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= Cardiff Castle =
Cardiff Castle ( Welsh : Castell Caerdydd ) is a medieval castle and Victorian Gothic revival mansion located in the city centre of Cardiff , Wales . The original motte and bailey castle was built in the late 11th century by Norman invaders on top of a 3rd @-@ century Roman fort . The castle was commissioned by either William the Conqueror or by Robert Fitzhamon , and formed the heart of the medieval town of Cardiff and the Marcher Lord territory of Glamorgan . In the 12th century the castle began to be rebuilt in stone , probably by Robert of Gloucester , with a shell keep and substantial defensive walls being erected . Further work was conducted by Richard de Clare , 6th Earl of Gloucester in the second half of the 13th century . Cardiff Castle was repeatedly involved in the conflicts between the Anglo @-@ Normans and the Welsh , being attacked several times in the 12th century , and stormed in 1404 during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr .
After being held by the de Clare and Despenser families for several centuries the castle was acquired by Richard de Beauchamp in 1423 . Richard conducted extensive work at the castle , founding the main range on the west side of the castle , dominated by a tall , octagonal tower . Following the Wars of the Roses the status of the castle as a Marcher territory was revoked and its military significance began to decline . The Herbert family took over the property in 1550 , remodelling parts of the main range and carrying out construction work in the outer bailey , then occupied by Cardiff 's Shire Hall and other buildings . During the English Civil War Cardiff Castle was initially taken by Parliamentary force , but was regained by Royalist supporters in 1645 . When fighting broke out again in 1648 , a Royalist army attacked Cardiff in a bid to regain the castle , leading to the battle of St Fagans just outside the city . Cardiff Castle escaped potential destruction by Parliament after the war and was instead garrisoned to protect against a possible Scottish invasion .
In the mid @-@ 18th century , Cardiff Castle passed into the hands of the Marquesses of Bute . John Stuart , the first Marquess , employed Capability Brown and Henry Holland to renovate the main range , turning it into a Georgian mansion , and to landscape the castle grounds , demolishing many of the older medieval buildings and walls . During the first half of the 19th century the family became extremely wealthy as a result of the growth of the coal industry in Glamorgan . The third Marquess , John Crichton @-@ Stuart , used this wealth to back an extensive programme of renovations under William Burges . Burges remodelled the castle in a Gothic revival style , lavishing money and attention on the main range . The resulting interior designs are considered to be amongst " the most magnificent that the gothic revival ever achieved " . The grounds were re @-@ landscaped and , following the discovery of the old Roman remains , reconstructed walls and a gatehouse in a Roman style were incorporated into the castle design . Extensive landscaped parks were built around the outside of the castle .
In the early 20th century the fourth Marquess inherited the castle and construction work continued into the 1920s . The Bute lands and commercial interests around Cardiff were sold off or nationalised during the period until , by the time of the Second World War , little was left except the castle . During the war , extensive air raid shelters were built in the castle walls , able to hold up to 1 @,@ 800 people . When the Marquess died in 1947 , the castle was given to the city of Cardiff . Today the castle is run as a tourist attraction , with the grounds housing the " Firing Line " regimental museum and interpretation centre . The castle has also served as a venue for events , including musical performances and festivals .
= = History = =
= = = 1st – 4th centuries AD = = =
The future site of Cardiff Castle was first used by the Romans as a defensive location for many years . The first fort was probably built about AD 55 and occupied until AD 80 . It was a rectangular structure much larger than the current site , and formed part of the southern Roman border in Wales during the conquest of the Silures . When the border advanced , defences became less important and the fort was replaced with a sequence of two , much smaller , fortifications on the north side of the current site .
A fourth fort was built in the middle of the 3rd century in order to combat the pirate threat along the coast , and forms the basis of the Roman remains seen on the castle site . The fort was almost square in design , approximately 635 feet ( 194 m ) by 603 feet ( 184 m ) large , constructed from limestone brought by sea from Penarth . The fort 's irregular shape was determined by the River Taff that flowed along the west side of the walls . The sea would have come much closer to the site than is the case in the 21st century , and the fort would have directly overlooked the harbour . This Roman fort was probably occupied at least until the end of the 4th century , but it is unclear when it was finally abandoned . There is no evidence for the re @-@ occupation of the site until the 11th century .
= = = 11th century = = =
The Normans began to make incursions into South Wales from the late 1060s onwards , pushing westwards from their bases in recently occupied England . Their advance was marked by the construction of castles , frequently on old Roman sites , and the creation of regional lordships . The reuse of Roman sites produced considerable savings in the manpower required to construct large earth fortifications .
Cardiff Castle was built during this period . There are two possible dates for the construction ; it is possible that William the Conqueror built a castle at Cardiff as early as 1081 on his return from his pilgrimage to St Davids . Alternatively the first Norman fortification may have been constructed around 1091 by Robert Fitzhamon , the lord of Gloucester . Fitzhamon invaded the region in 1090 , and used the castle as a base for the occupation of the rest of southern Glamorgan over the next few years . The site was close to the sea and could be easily supplied by ship , was well protected by the Rivers Taff and Rhymney and also controlled the old Roman road running along the coast .
Cardiff Castle was a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design . The old Roman walls had collapsed and the Normans used their remains as the basis for the outer castle perimeter , digging a defensive trench and throwing up a 27 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) high bank of earth over the Roman fortifications . The Normans further divided the castle with an internal wall to form an inner and an outer bailey . In the north @-@ west corner of the castle a wooden keep was constructed on top of a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) tall earth motte , surrounded by a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide moat . The motte was the largest built in Wales . The overall size of the castle was around 8 @.@ 25 acres ( 3 @.@ 34 ha ) , with the inner bailey being around 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) in size . Mills were essential to local communities during this period , and the castle mill was located outside the west side of the castle , fed by the River Taff ; under local feudal law , the residents of Cardiff were required to use this mill to grind their own grain .
The conquered lands in Glamorgan were given out in packages called knights ' fees , and many of these knights held their lands on condition that they provided forces to protect Cardiff Castle . Under this approach , called a castle @-@ guard system , some knights were required to maintain buildings called " houses " within the castle itself , in the outer bailey . Anglo @-@ Saxon peasants settled the region around Cardiff , bringing with them English customs , although Welsh lords continued to rule the more remote districts almost independently until the 14th century . Cardiff Castle was a Marcher Lord territory , enjoying special privileges and independence from the English Crown . The medieval town of Cardiff spread out from the south side of the castle .
= = = 12th – 14th centuries = = =
FitzHamon was fatally injured at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106 and died shortly afterwards . Henry I then gave the castle to Robert of Gloucester in 1122 , the king 's illegitimate son and the husband of FitzHamon 's daughter , Mabe . After the failed attempt of Robert Curthose , duke of Normandy , William the Conqueror 's eldest son , to take England from Henry I , Robert of Normandy was imprisoned in the castle until his death in 1134 . Robert held the castle during the troubled years of the Anarchy in England and Wales and passed it on to his son , William Fitz Robert . Around the middle of the century , possibly under Robert of Gloucester , a 77 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) wide , 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high shell keep was constructed on top of the motte , along with a stone wall around the south and west sides of the inner bailey . The polygonal shell keep has architectural links to a similar design at Arundel Castle . The building work was probably undertaken in response to the threat posed following the Welsh uprising of 1136 .
Tensions with the Welsh continued , and in 1158 Ifor Bach raided the castle and took William hostage for a period . A further attack followed in 1183 . By 1184 town walls had been built around Cardiff , and the West Gate to the town was constructed in the gap between the castle and the river . William died in 1183 , leaving three daughters , one of whom , Isabel , Countess of Gloucester was declared the sole heir to the estate by Henry II . This was contrary to normal legal custom in England , and was done in order that Henry could then marry her to his youngest son Prince John and thus provide him with extensive lands . John later divorced Isabel , but he retained control of the castle until she married Geoffrey de Mandeville in 1214 .
Upon Isabel 's death in 1217 the castle passed through her sister to Gilbert de Clare , becoming part of the Honour of Clare , a major grouping of estates and fortifications in medieval England . The castle formed the centre of the family 's power in South Wales , although the de Clares typically preferred to reside in their castles at Clare and Tonbridge . Gilbert 's son , Richard de Clare , 6th Earl of Gloucester , carried out building work at the castle in the late 13th century , constructing the Black Tower that forms part of the southern gateway seen today . On the ground floor the tower contained the Stvell Oged and Stavell Wenn chambers , with three rooms constructed above them . Richard was also probably responsible for rebuilding the northern and eastern walls of the inner bailey in stone . The inner bailey was reached through a gatehouse on the eastern side , protected by two circular towers and later called the Exchequer Gate . The defensive work may have been prompted by the threat posed by the hostile Welsh leader Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , Prince of Wales .
Richard 's grandson , Gilbert de Clare , the last male de Clare , died at the battle of Bannockburn in 1314 and the castle was given to Hugh Despenser the Younger , the controversial favourite of Edward II . Poor harvests and harsh governance by the Despenser family encouraged a Welsh rebellion under Llywelyn Bren in 1316 ; this was crushed and Llywelyn was hanged , drawn and quartered in Cardiff Castle in 1318 on Hugh 's orders . The execution attracted much criticism from across both the English and Welsh communities , and in 1321 Hugh arrested Sir William Fleminge as a scapegoat for the incident , first detaining him in the Black Tower and then executing him in the castle grounds . Conflict between the Despensers and the other Marcher Lords broke out soon after , leading to the castle being sacked in 1321 during the Despenser War . The Despensers recovered the castle and retained it for the rest of the century , despite the execution of Hugh Despenser for treason in 1326 . Under a 1340 charter granted by the Despensers , the castle 's constable was made the de facto mayor of Cardiff , controlling the local courts .
= = = 15th – 16th centuries = = =
By the 15th century , the Despensers were increasingly using Caerphilly Castle as their main residence in the region rather than Cardiff . Thomas le Despenser was executed in 1400 on charges of conspiring against Henry IV . In 1401 rebellion broke out in North Wales under the leadership of Owain Glyndŵr , quickly spreading across the rest of the country . In 1404 Cardiff and the castle were taken by the rebels , causing considerable damage to the Black Tower and the southern gatehouse in the process . On Thomas 's death the castle passed first to his young son , Richard , and on his death in 1414 , through his daughter Isabel to the Beauchamp family . Isabel first married Richard de Beauchamp , the Earl of Worcester and then , on his death , to his cousin Richard de Beauchamp , the Earl of Warwick , in 1423 .
Richard did not acquire Caerphilly Castle as part of the marriage settlement , so he set about redeveloping Cardiff instead . He built a new tower alongside the Black Tower in 1430 , restoring the gateway , and extended the motte defences . He also constructed a substantial new domestic range in the south @-@ west of the site between 1425 and 1439 , with a central octagonal tower 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) high , sporting defensive machicolations , and featuring four smaller polygonal turrets facing the inner bailey . The range was built of Lias ashlar stone with limestone used for some of the details , set upon the spur bases characteristic of South Wales and incorporated parts of the older 4th and 13th century walls . The buildings were influenced by similar work in the previous century at Windsor Castle and would in turn shape renovations at Newport and Nottingham Castles ; the octagonal tower has architectural links to Guy 's Tower , built at around the same time in Warwick Castle . A flower garden was built to the south of the range , with private access to Richard 's chambers . Richard also rebuilt the town 's wider defences , including a new stone bridge over the River Taff guarded by the West Gate , finishing the work by 1451 .
Cardiff Castle remained in the hands of Richard 's son , Henry and Henry 's daughter , Anne until 1449 . When Anne died , it passed by marriage to Richard Neville , who held it until his death in 1471 during the period of civil strife known as the Wars of the Roses . As the conflict progressed and political fortunes rose and fell , the castle passed from George , the Duke of Clarence , to Richard , Duke of Gloucester , to Jasper Tudor , the Duke of Bedford , back to Richard Neville 's wife Anne , back to Jasper and finally to Prince Henry , the future Henry VIII . The ascension of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne at the end of the wars heralded a change in the way Wales was administered . The Tudors were Welsh in origin , and their rule eased hostilities between the Welsh and English . As a result , defensive castles became less important . In 1495 Henry VII formally revoked the Marcher territory status of Cardiff Castle and the surrounding territories , bringing them under normal English law as the County of Glamorgan .
The Crown leased the castle to Charles Somerset in 1513 ; Charles used it while he was living in Cardiff . In 1550 William Herbert , later the Earl of Pembroke , then bought Cardiff Castle and the surrounding estates from Edward VI . The outer bailey contained a range of buildings at this time , and extensive building work was carried out during the century . The Shire Hall had been built in the outer bailey , forming part of a walled complex of buildings that included the lodgings for the traditional twelve holders of castle @-@ guard lands . The outer bailey also included orchards , gardens and a chapel . The castle continued to be used to detain criminals during the 16th century , with the Black Tower being used as a prison to hold them ; the heretic Thomas Capper was burnt at the castle on the orders of Henry VIII . The visiting antiquarian John Leland described the keep as " a great thing and strong , but now in some ruine " , but the Black Tower was considered to be in good repair . In the inner bailey , the Herberts built an Elizabethan extension to the north end of the main range , with large windows looking onto a new northern garden ; the southern garden was replaced by a kitchen garden .
= = = 17th – 18th centuries = = =
In 1610 the cartographer John Speed produced a map of the castle , and noted that it was " large and in good repair . " In 1642 , however , civil war broke out between the rival Royalist supporters of King Charles I and Parliament . Cardiff Castle was then owned by Philip Herbert , a moderate Parliamentarian , and the castle was initially held by a pro @-@ Royalist garrison . It was taken by Parliamentary forces in the early period of the war , according to popular tradition by a sneak attack using a secret passageway . The Royalist commander William Seymour , the Marquess of Hertford , then attacked the castle in turn , taking it in a surprise assault . Parliamentary forces and local troops then immediately besieged the castle , retaking it after five hours of fighting and reinstalling a garrison . In early 1645 Mr Carne , the High Sheriff , rebelled against Parliament , taking Cardiff town but initially failing to seize the castle . The King sent forces from Oxford , under the command of Sir Charles Kemys , to reinforce Carne but Parliament despatched a naval squadron to provide support to their forces from the sea . A small battle ensued before the castle was taken by the Royalists .
With the Royalist military position across the country worsening , King Charles himself came to Cardiff Castle that July to meet with local Welsh leaders . Relations between his commander in the region , Sir Charles Gerard , and the people of Glamorgan had deteriorated badly and when Charles left the castle , he was confronted by a small army of angry locals , demanding to be given control of the castle . These clubmen then declared themselves the " Peaceable Army " and increased their demands to include near independence for the region . After negotiations , a compromise was found in which the royal garrison would quit the castle , to be replaced by a local Glamorgan force , commanded by Sir Richard Beaupré ; in return , £ 800 and a force of a thousand men were promised to Charles . In September , Charles returned to South Wales and reneged on the agreement , disbanding the Peaceable Army , but his military position in the region was collapsing . The Peaceable Army 's leaders switched sides and forced the surrender of Cardiff and the castle to Parliament in mid @-@ September .
With the outbreak of fresh fighting in 1648 , a Royalist army of 8 @,@ 000 fresh recruits was mustered under the command of General Rowland Laugharne and Sir Edward Stradling , with the intent of retaking Cardiff . Parliamentary forces in Brecon under the command of Colonel Thomas Horton moved quickly to reinforce the castle , although with only 3 @,@ 000 men they were content to wait until a larger army under Oliver Cromwell could arrive from Gloucester . With time against them , the Royalist army attacked , leading to the battle of St Fagans just to the west of Cardiff , and a heavy Royalist defeat .
After the war , Cardiff Castle escaped the slighting , or deliberate damage and destruction , that affected many other castles . Probably because of the threat of a pro @-@ Royalist invasion by the Presbyterian Scots , a Parliamentary garrison was installed instead and the castle remained intact . The Herberts continued to own the castle as the Earls of Pembroke , both during the interregnum and after the restoration of Charles II . The castle 's constable continued to act as mayor of the town of Cardiff , controlling the meetings of the town 's burgesses , bailffs and aldermen ; the Herberts usually appointed members of the more important local gentry to this position during the period .
Lady Charlotte Herbert was the last of the family to control Cardiff Castle . She married twice , latterly to Thomas , Viscount Windsor and on her death in 1733 the castle passed to their son , Herbert . Herbert 's daughter , Charlotte Jane Windsor , married John Stuart , who rose to become the Marquess of Bute , beginning a family line that would control the castle for the next century .
In 1776 the Marquess began to renovate the property with the intention of turning it into a residence for his son , John . The grounds were radically altered under a programme of work that involved Capability Brown and his son @-@ in @-@ law , Henry Holland . The stone wall that separated the inner and outer baileys was destroyed using gunpowder , the Shire Hall and the knights ' houses in the outer bailey were destroyed and the remaining ground partially flattened ; the whole of the area was laid with turf . Considerable work was carried out on the main lodgings , demolishing the Herbert additions , building two new wings and removing many of the older features to produce a more contemporary , 18th century appearance . The keep and motte was stripped of the ivy and trees that had grown up them , and a spiral path was laid down around the motte . The motte 's moat was filled in as part of the landscaping . A summer house was built in the south @-@ east corner of the castle . Further work was planned on the property , including a reported proposal to roof the keep in copper , insert new windows and turn it into an assembly room for dances , but these projects were cut short by the Marquess 's son 's death in 1794 .
= = = 19th century = = =
In 1814 Lord Bute 's grandson , John , inherited his title and the castle . In 1825 the new Marquess began a sequence of investments in the Cardiff Docks , an expensive programme of work that would enable Cardiff to become a major coal exporting port . Although the Docks were not particularly profitable , they transformed the value of the Butes ' mining and land interests , making the family immensely wealthy . By 1900 , the family estate owned 22 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 900 ha ) of land in Glamorgan .
The second Marquess preferred to live on the Isle of Bute in Scotland and only used Cardiff Castle occasionally . The castle saw little investment and only four full @-@ time servants were maintained on the premises , meaning that cooked food had to be brought across from the kitchens at a nearby hotel . The castle remained at the centre of the Butes ' political power base in Cardiff , however , with their faction sometimes termed as " the Castle party " . During the violent protests of the Merthyr Rising of 1831 , the Marquess @-@ based himself at Cardiff Castle , from where he directed operations and kept Whitehall informed of the unfolding events . The governance of the city of Cardiff was finally reformed by an act of Parliament in the 1835 , introducing a town council and a mayor , severing the link with the castle constable .
The third Marquess of Bute , again called John , inherited the title and castle in 1848 . He was then less than a year old , and as he grew up he came to despise the existing castle , believing that it represented a mediocre , half @-@ hearted example of the Gothic style . Bute engaged the architect William Burges , to undertake the remodelling of the castle . The two shared a passion in medieval Gothic Revivalism and this , combined with Bute 's huge financial resources , enabled Burges to rebuild the property on a grand scale . Burges brought with him almost of all of the team that had supported him on earlier projects , including John Starling Chapple , William Frame and Horatio Lonsdale . Burges 's contribution , in particular his research into the history of the castle and his architectural imagination , was critical to the transformation .
Work began on Bute 's coming of age in 1868 with the construction of the 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) high Clock Tower . The tower , built in Burges 's signature Forest of Dean ashlar stone , formed a suite of bachelor 's rooms , comprising a bedroom , a servant 's room and the Summer and Winter smoking rooms . Externally , the tower was a re @-@ working of a design Burges had previously used in an unsuccessful competition entry for the Royal Courts of Justice in London . Internally , the rooms were sumptuously decorated with gildings , carvings and cartoons , many allegorical in style , depicting the seasons , myths and fables . The Summer Smoking Room rested at the top of the structure and was two storeys high with an internal balcony that , through an unbroken band of windows , gave views of the Cardiff Docks , the Bristol Channel , and the Glamorgan countryside . The floor had a map of the world in mosaic . The sculpture was created by Thomas Nicholls .
As the rest of the castle was developed , work progressed along the rest of the 18th century range including the construction of the Guest Tower , the Arab Room , the Chaucer Room , the Nursery , the Library , the Banqueting Hall and bedrooms for both Lord and Lady Bute . In plan , the new castle followed the arrangement of a standard Victorian country house quite closely . The Bute Tower included Lord Bute 's bedroom and ended in another highlight , the Roof Garden , featuring a sculpture of the Madonna and child by Ceccardo Fucigna . Bute 's bedroom contained extensive religious iconography and an en @-@ suite bathroom . The Octagon Tower followed , including an oratory , built on the spot where Bute 's father died , and the Chaucer Room , the roof of which is considered by historian Mark Girouard to be a " superb example of Burges 's genius " .
The central part of the castle comprised a two @-@ storey banqueting hall , with the library below . Both are enormous , the latter to hold part of the bibliophile Marquess 's vast library . Both included elaborate carvings and fireplaces , those in the banqueting hall depicting the castle itself in the time of Robert , Duke of Normandy . The decoration here is less impressive than elsewhere in the castle , as much of it was completed after Burges 's death by Lonsdale , a less talented painter . The Arab Room in the Herbert Tower remains however one of Burges 's masterpieces . Its jelly mould ceiling in a Moorish style is particularly notable . It was this room on which Burges was working when he died and Bute placed Burges 's initials , and his own , and the date 1881 in the fireplace as a memorial . The central portion of the castle also included the Grand Staircase , recorded in a watercolour perspective prepared by Axel Haig .
Burges 's interiors at Cardiff Castle have been widely praised . The historian Megan Aldrich considers them amongst " the most magnificent that the gothic revival ever achieved " , J. Mordaunt Crook has described them as " three dimensional passports to fairy kingdoms and realms of gold " , and John Newman praises them as " most successful of all the fantasy castles of the nineteenth century . " The exterior of the castle , however , has received a more mixed reception from critics . Crook admires the variegated and romantic silhouette of the building , but architect John Grant considered them to present a " picturesque if not happy combination " of varying historical styles , and Adrian Pettifer criticises them as " incongruous " and excessively Gothic in style .
Work was also carried out on the castle grounds , the interior being flattened further , destroying much of the medieval and Roman archaeological remains . In 1889 , Lord Bute 's building works uncovered the remains of the old Roman fort for the first time since the 11th century , leading to archaeological investigations being carried out in 1890 . New walls in a Roman style were built by William Frame on the foundations of the originals , complete with a reconstructed Roman North Gate , and the outer medieval bank was stripped away around the new walls .
The grounds were extensively planted with trees and shrubs , including over the motte . From the late 18th century until the 1850s the castle grounds were completely open to the public , but restrictions were imposed in 1858 and as a replacement the 434 acres of land to the west and north of the castle was turned into Bute Park . From 1868 , the castle grounds were closed to the public altogether . Stables were built just to the north of the castle , but only half were completed during the 19th century . The Animal Wall was built along the south side of the castle , decorated with statues of animals , and the Swiss Bridge – a combination of summerhouse and river @-@ crossing – was erected over the river by the West Gate . Cathays Park was built on the east side of the castle , but was sold to the city of Cardiff in 1898 .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
John , the fourth Marquess , acquired the castle in 1900 on the death of his father , and the family estates and investments around the castle began to rapidly reduce in size . Cardiff had grown hugely in the previous century , its population increasing from 1 @,@ 870 in 1800 to around 250 @,@ 000 in 1900 , but the coal trade began to diminish after 1918 and industry suffered during the depression of the 1920s . John only inherited a part of the Butes ' Glamorgan estates , and in the first decades of the 20th century he sold off much of the remaining assets around Cardiff , including the coal mines , docks and railway companies , with the bulk of the land interests being finally sold off or nationalised in 1938 .
Development work on the castle continued . There was extensive restoration of the medieval masonry in 1921 , with architect John Grant rebuilding the South Gate and the barbican tower , and reconstructing the medieval West Gate and town wall alongside the castle , with the Swiss Bridge being moved in 1927 to make room for the new West Gate development . Further archaeological investigations were carried out into the Roman walls in 1922 and 1923 , leading to Grant redesigning the northern Roman gatehouse . The second half of the castle stables were finally completed . The Animal Wall was moved in the 1920s to the west side of the castle to enclose a pre @-@ Raphaelite themed garden . The grand staircase in the main range was torn out in the 1930s . During World War II , extensive air @-@ raid shelters were tunnelled out within the medieval walls , with eight different sections , able to hold up to 1 @,@ 800 people in total , and the castle was also used to tether barrage balloons above the city .
In 1947 , the John , the fifth Marquess , inherited the castle on the death of his father and faced considerable death duties . He sold the very last of the Bute lands in Cardiff and gave the castle and the surrounding park to the city on behalf of the people of Cardiff ; the family flag was taken down from the castle as part of the official hand @-@ over ceremony . The castle was protected as a grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument .
Cardiff Castle is now run as a tourist attraction , and is one of the most popular sites in the city . The castle is not fully furnished , as the furniture and fittings in the castle were removed by the Marquess in 1947 and subsequently disposed of ; an extensive restoration has been carried out , however , of the fittings originally designed for the Clock Tower by Burges . The Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama , founded in 1949 , was housed in the castle 's main range for many years , but moved into the castle 's former stables north of the castle in 1998 . A new interpretation centre , which opened in 2008 , was built alongside the South Gate at a cost of £ 6 @.@ 5 million , and the castle also contains " Firing Line " , the joint regimental museum of the 1st The Queen 's Dragoon Guards and the Royal Welsh .
The castle has been used for a range of cultural and social events . The castle has seen various musical performances , including by Tom Jones , Green Day and the Stereophonics , with a capacity to accommodate over 10 @,@ 000 people . During the 1960s and 1970s the castle was the setting for a sequence of military tattoos .
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= Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary =
The Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary , formerly known as the Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary or Hollongapar Reserve Forest ( Assamese : হোলোঙাপাৰ গিবন অভয ় াৰণ ্ য ) , is an isolated protected area of evergreen forest located in Assam , India . The sanctuary was officially constituted and renamed in 1997 . Set aside initially in 1881 , its forests used to extend to the foothills of the Patkai mountain range .
Since then , the forest has been fragmented and surrounded by tea gardens and small villages . In the early 1900s , artificial regeneration was used to a develop well @-@ stocked forest , resulting in the site 's rich biodiversity . The Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary contains India 's only gibbons – the hoolock gibbons , and Northeastern India 's only nocturnal primate – the Bengal slow loris .
The upper canopy of the forest is dominated by the Hollong tree ( Dipterocarpus macrocarpus ) , while the Nahar ( Mesua ferrea ) dominates the middle canopy . The lower canopy consists of evergreen shrubs and herbs . The habitat is threatened by illegal logging , encroachment of human settlements , and habitat fragmentation .
= = History = =
The Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary derives from a patch of forest once part of the Hollongapar Reserve Forest in the civil district of Jorhat in Assam , India . Set aside as a " Reserve Forest " ( RF ) on 27 August 1881 , it was named after its dominant tree species , Hollong or Dipterocarpus macrocarpus . At the time , it was considered an " integral part " of the foothill forests of the Patkai mountain range .
Although the sanctuary is currently completely surrounded by tea gardens and a few small villages , it used to connect to a large forest tract that ran to the state of Nagaland . The protected area started with 206 ha ( 0 @.@ 80 sq mi ) and then shrank in 1896 as sections were de @-@ reserved . As tea gardens began to emerge between 1880 and 1920 , and villages were established during the 1960s to rehabilitate people from Majuli and adjoining areas who had lost their lands to floods , the forest became fragmented and the reserve became isolated from the foothills .
Historically , sporadic evergreen trees covered the area along with Bojal bamboos ( Pseudodactylum sp . ) . In 1924 , artificial regeneration was introduced in an attempt to develop well @-@ stocked , even @-@ aged forest . These plantations along with the natural vegetation subsequently created a forest stocked with a rich variety of flora and fauna ( biodiversity ) . During the 1900s , forest areas were added to the reserve , eventually totaling 2 @,@ 098 @.@ 62 ha ( 8 @.@ 1 sq mi ) by 1997 . However , the sanctuary remains fragmented into five distinct segments .
