis in the HBO produced made @-@ for @-@ TV movie Barbarians at the Gate ( 1993 ) . He was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and for a Golden Globe Award for his role . Also during 1993 , Pryce starred alongside River Phoenix and Judy Davis in the unfinished film Dark Blood , but production had to be shut down when , 11 days short of completion , Phoenix died from a drug overdose . Director George Sluizer , who owns the rights to what has been filmed , has made available some of the raw material , which features Pryce and Phoenix on a field in Utah , on his personal website . Between 1993 and 1997 , Pryce , on a multimillion @-@ dollar contract became the spokesman for the Infiniti automobile marque in a series of American television commercials , in particular for the Infiniti J30 and Infiniti Q45 . In one of these advertisements Pryce appeared alongside jazz singer Nancy Wilson in a Prague nightclub . In 1994 , Pryce portrayed Fagin in a revival of the musical Oliver ! , and starred alongside Emma Thompson in the film Carrington ( 1995 ) , which centres on a platonic relationship between gay writer Lytton Strachey and painter Dora Carrington . For his portrayal of Strachey , Pryce received the Best Actor Award at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival .
Pryce then starred with Madonna and Antonio Banderas in his first musical film , Evita ( 1996 ) . In this adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's stage musical , Pryce portrayed the Argentinian president Juan Perón . The movie 's soundtrack was an international success . It contains over 30 songs sung mainly by Madonna , Banderas and Pryce , of which two are solos for Pryce : " She Is A Diamond " and " On The Balcony Of The Casa Rosada " . After Evita , Pryce went on to portray Elliot Carver in the James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies ( 1997 ) . During the rest of the decade Pryce would play to his new acquired fame as a villain , portraying an Irish terrorist in Ronin ( 1998 ) , a corrupt Cardinal in the controversial Stigmata ( 1999 ) and , for Comic Relief , the Master in the Doctor Who special , Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death . About this time Pryce sang at the Hollywood Bowl alongside opera singer Lesley Garrett in highlights from My Fair Lady and in 1998 , he performed in Cameron Mackintosh 's gala concert Hey , Mr Producer ! , also as Professor Henry Higgins from My Fair Lady and reprising his role as the Engineer from Miss Saigon .
= = = 2000s = = =
During the early 2000s Pryce starred and participated in a variety of movies , such as The Affair of the Necklace ( 2001 ) , Unconditional Love ( 2002 ) , What a Girl Wants ( 2003 ) , and Terry Gilliam 's aborted project , The Man Who Killed Don Quixote . While the success of some of these films was variable , the 2001 London stage production of My Fair Lady and his portrayal of Professor Henry Higgins was acclaimed by observers . This production turned out to be very stressful for Pryce because Martine McCutcheon , who portrayed Eliza Doolittle , was sick during much of the show 's run . McCutcheon was replaced by her understudy Alexandra Jay , who would also fall sick hours before a performance , forcing her understudy , Kerry Ellis , to take the lead . Pryce was understandably upset and on her first night introduced Ellis to the audience before the show by saying " This will be your first Eliza , my second today and my third this week . Any member of the audience interested in playing Eliza can find applications at the door . Wednesday and Saturday matinee available . " Pryce ended up dealing with four Elizas during the course of 14 months . Despite the difficulty , the show was nominated for four Laurence Olivier Awards on 2001 : Best Actress in a Musical for Martine McCutcheon , Outstanding Musical Production , Best Theatre Choreographer and Best Actor in a Musical for Pryce . Pryce lost to Philip Quast , although ironically McCutcheon won in her category having played fewer performances than any of her understudies . Pryce did express interest in doing My Fair Lady in New York , but when asked if he would do it with McCutcheon he said that " there 's as much chance of me getting a date with Julia Roberts as doing My Fair Lady in New York with Martine McCutcheon . "
In April 2003 Pryce returned to the non @-@ musical stage with A Reckoning , written by American dramatist Wesley Moore . The play co @-@ starred Flora Montgomery and after premiering at the Soho Theatre in London was described by The Daily Telegraph as " one of the most powerful and provocative new American plays to have opened since David Mamet 's Oleanna . " Pryce had a role in Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl ( 2003 ) , in which he portrayed a fictional Governor of Jamaica , Weatherby Swann , a film he has described as " one of those why @-@ not movies . " After Pirates , Pryce appeared in several large @-@ scale motion pictures , such as De @-@ Lovely ( 2004 ) , his second musical film , a chronicle of the life of songwriter Cole Porter , for which Kevin Kline and Pryce covered a Porter song called " Blow , Gabriel , Blow " . The Brothers Grimm ( 2005 ) , Pryce 's third completed film with Terry Gilliam , starred Matt Damon and Heath Ledger , and The New World ( 2005 ) , in which he had a cameo role as King James I. In 2005 , Pryce was nominated for another Olivier Award in the best actor category for his role in the 2004 London production of The Goat or Who is Sylvia ? , where he played Martin , a goat @-@ lover who has to face the recriminations of his cheated @-@ on wife , played by his real @-@ life wife Kate Fahy . Pryce 's performance was highly praised , but he lost the Olivier to Richard Griffiths .
Pryce lent his voice to the French animated film , Renaissance ( 2006 ) , which he stated he wanted to do because he had never " done anything quite like it before . " He reprised the role of Governor Weatherby Swann for the Pirates of the Caribbean sequels , Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest ( 2006 ) and Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End ( 2007 ) . Both were filmed at the same time but released a year apart . Pryce returned to the Broadway stage replacing John Lithgow , from January to July 2006 , as Lawrence Jameson in the musical version of Dirty Rotten Scoundrels . During early 2007 , the BBC serial Sherlock Holmes and the Baker Street Irregulars was first broadcast with Pryce in the lead . From September 2007 through June 2008 , he returned to the theatre portraying Shelly Levene in a new West End production of David Mamet 's Glengarry Glen Ross at the Apollo Theatre , London . He later appeared in the BBC Three comedy series Clone as Dr. Victor Blenkinsop also starring Stuart McLoughlin and Mark Gatiss . In 2009 he appeared at the Donmar Warehouse theatre in the title role of Dimetos written by Athol Fugard , and later that year made a sentimental journey back to Liverpool to appear as Davies in Harold Pinter 's The Caretaker directed by Christopher Morahan . This transferred to London 's Trafalgar Studios in early 2010 . On television he appeared as Mr Buxton in Return to Cranford ( 2009 ) , for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award as Best Supporting Actor in a Mini Series .
In 2015 he joined the cast of the HBO series Game of Thrones in Season 5 as the High Sparrow . Pryce admitted that one of the main reasons he took on the role was because of how influential the character is plot @-@ wise . While initially being quite sceptical about " sword and sorcery " shows , Pryce later had a change of heart after his positive experiences on the Thrones sets . In 2015 he also appeared at The Globe Theatre as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice . His real life daughter Phoebe played Shylock 's daughter Jessica . In 2015 , he joined the cast of The Healer starring with Oliver Jackson @-@ Cohen , Camilla Luddington , and Jorge Garcia .
= = Personal life = =
While working at the Everyman Theatre in 1972 , Pryce met actress Kate Fahy . They based their home in London , where they currently live . They have three children : Patrick ( born 1983 ) , Gabriel ( born 1986 ) and Phoebe ( born 1990 ) .
In 2006 , Pryce was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by the University of Liverpool . He is a fellow of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama and a Companion of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts . He is a patron of the children 's charity Friendship Works and of the surgical charity Saving Faces .
Pryce was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2009 Birthday Honours .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film and television = = =
= = = Stage = = =
The Churchill Play ( 1974 ) as Mike McCulloch
Comedians ( 1975 ) as Gethin Price ( first appearance in America , 1977 )
Measure for Measure RSC ( 1979 )
Hamlet ( 1980 ) as Hamlet – Olivier Award for Best Actor
Accidental Death of an Anarchist ( 1984 ) as The Fool
Uncle Vanya ( 1989 ) as Astrov
Miss Saigon ( 1989 ) as The Engineer – Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical , Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical
Nine ( 1992 London concert performance ) as Guido Contini
Oliver ! ( 1994 revival ) as Fagin – Olivier Award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical
My Fair Lady ( 2001 revival ) as Professor Higgins – Olivier Award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical
A Reckoning ( 2003 ) as Spencer
The Goat , or Who Is Sylvia ? ( 2004 ) as Martin Gray
Dirty Rotten Scoundrels ( 2006 ) as Lawrence Jameson
Glengarry Glen Ross ( 2007 London production ) as Shelly Levene
Dimetos ( 2009 at the Donmar Warehouse in London ) as Dimetos
The Caretaker ( 2010 at Trafalgar Studios ) as Davies
King Lear ( 2012 at Almeida Theatre ) as Lear
The Merchant of Venice ( 2015 at Shakespeare 's Globe ) as Shylock
= = = Other contributions = = =
When Love Speaks ( 2002 , EMI Classics ) – Shakespeare 's " Sonnet 65 " ( " Since brass , nor stone , nor earth , nor boundless sea " )
HR , a six @-@ part comedy drama series on BBC Radio 4 about a middle @-@ aged Human Resources ( HR ) officer , played by Nicholas le Prevost , and his colleague , played by Pryce . The series was written by Nigel Williams and directed by Peter Kavanagh , and first broadcast in 2009 .
Portrayed The Master in the 1999 Comic Relief parody Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death .
Cranford ( 2009 , BBC ) – Mr. Buxton
Read from The Rings of Saturn by W. G. Sebald for the film Patience ( After Sebald ) , directed by Grant Gee .
Starred in the BBC Television series Clone .
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= 2008 – 09 Pittsburgh Penguins season =
The 2008 – 09 Pittsburgh Penguins season was the 42nd season of Pittsburgh Penguins in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The regular season began with two games against the Ottawa Senators in Stockholm , Sweden on October 4 and October 5 , 2008 .
On February 15 , the team had a record of 27 – 25 – 5 and was five points out of playoff position . The organization fired head coach Michel Therrien and replaced him with Dan Bylsma , head coach of the organization 's American Hockey League affiliate in Wilkes @-@ Barre . On February 26 , the team traded defenseman Ryan Whitney to the Anaheim Ducks in return for Chris Kunitz . Before the trade deadline on March 4 , they acquired Bill Guerin from the New York Islanders . Under Bylsma , the team went 18 – 3 – 4 , including 10 – 1 – 2 in March , and lost only one home game .
The Penguins qualified for the playoffs for the third consecutive season . They did not repeat as champions of the Atlantic Division , but earned the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference with 99 points . They began the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs on April 15 against the Philadelphia Flyers . They beat the Flyers , Washington Capitals , and Carolina Hurricanes to earn a second @-@ straight berth in the Stanley Cup Final . In the Finals , the Penguins defeated the Detroit Red Wings in seven games in a rematch of the previous season 's Stanley Cup Final to win the franchise 's third league title .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
Due to their appearance in the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals , the Penguins had less than three weeks before free agency began to settle numerous contract decisions . The Penguins added nine free agents and lost ten to other teams . Head Coach Michel Therrien also signed a new three @-@ year contract that replaced the last year of his existing contract , with an increase in salary . The new contract was projected to keep him with the Penguins through the 2010 – 11 season .
The Penguins renewed 99 % of their season ticket sales from the 2007 – 08 season ; having sold out 67 consecutive games at Mellon Arena dating back to the 2006 – 07 season . In July , ESPN named Pittsburgh the top team in the Eastern Conference , and Sporting News predicted the team would finish in the league 's fifth overall position .
The team commenced training camp on September 16 , 2008 in Pittsburgh . They played five pre @-@ season games in preparation for the season , finishing with a 4 – 0 – 1 record . The team concluded its preparation for the season with practices in Stockholm . Defensemen Sergei Gonchar was injured in the pre @-@ season opener and originally anticipated to miss " four to six months . " He appeared for the first time on February 14 , 2009 . With Gonchar out of the lineup and previous season 's two other alternate captains Ryan Malone and Gary Roberts departed , the Penguins began the season with no returning alternate captains in the lineup . Therrien selected two alternate captains each month ; Evgeni Malkin and Brooks Orpik served the role throughout the opening month .
= = Regular season = =
= = = October = = =
On September 27 , the Penguins embarked on a trip for Sweden where they opened the season against the Ottawa Senators , at the Stockholm Globe Arena . The Penguins were one of four teams to participate in NHL Premiere which began the season with games in Prague , Czech Republic and Stockholm , Sweden . Pittsburgh won the opening game of the season in overtime , getting two goals from Tyler Kennedy , including the game @-@ winner . The game was broadcast on Mellon Arena 's JumboTron where 2 @,@ 300 spectators watched the game . The team returned to Pittsburgh after ten days in Europe and a 1 – 1 – 0 record . The Penguins hosted the Trib Total Media Faceoff Festival 2008 prior to their first four home games , allowing fans to watch the games on 9 @-@ by @-@ 12 foot LED screen outside of Mellon Arena . On October 18 , Sidney Crosby scored one goal in addition to three assists to surpass benchmarks of 100 goals , 200 assists , and 300 total points for his career . In the same game , Evgeni Malkin assisted on four goals , giving him 200 total career points .
The Penguins received continued fan support from their previous season . In addition to extending a home sellout streak to 72 games on October 23 , the Penguins ranked 113 % above the national average for male television viewers aged 18 to 34 . The franchise ranked as the 18th most valuable in the league at US $ 195 million , marking a 26 % increase from the past season . According to Forbes , the franchise 's revenue would likely put the Penguins into the top ten after their new arena , Consol Energy Center , opened in 2010 . The Penguins finished October with a 3 – 1 – 1 record in Pittsburgh and concluded the month with three consecutive road losses .
= = = November = = =
The Penguins won their first six games in November before losing in a shootout on November 18 . Rob Scuderi and Hal Gill were selected by Therrien to be November 's alternate captains , taking over for Brooks Orpik and Malkin who served in October . On November 11 , the Penguins returned to Detroit for the first time since the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals . The third goal of Jordan Staal 's second career hat @-@ trick came with 22 @.@ 8 seconds remaining in regulation , sending the game into overtime where the Penguins achieved a 7 – 6 victory . Malkin 's 13 @-@ game point streak ended on November 18 , during the streak he scored 27 points . Through November 19 , the Penguins led the league in overtime games with nine of 18 games taking extra time to decide . Through the first 20 games of the season , Mike Zigomanis led the league in faceoff percentage and Alex Goligoski led rookie defensemen in points . After an injury to Marc @-@ Andre Fleury , Dany Sabourin and rookie John Curry split goaltending duties in his multi @-@ game absence in which the team was 5 – 6 – 2 . On November 26 , Malkin scored three goals for his third career hat @-@ trick , three days later Sidney Crosby also achieved a hat trick — the second of his career . After the team 's final game of the month , Malkin and Crosby ranked first and second in league scoring with 39 and 34 points respectively . Malkin also ranked first in the league with 29 assists , and was named the NHL 's second Star of the Month .
= = = December = = =
Therrien named Jordan Staal and Matt Cooke December 's alternate captains . " I think it 's important for our young group to try to extend the leadership group , " the coach said of the decision . A survey by Turnkey Sports & Entertainment released on December 2 that surveyed fans of all 122 NFL , NBA , NHL and MLB teams ranked the Penguins eighth . The survey consisted of 21 categories such as entertainment value , commitment to winning , ticket value and likeability of the players and owners . Ranked 20th in the same poll in 2007 , the Penguins were the second @-@ ranked NHL team , behind the Detroit Red Wings . The Penguins began the month with seven games in eleven days in which they were 2 – 4 – 1 . As of December 10 , Crosby and Malkin continued to lead the league in points as well as leading voting for the All @-@ Star Game in Montreal . On December 11 , after losing three consecutive games , Petr Sykora and Pascal Dupuis each scored their first career hat @-@ tricks in a 9 – 2 victory over the New York Islanders in Pittsburgh . It was the seventh time in the Penguins ' history that two players scored a hat @-@ trick in the same game , the first since 1993 .
On December 21 , Sidney Crosby surpassed the record for most All @-@ Star Game votes at 1 @,@ 020 @,@ 736 , set by Jaromir Jagr , then with the Penguins , in 2000 . Crosby broke the record with 13 days remaining in voting . Defenceman Ryan Whitney made his first appearance of the season on December 23 , after missing 33 games with a foot injury . On December 26 , Marc @-@ Andre Fleury made 37 saves in Pittsburgh 's first shutout of the season , defeating the New Jersey Devils , 1 – 0 . After concluding the month with a 5 – 8 – 1 record , the team held a players @-@ only meeting on December 30 . " The attitude is a little off right now , " said Brooks Orpik , " It 's easy to be a good team when you 're winning games . When you 're going through rough batches like this , it 's what tests guys ' character . "
= = = January = = =
The Penguins began 2009 with three consecutive losses , extending their losing streak to five games — the most consecutive since 2006 . During the streak , the Penguins fell from second to ninth place in the Eastern Conference and failed to score on 32 consecutive power plays .
Sidney Crosby and Evgeni Malkin led all players in voting for the 2009 All @-@ Star Game . However , Crosby did not play due to a knee injury . The top vote @-@ getter for the second year in a row , Crosby also missed the 2008 All @-@ Star Game . On January 8 , the team announced that they had agreed to a four @-@ year contract extension with Jordan Staal worth $ 16 million . Staal 's rookie contract was set to expire at the end of the season . He was the Penguins first round pick , second overall in 2006 .
The team suffered from injuries , culminating in January where at one point they had eight starters injured . Mike Zigomanis had been inactive since December 3 and Ruslan Fedotenko was ruled out for four to six weeks after breaking his hand on January 6 . Sergei Gonchar practiced with the team for the first time on January 16 after suffering a separated shoulder during the pre @-@ season . By that time , the Penguins had lost 173 man @-@ games due to injury , after losing 239 in the entire 2007 – 08 season . With a 3 – 0 victory over the New York Rangers on January 18 , the Penguins won a second consecutive game for the first time since November 15 . However , the team was unable to capitalize and lost their last game before the All @-@ Star break to the Carolina Hurricanes . The Penguins entered the break with a 23 – 21 – 4 record . The team 's 50 points put them in tenth place in the Eastern Conference , two spots out of the playoffs .
= = = February = = =
On February 14 , Sergei Gonchar made his season debut and Ruslan Fedotenko returned to the line @-@ up after missing over a month due to a hand injury . On February 15 — with the Penguins five points out of the playoffs — Therrien was replaced by Dan Bylsma , the coach of the Penguins ' AHL affiliate Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton , on an interim basis . Tom Fitzgerald was promoted from Director of Player Development to assistant coach for forwards , while Mike Yeo , already with the team , became assistant for the defensemen . Assistant Andre Savard was reassigned within the organization .
On February 21 , Crosby recorded his 250th career assist in a 2 goal , 2 assist victory over the Philadelphia Flyers . On February 25 , Fleury recorded his third shutout of the season , as the Penguins defeated the Islanders 1 – 0 ; the team remained two points out of the playoffs after the win . The day after the shutout , Ryan Whitney was traded to the Anaheim Ducks for Chris Kunitz and signing rights to prospect Eric Tangradi . In his first game after being traded to Pittsburgh , Kunitz recorded a goal and an assist as the Penguins defeated the Chicago Blackhawks in overtime .
= = = March = = =
The Penguins began March with five of six games on the road , before a homestand of eight consecutive games . Upon the Penguins ' win on March 1 , the team moved into eighth place in the Eastern Conference with 70 points . The NHL trade deadline was on March 4 . On March 3 , the Penguins placed Miroslav Satan on waivers to clear roster space for a trade . Before the deadline , the Penguins acquired New York Islanders ' captain Bill Guerin in exchange for a conditional draft pick in the 2009 draft . The Penguins also exchanged minor league defensemen , sending Danny Richmond to the St. Louis Blues organization for Andy Wozniewski . They also claimed winger Craig Adams off waivers from the Chicago Blackhawks . Dan Bylsma surpassed Herb Brooks ' record for the best record in his first ten games as a Penguins ' coach . The team went a franchise @-@ first 5 – 0 – 0 on a road trip at the beginning of March .
On March 15 , the Penguins soldout their 100th consecutive game at the Mellon Arena . Evgeni Malkin recorded his 100th point of the season while tying a career @-@ high five point game against the Atlanta Thrashers on March 17 . On March 20 , Vince Lascheid , Penguins and Pittsburgh Pirates organist of 33 years , died . Vice President of Communications Tom McMillan said , " [ Lascheid ] probably is the only organist in the history of professional sports to be inducted into a team Hall of Fame . " The Penguins concluded March with eight consecutive games at the Mellon Arena — their longest homestand of the season .
= = = April and season results = = =
Pittsburgh finished their homestand with a 6 – 1 – 1 record , moving into fourth place in the Eastern Conference . The final game of the homestand was the most watched game of the season on FSN Pittsburgh , the Penguins regional television network . FSN Pittsburgh was the most @-@ watched regional Fox network in the NHL for the second consecutive season . On April 7 , Sidney Crosby scored his 100th point of the season , Evgeni Malkin acquired his 300th career point and Petr Sykora scored his 300th career goal , while the Penguins qualified for the post @-@ season for the third consecutive season with a 6 – 4 win over the Tampa Bay Lightning . Tickets for Pittsburgh 's first two opening round playoff games sold out within a few hours of going on sale . The team collected over $ 100 @,@ 000 for the families of three Pittsburgh Police officers who were killed days before the game . The Penguins finished their regular season on April 12 with a win over the Montreal Canadiens . Through his first 25 games as Penguins ' coach , Dan Blysma 's 18 – 3 – 4 record amounted to 40 points — the second @-@ most of any coach in NHL history through their first 25 games . The Penguins finished with a 45 – 28 – 9 record , for 99 points ; fourth place in the Eastern Conference and second place in the Atlantic Division .
Evgeni Malkin won the Art Ross Trophy as the league 's leading scorer with 113 points . Malkin followed Mario Lemieux , Jaromir Jagr and Crosby to become the fourth different Penguin to win the award . The award was the 13th overall for the Penguins since 1988 .
= = = Game log = = =
= = = Standings = = =
Divisional standings
Conference standings
bold – qualified for playoffs , y – division winner , z – placed first in conference ( and division )
AT – Atlantic Division , NE – Northeast Division , SE – Southeast Division
= = = Detailed records = = =
Final
= = Stanley Cup playoffs = =
The Penguins advanced to the Stanley Cup playoffs for the third consecutive season . They earned the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference and home @-@ ice advantage in the opening round match @-@ up against the Philadelphia Flyers , following a loss by the Flyers on the last day of the regular season . For the second consecutive season , the Penguins erected a 12 by 16 foot LED screen on the lawn directly outside Mellon Arena , allowing fans to watch all playoff games , free of charge . After defeating Philadelphia , the Penguins beat the Washington Capitals and the Carolina Hurricanes to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals . The Penguins faced the Detroit Red Wings , defeating them in seven games to win their third Stanley Cup in franchise history . The final game of the season drew a 42 @.@ 2 television rating in Pittsburgh — the highest local rating in any city since the NHL began to track the figure .
= = = Eastern Conference Quarterfinals = = =
The Penguins won Game 1 of the series 4 – 1 , with goals from Sidney Crosby , Evgeni Malkin , Tyler Kennedy and defenseman Mark Eaton . " It was a good [ night ] for me , " said Malkin , " It was a good [ night ] for everybody . " Flyers Head Coach John Stevens was fined US $ 10 @,@ 000 and forward Daniel Carcillo was suspended by the NHL for the second game of the series for a hit to Maxime Talbot 's head immediately following a faceoff with seven seconds left in the game ; Carcillo was not penalized at the time of the hit . In Game 2 , Evgeni Malkin had a goal and an assist , while Marc @-@ Andre Fleury made 38 saves . Bill Guerin scored two goals , including the game winner in overtime , and the Penguins won 3 – 2 . With the Penguins up two games to zero , the series moved to Philadelphia for Game 3 . After falling behind 2 – 0 , goals from Malkin and Rob Scuderi tied the game . Malkin added his second goal of the game in the final period ; however , Philadelphia won the game 6 – 3 . In Game 4 , Fleury stopped 45 shots , giving up one goal as the Penguins won 3 – 1 . Crosby scored his second goal of the playoffs and Tyler Kennedy added the game winner . The Penguins were unable to clinch the series in Game 5 at Mellon Arena . A goal by Malkin was taken away after it was determined that he had kicked the puck into the net ; Martin Biron stopped 28 shots for the shutout . Pittsburgh viewers were unable to see approximately 30 minutes of the second period after a lightning strike at a FSN Pittsburgh network facility in Atlanta caused the station to temporarily black out .
In Game 6 , the Flyers lead 3 – 0 four minutes into the second period . Maxime Talbot fought Daniel Carcillo after the Flyers tallied their third goal and the Penguins , re @-@ energized by Talbot 's display , scored three goals in what remained of the second period to tie the game 3 – 3 . Sergei Gonchar scored his first goal of the series , his first in 23 playoff games dating back to game two of the Penguins ' first @-@ round series against Ottawa in 2008 , to break the tie at 2 : 19 of the third period . Crosby added an empty @-@ net goal and the Penguins eliminated the Flyers and advance to the Eastern Conference Semifinals . Three days after the Penguins series @-@ clinching victory of the Flyers , the Penguins announced that Head Coach Dan Bylsma had signed a multi @-@ year contract extension with the team .
= = = Eastern Conference semi @-@ finals = = =
The Penguins drew a matchup with the Washington Capitals in the second round semi @-@ finals . The anticipation for the series was high considering the rivalry between the teams and star players , most notably Sidney Crosby and Evgeni Malkin of the Penguins and Alexander Ovechkin and Alexander Semin of the Capitals . The first three games in the series were scheduled for national television in the U.S. , with game one on NBC and games two and three on Versus .
Game 1 was held in Washington , where Capitals owner Ted Leonsis took steps to prevent Penguins ' fans from purchasing tickets , such as not selling tickets to customers whose 724 or 412 area code indicated they were from Western Pennsylvania . Crosby scored to give the Penguins a first period lead , but Washington scored two goals before the conclusion of the period . Mark Eaton tied the game in the second period , but Washington 's Semyon Varlamov held the Penguins scoreless for the remainder of the game as the Capitals took a 1 – 0 lead in the series . The game had 40 % more viewers than playoff games the previous season . In Game 2 , Ovechkin and Crosby scored three goals each , though Dave Steckel 's second period goal was the difference as Washington won 4 – 3 .
The series moved to Pittsburgh for Game 3 with the Penguins down 2 – 0 . Goals from Ruslan Fedotenko , Nicklas Backstrom , Ovechkin and Malkin left the game tied after regulation . Kris Letang scored a powerplay goal 11 minutes into overtime , winning the game for the Penguins . Pittsburgh tied the series at two games apeice after a 5 – 3 Game 4 victory at Mellon Arena . After a Washington goal scored less than a minute into regulation , the Penguins responded with three goals in the first period . The Penguins ' five goals came from five different players . During the first period , Sergei Gonchar was forced to leave the game after a knee @-@ on @-@ knee hit from Ovechkin ; Gonchar returned to the Penguins ' line @-@ up for Game 7 . Game 5 took place in Washington , D.C. , the next day , due to the scheduling of a Yanni concert in Pittsburgh . After a scoreless first period , Washington took a 2 – 1 lead in the second . Fedotenko tied the game less than a minute into the third period , but a goal by Matt Cooke was matched by Ovechkin and the game went into overtime . With one second remaining in their second powerplay of the game , Malkin scored to give the Penguins their third consecutive victory . Game 6 was the third overtime game of the series . Washington forced a seventh game with a 5 – 4 victory . Nine different players scored goals in the game .