On 30 July 1997 , in notification no . FRS 37 / 97 / 31 , the sanctuary was constituted under the civil district of Jorhat and named it the " Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary " after the only apes found in India : the hoolock gibbons ( genus Hoolock ) . It is the only sanctuary in India named after a gibbon due to its distinction for containing the densest gibbon populations in Assam . On 25 May 2004 , the Assam Government renamed it as the " Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary " through notification no . FRP 37 / 97 / 20 .
= = Surrounding region = =
The sanctuary officially extends to the Dissoi Valley Reserve Forest , Dissoi Reserve Forest , and Tiru Hill Reserve Forest , which are used as dispersal areas for Indian elephants ( Elephas maximus indicus ) and other animals . Three extensive tea gardens that belong to the estates of Dissoi , Kothalguri , and Hoolonguri span the distance between the Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary and the nearest forests in Nagaland , the Dissoi Valley Reserve Forest .
The tea gardens include Katonibari , Murmurai , Chenijan , Koliapani , Meleng , Kakojan , Dihavelleoguri , Dihingapar , Kothalguri , Dissoi and Hoolonguri . Neighboring villages include Madhupur , Lakhipur , Rampur , Fesual A ( the western part ) , Fesual B ( the eastern part ) , Katonibari , Pukhurai , Velleoguri , Afolamukh , and Kaliagaon .
= = Biota and habitat = =
The Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary is classified as " Assam plains alluvial semi @-@ evergreen forests " with some wet evergreen forest patches . It receives 249 cm ( 98 in ) of rainfall on average per year . Situated at an altitude between 100 and 120 m ( 330 and 390 ft ) , the topography gently slopes downward from southeast to northwest . The Bhogdoi River creates a waterlogged region dominated by semi @-@ hydrophytic plants along the border of the sanctuary , helping to create three distinct habitat zones or micro @-@ ecosystems in the park : the up @-@ slope zone , the down @-@ slope zone , and the flood @-@ prone zone .
= = = Fauna = = =
The sanctuary has a very rich biodiversity and is home to the only apes in India , the western hoolock gibbon ( Hoolock hoolock ) , as well as the only nocturnal primate found in the northeast Indian states , the Bengal slow loris ( Nycticebus bengalensis ) .
Other primates include the stump @-@ tailed macaque ( Macaca arctoides ) , northern pig @-@ tailed macaque ( Macaca leonina ) , eastern Assamese macaque ( Macaca assamensis assamensis ) , rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ) , and capped langur ( Trachypithecus pileatus ) . Also found at the sanctuary are Indian elephants , tigers ( Panthera tigris ) , leopards ( Panthera pardus ) , jungle cats ( Felis chaus ) , wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) , three types of civet , four types of squirrel , and several other types of mammal . At least 219 species of bird and several types of snake are known to live in the park .
= = = Flora = = =
Most of the vegetation within Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary is evergreen in character and is composed of several canopy layers .
The upper canopy consists mostly of Dipterocarpus macrocarpus rising 12 to 30 m ( 39 to 98 ft ) and having straight trunks . Other species found in the top canopy include Sam ( Artocarps chaplasha ) , Amari ( Amoora wallichi ) , Sopas ( Mcheliai spp . ) , Bhelu ( Tetramels mudiflora ) , Udal ( Sterculia villosa ) and Hingori ( Castanopsis spp . ) .
Nahar ( Mesua ferrea ) dominates the middle canopy with its spreading crown , casting fairly heavy shade over a wide area . Other species that make up the middle canopy include Bandordima ( Dysoxylum procerum ) , Dhuna ( Conarium resiniferum ) , Bhomora ( Terminalia belerica ) , Ful Gomari ( Gmelina sp . ) Bonbogri ( Pterospermum lanceafolium ) , Morhal ( Vatica lanceafolia ) , Selleng ( Sapium baccatum ) , Sassi ( Aqualari agolacha ) , and Otenga ( Dillenia indica ) .
A variety of evergreen shrubs and herbs make up the lower canopy and ground layers . The most common of these are Dolu bamboo ( Teinosstachyum dullooa ) , Bojal bamboo ( Pseudostachyum polymorphum ) , Jengu ( Calamus erectus ) , Jati bet ( Calamus spp . ) , Houka bet ( Calamus spp . ) , Tora ( Alpinia allughas ) , Kaupat ( Phrynium imbricatum ) , and Sorat ( Laported cremulata ) .
= = Conservation = =
The isolation of the park by numerous tea gardens creates a geographic barrier for migrating animals . The growing populations of tea garden workers also threatens the habitat since many people rely on the forest for firewood , traditional medicine and food . Large quantities of leaves and grass are collected from the forests to feed cattle . During the rainy season , herbicides and pesticides from the tea gardens wash through the sanctuary .
The tea gardens are also used by elephants as a migration route to Nagaland , making them vulnerable to frequent poaching . Railway lines further divide the park , stranding a single group of gibbons in the smaller fragment . Illegal logging and the encroachment by local people employed by the tea gardens degraded the habitat quality .
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= Forever ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Forever " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her fifth studio album , Daydream . It was released by Columbia Records on March 10 , 1996 , as an airplay @-@ only single from the album . The song was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff , and was composed throughout 1995 . Its lyrics describe a situation where the protagonist knows her relationship with her lover has withered away , however he will continue living in her memory forever .
The song 's music video is a collage of snippets from Carey 's shows at the Tokyo Dome , during her Daydream World Tour in 1996 . Most of the video is the performance of the song during one of the three Japanese shows on the tour . Serving as an airplay only song in the US , and a limited release around the world , the song achieved minimal chart success . In the United States , Billboard rules did not allow the charting of non @-@ commercially released songs . For this reason , it did not chart on the Hot 100 , however peaking at number two on the Adult Contemporary chart . Outside the US , the song peaked at number 11 in Canada , 40 in New Zealand and 44 in the Netherlands .
= = Composition = =
" Forever " was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff in early 1995 . The song is written in the key of A ♭ major and features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -C / G @-@ Fm / E ♭ -D ♭ -E ♭ . Throughout " Forever , " Carey 's voice spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of A5 . According to author Chris Nickson , the song 's instrumentation and throw @-@ back melody bring reminders of 1950s and 60s balladry . The throw @-@ back was featured through the chord changes , and in the way that the guitar arpeggios " stayed at the forefront of the music . " " Forever " finds Carey displaying subtle and harmonizing vocals , with Nickson describing her voice as " undeniably rich . " Stephen Holden from The New York Times described it as a " 50 's @-@ style rock @-@ and @-@ roll ballad , " while calling Carey 's voice " magnificent . "
= = Reception = =
Ken Tucker , an editor from Entertainment Weekly praised the song 's instrumentation , writing " I like the brisk waltz tempo of ' Forever . ' " " Forever " was released as an airplay only single in the US , and received a limited European release . Due to Billboard rules at the time of its release , " Forever " wasn 't eligible to chart on the Hot 100 . However , the song charted on the Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at number two . In Canada , the song peaked at number 11 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart issue dated September 30 , 1996 . In New Zealand , the song entered the singles chart at its peak of number 40 , spending only one week in the chart . On the Dutch Singles Chart , " Forever " peaked at number 47 , fluctuating in the chart for a total of nine weeks .
= = Music video and live performances = =
" Forever " was first performed in October 1995 in Carey 's concert at Madison Square Garden . The next year it was performed throughout all the shows on Carey 's Daydream World Tour in 1996 . The music video for " Forever " was filmed at one of the Japanese shows during the tour . It presents Carey singing the song on stage at the Tokyo Dome , and inter @-@ cuts scenes from other segments of the show . For the show and video , Carey wore a pair of black pants and matching blouse , together with a long leather trench coat . Her hair teased in a long wavy fashion , and is a golden @-@ auburn color . The video features three back @-@ up singers , one male and two female and a large projection screen on the stage 's rear . The live audio of this performance was released on the single .
= = Formats and track listing = =
European CD Single
" Forever " – 4 : 01
" Forever " ( Live ) – 4 : 12
Australian CD Single
" Forever " – 4 : 01
" Underneath the Stars " – 3 : 33
" Forever " ( Live ) – 4 : 12
" Make It Happen " ( Live ) – 4 : 43
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Daydream liner notes .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ production , songwriting , vocals
Walter Afanasieff – co @-@ production , songwriting
= = Charts = =
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= Peter Sarsgaard =
John Peter Sarsgaard ( / ˈsɑːrzɡɑːrd / ; born March 7 , 1971 ) is an American actor . He landed his first feature role in the movie Dead Man Walking in 1995 . He then appeared in the 1998 independent films Another Day in Paradise and Desert Blue . That same year , Sarsgaard received a substantial role in The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1998 ) , playing Raoul , the ill @-@ fated son of Athos . Sarsgaard later achieved critical recognition when he was cast in Boys Don 't Cry ( 1999 ) as John Lotter . He landed his first leading role in the 2001 film The Center of the World . The following year , he played supporting roles in Empire , The Salton Sea , and K @-@ 19 : The Widowmaker .
For his portrayal of Charles Lane in Shattered Glass , Sarsgaard won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor and was nominated for the 2004 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor . Sarsgaard has appeared in an eclectic range of films , including the 2004 comedy @-@ drama Garden State , the biographical film Kinsey ( 2004 ) , the drama The Dying Gaul ( 2005 ) and big @-@ budget films such as Flightplan ( 2005 ) , Jarhead ( 2005 ) , Orphan ( 2009 ) , An Education ( 2009 ) , Knight and Day ( 2010 ) , and the superhero film Green Lantern ( 2011 ) , Lovelace ( 2013 ) , Kelly Reichardt 's Night Moves ( 2013 ) , Woody Allen 's Blue Jasmine ( 2013 ) and Black Mass ( 2015 ) . Sarsgaard also appeared in the U.S. TV series The Killing ( 2013 ) as a man on death row perhaps wrongfully convicted for the brutal murder of his wife — a performance which he says included " some of the best acting I have ever done in my life . " His latest film , Experimenter , in which he stars alongside Winona Ryder , was released in the U.S. on October 16 , 2015 .
Sarsgaard has also appeared in Off @-@ Broadway productions including Kingdom of Earth , Laura Dennis , and Burn This . In September 2008 , he made his Broadway debut as Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin in The Seagull . Sarsgaard appeared in the off @-@ Broadway production of Uncle Vanya in January 2009 . Sarsgaard is married to actress Maggie Gyllenhaal . They have two daughters .
= = Early life = =
Sarsgaard was born at Scott Air Force Base , Illinois , the son of Judy Lea ( née Reinhardt ) and John Dale Sarsgaard . His father was an Air Force engineer and later worked for Monsanto and IBM . He is American ( although his surname originates in Denmark , where two of his paternal great @-@ great @-@ grandparents were born ) . Sarsgaard was raised a Roman Catholic and served as an altar boy . His family moved more than 12 times during his childhood , following his father 's job . At the age of 7 , Sarsgaard originally wanted to become a soccer player and took up ballet to help improve his coordination . After suffering several bad concussions while playing soccer , he gave up the sport and became interested in writing and theater .
Sarsgaard attended Fairfield College Preparatory School , a private Jesuit boys ' school in Connecticut , where he became interested in movies . Following his graduation from Fairfield Prep , he attended Bard College in New York for two years before transferring to Washington University in St. Louis ( WUSTL ) in 1991 , where he co @-@ founded an improvisational comedy troupe " Mama 's Pot Roast . " While at WUSTL , Sarsgaard began performing in plays in an offshoot of New York 's Actors Studio ; His first role was as the servant Lawrence in Molière 's Tartuffe . In 1993 , he graduated with a degree in history and moved to New York .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Sarsgaard branched out with guest roles in television productions filmed in New York City , with Law & Order in 1995 , and New York Undercover ( 1997 ) as well as an appearance in the 1997 HBO special Subway Stories . He appeared in his first film role in Dead Man Walking ( 1995 ) , where he was cast as a murdered teenager , killed by Sean Penn 's character .
His next film roles were in a series of independent features : Another Day in Paradise ( 1997 ) , part of an ensemble cast that included James Woods , Melanie Griffith , Vincent Kartheiser , and Natasha Gregson Wagner , and In Desert Blue ( 1998 ) , where he had a supporting role in the film . He received his substantial role in the 1998 film The Man in the Iron Mask , where he played Raoul , the ill @-@ fated son of John Malkovich 's dueling Musketeer , Athos . The film uses characters from Alexandre Dumas ' d 'Artagnan Romances , and is very loosely adapted from some plot elements of The Vicomte de Bragelonne . The film received ambivalent reviews , but was a success at the box office , earning $ 182 million worldwide .
= = = 1999 – 2002 : Critical success = = =
In 1999 , Sarsgaard earned critical recognition in Kimberly Peirce 's Boys Don 't Cry , where he was cast as notorious killer John Lotter . The film is based on the real @-@ life story of Brandon Teena , who was raped and murdered in 1993 by Lotter and Tom Nissen after they found out that he was a trans man . Boys Don ’ t Cry received overwhelmingly positive acclaim from critics , and his performance was critically well received . According to The Boston Globe , " Peter Sarsgaard ... makes the killer 's terrible trajectory not only believable , but grounded in the most mundane clodhopper behavior . He isn 't a drooling monster , he 's a guy you wouldn 't look twice at a bar or a convenience store . " A contributor from the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer wrote " It 's a marvelous performance supported ably by ... Sarsgaard as the unpredictable , sociopathic Lotter . " The film was screened at a special presentation at the 2000 Venice Film Festival . In regards to his character , as how Sarsgaard made him " likeable , sympathetic even " was because he wanted the audience " to understand why they would hang out with me . If my character wasn 't necessarily likable , I wanted him to be charismatic enough that you weren 't going to have a dull time if you were with him . " In another interview , Sarsgaard said he felt " empowered " by playing Lotter .
His first leading role was in the 2001 feature The Center of the World , where he plays Richard Longman , a lonely young entrepreneur who skips out on his company 's big initial public offering and pays a stripper ( Molly Parker ) $ 10 @,@ 000 to fly to Las Vegas with him . The film received average reviews , however , A.O. Scott of the New York Times , reported that the performances by both Sarsgaard and Parker " provide a rough grain of authenticity , capturing the blunted affect and aimless neediness of people in their 20s struggling to navigate a world of material abundance and impoverished emotional possibility . " Scott concluded in his recap that Sarsgaard made his character " seem like a genuinely nice guy , too innocent to grasp the sleaziness of his bargain with Florence . "
In 2002 , Sarsgaard starred in three films , K @-@ 19 : The Widowmaker , Empire and The Salton Sea . In K @-@ 19 : The Widowmaker , he portrayed a young Russian navy lieutenant . The film 's budget cost was $ 100 million to make , but upon release , it grossed $ 35 million in the United States and $ 30 million internationally , qualifying it as a box office failure . His next role was in Empire , a crime thriller , where he was cast in a supporting role . Sarsgaard played a meth addict in D. J. Caruso 's The Salton Sea .
= = = 2003 – present : Worldwide recognition = = =
2003 marked a significant turning point in Sarsgaard 's career , when he starred in the feature film Shattered Glass . He depicted journalist Charles Lane , the lead editor of The New Republic . Shattered Glass is based on the real events of journalist Stephen Glass ' career at The New Republic during the mid @-@ 1990s and his fall when his widespread journalistic fraud is exposed . During promotion of the film , Sarsgaard noted of his portrayal of Lane : " I just wanted to get his perspective on the actual events . [ ... ] I think that I tried to have some respect for myself and that way you 're respecting the real person you 're playing . I 've done it a number of times . And it 's always a little bit confusing . The best thing to do is just to ignore the fact , I think , that you 're playing somebody who is a real life character . " According to the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , " Peter Sarsgaard is appealingly level , a stolid straight @-@ shooter as Lane " . A reviewer from the Chicago Tribune noted that Sarsgaard plays Lane with " great subtlety and grace " . The newspaper concluded with , " The character doesn 't seethe with personal resentment ; when he does a slow burn , he conveys a much deeper sense of a man 's value system being violated past the breaking point . " Sarsgaard 's performance in the film earned him his first Golden Globe Award nomination and an Independent Spirit Award nomination .
Following the success of Shattered Glass , Sarsgaard starred in several roles . In 2004 , he starred in the comedy @-@ drama Garden State , where he played Mark , the sarcastic best friend to Zach Braff 's character . In the same year , Sarsgaard portrayed Clyde Martin , in the biographical film Kinsey , a movie about the life of Alfred Kinsey , played by Liam Neeson . Kinsey was Sarsgaard 's first film role which featured full frontal nudity . Paul Clinton of CNN reported that Sarsgaard 's Clyde Martin " stands out " and " confirms that he 's without doubt one of the best character actors of his generation . " When asked about his kissing scenes with Neeson in Kinsey , Sarsgaard said :
It wasn ’ t as hard as , say , running around with all my gear on in Jarhead . I ’ d rather go for an awkward moment than physical exertion any day . The only thing that I think [ male actors ] get freaked out about when they have to do something like kiss a guy in a movie — when to their knowledge they ’ re straight — is that they ’ re afraid they ’ re going to be turned on . And if you ’ re not afraid that you ’ re going to be turned on — meaning that you know what you like — then really it ’ s not that hard .
In 2005 , Sarsgaard starred in the drama The Dying Gaul , where he plays Robert Sandrich , a struggling screenwriter who has written a serious love story about a man and his terminally ill partner . The film received favourable reviews . In an interview , Sarsgaard said , he felt like he was playing a character based on Craig Lucas , the director , whom he describes as " elitist in a fun way " . Because his character , a screenwriter , is also " elitist , " when he sells his soul by compromising his artistic vision , " ... the conflict seems bigger . Anyone can sell their soul . Even people with integrity . There 's always that temptation to guard against . Which is why it 's best to keep as much as possible hidden . "
Also in 2005 , he had a supporting role in the suspense film The Skeleton Key . His next film role was in Robert Schwentke 's thriller Flightplan ( 2005 ) . In the film , Sarsgaard played an air marshall , who is ordered to keep guard of Jodie Foster 's character . Flightplan was screened at a special presentation at the 30th annual Toronto International Film Festival in 2005 . Despite the mixed reviews , the film was a financial success , earning $ 223 million worldwide , making it his highest @-@ grossing film to the end of 2008 . Sarsgaard 's next feature was Jarhead ( 2005 ) , opposite Jake Gyllenhaal . The movie is based on U.S. Marine Anthony Swofford 's 2003 Gulf War memoir of the same name .
Sarsgaard hosted Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) on January 21 , 2006 . In his introductory monologue , he tried to point out that he was a nice guy despite his sometimes macabre roles . Video clips were then played of Sarsgaard scaring the SNL cast . One sketch featured the Severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) global scare , which was still fresh in many minds , and one of the skits included a promotion for the Peter Sarsgaard " SARS @-@ Guard " , a reference to the mania of facemasks worn in public by those fearing infection .
In 2007 , he starred in supporting roles in Year of the Dog and Rendition . Year of the Dog is a dark comedy about a lonely middle @-@ aged woman , played by Molly Shannon , who finds that animals are the only beings she can truly rely on . Sarsgaard plays Newt , an androgynous dog trainer , and love interest for Shannon 's character . He starred alongside Meryl Streep , Alan Arkin , Reese Witherspoon , and Jake Gyllenhaal in Rendition , a Gavin Hood @-@ directed political thriller about the US policy of extraordinary rendition . Viewed as a sex symbol , Sarsgaard was named one of Salon.com 's Sexiest Man Living in 2007 . 2008 saw Sarsgaard star in the drama Elegy , based on a Phillip Roth novel , The Dying Animal . The film received favorable good reception amongst critics .
In 2009 , Sarsgaard starred alongside Jon Foster and Sienna Miller in the drama The Mysteries of Pittsburgh . It is an adaptation of Michael Chabon 's novel of the same name . In the movie , Sarsgaard plays Cleveland , the rebellious bisexual boyfriend of Miller 's character . The Mysteries of Pittsburgh premiered at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival . His next film appearance was in the thriller Orphan , where he and Vera Farmiga play a married couple who lose a baby and adopt a nine @-@ year @-@ old girl , who is not as innocent as she claims to be . Furthermore , in the same year , Sarsgaard starred as David in Lone Scherfig 's coming of age film An Education . The role required Sarsgaard to speak in a British accent . An Education drew favorable reviews from critics . According to Variety , " Sarsgaard ... marvelously expresses the savoir faire that has such an impact on Jenny [ Carey Mulligan ] . " Sarsgaard played a federal agent in the action comedy film Knight and Day , released in June 2010 , in which he appeared alongside Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz . In February 2010 , it was announced that Sarsgaard had been cast as villain Hector Hammond in the superhero film Green Lantern . The film was released in 2011 .
= = = Stage career = = =
In 1995 , Sarsgaard made his theatrical debut in the Off @-@ Broadway production of Horton Foote 's Laura Dennis , which was directed by James Houghton . Ben Brantley of The New York Times wrote : " Mr. Sarsgaard ... emerges as an actor to watch with a performance of breathtaking emotional conviction . " The following year he starred in Kingdom of Earth opposite Cynthia Nixon and directed by John Cameron Mitchell . His performance in the play received favorable reviews amongst critics . In October 2002 , Sarsgaard returned to theater in a New York production of Lanford Wilson 's Burn This , where he replaced Edward Norton .
In 2008 , Sarsgaard made his Broadway debut at the Royal Court Theatre of Anton Chekhov 's adaptation The Seagull alongside Kristin Scott Thomas , Mackenzie Crook and Carey Mulligan . In the production , he plays , Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin , a tortured writer who drives a rival to suicide and a young lover to ruin . For the role , Sarsgaard had been required to speak in a British accent , in which he wanted it to be " less liked by an American audience " .
Sarsgaard played Mikhail Lvovich Astrov , a country doctor and philosopher , in the Classic Stage Company 's 2009 off @-@ Broadway production of Anton Chekhov 's Uncle Vanya in New York City . The cast also included Maggie Gyllenhaal , Mamie Gummer , Denis O 'Hare , and George Morfogen . The production , directed by Austin Pendleton , began previews on January 17 and ended its limited run on March 1 . Joe Dziemianowicz of the New York Daily News gave the production one out of four stars , but complimented his performance , writing that Sarsgaard does a " credible job as the doctor " . In the Bloomberg review of Uncle Vanya , John Simon , wrote : " Sarsgaard can 't find the right tempi or emphases : shuttling between colorless rattle and silence @-@ studded rallentandos , he fails at both infectious enthusiasm and self- effacing charm . "
In May 2010 , it was reported that Sarsgaard will star in Chekhov 's play Three Sisters . The production is scheduled to begin in 2011 , and Sarsgaard will reunited with Uncle Vanya director Austin Pendleton .
= = Personal life = =
In an interview with the New York Times , Sarsgaard stated that he followed Catholicism , saying : " I like the death @-@ cult aspect of Catholicism . Every religion is interested in death , but Catholicism takes it to a particularly high level . [ ... ] Seriously , in Catholicism , you 're supposed to love your enemy . That really impressed me as a kid , and it has helped me as an actor . [ ... ] The way that I view the characters I play is part of my religious upbringing . To abandon curiosity in all personalities , good or bad , is to give up hope in humanity . "
Among his most notable romantic relationships , Sarsgaard dated burlesque dancer Dita Von Teese and model and actress Shalom Harlow . Early in his film career , he dated photographer Malerie Marder , a close friend from his days attending Bard College , who had featured Sarsgaard in some of her early work . Sarsgaard has been in a relationship with actress Maggie Gyllenhaal , the sister of his close friend Jake Gyllenhaal , since 2002 . In April 2006 , they announced their engagement , and on May 2 , 2009 , they married in a small ceremony in Brindisi , Italy . They have two daughters , Ramona Sarsgaard , born October 3 , 2006 , and Gloria Ray Sarsgaard , born April 19 , 2012 . The family lives in Brooklyn , New York .
Sarsgaard is vegan , although he says he cooks meat for his children .
In June 2013 , Sarsgaard and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Ratatoskr =
In Norse mythology , Ratatoskr ( Old Norse , generally considered to mean " drill @-@ tooth " or " bore @-@ tooth " ) is a squirrel who runs up and down the world tree Yggdrasil to carry messages between the Veðrfölnir , perched atop Yggdrasil , and the wyrm Níðhöggr , who dwells beneath one of the three roots of the tree . Ratatoskr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson .
= = Etymology = =
The name Ratatoskr contains two elements : rata- and -toskr . The element toskr is generally held to mean " tusk " . Guðbrandur Vigfússon theorized that the rati- element means " the traveller " . He says that the name of the legendary drill Rati may feature the same term . According to Vigfússon , Ratatoskr means " tusk the traveller " or " the climber tusk . "
Sophus Bugge theorized that the name Ratatoskr is a loanword from Old English meaning " Rat @-@ tooth . " Bugge 's basis hinges on the fact that the -toskr element of the compound does not appear anywhere else in Old Norse . Bugge proposed that the -toskr element is a reformation of the Old English word tūsc ( Old Frisian tusk ) and , in turn , that the element Rata- represents Old English ræt ( " rat " ) .
According to Albert Sturtevant , " [ as ] far as the element Rata- is concerned , Bugge 's hypothesis has no valid foundation in view of the fact that the [ Old Norse ] word Rata ( gen. form of Rati * ) is used in Háv [ amál ] ( 106 , 1 ) to signify the instrument which Odin employed for boring his way through the rocks in quest of the poet 's mead [ ... ] " and that " Rati * must then be considered a native [ Old Norse ] word meaning " The Borer , Gnawer " [ ... ] " .
Sturtevant says that Bugge 's theory regarding the element -toskr may appear to be supported by the fact that the word does not appear elsewhere in Old Norse . Sturtevant , however , disagrees . Sturtevant says that the Old Norse proper name Tunne ( derived from Proto @-@ Norse * Tunþē ) refers to " a person who is characterized as having some peculiar sort of tooth " and theorizes a Proto @-@ Germanic form of -toskr . Sturtevant concludes that " the fact that the [ Old Norse ] word occurs only in the name Rata @-@ toskr is no valid evidence against this assumption , for there are many [ Old Norse ] hapax legomena of native origin , as is attested by the equivalents in the Mod [ ern ] Scandinavian dialects . " Modern scholars have accepted this etymology , listing the name Ratatoskr as meaning " drill @-@ tooth " ( Jesse Byock , Andy Orchard , Rudolf Simek ) or " bore @-@ tooth " ( John Lindow ) .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , the god Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) says that Ratatoskr runs up and down Yggdrasil bringing messages between the eagle perched atop it and Níðhöggr below it :
Ratatoskr is described in the Prose Edda 's Gylfaginning 's chapter 16 , in which High states that
An eagle sits at the top of the ash , and it has knowledge of many things . Between its eyes sits the hawk called Vedrfolnir [ ... ] . The squirrel called Ratatosk [ ... ] runs up and down the ash . He tells slanderous gossip , provoking the eagle and Nidhogg .
= = Theories = =
According to Rudolf Simek , " the squirrel probably only represents an embellishing detail to the mythological picture of the world @-@ ash in Grímnismál " . Hilda Ellis Davidson , describing the world tree , states the squirrel is said to gnaw at it — furthering a continual destruction and re @-@ growth cycle , and posits the tree symbolizes ever @-@ changing existence . John Lindow points out that Yggdrasil is described as rotting on one side and as being chewed on by four harts and Níðhöggr , and that , according to the account in Gylfaginning , it also bears verbal hostility in the fauna it supports . Lindow adds that " in the sagas , a person who helps stir up or keep feuds alive by ferrying words of malice between the participants is seldom one of high status , which may explain the assignment of this role in the mythology to a relatively insignificant animal " .