In the final game of the series , Pittsburgh scored two goals within eight seconds of one another to take a 2 – 0 lead after Fleury stopped Ovechkin on a breakaway . Pittsburgh scored three more goals in the second period , extending their lead to 5 – 0 , before Ovechkin scored his eighth goal of the series . Each team added a goal in the final period to end the game with a 6 – 2 final score . Ovechkin scored eight goals and added six assists in the series , while Crosby tallied eight goals and five assists . Crosby 's 13 @-@ point tally in the series totalled one less than Ovechkin 's 14 points , which was the highest single @-@ series point total since the 1995 playoffs . While shaking hands following the final game , Crosby told Ovechkin he had played a " great series , " to which Ovechkin responded , " win the Stanley Cup . "
= = = Eastern Conference Final = = =
Pittsburgh faced the Carolina Hurricanes in the Eastern Conference Final , after Carolina defeated the Boston Bruins and New Jersey Devils . The series opened in Pittsburgh , where Miroslav Satan and Philippe Boucher scored their first goals of the playoffs . Marc @-@ Andre Fleury was named the game 's third star after making 23 saves and helping the Penguins to a 3 – 2 victory . In Game 2 , Malkin scored a hat @-@ trick and Chris Kunitz scored his first goal of the playoffs as the Penguins won 7 – 4 , taking a two games to none series lead . In Game 3 , Malkin scored two goals and Crosby scored one as the Penguins took a 3 – 1 lead into the first intermission . After a scoreless second period , the Hurricanes came within a goal after Sergei Samsonov scored less than two minutes into the final period , but goals by Fedotenko , Craig Adams and Guerin gave the Penguins a 6 – 2 victory . The series concluded with the Penguins sweeping , four games to none . In the series ' fourth game , Pittsburgh gave up the initial goal less than two minutes into the opening period , but goals from Fedotenko and Talbot gave them the lead after the first period . A second period goal from Guerin and an empty netter from Adams sealed the Penguins ' victory in the game and the series .
= = = Stanley Cup Final = = =
For the second consecutive season , the Penguins played the Detroit Red Wings in the Stanley Cup Finals , marking the first time in 25 years that two teams played each other in consecutive Finals . Tickets for Games 3 and 4 , which were hosted at Mellon Arena , sold out in 10 minutes . In the first game of the series , the Red Wings scored the first goal when a puck shot by Brad Stuart ricocheted off the boards behind the goal , then bounced off Marc @-@ Andre Fleury and into the net . Ruslan Fedotenko , with an assist from Evgeni Malkin , tied the game before the conclusion of the first period . Detroit went on to score a goal in each of the final two periods to win Game 1 , 3 – 1 . Evgeni Malkin scored a powerplay goal in the first period of game two , but the Penguins were held scoreless for the remainder of the contest ; falling 3 – 1 for a second consecutive game .
With the Penguins down two games to none , the series shifted to Pittsburgh for Game 3 . After a 2 – 2 first period and a scoreless second period , Sergei Gonchar and Maxime Talbot each scored a goal in the third period to give the Penguins a 4 – 2 victory . In Game 4 , the Penguins tied the Red Wings at two games apiece with three unanswered goals in the second period , including a shorthanded goal by Jordan Staal . With the series returning to Detroit , the Red Wings took a three games to two lead in the series with a 5 – 0 win . Staal and Tyler Kennedy scored as the Penguins tied the series at three games apiece in a 2 – 1 game six victory . In the seventh and final game of the series , Maxime Talbot scored two goals and Fleury made 23 saves as the Penguins won their third Stanley Cup in franchise history .
Evgeni Malkin won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the MVP of the playoffs . Fans celebrated in the streets of Pittsburgh after the game , with the Stanley Cup victory coming four months after the Pittsburgh Steelers ' victory in Super Bowl XLIII . Two days after the victory , 375 @,@ 000 people attended a parade of the Cup through downtown Pittsburgh .
= = = Playoff log = = =
Scorer of game @-@ winning goal in italics
= = Player statistics = =
Skaters
Goaltenders
† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Team . Stats reflect time with the Team only . ‡ Denotes player was traded mid @-@ season . Stats reflect time with the Team only .
Bold / italics denotes franchise record
= = Awards and records = =
= = = Records = = =
= = = Milestones = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Prior to the team 's final home game on April 9 against the New York Islanders , the team announced its annual award winners . Awards were given by the Pittsburgh chapter of the Professional Hockey Writers Association , the Penguins Booster Club , as well as voted amongst the team .
= = Roster = =
= = Transactions = =
Concerns over future player contracts were raised just days after the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals . Approximately a dozen players , including Marian Hossa , Jarkko Ruutu , Ryan Malone and Brooks Orpik , had fulfilled the final year on their contracts . On June 28 , the Penguins traded the contract negotiation rights to Gary Roberts and Ryan Malone to the Tampa Bay Lightning for a conditional draft pick ; it became a third @-@ round pick when both Malone and Roberts signed with the Lightning on June 30 . Evgeni Malkin was offered a contract from a Russian team in the newly formed Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) worth approximately $ 12 @.@ 5 million , tax exempt , per year , which would make him the highest @-@ paid hockey player in the world . However , Malkin turned down the offer to remain with the Penguins , and the IIHF released a statement saying that it would not honor the offer , as Malkin was already under an existing contract with the Penguins at the time . Malkin agreed to a five @-@ year contract extension worth $ 8 @.@ 7 million per year — the same value as Sidney Crosby 's contract — with the Penguins on July 2 . On July 3 , the Penguins agreed to a seven @-@ year deal with restricted free agent goaltender Marc @-@ Andre Fleury in addition to one @-@ year contracts with free agents Miroslav Satan and Ruslan Fedotenko . On October 8 , the Penguins made several roster adjustments , placing Kris Beech , who was already in Europe looking for a new team , on unconditional waivers and sending Janne Pesonen , John Curry and Jeff Taffe , who first had to clear waivers , to Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton . The next day , on October 9 , the Penguins acquired Michael Zigomanis from Phoenix for future considerations . On December 19 , the team extended their agreement with Maxime Talbot for an additional two seasons .
Trades
† Initially fifth @-@ round pick , fourth @-@ round pick if Penguins make playoffs , third @-@ round pick if Penguins win a playoff round and Guerin plays in 50 % of the games .
= = Draft picks = =
The 2008 NHL Entry Draft was held on June 20 – 21 , 2008 , in Ottawa , Ontario . The Penguins did not make their first selection until the fourth round , at 120th overall .
Draft notes
The Pittsburgh Penguins ' first @-@ round pick went to the Atlanta Thrashers as the result of a February 26 , 2008 trade that sent Marian Hossa and Pascal Dupuis to the Penguins in exchange for Angelo Esposito , Colby Armstrong , Erik Christensen and this pick .
The Pittsburgh Penguins ' second @-@ round pick went to the Toronto Maple Leafs as the result of a February 26 , 2008 trade that sent Hal Gill to the Penguins in exchange for a 2009 fifth @-@ round pick and this pick .
The Pittsburgh Penguins ' third @-@ round pick went to the Phoenix Coyotes as the result of a February 27 , 200 trade that sent Georges Laraque to the Penguins in exchange for Daniel Carcillo and this pick .
= = Farm teams = =
Pittsburgh 's American Hockey League affiliate , the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Penguins , finished the 2008 – 09 season third in the East Division .
Chris Minard , the AHL 's leading goal scorer at time of announcement , was selected as a starter for Team Canada in the 2009 All Star Classic . Jeff Taffe and Ben Lovejoy were selected as reserves for the PlanetUSA team . All three players were under two @-@ way NHL contracts and played games with Pittsburgh during the season . In the game , Taffe scored three goals and recorded two assists .
Janne Pesonen , who signed a contract with the Penguins in July 2008 , finished the 2008 – 09 season as the AHL 's fourth @-@ leading scorer , set a new record for points in a single season for the team , passing up Toby Peterson 's 67 @-@ point season of 2000 – 01 , and his 82 points were the most ever by a Finn in AHL history .
The ECHL affiliate Wheeling Nailers finished the season fourth in the Northern Division , and were eliminated in the first round of the 2009 Kelly Cup Playoffs .
The Nailers had three players selected for the 2009 ECHL All @-@ Star Game , all reserve forwards . Nick Johnson , the only Penguins prospect , was drafted by the team 67th overall in 2004 and signed an entry @-@ level contract with the organization in March 2008 . Johnson did not play in the All @-@ Star Game because he finished the season with Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton .
= = Media affiliates = =
WXDX @-@ FM 105 @.@ 9 of Pittsburgh was the radio flagship station for the Penguins for the third season . In April , the team and the station agreed to a six @-@ year contract extension . Mike Lange , former Penguin Phil Bourque and Bob Grove were the station 's broadcasters .
FSN Pittsburgh was the primary television network . Paul Steigerwald , Dan Potash , Rob King , and former Penguins Bob Errey and Jay Caufield were the station 's broadcast team . During the semi @-@ final playoff round against the Washington Capitals , game five set a record as the highest watched game on any FSN regional network in history . It was then surpassed by games six and seven ; the final game of the series drew a 24 @.@ 97 average rating — twice the viewers than the second most watched show of the evening .
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= Mila Kunis =
Milena Markovna " Mila " Kunis ( / ˈmiːlə ˈkuːnɪs / ; born August 14 , 1983 ) is an American actress . In 1991 , at the age of seven , she moved from the Ukrainian SSR to Los Angeles with her family . After being enrolled in acting classes as an after @-@ school activity , she was soon discovered by an agent . She appeared in several television series and commercials , before acquiring her first significant role prior to her 15th birthday , playing Jackie Burkhart on the television series That ' 70s Show . Since 1999 , she has voiced Meg Griffin on the animated series Family Guy .
Her breakout film role came in 2008 , playing Rachel in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Forgetting Sarah Marshall . Her other films include the neo @-@ noir action film Max Payne ( 2008 ) , the post @-@ apocalyptic action film The Book of Eli ( 2010 ) , the romantic comedy Friends with Benefits ( 2011 ) , the comedy Ted ( 2012 ) , the fantasy Oz the Great and Powerful ( 2013 ) as the Wicked Witch of the West , and the drama Black Swan ( 2010 ) , in which her performance gained her worldwide accolades , including the Premio Marcello Mastroianni for Best Young Actor or Actress , and nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role .
= = Early life and education = =
Kunis was born in Chernivtsi , in the Ukrainian SSR ( now Ukraine ) . Her mother , Elvira , is a physics teacher who runs a pharmacy , and her father , Mark Kunis , is a mechanical engineer who works as a cab driver . Kunis has an elder brother named Michael ( born c . 1976 ) . She stated in 2011 that her parents had " amazing jobs " , and that the family was " very lucky " and " not poor " ; they had decided to leave the USSR because they saw " no future " there for Kunis and her brother . In 1991 , when she was seven years old , her family moved to Los Angeles , California , with $ 250 . " That was all we were allowed to take with us . My parents had given up good jobs and degrees , which were not transferable . We arrived in New York on a Wednesday and by Friday morning my brother and I were at school in LA . "
Kunis comes from a Jewish family and has cited antisemitism in the former Soviet Union as one of several reasons for her family 's move to the United States . She has stated that her parents " raised [ her ] Jewish as much as they could , " although religion was suppressed in the Soviet Union . On her second day in Los Angeles , Kunis was enrolled at Rosewood Elementary School , not knowing a word of English . She later recalled : " I blocked out second grade completely . I have no recollection of it . I always talk to my mom and my grandma about it . It was because I cried every day . I didn 't understand the culture . I didn 't understand the people . I didn 't understand the language . My first sentence of my essay to get into college was like , ' Imagine being blind and deaf at age seven . ' And that 's kind of what it felt like moving to the States . "
In Los Angeles , she attended Hubert Howe Bancroft Middle School . She used an on @-@ set tutor for most of her high school years while filming That ' 70s Show . She briefly attended Los Angeles Center for Enriched Studies ( LACES ) , but when that school proved to be insufficiently flexible about her acting commitments , she transferred to Fairfax High School , from which she graduated in 2001 . She briefly attended UCLA and Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles .
= = Career = =
= = = 1994 – 2000 : Career beginnings and television work = = =
At age nine , Kunis was enrolled by her father in acting classes after school at the Beverly Hills Studios , where she met Susan Curtis , who would become her manager . On her first audition she landed the role for a Barbie commercial . Shortly after , she did a commercial for the Lisa Frank product line . Her first television roles took place in 1994 , first appearing on Days of Our Lives , and a few months later doing her first of two appearances on Baywatch . She had a minor role on 7th Heaven and supporting roles in Santa with Muscles , Honey , We Shrunk Ourselves , and the Angelina Jolie film Gia , as the young Gia Carangi .
At the age of 10 , Kunis auditioned for but failed to get the role of a Russian Jewish girl who moves to America in the film Make a Wish , Molly . Instead , she was cast in the secondary role of a Mexican girl . In 1998 , Kunis was cast as Jackie Burkhart in the Fox sitcom That ' 70s Show . All who auditioned were required to be at least 18 years old ; Kunis , who was 14 at the time , told the casting directors she would be 18 but did not say when . Though they eventually figured it out , the producers still thought Kunis was the best fit for the role . That ' 70s Show ran for eight seasons . She won two consecutive Young Star Awards as Best Young Actress in a Comedy TV Series in 1999 and 2000 for her performances .
In 1999 , Kunis replaced Lacey Chabert in the role of Meg Griffin on the animated sitcom Family Guy , created by Seth MacFarlane for Fox . Kunis won the role after auditions and a slight rewrite of the character , in part due to her performance on That ' 70s Show . MacFarlane called Kunis back after her first audition , instructing her to speak slower , and then told her to come back another time and enunciate more . Upon claiming that she had mastered these speech particulars , MacFarlane hired her . MacFarlane added : " What Mila Kunis brought to it was in a lot of ways , I thought , almost more right for the character . I say that Lacey did a phenomenal job , but there was something about Mila – something very natural about Mila . She was 15 when she started , so you were listening to a 15 @-@ year @-@ old . Oftentimes with animation they 'll have adult actors doing the voices of teenagers and they always sound like Saturday morning voices . They sound oftentimes very forced . She had a very natural quality to Meg that really made what we did with that character kind of really work . " Kunis was nominated for an Annie Award in the category of Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production in 2007 . She also voiced Meg in the Family Guy Video Game ! . Kunis described her character as " the scapegoat . "
= = = 2001 – 08 : Transition to film = = =
In 2001 , she appeared in Get Over It opposite Kirsten Dunst . She followed that up in 2002 , by starring in the straight @-@ to @-@ DVD horror film American Psycho 2 alongside William Shatner , a sequel to the 2000 film American Psycho . American Psycho 2 was panned by critics , and later , Kunis herself expressed embarrassment over the film . In 2004 , Kunis starred in the film adaptation Tony n ' Tina 's Wedding . Although the film was shot in 2004 , it did not have a theatrical release until 2007 . Most critics did not like the film , which mustered a 25 % approval from Rotten Tomatoes . DVD talk concluded that " fans would be much better off pretending the movie never happened in the first place " .
In 2005 , Kunis co @-@ starred with Jon Heder in Moving McAllister , which was not released theatrically until 2007 . The film received generally poor reviews and had a limited two @-@ week run in theaters . She followed up with After Sex starring alongside Zoe Saldana , who had also appeared in Get Over It . In October 2006 , she began filming Boot Camp ( originally titled Straight Edge ) . The film was not released in theatres in the United States , but was released on DVD on August 25 , 2009 .
Kunis starred as Rachel Jansen in the 2008 comedy film , Forgetting Sarah Marshall , co @-@ produced by Judd Apatow . The role , which she won after unsuccessfully auditioning for Knocked Up , entailed improvisation on her part . The film garnered positive reviews , and was a commercial success , grossing $ 105 million worldwide . Kunis 's performance was well @-@ received ; Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal praised her " fresh beauty and focused energy " , while James Berardinelli wrote that she is " adept with her performance and understands the concept of comic timing " . She was nominated for a Teen Choice Award . In an interview , Kunis credited Apatow with helping her to expand her career from That ' 70s Show .
Also in 2008 , Kunis portrayed Mona Sax , an assassin , alongside Mark Wahlberg in the action film Max Payne , based on the video game of the same name . Kunis underwent training in guns , boxing , and martial arts for her role . Max Payne was relatively successful at the box office , grossing $ 85 million worldwide but was panned by critics , with several reviewers calling Kunis miscast . Travis Estvold of Boise Weekly wrote that she was " horribly miscast as some sort of undersized , warble @-@ voiced crime boss " . Director John Moore defended his choice of Kunis saying , " Mila just bowled us over ..... She wasn 't an obvious choice , but she just wears Mona so well . We needed someone who would not be just a fop or foil to Max ; we needed somebody who had to be that character and convey her own agenda . I think Mila just knocked it out of the park . " She was nominated for another Teen Choice Award for her role in the film .
= = = 2009 – 12 : Film breakthrough and acclaim = = =
In 2009 , she appeared in the comedy film Extract with Ben Affleck and Jason Bateman . The film received mostly positive reviews , and grossed $ 10 @.@ 8 million at the box office . Roger Ebert , while critical of the film itself , wrote that Kunis " brings her role to within shouting distance of credibility . " Director Mike Judge commented that part of what was surprising to learn about Kunis was her ability to make references to the cult animation film Rejected . Judge said : " As beautiful as Mila is , you could believe that maybe she would cross paths with you in the real world . " After seeing Kunis perform in Forgetting Sarah Marshall , Judge wanted to cast her in the role of Cindy in Extract : " I just thought , ' Wow , this girl 's perfect . ' And she really wanted to do it , which was fantastic . " Kunis herself stated that " I 'm a huge fan of Mike Judge 's from Office Space , so I was , like , ' Okay , this is a very easy decision . ' I told them I would do anything needed to be in this production – like craft service , or , say , acting . "
In 2010 , she starred alongside Denzel Washington in the action film The Book of Eli . Although the film received mixed reviews , it performed well at the box office , grossing over $ 157 million worldwide . Film critic Richard Roeper praised Kunis 's performance , calling it a " particularly strong piece of work " . Several other reviews were equally positive , including that of Pete Hammond of Boxoffice magazine , who wrote that she 's " ideally cast in the key female role " Even reviewers who didn 't necessarily like the film complimented her performance , such as James Berardinelli , who wrote that " the demands of the role prove to be within her range , which is perhaps surprising considering she has been thus far pigeonholed into more lightweight parts " , and Colin Covert of the Star Tribune , who wrote that she " generated a spark and brought a degree of determination to her character , developing an independent female character who 's not always in need of rescuing . " Other critics , such as Claudia Puig of USA Today felt she was miscast , noting that " she looked as if she dropped in from a Ray @-@ Ban commercial " . Kunis received another Teen Choice Award nomination for her performance . Kunis was also cast in a minor role in the 2010 comedy film Date Night , starring Tina Fey and Steve Carell . She garnered several positive reviews for her performance . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune concluded her performance with James Franco helped save the film and gave it " a shot in the arm . "
Kunis was nominated for multiple awards , including her first Golden Globe , for the 2010 film Black Swan . She played a rival ballet dancer to the main character , played by Natalie Portman . Director Darren Aronofsky cast Kunis in the film based on her performance in Forgetting Sarah Marshall , and on the recommendation of co @-@ star and close friend Natalie Portman . She underwent a training regimen that included cardiovascular exercise , a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ calorie a day diet ( she lost 20 pounds that she regained after filming ended ) , and ballet classes for four hours a day , seven days a week . During the demanding production , she suffered injuries including a torn ligament and a dislocated shoulder . Black Swan received widespread acclaim from critics and was nominated for five Academy Awards , including Best Picture . The film grossed over $ 106 @.@ 9 million in the United States and Canada while grossing over $ 329 million worldwide . Reviews of Kunis 's performance were positive , with Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter stating , " Kunis makes a perfect alternate to Portman , equally as lithe and dark but a smirk of self @-@ assurance in place of Portman 's wide @-@ eyed fearfulness . " Guy Lodge of In Contention also praised Kunis , saying , " it 's the cool , throaty @-@ voiced Kunis who is the surprise package here , intelligently watching and reflecting her co @-@ star in such a manner that we 're as uncertain as Nina of her ingenuousness . " Kunis 's performance won her the Marcello Mastroianni Award for Best Young Actor or Actress at the 67th Venice International Film Festival , and earned her Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress . At the 37th annual Saturn Awards , she was also honored with the Best Supporting Actress award for her performance .
Kunis was cast alongside Justin Timberlake in the 2011 romantic comedy Friends with Benefits . Director Will Gluck stated that he wrote the story with Kunis and Timberlake in mind . Friends with Benefits achieved success at the box office , grossing over $ 149 million worldwide , and received mostly positive reviews with critics praising the chemistry between Kunis and Timberlake . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote that " Ms. Kunis is fast proving that she 's a gift that keeps giving to mainstream romantic comedy " and " her energy is so invigorating and expansive and her presence so vibrant that she fills the screen " .
In 2012 , Kunis co @-@ starred with Mark Wahlberg in Ted , her most commercially successful film to date . The film was directed and co @-@ written by Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane . Kunis played the girlfriend of Wahlberg 's character . When MacFarlane first conceived the project , he considered Kunis too young for the role . However , the film remained in development for several years and when it was finally ready to begin production , he ended up casting her . Ted has received generally positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success , grossing $ 549 million worldwide . Drew McWeeny of HitFix wrote that Kunis " brings some lovely subtle grace notes to a role that easily could have just been ' the pushy girlfriend ' " .
= = = 2013 – present : Future projects = = =
In 2013 , Kunis played Theodora , the youngest of three witches , opposite James Franco , in the Walt Disney Pictures ' prequel , Oz the Great and Powerful . She dedicated her performance in the film to Margaret Hamilton , the original Wicked Witch of the West in the 1939 film . The film , and Kunis 's performance , received mixed reviews from critics . Kim Newman of Empire Magazine wrote that Kunis " walks away with the honours as the wavering witch Theodora , whose heartbreak brings another , less @-@ expected depth to this 3D spectacle " . In contrast , Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter found Kunis 's performance to be uncertain as her character seemed to be in a state of limbo . Oz the Great and Powerful was a commercial success , grossing over $ 493 million worldwide .
Also in 2013 Kunis co @-@ starred in the crime thriller Blood Ties with Clive Owen , Billy Crudup , and Marion Cotillard . The film premiered at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and had a limited release in the United States in 2014 . Blood Ties received mixed reviews . Kunis was also cast in the comedy The Angriest Man in Brooklyn , alongside Robin Williams and Peter Dinklage . The film had a limited theatrical and VOD release and received poor reviews . The Paul Haggis @-@ directed film Third Person co @-@ starring with Liam Neeson , Olivia Wilde and James Franco premiered at the 2013 Toronto Film Festival and had a limited release in 2014 , but also received mostly negative reviews . Kunis ' performance was praised by some critics ; Deborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that her role gives her " enormous room to express her talent " and she " gives her story a shot of raw intensity " .
Kunis is set to be an executive producer for a feminist @-@ themed TV series for the CW network . Meridian Hills , is a drama about the women 's liberation movement in the 1970s . She will not appear on @-@ screen . In October 2014 it was announced Kunis , along with her partners , had launched a new production company called Orchard Farm Productions . The company has a first @-@ look deal with ABC Studios , where the company is based . Under the agreement , the team will develop and produce TV projects for broadcast and cable .
In 2015 , Kunis co @-@ starred with Channing Tatum in the science fiction film Jupiter Ascending , directed by the Wachowskis . The film received mostly negative reviews .
Kunis will be co @-@ starring with Kristen Bell and Christina Applegate in the comedy Bad Moms . The film is scheduled to be released July 29 , 2016 .
= = In the media = =
In 2007 , Kunis participated in a video for the website Funny or Die appearing alongside James Franco . The video was a parody of the MTV show The Hills and was a huge success for the website , with well over one million views . Shawn Levy , director of Date Night , stated that part of what made him decide to cast Kunis with James Franco in the film was the chemistry he felt they had in the Funny or Die video . In December 2008 , Kunis was featured in Gap 's " Shine Your Own Star " Christmas campaign .
In 2010 , she was featured in the " Women We Love " segment in Esquire with an accompanied video . Kunis was among several female stars photographed by Canadian singer / songwriter Bryan Adams in conjunction with the Calvin Klein Collections for a feature titled American Women 2010 , with the proceeds from the photographs donated to the NYC AIDS foundation . During the summer of 2010 Kunis served with Randy Jackson as the Master of Ceremonies for the 9th Annual Chrysalis Foundation Benefit . The Chrysalis Foundation is a Los Angeles @-@ based non @-@ profit organization formed to help economically disadvantaged and homeless individuals to become self @-@ sufficient through employment opportunities .
GQ magazine named Kunis the Knockout of the Year for 2011 , with Men 's Health naming her one of the " 100 Hottest Women of All @-@ Time " . FHM magazine ranked her number 9 on its 2012 Hot 100 list , but she reached number 1 on their 2013 " 100 Sexiest Women in the World " list , which brought to an end a four @-@ year run by British women .
Prior to this in 2008 Kunis stated , " You 've got to base your career on something other than being FHM 's top 100 number one girl . Your looks are going to die out , and then what 's going to be left ? " Maxim has consistently ranked Kunis on its Hot 100 list , reaching a ranking of number 5 in both 2009 and 2011 and number 3 in 2012 . Esquire magazine named her 2012 's Sexiest Woman Alive . She ranked # 2 on AskMen 's list of Top 99 Women for 2013 , behind only Jennifer Lawrence . In 2013 , she responded to those lists : " All I can say is , I feel honored to be considered sexy . "
Christian Dior signed Kunis in 2012 to be the face of its Spring fashion campaign . In February 2013 , she was named Gemfields global brand ambassador and the face of their advertising campaign . Gemfields is a luxury company that produces emeralds , rubies , and amethysts . She visited Gemfields ' mine in Zambia . Kunis appeared wearing Gemfields 's Rubies for the world premiere of Jupiter Ascending .
In 2013 , she appeared in Forbes list of 100 powerful celebrities , ranking # 89 on the basis of five criteria ( Money , TV / Radio , Press , Social , and Marketability ) , with her highest ranking as # 14 in marketability . She earned $ 11 million for the year ending in June 2013 .
In 2014 , Kunis appeared in a range of global advertising for Beam , Inc . ( makers of Jim Beam bourbon ) .
= = Personal life = =
On September 14 , 2011 , the FBI announced it was investigating the alleged hacking of Kunis 's cellphone and email accounts , along with those of other celebrities . Christopher Chaney from Jacksonville , Florida , later pleaded guilty in federal court to nine counts of computer hacking .
In November 2011 , Kunis was escorted by Sgt. Scott Moore to a United States Marine Corps Ball in Greenville , North Carolina . Kunis had accepted Moore 's invitation in July after he posted it as a YouTube video while serving with the 3rd Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment , in Afghanistan 's Helmand province . The event celebrated the Marine Corps ' 236th anniversary .
Kunis supports the Democratic Party and Barack Obama . In a 2012 interview , she criticized the Republican Party , saying : " The way that Republicans attack women is so offensive to me . And the way they talk about religion is offensive . I may not be a practicing Jew , but why we gotta talk about Jesus all the time ? "
= = = Health = = =
In January 2011 , she revealed her struggle with chronic iritis that had caused temporary blindness in one eye . Some months earlier she had surgery that had corrected the problem . Kunis also has heterochromia iridum , a condition in which the irises are different colors . One eye ( left ) is brown , and the other ( right ) is green .
= = = Relationships = = =
Kunis began dating actor Macaulay Culkin in 2002 . During their relationship , there were rumors of the couple getting married , but Kunis denied them . In an interview with BlackBook magazine , Kunis stated that marriage is " not something that 's important to me " . Kunis said she tried her best to protect her and Culkin 's privacy , noting that " We don 't talk about it to the press . It 's already more high profile than I want it to be . " When asked if it was difficult to stay out of the tabloids and press , Kunis responded : " I keep my personal life as personal as I physically , mentally , possibly can . " Asked if that is difficult she said , " I don 't care . I will go to my grave trying . It is hard , but I 'll end up going to a bar that 's a hole in the wall . I won 't go to the ' it 's @-@ happening ' place . " On January 3 , 2011 , Kunis ' publicist confirmed reports that Kunis and Culkin had ended their relationship , saying " The split was amicable , and they remain close friends . "
Kunis began dating her former That ' 70s Show co @-@ star Ashton Kutcher in April 2012 , and they became engaged in February 2014 . She gave birth to their daughter Wyatt Isabelle in October 2014 . Kunis married Kutcher during the first weekend of July 2015 , in Oak Glen , California . In June 2016 , their representative confirmed they are expecting their second child .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Carly Colón =
Carlos Edwin " Carly " Colón Jr . ( born February 21 , 1979 ) is a Puerto Rican professional wrestler better known internationally by his ring name Carlito . He belongs to a wrestling family , being the son of Carlos Colón Sr. , who introduced him to wrestling . His mother was born in Canada , which grants him Canadian citizenship . Colón debuted in his father 's promotion , the World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) , eventually winning the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship 16 times , and the WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship once . During the early years of his career , he made appearances for the X Wrestling Federation and Funking Conservatory , winning his first international championship for the second . In his native Puerto Rico , he is known as both Carly Colón and Carlito .
In 2003 , Colón signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , working for the promotion until 2010 . He worked in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) for sixteen months , mostly wrestling in tag team matches while making appearances in WWC . On October 7 , 2004 , Colón made his debut performing on the main event of SmackDown ! as Carlito Caribbean Cool . Colón is a former United States Champion and Intercontinental Champion and has been part of both the Raw and SmackDown brands . He is the only wrestler to win a championship on two separate debuts in WWE and the second Puerto Rican to become Intercontinental Champion after Pedro Morales . At WrestleMania XXV , Colón and his brother , Eddie Colón , became the only tag team to unify the WWE Tag Team Championship and World Tag Team Championship .
World Wrestling Entertainment contacted Colón and he will be appearing on television late 2016 at WWE RoadBlock
= = Early and personal life = =
Colón was born in the Santurce district of the capital of Puerto Rico , San Juan . He is son of retired wrestler and promoter Carlos Colón , Sr. and his wife , Nancy . Colón was the first of four siblings , a group that also includes fellow wrestlers Eddie Colón and Stacy Colón , both of whom have performed in the World Wrestling Council . A second sister , Melissa did not enter the wrestling business . Other members of Colón 's family have also been involved in the World Wrestling Council ; his uncle José Colón and cousin Orlando Colón have been involved in several angles within the company . On April 18 , 2009 , Colón was retroactively granted the Canadian citizenship following a series of amends to the Canadian nationality law . This revision automatically granted the distinction to all the first generation individuals born abroad . The revision only required a single Canadian parent , a demand that Colón met through his maternal bloodline .
Between 1991 and 1997 , Colón attended the Jesuit Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola , from which he graduated . Unsatisfied with his physical conditioning , he began attending a gym as an 11 @-@ year @-@ old . Despite this , Colón has stated that he did not intend to become a wrestler at first and only did so as sport . It was not until completing his college education that he decided to train , after noticing that his condition was on par with the wrestlers despite his age . However , despite this Colón initially expected to retire within ten years and run a private business . He admits that during this initial stage , he received peer pressure to match the accomplishments of his father . Colón 's decision to sign with World Wrestling Entertainment was a controversial one among the Puerto Rican wrestling community . He was criticized by the locals , labeled as someone who had " sold out " his Puerto Rican wrestling traditions over for the " flash and flair " of the American company . Colón spoke of this in an interview with The Sun in which he stated " I did not care about what they thought . I 've always dreamed of working for the WWE when I was young , and I took that chance when it came " .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Council ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
In November 1999 , Colón began working in the World Wrestling Council as a cameraman , then known by his actual nickname " Carly " , being subtly introduced to the television programming . Soon after his first appearance , the promotion 's main heel ( or villainous ) wrestler , Ray González , took an interest in him after learning his identity . After weeks of being pestered , Colón responded by punching González , which resulted in a beat @-@ down by the dominant heel stable , La Familia del Milenio . At Aniversario 1999 , Colón interrupted a match between González and Colón , Sr. , aiding his father by interrupting while wielding a shovel , which became his trademark weapon early in his career . The feud between Colón Sr. and González continued , with him interferring on his father 's behalf . The final match of this feud concluded in the same manner that the first Aniversario encounter . Soon after , vignettes depicting him training with Isaac Rosario began airing in WWC 's show , Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre . Colón made his in @-@ ring debut in January 2000 by defeating Félix Tapia , a jobber and member of La Familia . He was immediately booked in a major push , defeating almost the entirety of the heel locker room during the following two weeks . Despite being active for less than three months , he earned the support of the WWC fanbase .
On January 29 , 2000 , Colón defeated González to become the youngest wrestler to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship . Following his victory , he was engulfed by fans and carried to the locker room by the Ejercíto de la Justicia , the main fan @-@ favorite stable in the promotion . González countered by creating a coalition of wrestlers that had feuded with Colón Sr. in the past , led by Hercules Ayala and Ramón Álvarez . On February 19 , 2000 , Colón dropped the Universal Heavyweight Championship to González , following intervention from Álvarez . This led to a double feud against Álvarez and Ayala , from which he emerged victorious . During this timeframe , he also wrestled One Man Gang , who was involved a storyline where a $ 10 @,@ 000 bounty was placed by La Familia to " end his career " . On July 16 , 2000 , Colón defeated González to recover the championship in the main event of Aniversario , the promotion 's anniversary event . This was followed with a feud with Curt Hennig , brought in by La Familia , who won the title by pinning him on September 30 , 2000 . Both met in a rematch the following event , with the championship being held @-@ up following a time limit draw . On November 25 , 2000 , Colón recorvered the belt by defeating Hennig in a no @-@ disqualification contest without time limit . On December 3 , 2000 , Colón wrestled " The Botswana Beast " Benjamin Peacock to a double count out . In his next match , he defeated Horace Hogan .
González turned on Hennig and brought in Jerry Flynn to recapture the title . Colón won their first encounters , but Flynn won the Universal Heavyweight Championship on February 17 , 2001 . He resumed his feud with González , before migrating to another angle against La Familia 's main tag team , Thunder and Lightning , composed of Reynaldo " Thunder " Rodríguez and Alex " Lightning " Cruz . Teaming with his father and bother , Eddie Colón , he earned a victory over them . Thunder and Lightning went on to turn on González , who then pursued a partnership with Colón , looking for him in several locations . At Aniversario 2001 : Septiembre Negro , he teamed with González to defeat Thunder and Lightning . However , the partnership was short lived , with González turning on Colón and regaining control of La Familia . On November 13 , 2001 , Colón participated in the television tapings of the X Wrestling Federation . In his only appearance for the promotion , he defeated David Sierra . On December 1 , 2001 , Colón defeated González to win the Universal Heavyweight Championship , restarting the formula of bringing foreign wrestlers to challenge him .
His next feud was against Vampiro , winning the first encounters between them , but losing the title in a no @-@ disqualification contest . A rematch ended in a double disqualification , with the belt being held @-@ up after both assaulted the designated referee . To close this rivalry , Colón defeated Vampiro to regain the Universal Heavyweight Championship . On March 16 , 2002 , he teamed with his bother to defeat Thunder and Lightning and win the WWC World Tag Team Championship . Their reign only lasted a day , losing a rematch the following date . He subsequently formed an alliance with Konnan , winning the belts again on March 26 , 2002 , and holding them for nearly three months . After losing the titles back to Thunder and Lightning , Konnan turned on Colón by attacking his sister , Stacy Colón , with a guitar . He dropped the title in the ensuing feud , recovering it back on November 23 , 2002 . To open 2003 , Colón lost the belt to José " Chicky Starr " Laureano , winning it back the following month . On March 15 , 2003 , he lost the championship to Sabu , before recovering it two weeks later . In May 2003 , Colón wrestled in two tryout matches for World Wrestling Entertainment . His opponents were Tommy Dreamer and Jamie Noble , with both contests ending in a loss . Three different reports scouted his performance in a positive manner , with an official offer being made days after the initial appearances .
On June 2 , 2003 , Colón signed a developmental contract with WWE , being assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling . He made a final appearance in WWC , winning a match over Mike Awesome at Aniversario 2003 . Following this performance , Colón addressed the crowd and vacated the Universal Heavyweight Championship , with the next titleholder being decided in a tournament following his departure . The staff of WWC 's main rival , the International Wrestling Association ( IWA ) , was surprised by the event due to the promotion 's previous association with WWE . They expected the tryout to conclude with the same outcome that the ones that WWE held with their talents ( Germán Figueroa , Ricky Banderas and Andy Anderson ) without any offer being made , deciding to counter the signing 's impact with a storyline that benefited from it . The following month in the tour to promote the Summer Attitude 2003 event , the IWA began announcing the arrival of the " son of a former world champion " and " legend that is universally recognized " to the promotion , which was heavily implied to be Colón , but actually served as a plot device to introduce David Flair . Before the identity was revealed , his music was played over the sound system , only for the crowd to be told by Savio Vega ( Juan Rivera ) that they should avoid " acting like morons " .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = = =
Upon joining OVW , Colón performed under his nickname of " Carly " . On July 5 , 2003 , he debuted by teaming with Luther Reigns and John Hennigan in a loss to Tank Toland , Johnny Jeter , and Matt Cappotelli . In his first singles appearances , Colón defeated Rob Begeley and Mike Mondo . He teamed with Henningan in a loss to Damien Sandow and Simon Dean , after which the team was dissolved . Hennigan then teamed with Cappotelli winning against Colón and his new partner , Joey Mercury . This team scored a win over Carl Lafon & Mondo , before being dissolved itself . Shortly afterwards , his ring name was changed as to the more formal " Carlos Colón , Jr . " , his actual name . His performance in OVW was intercalated by appearances in dark matches that took place before WWE 's main shows . On October 14 , 2003 , he teamed with Dean in a dark match loss to Sean O 'Haire and Matt Morgan that preceded WWE Velocity . In February 2004 , Colón performed as a heel for the first time in his career by joining Bolin Services , a faction led by Kenny Bolin and completed by Shad Gaspard , Jerome Crony , Demond Thompson , Mike Mondo and fellow Puerto Rican Lourdes Guenard . He was paired with several members of the faction , with his team with Mondo trading wins against the team of Mac Johnson & Seth Skyfire and defeating Adrenaline ( a team composed by Chris Cage and Toland ) twice . His teams with Shad Gaspard and Chris Masters did not meet the same success , losing three consecutive matches , two against Adrenaline and one to The British Knights respectively . Individually , Colón defeated Micah Taylor , but lost to Cappotelli .
A trio formed by him , Mondo and Gaspard won a couple of matches over the trios of Skyfire , Mac Johnson , & Demond Thompson and Mike Taylor , Rob Begley & Steve Lewington . However , it also lost to Rod Steele , Mike Taylor & Rob Begley and Mac Johnson , Seth Skyfire , & Big Bad John . The trio wrestled the team of Adrenaline and Wavell Starr to a no contest . While working in OVW , Colón continued to appear in various World Wrestling Council events . Towards the year 's end , he made sporadic appearances and feuded with the " Dominican Boy " Julio César López over the Universal Heavyweight Championship . Colón won a November encounter by disqualification , which prevented the title from changing hands . He won a rematch on December 20 , 2003 , and held on to the Universal Heavyweight Championship for two weeks , losing it to Abdullah the Butcher at WWC 's Three Kings Weekend . During this timeframe , Colón also participated in several dark matches prior to Velocity and Sunday Night Heat , in the first teaming with Brent Dail in a loss to Jim Steele & Mike Barton and on the second losing to Johnny Jeter in singles . WWC scheduled him to wrestle Abyss on April 10 , 2004 , but WWE did not grant the permission to perform at the event , considering that it could be promoted as an interpromotional match against its rival , Total Nonstop Action Wrestling . Throughout March and May , Colón wrestled in dark matches for both the RAW and SmackDown ! brands . The outcome of these unofficial presentations were wins over Paul London , Ruffy Silverstein , Wavell Starr and Ricky Reyes , also including losses to Hardcore Holly , Shoichi Funaki , Shannon Moore and Billy Kidman .
His work in OVW was a key plot device in WWC 's main storyline of the year . On May 15 , 2004 , the promotion began a backstage angle where Enrique Cruz told Eddie Colón that Carly Colón was wrestling as a heel in OVW , only for José Rivera , Jr. to dismiss it as " internet gossip " . A subsequent phone conversation between brothers concluded without a direct response on the matter . On June 13 , 2004 , Carly Colón 's role as a heel was made official in a segment where he told his sister that he was no longer interested in his father or the people of Puerto Rico . Consequently , Eddie Colón traveled to the United States to meet with his brother . Upon arriving to the hotel where Carly Colón was staying , he asked to contact him , but the clerk refused to attend him after receiving the response that " Mr. Colón says that he has no brother " and receiving no response upon knocking on the room door .
Eddie Colón was expelled from the hotel and tried to attend his brother 's training , but he received the same response and was denied access , buying a ticket for an OVW show held that night . After the event 's start , Carly Colón was shown arriving late and being scolded by Jim Cornette . This skit reflected real conflicts between both . Cornette has stated that during Colón 's stay in OVW he considered him a very talented performer , capable of doing " great stuff " but only did it when he " was on " due to being used to be treated as " wrestling royalty " in his role of " the boss ' son " . Cornette went on to explain the limited role , saying that : " I didn 't feature Carlito , because he thought that he was more advanced than the rest of the guys and was cruising ... But that wasn 't what I wanted to see " . Colón rebuffed this by saying that " they could have done more " with him in OVW and that the reason no to do it was because " Jim Cornette [ doesn 't ] like " him .
After noticing the hostile fan reaction and witnessing Carly 's heel tactics from the public , Eddie Colón sneaked and waited by the locker rooms and confronted him , which resulted in a faceoff that concluded with the heel locker jumping him . Upon learning this , Colón Sr. travelled to Kentucky and interrupted an OVW scrimmage , which resulted in Carly Colón asking for his expulsion from the building . This served as setup for a feud between brothers , which saw Carly Colón return to Puerto Rico and mock the fans by stating that they would be " buying PPVs to see [ him ] " and using the recent Puerto Rico national basketball team 's 19 @-@ point victory over the United States national basketball team to claim that they were " conformists " for celebrating a single win . The first match between brothers headlined Aniversario on August 21 , 2004 . Carly Colón won the match by faking a knee injury and then shoving his sister into Eddie Colón when she entered the ring to help , using the distraction to score the pinfall . Two rematches were held the following month at Fase 3 , the first of which ended in a time limit draw . He lost the rubber match , which concluded with the heel factions assaulting both brothers and Colón , Sr. futilely asking them to join forces .
In response to this angle , the IWA began hinting that Colón would be joining a heel stable known as " Capitol Sports " ( borrowing the name that WWC used during the 1970s @-@ 90s ) , which in storyline was being covertly operated by González in cooperation with his " business partners " ( a reference to Colón , Sr. and Jovica ) with the intention of taking over the promotion . In a segment of their television show , the company ran a script where a surprise arrival was announced , which was promoted as " a young wrestler [ ... ] with a tremendous future in the United States [ ... ] who has Capitol flowing trough his veins " and with whom González had differences in the past that were overcome when he opened his eyes ( in reference to WWC 's heel turn ) so that he could " complete " an unspecified task in the invasion . The IWA further mocked Colón in a skit where Savio Vega dismissed this revelation , citing that he had video evidence of a match where Flash Flanagan ( who was active in the promotion performing as " Slash Venom " ) pinned him at OVW . This angle was concluded in a segment where González berated an unknown individual during a call for being unable to appear in a card , claiming that " he [ was ] as mediocre as [ his ] father and brother " .
= = = = United States Champion ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
In preparation for his debut , the WWE 's creative team began testing different characters for him to use . The first attempt involved the promotion filing copyrights for the use of " Carlitos Colón " , which is the nickname commonly associated with his father in Puerto Rico . On June 7 , 2004 , Colón wrestled under this name in a dark match , this time losing to Sean Morley . However , later than month the name was modified to " Carlito Colón " and he was given the gimmick of a metrosexual man , originally intending to team him with Rico Constantino upon being promoted . However , this idea was dropped when Constantino was legitimately injured in a match . An afro was introduced to his gimmick during the last week of June , when he lost to Shane Helms in another dark match . As his promotion drew nearer , his team with Mondo lost to Capotelli and alternate partners Nick Dinsmore and Flash Flanagan . However , it also won a match over Capotelli and Steve Lewington . In singles , he was defeated by Elijah Burke . On September 19 , 2004 , he wrestled under the name of " Carlito Caribbean Cool " in a SmackDown ! house show and defeated Scotty 2 Hotty . The creative team settled on this character and he wrestled under it in two more dark matches prior to Velocity , where he was booked in wins over Moore and Chris Cage .
On October 7 , 2004 , Colón made his debut as a heel on SmackDown ! as " Carlito Caribbean Cool " ( though later shortened to simply " Carlito " ) , whose gimmick was an apple toting big mouth who would spit apple " in the face of people who don 't want to be cool " . Carlito defeated John Cena for the United States Championship in his first match on the main roster by using a steel chain to knock out Cena . He immediately entered an undefeated streak of 14 contests , during which he successfully defended the title against Rob Van Dam , Rey Mysterio , Eddie Guerrero and Hardcore Holly , also defeating Shannon Moore in a non @-@ title match . Carlito was then involved in a storyline where his bodyguard Jesús stabbed Cena in a nightclub . Carlito held the United States Championship for forty @-@ two days , losing it back to Cena after suffering a legitimate injury . Carlito made his pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at the 2004 Survivor Series , where he represented Team Angle in an eight @-@ man tag team match against Team Guerrero , but did not actually participate in the event after being chased out of the building by Cena .
While Carlito was recovering from an injury , he was involved in a comical angle with SmackDown ! ' s general manager , Theodore Long . The storyline consisted of Carlito being forced to do demeaning chores around the arena , such as selling hot dogs , removing snow from parking lots with a shovel and mopping floors . As a result of these actions , Carlito created a petition in support of Long ’ s destitution , but was unsuccessful . On March 26 , 2005 , Colón performed for the first time in six months as Carlito , in a match against his younger brother Eddie Colón during an event in Caguas , Puerto Rico arriving to the stadium in a helicopter and under a massive standing ovation of the thousands of fans gather that night . Carlito made his WrestleMania debut in a non @-@ wrestling role at WrestleMania 21 , in which he interrupted an edition of Rowdy Roddy Piper 's Piper 's Pit , with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the special guest . This event led to an angle in the World Wrestling Council , where Piper and Carlito were booked to wrestle a match on Friday Madness , a special event presented by the company , which Piper won . Following WrestleMania , Carlito created an interview segment entitled Carlito ’ s Cabana . Carlito then entered a feud with The Big Show after a spot where Show refused an offer to work in an enforcer role for Carlito . This feud involved Carlito tricking Show into eating a poisoned apple , and Matt Morgan becoming Carlito 's enforcer . This feud ended with Carlito defeating Show at Judgment Day .
= = = = Intercontinental Champion ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = = =
Carlito was drafted to the Raw brand in the 2005 WWE Draft Lottery , where he defeated Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship in his debut match for the brand . He then lost the Intercontinental title to Ric Flair at Unforgiven . Towards the end of 2005 , Carlito was involved in a brand rivalry which led to him discontinuing Carlito 's Cabana . The angle concluded with Carlito wrestling for Team Raw against Team SmackDown ! in a ten @-@ man tag team match at the Survivor Series .
In late 2005 , Carlito was added to angles involving the WWE Championship . After defeating Shelton Benjamin in a qualifying match , Carlito was added to the main event at New Year 's Revolution in early 2006 , the Elimination Chamber match . He was one of the final two wrestlers remaining , after eliminating Kane , Chris Masters and Shawn Michaels . He then lost the match to John Cena .
Carlito appeared in another World Wrestling Council show that took place on March 15 , 2006 in Carolina , Puerto Rico . He defeated Tyson Tomko , and he hosted an edition of Carlito 's Cabana with Victor Jovica and Carlos Colón .
Following New Year 's Revolution , Carlito and Chris Masters joined forces as a tag team . Together they competed against Big Show and Kane for the World Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania 22 . Carlito and Masters lost when Masters accidentally attacked Carlito . Following the match , Carlito confronted Masters , igniting a feud between them . Carlito began showing signs of a face turn when he attacked Chris Masters after his " Masterlock Challenge " the next night on Raw . This storyline came to a conclusion at Backlash , where Carlito defeated Masters via an illegal assist from the ropes .
At Vengeance , Carlito fought in a Triple Threat match against Shelton Benjamin and Johnny Nitro for Benjamin 's Intercontinental title . Nitro won the match after pulling Carlito outside of the ring and pinning him . Following Vengeance , Carlito began an on @-@ screen relationship with Trish Stratus , turning face as a result . He also engaged in a short feud with Johnny Nitro and Melina , which ended after Carlito and Stratus defeated Nitro and Melina in a mixed tag team match at Saturday Night 's Main Event . Carlito next feuded with Randy Orton , following a spot where Orton attempted to attack Stratus during a backstage segment . The two wrestlers were booked for a match at Unforgiven and a rematch on Raw ; Orton won both matches . The feud concluded in a match at WWE ’ s annual Tribute to the Troops event , where Carlito won by pinfall . The angle involving Carlito 's relationship with Trish Stratus lasted until Stratus ' retirement from wrestling following Unforgiven .
In the final months of 2006 , Carlito competed in several matches involving the Intercontinental Championship . His involvement in this angle ended at Cyber Sunday 2006 , after being elected by the fans to face Jeff Hardy for the championship . Carlito , however , lost the match . During this time period Carlito 's gimmick underwent a slight change and was sold as a " ladies man " , eventually getting involved in another fictional relationship with Torrie Wilson . During this time , Colón was present at Lockout , a special event presented by the World Wrestling Council that took place on December 16 , 2006 . At this event , he defeated Jon Heidenreich to become Universal Heavyweight Champion , but was stripped of the championship minutes later . Carlito participated in the 2007 Royal Rumble , where he was eliminated by The Great Khali . Following the Royal Rumble , Carlito started a feud with Ric Flair , in which Flair insulted Carlito for leaving a show early by claiming that he had no heart , no passion and was undeserving of his spot on the roster . After Carlito challenged and lost to Flair in a match , they were booked as a tag team , with Flair serving as a mentor to Carlito . The team was involved in a Money in the Bank qualifying match which was declared a " no contest " after The Great Khali interfered . This led to a triple threat match the following week which included and was won by Randy Orton .
Prior to the WrestleMania 23 , Colón expressed dissatisfaction with WWE management in an interview for not having plans to book him to appear at the pay @-@ per @-@ view and criticized their methods for selecting performers to push , making reference to backstage politics . Carlito , however , did participate in a dark match at WrestleMania , winning in a tag team match with Flair as his partner against the team of Chavo Guerrero and Gregory Helms . The team also lost a number one contender 's match for the World Tag Team Championship against Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . Carlito turned on Flair after the loss , which turned him heel again . Their feud ended with a match at Judgment Day , where Carlito lost to Flair by submission . Colón appeared in the World Wrestling Council 's Aniversario 2007 event where he faced Scott Hall , who retook his WWE gimmick , Razor Ramon , for the first time since leaving the promotion in 1996 . As a way to promote the match , Hall claimed that the " Carlito Caribbean Cool " character was an imitation of him , giving it the nickname " Mini Razor " . Colón defeated Ramon with his Back Stabber finisher , in a match that included interference by the then @-@ Universal Heavyweight Champion Apolo . All three were involved in a three @-@ way match for the title the following day , which concluded with Ramon pinning Apolo .
Following his feud with Flair he was involved in angles with The Sandman and Triple H. He then lost to Triple H at Unforgiven 2007 in a no disqualification match where the no disqualification rule only applied to Carlito . In late 2007 , Colón requested his release from the WWE as he was unhappy with the direction of his character . Following a meeting with Vince McMahon , however , he was convinced to stay . On December 10 , 2007 , he was featured in a ladder match at the Raw 15th Anniversary against Jeff Hardy for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , which Hardy won . Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify for the money in the bank ladder match at Wrestlemania 24 . He failed to win at the event . Carlito then formed a tag team with Santino Marella . The team was placed in several matches involving the World Tag Team Championship , twice being named the number one contenders ; however , they lost the relevant championship matches .
= = = = The Colóns ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft , Carlito was drafted back to the SmackDown brand . After the draft , he asked for a vacation , using this time to attend his father 's official retirement ceremonies at Aniversario 2008 , where he also wrestled against Ray Gonzalez .
On September 12 , he re @-@ debuted on the brand turning face , forming a tag team with his brother , Primo . They defeated WWE Tag Team Champions Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder in the match to gain their first victory as a team . Two weeks later , both teams competed in a title match , with The Colóns winning to become tag team champions . Subsequently , Carlito and Primo entered a feud with World Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz . At WrestleMania XXV , The Colóns defeated Miz and Morrison in a tag team unification match , becoming the first team to simultaneously hold both sets of the company 's Tag Team Championships since their creation .
On April 15 , 2009 , both Carlito and Primo were drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . At The Bash , the duo dropped the Unified Tag Team Titles to Edge and Chris Jericho in a Triple Threat Tag Team Match also involving Ted DiBiase and Cody Rhodes . Carlito and Primo invoked their rematch clause the next night on Raw , but were unsuccessful .
On the July 6 episode of Raw , following their loss to Edge and Jericho , Carlito turned heel by attacking Primo . At Night of Champions , Carlito challenged for the United States Championship in a Six @-@ Pack Challenge , which also involved Primo , but neither of them were able to win the title . On the August 3 episode of Raw , Carlito defeated Primo to end their feud . On the August 13 episode of WWE Superstars , Carlito teamed with Rosa Mendes to defeat Kofi Kingston and Mickie James . Mendes would then become Carlito 's manager until she was traded to the ECW brand in September .
After a two @-@ month hiatus , on the November 30 episode of Raw , Carlito returned to confront John Cena , after Cena challenged Sheamus to come out to the ring , telling him everyone on the roster were tired of him and that Sheamus was their representative of what the roster believed and then tried to spit apple in Cena 's face , which led to him getting hit with Cena 's finisher , the Attitude Adjustment . The following week , Carlito was defeated by Cena .
In February 2010 , Carlito was announced as one of the eight WWE Pros for the first season of WWE NXT . On the February 22 episode of Raw , Carlito was defeated by Christian in a Money in the Bank Qualifying match . The next night on WWE NXT , Carlito teamed with his NXT Rookie Michael Tarver in a losing effort against Christian and his NXT Rookie Heath Slater . On the May 2 episode of WWE Superstars , during his match with Primo , Carlito would stop the match and told Primo they shouldn 't fight when the crowd cheers for two brothers to fight each other . Primo would agree and reunite with his brother , turning heel in the process . On the May 10 episode of Raw , Carlito and Primo attacked R @-@ Truth for Ted DiBiase , who paid them afterwards . On May 21 , Colón was released due to a violation of the WWE Wellness Program and refusal to attend a rehabilitation facility for a reported addiction to pain killers .