Richard W. Thorington Jr. and Katie Ferrell theorize that " the role of Ratatosk probably derived from the habit of European tree squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris ) to give a scolding alarm call in response to danger . It takes little imagination for you to think that the squirrel is saying nasty things about you . "
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= The Boat Race 1884 =
The 41st Boat Race took place on 7 April 1884 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race , for which Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd acted as both umpire and starter for the first time , was won by Cambridge by margin of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 39 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 22 – 18 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and held the overall lead , with 22 victories to Cambridge 's 17 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss ( who rowed for the Dark Blues four times between the 1875 and the 1878 races ) and William Grenfell ( who represented Oxford in the 1877 and 1878 races ) . Herbert Edward Rhodes was the Cambridge coach ; he had rowed for the Light Blues four times between 1873 and 1876 and was Cambridge University Boat Club president in 1875 . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) and for the first time acted as starter . He replaced Edward Searle ( who had acted in that capacity since at least 1840 ) after the previous year 's chaotic start when one of the crews failed to hear his command to start . The race had been postponed by two days because of the funeral of the Prince Leopold , Duke of Albany .
The Cambridge crew took the unusual step of taking a two week break from practice in late @-@ January , after which they settled on a crew which , according to Drinkwater , was " considerably faster than Oxford on the day of the race . " Conversely he noted that the Dark Blue crew " did not come on at all well and were somewhat stale by the day of the race " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 12 @.@ 75 lb ( 75 @.@ 5 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford saw two former Blues return to the crew , including A. R. Paterson who was rowing in his fourth consecutive Boat Race . The Cambridge crew contained four rowers with Boat Race experience , including Charles William Moore who was making his fourth appearance in the event . For the first time in three years , the race featured no non @-@ British competitors .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The Light Blues made the quicker start and held a clear water advantage by the time the crews passed the Crab Tree pub . Cambridge kept this advantage to Hammersmith Bridge at which point Oxford spurted and recovered some of the deficit , but the Cantabrigians increased their stroke rate to go clear once again by Corney Reach . Despite the efforts of the Oxford stroke W. D. B. Curry to push his crew , according to Drinkwater , " at Barnes Bridge they fell to pieces . " Cambridge went on to win by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 39 seconds , recording their first victory in six years , and took the overall record to 22 – 18 in Oxford 's favour .
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= Marcela Agoncillo =
Marcela Mariño de Agoncillo ( née Mariño y Coronel ; June 24 , 1860 – May 30 , 1946 ) , also simply known as Marcela Agoncillo , was a Filipina renowned in Philippine history as the principal seamstress of the first and official flag of the Philippines , gaining her the title of Mother of the Philippine Flag .
Agoncillo was a daughter of a rich family in her hometown of Taal , Batangas . Finishing her studies at Santa Catalina College , she acquired her learning in music and feminine crafts . At the age of 30 , Agoncillo married Filipino lawyer and jurist Don Felipe Agoncillo and bore him six children . Her marriage led to her important role in Philippine history . When her husband was exiled to Hong Kong during the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution , Agoncillo and the rest of the family joined him and temporarily resided there to avoid the anti @-@ Filipino hostility of some foreign countries . While in Hong Kong , General Emilio Aguinaldo requested her to sew a flag that would represent their country . Agoncillo , her eldest daughter and a friend manually sewed the flag in accordance with General Aguinaldo 's design which later became the official flag of the Philippines .
While the flag itself is the perpetual legacy of Agoncillo , she is also commemorated through museums and monuments like the marker in Hong Kong ( where her family temporarily sojourned ) , at her ancestral home in Taal , Batangas which has been turned into a museum , in paintings by notable painters as well as through other visual arts .
= = Early life = =
Agoncillo was born on June 24 , 1860 in Taal , Batangas , Philippines to Francisco Mariño and Eugenia Coronel . She grew up in their ancestral house in Batangas built in the 1770s by her grandfather , Andres Marino .
As a daughter of a rich and religious family , Agoncillo was referred to in their town as Roselang Hubog which means " a virgin enthroned in the town church " . Stories told in the area related that people kept waiting patiently by the church patio for her appearance in the morning to attend mass accompanied either by a maid or an elder relative .
She was sent to a convent after her education in Manila . The convent she was studying in was the Santa Catalina College of the Dominican nuns , an exclusive school for girls , established in the Walled City of Intramuros where she finished her elementary and secondary education . In college , she learned Spanish , music , the feminine crafts and social graces . She spent her girlhood partly in their hometown and partly in the convent . Accordingly , Agoncillo was skilled in needlework .
= = Marriage and family = =
Agoncillo was married to Don Felipe , a rich Filipino revolutionist and the first Filipino diplomat . They were both thirty and Don Felipe was already a judge when they finally wed . Agoncillo moved from Taal to Manila , where they lived together in a two @-@ story house on M.H. del Pillar St. , Malate , near the Malate church .
Six daughters were born to them : Lorenza ( " Enchang " ) , Gregoria ( " Goring " ) , Eugenia ( " Nene " ) , Marcela ( " Celing " , named after her mother because they thought she would be their last child ) , Adela ( who died at the age of three ) and the youngest , Maria ( " Maring " , who was their last surviving child and died on July 6 , 1995 ) . Most of her daughters became teachers . Gregoria was the first Filipina to graduate from Oxford University . After the graduation of the three elder daughters , they were offered teaching positions . Lorenza was given an appointment to teach in Malate Catholic School . They so immersed themselves in their respective teaching careers that not one of them chose to be married . Marcella Agoncillo cared for all of her daughters until they reached maturity . One of her favorite pieces of advice to them was to " live honestly and well , and to work hard and not depend on family property " .
Besides the legal services rendered by Don Felipe to the impoverished , Agoncillo and her daughters observed every Thursday as a day of charity , when a queue of needy people seeking alms would form in the Agoncillo driveway . No one ever left their house empty @-@ handed . Agoncillo would hand them a bag of rice in addition to the money she gave them . This practice lasted until the couple retired .
= = Living in Hong Kong = =
After learning of the plans of the Governor @-@ General of the Philippines to deport Don Felipe , he sailed to Yokohama , Japan , staying there only briefly until proceeding to Hong Kong where he joined other Filipino exiles who found asylum when the revolution broke out in 1896 . Twenty @-@ two months after the departure of Don Felipe for Hong Kong , Agoncillo and the rest of the family ( her last two daughters were not yet born ) followed him into exile . They rented a house at 535 Morrison Hill in the Wan Chai district . While in Hong Kong , Agoncillo gave birth to their last child on March 22 , 1906 .
Felipe , being an exile himself , received any Filipino who came into their house . Thereafter , the place became a sanctuary for other Filipino revolutionary exiles . They initiated meetings in the Agoncillos ' residence , especially during the critical months of March and April 1898 . Among these folks were Gen. Antonio Luna and Gen. Aguinaldo . Also , Josephine Bracken , Jose Rizal 's fiancée , sought refuge in their house when the Spanish authorities threatened to torture her .
= = = Making of the Philippine flag = = =
After the signing of the Pact of Biak @-@ na @-@ Bato on December 14 , 1897 , General Aguinaldo , after their voluntary exile , visited the Agoncillo residence in Hong Kong . After having met them , Aguinaldo requested that Agoncillo immediately hand @-@ sew a flag according to his design which would embody the national aspirations of all Filipinos . After receiving the request , Agoncillo delegated her eldest daughter , five @-@ year @-@ old Lorenza Agoncillo , and Mrs. Delfina Herbosa de Natividad , Jose Rizal 's niece by his sister Lucia , to help her .
The process took only a short time , but it was difficult . The three worked manually and with the aid of a sewing machine . They had to redo the flag after the rays of the sun were not in the proper direction . Their eyes and hands suffered due to the prolonged work session . Made from fine silk which she bought in Hong Kong , the flag was embroidered in gold and contained stripes of blue and red and a white triangle with the sun and three stars on it . The flag was finished in five days and became known as " the sun and the stars flag " .
On May 17 , 1898 , the flag was delivered personally by Agoncillo and was packed among the things Aguinaldo brought back to Manila . This was the flag that was hoisted from the window of Aguinaldo 's house in Kawit , Cavite , during the proclamation of Philippine independence on June 12 , 1898 accompanied by the Philippine National Anthem Marcha Filipina . However , she did not witness either this first public display of the flag or the time when the flag was unfurled during the Malolos Congress because her husband remained in Hong Kong and she remained with him .
In response to the message written by Gen. Aguinaldo , Agoncillo wrote the following statement when she was interviewed :
In the house at 535 Morrison Hill , where I lived with my family , exiled from our country on account of the national cause , I had the good fortune to make the first Philippine flag under the direction of an illust [ r ] ious leader Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy ... It took me five days to make that National Flag , and when completed , I myself delivered it to Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo before boarding the transport McCullo [ ug ] h ... Gen. Aguinaldo is the best witness who can give the information whether or not that flag was the first to be displayed in Cavite at the beginning of the revolutionary government against the government of Spain in these islands .
= = Post @-@ exile and death = =
Agoncillo and her daughters stayed in Hong Kong from 1895 to 1906 . She took care of their house , which became an asylum . Their funds had run out because of the heavy expenses incurred by Don Felipe for his diplomatic activities in France and in the United States . She once had to sell the children 's pinafores and their jewels to support her family and to pay for their voyage back to Manila . The other money was also used to help boost the revolutionary funds . Their support for the revolution made them an impoverished family ; however , they gained it back when Don Felipe returned to his profession .
After the fall of the first Philippine Republic and the establishment of the American regime , Agoncillo and her family ended their exile and went back to Manila as soon as they were fetched by Don Felipe after his diplomatic activities abroad had ended . The Agoncillos settled in their family house in Malate . After the death of Don Felipe , Agoncillo 's remaining family suffered from starvation due to their meager supply of food , water and other needs . The Japanese conquerors also contributed to their anguish during the period of the Japanese invasion . Taking this all in stride , Marcela remained pragmatic and a source of inspiration . After their house was incinerated during the Japanese occupation , all she said to her remaining daughters was " We will then have to go to Taal . "
Though she endured the 1945 Battle of Manila , the health of Agoncillo , who was alternatively called " Doña Marcela " and " Lola Celay " during her old age , was steadily deteriorating . She continued to mourn her deceased husband to such an extent that her daughters found it necessary to hide all his remaining photographs . On May 30 , 1946 , she quietly died in Manila at the age of 86 . Her mortal remains were brought from Taal to Manila and interred alongside her husband in the Catholic cemetery of La Loma according to the wishes of her last will .
= = Commemoration = =
Several commemorative figures were created in remembrance of Agoncillo 's historic family . On November 27 , 1955 , a marker was erected by the National Historical Institute of the Philippines and a museum was established in Taal , Batangas in accordance with her last wish and was named Marcela Marino Agoncillo Museum and Monument . The museum is Agoncillo 's ancestral house . The house @-@ turned @-@ museum permanently exhibits flags and a diorama depicting the sewing of the first flag . A bronze statue of her holding the flag was erected outside the house in its garden . In Hong Kong , a historical marker was created by the Hong Kong Antiquities Council at Morrison Hill Park to commemorate the site where the first Philippine flag was sewn . However , the place where the Agoncillos resided , the location of the Hong Kong Junta , and other locations of historical importance to Filipinos remain unmarked .
Agoncillo 's legacy is remembered through the visual arts as well . In 1996 , Filipino National Artist Napoleon Abueva created the concrete and marble sculpture Three Women Weaving the Filipino Flag at the UP Diliman to commemorate Agoncillo and the other two women who assisted her in their important task . Renowned Filipino painter Fernando Amorsolo painted the historical sewing and is nationally known as The Making of the Philippine flag .
= = In popular culture = =
Portrayed by Maita Ejercito in the 2012 film , El Presidente .
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= Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik =
Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik is the debut album of American hip hop duo OutKast , released on April 26 , 1994 , by LaFace Records . After befriending each other in 1992 , rappers André 3000 and Big Boi pursued recording music as a duo and worked with production team Organized Noize , which led to their signing to LaFace . The album was produced by the team and recorded at the Dungeon , D.A.R.P. Studios , Purple Dragon , Bosstown , and Doppler Studios in Atlanta .
A Southern hip hop album , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik features live instrumentation in its hip hop production and musical elements from funk and soul genres . Wanting to make a statement about urban life as an African American in the South , OutKast wrote and recorded the album as teenagers and addressed coming of age topics with the album 's songs . They also incorporated repetitive hooks and Southern slang in their lyrics .
The album peaked at number 20 on the Billboard 200 , on which it charted for 26 weeks , and was eventually certified platinum in the United States . It was promoted with three singles , including " Player 's Ball " , which helped create buzz for the album . Upon its release , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik received positive reviews from music critics and helped distinguish Southern hip hop as a credible hip hop scene , amid East Coast and West Coast hip hop 's market dominance . The album has since been viewed by writers as an important release in both hip hop and Atlanta 's music scene .
= = Background = =
André 3000 and Big Boi met in 1992 at the Lenox Square shopping mall when they were both 16 years old . The two lived in the East Point section of Atlanta and attended Tri @-@ Cities High School . During school , they participated in rap battles in the cafeteria . André 3000 dropped out of high school at age 17 and worked a series of jobs before he and Big Boi formed a group called 2 Shades Deep ; he returned to obtain his GED at a night school following the release of Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik . They briefly dabbled in street @-@ hustling to save up for recording money .
The duo also spent time at their friend Rico Wade 's basement recording studio , known as the Dungeon , with Wade 's production team Organized Noize and future members of hip hop group Goodie Mob . OutKast recorded demos at the studio , and Organized Noize member Ray Murray helped Big Boi , whose strength lay in songwriting , develop his rapping skills . After several local productions , the team was hired by LaFace Records to produce remixes to songs from TLC 's 1992 album Ooooooohhh ... On the TLC Tip . The team had André 3000 and Big Boi rap over them , which led to a record deal from LaFace for both Organized Noize and OutKast . The commercial success of Arrested Development 's 1992 alternative hip hop single " Tennessee " also encouraged LaFace to sign OutKast , the label 's first hip hop act .
= = Recording and production = =
After receiving a $ 15 @,@ 000 advance from LaFace in 1993 , OutKast started recording the album at the Dungeon . The studio featured mostly secondhand recording equipment . Recording sessions also took place at Bosstown , Dallas Austin 's D.A.R.P. Studios , Doppler Studios , and Purple Dragon in Atlanta . Located in midtown Atlanta , Bosstown developed a sentimental value for OutKast , who later bought the studio in 1999 and renamed it " Stankonia " after their fourth studio album . Throughout the album 's recording , the duo refined their artistry and drew on ideas from funk , contemporary R & B , and soul music . André 3000 also smoked marijuana during the sessions . They recorded over 30 songs for the album .
Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik was produced entirely by Organized Noize , which was made up of Rico Wade , Ray Murray , and Sleepy Brown . Production team Organized Noize utilized live instrumentation on the album , emphasizing musical instruments , including bass , keyboards , guitar , and organ , over conventional hip hop techniques such as DJing and sampling . They viewed that the feel of live instruments made the music sound more authentic and immediate . With their production , the team sought an organic , celebratory , " down @-@ home " vibe , as Brown later recalled , " We wanted Atlanta brothers to be proud of where they were from " . Brown also sung vocals for several tracks .
Along with Organized Noize , other members of the Dungeon Family worked on the album , including Goodie Mob , Mr. DJ , Debra Killings , and Society of Soul . The album was mixed at Sound on Sound in New York City , Bosstown , D.A.R.P. Studios , Tree Sound , and Studio LaCoCo in Atlanta .
= = Music and lyrics = =
A Southern hip hop album , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik incorporates analog elements such as Southern @-@ styled guitar licks , languid soul melodies , and mellow 1970s funk grooves . It also features digital hip hop production elements such as programmed snare beats , booty bass elements , including Roland TR @-@ 808 clave rhythms , and old school hip hop elements , including E @-@ mu SP @-@ 1200 @-@ styled drums and turntable scratches . Music writers characterize the album 's music and beats as " clanky " and " mechanical " . Roni Sarig of Rolling Stone comments that the music shows " clear debts to East Coast bohos like the Native Tongues and a West Coast level of attention to live instruments and smooth , irresistible melodies " . In Oliver Wang 's Classic Material , music writer Tony Green delineates the album 's release " at the tail end of a second hip @-@ hop ' golden age , ' a two @-@ year period ( 1993 – 94 ) that spawned Wu @-@ Tang 's Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) , Snoop Dogg 's Doggystyle , De La Soul 's Buhloone Mindstate , Nas 's Illmatic , and A Tribe Called Quest 's Midnight Marauders " , and comments that " like many albums released during that period , Southernplayalistic alluded to its roots ... while clearing the way for a new direction that used the peach cobbler soul funk of the Organized Noize production crew as a starting point . "
With the album , OutKast wanted to make a statement about urban life as an African American in the South , particularly Atlanta . Written when they were teenagers , much of the album addresses coming of age topics , and has themes of self @-@ empowerment and reflections on life in the New South . Encyclopedia of Popular Music editor Colin Larkin writes that the album " compris [ es ] tales of the streets of their local East Point and Decatur neighbourhoods " . The album 's segue tracks illustrate Southern life . The lyrics incorporate tongue @-@ twisters , triplet rhyme schemes , repetitive vocal hooks , Southern slang , such as the recurring phrase " ain 't no thang but a chicken wing " repeated throughout " Ain 't No Thang " . The duo also intersperse their lyrics with references to classic cars , marijuana use , pimps , and players , which Big Boi defines as " somebody who can take care of they business in the game , the game of life " . His flow is frenetic and has a rapid delivery , while André 3000 raps in a more relaxed cadence , with staccato rhymes , and occasionally sings on the album . Writer Martin C. Strong views that both rappers ' " lyrical panache " on the album has an " ebb and flow " similar to Kool Keith and Del the Funky Homosapien .
The song " Call of da Wild " discusses the temptation to drop out of school , while " Git Up , Git Out " encourages teenagers to follow their passions , be productive , and stop using drugs . The latter is an intertextual track that mixes themes of consciousness and political awareness with images of violence , sex , drugs , and gangsta culture . It features guest rapper Cee Lo Green exploring perspectives of both man child and maternal figure . " Funky Ride " has no rappers and is instead sung by R & B group Society of Soul , a side project of Organized Noize . It has an extended guitar solo and musical similarities to Funkadelic and Bootsy Collins . " Crumblin ' Erb " explores themes of hedonism and addresses black @-@ on @-@ black violence and the negative effect it has on African @-@ American culture : " There 's only so much time left in this crazy world / I 'm just crumblin ' erb / Niggas killin ' niggas , they don 't understand ( it 's the master plan ) , I 'm just crumblin ' erb "
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single , " Player 's Ball " , was released on November 19 , 1993 , Originally intended as a Christmas release , it featured the sound of sleigh bells in its original mix , but it was removed once the single began receiving more airplay . The single received its highest exposure in February 1994 with heavy airplay and promotion , including a music video directed by Sean " Puffy " Combs . Combs had received a copy of the single from LaFace founder L.A. Reid and invited OutKast to New York to perform as an opening act for The Notorious B.I.G. By March , the single had sold 500 @,@ 000 copies and risen to number one on the Billboard Hot Rap Singles , topping the chart for six weeks .
The single 's popularity among young black college students during Freaknik increased its sales and helped it break into the Top 40 , a rare achievement for a hip hop song at the time . " Player 's Ball " spent 20 weeks and peaked at number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 . On May 12 , 1994 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . The single helped create buzz for the album .
Neither of the album 's next two singles performed as well . The title track was released in July , and it reached number 74 on the Billboard Hot 100 in August . Its music video was directed by F. Gary Gray . " Git Up , Git Out " was released in October . It only charted on the Billboard Hot R & B Singles , peaking at number 59 .
= = Release and reception = =
Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik was released by LaFace Records on April 26 , 1994 . It peaked at number 20 on the U.S. Billboard 200 on May 14 . The album ultimately spent 26 weeks on the chart . It also reached number three on the Billboard Top R & B Albums , remaining on the chart for 50 weeks . By June , the album had sold 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album 's sales increased after OutKast 's appearance at the 1995 Source Awards in January . On April 5 , 1995 , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik was certified platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of one million copies in the US . By August , it had sold 715 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was reissued by LaFace in September 1998 .
Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik was well received by contemporary critics . James Bernard of Entertainment Weekly preferred the album 's Southern hip hop over " Arrested Development 's suspiciously peppy , idealized version of down @-@ home " and stated , " it 's about time someone told today 's weed @-@ obsessed youth to ' get up , get out and get something / Don 't spend all your time trying to get high . ' " Dennis Hunt of the Los Angeles Times cited " Git Up , Git Out " as the album 's highlight and commended the duo 's " sauntering , hard @-@ core tales of the ' hood " , writing that they " bristle with clever humor and sharp insights rather than rage . " Rob Marriott of The Source complimented the duo 's " organic " P @-@ Funk influence and praised their lyrics ' honesty , commenting that " while their rhyme style may swing a little too close to Hiero for my comfort , what really makes this album so listenable is that ... truthfulness reigns . " However , Robert Christgau gave the album a " dud " rating in his consumer guide for The Village Voice .
Christgau remarked on OutKast 's early albums in a later consumer guide article , stating " If Dre and Big Boi were addressing real ' real life situations ' on Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik or ATLiens , they were drawling too unreconstructedly for any Yankee to tell . " In a retrospective review of the album , Steve Juon of RapReviews called it " a stellar debut album " , but noted some musical flaws , including the " monotonous bassline and chorus " of " D.E.E.P. " , the " out of place " " Funky Ride " , and the album 's segue tracks . Music journalist Peter Shapiro found its production " rich , deep and detailed , but never as seductive or crowd @-@ pleasing as Dr. Dre 's " and commended the album as " a melancholy depiction of the game that never shied away from its consequences " . Although he found " occasional dull and mediocre spots " , Allmusic editor Stanton Swihart called the album " an extremely strong showing " and praised the duo 's " inventive sense of rhyme flow " and " mixture of lyrical acuity , goofball humor , Southern drawl , funky timing , and legitimate offbeat personalities . "
= = Aftermath = =
Despite its success , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik had some detractors , including hip hop tastemakers who were unaccustomed to the album 's style . At the 1995 Source Awards , OutKast won in the " Best Newcomer " category , but were booed upon taking the stage and delivering their acceptance speech ; Big Boi managed to deliver his shout outs , while André 3000 was nervous and only said , " The South got somethin ' to say . " The latter recalled how the album was received by some listeners , " People thought that the South basically only had bass music . At first people were looking at us like ' Um , I don 't know . ' " Hip hop magnate Russell Simmons reacted negatively to the album at the time , but later expressed regret and said of the album in retrospect , " At the time , I didn 't understand their music — it sounds so different from what I was used to that I foolishly ... claim [ ed ] that they ' weren 't hip @-@ hop . ' The same way people didn 't understand ' Sucker MCs ' a decade earlier , I didn 't understand that instead of operating outside of hip @-@ hop , OutKast was actually expanding hip @-@ hop . They were offering one of the most honest expressions , and expression so honest that it went completely over my head at first . "
After the album was certified platinum , LaFace Records gave OutKast more creative control and advanced money for their 1996 follow @-@ up album ATLiens . After acquiring their own recording studio , the duo immediately started working on new material and assimilated themselves with music recording and studio equipment , as they sought to become more ambitious artists and less dependent on other producers . The two also became more accustomed to playing live , particularly Big Boi , and André 3000 significantly changed his lifestyle , as he adopted a more eccentric fashion sense , became a vegetarian , and stopped smoking marijuana . The album 's success also opened up more opportunities for Organized Noize , who subsequently worked on TLC 's CrazySexyCool ( 1994 ) . The Organized Noize @-@ produced hit " Waterfalls " became a massive success and earned the production team enough clout with LaFace to endorse Goodie Mob to the label . Organized Noize produced Goodie Mob 's acclaimed 1995 debut Soul Food and continued their crossover into R & B production , including work on Curtis Mayfield 's 1997 album New World Order .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik was a seminal album for Southern hip hop . During the early 1990s , the scene was largely discredited by the rest of the hip hop community as misogynistic and inferior to other scenes , particularly East Coast and West Coast hip hop . Those scenes dominated the hip hop market , and acts from other regional scenes were often produced by either East Coast or West Coast producers . The album offered an artistically credible alternative , both musically and lyrically , to those regional scenes and was produced by an Atlanta @-@ based production team . Music journalist T. Hasan Johnson notes " Outkast 's first submission to the music industry " as significant for how they " broke from the binary production options split by California and New York artists " , viewing that their decision to boast their region and a native production team " signaled a break from the conventional split between East and West hip hop aesthetics and openly demonstrated that the South could produce street @-@ certified , quality music . " Nicole Hodges Persley cites its release as a critical moment in hip hop and writes that it " marked a break in bicoastal hip hop sound " .
The album presaged hip hop 's " Dirty South " aesthetic , which later achieved mainstream recognition . Its smooth musical style , drawing on soul and funk musical traditions , and the duo 's clever lyrics helped define Southern hip hop 's sound , which influenced acts like Goodie Mob , Joi , and Bubba Sparxxx . In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , Rolling Stone journalist Roni Sarig writes that the album " marked a coming out for a region that would dominate hip @-@ hop by the decade 's end " , commenting that , with it , OutKast " helped define a new stream of hip @-@ hop that would rejuvenate the music in the late ' 90s and early 2000s . " Allmusic 's Stanton Swihart comments that " no one sounded like OutKast in 1994 " and that the album showcased Organized Noize as it " began forging one of the most distinctive production sounds in popular music in the ' 90s " .
Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik was also a significant release during the burgeoning Hotlanta music scene . The scene started as a black music revival in Atlanta during the late 1980s , and developed with the success of LaFace Records and the national attention received by Atlanta @-@ based recording artists and producers such as Toni Braxton , Kris Kross , Jermaine Dupri , and Babyface . The album offered realistic depictions of the city and veered from the Afrocentric themes of Arrested Development and Dupri 's mainstream stylings . It was named the third best album of 1994 in ego trip 's list of " Hip Hop 's 25 Greatest Albums by Year 1980 – 98 " . Vibe included it as one of the " 150 Essential Albums of the Vibe Era ( 1992 – 2007 ) " . The magazine also included the album on their 2004 list of " 51 Essential Albums " that represent " a generation , a sound , and in many cases , a movement " , writing that " [ OutKast ] determined the South had something to say , and after emerging form the Dungeon production lab , they said it all , sometimes sang it all — pointedly , funkdafied , and putting on absolutely no East Coast pretense . Classic . "
= = Track listing = =
All tracks produced by Organized Noise
Notes
" Funky Ride " is sung by Society of Soul .
" Flim Flam ( Interlude ) " contains a sample of " Ghetto Head Hunta " by P.A.
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Immaculate Conception Catholic Church ( Celina , Ohio ) =
Immaculate Conception Catholic Church is a parish of the Roman Catholic Church in Celina , Ohio , United States . Founded later than many other Catholic parishes in the heavily Catholic region of western Ohio , it owns a complex of buildings constructed in the early 20th century that have been designated historic sites because of their architecture . Leading among them is its massive church , built in the Romanesque Revival style just 43 years after the first Catholic moved into the city : it has been called northwestern Ohio 's grandest church building .