= = = International and independent circuit ( 2010 ) = = =
Following his release , Colón began accepting dates to work for independent promotions . The first promotion to include him in its roster was World Wrestling Today . Colón challenged for the heavyweight titles of Big Time Wrestling , Coastal Championship Wrestling , Canadian Wrestling 's Elite , International Wrestling Cartel and Crossfire Wrestling , but either lost these matches or won by count out . He made short tours for promotions such as Pro Wrestling Syndicate , NWA Southwest , World Wrestling Association , Border City Wrestling , National Wrestling Superstars , Vendetta Pro Wrestling and the Canadian National Wrestling Alliance , scoring wins over the likes of Shane Douglas and Gangrel . On August 7 , 2010 , he made his debut in Lucha Libre USA 's live shows , wrestling as " Carlitos " . On December 2010 , Carlito participated in Inoki Genome Federation in Japan , where he was pinned by Japanese superstar Kendo Kashin . In February 2011 , NWA Southwest in Texas booked Carlito in a match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Adam Pearce . On March 4 , 2011 , Colón , billed as Carlito Caribbean Cool , made his debut for the Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) , defeating Decnnis , Jack Evans and Ozz in a four – way match to advance to the Rey de Reyes tournament finals at the Rey de Reyes pay @-@ per @-@ view . In the finals of the tournament , Carlito was defeated by Extreme Tiger . On October 31 , 2011 , he was booked for the Halloween Lucha Tour event held in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , in which he tagged with Chavo Guerrero and Rikishi Phatu to face Mil Mascaras , Dos Caras and Cassandro . They repeated the match the following two days in different locations , but replaced Cassandro with El Hijo de Canek . On February 4 , 2012 , Colón continued his international tour by appeareing on the World Wrestling Fan Xperience ( WWFX ) Champions Showcase Tour in Manila , Philippines , where he wrestled under his LLUSA name in a win over Snitsky .
Colón won Family Wrestling Entertainment 's Heavyweight Championship on October 6 , 2012 , in main event of House of Hardcore 's first show , defeating previous champions Tommy Dreamer and Mike Knox in a three @-@ way match . On October 26 , 2012 , he made a one @-@ night appearance for Wrestling New Classic ( WNC ) in Japan , losing to Tajiri in the first round of the WNC Championship tournament . In March 2013 , Colón won the Millennium Wrestling Federation 's Undisputed Championship . He had previously performed for the promotion , mostly in matches involving Benny Jux ( David Bentubo ) between 2011 and 2012 . On June 21 , 2013 , he dropped the FWE Heavyweight Championship to John Hennigan . The following day , Colón defeated Mike Bennett in the House of Hardcore . In July 2013 , he made a one @-@ night appearance for All American Wrestling by headlining the promotion 's Scars and Stripes event , in which Keith Walker was booked as the winner
On October 12 , 2013 , Colón lost to Dreamer in the first round of the FWE Open Weight Grand Prix . On September 6 , 2013 , he made his debut for the World Wrestling League marking the first time that he performed for another Puerto Rico @-@ based promotion . In his first appearance , Colón defeated established Mexican performers Blue Demon , Jr. and La Parka II . Two days later , he lost a rematch by submission . Colón was one of the first wrestlers to perform in Qatar Pro Wrestling , the first promotion in this Arabian state . On November 9 , 2013 , he and Rosita defeated Tara and Stevie Richards at House of Hardcore 3 . At Wrestling Alliance Revolution 's Super Leyendas del Ring , Colón won a three @-@ way match for the WAR World Heavyweight Championship . On November 30 , 2013 , at WrestleCade , Carlito was defeated by Matt Hardy for the WrestleCade championship . On December 7 , 2013 , he wrestled at First Wrestling Society 's Amo Del Hexágono winning the 1WS World Heavyweight Championship . Moments later , his first contender was confirmed to be Ken Shamrock , who was abandoning a four @-@ year retirement . On March 7 , 2014 , Colón returned to WWL , joining Chavo Guerrero and Fuerza Guerrera in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 match against Juventud Guerrera , Octagon and Ricky Marvin , where his team lost by disqualification . Two days later , he participated in a three @-@ way match for José " Monster Pain " Torres 's WWL World Heavyweight Championship , but was not involved in the outcome after the champion pinned Guerrero . Colón was a member of the International Wrestling Federation 's inaugural roster , where he debuted with a win over Willie Mack . He lost the WAR World Heavyweight Championship to Pablo Marquez on April 19 , 2014 , as part of CCW 's Spring Breakout .
= = = Return to WWC ( 2010 – present ) = = =
On July 11 , 2010 , Colón was booked in a match called " The Three Faces of Fear " at WWC 's Aniversario 2010 which also involved Booker T. The concept of this contest was that he would face three unknown adversaries successively . Colón also performed on a second date of this event , working under a " tweener " concept , representing a morally ambiguous team without clear allegiance . He returned to WWC on September 25 , 2010 at the " Septiembre Negro " event , where he defeated " El Triple Mega Campeón " Ricky Banderas . On November 27 , 2010 , Colón defeated Shelton Benjamin to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship at the Crossfire event . He made his first title defense against Banderas at WWC 's last show of the year — Lockout . On January 8 , 2011 , Colón lost the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Banderas , following interference from Shane Sewell . On June 4 , 2011 , Carlito returned to WWC and defeated Steve Corino to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship for the thirteenth time . On July 17 , 2011 at Aniversario 2011 Carlito made his first defense of the title against Abyss . In this event , Savio Vega cut a promo pursuing a feud as part of the first interpromotional angle between WWC and the International Wrestling Association . However , this cooperation was stalled due to differences between the administration of both promotions , remaining fruitless for the rest of the year .
On October 28 , 2011 , Colón returned to WWC first to join his brother and wrestled Gilbert Cruz and his cousin Orlando Colón , before successfully defending the Universal Heavyweight Championship against Masters the following night . On November 11 , 2011 , he won a rematch . At WWC 's Euphoria 2012 , he wrestled in a rematch against Banderas , which was left inconclusive when a video depicting Vega was shown in the titantron , draining the time limit . Colón dropped the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Gilbert at Noche de Campeones 2012 , failing to win it back in a rematch held at Camino a la Gloria . In this event , he also aided Ray González , which resulted in both receiving an invitation to join La Nueva Familia , a recreation of La Familia del Milenio , proposed by Félix " Barrabás " López . González refused this approach , claiming that it was returning to the past . On May 12 , 2012 , Colón also declined the invitation by spitting an apple in López 's face , who countered by ordering Thunder and Lightning to ambush both him and González during a number one contendership match . At Aniversario 2012 , Colón and González defeated Thunder and Lightning , unmasking them for the first time in their career . They teamed once again , but lost a rematch by disqualification . At Septiembre Negro , a third and final encounter was set in a liberation match . Colón was the one to be handcuffed to the ring apron , turning on González upon being released and assaulting Carlos Colón , Sr. when he tried to interfere .
During the following weeks , vignettes aired where he berated members of his own family , eventually being confronted by José Huertas González . On October 7 , 2012 , Savio Vega reappeared in Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre , issuing yet another challenge . However , this time Colón backfired with a challenge of his own , inviting Vega to a special edition of Carlito 's Cabana . The edition of Carlito 's Cabana that featured Vega took place on October 14 , 2012 . In the segment , both traded insults and it finished with the security removing Vega when he tried to assault Colón after the former spat an apple in his face . At Halloween Wrestling Xtravaganza he was disqualified , assaulting his opponent after his father , who served as special referee , did not allow Huertas González to use his finisher . At Honor vs. Traición , Colón unsuccessfully challenged Ray González for the Universal Heavyweight Championship . A Hair vs. Hair rematch was immediately scheduled for Lockout , which will feature a guest referee elected by popular vote between Vega and Huertas González . The following night marked the first time that Colón participated in a match where his father was among his opponents , but he avoided facing him directly , instead requesting a tag and only entering later to pin González .
During this time frame , an angle began in which Colón began pursuing the ownership of WWC . This led to the creation of the Carlito Caribbean Company ( CCC ) , which acquired power when Rivera defeated Victor Jovica following a Huertas González heel turn to force him to sell WWC 's stocks . Despite Rivera 's involvement as a favored heel , Colón was booked in a spot where the new CCC management turned on him . The ownership of WWC was to be decided in a match between Huertas González and Colón , Sr. held on June 29 , 2013 , at Summer Madness in which CCC lost its bid . In the same event , Colón faced Rivera for the first time , dominating throughout the match but losing after being sprayed in the face with " green mist " . On July 13 , 2013 , he won a rematch by countering this same tactic . On August 18 , 2013 , Colón issued an open challenge for Aniversario 40 , calling himself a " Puerto Rican icon " . The following week the challenge was accepted by Sting , a former WCW and TNA world heavyweight champion commonly known as " The Icon " . When Colón was preparing to finish the match with the Back Stabber , a masked wrestler known as Rey Fénix intervened and costed him the match . Since that mask was usually worn by Ray González , he began pursuing a match against him . On November 16 , 2013 , Colón defeated Fénix in a Hair vs. Mask match that served as the main event of Crossfire . However , when Rey Fénix unmasked , he was Ricky Santana instead of González .
At Lockout 2013 , Colón defeated Germán Figueroa but lost to Rivera , who was now wrestling under a character known as " TNT " . After losing two consecutive matches to Ray González , he was able to win a tag team match where he joined Huertas González . However , after the event was over his partner turned on him , forcing a face switch and beginning a new feud . He joined Ray González to win the first match of this storyline . Afterwards , Huertas González challenged Colón to place his hair on the line , but was ignored on several occasions . The wager became official following the outcome of a match that made it mandatory . On March 30 , 2014 , Colón defeated Huertas González in a one @-@ sided bet match , remaining undefeated in matches where his hair was at risk . After Carlos Colón , Sr. was announced as a member of the 2014 WWE Hall of Fame Class , he participated in two homages held by WWC . On April 6 , 2014 , Colón joined the other members of the family during the official induction ceremony . On July 19 , 2014 , Carlito defeated TNT to win his first WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship . On October 10 , 2014 , Colón lost the title against Gilbert . On January 24 , 2015 , at Hora de la Verdad , Carly Colón defeated Mighty Ursus and Ray González to win the WWC Universal Championship .
On March 5 , 2016 , Carlito defeated Mr. 450 to win the WWC Universal Championship .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Back Cracker / Back Stabber ( Double knee backbreaker )
Figure four leglock – OVW ; used as a regular move in WWE
Inverted facelock spun out into a DDT – 2005 – 2006
Overdrive – 2004
Signature moves
Backflip off the top rope over a standing opponent , sometimes while springboarding
Dropkick , sometimes from the top rope or while springboarding
Fireman 's carry flapjack
Flowing DDT
Hurricanrana
Japanese arm drag
Lifting reverse STO
Monkey flip
Running knee lift followed by a running clothesline
Snap swinging neckbreaker
Springboard back elbow
Springboard moonsault , sometimes while performing a double jump
Springboard senton bomb , sometimes while performing a double springboard
Sitout spinebuster
Spitting apple pieces into an opponent 's face
Managers
Trish Stratus
Torrie Wilson
The Bella Twins
Brie Bella
Rosa Mendes
Nicknames
" The Caribbean Bad Apple "
Entrance themes
" El que lo hereda no lo hurta " by Los Hijos de los Celebres & Apollo Sound ( 1999 @-@ 2003 ; WWC )
" Tony 's Theme " by Giorgio Moroder ( 2004 ; WWC )
" Cool " by Jim Johnston ( 2004 – present ; WWE / WWC )
" Burn It To The Ground " by Nickelback ( 2010 ; LLUSA )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Family Wrestling Entertainment
FWE Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
First Wrestling Society
1WS World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , current )
Funking Conservatory
FC Television Championship ( 1 time )
Magnum Pro Wrestling
Magnum Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Millennium Wrestling Federation
MWF Undisputed Championship ( 1 time , Current )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 27 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2006
Puerto Rico Wrestling
Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 ) - with Primo
Wrestling Alliance Revolution
WAR World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Council
WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship ( 16 times , current )
WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Eddie Colón ( 1 ) and Konnan ( 1 )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE United States Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Intercontinental Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Primo
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Primo
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= Early life of David Lynch =
David Keith Lynch ( born January 20 , 1946 ) is an American filmmaker , television director , visual artist , musician and occasional actor . Known for his surrealist films , he has developed his own unique cinematic style , known as " Lynchian " , and is characterized by its dream imagery and meticulous sound design . The surreal and , in many cases , violent elements to his films have earned them the reputation that they " disturb , offend or mystify " their audiences .
Although born in Missoula , Montana , Lynch spend his youth traveling across the United States due to his father Donald 's job for the Department of Agriculture ; as a result , Lynch attended school across several states . Raised in a contented , happy family , the young Lynch was a member of the Boy Scouts of America , reaching the highest rank of Eagle Scout . However , Lynch took to building fireworks and playing the bongos in a Beat Generation nightclub as acts of rebellion , before discovering that he could translate his childhood fascination with drawing and painting into a career in fine art . Lynch and his close friend Jack Fisk travelled to Austria hoping to study under Oskar Kokoschka , but the artist was not present at the time .
Returning the United States , Lynch enrolled in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia . Although initially focusing on oil painting and sculpture , Lynch found himself beginning to experiment with short films . After completing several short animated and partly animated works , Lynch was prompted by his mentor Bushnell Keeler to apply for one of four annual grants from the American Film Institute to fund another film project . The resulting film , The Grandmother , paved the way for Lynch 's scholarship at the AFI Conservatory ; while studying there , Lynch wrote and directed a film which would take several years to gestate — his feature @-@ length début and the beginning of his commercial film career , Eraserhead .
= = Early life = =
Lynch was born on January 20 , 1946 in Missoula , Montana to Donald and Edwina " Sunny " ( née Sundholm ) Lynch , who met as students at Duke University . David was the eldest of three siblings . For the most part a housewife , Sunny also tutored English lessons , having earned her degree at Duke . Donald Lynch worked for the United States Department of Agriculture , which necessitated moving the family around the country — they relocated to Sandpoint , Idaho , when David was two months old , before his fourteenth birthday the family had lived in Spokane , Washington , Durham , North Carolina , Boise , Idaho , and Alexandria , Virginia . The young Lynch easily coped with this transitory lifestyle , and was popular throughout his school years , having found it easy for an " outsider " such as himself to make friends after moving to a new school . Lynch 's elementary and junior high school educations were taken in Boise ; he attended high school in Alexandria .
Lynch recalls having a happy childhood , although he suffered from bouts of agoraphobia in his youth , especially after having been scared by a screening of Henry King 's 1952 film Wait Till the Sun Shines , Nellie , when he was six years old . He would develop a brief habit of wearing three neckties at a time , which he understands to have been a manifestation of his personal insecurity . He also points to a particular image from his childhood that shaped his understanding of the world — " [ my youth ] was a dream world , those droning airplanes , blue skies , picket fences , green grass , cherry trees . Middle America as it was supposed to be . But then on the cherry tree would be this pitch oozing out , some of it black , some of it yellow , and there were millions and millions of red ants racing all over the sticky pitch , all over the tree . So you see , there 's this beautiful world and you just look a little bit closer and it 's all red ants " .
Finding the calm and contented nature of his home life frustrating , the young Lynch sought ways to secretly rebel against his parents . He and a friend took to building bottle rockets ; after a particularly powerful rocket severely damaged his friend 's foot they switched their focus to making and detonating pipe bombs for fun instead . A large pipe bomb which they detonated in a school swimming pool was heard by several neighbors , and resulted in Lynch and his friend being arrested . Lynch was also a member of the high school fraternity Alpha Omega Upsilon , and learned to play the bongos while frequenting a nightclub popular with the Beat Generation , earning the nickname " Bongo Dave " .
Lynch was a member of the Boy Scouts of America , attaining the rank of Eagle Scout . His childhood friend Toby Keeler posited that this experience and the " be prepared " Scout motto formed the basis of Lynch 's " do it yourself " approach to filmmaking and art , and shaped his ability to " make things out of nothing " . Lynch had initially joined the Scouts in order to " put it behind " him , but continued at the urging of his father ; he eventually summed up his biography as " Eagle Scout . Missoula , Montana " in a 1990 press release for Wild at Heart . As a Boy Scout , Lynch was present at John F. Kennedy 's presidential inauguration , which took place on Lynch 's 15th birthday . When Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 , Lynch was the first in his school to hear of it , as he was working on a display case rather than attending class .
= = Art student = =
Lynch 's interest in art began at an early age ; he recalled his father bringing home large amounts of paper from his government job , and because his mother would not let him use coloring books , he would draw and paint on this spare paper . Lynch 's early artwork mostly depicted war @-@ related imagery — weaponry and fighter planes — based on his collection of toy military equipment . He frequently depicted the M1917 Browning machine gun , calling it a favorite of his . Later in life , however , Lynch was summoned for conscription for the Vietnam War , and declared 4 @-@ F , " unfit for military service " , for undisclosed health reasons .
At the age of 14 , Lynch 's family visited Hungry Horse , Montana , staying with his aunt and uncle near Hungry Horse Dam . Their next @-@ door neighbor was an artist named Ace Powell , whose style was similar to that of Charlie Russell and Frederic Remington . Powell and his wife were both painters , and would let Lynch work with their materials while he was staying in town ; however , Lynch found it difficult to believe that art was something in which he could forge a career , believing it to be a hobby peculiar to the Western United States . Returning home to Virginia , Lynch met Keeler 's father Bushnell , who was also an artist . Lynch rented space in the elder Keeler 's studio and , alongside his friend Jack Fisk , worked on his art until he had finished school . From there , he enrolled in the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , but soon dropped out .
Bushnell Keeler has commented that Lynch 's dropping out of the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston " worked to his detriment then , but may now be one of his greatest assets " . Keeler recounts that Lynch left the school after allowing one of his tutors to use his dormitory room ; the tutor , who was in the process of divorcing his wife , spent several nights in Lynch 's room with his mistress , while Lynch obligingly slept on the floor . Rather than confronting the tutor about this situation , Lynch felt it would be easier to leave school instead . Keeler and film critic Greg Olson posit that this desire to avoid confrontation has shaped the characters he has written , who often seek an " escape route " in the face of adversity rather than face it directly . Olson has further added that several of Lynch 's later works — Dune and Twin Peaks — would have " been less compromised " had Lynch been of a more adversarial personality ; as they were , both projects featured interference from film and television studios respectively .
After this , Lynch and Fisk planned a three @-@ year strip to Austria , planning to study under the expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka , who was one of Lynch 's " least favorite painters " . However , when Lynch arrived in Salzburg , he found that the artist had left , prompting him to return to America . Before leaving Europe , the pair travelled to Athens by train , to visit Lynch 's girlfriend at the time , who was holidaying there . However , when they arrived in Greece they discovered that she had already left for home ; Lynch and Fisk departed for America shortly thereafter . Upon his return , Lynch enrolled in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia , devoting himself to painting and sculpture . Lynch 's paintings , which were influenced by the works of Francis Bacon , were executed in oils , and following an incident in which a moth landed in a still @-@ drying piece , he began embedding insects in his work .
Life in Philadelphia was disturbing for Lynch , who had by this point married his pregnant girlfriend Peggy Reavey . The two had met in 1964 , and wed in 1967 , shortly before the birth of their daughter Jennifer .
Lynch and his family spent five years living in an atmosphere of " violence , hate and filth " . The area was rife with crime , which would later inform the tone of his work . Describing this period of his life , Lynch said " I saw so many things in Philadelphia I couldn 't believe ... I saw a grown woman grab her breasts and speak like a baby , complaining her nipples hurt . This kind of thing will set you back " . In Olson 's David Lynch : Beautiful Dark , the author posits that this time contrasted starkly with the director 's childhood in the Pacific Northwest , giving the director a " bipolar , Heaven @-@ and @-@ Hell vision of America " which has subsequently shaped his films .
= = Short films = =
Lynch 's experiments with moving sculptures led to his piquing interest in the medium of motion picture film . In 1966 , with the help of Fisk , Lynch animated a one @-@ minute short feature called Six Figures Getting Sick ; the project cost $ 200 and was filmed with a sixteen millimeter camera . The sculpture @-@ motion picture was a simple animated loop of several figures growing increasingly nauseous before vomiting down the screen . This loop was repeated several times and accompanied by the sound of an air @-@ raid siren ; however , it was projected onto a cast of Lynch 's head in order to distort the footage further .
After Six Figures Getting Sick was completed , one of Lynch 's classmates , H. Barton Wasserman , offered to pay $ 1000 for a similar motion picture to be made for an art installation in his home . Lynch purchased a clockwork Bolex movie camera , and began to teach himself cinematography . Lynch worked on the commissioned motion picture over the next two months , crafting a mix of live action and animation in a split @-@ screen format . However , when the film was developed , an error along the way had rendered it indistinguishable and unusable . Wasserman allowed Lynch to keep the remainder of the budget , which he used to fund the production of a new motion picture project , The Alphabet .
Similarly to Wasserman 's unfinished commission , 1968 's The Alphabet was composed of both live action and animation . The abstract 16mm movie was inspired by an experience related by Lynch 's wife Peggy , who had once seen her niece reciting the alphabet in her sleep while suffering from a nightmare . Peggy was the sole live action actor in the film , which depicted in animation the nightmares of a young girl . The film displays several elements that would continue throughout Lynch 's oeuvre , including the use of meticulous sound design to convey unease . The sound of his infant daughter crying was recorded on a faulty cassette recorder and included in the film 's soundtrack ; the malfunctioning of the recorder not only lent the sound a desirably distorted quality but allowed Lynch to return it to where he had purchased it from upon finishing the film .
Although Lynch was enthusiastic about the medium of film , he realized that the wages from his job as a printer would not stretch to cover future budgetary needs . Bushnell Keeler recommended that Lynch apply for a grant from the newly formed American Film Institute ( AFI ) . Together with a copy of The Alphabet , Lynch 's application included an eight @-@ page treatment for a project titled The Grandmother . The submission was successful , and Lynch was awarded one of four annual grants from the AFI , totalling $ 5 @,@ 000 . The Grandmother was filmed in Lynch 's home in Philadelphia and starred his friends and colleagues . Lynch 's initial grant of $ 5 @,@ 000 was later supplemented by a further $ 2 @,@ 200 also supplied by the AFI . Completed in 1970 , it relates the story of a family grown from the ground like plants ; the neglected and abused son seeks to create stability in his life by growing a grandmother from a seed . Once again , the film mixes animation with live action footage , and features the use of both pallid stage make @-@ up reminiscent of the silent film era , and a similarly washed @-@ out use of colour to The Alphabet . Running for thirty minutes , the film has been described by critics Colin Odell and Michelle Le Blanc as " fall [ ing ] into that twilight category of film that is too short to be a feature and too long to be a short film " .
= = AFI Conservatory = =
Having completed The Grandmother , Lynch realized that filmmaking was the career he wanted to pursue . He accepted a scholarship at the AFI Conservatory , Lynch moved to Los Angeles , California , with his family , and recalls having felt " the evaporation of fear " after leaving the crime and poverty of Philadelphia . Lynch was dissatisfied with the Conservatory and considered dropping out , but he changed his mind after being offered the chance to produce a script of his own devising . He was given permission to use the school 's full campus for film sets ; he converted the school 's disused stables into a series of sets and lived there . He began work on a script titled Gardenback , based on his painting of a hunched figure with vegetation growing from its back . Gardenback was a surrealist script about adultery , featuring a continually growing insect that represented one man 's lust for his neighbor . The script would have resulted in a roughly 45 @-@ minute @-@ long film , which the AFI felt was too long for such a figurative , nonlinear script .
In its place , Lynch presented Eraserhead , which he had developed based on a daydream of a man 's head being taken to a pencil factory by a small boy . Several board members at the AFI were still opposed to producing such a surrealist work , but they were persuaded when dean Frank Daniel threatened to resign if it was vetoed . Eraserhead 's script is thought to have been inspired by Lynch 's fear of fatherhood ; Jennifer had been born with " severely clubbed feet " , requiring extensive corrective surgery as a child . Jennifer has claimed that her own unexpected conception and birth defects were the basis for the film 's themes .
Pre @-@ production work for Eraserhead began in 1971 . However , the staff at the AFI had underestimated the project 's scale — they had initially green @-@ lit Eraserhead after viewing a twenty @-@ one page screenplay , assuming that the film industry 's usual ratio of one minute of film per scripted page would reduce the film to approximately twenty minutes . This misunderstanding , coupled with Lynch 's own meticulous direction , caused the film to remain in production for a number of years . In an extreme example of this labored schedule , one scene in the film begins with Jack Nance 's character opening a door — a full year would pass before he was filmed entering the room . Buoyed with regular donations from Fisk and his wife Sissy Spacek , production continued for several years . Additional funds were provided by Nance and his wife , actress Catherine Coulson , who worked as a waitress and donated her income , and by Lynch himself , who delivered newspapers throughout the film 's principal photography .
During one of the many lulls in filming , Lynch was able to produce the short film The Amputee , taking advantage of the AFI 's wish to test new film stock before committing to bulk purchases . The short piece starred Coulson , who continued working with Lynch as a technician on Eraserhead . Eraserhead 's production crew was very small , composed of Lynch ; sound designer Alan Splet ; cinematographer Herb Cardwell , who left during production and was replaced with Frederick Elmes ; production manager and prop technician Doreen Small ; and Coulson , who worked in a variety of roles . Lynch began his interest in Transcendental Meditation during the film 's production , adopting a vegetarian diet and giving up smoking and alcohol consumption .
= = After Eraserhead = =
Eraserhead premièred at the Filmex film festival in Los Angeles , on March 19 , 1977 . On its opening night , the film was attended by 25 people . The second evening had 24 viewers . Ben Barenholtz , head of distributor Libra Films International , persuaded local theater Cinema Village to run the film as a midnight feature , where it continued for a year . After this , it ran for ninety @-@ nine weeks at New York 's Waverly Cinema , had a year @-@ long midnight run at San Francisco 's Roxie Theater from 1978 to 1979 , and achieved a three @-@ year tenure at Los Angeles ' Nuart Theatre between 1978 and 1981 . The film has grossed $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the United States as of 2012 . Following the release of Eraserhead , Lynch tried to find funding for his next project , Ronnie Rocket , a film " about electricity and a three @-@ foot guy with red hair " .
Lynch met film producer Stuart Cornfeld during this time . Cornfeld had enjoyed Eraserhead and was interested in producing Ronnie Rocket ; he worked for Mel Brooks and Brooksfilms at the time , and when the two realized that Ronnie Rocket was unlikely to find sufficient financing , Lynch asked to see some already @-@ written scripts to work from for his next film . Cornfeld found four scripts he felt might interest Lynch , but on hearing the name of the first , Lynch decided his next project would be The Elephant Man .
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= Fra Mauro formation =
The Fra Mauro formation ( or Fra Mauro Highlands ) is a selenological formation on the near side of Earth 's Moon that served as the landing site for the American Apollo 14 mission in 1971 . It is named after the 80 @-@ kilometer @-@ diameter crater Fra Mauro , located within it . The formation , as well as Fra Mauro crater , take their names from a 15th @-@ century Italian monk and mapmaker of the same name . Apollo 13 was originally scheduled to land in the Fra Mauro highlands , but was unable due to an in @-@ flight technical failure .
Fra Mauro is thought to have been formed from ejecta , or debris , from the impact which formed Mare Imbrium . During Apollo 14 , the crew members sampled ejecta from Cone crater , a feature close in proximity to the immediate landing site of the mission , which provided insight into the composition of material deep inside the formation . Data from the mission has helped to determine the approximate age of Mare Imbrium , suggesting that it is no more than about 4 @.@ 25 billion years old .
= = Formation and geography = =
Fra Mauro is a widespread hilly geological area covering large portions of the lunar surface around Mare Imbrium , and is thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact which formed Imbrium . The area is primarily composed of relatively low ridges and hills , between which exist undulating valleys . Much of the ejecta blanket from the Imbrium impact is covered with debris from younger impacts and material churned up by possible moonquakes . Debris found in the formation may have originated from deep beneath the original crust , and samples collected there could give insight into the geologic history of the Moon . The petrology of the formation , based on data obtained on Apollo 14 , indicates a history of impact and ejection possibly spanning over approximately 500 million years .
A relatively recent impact created Cone crater , 1 @,@ 000 feet across and 250 feet deep , near the landing site of Apollo 14 . One of the main objectives of that mission was to sample the original Imbrium material located on its rim .
Samples obtained of the Fra Mauro formation during Apollo 14 suggest that the impact that formed the Imbrium basin is no older than 4 @.@ 25 billion years .
= = Geology = =
Analysis of Apollo 14 samples suggests that there are five major geologic constituents present in the immediate landing area : regolith breccias , fragmental breccias , igneous lithologies , granulitic lithologies , and impact @-@ melt lithologies . Samples of each of these compositions were recovered in one or both of two major surface units of the Apollo 14 landing site within Fra Mauro : the immediate impact blanket of Cone crater , about 25 million years old , and surrounding older terrain .
During Apollo 14 , astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell recovered ejecta material from the Cone crater impact , which is believed to have excavated Imbrium impact material from a possible depth of about 80 m ( 260 ft ) . Most of the samples returned from the Moon from Fra Mauro are classified as breccias from the vicinity of Cone crater .
Studies conducted upon samples from Apollo 14 have shown that the samples do not support the possibility that the landing site is floored by volcanic rocks , or basalts . Basalts are sparse in samples of Cone crater ejecta , but somewhat abundant in samples recovered farther west , on the opposite side of the immediate landing site . Two explanations have been presented for this : ( 1 ) the majority of basalt in the landing site lies below the depth of excavation of Cone crater or ( 2 ) the presence of a basalt flow beneath the landing area excavated by a nearby crater with a diameter of 100 m ( 330 ft ) . It is believed that the former seems more likely , as the basalts are similar to the basalts recovered at Cone crater . It is inconclusive whether or not the recovered basalts have a direct affiliation with the landing site , as it is located in a valley between ridges , and there exists the possibility that the basalts were merely deposited there as a result of other impact events .
The Apollo 14 crew members sampled boulders in the ejecta of Cone crater . These boulders appeared to be layered and fractured breccias , contrasting from the appearance of the surrounding area because of their older age . As these boulders increase in size and number closer to Cone crater , it is believed that they originate from the greatest depth of excavation of Cone crater . These boulders show what is believed to be general characteristics of the Fra Mauro formation : clastic texture , stratification , and jointing or fracturing .
= = Landing site selection = =
As Apollo 14 was an early Apollo mission , landing sites were restricted to equatorial regions for technical reasons . After Apollo 12 demonstrated the ability to land at a pre @-@ specified landing zone , mission planners considered landings in rough , but geologically interesting areas of the Moon .
The aborted Apollo 13 mission was originally scheduled to land at Fra Mauro , with Apollo 14 scheduled to land in the Littrow region of Mare Serenitatis . After Apollo 13 failed to land , it was decided to re @-@ target Apollo 14 to Fra Mauro , as it was regarded as more interesting scientifically than the Littrow site . There , Apollo 14 had the objective of sampling ejecta from the Imbrium impact to gain insight into the Moon 's geologic history . A landing site near the freshly formed Cone crater was chosen , as this crater served as a ' natural drill hole ' to allow the astronauts to obtain Imbrium ejecta , the primary objective of the mission .
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= The Boat Race 1979 =
The 125th Boat Race took place on 17 March 1979 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The 150th anniversary race was won by Oxford by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ lengths . For the first time in 50 years , neither crew featured foreign rowers , while Cambridge 's stroke was replaced just hours before the race . Goldie won the reserve race in the slowest time in the history of the race while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1978 race after Cambridge sank . Cambridge , however , led overall with 68 victories to Oxford 's 55 . The race was sponsored for the third consecutive year by Ladbrokes . Former Oxford Blue Ronnie Howard was the umpire for the race . To allow for television viewing , the start time of the race ( 2 p.m. ) was an hour earlier than the traditional flood tide .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Oxford were being coached for the sixth consecutive time by Daniel Topolski who had himself rowed in the 1967 and 1968 races . As coach , Topolski had suffered just one defeat . Cambridge 's head coach was Czechoslovakian former international rower Bohumil Janoušek ; although a double Olympic medallist , he was still cautious of the event : " It 's a peculiar race . The distance , the bends , the fact that only two crews race , the fact that during the course you encounter all sorts of water and wind conditions . " Janoušek had been employed in order to prevent Cambridge losing for the fourth consecutive time , an occurrence which last took place following the 1912 race . Preparations for the race were hampered by appalling weather conditions : horizontal sleet and snow made practice rows challenging .
= = Crews = =
Both crews weighed an average of 13 st 4 lb ( 84 @.@ 2 kg ) ; Henderson , the Cambridge cox weighed 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) more than his Dark Blue counterpart . In the week leading up to the race however , Cambridge 's Andy Grey was struck down by gastroenteritis . While he recovered , his roommate John Woodhouse became ill and withdrew from the race three hours prior to the event . Woodhouse was replaced by Graham Phillips ( who weighed 8 pounds ( 4 kg ) less than Woodhouse ) and the Light Blue boat was reorganised , with Phillips rowing at three and Nick Davies moving to stroke . Oxford 's crew contained four returning Blues , with Boris Rankov making the second of what would become six appearances in the race . Cambridge welcomed back four Blue rowers and the cox Henderson , all of whom had rowed the previous year .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss ( for the fifth consecutive year ) and elected to start from the Surrey station . Conditions were calm – Desmond Hill writing in The Daily Telegraph described the river as " glassy " – and the tide , as a result of the earlier start time , was very weak . The two boats were at 45 degrees to one another as the umpire dropped the flag to signal the start and within a minute , Oxford were clear of Cambridge . Oxford held a lead of two lengths by Craven Cottage and passed the Mile Post five seconds ahead , and extended their lead to eight seconds by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge . Davies brought two two pushes out of the Light Blues at Chiswick Eyot but Oxford maintained their lead and passed the finishing post in 20 minutes 33 seconds , three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead of Cambridge . It was Oxford 's fourth consecutive victory and their fifth in six years .
Taking place 30 minutes before the main race , the reserve race saw Cambridge 's Goldie defeat Oxford 's Isis by twelve lengths and thirty seconds . As of 2014 , the winning time of 22 minutes 50 seconds is the slowest time in the history of the event . It was Goldie 's third consecutive victory , and their eleventh in thirteen years . Cambridge won the 34th Women 's Boat Race , making it their third in a row , and their sixteenth victory in seventeen years .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford cox , Peter Berners @-@ Lee suggested : " I got some help from the tide at the beginning , but very little later . I was expecting a neck @-@ and @-@ neck race and I couldn 't believe we were a length up at Fulham . "
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= Kepler @-@ 8b =
Kepler @-@ 8b is the fifth of the first five exoplanets discovered by NASA 's Kepler spacecraft , which aims to discover planets in a region of the sky between the constellations Lyra and Cygnus that transit ( cross in front of ) their host stars . The planet is the hottest of the five . Kepler @-@ 8b was the only planet discovered in Kepler @-@ 8 's orbit , and is larger ( though more diffuse ) than Jupiter . It orbits its host star every 3 @.@ 5 days . The planet also demonstrates the Rossiter – McLaughlin effect , where the planet 's orbit affects the redshifting of the spectrum of the host star . Kepler @-@ 8b was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 at a conference in Washington , D.C. after radial velocity measurements conducted at the W.M. Keck Observatory confirmed its detection by Kepler .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
The Kepler @-@ 8b planet is named because it was the first planet discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 8 . The star itself ( and by extension , its planet ) was named after the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA @-@ run satellite that searches for terrestrial planets between constellations Cygnus and Lyra that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars with respect to Earth . This crossing slightly dims the star at a regular interval , which is used to determine if the cause of the fluctuation in brightness is indeed due to a planetary transit . The planet was first noted as a potential transit event by the Kepler telescope , and was originally designated as KOI 10 @.@ 01 . Follow @-@ up observations by the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer at Hawaii 's W.M. Keck Observatory yielded additional information about the planet , including its mass and radius . Kepler @-@ 8b was the fifth planet discovered by the Kepler telescope . The first three planets in Kepler 's field of view had already been confirmed , and were used to test Kepler 's accuracy .
Kepler @-@ 8b was the last of the first five planets that Kepler discovered . Its discovery , along with the planets Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 6b , and Kepler @-@ 7b , were announced to the public at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. This conference took place on January 4 , 2010 . The discovery of these first five planets helped confirm Kepler 's functionality .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 8 is an F @-@ type star in the Lyra constellation that lies approximately 1330 ( ± 180 ) parsecs away from Earth . With a mass and radius of , respectively , 1 @.@ 213 Msun and 1 @.@ 486 Rsun , the star is both more massive and wider than the Sun . With an effective temperature of 6213 K , Kepler @-@ 8 is also hotter than the Sun , although it is approximately three quarters of a billion years younger and is slightly less metal @-@ rich .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 8b has a mass of .603 MJ , but a radius of 1 @.@ 419 RJ . This means that although Kepler is approximately 60 % the mass of planet Jupiter , it is more diffuse , as it is 41 @.@ 9 % wider . Based on its size and the distance from its star , Kepler @-@ 8b is a Hot Jupiter planet , orbiting Kepler @-@ 8 from a distance of .0483 AU every 3 @.@ 52254 days . To compare , planet Mercury orbits the Sun at an average distance of .3871 AU every 87 @.@ 97 days . With an equilibrium temperature of 1764 K , Kepler @-@ 8b was the hottest of the five planets announced during the conference stating its discovery . Kepler @-@ 8b has an eccentricity of 0 , which means that its orbit is very circular . The planet also has a density of .261 grams / cc , approximately 74 % less dense than purified water at 4 ° C.
As Kepler @-@ 8b orbits its star , it demonstrates the Rossiter – McLaughlin effect , in which the host star 's spectrum becomes red- and , later , blueshifted , as a body transits it . The identification of this effect established Kepler @-@ 8b as orbiting in a prograde motion ( as opposed to retrograde motion , in which a planet orbits in a direction opposite of its star 's rotation ) .
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= Jake the Brick =
" Jake the Brick " is the twentieth episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written , storyboarded , and directed by head writer Kent Osborne , from an outline by Adam Muto , Osborne , and series creator Pendleton Ward . " Jake the Brick " debuted on November 26 , 2014 on Cartoon Network as the third episode to be aired as part of the " Corn @-@ Ooo @-@ copia " — a week of all @-@ new Adventure Time premieres .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Jake tries to fulfill a bizarre lifelong ambition of being a brick inside a shack as it collapses . Finn , being supportive , leaves a walkie talkie with Jake , who absentmindedly begins to narrate the events around him . Finn and BMO are drawn into Jake 's storytelling , and Finn uses Starchy 's radio station to broadcast Jake 's narration of the trials and tribulations of a rabbit . All of Ooo is soon engrossed in the radio broadcast , unbeknownst to Jake .
" Jake the Brick " was based on a doodle made by Tom Herpich during a game of exquisite corpse , making it one of the few episodes of Adventure Time to have been developed out of the game . Osborne at the production crew were so amused by Herpich 's drawing that they decided to build an episode in order to showcase it . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 00 million viewers . The episode also was met with mostly positive critical reception , with many commenters appreciating its simplistic and calm nature . In 2015 , it won a Primetime Emmy Award for Short @-@ format Animation .
= = Plot = =
Finn wanders all over Ooo until he manages to locate Jake , who is fulfilling a bizarre lifelong ambition of being a brick inside a shack as it collapses . Finn expresses his support , but decides to head back to the Tree Fort . He leaves a walkie talkie with Jake . After a period of time passes , Jake begins absentmindedly narrating the events around him . Finn and BMO are drawn into Jake 's storytelling , and Finn uses Starchy 's radio station to broadcast Jake 's narration .
Jake focuses his attention on the trials and tribulations of a rabbit . First , the rabbit is tormented by a rogue deer . Then , a storm threatens to destroy his home . But luckily , the rabbit enlists the aid of a friendly sea lard and several beavers , and together , the animals are able to rebuild the rabbit 's home . While Jake narrates , the entirety of Ooo tunes into the broadcast and becomes engrossed in the tale of the rabbit , unbeknownst to Jake .
= = Production = =
" Jake the Brick " was written and storyboarded by Adventure Time head writer Kent Osborne , from a story by Adam Muto , Osborne , Jack Pendarvis , and series creator Pendleton Ward . Osborne also served as the episode 's supervising director , while the art direction was helmed by Nick Jennings . The genesis for the episode can be traced back to a drawing made during a game of exquisite corpse by Tom Herpich . The quick doodle , which featured Finn offering a brick @-@ shaped Jake a sandwich , was accompanied by a short plot synopsis involving Jake 's son Kim Kil Whan . The plot was never used , but Osborne and the crew found the drawing so amusing that they decided to work it into an episode . In reality , " Jake the Brick " was one of the few episodes to have been generated from a game of exquisite corpse . According to Ward , most of the ideas that come from the game are " terrible " . A large portion of the dialogue used in the final episode was written by Pendarvis .
= = Reception = =
" Jake the Brick " aired on November 26 , 2014 on Cartoon Network and was the third episode to air during the " Corn @-@ Ooo @-@ copia " — a week of all @-@ new Adventure Time premieres . It was seen by 2 @.@ 00 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 4 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode 's airing .
The episode also was met with mostly positive critical reception , with many commenters appreciating its simplistic and calm nature . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " , calling it a " satisfying episode . " He applauded the way that Osborne took the episode 's fairly simple plot structure and framed it around an emergency news broadcast , noting that the episode emphasizes the value of radio as a communicative medium ; he positively compared the episode to the popular podcast Serial , writing that both this episode and the aforementioned podcast emphasize the importance of the audio experience . Furthermore , Sava opined that the episode was one of the show 's more experimental outings , and it was proof that the writers of Adventure Time had full creative control over their series .
Dara Driscoll of TV Overmind named " Jake the Brick " one of the six best episodes of Adventure Time 's sixth season . She praised the episode for its calm and peaceful tone , arguing that " it ’ s a … relaxing episode [ and ] as you listen to Jake tell the story of the bunny … you become attached to its well @-@ being just like all of the listeners of the radio show . "
In September 2015 , the episode won an Emmy for Short @-@ format Animation , making it the series ' first win in this category .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Michael Gomez =
Michael Gomez ( born Michael Armstrong on 21 June 1977 ) , also known as " The Irish Mexican " or " The Predator " , is a former professional boxer . He was born to an Irish Traveller family in Longford , County Longford , Ireland , spending his early years in Dublin before moving to London and later Manchester , England , with his family at the age of nine .
Gomez finished his career fighting in the lightweight division ; however , he is more notable for his fights in the featherweight and super featherweight divisions . During his career he has amassed a number of championship title belts : the IBF Inter @-@ Continental featherweight title ; and the British , WBO Inter @-@ Continental , WBA Inter @-@ Continental and WBU super featherweight titles .
Gomez , who has been compared to Johnny Tapia , has lived a turbulent life and has often been involved in controversial fights . In Gomez 's initial matches he suffered a number of losses to journeyman opposition but then went on a run of victories which stretched for almost four years . Of his 17 fights between February 2001 and March 2008 , 16 ended in knockouts . Concerns arose about his drinking and failure to adhere to his diet and training regimes after a 2001 loss to Laszlo Bognar . Gomez appeared to be " back on track " in 2003 , with his high @-@ profile fight against Edinburgh @-@ based fighter , " Amazing " Alex Arthur for the British and WBA Inter @-@ Continental super featherweight titles , which Gomez won by delivering a knockout blow to Arthur in the fifth round .
In 2006 , Gomez suffered a controversial loss to Peter McDonagh when , in the middle of a round , he dropped his guard and walked out of the ring , later saying he had retired from boxing . He returned to the ring after a 15 @-@ month interval . On 21 June 2008 , Gomez lost what was seen as possibly his last bout — a last chance saloon opportunity to resurrect his career against rising star and Olympic silver medallist Amir Khan . The fight ended with Gomez 's suffering a TKO when the referee stopped the fight in the fifth round .
Gomez took the surname Gomez after his childhood hero Wilfredo Gomez .
= = Background = =
Michael Armstrong was born into an Irish traveller family in Longford , Ireland . His mother went into labour with him while driving , so his partially sighted father took over the wheel but crashed the car into a lamp post on the way to the hospital ; Michael was delivered in the back seat . The Armstrong family moved to Ballymun , Dublin , and , when Michael was age nine , to Manchester , England .
Following the family 's move to England , Armstrong 's father 's eyesight failed further due to retinitis pigmentosa . By that time , there were ten children in the Armstrong family . After his younger sister , Louise , died from sudden infant death syndrome , his mother left the family to live with another woman . Armstrong subsequently spent much of his youth in various children 's homes , and was a serial truant from school . His mother had taught him to shoplift as a child , and he was involved in petty crime throughout his youth in Manchester . At nine years old , he began training at Brian Hughes ' Collyhurst and Moston Boys ' Club . He also played football for a local North Manchester team until the club received so many fines for Armstrong 's fighting on the pitch that they were unable to pay them . At this point , he stopped playing football to concentrate on his training in the ring . During his time in the children 's home Armstrong met Alison , who has remained his companion ( and later his wife ) throughout his professional career ; they were parents by the time Armstrong was 17 .
= = Early professional career = =
Armstrong boxed as an amateur before turning professional in June 1995 . He chose the professional surname " Gomez " when the British Boxing Board of Control ( BBBoC ) required him to select another name at the time of his registration as a professional ; there was another boxer in the same weight division using the name " Michael Armstrong " . He chose his ring name in honour of Puerto Rican boxer Wilfredo Gómez , whose videotaped fights Armstrong had studied intently as a youth . The name , combined with Gomez 's " brawling style " , earned him the nickname of " the Irish Mexican " . He developed a ring persona based on this nickname , which has remained popular with fans throughout his career . His ring entrance music is that of a Mexican Mariachi band , a reference to his Hispanic @-@ sounding chosen name , and many of his supporters wear sombreros to his fights and wave Irish flags . Gomez also wears long Mexican @-@ style boxing shorts in the colours of the flag of Ireland and often has the shape of a shamrock shaved into the hair on the back of his head .
In his debut fight at the G @-@ Mex Leisure Centre , Manchester , England , Gomez beat previously undefeated Danny Ruegg on the undercard of a bill that included Robin Reid and Michael Brodie . Despite this initial win , Gomez 's early career was littered with losses to journeyman fighters such as Greg Upton and Chris Williams .
In 1996 , Gomez was charged with murder after a gang fight outside a nightclub in Manchester . Gomez had hit one of his attackers , Sam Parle , who died after his head hit the pavement as a result of the blow . The charge was later reduced to manslaughter and Gomez was cleared after it was ruled that he had acted in self @-@ defence .
After this shaky beginning in the professional ranks , Gomez had a run of victories from September 1997 to February 1999 . During this period Gomez won seven straight fights before challenging for his first title belt , the vacant British Central Area featherweight title against Chris Jickells on 27 February 1999 in Oldham . Gomez won the title with a fifth round knockout . He followed his first title win by adding another championship , the IBF Inter @-@ Continental featherweight title , with a second round knockout over Nigel Leake .
= = = Move to super featherweight = = =
Later that year , Gomez relinquished his championship belts in a bid to move up to the super featherweight division . His first fight in the division , in September 1999 , was for the vacant British super featherweight title , against the experienced and much heralded Liverpudlian fighter Gary Thornhill . Gomez defeated Thornhill with a second round knockout . In November 1999 , Gomez faced off against Mexican Jose Manjarrez for the WBO Inter @-@ Continental super featherweight title , walking away with the title based on the judges ' scores after the full twelve rounds . In 1999 , Gomez won four title belts , was undefeated during the year and was also named " Young Boxer of the Year " by the British Boxing Writers ' Club . He continued his winning form into 2000 with another run of six wins , and successfully defended his British super featherweight title against Dean Pithie , Carl Greaves and Ian McLeod .
= = Bognar and Lear fights = =
Gomez 's first fight in 2001 was on 10 February against Hungarian boxer Laszlo Bognar for the WBO Inter @-@ Continental super featherweight title , in Widnes , Cheshire . Gomez had Bognar on the canvas in the fifth round , but Bognar recovered from this knockdown and used his southpaw jab to keep Gomez from closing in . In the ninth round referee Dave Paris stopped the fight following a double left from Bognar , which had Gomez stricken against the ropes . Gomez felt the fight had been stopped prematurely and that he should have been allowed to continue . Gomez later stated that he was suffering from flu and should not have taken the fight . The Daily Telegraph reported after the match that the pre @-@ fight weigh @-@ in and medical examination were not carried out in accordance with BBBC regulations : the volunteer inspector left before Bognar and Gomez had weighed in , and the medical examiner had not detected that Gomez was ill .
Gomez sought a rematch against Bognar , and five months later in July 2001 the pair met again , this time in Manchester , resulting in a victory for Gomez . The fight started badly for Gomez when he suffered a flash knockdown in the first round and was down again in the second . Gomez came back to knock Bognar down near the end of the second round . Gomez came out firing at the start of the third round and finished the fight with a fourth and final knockdown to avenge his earlier defeat . He followed up his victory over Bognar with a second round knockout of Scottish fighter Craig Docherty for another British super featherweight title win .
His next opponent was unbeaten West Ham @-@ based fighter Kevin Lear on 1 June 2002 , again in Manchester , on the undercard of the Ricky Hatton vs. Eamonn Magee fight . Lear , a former Amateur Boxing Association of England ( ABA ) champion , kept a one @-@ dimensional Gomez at bay with his sharp jab from the outset of the fight . Gomez took several punches to the face , and his nose began to bleed heavily starting in the sixth round . By the eighth round Gomez was slowing , suffering the effects of Lear 's continuing barrage of combinations . At the end of the eighth round Gomez 's trainer Brian Hughes retired his fighter , giving Lear a surprise victory .
The defeat to Lear , and the manner in which the fight ended , prompted Hughes , Gomez 's longtime mentor and trainer , to ask Gomez to retire from boxing . This event signalled the end of the relationship between Gomez and Hughes ; soon after , Gomez crossed Manchester to join Ricky Hatton and former Collyhurst gym stablemate Anthony Farnell at the rival Phoenix Gym run by Billy Graham . Gomez followed the defeat to Lear with a string of three wins , all by knockout .
During the period between the first Bognar fight and the loss to Lear , Gomez 's life spun out of control . He was " boozing , brawling and womanising " , and was convicted of four drink @-@ drive offenses . During a street fight , Gomez was stabbed and badly injured — his heart stopped beating for 148 seconds while on the operating table .
= = Alex Arthur fight = =
Following his change in trainer , Gomez was contracted for the highest profile fight of his career against Edinburgh @-@ based fighter " Amazing " Alex Arthur for the British and WBA Inter @-@ Continental super featherweight titles . The fight took place in a sold @-@ out Meadowbank Stadium in October 2003 , in what was the first professional boxing card in Edinburgh in almost 20 years .
Prior to the fight , Arthur had opined during interviews that " looking deep into Gomez 's eyes at the press conference , I 'm not sure even he believes he can win . He 'll be so fired up I expect it 'll take me eight or nine rounds but , if his resistance has gone as people are saying , it could be a lot sooner . " With respect to his approach to the fight , Arthur added " I see about 20 ways to beat him . I 'm just looking forward to shutting him up . "
Arthur , who was looking to retain the BBBofC Lonsdale Belt , was seen as a rising star in British boxing . He was a strong favourite to win the bout against Gomez , who was perceived to have been through too many battles and abused his body too much , and the fight was seen as a stepping stone on Arthur 's way to a future world championship . However , Freddie Roach , Arthur 's trainer , was criticised when he remained in the United States to coach another boxer instead of continuing to work with Arthur to prepare for his championship match .
Gomez proved his critics wrong when he arrived at the fight in prime condition and with aggression , determination and desire . The first two rounds started at a furious pace , with Arthur keeping Gomez at bay with stiff jabs and Gomez working inside with hooks and body punches . The match was turning into a clash of opposing styles , Arthur displaying control and boxing technique and Gomez storming forward with wild ferocity . From the third round the fight began to turn Gomez 's way . Gomez cut Arthur in the third and silenced the home crowd , who were not used to seeing the home @-@ town hero being battered in this manner . Gomez dominated the fourth round and was in full control of the fight — he exposed Arthur 's weak defence and at one stage landed 28 punches without reply .
Gomez knocked down his opponent twice before delivering a jarring left hook to Arthur , knocking Arthur to the canvas for the third time . Referee John Coyle stopped the fight , and Gomez won with the resulting TKO in the fifth round . The match was hailed as one of the best fights in Britain for a decade . Boxing promoter Frank Warren called the fight " the greatest contest seen on these shores since Nigel Benn beat Gerald McClellan in 1995 " . Retired Scottish boxer Ken Buchanan said it was one of the best fights he had ever seen .
Gomez attended Arthur 's next fight against Ugandan Michael Kizza in Meadowbank , Scotland , but Arthur did not appear when Gomez fought Ben Odamattey for the WBU super featherweight title in Manchester a few weeks later . Gomez pointed this out when being interviewed shortly afterward , adding " Sky Television want a return . Frank Warren , Arthur 's manager , wants a re @-@ match . And most of all so do I. " Arthur responded by saying " the fight ( with Gomez ) is definitely going to happen . Hopefully I 'll get another warm @-@ up fight in June and then take on Gomez in September . " Despite the rhetoric , the two fighters did not meet each other in the ring again .
= = WBU world title = =
In March 2004 , Gomez fought Ghanaian Ben Odamattey for the WBU super featherweight title at the MEN Arena in Manchester , winning the championship by stopping Odamattey in the third round . He retained his WBU title in his next two fights against Justin Juuko and Leva Kirakosyan with knockout wins . Gomez then faced Argentinian boxer " El Vikingo " Javier Osvaldo Alvarez in February 2005 , once again fighting at the MEN Arena in Manchester . WBO super middleweight title holder Joe Calzaghe had been scheduled to top the bill but pulled out of his arranged fight , and Gomez and Alvarez were slotted as the main attraction .
The pair clashed at the weigh in , and this antagonism carried into the ring ; from the outset of the fight Gomez tried to draw Alvarez into a brawl . Gomez appeared to win the first two rounds behind stinging jabs , but Alvarez seemed unruffled . In the third round , Alvarez started to take control of the fight and landed several blows to Gomez 's face . Gomez began quickly in the fourth round , attacking Alvarez from behind his jab and working his way through his opponent 's defense . Alvarez appeared content to catch Gomez as he moved forward . Despite Gomez 's strong start , Alvarez dazed Gomez with a stiff right hand shot in the fourth round , after which the Argentinian launched into a furious onslaught . Gomez steadied in the fifth but was visibly tired . Two minutes into the sixth round , Alvarez floored Gomez with a right hook . Gomez beat the count and Alvarez then moved in to continue his attack . Referee Mickey Vann stopped the fight after 2 minutes 25 seconds of the round with Gomez pinned to the ropes and taking significant punishment .
= = Peter McDonagh controversy = =
Gomez was out of the ring for almost a year following the Alvarez fight and was next due to fight Willie Limond for the WBU lightweight title , but turned down the opportunity for a chance to fight for an Irish title . Gomez then signed up to fight fellow English @-@ based Irishman , Peter McDonagh , for the Irish lightweight title on the undercard of a Bernard Dunne fight on 28 January 2006 at the National Stadium , Dublin . After the fight was signed Gomez stated " I just can 't wait to get my hands on that Irish title because I 've been desperate to fight in Ireland for years . "
Leading up to the fight McDonagh was making visits to see paranormalist Uri Geller as " mind coach " to help him prepare mentally for the fight , and Geller also travelled with him to Dublin for the fight . Gomez commented that " I 'm not sure Uri Geller will be of much use to him though because there won 't be any spoons in that ring for him to bend . The only thing I plan on bending is some of McDonagh 's ribs with my body punches . "
The first four rounds were relatively close , with Gomez leading according to pundits , but the fight ended in the fifth round under bizarre circumstances when for no apparent reason Gomez stopped fighting and failed to defend himself . He then received a number of unanswered punches from McDonagh before being floored . Gomez rose from the canvas immediately but appeared to ignore the referee and walk towards his corner while the referee continued with his count . Gomez then left the ring as the referee was waving the fight off . RTÉ commentator Steve Collins said " I smell a rat , something 's not right here . "
The Boxing Union of Ireland ( BUI ) initially suspended both fighters ' purses , and investigated reports of unusual betting patterns , with large sums of money being placed on McDonagh to win inside the distance and more specifically in the fifth round . Odds on McDonagh to win the fight in the fifth round had been cut from 125 – 1 to 18 – 1 by the afternoon of the bout . Following their investigation , the BUI released the purses to each of the fighters , stating " Michael Gomez and Peter McDonagh confirmed that neither they , their families , nor any person in their camp , as far as they were aware , betted on the fight . " The BUI did express disappointment that the bookmaker , Boylesports , who had suspended wagering on the bout due to the unusual betting patterns , had chosen not to reply to the investigators ' queries . Gomez later explained the loss by saying that " it was all very simple , I just came to a decision in there that I need to retire from boxing full stop " . Gomez further indicated that he planned to pursue a career in bodybuilding . McDonagh , meanwhile , claimed that he had won because of Gellar 's assistance leading up to the bout .