= = Parish history = =
Catholics were active in southern Mercer County by the 1830s ; St. John the Baptist parish in Maria Stein and St. Rose parish in St. Rose were established in 1837 , and St. Henry parish in St. Henry and St. Joseph parish in St. Joe were also founded before 1840 . Despite the growing Catholic presence to the south , the county seat was strongly Protestant in its early history : when it was platted in 1834 , the proprietors donated lots for the use of congregations of the Baptist , Methodist , and Presbyterian faiths , and not a single Catholic was resident in the village for more than a quarter of a century . Beginning with Owen Gallagher in 1860 , Catholics began to migrate into Celina , and starting in 1864 , Mass was celebrated biweekly in a factory owned by one of the members . At this time , no priest lived in Celina ; the celebrant was typically Joseph Gregory Dwenger , then the pastor of Holy Rosary parish in nearby St. Marys . A parish was formally erected in Celina in 1864 and dedicated to the Immaculate Conception .
With the creation of the parish , more Catholics were attracted to Celina ; the parish grew to the point that a church building was needed , and the Archbishop of Cincinnati , John Baptist Purcell , came to Celina to lay the cornerstone on August 3 , 1864 . Members subscribed to the building fund throughout that year and the following ; it was completed in November 1865 , and Joseph Dwenger dedicated it on December 8 , 1865 . This building was a brick structure , measuring approximately 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 60 feet ( 18 m ) ; it cost $ 7 @,@ 000 to build . However , the parish continued to grow , and a building fund for a new edifice was started in 1899 . Construction of the replacement church building began in the following year , and it was dedicated in 1903 at a cost of $ 52 @,@ 000 . In the early twentieth century , it was widely considered the finest church building in all of northwestern Ohio , and decades later , its architecture still dominates all of downtown Celina .
Since the parish 's earliest years , members of the Missionaries of the Precious Blood have provided pastoral care for the members ; Dwenger was a member of this society , as were the other five priests who served there in its first decade . The first priest to live in Celina was Theopistus Wittmer , who arrived in 1876 ; the members acquired a small frame house to use as a rectory . Soon after Wittmer 's arrival , the parish constructed a building for their parochial school . The structure built for this school was two stories tall and measured approximately 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 36 feet ( 11 m ) ; it replaced a frame building in which the school had started in 1871 . A convent was built in 1879 to house the first of the Sisters of the Precious Blood , who came in that year to teach at the parish school ; it was replaced by a larger structure in 1949 , located northeast of the rest of the buildings related to the parish .
Today , Immaculate Conception continues to be an active parish in the Archdiocese of Cincinnati . It is clustered with Our Lady of Guadalupe parish in Montezuma and St. Theresa , Little Flower of Jesus parish in Rockford ; all three churches are part of the St. Marys Deanery .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Church = = =
The church itself is a large brick building constructed in the shape of a Greek cross ; it was designed by Andrew DeCurtins of Lima and built under the supervision of John Burkhart of Kenton . A Romanesque Revival structure erected in 1903 , it is centered on a large bronze dome . Worshippers may enter the building through its eastern end ; the facade is pierced by three large doorways and a massive rose window . Capping the facade are two square towers ; each one includes an octagonal belfry and is topped with a smaller bronze dome . Inside , the church is heavily decorated ; many of the walls feature paintings , and the altar is distinctly Romanesque in its style . The entire building rests on a stone foundation with a basement .
Architectural historians have grouped the Precious Blood @-@ related churches of far western Ohio into four different generations : the first , composed primarily of small log buildings from the first years of settlement until 1865 ; the second , composed of moderately sized brick churches built between 1865 and 1885 ; the third , composed mostly of large High Gothic Revival churches with massive towers constructed from 1885 to 1905 ; and the fourth , composed of churches built between 1905 and 1925 in a wide range of styles . Immaculate Conception 's place at the end of the third generation is significant : its Romanesque Revival style is atypical of that period and much more common in the fourth generation that would soon arise , putting it in somewhat of a transitional place between the third and fourth generations .
= = = Rectory = = =
Located immediately west of the church , the Immaculate Conception rectory is a large square three @-@ story brick house . It is the third residence to serve as the parish 's rectory : members bought a frame house near the church in 1876 , and after a new school building was completed in 1889 , the priest moved into the old school . In 1908 , the parish spent $ 2 @,@ 000 to buy land from John Schlosser immediately west of the church ; on this land they built the present rectory for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Divided into three bays on the front and six bays on each side , it sits on a foundation of cut stone with a stone water table and a basement . Individuals may enter through a large entryway on the southern front of the house or through a smaller doorway on the rear of the eastern side of the house .
Dominating the appearance of the house from the street is a large verandah @-@ style porch , supported by large stone columns , on the southern @-@ facing front of the house ; an enclosed porch , smaller but two stories high and supported by wooden pillars , is located on the rear portion of the house 's east side . Projecting from the front of the house , above the porch , is a small wing with a gable , semicircular window , and elaborate cornice . The house is built in a combination of styles ; it includes many Italianate details , but its design appears to have been influenced by the architecture of the Sears Modern Homes .
= = = Elementary school = = =
Sitting immediately north of the church is the Immaculate Conception Elementary School , which was erected in 1918 at a cost of $ 70 @,@ 000 . Two stories tall and built of brick with a flat asphalt roof , it is divided into sixteen bays on each of its two sides . Among its leading architectural features are a central projection on its eastern front , the arched doorway in that projection , and ornamental panels around the entrance . The school occupies the site of an earlier school that was built in 1889 ; the present building was constructed because the previous structure had become too small . In its early years , the present building housed both the elementary school and the high school , which was only a three @-@ year course for its first ten years . Because of continued growth in the high school , a new building was constructed specifically for it on the opposite side of the street . The architect for the elementary school was an unknown member of the DeCurtins family , who was related to the designer of the church building , Andrew DeCurtins . Unlike the newer building , the old elementary school remains a functioning school building . Due to falling enrollment and increasing expenses , the school was losing significant amounts of money by the late 2000s . Operating the school cost $ 874 @,@ 243 in the 2008 @-@ 2009 school year , while income was only $ 375 @,@ 459 . In 2010 , the church announced that it would close the school at the end of the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year unless finances improved markedly .
= = = High school = = =
Located on the eastern side of Walnut Street across from the other buildings of the church complex , the former Immaculate Conception High School was built in 1933 under the supervision of William and Joseph Forsthoff . The building was designed by Fred DeCurtins , a relative of the architect who designed the church building , and the nephew of the architect who designed the elementary school . Members of the DeCurtins family , who lived primarily in the community of Carthagena , designed many churches and other religious buildings in Mercer County and the surrounding region , including the area 's first church built with a tall tower , St. Aloysius ' Church in Carthagena . Although Fred DeCurtins designed the church building constructed in 1937 for the new parish in the northern Mercer County village of Rockford , architectural historians believe that Immaculate Conception High School was the last building designed by the DeCurtins family for an entity connected to the Missionaries of the Precious Blood . The school closed at the end of the 1972 school year , and by the late 1970s , the parish no longer needed its high school building ; although it remained in church ownership , it was leased for use by the Celina City School District for use as a ninth @-@ grade academy .
Three stories tall , the high school is a brick and stone building constructed on a concrete foundation with a basement and topped with a flat composite roof . Its overall shape is that of a square , divided into thirteen bays on the front and sixteen bays on the sides . The first floor of its west @-@ facing main facade is pierced by the large main entrance , which features an arched entrance with a cross @-@ tipped stone gable at the top . A similar entrance is present on the building 's southern side . Among its most prominent architectural features are eight stone columns on the main facade , which bracket groups of five windows on each story . These columns rise to different heights , creating a distinctive vertical effect . Such a style is common among more conservative modernist architects , who wish to combine older designs with current trends : historic elements are simplified and given a modernist style .
= = Recognition = =
In 1977 , the church , rectory , and schools were recorded by a historic preservation program run by the Ohio Historical Society , known as the Ohio Historic Inventory . This survey found the church in excellent condition , the elementary school in fair condition , and the high school and rectory in good condition . Although no historic preservation program was in effect , no threats to historic integrity were identified for any of the buildings , except for the elementary school , which was deemed to be in danger from being outdated .
Two years later , the complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of the well @-@ preserved and historically significant architecture of its buildings . At the same time , the same designation was given to more than thirty other churches and other buildings in far western Ohio that were related to the Missionaries of the Precious Blood , using the multiple property submission process . Centered on the community of Maria Stein , the location of the Convent of Mary , Help of Christians , this predominately Catholic region is dotted with many large Romanesque Revival or Gothic Revival churches whose tall spires rise above tiny communities and can be seen from miles around . Because of the way that these churches dominate the region , the area has become known as the " Land of the Cross @-@ Tipped Churches . "
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= Pleasant Dreams =
Pleasant Dreams is the sixth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones released on July 20 , 1981 , through Sire Records . While the band members wanted Steve Lillywhite to produce , Sire chose Graham Gouldman in an attempt to gain popularity through a well @-@ known recording manager . The recording process brought about many conflicts between band members , most notably the strife between Joey Ramone and Johnny Ramone , where Johnny began dating one of Joey 's ex @-@ girlfriends . There were also disputes about the overall genre of the album , with Johnny leaning towards hard rock and Joey towards pop music . Ultimately , the album incorporated a high production value and a variation of tone throughout the album . Pleasant Dreams featured songs such as " We Want the Airwaves , " " She 's a Sensation , " and " Come On Now , " strayed from traditional punk rock and took on different styles .
The album was not commercially acclaimed , which came as a surprise to Sire since they had insisted the band record with Gouldman in an effort to increase fan @-@ base ; it peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Billboard 200 and only charted outside of the US in Sweden . The album was not critically acclaimed either , as it received several mixed articles by reviewers , who insisted the album to be less playable than their first four albums .
= = Conception = =
The writing process for Pleasant Dreams began in January 1981 . With Sire Records management being insistent on allowing a celebrity record producer to work on the album , they hired Graham Gouldman — songwriter and musician for the British band 10cc — to produce the album . Prior to working with Gouldman , the Ramones had been with audio engineer Ed Stasium to record several demos and , though Sire rejected , the band had intended that Steve Lillywhite produce the album . The studio recording process began on March 30 , 1981 , and initiated several conflicts between band members . This tension was partially due to Dee Dee Ramone 's drug addiction . Additionally , Marky Ramone and Joey Ramone were both developing alcohol problems , resulting in the frustration of Johnny Ramone . These conflicts and differences became evident in the song writing , as each song was credited to individual rather than multiple members ; Pleasant Dreams was the first album in which writing is acknowledged this way .
The time period of recording was a high @-@ point in musical style for both Joey and Johnny , though they directed their sound towards different styles of music : Joey 's inspiration by pop music became evident in his writing , while Johnny 's keenness of hard @-@ rock guitar riffs are apparent in much of his performing on the album . Johnny thought that this did not result well for the band 's sound , saying : " I knew going in that this was not going to be the type of album I wanted . It really could have used another two of three punk songs ... All I want to do is keep our fans happy and not sell out . I 'm fighting within the band . They are trying to go lighter , looking for ways to be more commercial . I 'm against the band for doing that . " Joey countered Johnny 's point of preventing the band from selling out by explaining : " By Road to Ruin [ and ] End of the Century , I was doing the majority of the songwriting . I started feeling that the Ramones were faceless ; there were no individual identities in the band . " He went on to say that this method worked well in the beginning of their career , but would later annoy Joey since " everything [ he ] wrote , the band would take credit for . "
During early stages of the album 's development , Joey was dating Linda Danielle . After the album was released , however , Danielle left Joey and became Johnny 's girlfriend . Ramones ' road manager Monte Melnick relates : " Joey was devastated . It affected him deeply . Johnny knew it was bad and kept Linda totally hidden from that point on . She didn 't come to many shows and if she did he 'd hide her in the back ; she wouldn 't come backstage . He 'd run out to meet her and leave as soon as they were done . " While Johnny would eventually marry Linda , Joey held a strong grudge against them both , and , though they continued to perform and tour together , the two rarely talked to each other . Joey explained that Johnny had " crossed the line " once he started dating Danielle , and noted that " he destroyed the relationship and the band right there . " Johnny defended himself by stating that had Danielle not left Joey for him , " he wouldn 't have even been talking about her and saying how much he loved her because he wouldn 't have been obsessed about it . "
= = Composition and lyrics = =
The album opens with " We Want the Airwaves , " which has instrumentation that strays from traditional punk rock and more so towards hard rock . Music journalist Chuck Eddy described the song as " a sort of Black Sabbath punk rock . " Though rumors of the album 's third track , " The KKK Took My Baby Away , " being about Johnny stealing Joey 's girlfriend have circulated in the music business , the song was actually written some time before Joey had reportedly found out about this . Joey 's brother Mickey Leigh relates : " The fluky connection between Johnny and the KKK raised a specter that keeps friends and fans speculating to this day . At the time , though , it had to be an unusual situation for him being that , as often happens with song lyrics , his words now took on a whole new meaning . " The following track , " Don 't Go , " was described in Musician , Player , and Listener as " Spector @-@ ish , " referring to the song 's high production value through Phil Spector , the infamous producer of the band 's previous record , End of the Century . According to the book , the lyrics detail " an archivist 's sense of young love . " Everett True , author of Hey Ho Let 's Go : The Story of the Ramones ( 2005 ) , explains that the album 's fifth track , " You Sound Like You 're Sick , " is very bass incorporated , saying that it " returns to the bassist 's traditional institutionalised theme . " Side A ends with " It 's Not My Place ( In the 9 to 5 World ) , " which was described by music critic David Fricke to be " driven home " by drummer Marky 's " feisty , Bo Diddley @-@ style " drum beat , and noted that it borrows the middle eight ( of thirty @-@ two @-@ bar form ) from The Who song " Whiskey Man . "
Side B of the album begins with " She 's a Sensation , " which was said by author Dave Thompson to have a 60 's melody which " melts through the hard rock . " The next song , " 7 @-@ 11 , " deals with dating at a young age where the couple goes on dates to places like convenience stores and record swaps . The lyrics follow a boy who meets a girl by a Space Invaders machine , and eventually has to let her go after she dies in a car crash . True relates : " You can lose your heart within the singer 's torched ' 7 @-@ 11 ' . Joey details in time @-@ honoured girl group fashion the beauty of young love that takes place among the most mundane , humdrum of surroundings . " " You Didn 't Mean Anything to Me , " written by Dee Dee , reflects the desolation and vacillation which the bassist was feeling in his personal life as well as while he was with the band . This is evident through lines like " Every dinner was crummy / Even the ones for free . " The pop @-@ oriented song " Come On Now " was described by True as a " sparkling rush of blood to the head from the " comic book boy , " and said that it ranged alongside songs from The Dave Clark Five and 1910 Fruitgum Company . The eleventh track on the album is titled " This Business Is Killing Me , " and was written by Joey to detail how everyone expects him to please others , but he simply cannot please everyone all the time . Pleasant Dreams concludes with " Sitting in My Room , " which contained lyrics quoted by David Fricke in the conclusion of his review on the album , saying : " ' It 's us against them , ' sneers Joey in " Sitting in My Room . ' ' They just wanna worry ... / They just wanna be so lame / Maybe they should try and sniff some glue . ' Or put Pleasant Dreams on the box and crank it up to ten . "
= = Reception = =
Released on July 20 , 1981 , the album was not commercially acclaimed , failing to spawn a single hit . Though Sire Records had merged with Warner Bros. Records , none of the singles from Pleasant Dreams were released in the US . Sire had insisted that the album be produced by a celebrity producer , hiring Graham Gouldman to the job expecting this to help expand the band 's fan @-@ base . Joey relates : " The record company told us the album would bomb if we didn 't use Graham Gouldman , so we worked with Graham--and the album bombed anyway . " The album would only chart in the US and Sweden , peaking at fifty @-@ eight on the Billboard 200 and thirty @-@ five on the Sverigetopplistan chart — the singles released from the album failed to chart .
Pleasant Dreams received mixed reviews by critics , with many pointing out that the high quality sound production made the band stray from their roots even more so than the change in style . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor for AllMusic , noted that Gouldman steers the band 's style away from " bubblegum , British invasion , and surf fetishes " and toward " acid rock and heavy metal . " He went on to say that the sound quality is " too clean to qualify as punk " and sad that the music on the album " has lost sight of the infectious qualities that made their earlier records such fun . "
Music critic Robert Christgau said that the album " comes off corny " compared to the band 's first four releases , which he described as " aural rush and conceptual punch . " He also said that the songs featured on the album were better than End of the Century and claimed the album was " less focused " compared to Leave Home , but " fun anyway . " David Fricke of Rolling Stone began his review by writing " Pity the poor Ramones , " and went on to give it a mixed review . He deemed the album a " comic relief " and noted its contents of " fortified vocal harmonies , an occasional dash of keyboards , a certain production gimmickry . "
= = Track listing = =
The following track listing can be verified with AllMusic .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified with AllMusic .
Ramones
Joey Ramone – lead vocals
Johnny Ramone – lead guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – bass guitar , backing vocals
Marky Ramone – drums
Additional musicians
Dick Emerson – keyboards
Dave Hassel – percussion
Graham Gouldman - backing vocals
Russell Mael - backing vocals
Ian Wilson - backing vocals
Deborah Harry - backing vocals
Kate Pierson - backing vocals
Cindy Wilson - backing vocals
Production
Michael Somoroff – photos
Sire Records – label
Graham Gouldman – producer
Guy Juke – uncredited cover art
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= Perovskia atriplicifolia =
Perovskia atriplicifolia ( / pəˈrɒvskiə ætrɪplɪsɪˈfoʊliə / ) , commonly called Russian sage , is a flowering herbaceous perennial plant and subshrub . Although not a member of Salvia , the genus of other plants commonly called sage , it is closely related to them . It has an upright habit , typically reaching 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 m tall ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , with square stems and grey @-@ green leaves that yield a distinctive odor when crushed . It is best known for its flowers . Its flowering season extends from mid @-@ summer to late October , with blue to violet blossoms arranged into showy , branched panicles .
Native to the steppes and hills of southwestern and central Asia . Successful over a wide range of climate and soil conditions , it has since become popular and widely planted . Several cultivars have been developed , differing primarily in leaf shape and overall height ; ' Blue Spire ' is the most common . This variation has been widely used in gardens and landscaping . P. atriplicifolia was the Perennial Plant Association 's 1995 Plant of the Year , and the ' Blue Spire ' cultivar received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society .
The species has a long history of use in traditional medicine in its native range , where it is employed as a treatment for a variety of ailments . This has led to the investigation of its phytochemistry . Its flowers can be eaten in salads or crushed for dyemaking , and the plant has been considered for potential use in the phytoremediation of contaminated soil .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia was described by George Bentham in 1848 , based on a specimen collected by William Griffith in Afghanistan , now preserved at the Kew Gardens herbarium as the species 's holotype . The specific epithet atriplicifolia means " with leaves like Atriplex " , referring to its similarity to saltbush . Commonly known as Russian sage , P. atriplicifolia is neither native to Russia nor a member of Salvia , the genus generally referred to as sage .
A Chinese population was described as a separate species in 1987 and given the name Perovskia pamirica , but has since been considered synonymous with P. atriplicifolia .
= = = Phylogenetics = = =
Within the family Lamiaceae , the large genus Salvia had long been believed monophyletic , based on the structure of its stamina . Several smaller genera , including Dorystaechas , Perovskia , and Meriandra were also included in tribe Mentheae , but were thought more distantly related . In 2004 , a molecular phylogenetics study based on two cpDNA genes ( rbcL and trnL @-@ F ) demonstrated that Salvia is not monophyletic , but comprises three identifiable clades . Clade I is more closely related to Perovskia than to other members of Salvia .
P. atriplicifolia has been the subject of subsequent studies seeking to clarify the relationships within Mentheae . Further research combined palynological analysis of pollen grains with rbcL sequencing to provide additional support for the relationship between Perovskia and Salvia clade I. It also distinguished between P. atriplicifolia and P. abrotanoides , while confirming their close relationship . A subsequent multigene study ( four cpDNA markers and two nrDNA markers ) redrew parts of the Mentheae cladogram , making Rosmarinus a sister group to Perovskia .
= = = Cultivars = = =
Several cultivars of P. atriplicifolia have been developed . They are primarily distinguished by the height of mature plants and the depth of the leaf @-@ margin incisions . Many of these cultivars , especially those with deeply incised leaves , may actually be hybrids of P. atriplicifolia and P. abrotanoides . In that context , some may be referred to by the hybrid name P. × hybrida .
The most common cultivar , ' Blue Spire ' , is among those suspected of being a hybrid . It was selected from German plantings by the British Notcutts Nurseries , and first exhibited in 1961 . ' Blue Spire ' grows to approximately 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) , and has large , darker blue flowers . In 1993 , it received the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
'Filigran ' reaches a height of 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 ft 11 in to 4 ft 3 in ) ; this tall , sturdy cultivar 's name is German for filigree , in reference to its lacy , fern @-@ like foliage . ' Little Spire ' is shorter , with a mature height of only 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft 0 in ) . ' Longin ' is similar in height to ' Blue Spire ' but more upright . Allan Armitage established the late @-@ flowering cultivar ' Mystery of Knightshayes ' from a plant at Knightshayes Court . Other cultivars include ' Blue Haze ' , ' Blue Mist ' , ' Hybrida ' ( also called ' Superba ' ) , ' Lace ' , ' Lisslit ' , ' Rocketman ' , and ' WALPPB ' .
= = Description = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia is a deciduous perennial subshrub with an erect to spreading habit . Superficially , it resembles a much larger version of lavender . Multiple branches arise from a shared rootstalk , growing to a height of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 m ( 1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 11 in ) , with occasional specimens reaching 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . The mature plant may be 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m across ( 2 ft 0 in – 3 ft 11 in ) . The rigid stems are square in cross @-@ section , and are covered by an indumentum formed by stellate , or star @-@ shaped , trichomes and oil droplets . Especially during autumn , these hairs give the stems a silvery appearance .
The grayish @-@ green leaves are arranged in opposite pairs , and attached to the stems by a short petiole . They are generally 3 – 5 cm long ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 @-@ inch ) and 0 @.@ 8 – 2 cm wide ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ) , although narrower in some populations . The overall leaf shape is oblate , a rounded shape longer than it is wide , to lanceolate , shaped like the head of a lance . They are pinnatipartite , with a deeply incised leaf margin that may be either wavy or sharp @-@ toothed ; even within a single community of P. atriplicifolia , there can be considerable variation in the details of leaf shape . Leaves near the top of branches may merge into bracts . The foliage is aromatic , especially when crushed , with a fragrance described as sage @-@ like , a blend of sage and lavender , or like turpentine .
The flowering season of P. atriplicifolia can be as long as June through October , although populations in some parts of its range , such as China , may bloom in a much more restricted period . The inflorescence is a showy panicle , 30 – 38 cm long ( 12 – 15 in ) , with many branches . Each of these branches is a raceme , with the individual flowers arranged in pairs called verticillasters . Each flower 's calyx is purple , densely covered in white or purple hairs , and about 4 mm long ( 0 @.@ 16 @-@ inch ) . The corolla is tube @-@ shaped , formed from a four @-@ lobed upper lip and a slightly shorter lower lip ; the blue or violet blue petals are about 1 cm long . The style has been reported in both an exserted — extending beyond the flower 's tube — form and one contained within the flower ; all known examples of P. atriplicifolia in cultivation have exserted styles . Gardening author Neil Soderstrom describes the appearance of the flowers from a distance as " like a fine haze or fog " .
Fruits develop about a month after flowering , and consist of dark brown oval nutlets , about 2 mm × 1 mm ( 2 ⁄ 25 by 1 ⁄ 25 inch ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
Nine species of Perovskia are recognized . P. abrotanoides shares much of the range of P. atriplicifolia , but is distinguished by its bipinnate leaves . Hybrids between these two species may occur naturally . Restricted to Turkestan in its native range , P. scrophularifolia is less upright ; some forms have white flowers . The flowers of P. scabiosifolia are yellow .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
Widely distributed across Asia in its native range , Perovskia atriplicifolia grows in western China , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Iran , Turkey , and parts of eastern Europe . It is found in steppes and on hillsides , and grows at higher elevations in mountainous regions , including the Himalayas . It has been recorded at 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) of altitude in the Karakoram . In Pakistan 's Quetta district , it is often found in association with the grass Chrysopogon aucheri , and may serve as an indicator species for soils with low calcium carbonate and chloride availability . The harsh habitats preferred by P. atriplicifolia are comparable to the sagebrush steppe of North America .
In parts of its range , such as the Harboi , these steppe ecosystems are employed as rangeland for grazing animals such as sheep and goats , although this forage is generally of poor nutritional quality . P. atriplicifolia can serve as an important source of phosphorus and zinc , despite being high in poorly @-@ digested material such as neutral detergent fiber and lignin .
= = Cultivation = =
Following its introduction to the United Kingdom in 1904 , the Irish gardener and author William Robinson was immediately taken with the plant , which he described as being " worth a place in the choicest garden for its graceful habit and long season of beauty . " The Royal Horticultural Society records the establishment of cultivars beginning with P. ' Hybrida ' , selected at a Hampshire nursery in the 1930s . By the late 1980s and early 1990s , P. atriplicifolia had gained widespread popularity , and in 1995 , it was selected as the Perennial Plant Association 's Plant of the Year .
= = = Planting and care = = =
P. atriplicifolia is a perennial plant suitable for a wide range of conditions . The species prefers full sun . Specimens planted in partially shaded locations tend to spread or flop , although this behavior can be controlled somewhat by pinching young shoots or by providing a strong @-@ standing accompaniment that the plant can drape itself around for support . Flowers bloom only on new growth . Plants trimmed to 15 – 61 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 24 @.@ 0 in ) in early spring provide the best subsequent growth and flowering .
Tolerant of both heat and cold , it is grown in North America in United States Department of Agriculture hardiness zones three through nine , although some cultivars may be better suited than others to extremes of temperature . It is successfully grown from the southwestern United States , north and east across much of the country , and across the Canadian border into Ontario and Quebec . In the coldest of these areas , it may require considerable protection to survive the winter . In the United Kingdom , the Royal Horticultural Society has assigned it hardiness rating H4 , indicating that it tolerates temperatures as low as − 10 to − 5 ° C ( 14 to 23 ° F ) , hardy in most of the country through typical winters .
It also tolerates a variety of soil conditions . Although young specimens perform best when planted in a mixture of peat and either sand or perlite , P. atriplicifolia can thrive in sandy , chalky , or loamy soil , or heavy clay soil with sufficient drainage . It can endure a wide range of soil pH , as well as exposure to salty conditions near oceans . Its deep @-@ feeding taproot makes it especially drought tolerant ; for this reason it has seen wide use for xeriscaping in the Intermountain West . Overwatering and over @-@ fertilization can damage its roots and lead to a rapid decline in health . P. atriplicifolia is otherwise generally free from plant pathogens . In cultivation , it is also rarely selected as forage by grazing animals , and so is considered both a deer @-@ resistant and rabbit @-@ resistant plant .
= = = Landscaping = = =
Popular landscaping authors , including Gertrude Jekyll and Russell Page , have praised P. atriplicifolia for its usefulness in gardens and landscaping features . It is most commonly planted as an accent feature , such as an " island " in an expanse of lawn , but it can also be used as filler within a larger landscaping feature , or to enhance areas where the existing natural appearance is retained . Gardening author Troy Marden describes P. atriplicifolia as having a " see @-@ through " quality that is ideal for borders . Some experts suggest groups of three plants provide the best landscape appearance . It is also suitable for container gardening .
It attracts bees , birds , and butterflies , and contributes color to gardens — both the blue of its late @-@ season flowers , and the silvery colors of its winter stalks .
= = = Propagation = = =
P. atriplicifolia is frequently propagated by cuttings . Because its woody crown is resistant to division , softwood cuttings are taken from shoots near the base , generally in late spring . Hardwood cuttings selected in mid @-@ to @-@ late summer also provide a viable propagation technique . The plant is also grown from seed in cultivation . Such seeds require exposure to cold for 30 – 160 days to germinate , and seed @-@ raised specimens may not preserve the characteristics of named cultivars . In the commercial greenhouse or nursery setting , P. atriplicifolia 's relatively large size and rapid growth can adversely affect quality or make plants more difficult and expensive to transport ; the use of plant growth regulators such as chlormequat chloride and daminozide may be more cost @-@ effective than large @-@ scale pruning .
Some members of the Lamiaceae can spread unchecked and become invasive plants . Planting of P. atriplicifolia near wild lands has been discouraged by some gardening guides out of concern for its potential to spread , but it is not considered invasive , and has been suggested as a substitute for purple loosestrife for this reason .
= = Uses = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia has a long history of use in traditional medicine , especially as an antipyretic . It has also been employed as an antiparasitic and analgesic in Tibet , and smoked elsewhere as a euphoriant . In Balochistan , Pakistan , a decoction of the plant 's leaves and flowers has been considered an anti @-@ diabetic medication and a treatment for dysentery .
In addition to its use in folk medicine , P. atriplicifolia is sometimes used in Russia to flavor a vodka @-@ based cocktail . Its flowers are eaten in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan , including Kashmir , adding a sweet flavor to salads ; they can also be crushed to yield a blue colorant that can be employed in cosmetics or as a textile dye . This species is considered a candidate for use in phytoremediation because of its rapid growth , tolerance for harsh conditions , and ability to accumulate toxic heavy metals from polluted soil .
= = = Phytochemistry = = =
Because of its extensive ethnomedical tradition , the phytochemistry of P. atriplicifolia has been the topic of several studies . Analysis of the plant 's essential oil has identified over two dozen compounds , although the compounds detected and their relative prevalence have not been consistent . Most analyses have identified various monoterpenes and monoterpenoids as the dominant components , such as carene , eucalyptol , limonene , γ @-@ terpinene , and ( + ) -β @-@ thujone , although the essential oil of a sample from the Orto Botanico dell 'Università di Torino had camphor as its most prevalent component . Other monoterpenes , camphene , α @-@ pinene , and β @-@ pinene are also present , as are sesquiterpenes such as γ @-@ cadinene , δ @-@ cadinene , trans @-@ caryophyllene , and α @-@ humulene . Several terpenoid alcohols — borneol , cedrol , and menthol — have been extracted from P. atriplicifolia , as have caffeic acid and ferulic acid . More complex compounds have been isolated , some of which were first identified in this manner , including perovskatone ; the glycosides atriplisides A and B ; and atricins A and B , a pair of triterpenes that are similar to oleanane .
The essential oil has displayed antimicrobial properties in vitro , and can function as a biopesticide , especially regarding Tropidion castaneum beetles and Camponotus maculatus carpenter ants . Several terpenoids isolated from P. atriplicifolia have been investigated for potential inhibitory effects on the hepatitis B virus . Its traditional use as an anti @-@ inflammatory has been attributed to the ability of the lignan ( + ) -taxiresinol and five other compounds to act as leukotriene antagonists . The isorinic acid derivative perovskoate may also contribute to an anti @-@ inflammatory effect as an arachidonate 5 @-@ lipoxygenase inhibitor . Interaction with opioid and cannabinoid receptors has been proposed as the mechanism of traditionally reported analgesic effects .
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= Doppelgänger ( 1969 film ) =
Doppelgänger is a 1969 British science fiction film directed by Robert Parrish and starring Roy Thinnes , Ian Hendry , Lynn Loring and Patrick Wymark . Outside Europe , it is known as Journey to the Far Side of the Sun , which is now the more popular title . In the film , a joint European @-@ NASA mission to investigate a planet in a position parallel to Earth , behind the Sun , ends in disaster with the death of one of the astronauts ( Hendry ) . His colleague ( Thinnes ) discovers that the planet is a mirror image of Earth .
The first major live @-@ action film of Century 21 writers @-@ producers Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , noted for Thunderbirds and other 1960s " Supermarionation " puppet television series , shooting for Doppelgänger ran from July to October 1968 . Using Pinewood Studios as the principal production base , Parrish also filmed on location in both England and Portugal . The professional relationship between the Andersons and their director became strained as the shooting progressed , while creative disagreements with cinematographer John Read resulted in his resignation from Century 21 .
Doppelgänger premiered in August 1969 in the United States and October of that year in the United Kingdom . Although the film in general has been praised for the quality of its special effects and set design , the plot device of the parallel Earth has attracted criticism , with some commentators judging it to be clichéd and uninspired in comparison to the precedent established by earlier science fiction . In addition , although Doppelgänger has frequently been interpreted as a pastiche of major science @-@ fiction films of the 1960s , including 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) , some of the devices and imagery used have been dismissed as weak imitations of the originals . Since release , it has been termed a cult film .
Actors and props from Doppelgänger would re @-@ appear in a later Anderson TV series , UFO . Although the Andersons incorporated adult themes into their script in an effort to distinguish the film from their children 's TV productions , cuts to more mature content , in this case a shot of a pack of contraceptive pills , were required to permit an A and , later , PG certificate from the BBFC . The film has had only a limited DVD run .
= = Plot = =
In 2069 , the unmanned Sun Probe locates a planet lying on the same orbital path as Earth on the opposite side of the Sun . Dr Kurt Hassler ( Herbert Lom ) of the European Space Exploration Council ( EUROSEC ) has been relaying the spacecraft 's flight data to a rival power in the East ; after tracing the transmissions to Hassler 's laboratory , Security Chief Mark Neuman ( George Sewell ) catches the scientist in the act and kills him . EUROSEC director Jason Webb ( Patrick Wymark ) convinces NASA representative David Poulson ( Ed Bishop ) that the West must be the first to send a mission to investigate the planet . With EUROSEC member states France and Germany unwilling to provide financial support , Webb obtains majority funding from NASA ; American astronaut Colonel Glenn Ross ( Roy Thinnes ) and British astrophysicist Dr John Kane ( Ian Hendry ) , the head of the Sun Probe project , are assigned to the mission .
Launched from the EUROSEC Space Centre in Portugal in the spacecraft Phoenix , Ross and Kane spend the first half of their six @-@ week round trip in stasis with " Heart Lung Kidney " machines managing their life functions . Three weeks after launch , the astronauts are revived in the planet 's orbit . Scans for the existence of extraterrestrial life are inconclusive , and Ross and Kane decide to make a surface landing . As the astronauts descend through the atmosphere , an electrical storm damages their Dove lander shuttle , which crashes in a mountainous region that is revealed to be near Ulan Bator , Mongolia . When an air @-@ sea rescue unit returns Ross and Kane , the latter critically injured , to the Space Centre , it is apparent that the Phoenix mission has come to an untimely end after three weeks and that the astronauts have returned to Earth .
Neuman and EUROSEC official Lise Hartman ( Loni von Friedl ) interrogate Ross , who denies that he aborted the mission . Shortly after , Kane dies from his injuries . Eventually , Ross concludes that he is not on Earth , but indeed on the unknown planet – a Counter @-@ Earth that is a mirror image of his . ( Signs of this reversal include a clock whose hands move anticlockwise , a tape deck 's reels that turn clockwise and an oscilloscope that scans from right to left . In addition , while driving at night , Ross almost collides with another vehicle that he believes to be on the wrong side of the road . )
Many at EUROSEC , including Ross 's wife , Sharon ( Lynn Loring ) , are baffled by the astronaut 's claims that all aspects of life on the planet are reversed . However , Webb 's view starts to change when Ross demonstrates the ability to read aloud from a sign , without hesitation , when it is reflected in a mirror ; Webb is later convinced of the truth when X @-@ rays from Kane 's post @-@ mortem examination reveal that his internal organs are positioned on the " wrong " side of his body . Ross conjectures that the two Earths lie parallel , inferring that his counterpart from this world is experiencing similar events on the far side of the Sun .
Webb suggests that Ross recover the flight recorder from Phoenix and return to his Earth . EUROSEC builds a replacement for Dove designed to be compatible with the reversed technologies of Phoenix . Modifications include the reverse @-@ polarisation of the electric circuits , although no one is certain that the differences between the two Earths extend to the direction of current . Ross christens the new shuttle Doppelganger , a German word denoting a duplicate of a person or object .
Lifting off and entering orbit , Ross attempts to dock with Phoenix . However , Doppelganger experiences a technical malfunction , indicating that current is constant after all . The shuttle detaches from Phoenix and loses contact with EUROSEC , falling through the atmosphere towards the Space Centre with Ross struggling to disengage the automatic landing control . EUROSEC is unable to repair the fault from the ground , and Doppelganger crashes into a parked spacecraft . Ross is incinerated in the collision and a chain reaction destroys much of the Space Centre , killing personnel and destroying all records of Ross 's presence on the Counter @-@ Earth .
Many years later , an embittered and wheelchair @-@ bound Jason Webb , long since dismissed from EUROSEC , has been admitted to a nursing home . In his dementia , he sees his reflection in a mirror placed in front of a window . Reaching out to touch his reflected image , Webb crashes through the mirror and dies .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
As his first contribution to live @-@ action film , Gerry Anderson had directed Crossroads to Crime , a 1960 B feature , for Anglo @-@ Amalgamated . Talent agent Leslie Grade had since approached Anderson with a proposal for a film starring actor Arthur Haynes , but discussions between Grade and Anderson had not produced a commission . In the summer of 1967 , during the production of Anderson 's Supermarionation television series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , Universal Pictures executive Jay Kanter arrived in London from the United States . Planning to establish a European production office , Kanter expressed his willingness to provide funding for promising film ideas . Lew Grade , brother to Leslie and Anderson 's financier at his TV distributor ITC Entertainment , arranged a meeting with Kanter for Anderson to pitch a story concept concerning the hypothesis of a " replicated " or " mirror " Earth . According to Anderson , he " thought , rather naïvely , what if there was another planet the other side of the Sun , orbiting at exactly the same speed and the same size as Earth ? That idea then developed into the planet being a replicated Earth and that 's how it ended up , a mirrored planet ... We were perfectly poised – I was Lew Grade 's golden boy and the [ Century 21 ] studio was a big success story . "
= = = Writing = = =
With the assistance of scriptwriter Tony Williamson , Anderson and his wife , Sylvia , had drafted a 194 @-@ page treatment long before the initial meeting with Kanter . The Andersons had originally intended to film the script as a one @-@ hour drama for ATV ; Sylvia explained that since the concept " was too good for a television play , I suggested to Gerry that we try to develop it as a movie . " Responding to claims that Doppelgänger had " dark " scripting , Gerry stated that he wanted the film to have an interesting and entertaining premise . He also discussed the significance of the title , which was suggested to him by Century 21 co @-@ director John Read : Doppelgänger being " a German word which means ' a copy of oneself ' , and the legend goes that if you meet your doppelganger , it is the point of your death . Following that legend , clearly , I had to steer the film so that I could end it illustrating the meaning of that word . "
When Kanter expressed dissatisfaction with the draft , Gerry hired Donald James , a novelist whom he considered " a classy writer with a good reputation " , to strengthen the characterisation . Although the film retained its original 2069 setting , the scenes set on the Counter @-@ Earth underwent significant changes while James completed his revisions . Fundamentally , the characters of Ross and Kane switched roles : in the Andersons ' draft , it was Ross who is injured in the Dove crash and Kane who was interrogated at the EUROSEC Space Centre . In scenes absent from the finished film , Kane is diagnosed with brain damage on the basis of his apparent insanity , while Ross regains consciousness to find that the accident has left him blind . The return mission to Phoenix fails due not to an electrical fault , but rather because of a structural defect in the second Dove module , which disintegrates in the atmosphere of the Counter @-@ Earth with Kane trapped inside . EUROSEC Headquarters is left intact , and Kane 's funeral is attended by his wife , the Rosses and Jason Webb .
Despite remaining unenthusiastic with the script , Kanter agreed to commission it as a film on the condition that he reserve the right to select a " bankable " director . Anderson would have selected David Lane , who had directed the two Thunderbirds film sequels , Thunderbirds Are Go ( 1966 ) and Thunderbird 6 ( 1968 ) . After a ten @-@ week delay to filming , Robert Parrish , an American director whose latest project had been shelved , accepted the post . Parrish 's film career up to 1968 had included co @-@ editing Body and Soul ( for which he had shared the 1947 Academy Award for Best Film Editing ) and co @-@ directing the 1967 James Bond spoof , Casino Royale . Anderson remembered Parrish as being " very ingratiating " , stating that he " told us he loved the script and said it would be an honour to work with us . Jay Kanter gave Bob the thumbs up and we were in business . " Although the box office failure of Casino Royale had prompted Anderson to question Parrish 's ability , he stated that Doppelgänger could not have been made without his recruitment : " It wasn 't a question of , ' Will we get on with him ? ' or , ' Is he the right man ? ' He was a name director , so we signed him up immediately . "
= = = Casting = = =
Heading the cast of Doppelgänger is Roy Thinnes in the role of Colonel Glenn Ross of NASA . Anderson , who perceived a likeness to fellow American actor Paul Newman , cast Thinnes as the male lead after viewing his performance in the television series The Invaders ( 1967 – 68 ) . In the Andersons ' draft script , Ross 's first name is Stewart , and he is said to have been the first man to walk on Mars . In a 2008 interview , Thinnes said , " I thought [ Doppelgänger ] was an interesting premise , although now we know that there isn 't another planet on the other side of the Sun , through our space exploration and telescopic abilities . But at that time it was conceivable , and it could have been scary . " To conform to the script 's characterisation of Ross , and to the detriment of his respiratory health , Thinnes ended up smoking many packets ' worth of cigarettes in the course of the production . Reporting on Thinnes ' intention to demand a non @-@ smoking clause in his next film contract , in September 1969 Australian newspaper The Age stated , " He smokes about two packets a day , but the perpetual lighting up of new cigarettes for continuity purposes was too much . "
Ian Hendry stars as Dr John Kane , British astrophysicist and head of the Phoenix project . Hendry , who had appeared in the television series The Avengers ( 1961 – 69 ) and , according to Anderson , " was always drinking " , performed the stunt sequence depicting the aftermath of the Dove crash while drunk : " ... he was pissed as a newt , and it was as much as he could do to stagger away . Despite all that , it looked exactly as it was supposed to on @-@ screen ! " In the draft script , Kane 's first name is Philip , and he has a wife called Susan . In scenes deleted from the completed film , a romance between Kane and Lise Hartman , a EUROSEC official portrayed by Austrian actress Loni von Friedl , is played out at Kane 's villa and on a beach in Portugal .
Lynn Loring stars as Sharon Ross , the Colonel 's wife . The role of the female lead had first been offered to Gayle Hunnicutt , who quit at the start of the filming after unexpectedly falling ill . Hunnicutt 's withdrawal resulted in the casting of Loring , Thinnes ' wife since 1967 and star of the television series The F.B.I. ( 1965 – 74 ) . Had she remained in the role , Hunnicutt would have appeared in a nude scene scripted to distance the tone of Doppelgänger from that of earlier Anderson productions . In a 1968 interview in the Daily Mail newspaper , Anderson expressed his intention to change the public 's perception of Century 21 , who , in his view , had been " typecast as makers of children 's films " . On rumours that Doppelgänger would receive an X certificate from the British Board of Film Censors ( BBFC ) for adult content , he replied , " We want to work with live artists doing subjects unsuitable for children . " For the final cut of the film , the original nude shots were replaced with softer alternatives depicting Sharon stepping into and out of a shower .
The draft script describes Sharon as the daughter of a United States Senator , and she is said to be in a romantic affair with EUROSEC public relations officer Carlo Monetti . In the completed film , Italian actor Franco De Rosa briefly stars as Paulo Landi . The affair is implied in one scene but not explored further , prompting Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , authors of What Made Thunderbirds Go ! The Authorised Biography of Gerry Anderson , to suggest that De Rosa starred in a role " all but cut from Doppelgänger " . In a deleted scene , on finding Paolo and Sharon in bed together at the Rosses ' villa , Glenn angrily ejects the couple from the room and throws them both into a swimming pool . Archer and Hearn note an additional subplot concerning the Rosses ' attempts to conceive a child and the deceit of Sharon , who has been using birth control pills to inhibit pregnancy without Glenn 's knowledge .
Completing the main cast , Patrick Wymark stars as Jason Webb , director of EUROSEC . Having selected him on the basis of his performance as John Wilder in the television series The Plane Makers ( 1963 – 65 ) and The Power Game ( 1965 – 70 ) , Anderson stated that Wymark 's acting impressed him as much as Hendry 's , but also that his similar drinking habits resulted in slurred lines on set . During the filming of one scene , Wymark " had to list these explanations ... and on take after take he couldn 't remember that ' two ' followed ' one ' . We had to do it over and over again . " Archer and Hearn identify Wymark 's portrayal of Webb , a character described as " John Wilder ( 2069 model ) " in publicity material , as the dominant performance of the film . The draft script describes Webb as a former British Minister of Technology , who is now romantically involved with his secretary , Pam Kirby .
Among the supporting cast , George Sewell stars as Mark Neuman , a German Operations Chief in EUROSEC who uncovers Dr Hassler 's dealing with Communist China and whose parallel self directs the interrogation of Ross after the Dove crash . His surname in the draft script is Hallam . Finally , Ed Bishop stars as David Poulson , a NASA official . Bishop replaced English actor Peter Dyneley , who had voiced characters for Thunderbirds ( 1965 – 66 ) , after the producers decided that Dyneley bore too much of a resemblance to Wymark and that scenes featuring both the characters of Poulson and Webb would confuse audiences .
= = = Filming = = =
Fifteen weeks of principal photography commenced on 1 July 1968 at Pinewood Studios , Buckinghamshire ; shooting wrapped on 16 October having run alongside that for Joe 90 . In September , location shooting in Albufeira , Portugal was accelerated for completion in two weeks as opposed to a month after politician Marcello Caetano deposed incapacitated Prime Minister Antonio Salazar , Parrish fearing that the coup d 'état would cause the production of Doppelgänger to fall behind schedule . Filming in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire used the exterior of Neptune House ( now part of the BBC 's Elstree Studios ) as a double for EUROSEC Headquarters in Portugal . Heatherden Hall ( part of the Pinewood complex ) appears as the old Webb 's nursing home .
To create the illusion of the parallel Earth – apparent in images such as reversed text – both quickly and cheaply , the production staff inverted the film negatives using an optical process known as " flop @-@ over " . This technique saved the time and money that would otherwise needed to have been spent in building sets and props with specially reversed elements , or organising road closures to film cars driving on the " wrong " side of the road . However , the scenes set in or around the parallel EUROSEC Headquarters required careful rehearsal and co @-@ ordination with cast and crew prior to filming . The incorporation of the flop @-@ over technique results in some continuity errors : for example , the terminals of the Heart Lung Kidney machines onboard Phoenix are seen to be connected first to Ross and Kane 's left wrists , then their right .
The production staff encountered difficulties in realising a scene at the start of the film depicting an international teleconference being conducted using high @-@ resolution viewing monitors . Due to both the limited use of colour TV at the time of production , and the need to avoid black @-@ and @-@ white so as to honour the futuristic setting of Doppelgänger , it was decided to position the actors playing the conference delegates behind the set and cut the " screens " out of the set wall . Silver paper was added to reflect the studio lighting , producing a realistic impression of a high @-@ resolution image . Altered eyelines strengthen the audience 's perception that each delegate is facing a camera rather than the other actors in the scene , and are in different locations around the world . Archer and Hearn promote the teleconference scene as an example of how Anderson " proved once again that his productions were ahead of their time . "
During the course of the production , the creative styles of Anderson and Parrish came into conflict . Anderson remembered that on several occasions Kanter was called on to mediate : " [ Sylvia and I ] both knew how important the picture was to our careers , and we both desperately wanted to be in the big time . " During one session , Parrish refused to follow the shooting script , having determined independently that not all the scripted scenes were essential to the plot . When Anderson reminded Parrish of his contractual responsibilities , the director announced to the cast and crew , " Hell , you heard the producer . If I don 't shoot these scenes which I don 't really want , don 't need and will cut out anyway , I 'll be in breach of contract . So what we 'll do is shoot those scenes next ! " Anderson discussed how the production of Doppelgänger presented new challenges , explaining , " I had worked for so many years employing directors to do what I told them ... Suddenly I came up against a Hollywood movie director who didn 't want to play and we ended up extremely bad friends . " In his 2002 biography , Anderson stated that his sole regret about the film " [ was ] that I hired Bob Parrish in the first place . " Sylvia Anderson comments that Parrish 's direction was " uninspired . We had a lot of trouble getting what we wanted from him . "
One dispute among the founders of Century 21 – Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , Reg Hill and John Read – emerged from the filming of other scenes , including one in which the character of Lise Hartman bathes in a shower . Read , the director of photography , had complied with Parrish 's instructions to light the sequence in silhouette . Anderson , who had intended the scene to display full @-@ frontal nudity from actress Loni von Friedl , demanded a re @-@ shoot , insisting that Read honour his obligations not just to Parrish as director but also to his Century 21 partners . According to Sylvia Anderson , " Gerry was very keen to show that he was part of the ' Swinging Sixties ' and felt that seeing a detailed nude shot – as he visualised it – was more ' with it ' than the more subdued version . " Anderson clashed with Read and Parrish for a second time when special effects shots of Phoenix were filmed with a hand @-@ held camera : " I knew enough about space travel to know that in a vacuum a spacecraft will travel as straight as a die ... [ Parrish ] told me that people were not familiar with space travel and therefore they would expect to see this kind of movement . " Refusing to re @-@ film the scenes on the basis that Parrish 's instructions had precedence over Anderson 's , Read resigned from both Century 21 and the production of Doppelgänger at the Andersons ' and Hill 's request . Anderson elaborated : " Clearly John was in a difficult position . I do now understand how he must have felt , but in my heart I feel he couldn 't play a double role . "
= = = Effects = = =
The production base for special effects was Century 21 Studios in Slough , Berkshire , which had been prepared for filming on the last Supermarionation series , The Secret Service . Supervising director Derek Meddings oversaw the shooting of more than 200 effects shots , including the destruction of EUROSEC Headquarters at the end of the film . A six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) Phoenix scale model , which emulated the design of the NASA multi @-@ stage Saturn V rocket , had to be rebuilt after unexpectedly igniting and nearly injuring a technician . For authenticity , the effects staff mounted the shots of the Phoenix lift @-@ off outdoors in a section of the Century 21 car park so as to film against a genuine sky backdrop . Archer and Hearn describe the sequence as " one of the most spectacular " of its kind produced by Century 21 . Sylvia Anderson , who considers it indistinguishable from a Cape Kennedy launch , comments that she is " still impressed by the magic of the effects . Technology has come a long way since the early Seventies , but Derek 's effects have endured . "
Although Century 21 had constructed a life @-@ size Dove capsule in Slough , it could not be used for filming at Pinewood Studios due to an arrangement with the National Association of Theatrical Television and Kine Employees ( NATTKE ) to build and use such props exclusively on @-@ site . Once the original had been incinerated , carpenters at Pinewood re @-@ built the prop , although Anderson remained disappointed with the finished product , which he considered inferior . Reviewing the scale models of Doppelgänger , Martin Anderson of the entertainment website Den of Geek describes the Phoenix command module as " beautifully ergonomic without losing too much NASA @-@ ness " , and the Dove lander module as " a beautiful fusion of JPL gloss with classic lines " . He argues that the Phoenix launch sequence stood as the finest example of Meddings ' work until his contributions to the 1979 James Bond film Moonraker , and praises his efforts all the more for the absence of computer animation in the late 1960s .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Composer Barry Gray recorded his score , his favourite of all his musical contributions to the Anderson productions , in three days from 27 to 29 March 1969 . Fifty @-@ five musicians attended the first studio session , with 44 at the second and 28 at the last . The track titled " Sleeping Astronauts " , which accompanies the scenes of Ross and Kane 's journey through the Solar System , features an Ondes Martenot , played by French ondiste Sylvette Allart . Archer and Hearn credit " Sleeping Astronauts " as " one of the most enchanting pieces Gray ever wrote " , and state that the soundtrack , which has not yet received a commercial release , evokes a " traditional Hollywood feel " that is in contrast to the 2069 setting of Doppelgänger .
The inspiration for the title sequence , set inside the secret laboratory of Dr Hassler , was the espionage theme embodied by the character : in what Archer and Hearn describe as an imitation of the style of 1960s James Bond films , a miniature camera is seen to be concealed inside Hassler 's artificial eye .
= = Distribution = =
When production on Doppelgänger ended in October 1968 , all 30 episodes of Joe 90 had been completed and the Andersons ' upcoming television series , The Secret Service , had entered pre @-@ production . The final cut was given a mediocre reception by Universal Pictures executives , causing the film 's release to be postponed for a year . It received an A certificate from the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) on 26 March 1969 , dispelling rumours of an X rating and fulfilling the Andersons ' objective that Doppelgänger be suitable for children accompanied by adults . To secure an A certificate , brief cuts were made to shots of contraceptive pills , shortening the running time from the original 104 minutes .
Doppelgänger opened at the Odeon Cinema in London 's Leicester Square on 8 October 1969 , having premiered on 27 August in the United States . On 1 November , it debuted in Detroit , Michigan , commencing a second round of presentations in American cinemas . The film received a disappointing box office reception on general release .
British distributors Rank released the film under its original name in the UK and the rest of Europe . The title Journey to the Far Side of the Sun was adopted in the United States and Australia , since it had been determined by Universal that the audiences of these countries might not understand the meaning of the term " doppelganger " . Simon Archer and Stan Nicholls , authors of Gerry Anderson : The Authorised Biography , concede that Journey to the Far Side of the Sun – which has superseded Doppelgänger as the more popular title – provides a clearer explanation of the plot , but argue that it lacks the " intrigue and even poetic quality of Doppelgänger " .
= = = TV broadcasts = = =
Two prints of Doppelgänger in its original 35 mm format , for UK release , are known to exist . One is retained by the British Film Institute ( BFI ) , the other by Fanderson , the official fan society dedicated to the Gerry Anderson productions . The original prints of Doppelgänger position Ian Hendry before Roy Thinnes in the opening credits ; in the Journey to the Far Side of the Sun format , Thinnes is billed before Hendry . Certain UK prints alter the final scene featuring the old Jason Webb with the addition of a short voice @-@ over from Thinnes in character as Ross , who is heard speaking a line that he says to Webb earlier in the film : " Jason , we were right . There are definitely two identical planets . "
In the UK , Doppelgänger has been aired on TV under the title Journey to the Far Side of the Sun and has been formatted accordingly . Broadcasts have often contained inverted picture due to a mistake made in transferring the original print to videotape . Prior to a screening in the 1980s , a telecine operator viewed the print and , being unfamiliar with the premise of the film , concluded that the scenes set on the parallel Earth had been reversed in error . An additional " flop @-@ over " edit restored the image to normal , which became the standard for all broadcasts but compromised the plot : if Doppelgänger is screened in this modified form , the viewer is led to conclude that the parallel Ross has landed on the non @-@ reversed , normal Earth .
= = = Home video releases = = =
Previously available in laserdisc format , Doppelgänger was released on NTSC Region 1 DVD in both 1998 and – in digitally @-@ remastered form – 2008 . The 2008 release included PAL Region 2 but was titled Journey to the Far Side of the Sun rather than Doppelgänger . No additional material is present on the Region 1 releases ; the Region 2 version includes a film trailer . While the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) has certified the film G since its original release , before the 2008 DVD release the BBFC re @-@ rated Doppelgänger PG ( from the original A ) for " mild violence and language " . A Blu @-@ ray version was released in Region A in April 2015 as Journey to the Far Side of the Sun .