Gomez sought a second opportunity to fight McDonagh ; in April 2007 , he offered to fight for only his training costs . Finally , their rematch for the Irish lightweight title , to be billed as " Redemption " , was set for 23 May 2008 , but McDonagh pulled out of the scheduled bout .
= = Return to the ring = =
Gomez found himself once again drawn to boxing after watching a fight between Alex Arthur and Carl Johanneson , and resumed training . In May 2007 , fifteen months after his fight with McDonagh , he returned to the ring to face Daniel Thorpe at the Altrincham Leisure Centre , Manchester .
Gomez had left the Phoenix Gym and was now training at Bobby Rimmers ' Boxing Academy in Stalybridge , Manchester , and had returned to fight in the super featherweight division . The fight was billed as " The Last Stand " , and the venue was sold out with fellow fighters Ricky Hatton and his brother Matthew Hatton cheering him on from ringside . Gomez won the fight with a stoppage in the third round . The following month Gomez also beat Youssef Al Hamidi , again with a third round stoppage . Following two comeback fights against journeyman opposition Gomez was rumoured to be in line for fights against many of Britain and Ireland 's top level super featherweights and lightweights including Kevin Mitchell , Amir Khan , and Carl Johanneson ; Gomez himself was seeking a rematch against Peter McDonagh .
He then signed up to face Leeds 's Johanneson on 19 October 2007 at the Doncaster Dome , Doncaster , England for the British super featherweight title . Johanneson had just come off his second defeat to Armenian Leva Kirakosyan , whom Gomez had knocked out in October 2004 . Before the fight , Gomez was confident , stating " You can 't outbox me . I 'll jab your head off . If he comes to have a fight with me it is going to be early Christmas for everyone because I don 't know who 's going to go but someone 's going to go and it 's not going to be me . " At the pre @-@ fight press conference in Doncaster both fighters squared up to each other and promised to knock each other out ; during the highly charged face off both fighters had to be kept apart by their promoter and trainers .
As many expected , the highly anticipated domestic clash was a savage brawl from round one . Gomez won the opening rounds and threatened to overpower Johanneson from the opening seconds . The Leeds fighter then gained the upper hand as the fight went on , flooring Gomez in the sixth round only for the " Irish Mexican " to rise from the canvas . Soon after , with Gomez appearing unsteady on his feet , referee Mickey Vann stopped the fight . Gomez said that Vann had stopped the fight early , adding , " When the stoppage came , I wasn 't wobbling or staggering , and I only dropped my hands in the fight to show Johanneson that he couldn 't hurt me . But the referee simply got the wrong message . It was bad refereeing . I told him straight away I was fine , but he insisted on showing me to my corner . " The former champion was clear that he wanted another opportunity to fight for the British title .
= = Amir Khan fight = =
Gomez fought Amir Khan for the Commonwealth lightweight title at the National Indoor Arena , Birmingham , on 21 June 2008 , Gomez 's thirty @-@ first birthday . Khan said that " there is no way he will be as fit as me , so I expect a spectacular stoppage " . Gomez did not attend the scheduled pre @-@ fight press conference , prompting Khan to deride him , and promoter Frank Warren accused Gomez of failing to show respect to Khan and the media .
During the fight Khan knocked Gomez to the canvas in the first round with a barrage of hooks and uppercuts . In the second round , Gomez caught Khan with a left hook , knocking down the younger fighter and exposing his defensive weakness ; however , Khan steadied himself after the mandatory eight @-@ count , and cut Gomez above the left eye before the round ended . Gomez caught Khan in the ribs with a left hook in the fourth round which left Khan unstable for a moment , but Khan responded with a flurry of hooks and jabs . Khan landed a " cracking left hook " in the fifth , but Gomez beat the count . At 2 : 32 of the fifth round , referee John Keane stopped the fight when Gomez was knocked into the ropes by a Khan left uppercut . After the fight , Khan said he felt he had moved up a level by " fighting world class fighters like Gomez . "
Before the fight , sports writers considered Gomez a tough opponent for Khan , with his " knockout punch " and his success against Alex Arthur in similar circumstances , despite having lost three of his last six fights . Gomez saw the fight as an opportunity to reignite his career ; in an interview shortly before the fight he spoke of how " [ t ] his fight really is my last chance to set myself up for life and become known in every household in Britain " . At the same time , he reflected on the positive effects of his career in the ring , saying " Boxing kept my feet on the ground and gave me a focus . It 's got me through the bad times and calmed me down . If it wasn 't for boxing , I wouldn 't have my beautiful wife and family " . Gomez lives with his wife Alison and their three children in Manchester .
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= 1988 – 94 British broadcasting voice restrictions =
From October 1988 to September 1994 the voices of representatives from Sinn Féin and several Irish republican and loyalist groups were banned by the British government from being broadcast on television and radio in the United Kingdom . The restrictions , announced by the Home Secretary , Douglas Hurd , on 19 October 1988 , covered eleven organisations based in Northern Ireland and followed a heightened period of violence in the history of the Troubles , as well as the government 's belief in a need to prevent Sinn Féin from using the media for political advantage .
Broadcasters quickly found ways around the ban , chiefly by dubbing the voice of anyone who was prevented from speaking with the voice of an actor . The legislation did not apply during election campaigns , and under certain other circumstances . The restrictions caused difficulties for British journalists who objected to censorship in various other countries , such as Iraq and India . The Republic of Ireland had its own similar legislation that banned anyone with links to paramilitary groups from the airwaves , but repealed this in January 1994 . This added pressure on the British government to do likewise . The broadcast ban was finally lifted on 16 September 1994 , a fortnight after the first Provisional Irish Republican Army ceasefire .
= = Background = =
Throughout the Troubles , UK broadcasters were regularly required to stop or postpone the broadcast of documentaries and other programmes relating to Ireland . One of the most prominent instances of this was the 1985 Real Lives documentary for the BBC , At the Edge of the Union . The programme featured extensive footage of Sinn Féin 's Martin McGuinness and the Democratic Unionist Party 's Gregory Campbell discussing the Troubles , and following direct intervention by the government it was temporarily blocked from being aired . The incident led to a one @-@ day strike by members of the National Union of Journalists , who walked out in protest that the BBC 's independence was being undermined .
The months leading up to the introduction of the ban had also seen a particularly intense period of Troubles @-@ related violence . One of the bloodiest episodes of that time was the Ballygawley bus bombing which resulted in the deaths of several British soldiers . Another incident , the killing of two off @-@ duty British soldiers who drove into an IRA funeral procession , brought the media into conflict with the government after journalists present at the funeral declined a Royal Ulster Constabulary request to hand over footage of the incident amid concerns doing so would put them at risk . In response the Prime Minister , Margaret Thatcher , told the House of Commons journalists had a " bounden duty " to assist with the investigation . " Either one is on the side of justice in these matters or one is on the side of terrorism " . Film was subsequently seized from the BBC and ITN under the Prevention of Terrorism and Emergency Provisions Acts .
The Conservative government believed there was a need for it to act to prevent Sinn Féin from using the media to defend the actions of the IRA , and the measures were part of a wider government response to the increase in violence , which also included changes to the right to silence and the tightening of rules allowing paramilitary prisoners early release . Further controversy also erupted in September 1988 over an intended edition of the Channel 4 discussion programme After Dark which was to have featured the Sinn Féin president , Gerry Adams , as a guest . The show was dropped after the conservative academic Paul Wilkinson – a Professor at Aberdeen University who specialised in the study of terrorism and political violence – voiced strong objections to its transmission .
= = The ban = =
On 19 October 1988 , the Home Secretary , Douglas Hurd , issued a notice under clause 13 ( 4 ) of the BBC Licence and Agreement to the BBC and under section 29 ( 3 ) of the Broadcasting Act 1981 to the Independent Broadcasting Authority prohibiting the broadcast of direct statements by representatives or supporters of eleven Irish political and military organisations . The ban prevented the UK news media from broadcasting the voices , though not the words , of ten Irish republican and Ulster loyalist paramilitary groups , as well as Sinn Féin . Among the other groups affected were the Provisional IRA , Irish National Liberation Army , Ulster Defence Association and the Ulster Volunteer Force , although the ban was targeted primarily at Sinn Féin . Addressing the House of Commons on the ban , Hurd said , " the terrorists themselves draw support and sustenance from access to radio and television ... the time has come to deny this easy platform to those who use it to propagate terrorism " , while the Conservative Prime Minister , Margaret Thatcher , said it would " deny terrorists the oxygen of publicity " .
The 1981 Act allowed the Home Secretary to introduce measures in the event of a public interest issue . A parliamentary debate was not required , though Hurd acquiesced to one , and the issue was discussed in the House of Commons on 2 November 1988 . The opposition Labour Party introduced an amendment condemning the government 's decision as " incompatible with a free society " , but it was rejected , despite some Conservative MPs voting with Labour . The legislation was condemned by the National Council for Civil Liberties . The National Union of Journalists planned a one @-@ day strike in protest at the ban for 10 November , but the action was called off after its members failed to reach consensus . A group of broadcast journalists subsequently launched a legal challenge to overturn the ban , but in May 1989 the High Court decided the Home Secretary had acted lawfully . A later hearing at the Appeal Court upheld that decision in December 1989 .
Hurd 's belief was that the ban would place the print and broadcast media on a level footing , but opponents of the restrictions argued they were affecting the quality of news reporting from Northern Ireland , and consequently people 's understanding of the issues . The broadcaster Scarlett McGwire , one of those to challenge the regulations , said in 1989 , " The case is not just about journalists and being able to report Northern Ireland properly . It is about people not being able to understand what is happening there because it is not reported properly " . Marmaduke Hussey , Chairman of the BBC , called the ban a " very dangerous precedent " . A petition organised by the Campaign for Press and Broadcasting Freedom , and including the signatures of 50 MPs , was presented at 10 Downing Street on the first anniversary of its commencement .
= = Implementation = =
Media outlets were usually left to interpret the restrictions in their own way , and the ban 's remit was at first applied retrospectively to archive material , though this was later relaxed following government advice . In 2005 John Birt , a former Director @-@ General of the BBC , said Hurd 's announcement came " right out of the blue " , while Danny Morrison , who in 1988 was director of publicity for Sinn Féin , spoke of the total confusion that resulted . " I asked television and radio journalists , ' what can be done ? ' " Subtitling was initially used , but one of the main ways the new law was circumvented was by substituting the voices of actors for those who could not speak directly . The BBC and its commercial counterparts compiled a list of actors who could be called upon to record voiceovers for news items and documentaries about the Troubles , often at short notice . The actors frequently spoke the words in real time along with the person whose voice was being dubbed . One such interview with Gerry Adams once appeared on the US CNN network without anyone realising they were hearing an actor speak .
The restrictions were also applied to television drama , documentary and discussion programmes . In December 1988 the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland , Tom King , ordered Channel 4 to cancel an episode of the US drama series Lou Grant that featured the story of a fictional IRA gunrunner , even though it had aired previously . Mother Ireland , a documentary about women and Irish nationalism that included an interview with Mairéad Farrell , shot dead during an SAS operation in Gibraltar , was also banned . On a later occasion the appearance of the political activist Bernadette Devlin McAliskey on an edition of the BBC 's Nation discussing reasons for political violence was also censored when much of what she said was subtitled .
County Sound , a radio station in Surrey , dropped an interview with Errol Smalley , a campaigner for the Guildford Four , although he made a later appearance after successfully overturning the decision . In November 1988 " Streets of Sorrow / Birmingham Six " – a song by The Pogues expressing support for the Birmingham Six and Guildford Four – was subject to the regulations because it included " general disagreement with the way in which the British government responds to , and the courts deal with , the terrorist threat in the UK " .
However , the ban was not always enforced . Restrictions were briefly lifted during the 1992 general election , allowing a political debate between the Sinn Féin president Gerry Adams and the Social Democratic and Labour Party leader John Hume to be heard during the election campaign , but the ban resumed once the polls were closed , even preventing Adams ' reaction to the loss of his parliamentary seat from being directly aired . An individual 's real voice could also be broadcast if the news item in question did not directly relate to their political beliefs or paramilitary activities . Similarly , anyone subject to the restrictions who was an eyewitness to an event or incident could be heard . In February 1992 , the voice of Gerard McGuigan , a Sinn Féin councillor , was broadcast when he spoke about an attack on his house by the Ulster Defence Association . Adams was also allowed to speak about a similar attack against his property . On another occasion , the journalist Peter Taylor was given access to inmates at the Maze Prison for a documentary about the jail , but while the prisoners were allowed to speak freely about their personal lives , a complaint by the IRA prisoners ' food spokesman concerning the size of the prison 's sausage rolls had to be revoiced . In 2005 , Francis Welch , a television producer , described the incident as one that highlighted " the surreal nature of the restrictions " .
= = Lifting of regulations = =
Thatcher 's successor as Prime Minister , John Major , announced a review of the regulations in November 1993 , telling the House of Commons that the general belief within the Conservative Party was that interviews with those subject to the restrictions were being stretched " to the limit and perhaps beyond " . His decision followed a television interview with Gerry Adams , which a Conservative MP , Jill Knight , described as having caused " offence to a great number of people " . Conservative backbenchers and unionist MPs wanted more rigid restrictions , and The Irish Times reported a " widespread feeling " that Major favoured a complete ban , but that journalists were opposed to this . It quoted the BBC 's John Simpson , who said that reporting events from Northern Ireland would become " virtually impossible " . At that time coverage of Northern Ireland @-@ related topics was becoming more frequent with the increasing pace of the peace process . The review was conducted by the Secretary of State for Heritage , Peter Brooke . In February 1994 , Major 's government decided to maintain the status quo .
Pressure to reverse the restrictions grew after the statutory instruments of Section 31 of the Irish government 's Broadcasting Authority Act 1960 lapsed in January 1994 . These had prohibited radio and television interviews with representatives of paramilitary groups and Sinn Féin . From that point , anyone in Northern Ireland with access to the Republic of Ireland 's state broadcaster , RTÉ , could hear the voices of anyone still banned from the airwaves by the UK regulations . Responding to the Dublin government 's decision , Gerry Adams said , " Over 20 years of political censorship has served to stunt any hopes of a resolution of the conflict . It has denied the right of information . Good riddance . " The regulations particularly came under the spotlight during a visit Adams made to the United States in 1994 , where he gave a speech that was widely broadcast around the world , but had to be dubbed in the UK because of the ban . In May 1994 the National Union of Journalists launched a legal challenge with the European Commission of Human Rights , seeking to take the British government to court for breach of freedom of expression under the European Convention of Human Rights , but the case was rejected . A similar challenge brought against the Irish government in 1991 over its broadcast ban had also been thrown out .
The UK ban was lifted on 16 September 1994 , a fortnight after the first IRA ceasefire was declared . On the same day Major announced that ten roads linking Northern Ireland with the Republic ( which had been closed by British security forces ) would reopen , and promised any negotiated deal on the future of Northern Ireland 's governance would be subject to a referendum . The deputy leader of Sinn Féin , Martin McGuinness , gave his first direct interview to Ulster Television shortly after the restrictions ceased .
The decision to end the ban was welcomed by broadcasters . Michael Grade , who was then chief executive of Channel 4 , said it had ended " one of the most embarrassing attempts to censor coverage of the most important domestic political story of post @-@ war years " , while John Birt commented , " We can once again apply normal and testing scrutiny to all sides in the debate " . Sinn Féin also signalled their approval , but the ban 's lifting was viewed with more caution by unionist politicians . Peter Robinson of the Democratic Unionist Party felt the decision was premature while the IRA remained an armed organisation . " It gives de facto recognition to a body of men who still have their guns and bombs under the table , who still reserve the right to murder if they don 't get their way " .
= = Analysis = =
Francis Welch , the producer of Speak No Evil , a 2005 BBC documentary that discusses the restrictions , argued that the legislation " added pressure to the process of reporting events in Northern Ireland " , while Sinn Féin 's Danny Morrison believed the ban " was a weapon of war used by the government " in an attempt to silence the Republican movement . However , Norman Tebbit , a former Conservative MP , said that the media was giving Sinn Féin and the IRA " publicity that they shouldn 't have had " . Peter Robinson of the Democratic Unionist Party argued the use of legislation was " a legitimate weapon for the state to use " .
In 1994 Tony Hall , the head of the BBC 's News and Current Affairs , argued that the restrictions did not allow viewers to make a proper judgment about those subject to the rules , as the subtle changes to their voices could not be heard . In particular he cited the example of the appearance of Gerry Adams on the BBC 's On the Record in September 1993 , in which he spoke about the prospect of peace in Northern Ireland . Hall said Adams was nervous and defensive throughout the interview as the presenter , Sheena McDonald , argued that peace could not be achieved while the IRA continued its violent stance , but that viewers were unaware of these aspects of the discussion . He also said that some countries , such as India and Egypt , had quoted the restrictions to BBC journalists who complained about the over use of censorship by authorities in those countries . Additionally Hall argued that Sinn Féin and the IRA had manipulated the ban by using it as an excuse to decline interviews .
The BBC Foreign Affairs Editor John Simpson encountered similar difficulties on the issue of censorship while reporting from Iraq during the Gulf War in 1990 – 91 . " When I worked in Baghdad , officials there always used to mention our Sinn Fein ban if you criticised their censorship . I don 't like to see this country appearing on the same side of the dividing line as Saddam Hussein on anything at all . " At a conference on the reporting of Northern Ireland @-@ related issues at the University of London in November 1993 , chaired by the Irish journalist Mary Holland , several participants claimed it was undermining the practice of investigative reporting .
Research by the Glasgow Media Group indicates that coverage of Sinn Féin by the BBC before the ban was minimal . In 1988 Sinn Féin was only heard or seen on television 93 times , had only 17 of the 633 formal BBC interviews as compared to 121 interviews with the Conservative Party and 172 with the Royal Ulster Constabulary and the civil service , and were never interviewed in the studio like many other participants . However , after the ban there was a steep decline in coverage of Sinn Féin and Republican views , with television appearances being reduced to 34 times in the following year , and the delays and uncertainties caused by ambiguities , voice @-@ overs and subtitles often lead to coverage and films being dropped entirely .
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= Mulan ( 1998 film ) =
Mulan is a 1998 American animated musical action @-@ comedy @-@ drama film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation based on the Chinese legend of Hua Mulan . Disney 's 36th animated feature , it was directed by Tony Bancroft and Barry Cook , with story by Robert D. San Souci and screenplay by Rita Hsiao , Philip LaZebnik , Chris Sanders , Eugenia Bostwick @-@ Singer , and Raymond Singer . Ming @-@ Na , Eddie Murphy , Miguel Ferrer and BD Wong star in the English version , while Jackie Chan provided his voice for the Chinese dubs of the film . The film 's plot takes place during the Han Dynasty , where Fa Mulan , daughter of aged warrior Fa Zhou , impersonates a man to take her father 's place during a general conscription to counter a Hun invasion .
Released during the Disney Renaissance , Mulan was the first of three features produced primarily at the Disney animation studio at Disney @-@ MGM Studios in Orlando , Florida . Development for the film began in 1994 , when a number of artistic supervisors were sent to China to receive artistic and cultural inspiration . Mulan was well received by critics and the public , grossing $ 304 million , earning Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations , and winning several Annie Awards including Best Animated Feature . A 2005 direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel , Mulan II , followed .
= = Plot = =
After the Huns , led by the ruthless Shan Yu , invade Han China , the Chinese emperor begins to command a general mobilization . Each family is given a conscription notice , requiring one man from each family to join the Chinese army . When Fa Mulan hears that her elderly father Fa Zhou , the only man in their family , is once more to go to war , she becomes anxious and apprehensive . She decides to deal with this herself by disguising herself as a man so that she can go to war instead of her father . When her family learns of Mulan 's departure , they all become anxious . Grandmother Fa , Mulan 's grandmother , prays to the family ancestors for Mulan 's safety . The ancestors then order their " Great Stone Dragon " to protect Mulan . The ancestors are unaware that the statue of Great Stone Dragon failed to come to life , and that Mushu , a small dragon , is the one sent to protect Mulan .
Mulan is misguided by Mushu in how to behave like a man , which starts a ruckus at the training camp . However , under command of Li Shang , she and her new co @-@ workers at the camp , Yao , Ling and Chien @-@ Po , become skilled warriors . Mushu , desiring to see Mulan succeed , creates a fake order from Shang 's father , General Li , ordering Shang to follow them into the mountains . The troops set out to meet General Li , but arrive at a burnt @-@ out encampment and discover that General Li and his troops have all been killed by the Huns . As they solemnly leave the mountains , they are ambushed by the Huns , but Mulan cleverly uses a cannon to create an avalanche which buries most of the Huns . An enraged Shan Yu slashes her in the chest , and her deception is revealed when the wound is bandaged . Instead of executing Mulan as the law requires , Shang relents and decides to spare her life for saving him , but expels her from the army , stranding her on the mountain as the rest of the army departs for the Imperial City to report the news of the Huns ' demise . However it is revealed that several Hun warriors including Shan Yu survive the avalanche , and Mulan catches sight of them as they make their way to the City , intent on capturing the Emperor .
At the Imperial City , Mulan attempts to warn Shang about Shan Yu , but he refuses to listen . The Huns appear to capture the Emperor , then they lock up the palace . With Mulan 's help , Yao , Ling , and Chien @-@ Po pose as concubines and are able to enter the palace and , with the help of Shang , they defeat Shan Yu 's men . As Shang prevents Shan Yu from assassinating the Emperor , Mulan lures the boss Hun onto the roof where she engages him in solo combat . Meanwhile , acting on Mulan 's instructions , Mushu fires a bundle of fireworks rockets at Shan Yu on her signal . The fireworks strike Shan Yu and explode , killing him . Mulan is praised by the Emperor and the people of China , who all bow to her as an unprecedented honor . While she accepts the Emperor 's crest and Shan Yu 's sword as gifts , she politely declines his offer to be his advisor and asks to return to her family . She returns home and presents these gifts to her father , but he is more overjoyed to have Mulan back safely . Shang , who has become enamored with Mulan , soon arrives under the guise of returning her helmet , but accepts the family 's invitation for dinner . Mushu is granted a position as a Fa family guardian by the ancestors amid a returning celebration .
= = Cast = =
Ming @-@ Na Wen as Fa Mulan ( singing voice provided by Lea Salonga )
Eddie Murphy as Mushu
BD Wong as Captain Li Shang ( singing voice provided by Donny Osmond )
Miguel Ferrer as Shan Yu
June Foray as Grandmother Fa ( singing voice provided by Marni Nixon )
Harvey Fierstein as Yao
Gedde Watanabe as Ling
Jerry Tondo as Chien @-@ Po
James Hong as Chi @-@ Fu
Soon @-@ Tek Oh as Fa Zhou
Pat Morita as The Emperor of China
George Takei as First Ancestor
Miriam Margolyes as The Matchmaker
Freda Foh Shen as Fa Li
James Shigeta as General Li
Frank Welker as Cri @-@ Kee and Khan ( Mulan 's horse )
Chris Sanders as Little Brother ( Mulan 's dog )
Mary Kay Bergman as various ancestors
Kelly Chen , Coco Lee and Xu Qing voiced Mulan in the Cantonese , Taiwanese Mandarin and Mainland standard versions of the film respectively , while Jackie Chan provided the voice of Li Shang in all three Chinese versions and appeared in the version of promotional music videos of " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1989 , Walt Disney Feature Animation Florida had opened with 40 to 50 employees , with its original purpose to produce cartoon shorts and featurettes . However , by late 1993 , following several animation duties on Beauty and the Beast , Aladdin , and The Lion King , Disney executives were convinced to allow the Feature Animation Florida studios to produce their first independent film . Around that same time , Disney Feature Animation developed an interest into Asian @-@ themed legends beginning with the optioning several books by children 's book author Robert D. San Souci who had a consulting relationship with Disney executive Jay Dyer . Around that same time , a short straight @-@ to @-@ video film titled " China Doll " about an oppressed and miserable Chinese girl who is whisked away by a British Prince Charming to happiness in the West was in development . Thomas Schumacher asked Souci if he had any additional stories , in which Souci turned in a manuscript of a book based on the Chinese poem " The Song of Fa Mu Lan " . Ultimately , Disney decided to combine the two separate projects .
Following the opening of the Feature Animation Florida studios , Barry Cook , who had served as a special @-@ effects animator department since 1982 , had directed the Roger Rabbit cartoon Trail Mix @-@ Up produced at the satellite studio . Upon a lunch invitation with Thomas Schumacher , Cook was offered two projects in development : a Scottish folk tale with a dragon or Mulan . Knowledgeable about the existence of dragons in Chinese mythology , Cook suggested adding a dragon to Mulan , in which a week later , Schumacher urged Cook to drop the Scottish project and accept Mulan as his next project . Following this , Cook was immediately assigned as the initial director of the project , and cited influences from Charlie Chaplin and David Lean during production . While working as a supervising animator on the gargoyles on The Hunchback of Notre Dame , Tony Bancroft was offered to co @-@ direct the film following a recommendation from Rob Minkoff , co @-@ director of The Lion King , to Schumacher , in which he accepted , and joined the creative team by early 1995 .
Development for Mulan began in 1994 , after the production team sent a select group of artistic supervisors to China for three weeks to take photographs and drawings of local landmarks for inspiration ; and to soak up local culture . Key members of the creative team at the time – Pam Coats , Barry Cook , Ric Sluiter , Robert Walker , and Mark Henn – were invited to travel to China as a research trip to study the landscape , people , and history of the original legend . From June 17 to July 2 , 1994 , the research trip flew to Beijing , China , which is where Pam Coats became inspired by the placement of flags on the Great Wall , Datong , Luoyang , Xi 'an , Jiayuguan , Dunhuang , and Guilin .
= = = Writing = = =
In its earliest stages , the story was originally conceived as a Tootsie @-@ like romantic comedy film where Mulan , who was a misfit tomboy that loves her father , is betrothed to Shang whom she has not met . On her betrothal day , her father Fa Zhou carves her destiny on a stone tablet in the family temple , which she shatters in anger , and runs away to forge her own destiny . In November 1993 , Chris Sanders , who had just finished storyboard work on The Lion King , was hopeful to work on The Hunchback of Notre Dame until Schumacher appointed him to work on Mulan instead . Acting as Head of Story , Sanders grew frustrated with the romantic comedy aspect of the story , and urged producer Pam Coats to be more faithful to the original legend by having Mulan leave home because of the love for her father . This convinced the filmmakers to decide to change Mulan 's character in order to make her more appealing and selfless . Sequence Six – in which Mulan takes her father 's conscription order , cuts her long hair , and dons her father 's armor – served as a pivotal moment in the evolution of Mulan 's character . Director Barry Cook explained that the sequence initially started as a song storyboarded by Barry Johnson and redrawn by character designer Chen @-@ Yi Chang . Following the story changes to have Mulan leave to save her father , the song was dropped . Storyboard artist and co @-@ head of story Dean DeBlois was tasked to revise the sequence , and decided to board the sequence with " minimal dialogue " . Assisted with an existing musical selection from another film score courtesy of Sanders , the sequence reel was screened for Peter Schneider and Thomas Schumacher , both of whom were impressed . DeBlois stated , " Sequence Six was the first sequence that got put into production , and it helped to establish our ' silent ' approach . " Additionally , General Li was not originally going to be related to Shang at all , but by changing the story , the filmmakers were able to mirror the stories of Shang and Mulan 's love for their fathers .