= = Reception = =
Since its original release , Doppelgänger has had a mixed critical reception in both the UK and the US , although Archer and Nicholls argue that it has acquired cult status . Gary Gerani , co @-@ writer of Pumpkinhead ( 1988 ) , ranks the film 81st in his book Top 100 Sci @-@ Fi Movies , praising Doppelgänger as a " fine example of speculative fantasy in the late ' 60s " . He expresses satisfaction with Thinnes ' and Wymark 's performances , the characterisation ( and the themes entailed , including adultery , infertility and corruption ) and the " Fourth of July @-@ style " special effects , calling the film " enigmatic " .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
In a review published in The Times in October 1969 , John Russell Taylor praised the concept of the film as " quite ingenious " but suggested that the title and pre @-@ release marketing had revealed too much of the plot for the film to sustain the interest of its audience . Commenting in New York magazine in November , Judith Crist introduced Doppelgänger as " a science @-@ fiction film that comes up with a fascinating premise three @-@ quarters of the way along and does nothing with it . " She praised the production as being " nicely gadget @-@ ridden " and raising questions on the conflict between politics and science , but criticised the editing . Variety magazine cited a confusing plot , and related the crash of the Dove module to the coherence of the scriptwriting in its declaration that , " Astronauts take a pill to induce a three @-@ week sleep during their flight . Thereafter the script falls to pieces in as many parts as their craft . "
In his 1975 work A Pictorial History of Science Fiction Films , Jeff Rovin stated that the film was " confusing but colourful " , and commended it for its " superb special effects " . Although it was argued to be better than average for the genre in The Miami News in September 1969 and The Montreal Gazette in April 1972 , a December 1969 edition of the Pittsburgh Press dismissed it as " a churned out science @-@ fiction yarn ... Let 's hope there 's only one movie like this one " , and ranked it among the worst films of the year . The The Montreal Gazette review maintained that , although the quality deteriorates towards the end of the film , " until then it 's a reasonably diverting futuristic melodrama . "
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
In a 2008 review for Den of Geek , Martin Anderson praised Robert Parrish 's direction and Derek Meddings ' effects . However , the dialogue , described as " robust and prosaic " , was said to sit " ill @-@ at @-@ ease with the metaphysical ponderings " . Anderson also expressed concern about the editing , stating that every effects shot precedes another shot " with that ' Hornby ' factor , slowing up the narrative unnecessarily " . Doppelgänger is awarded a rating of three stars out of five , and is summarised as " an interesting journey with many rewards " . Glenn Erickson , commenting in 2008 on the website DVD Talk , argued that Doppelgänger " takes an okay premise but does next to nothing with it . We see 100 minutes of bad drama and good special effects , and then the script opts for frustration and meaningless mystery . " He complained of unappealing cinematography , comparing it to the premise of Thunderbirds in so far as " people stand and talk a lot " , while defining the script as being composed of " at least 60 percent hardware @-@ talk and exposition ... How people move about – airplane , parachute , centrifuge – is more important than what they 're doing . "
On the subject of effects , Erickson asserted that sequences such as the " thuddingly generic , drama @-@ challenged main rocket launch " detract from the human factor of the film . Other design elements were criticised : viewing the costumes as dated , Erickson added that " the actors are defeated by the Barbie doll house surroundings " , and suggested that the visuals of Doppelgänger match an ethos of " the future will be a shopping mall " . Despite judging Doppelgänger " good " ( a rating higher than " fair " but lower than " excellent " ) , Erickson argued that the opportunities presented by the parallel Earth concept were squandered in the determination to turn the production into " an excuse to show cool rocket toys " .
Doppelgänger is given a rating of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five in a negative review published on the Film4 website , which praises the effects work and costume design but criticises the scenes with the character of Dr Hassler for their irrelevance to the main plot , and the subtext of the Rosses ' troubled marriage as an unnecessary diversion from the narrative . Although Ross and Kane 's mission through space is described as a " brief , trippy light show " , the review questions the originality of having a parallel Earth as the focus , and the depth of the script 's vision : " Anderson 's has to be the cheapest alternate Earth ever . Whereas audiences might expect a world where the Roman Empire never fell or the Nazis won World War II , here the shocking discovery is that people write backwards . That 's it . " Doppelgänger is only recommended for fans of the Anderson productions , and is considered " an occasionally interesting failure " .
Gary Westfahl of the webzine SF Site asserts that the use of a near @-@ perfect parallel Earth is uninspired , referring to the setting as " the most boring and unimaginative alien world imaginable " . Among other reviews , TV Guide magazine describes Doppelgänger as a " strange , little film " with an " overwritten script " , and considers the subplot concerning Dr Hassler 's treachery to be distracting . It awards a rating of two stars out of four . To Chris Bentley , writer of episode guides on the Anderson productions , Doppelgänger is a " stylish and thought @-@ provoking science @-@ fiction thriller " .
Sylvia Anderson suggested that American audiences , who were less familiar with the Supermarionation productions of Century 21 , were more enthusiastic . She explained , " It was all too easy to compare our real actors with our puppet characters and descriptions such as ' wooden ' , ' expressionless ' , ' no strings attached ' and ' puppet @-@ like ' were cheap shots some of the UK critics could not resist ... Typecasting is the lazy man 's friend , and boy , were we typecast in Britain . " On Doppelgänger , she said in 1992 , " I saw it on TV a couple of years ago and I was very pleased with it . I thought it came over quite well . "
= = = Interpretation = = =
Archer and Nicholls cite among possible causes of the commercial failure of Doppelgänger its " quirky , offbeat nature " and the loss of public interest in space exploration after the Apollo 11 mission . The subject of the July 1969 Moon landing dominated a contemporary review in The Milwaukee Journal , in which Bennett F. Waxse noted comparisons with Doppelgänger : " ... the spacemen find a few bugs in their ' LM ' and crash on the planet . And do they ever have their hands full in getting back to Earth ! " Writing that the proliferation of technical dialogue hampers the acting , he concluded , " ... the makers of this space exploiter may get lots of mileage at the box office , but Neil , Buzz and Mike did it better on TV . "
It has also been suggested that the 1968 releases of 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Planet of the Apes established an unattainable standard for other films of the science @-@ fiction genre . Erickson argues that the film is inferior to 2001 for its depiction of a realistic " working future " in which humans remain attached to commercialism . Comparing the visual style of Doppelgänger to that used by film director Stanley Kubrick , he notes similarities in the use of close @-@ up eye shots and various " psychedelic " images , regretting that " all these borrowings are fluff without any deeper meaning . " Film4 's review describes the final scenes featuring the character of Jason Webb as " hell @-@ bent on recreating the enigmatic finale of 2001 by using a mirror , a wheelchair and a tartan blanket . "
Martin Anderson discusses connections between Doppelgänger and other science @-@ fiction films of the 1960s and 1970s , such as Solaris , acknowledging a " lyrical " tone in the dialogue . Ultimately , however , Doppelgänger " doesn 't bear comparison with Kubrick or [ Solaris director Andrei ] Tarkovsky . " Comparing Doppelgänger to 2001 , Rovin writes that the effects of the former " [ occasionally ] outshine " those of the latter . " He goes onto state that the film " attempts to kindle a profundity similar to that of [ 2001 ] in its abstract philosophising about the dichotomy of dual worlds , but fails with a combination of meat @-@ and @-@ potatoes science fiction and quasi @-@ profound themes . " He suggests that it is " neither a kid 's film nor a cult film " , but rules that " the elements that comprise the finished effort are more than individually successful . "
Erickson contrasts perceived failures on the part of the script with the efforts of Nigel Kneale for the 1958 BBC serial Quatermass and the Pit and the 1964 film adaptation of the 1901 H.G. Wells novel The First Men in the Moon . Both Douglas Pratt and the Institute of Contemporary Arts ( ICA ) in London liken the concept of the alternative Earth to the plot of " The Parallel " , a 1963 episode of the American television series The Twilight Zone : in the episode , an astronaut returns to Earth to find that his world has undergone many changes – some trivial , some drastic – and concludes that he has arrived in a parallel universe . Critic S. T. Joshi compares the theme of duplication in Doppelgänger to the premise of Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) , in which characters ' fears that their relatives have been abducted and replaced with alien impostors are vindicated with the appearance of the Pod People , an extraterrestrial species with the power to create doppelgangers that are nearly indistinguishable from humans .
= = = Legacy = = =
Despite the polarised critical reception and commercial failure of Doppelgänger , Lew Grade offered the Andersons further opportunities to film in live action . Their first television series not based on puppetry was UFO , which premièred in the UK in 1970 . Doppelgänger is considered an immediate precursor to UFO , and has also been described as a " trial run " for the Andersons ' second live @-@ action series , Space : 1999 . UFO featured actors , costumes , props , locations and music that had previously appeared in Doppelgänger . Of the film 's cast , Ed Bishop , Keith Alexander , Cy Grant , Martin King and Jeremy Wilkin had previously had an association with the Andersons : all had provided voices for Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons except Alexander , who had voiced characters for the penultimate Supermarionation series , Joe 90 . With 11 other cast members , all but Grant and King appeared in at least one episode of UFO , in which Bishop had in the lead role of Commander Ed Straker .
Special effects elements from Doppelgänger that were recycled for UFO included the scale models of Phoenix and Dove . Futuristic cars ( which consultants from the Ford corporation based on the chassis of the Zephyr Zodiac ) and jeeps ( adapted from British Leyland Mini Mokes ) were also re @-@ used . Neptune House , one of the filming locations for Doppelgänger , became the face of the Harlington @-@ Straker Film Studios where the SHADO Organisation is headquartered . Tracks from Barry Gray 's score that were recycled for UFO included " Sleeping Astronauts " and " Strange Planet " , the latter serving as the ending theme music . The teleprinter images that served as the focus of the film 's titles formed a creative element that was imitated in the opening titles of UFO .
In a retrospective of Anderson 's career published on the IGN website , it is stated that the discussion of politics and economics in Doppelgänger contrast with the conventions of 1960s science fiction . Furthermore , such aspects are reflected in the atmosphere of UFO in so far as the characters " were constantly having to deal with the pressures of having to show progress under the scrutiny of accountants and elected officials , much the same way NASA was starting to in the US . " Commenting on the parallels between the film and the television series , Martin Anderson makes another connection to Kubrick : turning his attention to the scripting , he argues , " the most interesting common ground between the two projects remains the bleak ending ( s ) and the slight flirtation with the acid @-@ induced imagery and mind fucks of 2001 . "
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= Lam Tin =
Lam Tin is an area in the Kwun Tong District in southeastern New Kowloon , Hong Kong . Lam Tin is primarily a residential area but also hosts a major transport interchange and several shopping attractions . Lam Tin was once a large field in the vicinity of Kowloon Bay . During the Song dynasty , it was a site of salt production . Since the 1980s a number of housing estates were constructed in Lam Tin .
A high @-@ density residential district built on a coastal knoll , Lam Tin hosts residential housing estates , transport infrastructure , mass @-@ transit facilities , shopping centres , recreational areas and many other buildings and structures . It is home to 130 @,@ 000 residents , making up a fifth of Kwun Tong District 's population .
= = Geographical location = =
In common speech , the name Lam Tin in the past usually included the areas of Lei Yue Mun and Yau Tong . However , new infrastructure and housing estates that were built there are not now considered part of Lam Tin . Conventional boundaries of Lam Tin : west to Laguna City , southeast to Kwong Tin Estate , north to the entrance of Tseung Kwan O Tunnel , southwest to Victoria Harbour .
= = = Geography = = =
Lam Tin is overlooked to the east by Black Hill , or Ng Kwai Shan . The rock below this locality is Hong Kong Granite from the Cretaceous period . Most granite rock in Lam Tin is medium @-@ grained . The granite in Lam Tin is of the Lion Rock suite . Farther towards the shore , a small area of land to the west of Cha Kwo Ling was reclaimed .
= = = Politics = = =
The entire Lam Tin area is located in Kwun Tong District . Politically , Lam Tin is the name of a constituency of Kwun Tong District , which includes the area of the former Lam Tin Estate . However , in common speech , the name Lam Tin usually refers to a larger area which includes nine constituencies of Kwun Tong District .
Constituencies of the Kwun Tong District Council within the Lam Tin area
J14 Hing Tin ( 興田 )
J15 Tak Tin ( 德田 )
J16 Lam Tin ( 藍田 )
J17 Kwong Tak ( 廣德 )
J18 Ping Tin ( 平田 )
J19 Hong Pak ( 康柏 )
J21 Yau Tong Sze Shan West ( 油塘四山西 )
J22 Lai Kong ( 麗港 )
J23 King Tin ( 景田 )
= = History = =
Located along the coast of southern China , Lam Tin was first settled around the 9th century BC by the Nanyue people . The Qin dynasty conquered the Nanyue in the late 3rd century BC as part of their unification of China . Since then , the land presently known as Lam Tin became identified as part of China .
Lam Tin , called Ham Tin Shan ( 鹹田山 ) at that time , literally meaning " salty field hill " , had been part of Kowloon Bay salt @-@ fields ( 九龍灣鹽田 , also known as Guanfuchang 官富場 ) under the management of Dongguan County or Xin 'an County in different dynasties . The salt @-@ fields were first officially operated by the Song dynasty in 1163 .
The Kowloon Bay salt @-@ fields were rich in salt , and this brought wealth to the residents near the bay . Gradually , Ham Tin Shan became villages . Because of the region 's shoreline location , agricultural activities started with the plantation of high @-@ salinity crops . With a quarry found in So Mo Ping ( now Sau Mau Ping ) , the region gradually became a small fishing , farming and quarrying town .
In 1662 , the Kangxi Emperor moved all residents along southern China coastline inland by 50 Chinese miles and abandoned the salt @-@ fields in hopes of weakening the pirate Zheng Chenggong 's power through cutting his support from coastline residents . Although the residents were allowed to return in 1669 , after the Kangxi Emperor discovered that the migration brought great economic harm , the salt industry in Ham Tin never prospered again .
In 1841 , the British Empire acquired Hong Kong . The western half of the Kowloon Bay salt @-@ fields becoming part of British Hong Kong in 1860 and the eastern half in 1898 . In the 20th century , the salt @-@ fields were abandoned for reclamation to facilitate the building of Kai Tak Airport . To reflect this change in land usage , Ham Tin was renamed Lam Tin of similar pronunciation because the village no longer produced salt . The name Lam Tin came from Lantian , Shaanxi , which came from a phrase " 藍田生玉 " , literally " produced from the blue fields is jade " . The name Lam Tin was officially endorsed on 1 September 1970 .
The colonial government built Lam Tin Estate in the 1960s to settle low @-@ income residents during the influx of population from mainland China after the Korean War . Gradually , Lam Tin became a common term to Hongkongers describing the areas around Lam Tin Estate . The dragon emblem painted on Block 15 of Lam Tin Estate was a symbol of Lam Tin 's unity until the building 's demolition in 1998 . The land of Lam Tin Estate was absorbed into Ping Tin Estate , Kai Tin Estate , Tak Tin Estate and Kwong Tin Estate .
With the building of three major transport structures in the late 20th century – the Kwun Tong Bypass , the Eastern Harbour Crossing , and the MTR – Lam Tin became even more interconnected with the rest of Hong Kong , spurring a population surge in the district and becoming a major transport interchange .
= = Infrastructure = =
Lam Tin is known as one of the most important transport interchange centres in Hong Kong . It is a frequently visited bus @-@ bus and rail @-@ bus interchange station in East Kowloon .
When the British arrived , most Lam Tin residents travelled on foot or by boat to nearby villages such as Ma Tau Wai . Over the years , the government built roads , tunnels and railways in Lam Tin to facilitate transport between Lam Tin and other districts , making Lam Tin a bridge between different areas of Eastern Hong Kong .
= = = Highway and road surface = = =
The first road was Lei Yue Mun Road , which succeeded Kwun Tong Road and ran between Kwun Tong and Lei Yue Mun . Cha Kwo Ling Road was later built to tap traffic to Cha Kwo Ling . However , the roads had insufficient capacity to effectively serve the district . Both Lei Yue Mun Road and Kwun Tong Road were widened and became segments of today 's Route 7 .
The first road that carried commuters into and out of Lam Tin was Kai Tin Road . It was built in the 1960s to facilitate major road transports . The construction of Kai Tin Road required the blasting of Lam Tin Hill , which attracted much attention to nearby residents . Owing to its method of construction , Kai Tin Road became a direct outlet from the hill .
Built together with Kai Tin Road were Ping Tin Street , On Tin Street and Tak Tin Street , which all served Lam Tin Estate . Later Ping Tin and Tak Tin became names of new residential areas after Lam Tin Estate was demolished .
In 1989 Eastern Harbour Crossing was completed . Kwun Tong Bypass was completed in 1991 . To construct an interchange for both roads , the intersection between Lei Yue Mun Road and Kai Tin Road was rebuilt into a flyover @-@ roundabout . This made Lam Tin a bridge between the Eastern Harbour Crossing and the Kwun Tong Bypass of Route 2 , with Lei Yue Mun Interchange as the exit point .
In 1990 Tseung Kwan O Tunnel was built with its southern entrance in Lam Tin , adding a convenient and direct route to Tseung Kwan O. Junk Bay Chinese Permanent Cemetery was built in the same year . Despite being located in Tseung Kwan O , the cemetery 's only motor @-@ enabled exit is located in Lam Tin . As a result , Lam Tin becomes crowded with people tending graves during the various festivals .
The 1990 and 1992 construction of Sceneway Garden and Laguna City , respectively , increased the traffic congestion in the Lam Tin area , mainly near Sai Tso Wan . One of the new arteries built to relieve the problem is Wai Fat Road , a four @-@ lane dual carriageway which serves as an interchange between Route 2 and Route 7 and an outlet from Kwun Tong Bypass to Kwun Tong Industrial Area .
Pik Wan Road and Lin Tak Road were also built in 1992 to facilitate transport to newly built areas higher up Lam Tin Hill . Because it hangs off a precipice and carries only two @-@ lanes , Lin Tak Road was surrounded by both questions of convenience and concerns about its safety .
As part of the 2001 construction of Ocean Shores in Tseung Kwan O , a segment of the former Po Lam Road South was rebuilt and extended to meet Pik Wan Road near Kwong Tin Estate . The reconstructed road was renamed O King Road and became the first road connection to modern Tiu Keng Leng .
= = = MTR = = =
Between 1979 and 1989 , the Kwun Tong Line of the MTR terminated at Kwun Tong Station . A storage railroad depot that developed behind the station , consisting of three parallel and interchanged tracks , terminating at Kwun Tong Law Court , eventually became part of the passenger railway after the later extension of Kwun Tong Line .
In 1984 , the government decided to build a second railway tunnel and a second road tunnel to alleviate traffic congestion in the Cross Harbour Tunnel resulting in Eastern Harbour Crossing , the first railway @-@ road tunnel in Hong Kong . The tunnel enabled Kwun Tong Line 's extension to Quarry Bay , with an additional stop , Lam Tin , built in the middle . The new MTR station , opened on 8 November 1989 , caused an influx of population into Lam Tin .
Built at the same was Lam Tin Bus Terminus , located on the opposite side of Lei Yue Mun Road and housing platforms for franchised buses , minibuses , taxis and cross @-@ border buses . It is also connected to Sceneway Plaza by staircases and escalators . Following the construction of these new facilities , Lam Tin gradually became a major transport interchange in Hong Kong .
As part of the Tseung Kwan O Line project , Kwun Tong line was briefly extended to North Point on 27 September 2001 but soon diverted to Tiu Keng Leng when the Tseung Kwan O Line opened on 18 August 2002 . Now , Lam Tin is on the Kwun Tong Line , the third station from the terminus station of Tiu Keng Leng at Rennie 's Mill .
= = = Franchised buses = = =
The first bus terminus built in Lam Tin was then called Lam Tin Bus Terminus , which is today 's Tak Tin Bus Terminus . It is built on the slope of Lam Tin Hill , in the north part of Lam Tin Estate , to serve the neighbourhood 's residents . Buses ran from Kwun Tong to the bus terminus through Lei Yue Mun Road , then turned left and ascended the hill along Kai Tin Road , Ping Tin Street , On Tin Street and Tak Tin Street .
Between 1989 to 1994 , Lam Tin MTR Station , Laguna City and Pik Wan Road were built . To serve these newly populated areas , three new bus termini were constructed : Lam Tin MTR Bus Terminus , now commonly named Lam Tin Bus Terminus as shown on the wall painting of the terminus ; Laguna City Bus Terminus , which took up routes originally terminating at Kwun Tong Ferry ; and Kwong Tin Bus Terminus , with new routes initiated to serve exclusively Lam Tin and the area nearby .
To disambiguate the names of the termini from one another , the original Lam Tin Bus Terminus was renamed Lam Tin ( North ) Bus Terminus , and " Lam Tin Bus Terminus " now usually refers to Lam Tin MTR Bus Terminus . After reconstruction of Lam Tin Estate , Lam Tin ( North ) Bus Terminus was surrounded by Tak Tin Estate . As a result , the terminus got a common name " Tak Tin Bus Terminus " .
The area near Ping Tin Street became Ping Tin Estate after the reconstruction . A space underneath the buildings was reserved for a new bus terminus . On 6 July 2003 , Ping Tin Bus Terminus was opened and overtook most of the routes from Tak Tin Bus Terminus .
= = = = Bus termini and routes in Lam Tin = = = =
There are five bus terminals in Lam Tin , namely :
Lam Tin Bus Terminus ( with the full name Lam Tin MTR Station Bus Terminus ) with routes A22 , 42C , 61R , 89D , 89P , 93M , 216M , 258D , 277E , 277P , 277X
Laguna City Bus Terminus with routes 40 , 219X , 621
Ping Tin Bus Terminus with routes 15 , 15A , 15P , 38 , 74S , 88X , 603 , 603P , 603S , 889
Tak Tin Bus Terminus ( with the official name Lam Tin ( North ) Bus Terminus ) with route E22
Kwong Tin Bus Terminus ( with the full name Lam Tin ( Kwong Tin Estate ) Bus Terminus ) with routes 14B , 15X , 16 , 215P , 215X
Excluding the bus routes mentioned above , the following routes also stop in Lam Tin , but not terminating : 14 , 14X , 16M , E22P , E22X , 62X , 259D , 601 , 601P , 606 , 606A , 606X , 619 , 619P , N619 , 641 , 671 , 690 , 690P , 694 .
= = = Surface transport = = =
Surrounded by hills , Lam Tin does not have direct access to the Victoria Harbour . However , merchant ships and ferries dock at Kwun Tong Pier and Lei Yue Mun Pier , which are both within 15 minutes ' walk from Lam Tin , and provide surface transport for Lam Tin residents . Another reason for Lam Tin 's absence of an outlet to the Harbour is the presence of an Eastern Harbour Crossing entrance inside the district , whose buses and MTR overtook ferries for cross @-@ harbour transport .
= = Residence = =
The first modern housing estate in Lam Tin was Lam Tin Estate . The estate was built in the 1960s and the 1970s to settle the influx of mainland immigrants . The late 1980s saw the district 's first private residential buildings . Various facilities built during the 1990s made Lam Tin a compact residential area , however Lam Tin Estate was demolished in the 1990s and was redeveloped into Ping Tin Estate , Tak Tin Estate and Kai Tin Estate .
Most of the residents in Lam Tin are Chinese , but due to an influx of Japanese immigrants during the 1990s , people of Japanese descent have become common in Lam Tin , particularly in Sceneway Garden and Laguna City , which now features a Japanese kindergarten .
= = = Lam Tin Estate = = =
Lam Tin Estate consisted of tower blocks numbered 1 to 24 . Blocks 1 to 14 of Lam Tin Estate were built between 1962 and 1965 as type 4 public housing buildings ( 第四型公屋 ) ; the other 10 towers were built between 1969 and 1975 as type 6 public housing buildings ( 第六型公屋 ) . There was no Block 9 , leaving the number of buildings in Lam Tin Estate at 23 .
The Chinese dragon , which has symbolised unity of Chinese people since it was the first national emblem of unified China , is painted in multicolour on Block 15 's south and north facing walls because it was the 500th public housing building in Hong Kong . Block 15 's distinctive imagery made it a recognisable symbol of Lam Tin and the district 's unity . After demolition and reconstruction , Block 15 became part of Ping Tin Estate .
Building structure of Lam Tin Estate 's blocks is standardised by the government . As types 3 , 4 and 6 buildings , the 23 towers of Lam Tin Estate were shaped as cuboids and resembled candy @-@ boxes standing on a knoll . Most buildings were 16 @-@ storeys high and housed about 800 units . Each building had an estimated capacity of 3 @,@ 000 residents and an approximate space allocation at 30 ft ² per person . Bathrooms and kitchens were combined into one compartment , as were living rooms and bedrooms . Lifts only reached some of the floors . To access the other floors , one needed to exit the lift at a level nearby and hike upstairs or downstairs . On the ground floor beneath the buildings were a variety of shops which served the residents . Although densely packed , the living environment of Lam Tin Estate fostered close relationships in the neighbourhood .
Owing to the ageing of buildings , the reconstruction of Lam Tin Estate was announced in September 1995 as part of an urban renewal project . Demolition started in 1997 and was completed in 2002 . After reconstruction , Lam Tin Estate became Kai Tin Estate , Tak Tin Estate , Ping Tin Estate and Hong Yat Court .
= = = Laguna City and Sceneway Garden = = =
Laguna City and Sceneway Garden were the earliest large @-@ scale private @-@ housing estates built in Lam Tin . Both were built by Cheung Kong Holdings and completed in the early 1990s .
In the late 1980s , Cheung Kong acquired two pieces of land in Lam Tin , one being a former Shell oil depot , the other above the newly built Lam Tin MTR Station and bus terminus , and developed them into Laguna City and Sceneway Garden respectively . Laguna City was completed in 1991 and Sceneway Garden was completed in 1992 .
Sceneway Garden is built on the podium above Lam Tin Station . The podium was built in a valley between Cha Kwo Ling and Lam Tin Hill , which hosted a waste @-@ car dump @-@ site before its construction . It has a total of 17 towers and a gross floor area of 280 @,@ 760 m ² . There are altogether 4112 flats housing approximately 20 @,@ 000 people . It also has two carparks , one for residents and one for visitors . Built together with Sceneway Garden was Sceneway Plaza , which is a major shopping mall in southeastern Kowloon .
Laguna City is built along Lam Tin 's waterfront taking over the land from the former oil depot . Part of Laguna City is built on reclaimed land . Laguna City consists of four phases , totalling 38 towers upon its 1991 completion . Built together with Laguna City was Laguna Park , which was completed in 1994 and then handed over to Urban Council . Laguna Park has a total area of 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Phases 1 , 2 and 4 of Laguna City are managed by the same company , while phase 3 has an independent management authority . Similarly , phases 1 , 2 and 4 share the same owners ' committee , whereas phase 3 has its own .
= = = List of villages and housing estates in Lam Tin = = =
In addition , Ko Chun Court and Ko Yee Estate in Yau Tong and Ma Yau Tong Village in Tiu Keng Leng are sometimes considered part of Lam Tin .
= = Facilities = =
Being a compact residential area , Lam Tin has various facilities to satisfy its residents ' daily needs . These include shopping malls , recreational facilities , water and other supplies . Furthermore , during the 1970s and 1980s , Lam Tin hosted landfills .
= = = Shopping = = =
To meet the daily demands of its residents , Lam Tin hosts a number of shopping malls and markets . Most residential estates host individual shopping malls , and some of them have wet markets in addition to malls . These include :
= = = Schools = = =
To serve its residents , Lam Tin has a number of schools . They include kindergartens , primary schools and secondary schools . Some schools in Lam Tin are subsidised , others are private .
List of schools in Lam Tin
= = = Recreation = = =
Lam Tin has a number of public parks , recreation grounds and indoor sports centres for its residents ' use , including Lam Tin Park and Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground . It is also home to part of the Wilson Trail . There are also a few government indoor activity centres , including Lam Tin West Community Centre , Lam Tin South Indoor Sports Ground and Lam Tin Complex , as well as a number of private recreational facilities .
Lam Tin Park was built along Black Hill in 1991 to serve the needs of the fast @-@ growing community . It consists mainly of hiking trails and walkways , with a 5 @-@ a @-@ side football pitch and a children 's playground . It also serves as an entrance to the Wilson Trail . The whole of Lam Tin and Victoria Harbour can be viewed from the lookout point at the peak of Lam Tin Park .
Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground was built between 1995 and 2004 over the former Sai Tso Wan Landfill . During the construction , the former landfill underwent a series of restoration works . A final capping layer was added to prevent leakage ; a landfill gas control system was used to deploy methane from the decomposed rubbish as fuel , and a leachate management system was built to collect leachate for further processing . The recreation ground started its operation on 30 April 2004 .
The Lam Tin Complex on 1 Hing Ting Street was built between 2009 to 2013 . The facilities of the complex includes two indoor swimming pools ( 25x25 and 25x10 metres respectively ) , the Kwun Tong Music Centre , a self @-@ study room , rooftop gardens , and the new two @-@ floor Lam Tin Public Library , which relocated from smaller premises in Tak Tin Estate .
Besides recreation grounds , Lam Tin also hosts Stage 3 of Wilson Trail . The section starts at Exit A of Lam Tin MTR Station , runs east along Kai Tin Road and Lei Yue Mun Road , up Black Hill along the road towards Junk Bay Chinese Permanent Cemetery , west along the Black Hill , and finally leaves Lam Tin near Ma Yau Tong towards the section 's terminus at Tseng Lan Shue .
= = = Supplies = = =
Lam Tin has an underground network of safe water , town gas and domestic electricity supplies . Electricity in the area is served by China Light and Power . Town gas in the area is served by the Towngas Company .
The entire Lam Tin area is served by both tap water and flushing sea water supplies . The tap water is piped either from surface water or Dongjiang River into two service reservoirs and then pumped to individual households . The two service reservoirs that serve Lam Tin are Lam Tin Low Level Fresh Water Service Reservoir and Lam Tin High Level Service Reservoir . Built together with Lam Tin Estate , the low level reservoir is covered with a concrete @-@ surfaced football field . The reservoir is now located between Kai Tin Estate and Tak Tin Estate . The high level reservoir , on the other hand , is farther away from residential estates . It is located near Lam Tin Park , on the slope of Black Hill .
= = = Waste disposal = = =
From 1978 to 1981 , Sai Tso Wan Landfill ( 晒草灣堆填區 ) served East Kowloon . Approximately 1 @.@ 6 million tonnes of domestic waste and commercial waste were dumped in the site during its four @-@ year operation . The disposed waste stacked up to 65 metres high . After its closure in 1981 , it was sealed with soil and planted over with Grasslands and trees . Sin Fat Road , which runs up the hill and hosts Sceneway Garden Minibus Terminus , was constructed . Sai Tso Wan Landfill was later rebuilt into Sai Tso Wan Recreation Ground .
An area in Ma Yau Tong near today 's Lam Tin Park was known as Ma Yau Tong Central Landfill ( 馬游塘中堆填區 ) . The area measured 10 @.@ 87 hectares , and operated until 1986 when it became the last urban landfill to be closed , after which it was sealed and converted to government @-@ owned grassland .
Since the total closure of urban landfills in 1986 , rubbish from Lam Tin is first transferred to a treatment plant in Kowloon Bay where it is compressed , and then to South East New Territories Landfill ( 新界東南堆填區 ) where it is disposed of .
= = = Publications = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Succession ( 30 Rock ) =
" Succession " is the thirteenth episode of NBC 's second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fourth episode overall . It was written by Andrew Guest and one of the seasons ' co @-@ executive producers , John Riggi ; it was directed by Gail Mancuso . It first aired on April 24 , 2008 in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Will Arnett , Marceline Hugot , Chris Parnell , Brian Stack , Tom Toner and Rip Torn .
In this episode Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and Devon Banks ' ( Will Arnett ) race to be the new CEO of General Electric comes to an end ; in a parody of Amadeus , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) gets the idea to make a pornographic video game with Frank ( Judah Friedlander ) playing Salieri to his Mozart , and Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) prepares to become the new Head of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming . In keeping with the Amadeus parody , the music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ( a favorite of Jeff Richmond , the show 's regular composer ) is used to score much of the episode .
= = Plot = =
Jack meets with retiring corporate head Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , who discloses that he has chosen Jack over his soon @-@ to @-@ be son @-@ in @-@ law Devon to run the company . Jack is overjoyed and chooses Liz to replace himself as Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming . Liz accepts when she learns of the higher salary and tells her staff " Suck it monkeys , I 'm going corporate . " Meanwhile , Devon returns with intent to sabotage Jack , but Liz attempts to make Devon look bad by forcibly making out with him in front of a security camera .
At this time , Tracy begins to feel he is an embarrassment to his son . Hoping to make his family proud , Tracy searches for a legacy and decides to produce the world 's first pornographic video game . Despite Frank 's skepticism , Tracy has some success in designing the game by conquering the uncanny valley , a scale on which the strangeness of special effects are measured .
A depressed Devon becomes resigned to the fact that Jack will receive the promotion . Don Geiss , however , goes into a diabetic coma , despite the efforts of Dr. Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) , before he can announce his decision . Devon denies knowing that Geiss had chosen Jack as his successor . The next day , Devon appears in Jack 's office , revealing he has convinced the board to put Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) , his fiancée , in charge , with Devon acting as the power behind the throne . He then kicks Jack out of his office .
= = Production = =
Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock , including Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live fourteen times , the second highest number of episodes of any host of the series .
= = Reception = =
" Succession " was viewed by an average of 5 @.@ 5 million American viewers upon its original broadcast . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 8 refers to 2 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode also ranked first place among males aged 18 – 34 against episodes of CSI and Grey 's Anatomy .
The episode received some positive feedback from critics . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad described " Succession " as " a great episode " with " a lot of great lines " . Sassone compared the episode to a soap opera , and hoped that the pornographic video game storyline would be continued . Robert Canning of IGN complimented Devon 's appearances on 30 Rock , and felt that " Succession " would be the first episode in a new story arc , which was a good thing . He rated the episode an 8 out of 10 . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger praised the episode as " fabulous " . Sepinwall noted that " Succession " included an " inspired riff on Amadeus " , and compared Tracy and Frank when they were working on a pornographic video game to Mozart and Salieri . Less positively , he commented on the " one @-@ note @-@ ness of Will Arnett as Devon Banks " , and did not like the Baby Mama ad that was displayed on screen during the " Mozart montage " .
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= Władysław IV Vasa =
Władysław IV Vasa ( Polish : Władysław IV Waza ; Russian : Владислав IV Ваза , tr . Vladislav IV Vaza ; Latin : Vladislaus IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV Vasa ; Lithuanian : Vladislovas Vaza ; 9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648 ) was a Polish prince from the Royal House of Vasa . He reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 8 November 1632 to his death in 1648 .
Władysław IV was the son of Sigismund III Vasa ( Polish : Zygmunt III Waza ) and his wife , Anna of Austria ( also known as Anna of Habsburg ) . In 1610 the teen @-@ aged Władysław was elected Tsar of Russia by the Seven Boyars , but did not assume the Russian throne due to his father 's opposition and a popular uprising in Russia . Nevertheless , until 1634 he used the title of Grand Duke of Muscovy .
Elected king of Poland in 1632 , Władysław was fairly successful in defending the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth against invasion , most notably in the Smolensk War of 1632 – 34 , in which he participated personally . He supported religious tolerance and carried out military reforms , such as the founding of the Commonwealth Navy . He was also a renowned patron of the arts and music . He failed , however , to realize his dreams of regaining the Swedish crown , gaining fame by conquering the Ottoman Empire , strengthening royal power , and reforming the Commonwealth .
He died without a legitimate male heir and was succeeded to the Polish throne by his half @-@ brother , John II Casimir Vasa ( Jan Kazimierz Waza ) . Władysław 's death marked the end of relative stability in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , as conflicts and tensions that had been growing over several decades came to a head with devastating consequences , notably the largest of the Cossack uprisings – the Khmelnytsky Uprising ( 1648 ) — and the Swedish invasion ( " the Deluge " , 1655 – 60 ) .
= = Royal titles = =
In Latin : " Vladislaus Quartus Dei gratia rex Poloniae , magnus dux Lithuaniae , Russiae , Prussiae , Masoviae , Samogitiae , Livoniaeque , necnon Suecorum , Gothorum Vandalorumque haereditarius rex , electus magnus dux Moschoviae . "
In English : " Władysław IV , by grace of God the King of Poland , Grand Duke of Lithuania , Ruthenia , Prussia , Masovia , Samogitia , Livonia , and hereditary King of the Swedes , Goths and Vandals , elected Grand Duke of Muscovy . "
In 1632 Władysław Zygmunt Waza – Jagiellon was elected King of Poland . By paternal inheritance , he legally succeeded as King of Sweden . His titles were the longest of any Polish king ever .
= = Life = =
Władysław IV 's father , Sigismund III Vasa , grandson of Sweden 's King Gustav I , had succeeded his father to the Swedish throne in 1592 , only to be deposed in 1599 by his uncle , subsequently King Charles IX . This resulted in a long @-@ standing feud , with the Polish kings of the House of Vasa claiming the Swedish throne . This led to the Polish – Swedish War of 1600 – 29 and later to the Deluge of 1655 .
= = = Childhood = = =
The marriage of Anne of Austria to Sigismund III was a traditional , politically motivated marriage , intended to tie the young House of Vasa to the prestigious Habsburgs . Władysław was born 9 June 1595 at the King 's summer residence in Łobzów , near Kraków , a few months after the main Wawel Castle had been consumed by fire .
Władysław 's mother died on 10 February 1598 , less than three years after giving birth to him . He was raised by one of her former ladies of the court , Urszula Meierin . Urszula eventually became a powerful player at the royal court , with much influence . Władysław 's Hofmeister was Michał Konarski , a Polish @-@ Prussian noble . Around early 17th century Urszula lost much of her influence , as Władysław gained new teachers and mentors , such as priests Gabriel Prowancjusz , Andrzej Szołdrski and Marek Łętkowski , and in the military matters , Zygmunt Kazanowski . Much of his curriculum was likely designed by priest Piotr Skarga , much respected by Sigmismund III . Władysław studied for several years in the Kraków Academy , and for two years , in Rome .
At the age of 10 Władysław received his own prince court . Władysław formed a friendship with Adam Kazanowski and his brother , Stanisław . It is reported that young Władysław was interested in arts ; later this led to him becoming an important patron of arts . He spoke and wrote in German , Italian and Latin . Władysław was liked by szlachta ( Polish nobility ) , however his father 's plans to secure him the throne of Poland ( vivente rege ) were unpopular and eventually crushed in the Zebrzydowski Rebellion ( rokosz ) .
= = = Tsar = = =
With the intensification of the Polish intervention in Muscovy , in 1609 , the royal family moved to their residence in Vilnius , capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . There he witnessed the fire of Vilnius , an event which even required the royal family to evacuate their residence in the Vilnius Castle . Shortly afterwords , that year , Władysław , aged 15 , was elected Tsar by Muscovy 's aristocracy council of Seven boyars , who overthrew tsar Vasily Shuysky during the Polish @-@ Muscovite War and Muscovy 's Time of Troubles . His election was ruined by his father , Sigismund , who aimed to convert Muscovy 's population from Orthodox religion to Catholicism . Sigismund refused to agree to the boyar 's request to send prince Władysław to Moscow and his conversion to Orthodoxy . Instead , Sigismund proposed that he should reign as a regent in Muscovy instead . This unrealistic proposal led to a resumption of hostilities . Briefly , beginning in 1610 , Władysław struck Muscovite silver and gold coins ( Kopek ) in the Russian mints in Moscow and Novgorod with his titulary Tsar and Grand Prince Vladislav Zigimontovych of all Russia .
Władysław tried to regain the tsar 's throne himself , organizing a campaign in 1616 . Despite some military victories , he was unable to capture Moscow . The Commonwealth gained some disputed territories in the Truce of Deulino , but Władysław was never able to reign in Russia ; the throne during this time was instead held by tsar Michael Romanov . He held on to the title , without any real power , until 1634 . Likely , the failure of this campaign showed Władysław the limits of royal power in Poland , as major factors for the failure included significant autonomy of the military commanders , which did not see Władysław as their superior , and lack of funds for the army , as the Polish parliament ( sejm ) refused to subsidize the war .
= = = Prince = = =
Before he was elected king of the Commonwealth , Władysław fought in many campaigns , seeking personal glory . After his final campaign against Russians in 1617 – 1618 ( the end of Dymitriads ) , in 1619 he went to Silesia , looking for an opportunity to aid the Habsburgs in their struggle against the Czech Hussites in the Thirty Years ' War . That opportunity never came , but from that point onward , Władysław had a good relationship with George William , Elector of Brandenburg .
The following year Władysław took part in the second phase of the Polish – Ottoman War , a consequence of the long series of struggles between Poland and the Ottomans over Moldavia . In 1621 Władysław was one of the Polish commanders at the Battle of Chocim ; reportedly he was struck ill , but despite that , he proved a voice of reason , convincing other Polish commanders there to stay and fight . His advice was correct , and the battle eventually ended with a peace treaty that returned the status quo from before the Ottoman invasion . This peace treaty also gave Władysław an international reputation as a " defender of Christian faith " , and increased his popularity in the Commonwealth itself .
In 1623 , while near Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , he witnessed the arrogant attitude of Gustavus Adolphus , whose navy took opportunity of its sea superiority to demand concessions from Gdańsk ( Commonwealth had no navy ) . In 1624 king Sigismund decided that time has come for Władysław to travel , like many of his peers , to Western Europe . For security reasons , Władysław traveled under a fake name , Snopkowski ( from Polish Snopek , meaning sheaf , as seen in the Vasa 's coat of arms ) . In his voyage ( 1624 – 1625 ) he was accompanied by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł and other , less notable courtiers . First , he travelled to Wrocław ( Breslau ) , then Munich , where he met Maximilian I , Elector of Bavaria . In Brussels he met Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain ; in Antwerp , Rubens . Near Breda he met Ambrosio Spinola . It was during his stay with Spinola that he was impressed by the Western military techniques ; this was later to be reflected when he became king : military matters were always important to him . While not a military genius , and surpassed by his contemporary , Commonwealth hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski , Władysław was known as a fairly skillful commander on his own . In Rome , he was welcomed by Pope Urban VIII , who congratulated him on his fighting against the Ottomans . During his stay in Florence he was impressed by opera , and decided to bring this form of art to the Commonwealth , where it was previously unknown . In Genoa and Venice he was impressed by the local shipyards , and in Pisa he witnessed a specially organized mock naval battle , experiences which resulted in his later attempt to create the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy .
After returning to Poland , in 1626 he fought against the Swedes in the last phase of the Polish – Swedish War , where in 1626 he took part in the battle of Gniew . His involvement in this conflict , which lasted till the Truce of Altmark in 1629 , was rather limited , and he spent much time in other parts of the country . During that period and afterward , he lobbied for support of his candidature for the Polish throne , as his father , Sigismund , was getting more advanced in his age , and the succession to the Polish throne did not occur through inheritance but rather , through the process of royal elections . While Władysław , and his father Sigismund , tried to ensure Władysław 's election during Sigismund 's life , this was not a popular option for the nobility , and it repeatedly failed , up to and including at the sejm of 1631 . The sudden heart attack that Sigismund suffered on 23 April 1632 , and his death in the morning hours of 30 April , forced the issue to be taken up again .
= = = King = = =
The election sejm of 1632 eventually concluded in the election of Władysław ; he had no serious other contenders . The decision on who would be the Commonwealth 's next king was reached on 8 November , but as the pacta conventa were not yet ready , the official announcement was delayed until 13 November . In the pacta conventa , Władysław pledged himself to fund a military school and equipment ; to find a way to fund a naval fleet ; to maintain current alliances ; not to raise armies , give offices or military ranks to foreigners , negotiate peace treaties or declare war without the Sejm 's approval ; not to take a wife without the Senate 's approval ; to convince his brothers to take an oath to the Commonwealth ; and to transfer the profits from the Royal Mint to the Royal Treasury rather than to a private treasury . When the election result had been announced by the Crown Grand Marshal , Łukasz Opaliński , the nobility ( szlachta ) , who had taken part in the election , began festivities in honor of the new king , which lasted three hours . Władysław was crowned in the Wawel Cathedral , in Kraków on 6 February in the following year .
= = = = Military campaigns = = = =
In an attempt to take advantage of the confusion expected after the death of the Polish king , Tsar Michael of Russia ordered an attack on the Commonwealth . A Muscovite army crossed the Commonwealth eastern frontier in October 1632 and laid siege to Smolensk ( which was ceded to Poland by Russia in 1618 , at the end of the Dymitriad wars ) . In the war against Russia in 1632 – 1634 ( the Smolensk War ) , Władysław succeeded in breaking the siege in September 1633 and then in turn surrounded the Russian army under Mikhail Shein , which was then forced to surrender on 1 March 1634 . It was during that campaign that Władysław started the modernisation program of the Commonwealth army , emphasising the usage of modern infantry and artillery . Władysław proved to be a good tactician , and his innovations in the use of artillery and fortifications based on Western ideas greatly contributed to the eventual Polish – Lithuanian success . King Władysław wanted to continue the war or , because the Polish – Swedish Treaty of Altmark would soon be expiring , ally with the Russians to strike against Sweden . However , the Sejm wanted no more conflict . As Stanisław Łubieński , the Bishop of Płock , wrote two weeks after Shein 's surrender : " Our happiness is in remaining within our borders , guaranteeing health and well @-@ being . " The resulting Peace of Polyanov ( Treaty of Polanów ) , favourable to Poland , confirmed the pre @-@ war territorial status quo . Muscovy also agreed to pay 20 @,@ 000 rubles in exchange for Wladyslaw 's renunciation of all claims to the tsardom and return of the royal insignia , which were in the Commonwealth possession since the Dymitriads .
Following the Smolensk campaign , the Commonwealth was threatened by another attack by the Ottoman Empire . During the wars against Ottomans in 1633 – 1634 Władysław moved the Commonwealth army south of the Muscovy border , where under the command of hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski it forced the Turks to renew a peace treaty . In the resulting treaty , both countries agreed again to curb the border raids by Cossacks and the Tatars , and the Ottomans confirmed that the Commonwealth to be an independent power , and had not to pay tribute to the Empire .
After the southern campaign , the Commonwealth had to deal with a threat from the north , as the armistice , ending the Polish – Swedish War ( 1600 – 1629 ) was expiring . The majority of Polish nobles preferred to solve the problem through negotiations , unwilling to pay taxes for a new war , provided that Sweden was open to negotiations and concessions ( in particular , to retreat from the occupied Polish coastal territories ) . Władysław himself was hoping for a war , which could yield some more significant territorial gains , and even managed to gather a sizeable army , with navy elements , near the disputed territories . Sweden , weakened by involvement in the Thirty Years ' War , was however open to a peaceful solution . Władysław could not go against the decision of the Sejm and Senate , and agreed to support the treaty . Thus both sides agreed to sign the Armistice of Stuhmsdorf ( Sztumska Wieś ) on 12 September 1635 , favourable to the Commonwealth , which regained the Prussian territories , and called for a reduction of the Swedish tolls on the maritime trade .
= = = = Politics = = = =
In the three months between his election and coronation , Władysław sounded the waters regarding the possibility of a peaceful succession to the Swedish throne , following the recent death of Gustavus Adolphus , but this , as well as his proposal to mediate between Sweden and its enemies , was rejected , primarily by the Swedish chancellor and head of the regency council , Axel Oxenstierna .
Władysław IV owed nominal allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece . His relationship with the Habsburgs was relatively strong ; although he was not above carrying some negotiations with their enemies , like France , he refused Cardinal Richelieu 's 1635 proposal of an alliance and a full @-@ out war against them , despite potential lure of territorial gains in Silesia . He realized that such a move would cause much unrest in a heavily Catholic Commonwealth , that he likely lacked the authority and power to push such a change of policy through the Sejm , and that the resulting conflict would be very difficult . From 1636 onward , for the next few years , Władysław strengthened his ties with the Habsburgs .
In the meantime , Władysław still tried to take a leading role in European politics , and negotiate a peaceful settlement to the Thirty Years ' War , a settlement which he hoped would ease his way into regaining the Swedish crown . Following the armistice of Stuhmsdorf , Władysław came to increasingly realize that his prospects for regaining the Swedish throne were dim . In the years 1636 – 1638 he proposed several reforms to strengthen his and his dynasty 's power in the Commonwealth . His first plan was an attempt to secure a hereditary province within the country , which would not be threatened by the possible power shift following a future royal election ; this , however , did not gain sufficient support in the Sejm . Next , Władysław attempted to create an order of chivalry , similar to the Order of the Golden Fleece , but this plan was scuttled down as well , with the szlachta and the magnates seeing this as an attempt to create a royal , loyalist elite , and traditionally opposing anything that could lead to the reduction of their extensive power . Popular vote and opposition also resulted in the failure of the plan to raise taxes from trade tariffs ; here it was not only the nobility but even the merchants and burghers from towns , like Gdańsk ( Danzig ) who were able to muster enough support ( including from foreign powers ) to stop the king 's reforms . In fact , the defeat of his plans was so total , that he was forced to make certain conciliatory gestures to the nobility , as the Sejm passed several laws constraining his authority ( such as to hire foreign troops ) , further indicating the limits of royal power in the Commonwealth .
= = = = Marriages = = = =
Early in his reign , there were plans regarding a marriage of Władysław and Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia , Princess Palatine ( daughter of Frederick V , Elector Palatine ) . This was however unpopular , both with Catholic nobles and the Catholic Church , and when it became clear to Władysław that this would not convince the Swedes to elect him to their throne , this plan , with quiet support from Władysław himself , was dropped .
Ferdinand II , Holy Roman Emperor 's proposal of marriage between Władysław and Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria ( sister of future Ferdinand III , Holy Roman Emperor ) arrived in Warsaw somewhere during spring 1636 . In June that year , Władysław sent Jerzy Ossoliński to the Imperial Court , to work on improving the Imperial @-@ Commonwealth relations . The king 's trusted confessor , father Walerian Magni ( of Franciscan religious order ) , and voivode Kasper Doenhoff arrived in Regensburg ( Polish : Ratyzbona ) on 26 October 1636 with consent and performed negotiations . The Archduchess ' dowry was agreed for 100 @,@ 000 złoty 's , the Emperor also promised to pay the dowries of both of Siegmund III 's wives : Anna and Konstance . Additionally the son of Władysław and Cecilia Renata was to obtain the duchy of Opole and Racibórz in Silesia ( Duchy of Opole and Racibórz ) . However , before everything was confirmed and signed Ferdinand II died and Ferdinand III backed from giving the Silesian duchy to the son of Władysław . Instead a dowry was awarded to be secured by the Bohemian estates of Třeboň ( Trebon ) . On 16 March 1637 a " family alliance " was signed between the Habsburgs and the Polish branch of the House of Vasa . Władysław promised not to sign any pacts against the Habsburgs , and to transfer his rights to the Swedish throne in case of his line 's extinction ; in return , Habsburg promised to support his efforts to regain the Swedish crown , and to transfer to him some territory in case of gains in a war against the Ottomans . The marriage took place in 1637 , on 12 September .
The next few years were similarly unsuccessful with regards to his plans . Eventually , he tried to bypass the opposition in the Sejm with secret alliances , dealings , and intrigues , but did not prove successful . Those plans included schemes such as supporting the Holy Roman Emperor 's raid on Inflanty in 1639 , which he hoped would lead to a war ; an attempted alliance with Spain against France in 1640 – 1641 , and in 1641 – 1643 , with Denmark against Sweden . On the international scene , he attempted to mediate between various religious factions of Christianity , using the tolerant image of the Commonwealth to portray himself as the neutral mediator . He organized a conference in Toruń ( Thorn ) that begun on 28 January 1645 , but it failed to reach any meaningful conclusions .
After Cecilia 's death in 1644 , the ties between Władysław and the Habsburgs were somewhat loosened . In turn , the relations with France improved , and eventually Władysław married the French princess Ludwika Maria Gonzaga de Nevers , daughter of Karol I Gonzaga , prince de Nevers , in 1646 .
Władysław 's last plan was to orchestrate a major war between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire . The border with the Empire was in a near constant state of low @-@ level warfare ; some historians estimate that in the first half of the 17th century , Ottoman raids and wars resulted in the loss ( death or enslavement ) of about 300 @,@ 000 Commonwealth citizens in the borderlands . The war , Władysław hoped , would also solve the problem of unrest among the Cossacks , a militant group living in the Ukraine , near the Ottoman border , who could find worth in such a campaign , and turn their attention to fighting for the Commonwealth , instead of against it . As usual , he failed to inspire the nobility , rarely willing to consider sponsoring another war , to agree to this plan . He received more support from foreign powers , from Rome , Venice and Muscovy . With the promise of funds for the war , Władysław started recruiting troops among the Cossacks in 1646 . The opposition of the Sejm , demanding that he dismiss the troops , coupled with Władysław 's worsening health , crippled that plan as well . Władysław still did not give up , and attempted to resurrect the plan in 1647 , and with support of magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki ( who organized military exercises near Ottoman border ) , attempted unsuccessfully to provoke the Ottomans to attack .
On 9 August 1647 , his young son , then seven years old , fell suddenly ill and died ; the death of his only legitimate heir to the throne was a major blow to the king , who even did not have the courage to attend the funeral held in Kraków .
= = = = Death = = = =
While hunting near Merkinė ( Merecz ) in early 1648 , Władysław suffered from a case of gallstone or kidney stone . His condition worsened due to an incorrect medication . He was conscious that those are his final days , and had time to dictate his last will and receive last rites . Władysław died around 2 am on the night from 19 to 20 May 1648 .
His heart and viscera were interred in the Chapel of St. Casimir of Vilnius Cathedral . He had no legitimate male heirs . He was succeeded by his half brother John II Casimir Vasa .
= = = = Character = = = =
Władysław has been described as outgoing and friendly , with a sense of humor , optimistic , a " people 's person " , able to charm many of those who interacted with him . On the other hand , he had a short temper and when angered , could act without considering all consequences .
Władysław was criticized for being a spendthrift ; he lived lavishly , spending more than his royal court treasury could afford . He also dispensed much wealth among his courtiers , who were seen by people farther from the court as taking advantage of the king . He has also been known to maintain several mistresses throughout his life , including during his married period .
= = Assessment = =
Władysław had many plans ( dynastic , about wars , territorial gains : regaining Silesia , Inflanty ( Livonia ) , incorporation of Ducal Prussia , creation of his hereditary dukedom etc . ) , some of them with real chances of success , but for various reasons , most of them ended in failure during his 16 @-@ year reign . Though his grand international political plans failed , he did improve the Commonwealth foreign policy , supporting the establishment of a network of permanent diplomatic agents in important European countries .
Throughout his life , Władysław successfully defended Poland against foreign invasions . He was recognized as a good tactician and strategist , who did much to modernize the Polish Army . Władysław ensured that the officer corps was significantly large so that the army could be expanded ; introduced foreign ( Western ) infantry to the Polish Army , with its pikes and early firearms , and supported the expansion of the artillery . His attempt to create a Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy resulted in the creation of a new port village , Władysławowo . Despite promising beginnings , Władysław failed to secure enough funds for the fleet creation ; the ships were gone – sunk , or stolen – by the 1640s .