Because there was no dragon in the original legend , Mulan did not have animal companions ; it was Roy E. Disney who suggested the character of Mushu . Veteran story artist Joe Grant created the cricket character , Cri @-@ Kee for , though animator Barry Temple admitted " the directors didn 't want him in the movie , the story department didn 't want him in the movie . The only people who truly wanted him in the movie were Michael Eisner and Joe Grant – and myself , because I was assigned the character . I would sit in meetings and they ’ d say , ' Well , where 's the cricket during all this ? ' Somebody else would say , ' Oh , to hell the cricket . ' They felt Cri @-@ Kee was a character who wasn 't necessary to tell the story , which is true . " Throughout development on the film , Grant would slip sketches of Cri @-@ Kee under the directors ' door .
= = = Casting = = =
Before production began , the production team sought out Chinese , Japanese , Filipino , or Korean vocal talents . Tia Carrere was an early candidate to voice the title character , and Lea Salonga , who had been the singing voice of Princess Jasmine in Aladdin , was also cast as Mulan 's speaking voice , but the directors did not find her attempt at a deeper speaking voice when Mulan impersonated Ping convincing , so Ming @-@ Na Wen was brought in to speak the role . Salonga was later relegated to providing the singing voice . Wen herself landed the role after the filmmakers listened to her narration at the beginning of The Joy Luck Club . Coats reflected on her decision , stating " When we heard Ming @-@ Na doing that voice @-@ over , we knew we had our Mulan . She has a very likable and lovely voice , and those are the qualities we were looking for . " For the role of Mushu , Disney was aiming for top Hollywood talent in the vein of Robin Williams 's performance as the Genie , and approached Eddie Murphy , who at first balked during recording in the Disney studios , and asked to record the voice in his basement at his Bubble Hill mansion in Englewood , New Jersey . For the speaking voice of Captain Li Shang , BD Wong was hired , although his singing voice , for the song " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " , was performed by Donny Osmond , who had originally auditioned as the speaking voice of the title character in Hercules . Osmond 's casting originated from a suggestion from the casting director , and throughout recording , Osmond studied Wong 's dialogue tapes , and aimed to match his inflections and personality . Osmond commented that his sons decided that he had finally " made it " in show business when he was in a Disney film . Likewise for the role of Grandmother Fa , June Foray provided for the speaking voice , and Marni Nixon supplied the singing voice .
= = = Animation and design = = =
To achieve a harmonious visual look , producer designer Hans Bacher and art director Ric Sluiter , along with Robert Walker and Head of Backgrounds Robert Stanton collaborated to establish a proper chronological location for the film in Chinese history . Since there was no general consensus on the time of Mulan 's existence , they based on the visual design on the Ming and Qing dynasties . An important element of Bacher 's design was to turn the art style closer to Chinese painting , with watercolor and simpler design - as opposed to the details of The Lion King and The Hunchback of Notre Dame . Bacher further studied more than thirty @-@ five film directors ranging from the silent era German Expressionism , British and American epics of the 1950s and 60s , and the spaghetti westerns for inspiration for composition , lighting , and staging that would establish settings that enhanced the characters , and additional inspiration was found in the earlier Disney animated films such as Bambi , Pinocchio , and Dumbo to establish a sense of staging .
In October 1997 , the Walt Disney Company announced a major expansion of its Florida animation operations constructing a 200 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot , four @-@ story animation building and the addition of 400 animators to the workforce .
To create 2 @,@ 000 Hun soldiers during the Huns ' attack sequence , the production team developed crowd simulation software called Attila . This software allows thousands of unique characters to move autonomously . A variant of the program called Dynasty was used in the final battle sequence to create a crowd of 3 @,@ 000 in the Forbidden City . Pixar 's photorealistic open API RenderMan was used to render the crowd . Another software developed for this movie was Faux Plane which was used to add depth to flat two @-@ dimensional painting . Although developed late in production progress , Faux Plane was used in five shots , including the dramatic sequence which features the Great Wall of China , and the final battle sequence when Mulan runs to the Forbidden City . During the scene in which the Chinese are bowing to Mulan , the crowd is a panoramic film of real people bowing . It was edited into the animated foreground of the scene .
= = Music = =
In March 1994 , Stephen Schwartz was attached to compose the lyrics and music for the songs for the film . Following the research trip to China in June 1994 , Schwartz was contacted by former Disney studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg to compose songs for The Prince of Egypt , which he agreed . Peter Schneider , the then @-@ president of Walt Disney Feature Animation , threatened to have Schwartz 's name removed from any publicity materials for Pocahontas and The Hunchback of Notre Dame . Michael Eisner phoned Schwartz , and urged him to back out of his commitment to DreamWorks which he refused and left the project . After Schwartz 's departure , his three songs , " Written in Stone " , " Destiny " , and " China Doll " , were dropped amid story and character changes by 1995 . Shortly after , Disney music executive Chris Montan heard Matthew Wilder 's demo for a stage musical adaption of Anne Rice 's Cry to Heaven , and selected Wilder to replace Schwartz . David Zippel then joined to write the lyrics . The film featured five songs composed by Wilder and Zippel , with a sixth originally planned for Mushu , but dropped following Eddie Murphy 's involvement with the character .
After Danny Elfman and Thomas Newman were considered to score the film , English composer Rachel Portman was selected as the film composer . However , Portman became pregnant during production , and decided to back out . Following Portman 's departure , Randy Edelman — whose Dragonheart theme was used in the trailer — and Kitarō were considered , until Jerry Goldsmith became available and signed on after dropping out of a project . The film 's soundtrack is credited for starting the career of pop singer Christina Aguilera , whose first song to be released in the U.S. was her rendition of " Reflection , " the first single from the Mulan soundtrack . The song , and Aguilera 's vocals , were so well received that it landed her a recording contract with RCA records . In 1999 , she would go on to release her self @-@ titled debut album , on which Reflection was also included . The pop version of Reflection has a Polish version ( " Lustro " performed by Edyta Górniak ) and 2 Spanish versions , for Spain ( performed by Malú ) and Latin America ( performed by Lucero ) . Other international versions include a Brazilian Portuguese version by Sandy & Junior ( " Imagem " ) , a Korean version performed by Lena Park , and a Mandarin version by Coco Lee .
The music featured during the haircut scene , often referred as the Mulan Decision score , is different in the soundtrack album . The soundtrack album uses an orchestrated score while the movie uses heavy synthesizer music . The synthesizer version is available on the limited edition CD . Salonga , who often sings movie music in her concerts , has done a Disney medley which climaxes with an expanded version of " Reflection " ( not the same as those in Aguilera 's version ) . Salonga also provided the singing voice for Mulan in the movie 's sequel , Mulan II .
= = Release = =
Because of the disappointing box office performances of The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Hercules , Disney restricted its marketing campaign for Mulan spending $ 30 million on promotional advertisements compared to more than $ 60 million for Hercules the year before . Instead of the lavish media event premieres of Pocahontas in Central Park and the electric light parade on Fifth Avenue for Hercules , Disney opted to premiere the film at the Hollywood Bowl complete with Chinese lanterns and fortune cookies . Two days before the general release , McDonald 's launched its promotional campaign by including one of eight toys free with the purchase of a Happy Meal . In collaboration with Disney , Hyperion Books published The Art of Mulan authored by Jeff Kurtti , which chronicled the production of the film . In addition with its publication , Hyperion Books also issued a collector 's " folding , accordion book " of the ancient poem that inspired the film . On August 18 , 1998 , around 3 @,@ 700 backpacks and 1 @,@ 800 pieces of luggage were recalled back to their manufacture , Pyramid Accessories Inc . , when it is discovered they contained lead @-@ based paint .
= = = Home video = = =
The film was first released in VHS on February 2 , 1999 as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection line . That year , the film was released on DVD as part of the Limited Issues line . In 2000 , it was released on DVD as part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection line . The second DVD release entered moratorium on January 31 , 2002 . On October 26 , 2004 , Walt Disney Home Entertainment released Mulan on as a Special Edition .
In March 2013 , Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Mulan and Mulan II on Blu @-@ ray and DVD to coincide with the film 's 15th anniversary .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Reception of Mulan was mostly positive . Rotten Tomatoes gives it a rating of 86 % , based on 73 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Exploring themes of family duty and honor , Mulan breaks new ground as a Disney film , while still bringing vibrant animation and sprightly characters to the screen . " In a 2009 countdown , Rotten Tomatoes ranked it twenty @-@ fourth out of the fifty canonical animated Disney features . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 71 out of 100 , based on 24 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade .
Kyle Suggs described the visuals as " breathtaking , " and Dan Jardine described them as " magnificently animated . " Film critic Roger Ebert gave Mulan three and a half stars out of four in his written review . He said that " Mulan is an impressive achievement , with a story and treatment ranking with Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King " . Negative reviews described it as a " disappointment . " The songs were accused of not being memorable , and slowing down the pace of the movie . Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine criticized the film as " soulless " in its portrayal of Asian society .
This movie was also the subject of comment from feminist critics . Mimi Nguyen says the film " pokes fun at the ultimately repressive gender roles that seek to make Mulan a domesticated creature . " Nadya Labi agreed , saying " there is a lyric in the film that gives the lie to the bravado of the entire girl @-@ power movement . " She pointed out that Mulan needed to become a boy in order to accomplish what she did . Kathleen Karlyn , an assistant professor of English at the University of Oregon , also criticized the film 's portrayal of gender roles : " In order to even imagine female heroism , we 're placing it in the realm of fantasy " . Pam Coats , the producer of Mulan , said that the film aims to present a character who exhibits both masculine and feminine influences , being both physically and mentally strong .
= = = Box office = = =
Mulan 's opening weekend box office gross revenues were $ 22 @.@ 8 million , making it the second @-@ highest grossing movie that week , behind only The X @-@ Files . It went on to gross $ 120 million in the U.S. and Canada combined , and $ 304 million worldwide , making it the second @-@ highest grossing family film of the year , behind A Bug 's Life , and the seventh @-@ highest grossing film of the year overall . While Mulan outgrossed the two Disney films which had preceded it , The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Hercules , its box office returns failed to match those of the Disney films of the early 1990s such as Beauty and the Beast , Aladdin , and The Lion King . Internationally , its highest grossing releases included those in the United Kingdom ( $ 14 @.@ 6 million ) and France ( $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) .
= = = Awards = = =
Mulan won several Annie Awards , including Best Animated Feature and Individual achievement awards to Pam Coats for producing ; Barry Cook and Tony Bancroft for directing ; Rita Hsiao , Christopher Sanders , Phillip LaZebnick , Raymond Singer and Eugenia Bostwick @-@ Singer for writing , Chris Sanders for storyboarding , Hans Bacher for production design , David Tidgwell for effects animation , Ming @-@ Na for voice acting for the character of Mulan , Ruben A. Aquino for character animation , and Matthew Wilder , David Zippel and Jerry Goldsmith for music . ( Tom Bancroft and Mark Henn were also nominated for an Annie Award for Character Animation . ) The musical score also received significant praise . Jerry Goldsmith won the 1999 BMI Film Music Award . Goldsmith was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Music Score , but lost to Stephen Warbeck 's score for Shakespeare in Love . Goldsmith was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score . Matthew Wilder and David Zippel were nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for " Reflection " . They were beaten by The Truman Show and " The Prayer " from Quest for Camelot , respectively .
= = = Reception in China = = =
Disney was keen to promote Mulan to the Chinese , hoping to replicate their success with the 1994 film The Lion King , which was one of the country 's highest @-@ grossing Western films at that time . Disney also hoped it might smooth over relations with the Chinese government which had soured after the release of Kundun , a Disney @-@ funded biography of the Dalai Lama that the Chinese government considered politically provocative . China had threatened to curtail business negotiations with Disney over that film and , as the government only accepts ten Western films per year to be shown in their country , Mulan 's chances of being accepted were low . Finally , after a year 's delay , the Chinese government did allow the film a limited Chinese release , but only after the Chinese New Year , so as to ensure that local films dominated the more lucrative holiday market . Box office income was low , due to both the unfavorable release date and rampant piracy . Chinese people also complained about Mulan 's depiction as too foreign @-@ looking and the story as too different from the myths .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Video game = = =
A PlayStation action @-@ adventure game based on the film , titled Disney 's Story Studio : Mulan , published by Ubisoft and developed by Revolution Software ( under the name " Kids Revolution " ) , was released on December 15 , 1999 . The game was met with generally positive reception and holds a 70 @.@ 67 % average rating at the review aggregator website GameRankings .
= = = Live action adaptation = = =
Disney expressed interest in a live action and 3D adaptation of Mulan starring international star Zhang Ziyi . Chuck Russell was chosen as the director . The film was originally planned to start filming on October 2010 , but was canceled . On March 30 , 2015 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that Disney was developing a live @-@ action remake with Chris Bender and J.C. Spink producing while Elizabeth Martin and Lauren Hynek will write the screenplay .
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= Lost in the World =
" Lost in the World " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Kanye West from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The song features vocals by Justin Vernon of indie folk band Bon Iver , as well as sampling his 2009 song " Woods " . It also contains portions of " Soul Makossa " written by Manu Dibango , and samples of " Comment No. 1 " , performed by Gil Scott @-@ Heron . It was produced by West and Jeff Bhasker , who wrote the track with Vernon and Malik Jones . " Lost in the World " was initially leaked on September 29 , 2010 and was 6 minutes and 4 seconds long . The version on the album was split up into two parts , with the outro becoming a new track entitled " Who Will Survive in America " .
The song received acclaim from music critics , who praised the atmospheric production , the appearance of Vernon , and West 's verse . The verse by West was described as one of the most poetic of his career , with the song being cited as one of the strongest on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . " Lost in the World " was featured during the closing credits of Runaway , a 35 @-@ minute short film directed by West set with music from the album . The song peaked at number 104 on the South Korean Gaon Chart . A music video was directed by Ruth Hogben , featuring black and white cinematography , frantic dancing by models and a brief cameo by West . The music video received positive reviews from critics .
" Lost in the World " was sampled in a freestyle by West 's GOOD Music labelmate Pusha T , and a remix produced by DJ Tiësto . West first performed the song live at Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , and subsequently performed it at several music festivals , including the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival and the The Big Chill . " Lost in the World " was proposed by West as the album 's fifth single , but plans to release it never surfaced .
= = Background = =
Kanye West previewed " Lost in the World " in July 2010 at the offices of Facebook . West performed production @-@ free versions of several songs at the event , standing on top of a table . Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps , who reported the event , wrote " in an unorthodox move , Kanye West debuted verses from three new songs , a cappella for employees at Facebook 's headquarters in Palo Alto , California . " Before launching into a performance of " Lost in the World " , West mused that " this is actually a bit more like a poem " and described it as more of a " serious rap " . A version of the song leaked online on September 29 , 2010 ; the version was unfinished , with a length of approximately 6 minutes . At this time , it was unknown whether or not the song would appear on West 's upcoming fifth studio album . Later , in October 2010 , it was confirmed that " Lost in the World " would indeed appear on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , but that the leaked version had subsequently been split into two different songs . The first part of the track remained titled " Lost in the World " , while the end became another song , titled " Who Will Survive in America " .
= = = Recording = = =
Following some media controversies , West chose to record My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy in a reclusive manner in Oahu , Hawaii . Like the majority of the album , " Lost in the World " was composed there . West attempted to shy away from working with artists he didn 't consider himself familiar with , however made the exception for Justin Vernon , singer of the band Bon Iver . Vernon 's involvement in the project stemmed from a phone call by West . West had gotten into contact with Vernon and described his intention of sampling the song " Woods " from Bon Iver 's Blood Bank EP . After the phone message , West invited Vernon down to his record studio in Hawaii to appear on the album .
West also cited the Bon Iver album For Emma , Forever Ago as something he was a fan of , and admitted an admiration of the unique aesthetic of Vernon 's music . The two quickly became friends through discussions of music and games of basketball . While at Hawaii , Vernon collaborated extensively , reportedly producing a total of 10 tracks together , including the album cuts " Dark Fantasy " and " Monster " . Vernon told Pitchfork Media about the composition of the song , stating :
" So I head out there and he plays me the track and it sounds exactly like how you want it to sound : forward moving , interesting , light @-@ hearted , heavy @-@ hearted , fucking incredible sounding jam . It was kind of bare so I added some choir @-@ sounding stuff and then thicked out the samples with my voice . That whole first week I was there we worked on the ' Woods ' song , which is called ' Lost in the World ' . We were just eating breakfast and listening to the song on the speakers and he 's like , ' Fuck , this is going to be the festival closer . ' I was like , ' Yeah , cool . ' It kind of freaked me out . "
Vernon recorded his lines in a separate recording studio than most of the album . Vernon described the studio as a " tiny black room " . He would record a line in the room , and then shortly later West would come in and play back what was recorded , and then discuss what needed to be changed . They repeated that process a few times until the song was finished . Vernon expressed a positive opinion of working with West , and though he called West demanding in some ways , he appreciated West 's enthusiasm for music and the creativity produced by the recording sessions . The song was recorded around the death of Michael Jackson and the event had an effect of the recording crew of the song , and certain aspects of the song are influences by personal events that affected West throughout the years . In an interview with MTV , West said that the song was going to be last featured on the album , and commented that " emotionally it just fit the crescendo of everything that I was saying and what I wanted to say to this girl . And it 's also my favorite eight bars that I 've ever written in my life . I think it 's one of the greatest pieces of writing . "
= = Composition = =
" Lost in the World " is 4 minutes and 16 seconds long and has been described as a " moody meditation " . It features tribal drums and samples Bon Iver 's " Woods " , a song originally written about alienation , applied by West " as the centerpiece of a catchy , communal reverie " on the album . The song manipulates the original Bon Iver sample and incorporates influences from both house music and dance music , adding tribal chants and percussion . During the duration of the song , there are several distinct production changes . The song begins with faint vocals delivered by Vernon , which are reinforced by drums , gospel @-@ styled chorus , an increased tempo , and a final measured tempo . The song continues to build at a slow pace , until a choir explodes into a bombastic roar , boasting the line " run from the lights . "
West delivers a short , 40 second verse , which appears over two and a half minutes into the song . West 's verse contains an interpolation of the " Mama @-@ say mama @-@ sah ma @-@ ma @-@ coo @-@ sah " hook from Michael Jackson 's song " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . The song features West 's comment on his fans and his fame , with additional references to Jackson . Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes viewed that the track points out a paralleled with West and Jackson , commenting :
" Life in the spotlight is perilous , and West knows that what happened to the King of Pop could just as easily happen to him . [ ... ] A disembodied chorus urges West to ' run from the lights / run for your life ' on ' Lost in the World , ' the record ’ s frenzied penultimate track ; but even as we listen , we know there ’ s little chance that he ’ ll leave the spotlight behind . West is telling us , over the course of 11 songs , that he ’ s willing to die for our amusement , our respect . "
The song ends with a very long sample of Gil Scott @-@ Heron 's " Comment No. 1 " , a speech which served as a comment on the 1960s Revolutionary Youth Movement for failing to recognize the more basic needs of the African @-@ American community . " Lost in the World " transitions into the closing track " Who Will Survive in America " . It is edited to a smaller version on the track that , according to Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot , " retains its essence , that of an African @-@ American male who feels cut off from his country and culture " . Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times described " Woods " as a " Wisconsin death trip that becomes a testimonial to rebirth through isolation " and noted a significant difference from " Lost in the World " , commenting that the song was more about West 's " exhausted cry of one who 's always new in town , chasing whatever goal or girl is in the room , fueled by consumer culture 's relentless buzz , but finally left unsatisfied . "
= = Reception = =
The song received universal acclaim from critics . Alex Denney NME called the song the " heart @-@ rending highlight " of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and cited the vocal performance by Vernon as a " quite brilliant effect . " Denney commented " it frames Kanye ’ s inner demons in a universal way , recasting Vernon ’ s semi @-@ mythical woodland retreat as his own cipher for spiritual replenishment " . Los Angeles Times writer Ann Powers called the song an important piece of the album , saying that the sampling of Bon Iver was both surprising and inspired , and noted the differences from " Woods " and " Lost in the World " . David Amidon of PopMatters viewed that the track contained " glass @-@ shattering bass " , and viewed that the track " storms out of all this dreariness with a thunderous , plodding house bass and Kanye taking Bon Iver in every which direction as the song exudes nothing but triumph . " Chris Martins of Spin stated that West managed to transform Iver 's " melancholic ' Woods ' into a perversely bright experimental dance track . " Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker commented that the song was difficult to classify as purely a rap song , noting that " West ’ s music is born of hip @-@ hop , but it now includes so many varieties that it feels most accurate to call it simply Kanye . " Jones noted than in less than the six minutes of the song 's running time , West " moves from a loner in the woods to his own isolation and on to the entire African @-@ American experience . "
Andy Gill of The Independent stated that he was impressed that the song was West 's only use of autotune on the album , describing the song as both " lovely " and " poignant " in nature . David Browne of Time stated that the song , much like " Runaway " , feature " shimmering soundscapes that pinpoint a common ground between the hardness of hip @-@ hop and the sweetness of indie rock . " AbsolutePunk 's Drew Beringer cited the song as an example of West 's growth as a producer , noting that he was sampling unexpected songs to unique results , including the " haunting " song " Woods " . Beringer felt that the most interest take of this on the album was " Lost in the World " , describing it as a " as an auto @-@ tuned medley of Vernon and West that soars over pounding drums and a frantic backing choir " . HipHopDX writer Jake Paine felt that the track utilized " pounding drums " , and commented that it was " an intense tapestry of ever @-@ changing sound that includes several genres and decades of inspiration . "
Channing Freeman of Sputnikmusic viewed that track , along with " All of the Lights " and " Power " have " a certain zest of life " to them , adding that all three tracks were " beautiful " . He also commented that " it is great to see that Kanye is still able to have plenty of fun without losing any of his creativity . " Dan Vidal of URB commented " sonically , the joy comes from the triumphant , painstaking arrangement that undoubtedly went into the production " . The Washington Post 's Chris Richards mused that " the drums come avalanching on Lost in the World " , calling it " the grand finale this album deserves . " He continued that " West serves up high drama at a breakneck tempo , with pining melodies crying out for a redemptive moment . But there 's no final act of contrition . West is too ' lost in this plastic life . ' " Cole Mathew of Slant Magazine described the track as " Kanye 's much @-@ anticipated reworking of Bon Iver 's " Woods " from his classic EP " , and wrote that " it 's astounding how he takes the strangest sample on the album and crafts it into a defiantly giddy dance number , complete with tribal drumming in the verses and group choruses that sound massive . It 's a mad stroke of brilliance to take Justin Vernon 's solitary ode to alienation and use it as the centerpiece of a catchy , communal reverie . It 's experimental , to be sure , but it 's also the closest the album comes to pure pop indulgence . " The song peaked on the South Korea Gaon Chart at position 104 .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Live performances = = =
To promote My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , West performed the song at Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . During the performance , West wore black peacoat , fur vest , shiny gold shirt , gold chains , and a headband . According to a reviewer from Rap @-@ Up , he was lip syncing the song during the performance . Due to the controversy stemming from the MTV Video Music Awards , it was reported that West was booed during the performance . The booing garnered press coverage and was reported by several publications . During his set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , West performed " Lost in the World " towards the end of his performance . Justin Vernon joined Kanye during the performance , and it was described as " one of the most memorable performances in Coachella history . " The track was featured during West 's set at the The Big Chill music festival . At the festival , West announced plans for the song to be the fifth single from the album , however plans to do never surfaced .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
The song appears in West 's short film Runaway , an extended 35 minute long music video which features a majority of the tracks featured on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . The song during the video 's climax , and features West frantically running through the forest . Rapper Pusha T released a promotional remix of the track with verses provided by him . A dance remix by Grammy nominated DJ Tiësto was produced in 2011 , that was " apparently been sitting around Tiësto ’ s hard drive for the past year " , and was finally put up to download as part of a podcast in April 2012 . The remix took over a year to be released , but was finally allowed to be released for undisclosed reasons . Consequence of Sound writer Chris Coplan reported that the remix had a duration of around eight minutes , commenting that " the formerly artsy number is chopped and screwed into a bass @-@ heavy club anthem , with the emotionally @-@ frozen vibe melting to the sheer heat produced by random samples and various chunky synth lines . "
= = Music video = =
A music video was made by fashion film director Ruth Hogben in collaboration with West , who appears in a cameo in the video . The video was shot during the summer of 2011 during a two @-@ day shoot . Hogben and West had brainstorming sessions deciding what the video was going to be conceptually , finally deciding something that would aesthetically fit the song the best . About collaborating with West , Hogben commented that the process was very organic and creative in nature , musing that the two went back and forth with ideas for visuals . The dancers in the video were not instructed to dance in any particular way by Yemi A.D. who was in charge of the dance choreography ; and according to Ruth Hogben , they " wanted an interpretation of how they felt about the song to be portrayed instead . " The video was eventually released May 4 , 2012 . The video was described as " belated " because it was premiered nearly a year and a half after the initial release of the album " Lost in the World " accompanies .
The black @-@ and @-@ white clip opens with a warning that " strobe effects are used in this video " and features a group of models dressed in sheer fabric dancing while West poses during his verse . West 's face is actually not shown anywhere in the video , which mostly showcases " tortured and slick mirrors and skylines , with a well @-@ placed dancer depicting the heaven and hell in which the rapper wallows . " According to Belinda White of The Daily Telegraph , it features designers Gareth Pugh and Rick Owens , stylists Katie Grand and Katie Shillingford and " brands such as Louis Vuitton , Barneys , Mac Cosmetics and Selfridges . " Director Hogben mused that ultimately people " are supposed to come up with their individual interpretations of the clip . " Kia Makarechi of The Huffington Post offered her interpretation of the video , writing :
" In the black and white video -- which West made with filmmaker Ruth Hogben -- post @-@ rocker Bon Iver 's haunting intro plays over images of a model in sheer fabric . When the rapper appears , he 's standing on a mirrored platform -- seeing only himself when he looks down . He 's ' lost in the world , ' grounded by a reality that 's isolated and clouded ( via wind and fog machines ) . "
HitFix 's Katie Hasty viewed that video played out more like a fashion clip than an actual music video , but mused that it was a probable result considering the past of the director . Hasty commented that it was a " gorgeous way to sell the song . " Robbie Daw of website Idolator compared the Nick Knight cinematography to the style featured in the music video for Lady Gaga 's single " Born This Way " ( which was directed by Nick Knight ) and wrote that " the black @-@ and @-@ white extravaganza is a rap video unlike any others released in recent memory — well , unless you count Kanye 's last off @-@ the @-@ wall clip . " Luis Tovar of Pretty Much Amazing compared the video to the trailer of The Dark Knight Rises , and called it " totally Kanye " . Popdust writer Katherine St Asaph described the video as an artistic " black @-@ and @-@ white cut that disorients you with lots of falling and flailing and flailing @-@ called @-@ interpretive @-@ dance , with billowing smoke and sudden shifts in art direction " , commenting that the video was a welcome change of pace .
= = Chart position = =
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= Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti =
" Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " ( English : " But I Remember You " ) is a song written and produced by Rudy Pérez . It was first recorded by Puerto Rican singer Lourdes Robles on her album Definitivamente ( 1991 ) . In the ballad , the singer remembers her lover even when she tries to forget . Nine years later , American recording artist Christina Aguilera performed a cover version on her second studio album Mi Reflejo which Pérez also produced . It was released as the second single from the album in December 2000 . The music video for Aguilera 's version was directed by Kevin Bray .
Aguilera performed the song live at the 2001 Grammy Awards . Her version peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States and number three in Spain . It received a Latin Grammy nomination for Record of the Year . It has been covered by Mexican singer Edith Márquez and Jencarlos Canela .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , Puerto Rican recording artist Lourdes Robles released her third studio album Definitivamente which was arranged and produced by Cuban @-@ American musician Rudy Pérez . Pérez wrote three songs for the album including " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " . The song tells the story of a woman who cannot forget her lover . It was later included on Robles 's greatest hits album Contradicciones y Sus Exitos ( 2007 ) . In 2000 , American recording artist Christina Aguilera covered " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " on her second studio album Mi Reflejo which was also produced by Pérez .
= = Christina Aguilera version = =
= = = Release and reception = = =
" Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " was serviced to Latin radio stations on the second week of December 2000 in the United States . It reached number eight on Hot Latin Songs and five on Hot Latin Pop Songs in the US . In Spain , it reached number three on the country 's singles chart . Kurt B. Reighley from Wall of Sound was positive toward the song , saying that Aguilera is " persuasive and engaging " on the song . Orlando Sentinel editor Perry Gettelman was not impressed , writing that " She seems equally fond of acrobatic trills and low , sex @-@ kittenish moans " . At the 2nd Latin Grammy Awards , " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " received a Latin Grammy nomination for Record of the Year which went to Alejandro Sanz for " El Alma al Aire " .
= = = Promotion = = =
The video for " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " was directed by Kevin G. Bray , which features Aguilera performing the song in a recording studio . Aguilera also gave a performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards in February , performing " Pero Me Acuerdo de Ti " and " Falsas Esperanzas " Leila Cobo of Billboard magazine called Aguilera 's Grammy performance " remarkably mainstream " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = = Weekly charts = = = =
= = = = Year @-@ end charts = = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
Mexican singer and actress Edith Márquez performed a cover of the song on her studio album Pasiones de Cabaret ( 2008 ) . In the same year , America band Dark Latin Groove performed a salsa cover of the song on their album Renacer ( 2008 ) which was produced by Sergio George . It was also performed live by American actor and singer Jencarlos Canela ( whom Pérez has also worked with ) in the House of Blues , Orlando .
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= Yarralumla , Australian Capital Territory =
Yarralumla is a large inner south suburb of Canberra , the capital city of Australia . Located approximately 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) south @-@ west of the city , Yarralumla extends along the south @-@ west bank of Lake Burley Griffin . ( The lake was created after the Second World War through the blocking , with a dam , of the Molonglo River . )
In 1828 , Henry Donnison , a Sydney merchant , was granted a lease on the western side of Stirling Ridge . Donnison 's land was named Yarralumla in a survey of the area conducted in 1834 , apparently after the indigenous people 's term for the area . It was also spelt Yarrolumla in other documents . In 1881 , the estate was bought by Frederick Campbell , grandson of Robert Campbell who built nearby " Duntroon " . He completed the construction of a large , gabled , brick house on his property in 1891 that now serves as the site of Government House , the official residence of the Governor @-@ General of Australia . Campbell 's house replaced an elegant , Georgian @-@ style homestead , the main portions of which were erected from local stone in the 1830s . Among the old Yarralumla homestead 's most notable occupants were Sir Terence Aubrey Murray , who owned Yarralumla sheep station from 1837 to 1859 , Augustus Onslow Manby Gibbes , who owned the property from 1859 to 1881 , and Augustus ' father Colonel John George Nathaniel Gibbes ( 1787 – 1873 ) . ( Augustus " Gussie " Gibbes was Murray 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ; he also advanced money to Frederick Campbell to assist with the construction , in 1890 – 1891 , of Campbell 's grand new family house at Yarralumla . )
The modern suburb of Yarralumla was gazetted by the government in 1928 and as of 2011 was home to approximately 3 @,@ 000 people and many diplomatic missions . In recent years , it has become one of Canberra 's most desirable and expensive residential suburbs because of its wide leafy streets , attractive lakeside setting and central location .
= = Geography = =
Yarralumla is located in the central Canberra district of South Canberra . It is bordered by Lake Burley Griffin to the north , Commonwealth Avenue and Capital Hill to the east , Adelaide Avenue and the Cotter Road to the south , and Scrivener Dam , Lady Denman Drive and part of the Molonglo River to the west .
Although Yarralumla is one of the largest suburbs in Canberra by area , its population remains quite small because more than half of its area consists of open space or non @-@ residential development , including Weston and Stirling Parks , the Royal Canberra Golf Club , and the grounds of Government House . A relatively high proportion of houses are occupied by diplomatic missions .
The embassy area of Yarralumla is located towards the eastern end of the suburb next to Stirling Park . It is the hilliest area of Yarralumla ; Parliament House and the Parliamentary Triangle are located nearby .
The streets in Yarralumla are named after Australian governors and botanists . Most of the older streets in the suburb are laid out on an approximately rectangular grid with some curved sections , while the more hilly eastern end of the suburb , including the embassy district , is set out with contour @-@ guided roads . Major roads in Yarralumla include Banks Street , Novar Street and Hopetoun Circuit in a north @-@ south direction and Schlich Street , Loftus Street and Weston Street running east @-@ west . Being a dormitory suburb , there are no major through roads . Access to the rest of the city can be made from Adelaide Avenue , Commonwealth Avenue , Lady Denman Drive and Cotter Road , all of which run along the borders of the suburb . From these roads , entry to the suburb can be gained by turning into roads such as Coronation Drive , Hopetoun Circuit and Novar Street .
Yarralumla is located on the Yarralumla Formation which is a mudstone / siltstone formation that was formed around 425 million years ago during the Silurian Period . The formation extends from Red Hill and Woden in the South to Lake Burley Griffin in to the north , passing under the suburb of Yarralumla . The formation is evidence of the last major marine sedimentary period when eastern Australia was still covered by shallow seas . It shows fossil evidence of trilobites , coral and primitive crinoids . The Yarralumla brickworks quarry and the Deakin anticline are places where the formation is exposed and easily studied .
= = History = =
= = = Settlement = = =
The area now called Yarralumla is part of two original land grants , which were granted to free settlers for the establishment of farms . In 1828 Henry Donnison , a Sydney merchant who had arrived with his wife and family on the brig Ellen on 29 – 30 July 1828 , was granted an allotment on the western side of Stirling Ridge . A second grant was made to William Klensendorlffe ( a German who had served in the British Navy and arrived free in the Colony in 1818 ) , who had bought the land from John Stephen , on 7 March 1839 . Donnison 's land was named Yarralumla in a survey of the area conducted in 1834 . Yarralumla was a name for the area used by the local people , apparently meaning " echo " . An area to the west of what is now the suburb was the Yarrolumla parish .
The prominent New South Wales parliamentarian Sir Terence Aubrey Murray ( 1810 – 1873 ) purchased Yarralumla in 1837 . He lived there with his wife Mary Murray ( née Gibbes , 1817 – 1858 ) , the second daughter of the Collector of Customs for NSW , Colonel John George Nathaniel Gibbes ( 1787 – 1873 ) , MLC . In 1859 , Murray sold Yarralumla to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Augustus Onslow Manby Gibbes ( 1828 – 1897 ) . Later that same year , Augustus ' parents came to live with him at Yarralumla homestead .
Augustus Gibbes improved the estate and acquired additional land by purchase and lease . However , In 1881 , he sold Yarralumla for 40 @,@ 000 pounds to Frederick Campbell , a descendant of Robert Campbell , in order to travel overseas . Frederick Campbell erected a new , three @-@ storey , brick house on the site of the former Yarralumla homestead at the beginning of the 1890s . Campbell 's house would later form the basis of what is now the Governor @-@ General of Australia 's official Canberra residence , known colloquially as " Yarralumla " or " Government House " . Campbell also built a large wooden woolshed nearby in 1904 . It remains standing to this day .
In 1908 , the Limestone Plains area , including Yarralumla , was selected as the site for the capital city of the newly established Commonwealth of Australia . Soon afterwards in 1913 , the Commonwealth Government purchased the property . Tenant farmers were allowed to stay on the land on annual leases , some remaining until 1963 when the Molonglo River was dammed to form Lake Burley Griffin .
= = = Development = = =
With the construction of Australia 's capital city underway , the Yarralumla brickworks were established in 1913 to supply building material . The bricks were used for many of Canberra 's buildings , including the provisional Parliament House . In 1917 , Walter Burley Griffin named the area surrounding the brickworks " Westridge " . A narrow gauge goods railway was constructed for the transportation of bricks to some of the major building sites in central Canberra . This linked the brickworks to places such as Parliament House , and the Kingston Power House .
Construction on the Commonwealth nursery and Westbourne Woods arboretum was started in 1914 , and a temporary camp was built near the brickworks to accommodate the workers . Thomas Charles Weston was Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge ( Afforestation Branch ) in the years 1913 to 1926 , and later became Director of City Planting and the Superintendent of Parks and Gardens . Weston was responsible for testing and selecting plant species at the arboretum for their suitability to Canberra 's environment ; from 1913 through to 1924 Weston oversaw the propagation of more than two million trees which were then planted in the Canberra area . Most of the original Westbourne Woods arboretum is now leased to the Royal Canberra Golf Club , with the remainder forming part of Weston Park . The Yarralumla nursery is still active , albeit on a smaller scale and functioning as a retail nursery selling both wholesale and direct to the public .
In 1922 , a workers ' tent camp was erected on the eastern side of Stirling Ridge to house the men working on the main intercepting sewer . The following year saw the start of the construction of 62 small , four @-@ room , unlined timber cottages , to be used as housing for the married tradesmen involved in the construction of the provisional Parliament House . Other camps were established at the eastern end of Stirling Park on the hills opposite modern Lotus Bay . The first of these was contractor John Howie 's settlement ( 1922 – 30 ) , consisting of 25 timber cottages for his married men and timber barracks ( Hostel Camp ) for his single men . Two other single men 's tent camps were established nearby — Old Tradesmen 's Camp ( 1923 – 27 ) and No 1 Labourers Camp ( 1924 – 27 ) . The men from Howie 's worked on the Hotel Canberra and the others on the construction of the provisional Parliament House and nearby administrative buildings .
The Stirling Park camps were known as Westlake to their new inhabitants , and previously " Gura Bung Dhaura " ( stony ground ) to the local Aboriginal people . In 1925 , the population of this temporary suburb was 700 . This represented roughly one @-@ fifth of the total population of the Federal Capital Territory at the time ; in the region , only Molonglo Settlement had a larger population , at 750 . The site was chosen so that it was near to Parliament House but hidden from direct line of sight from anywhere " important " . The small cottages at Westlake were removed starting in the mid @-@ 1950s , with the last one removed in 1965 . Many of the Westlake workers ' cottages were moved to Queanbeyan and are still used as housing today . The Stirling Park near the embassy area of Yarralumla now covers the historic Westlake settlement area .
The Commonwealth Forestry School was established in Westridge near the brickworks and Westbourne Woods in 1926 . It opened with its first intake of students in the following year . Today the heritage @-@ listed Forestry School and the associated principal 's residence Westridge House are located on Banks Street , Yarralumla . The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) Forestry and Forestry Products subsumed the school in 1975 . Westridge House , an impressive Tudor @-@ style structure , underwent a A $ 500 @,@ 000 refurbishment and is used as a residence for the chief officer of the CSIRO .
By 1928 , there were over 130 people on the electoral roll for Westridge . The majority of the population consisted of men working at the brickworks and nursery . Westridge was gazetted as a Canberra suburb in 1928 .
= = = After World War II = = =
Westridge was renamed Yarralumla in the 1950s . In 1963 , Lake Burley Griffin was filled and Yarralumla was expanded to include Westlake , which had up until then been part of Acton .
After the Second World War , the suburb began to expand rapidly with the construction of many private homes . Yarralumla 's image as a lower @-@ class suburb would persist into the 1960s and 1970s . This general perception began to alter once Lake Burley Griffin had been created and its surrounds landscaped into parklands ; the area soon gained a reputation for its attractive lakeside location . During the 1980s , house prices began to rise coincident with a rejuvenation of the suburb . Many of the original government @-@ built monocrete , brick , and weatherboard houses have been demolished and replaced by larger dwellings of a variety of more modern styles and materials .
= = Demographics = =
The population of the Westridge area on the 1928 electoral roll numbered over 130 . On Census night 2011 , Yarralumla had a population of 2 @,@ 907 people . Of these 48 @.@ 2 % were male . The suburb had only 1 @.@ 3 % indigenous Australians , substantially below the national average of 2 @.@ 5 % . The percentage of married people in the suburb was six points higher than the national average , and the proportion of residents who had never married was 4 points lower . Despite the higher level of marriage , this did not translate into a higher level of children ; 46 @.@ 5 % of families consisted of a couple without children in the household , compared to the national average of 37 @.@ 8 % . The 2006 Census showed that Yarralumla residents had a median age of 47 , compared to a Canberra average of 34 . The suburb had an older population for a city of young people ; the median national age is 37 and 38 @.@ 2 % of Yarralumla residents were 55 or over , compared to the national figure of 25 @.@ 6 % .
Yarralumla is a comparatively wealthy suburb with a 2011 median weekly income of $ 1 @,@ 139 ; this compares to an ACT @-@ wide figure of $ 917 and an Australia @-@ wide figure of $ 577 . The public service or defence force employed around 20 % of the workforce , somewhat less than the ACT average of 25 @.@ 8 . This compared to 2 @.@ 0 % for Australia as a whole . The higher incomes were derived from the suburb 's white @-@ collar base ; 61 @.@ 6 % of Yarralumla 's workforce was employed as professionals or in managerial posts , compared to 34 % nationally . In contrast , only 3 @.@ 4 % were engaged in blue @-@ collar occupations , compared with 16 @.@ 0 % for the nation as a whole . The proportion of the population working as tradesmen and technicians was almost three times lower than average across Australia .
The median monthly housing loan repayments in Yarralumla in 2011 were $ 2 @,@ 442 , compared to the ACT @-@ wide figure of $ 2 @,@ 167 and a federal average of $ 1 @,@ 800 . At $ 425 , the weekly rent was more than 50 % higher than the national average . Yarralumla 's median house price was $ 1m in 2011 versus $ 530 @,@ 000 for the whole of the ACT in 2013 . The rate of home ownership in the suburb was 46 @.@ 3 % — much higher than the national average of 32 @.@ 1 % . 26 @.@ 9 % of the households rented . Accommodation was mostly separate houses ( 74 @.@ 7 % ) , although the number of residences in the suburb has been increasing through conversion of blocks to dual occupancy and other medium @-@ density @-@ type developments . Despite this , only 2 @.@ 6 % lived in an apartment or unit , little more than one quarter of the national average .
The population of Yarralumla in 2011 was predominantly Australian @-@ born , with some 72 @.@ 3 % of its residents being born in Australia . The second most prevalent birthplace was England at 6 @.@ 6 % , followed by New Zealand and India with 1 @.@ 7 and 1 @.@ 5 % respectively . The suburb was more oriented towards the Anglo @-@ Celtic majority than the rest of Australia ; English was spoken at home by 84 @.@ 4 % of the population , compared to the national average of 76 @.@ 8 % . Every other language was spoken by less than 2 % of the population . Italian , French , German , Croatian and Hindi were all spoken by at least 0 @.@ 7 % of the population . The most popular religious affiliations in descending order were no religion , Roman Catholic , Anglican , Uniting and Presbyterian and Reformed . The proportion of the population professing to having no religion was 31 @.@ 8 % , higher than the national average of 22 @.@ 3 % .
= = Suburb amenities = =
The Yarralumla local shopping centre is located on the corner of Bentham and Novar Streets . The centre contains a supermarket , bakery , dry @-@ cleaners , video store / post office , chemist , gift shop and newsagent as well as several restaurants and speciality shops .
Weston Park is situated on a peninsula near the western end of Lake Burley Griffin . The park includes swimming areas , children 's play equipment and wading pools , and a miniature railway , and is a popular barbecue spot on weekends . Weston Park forms part of a string of parks that line the southern shore of Lake Burley Griffin ; other parks include Yarralumla Bay , Lennox Gardens ( incorporating a Japanese garden named Canberra Nara Park ) and Stirling Park .
Like most of Canberra , Yarralumla 's only scheduled public transport is provided by ACTION buses . On weekdays , route 2 provides a service from Yarralumla to Woden and City Interchanges along Novar Street , Schlich Street and Hopetoun Circuit . Route 2 operates every 30 minutes until 6pm and hourly from 6pm to 11 pm . On weekends and public holidays , route 932 provides an hourly service along the same streets as route 2 .
= = Education = =
Yarralumla 's first school , the Catholic St Peter Chanel 's Primary School , opened in 1956 ; it closed in the 1990s . Yarralumla Primary School , a public school , opened a year after St Peter Chanel 's in 1957 . Half of the original primary school is now used as a behavioural centre catering to problem students . Preschools in Yarralumla include the Montessori preschool on Loftus Street . There is also a day care facility called Little Lodge on Macgillivray Street .
The Canberra Japanese Supplementary School Inc . , a Japanese weekend educational programme , has its school office in the Japanese Embassy Consular Section in Yarralumla , while it holds its classes at Deakin High School in Deakin . It was established on 1 August 1988 .
= = Politics = =
Yarralumla is located within the federal electorate of Canberra , which as of 2014 is represented by Gai Brodtmann in the House of Representatives . Historically both federal electorates in the ACT are safe Labor seats . Polling place statistics are shown to the right for the Yarralumla polling place in the 2013 federal and 2012 ACT elections .
In the ACT Legislative Assembly , Yarralumla is part of the electorate of Molonglo , which elects seven members on the basis of proportional representation , although the number of electorates and members were under review as of February 2014 . The 2012 ACT election saw a swing in Yarralumla of 2 @.@ 1 % away from the Labor Party and 10 @.@ 0 % to the Liberal Party .
The Yarralumla Residents Association ( YRA ) is a registered organisation formed to represent the views of Yarralumla residents and business . The group stands against government plans for urban consolidation , supporting open space and the conservation of low @-@ density housing . The organisation has been very vocal in opposing government plans for further development of Yarralumla and is also vocal about any plans for the Yarralumla brickworks site .
= = Notable places = =
Yarralumla is notable among Canberra suburbs for its large number of landmarks and places of historical interest . The Governor @-@ General 's residence Government House , which shares the name Yarralumla , is located at the western end of the suburb in 53 hectares ( 130 acres ) of parkland . It sits alongside Lake Burley Griffin , next to the Royal Canberra Golf Club and Scrivener Dam . The house was built in 1891 as the headquarters for the Yarralumla property . Also located alongside Scrivener Dam is the National Zoo & Aquarium . The nearby Yarralumla woolshed is available for event hire , often playing host to parties and bush dances . The land surrounding the woolshed has been developed as an equestrian park , including areas for showjumping , eventing and endurance riding .
The Yarralumla brickworks are notable as the first industrial manufacturing facility in the ACT . The brickworks were closed temporarily several times due to the Great Depression and both World Wars . Proposals to modernise the brickworks were rejected by the National Capital Development Commission in the early 1970s and they closed permanently in 1976 . Presently the site is closed to the public and is in a state of disrepair . The unfenced parkland around the brickworks is a popular recreation area for Yarralumla residents . Residential development is proposed for the 42 @-@ hectare site , initially including 1 @,@ 600 new dwellings , although this is now likely to be significantly reduced . The eastern end of Yarralumla is home to many of the diplomatic missions in Canberra , many of which are built in a traditional style reflecting that of their respective home countries . Examples of regionally styled chanceries include the embassies of Saudi Arabia and Thailand , and the High Commissions of India and Papua New Guinea . The United States embassy was the first embassy built in Canberra , with the foundation stone laid on the Fourth of July , 1942 . The embassy is an impressive compound of buildings built in a Georgian style , inspired by several buildings designed by Christopher Wren for Virginia at the beginning of the 18th century . The French embassy includes the French @-@ Australian War Memorial opened in 1961 , which has a sculpture by André Bizette @-@ Lindet called Winged Victory . Canberra tourist drive six takes tourists on a car @-@ based tour past many of Canberra 's embassies including those located in Yarralumla . It zig @-@ zags through the eastern side of Yarralumla past many of the missions .
Also located in the eastern end of the suburb are Lennox Gardens , the Yarralumla Yacht Club , the Albert Hall and the Hotel Canberra . The Hotel Canberra opened in 1924 to accommodate politicians when Parliament was in session . The hotel was closed in 1974 and the buildings served as an annexe for Parliament House between 1976 and 1984 . The Hyatt Hotel Group re @-@ opened the hotel in 1987 .
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= It 's Not the End of the World ? =
" It 's Not the End of the World ? " is a song by Welsh band Super Furry Animals . It was the last single to be released from the Rings Around the World album and reached number 30 on the UK Singles Chart on its release in January 2002 . Singer Gruff Rhys has variously described the track as being about the extinction of mankind and as " a romantic song about growing old " .
Critical reaction to the track was generally mixed with some reviewers claiming the track compares unfavourably with the band 's previous work while others were enthusiastic in their praise . A computer generated promotional music video was produced to accompany " It 's Not the End of the World ? " ' s release as a single . Directed by Numero 6 the video won the special jury prize at the 2002 Imagina Festival . An alternative video , directed by Dylan Jones , was included on the DVD release of Rings Around the World featuring archive footage of nuclear explosions .
= = Themes and recording = =
" It 's Not the End of the World ? " is " a romantic song about growing old " according to singer Gruff Rhys . In an interview with British newspaper The Daily Telegraph Rhys discussed the song in the context of parent record Rings Around the World . The band abandoned the idea of making a " save the world " concept album as they reasoned that " when people talk about saving the world they 're really talking about saving humans . The reality is that humans are the problem " . " It 's Not the End of the World ? " expands on this idea with Rhys stating that the song is about the extinction of the human race : " maybe we 'll all die but the world 'll still be here , even if it 's a dark , singed piece of rock flying around the sun " . The track was recorded in 2000 at Bearsville Studios , Woodstock and was produced by the Super Furry Animals and Chris Shaw .
= = Musical structure = =
" It 's Not the End of the World ? " is 3 minutes 25 seconds long and is in the key of C major . The track begins with just a guitar , featuring an echo effect , playing the descending notes C , B , A , G , F , E , D and G before the band join on 13 seconds with the bridge during which Gruff Rhys sings the word " why " several times in a falsetto voice , accompanied by strings arranged by Sonia Slay and the group . The first verse follows on 38 seconds with Rhys accompanied by a basic 4 / 4 beat provided by drummer Dafydd Ieuan , sparse bass guitar and a melody line played by Huw Bunford on guitar . The first chorus enters at 1 minute 4 seconds with Rhys singing the words " as our hair turns white , all the stars still shine so bright above , at least it 's not the end of the world " while Bunford plays a guitar counter @-@ melody . Another bridge and verse follow before the second chorus appears at 2 minutes 2 seconds with Rhys this time singing " as our hair turns grey everything is far from A @-@ A @-@ A @-@ ok " . The outro begins at 2 minute 23 seconds , with the chorus repeating before the bridge plays through several times , ending on a C chord .
= = = Alternative version = = =
A Force Unknown remix of " It 's Not the End of the World ? " is included on the DVD version of Rings Around The World . The track is 3 minutes 52 seconds in length and begins with just cymbals then drums before the bridge . The remix follows the arrangement of the original with Gruff Rhys 's vocals and all instruments heavily effected by echo . Instrumentation is sparse with only occasional guitar .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " It 's Not the End of the World ? " was generally mixed . Website Drowned in Sound described the song as " sweet and charming " but stated that , although it is a good album track it isn 't strong enough to stand up on its own as a single and is rather " bland " compared to some of the band 's other songs such as " Demons " and " Fire in My Heart " . The NME called the song " a bit rubbish " by the Super Furries ' " usual high standards " and went as far as to claim that " John Lennon was shot for less " . The Dallas Observer claimed the track is " guaranteed to induce the same type of melancholic , goose @-@ bumpy splendor that tunes like The Kinks ' ' Waterloo Sunset ' , Dennis Wilson 's ' Forever ' and Jack Bruce 's ' Theme for an Imaginary Western ' still do " , Entertainment Weekly described it as one of the best songs on parent album Rings Around the World , comparing it to the work of The Beatles while The Daily Telegraph called it a " honey @-@ dripping pop classic " . PopMatters claimed the track " sounds like any of Blur 's best ballads " .
= = Music videos = =
= = = Dylan Jones video = = =
A Dylan Jones directed video was included on the DVD version of Rings Around the World on its release in July 2001 . The video consists entirely of archive footage of nuclear explosions and nuclear technicians . Keyboard player Cian Ciaran has stated that the band deliberately tried to avoid making videos that looked like just " another pop promo ... like MTV " for the DVD version of Rings Around the World and asked the directors to make the visuals as " extreme as possible " . Ciaran claims the directors had to " work even harder at creating something interesting " due to the limited budget available .
= = = Numero 6 video = = =
A promotional music video , directed by animator Numero 6 ( also known as David Nicolas ) , was produced to accompany the release of " It 's Not the End of the World ? " as a single . According to Gruff Rhys the band made separate videos for Rings Around the World 's three singles as they saw the videos included on the DVD release of the album as " pure art " whereas they needed promotional music videos that were more like adverts for the songs . The video won the special jury prize at the 2002 Imagina Festival and took silver at the D & AD awards in the same year .
The video begins with a shot of a computer generated man with a guitar and sunglasses walking down a set of spiral stairs singing along with " It 's Not the End of the World ? ' s " chorus . A baby is then shown playing with a toy tank before a man seen receiving his call up papers , having his head shaved by a barber then leaving on a steam train as people outside wave goodbye . The next shot features a battleship — the video then cuts to a small boy playing with a toy ship in the bath before joints of meat on hooks are seen moving from right to left through a tiled room spattered with blood . A shot of a military commander on horseback addressing his troops appears before the second chorus which again features a guitarist singing along as he walks down spiral stairs .
After brief footage of a tank driving across a desert landscape a baby is shown playing with a paper aeroplane . A hat is placed on the baby 's head and the head is then removed and fitted onto the body of a bomber pilot . The next scene shows a fleet of bombers bombing a city while an anti @-@ aircraft gunner fires at them and troops parachute down . A soldier is seen running across a bombed out city before two opposing troops are shown repeatably stabbing each other with bayonets on a battlefield landscape filled with human skulls . This scene is intercut with footage of two military leaders playing chess .
The third chorus features similar footage to the first two — a singer walking down a set of stairs . The two military leaders are then seen appearing on a game show , each pressing a buzzer which makes an image of a skull behind them light up . The video cuts to a shot of a baby sitting between two nuclear missiles before a zoomed out model of the Earth shows multiple mushroom clouds as the planet explodes ( this image was used as the front cover for Digipak CD version of the single ) . The final shot sees the two opposing commanders holding hands and kissing on a tiny piece of the earth as it floats through space while a red heart lights up behind them . The Numero 6 video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 and the DVD version of the " It 's Not the End of the World ? " single .
David Nicolas also directed the Supermen Lovers ' Starlight music video in 2001 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak CD ( 6121752 ) , 12 " ( 6121756 )
" It 's Not the End of the World ? " – 3 : 30
" The Roman Road " – 5 : 18
" Gypsy Space Muffin " – 3 : 32
DVD ( 6721759 )
" It 's Not the End of the World ? ( Video ) " – 3 : 30
" The Roman Road " – 5 : 18
" Gypsy Space Muffin " – 3 : 32
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals , string arrangements
Huw Bunford – guitar , string arrangements
Guto Pryce – bass guitar , string arrangements
Cian Ciaran – keyboards , string arrangements
Dafydd Ieuan – drums , string arrangements
Harriet Harris – violin
S. Herbert – violin
Jackie Norrie – violin
Sonia Slany – violin , string arrangements
Nick Barr – viola
Clare Smith – viola
Nick Cooper – cello
Sophie Harris – cello
= = Chart positions = =
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