The king , while Catholic , was very tolerant and did not support the more aggressive policies of the Counter @-@ Reformation . When he took power , the Senate of Poland had 6 Protestant members ; at the time of his death , it had 11 . Despite his support for religious tolerance , he did fail , however , to resolve the conflict stemming from the Union of Brest split . Despite his support for the Protestants , he did not stop the growing tide of intolerance , either in Poland or abroad , as shown by the fate of the Racovian Academy , or an international disagreement between the faiths . Neither did he get involved with the disagreement about the Orthodox Cossacks , a group that he respected and counted on in his plans .
In internal politics he attempted to strengthen the power of the monarchy , but this was mostly thwarted by the szlachta , who valued their independence and democratic powers . Władysław suffered continuing difficulties caused by the efforts of the Polish Sejm ( parliament ) to check the King 's power and limit his dynastic ambitions . Władysław was fed up with the weak position of the king in the Commonwealth ; his politics included attempting to secure a small , preferably hereditary territory – like a duchy – where his position would be much stronger .
Władysław used the title of the King of Sweden , although he had no control over Sweden whatsoever and never set foot in that country . However , he continued his attempts to regain the Swedish throne , with similar lack of results as his father . He might have been willing to trade his claim away , but the offer was never put down in the negotiations .
Some historians see Władysław as a dreamer who could not stick to one policy , and upon running into first difficulties , ditched it and looked for another opportunity . Perhaps it was due to this lukewarmness that Władysław was never able to inspire those he ruled to support , at least in any significant manner , any of his plans . Władysław Czapliński in his biography of the king is more understanding , noting the short period of his reign ( 16 years ) and the weakness of the royal position he was forced to deal with .
Several years after his death , a diplomatic mission from Muscovy demanded that publications about Władysław 's victories in the Smolensk War of 1633 – 1634 be collected and burned . Eventually , to much controversy , their demand was met . Polish historian Maciej Rosalak noted : " under the reign of Władysław IV , such a shameful event would have never been allowed . "
= = = Patronage = = =
One of the king 's most substantial achievements was in the cultural sphere ; he became a notable patron of the arts . Władysław was a connoisseur of the arts , in particular , theater and music . He spoke several languages , enjoyed reading historical literature and poetry . He collected paintings and created a notable gallery of paintings in the Warsaw castle . Władysław assembled an important collection of Italian and Flemish Baroque paintings , much of which were lost in the wars after his death . He sponsored many musicians and in 1637 created the first amphitheater in the palace , the first theater in Poland , where during his reign dozens of operas and ballets were performed . He is credited with bringing the very genre of opera to Poland . Władysław 's attention to theater contributed to the spread of this art form in Poland . He was also interested in poetry , as well as in cartography and historical and scientific works ; he corresponded with Galileo .
Notable painters and engravers Władysław supported and who attended his royal court included Peter Paul Rubens , Tommaso Dolabella Peter Danckerts de Rij , Wilhelm Hondius , Bartłomiej Strobel , and Christian Melich . His royal orchestra was headed by kapellmeister Marco Scacchi , seconded by Bartłomiej Pękiel .
One of the most renowned works he ordered was the raising of the Sigismund 's Column in Warsaw . The column , dedicated to his father , was designed by the Italian @-@ born architect Constantino Tencalla and the sculptor Clemente Molli , and cast by Daniel Tym . He was less interested in decorative architecture ; he supported the construction of two palaces in Warsaw – Kazanowski Palace and Villa Regia . Among other works sponsored by or dedicated to him is Guido Reni 's The Rape of Europa .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Fund accounting =
Fund accounting is an accounting system emphasizing accountability rather than profitability , used by non @-@ profit organizations and governments . In this system , a fund is a self @-@ balancing set of accounts , segregated for specific purposes in accordance with laws and regulations or special restrictions and limitations .
The label , fund accounting , has also been applied to investment accounting , portfolio accounting or securities accounting – all synonyms describing the process of accounting for a portfolio of investments such as securities , commodities and / or real estate held in an investment fund such as a mutual fund or hedge fund . Investment accounting , however , is a different system , unrelated to government and nonprofit fund accounting .
= = Overview = =
Nonprofit organizations and government agencies have special requirements to show , in financial statements and reports , how money is spent , rather than how much profit was earned . Unlike profit oriented businesses , which use a single set of self @-@ balancing accounts ( or general ledger ) , nonprofits can have more than one general ledger ( or fund ) , depending on their financial reporting requirements . An accountant for such an entity must be able to produce reports detailing the expenditures and revenues for each of the organization 's individual funds , and reports that summarize the organization 's financial activities across all of its funds .
A school system , for example , receives a grant from the state to support a new special education initiative , another grant from the federal government for a school lunch program , and an annuity to award teachers working on research projects . At periodic intervals , the school system issues a report to the state about the special education program , a report to a federal agency about the school lunch program , and a report to another authority about the research program . Each of these programs has its own unique reporting requirements , so the school system needs a method to separately identify the related revenues and expenditures . This is done by establishing separate funds , each with its own chart of accounts .
= = State and local government funds = =
State and local governments use three broad categories of funds : governmental funds , proprietary funds and fiduciary funds .
Governmental funds include the following .
General fund . This fund is used to account for general operations and activities not requiring the use of other funds .
Special revenue ( or special ) funds are required to account for the use of revenue earmarked by law for a particular purpose . State and federal fuel tax revenues require special revenue funds , because federal and state laws restrict these taxes to transportation uses .
Capital projects funds are used to account for the construction or acquisition of fixed assets , such as buildings , equipment and roads . Depending on its use , a fixed asset may instead be financed by a special revenue fund or a proprietary fund . A capital project fund exists only until completion of the project . Fixed assets acquired and long @-@ term debts incurred by a capital project are assigned to the government 's General Fixed Assets and Long @-@ Term Debts .
Debt service funds are used to account for money that will be used to pay the interest and principal of long @-@ term debts . Bonds used by a government to finance major construction projects , to be paid by tax levies over a period of years , require a debt service fund to account for their repayment . The debts of permanent and proprietary funds are serviced within those funds , rather than by a separate debt service fund .
Permanent funds should be used to report resources that are legally restricted to the extent that only earnings , and not principal , may be used for purposes that support the reporting government ’ s programs — that is , for the benefit of the government or its citizenry .
Proprietary funds include the following .
Internal service funds are used for operations serving other funds or departments within a government on a cost @-@ reimbursement basis . A printing shop , which takes orders for booklets and forms from other offices and is reimbursed for the cost of each order , would be a suitable application for an internal service fund .
Enterprise funds are used for services provided to the public on a user charge basis , similar to the operation of a commercial enterprise . Water and sewage utilities are common examples of government enterprises .
Fiduciary funds are used to account for assets held in trust by the government for the benefit of individuals or other entities . The employee pension fund , created by the State of Maryland to provide retirement benefits for its employees , is an example of a fiduciary fund . Financial statements may further distinguish fiduciary funds as either trust or agency funds ; a trust fund generally exists for a longer period of time than an agency fund .
= = = Fixed assets and long @-@ term debts = = =
State and local governments have two other groups of self @-@ balancing accounts which are not considered funds : general fixed assets and general long @-@ term debts . These assets and liabilities belong to the government entity as a whole , rather than any specific fund . Although general fixed assets would be part of government @-@ wide financial statements ( reporting the entity as a whole ) , they are not reported in governmental fund statements . Fixed assets and long @-@ term liabilities assigned to a specific enterprise fund are referred to as fund fixed assets and fund long @-@ term liabilities .
= = = Basis of accounting = = =
The accrual basis of accounting used by most businesses requires revenue to be recognized when it is earned and expenses to be recognized when the related benefit is received . Revenues may actually be received during a later period , while expenses may be paid during an earlier or later period . ( Cash basis accounting , used by some small businesses , recognizes revenue when received and expenses when paid . )
Governmental funds , which are not concerned about profitability , usually rely on a modified accrual basis . This involves recognizing revenue when it becomes both available and measurable , rather than when it is earned . Expenditures , a term preferred over expenses for modified accrual accounting , are recognized when the related liability is incurred .
Proprietary funds , used for business @-@ like activities , usually operate on an accrual basis . Governmental accountants sometimes refer to the accrual basis as " full accrual " to distinguish it from modified accrual basis accounting .
The accounting basis applied to fiduciary funds depends upon the needs of a specific fund . If the trust involves a business @-@ like operation , accrual basis accounting would be appropriate to show the fund 's profitability . Accrual basis is also appropriate for trust funds using interest and dividends from invested principle amounts to pay for supported programs , because the profitability of those investments would be important .
= = = Financial reporting = = =
State and local governments report the results of their annual operations in a comprehensive annual financial report ( CAFR ) , the equivalent of a business 's financial statements . A CAFR includes a single set of government @-@ wide statements , for the government entity as a whole , and individual fund statements . The Governmental Accounting Standards Board establishes standards for CAFR preparation .
Governments do not use the terms profit and loss to describe the net results of their operations . The difference between revenues and expenditures during a year is either a surplus or a deficit . Since making a profit is not the purpose of a government , a significant surplus generally means a choice between tax cuts or spending increases . A significant deficit will result in spending cuts or borrowing . Ideally , surpluses and deficits should be small .
= = Federal government funds = =
Federal government accounting uses two broad groups of funds : the federal funds group and the trust funds group .
= = = Federal funds group = = =
General fund . Technically , there is just one general fund , under the control of the United States Treasury Department . However , each federal agency maintains its own self @-@ balancing set of accounts . The general fund is used to account for receipts and payments that do not belong to another fund .
Special funds are similar to the special revenue funds used by state and local governments , earmarked for a specific purpose ( other than business @-@ like activities ) .
Revolving funds are similar to the Proprietary funds used by state and local governments for business @-@ like activities . The term , revolving , means that it conducts a continuing cycle of activity . There are two types of revolving funds in the Federal Funds Group : public enterprise funds and intragovernmental revolving funds.Public enterprise funds are similar to the enterprise funds used by state and local governments for business @-@ like activities conducted primarily with the public . The Postal Service Fund is an example of a public enterprise fund .
Intragovernmental revolving funds are similar to the internal service funds used by state and local governments for business @-@ like activities conducted within the federal government .
= = = Trust funds group = = =
Trust funds are earmarked for specific programs and purposes in accordance with a statute that designates the fund as a trust . Its statutory designation distinguishes the fund as a trust rather than a special fund . The Highway Trust Fund is an example of trust funds .
Trust Revolving Funds are business @-@ like activities , designated by statute as trust funds . They are , otherwise , identical to public enterprise revolving funds .
Deposit funds are similar to the agency funds used by state and local governments for assets belonging to individuals and other entities , held temporarily by the government . State income taxes withheld from a federal government employee 's pay , not yet paid to the state , are an example of deposit funds .
= = = Accounting basis and financial reporting = = =
The United States government uses accrual basis accounting for all of its funds . Its consolidated annual financial report uses two indicators to measure financial health : unified budget deficit and net operating ( cost ) / revenue .
The unified budget deficit , a cash @-@ basis measurement , is the equivalent of a checkbook balance . This indicator does not consider long @-@ term consequences , but has historically been the focus of budget reporting by the media . Except for the unified budget deficit , the federal government 's financial statements rely on accrual basis accounting .
Net operating ( cost ) / revenue , an accrual basis measurement , is calculated in the " Statements of Operations and Changes in Net Position " by comparing revenues with costs . The federal government 's net operating ( cost ) / revenue is comparable with the net income / ( loss ) reported on an income statement by a business , or the surplus / ( deficit ) reported by state and local governments .
= = Nonprofit organizations = =
Nonprofit organizations generally use the following five categories of funds .
Current fund – unrestricted . This fund is used to account for current assets that can be used at the discretion of the organization 's governing board .
Current funds – restricted use current assets subject to restrictions assigned by donors or grantors .
Land , building and equipment fund . Cash and investments reserved specifically to acquire these assets , and related liabilities , should also be recorded in this fund .
Endowment funds are used to account for the principal amount of gifts the organization is required , by agreement with the donor , to maintain intact in perpetuity or until a specific future date or event .
Custodian funds are held and disbursed according to the donor 's instructions .
= = = Basis of accounting and financial reporting = = =
The Report of Consolidated Financial Statements , used for annual financial reporting by nonprofit organizations , is similar to the CAFR used by state and local governments . However , nonprofit organizations use accrual basis accounting for their funds . A nonprofit 's financial statements generally include the following .
Statement of financial position or balance sheet . Similar to the balance sheet of a business , this statement lists the value of assets held and debts owed by the organization at the end of the reporting period .
Statement of activities or statement of support , revenue and expenses . This statement resembles the income statement of a business , but uses the terms excess or deficit rather than profit or loss . It shows the net results , by each fund , of the organization 's activities during the fiscal year reported . The excess or deficit is applied as a change in fund balances , rather than an increase or decrease in owner 's equity .
Statement of functional expenses distributes each expense of the organization into amounts related to the organization 's various functions . These functions are segregated into two broad categories : program services and supporting services . Program services are the mission @-@ related activities performed by the organization . Non @-@ program supporting services include the costs of fund @-@ raising events , management and general administration .
Statement of Cash Flows identifies the sources of cash flowing into the organization and the uses of cash flowing out during the reported fiscal year .
Standards for nonprofit financial statements are set by the Financial Accounting Standards Board . The Board 's most recent proposal , announced to the public on April 22 , 2015 , could establish new standards for financial performance and liquidity information available to donors and lenders .
= = Fund accounting fiscal cycle ( fictitious example ) = =
The following is a simplified example of the fiscal cycle for the general fund of the City of Tuscany , a fictitious city government .
= = = Opening entries = = =
The fiscal cycle begins with the approval of a budget by the mayor and city council of the City of Tuscany . For Fiscal Year 2009 , which began on July 1 , 2008 , the Mayor 's Office estimated general fund revenues of $ 35 million from property taxes , state grants , parking fines and other sources . The estimate was recorded in the fund 's general ledger with a debit to Estimated Revenues and a credit to Fund Balance .
An appropriation was approved by the city council , authorizing the city to spend $ 34 million from the general fund . The appropriation was recorded in fund 's general ledger with a debit to Fund Balance and a credit to Appropriations .
In subsidiary ledgers , the appropriation would be divided into smaller amounts authorized for various departments and programs , such as :
The complexity of an appropriation depends upon the city council 's preferences ; real @-@ world appropriations can list hundreds of line item amounts . An appropriation is the legal authority for spending given by the city council to the various agencies of the city government . In the example above , the city can spend as much as $ 34 million , but smaller appropriation limits have also been established for individual programs and departments .
= = = Recording revenues = = =
During Fiscal Year 2009 , the city assessed property owners a total of $ 37 million for property taxes . However , the Mayor 's Office expects $ 1 million of this assessment to be difficult or impossible to collect . Revenues of $ 36 million were recognized , because this portion of the assessment was available and measurable within the current period .
= = = Payroll expenditures = = =
The city spent a total of $ 30 million on its employee payroll , including various taxes , benefits and employee withholding . A portion of the payroll taxes will be paid in the next fiscal period , but modified accrual accounting requires the expenditure to be recorded during the period the liability was incurred .
= = = Other expenditures = = =
The Public Works Department spent $ 1 million on supplies and services for maintaining city streets .
= = = Closing entries = = =
At the end of the fiscal year , the actual revenues of $ 36 million were compared with the estimate of $ 35 million . The $ 1 million difference was recorded as a credit to the fund balance .
The city spent $ 31 million of its $ 34 million appropriation . A credit of $ 3 million was applied to the fund balance for the unspent amount .
When the current fiscal period ended , its appropriation expired . The balance remaining in the general fund at that time is considered unexpended . City government agencies are not allowed to spend the unexpended balance , even if their expenditures during the now @-@ ended fiscal period were less than their share of the expired appropriation . A new appropriation is necessary to authorize spending in the next fiscal period . ( Liabilities incurred at the end of the fiscal period for goods and services ordered , but not yet received , are usually considered expended , allowing payment at a later date under the current appropriation . Some jurisdictions , however , require the amounts to be included in the following period 's budget . )
Instead of re @-@ applying the unspent balance from the general fund to the same programs , the city council may choose to spend the money on other programs . Alternatively , they may use the balance to cut taxes or pay off a long @-@ term debt . With a large surplus , reducing the tax burden will normally be the preferred choice .
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= Without ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Without " is the second episode of the eighth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on November 12 , 2000 on Fox and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on February 18 , 2001 . It was written by executive producer Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology and continues from the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , and season eight premiere , " Within " , in which Fox Mulder was abducted by aliens who are planning to colonize Earth . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 in the United States and was seen by 15 @.@ 1 million viewers . As with the previous episode , " Within , " it was generally well received by critics , although some detractors criticized various plot points .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) continues his search for Mulder , and attempts to uncover an alien bounty hunter within their ranks . After the task force is called off , Scully is surprised to learn that Doggett , the leader of the team , has been assigned to the X @-@ Files .
" Without " heavily featured elements of Mulder 's abduction by aliens , and as such , new sets were designed to create the alien ship Mulder was imprisoned in . The production crew of The X @-@ Files designed the set in a decidedly " low @-@ tech " and " interesting " manner . In addition , unusual filming techniques were used , such as special lenses and motion control , in order to achieve the desired footage .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is currently missing , having been abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem . " His partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) has been working with Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) in order to locate him . After consulting with The Lone Gunmen , a trio of conspiracy theorists made up of John Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) , Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) and Richard Langly ( Dean Haglund ) , Scully finds evidence that Mulder may be in Arizona . Doggett receives news that Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) , a boy with potentially extraterrestrial DNA , may be in hiding in Arizona as well . The two , along with Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and a task force of FBI agents arrive and , after searching , find Mulder and Praise on the corner of a mountain .
= = = Events = = =
As the episode begins , " Mulder " and Gibson Praise are cornered at the edge of a mountain by pursuing agent John Doggett . Suddenly , " Mulder " walks off the edge of the cliff and appears to fall to his death ; however , when the FBI agents are sent down to retrieve his body , they find that it has disappeared . Dana Scully realizes that what appeared to be her partner was actually an Alien Bounty Hunter sent to retrieve Praise . The Bounty Hunter , who has returned to the school , continues his search for Praise . Meanwhile , Scully follows a girl , Thea ( Christine Firkins ) , she had previously observed to be Praise 's friend throughout the desert until she is able to locate Praise . After Doggett explains the events on the clifftop to Alvin Kersh , Walter Skinner tells him that Kersh is setting him up to fail . Shortly afterwards , the Bounty Hunter ( now disguised as agent Scully ) attacks Agent Landau . Skinner and the real Scully eventually manage to drive the alien away .
After Skinner and Scully find and retrieve Praise , Skinner takes him to the nearest hospital , where his friend Thea visits him , closing the door behind her . In search for Mulder in the desert , Scully sees a bright light in the sky which she thinks is a spaceship , but is later revealed to be a helicopter . The helicopter lands and Doggett insists Scully travel with him to the hospital ; she reluctantly accepts . At the hospital , two other FBI agents assure the two agents that nothing has happened to Praise ; however , they soon discover that he has vanished . Scully leaves to search for Praise , while Doggett stays in an attempt to catch the intruder . He checks the ceiling space , where he finds Skinner badly injured . Meanwhile , Scully finds Praise , along with Skinner , who claims to be protecting the boy . Skinner , who is actually the Alien Bounty Hunter , attempts to kill her but Scully grabs her gun and shoots him in the neck , killing the Bounty Hunter . After Doggett reports the case to Kersh , he is assigned to the X @-@ File division with Scully . The episode ends showing Mulder still held in captivity as six Alien Bounty Hunters look on .
= = Production = =
Fox Mulder 's abduction was devised by Chris Carter towards the end of seventh season as a way of allowing the actor to leave the series . Duchovny fulfilled his contractual obligations after the seventh season and felt that there was not much else to do with the character following the previous seven years .
Production designer Cory Kaplan explains how she was attracted to the idea of using primitive materials when she states , " We all see super @-@ tech now , but the idea of low @-@ tech was much more interesting to me , much more visual . So , you take elements of rock and steel and chisel them into interesting shapes . " She also describes the creation of the set by stating , " I found the backdrop from Alien , and Bill Roe lit it very dimly and put it behind . And it was just this rotating platform with this humongous dental piece that could rotate around as well and pull his face apart . " According to Makeup Supervisor Cheri Montasanto @-@ Medcalf , Matthew Mungle helped in the creation of the alien torture machine by making the cheeks and putting the hooks in . The makeup supervisor adds that the hooks would actually stretch out and that David Duchovny " sat pretty good through all that . "
Unusual filming techniques were also used . Visual Effects Supervisor John Wash recalls , " We devised a laser effect where a device is going into his mouth and some other weird lens effects that were going over the scene to give it an alien , other @-@ world @-@ like quality . " On the subject of using not only a challengingly minuscule method of filming but also additional sound effects , supervising producer Paul Rabwin recounts , " I had to set up a very , very highly magnified lens to try to get this little device coming right at us . It was very , very scary . We ended up putting some really cool sound effects in there , little servos and motors . "
The sequence in which multiple Alien Bounty Hunters appear involved the use of motion control , a method in which a motion @-@ control camera on a computerized module is repeatedly run through the same motion while elements are continually added . The shot , according to John Wash , was one of the few times in the series in which the production crew was able to use motion control and therefore presented a slight challenge . In the filming of the sequence , both a blank plate , for just the set , and lighting elements , that were in the set , were shot before the production crew filmed five different passes , each one with the Alien Bounty Hunter in a different position . The production crew were finally able to clone the Bounty Hunter by blending all the passes together .
= = Reception = =
" Without " premiered on American television on November 12 , 2000 on Fox . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 0 , meaning that it was seen by 9 @.@ 0 % of the nation 's estimated households , and was viewed by 9 @.@ 07 million households , and 15 @.@ 1 million viewers . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Once in a great while a story takes a turn that you never expect ... Tonight this is one of them . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
The episode was met with relatively positive reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five . The two praised the episode 's plot , citing the abduction and search for Mulder as components to the arcs " brilliance " . Shearman and Pearson noted that the final scene , featuring Mulder surrounded by the alien bounty hunter was created with " beauty , emotion , and horror which in collision make The X @-@ Files one of the best shows on TV . "
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote that both " Without " and " Within " form " a great way to pick up after the cliffhanger ending of the previous season " and that " the pair of episodes [ ... ] work well as an introduction to the new narrative status quo . " He awarded both entries a " B + " but noted , however , that " Without " nearly came across as " strained or stalling " , but " manages to get by with the general freakiness of the alien bounty hunter " . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a rare " A + " . The previous episode , " Within " , also received an " A + " grade , making them the only two episodes of The X @-@ Files to receive this rating from the site .
Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly was positive towards both this episode and the season premiere , " Within , " awarding the episodes an " A- " . George Avalos and Michael Liedtke from the Contra Costa Times praised the episode and noted that the Scully / Dogget dynamic and the hunt for Fox Mulder worked towards the show 's strengths . Tom Janulewicz from Space.com positively commented on Scully 's conversion from skeptic to believer , writing , " Regardless of whether it 's aliens , flukemen , or pizza delivering vampires , The X @-@ Files is all about phenomena that don 't stand in the face of ' rational ' explanations . It took her a long time , but like Mulder before her , Scully eventually came to accept that there are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in her philosophy . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a more mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris criticized both Scully becoming the believer as well as the " sky turning out to be a helicopter gimmick " , which she notes " has gotten way too old . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations wrote a relatively negative review of the episode . He noted , " All [ ' Without ' ] did was remind me why the show is a hollow shell of what it once was as long as Fox Mulder is strapped to an alien table and why The Doggett and Pony Show holds absolutely no appeal to me whatsoever . "
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= The Portopia Serial Murder Case =
Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken ( ポートピア連続殺人事件 , literally The Portopia Serial Murder Incident ) , also known as The Portopia Serial Murder Case , is an adventure game designed by Yuji Horii and published by Enix ( now Square Enix ) . It was first released on the NEC PC @-@ 6001 in June 1983 , and later ported to other personal computers . Chunsoft ported the game to the Family Computer ( or Famicom ) , the Japanese version of the Nintendo Entertainment System ( or NES ) , on November 29 , 1985 , and to different mobile phone services starting in 2001 . It is the first part of the Yuuji Horii Mysteries trilogy , along with its successors Hokkaido Chain Murder : The Disappearance of Ohotsuku ( 北海道連鎖殺人 オホーツクに消ゆ , Hokkaidou Rensa Satsujin : Ohotsuku ni Kiyu , 1984 ) and The Karuizawa Kidnapping Guide ( 軽井沢誘拐案内 , Karuizawa Yuukai Annai , 1985 ) .
The game is an investigation adventure , sophisticated for its time , in which the player must resolve a murder mystery by searching for clues , exploring different areas , interacting with characters , and solving item @-@ based puzzles . The game , especially its Famicom version , was received positively in Japan , where it was an influential title that defined the visual novel genre . An unofficial English fan translation of the Famicom version was released on June 16 , 2006 by DvD Translations . DvD Translations released an improved Rev. B patch on October 31 , 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken follows a first @-@ person perspective and narrative . The various events are described with still pictures and text messages . The player interacts with the game using a verb @-@ noun parser which requires typing precise commands with the keyboard . Finding the exact words to type is considered part of the riddles that must be solved . While sound effects are present , the game lacks music and a save function . It features a branching dialogue conversation system where the story develops through entering commands and receiving answers to them from the player 's sidekick or non @-@ player characters .
The game allows multiple different ways to achieve objectives , adding an element of nonlinear gameplay . This included travelling between different areas in a generally open world and making choices that determine the dialogues and order of events as well as alternative outcomes depending on who the player identifies as the culprit . However , only one of the characters is the true culprit , while the others are red herrings ; if the player closes the case with the wrong culprit , then the player will face criticism from the police chief and need to re @-@ open the case . The game includes a phone that could be used to manually dial any number , which is needed to contact several non @-@ player characters . The game also features an inventory system requiring the examination and collection of items , which could be used as evidence later in the game .
With no keyboard , the Famicom version replaces the verb @-@ noun parser with a menu list of fourteen set commands selectable with the gamepad . This is similar to the command selection menu system introduced in Yuji Horii 's murder mystery adventure game Okhotsk ni Kiyu : Hokkaido Rensa Satsujin Jiken , which was released in 1984 , in between the PC and Famicom releases of Portopia . One of the commands on the menu allowed the player to use the D @-@ pad to move a cursor on the screen in order to look for clues and hotspots , similar to a point @-@ and @-@ click interface . The Famicom version of Portopia also features branching menu selections , which includes using the pointer as a magnifying glass to investigate objects , which is needed to find hidden clues , and as a fist or hammer to hit anything or anyone , which could be used to carry out interrogation beatings on suspects . Additional sequences were also added , notably an underground dungeon maze reportedly influenced by Wizardry , giving those sequences a style similar to role @-@ playing video games .
= = Setting and characters = =
Although the story of the game is fictional , it is set in real Japanese cities ; mainly Kobe , in addition to a few sequences in Kyoto and Sumoto . The president of a successful bank company , Kouzou Yamakawa ( 山川耕造 ) , is found dead by his secretary Fumie Sawaki ( さわき ふみえ ) inside a locked room in his mansion . Signs seem to indicate that Kouzou stabbed himself ; however , the police sends a detective to investigate further .
The detective in charge of the case is an unnamed , unseen , and silent protagonist who essentially embodies the player . He works with an assistant named Yasuhiko Mano ( 間野康彦 ) , nicknamed Yasu ( ヤス ) , who is the one who actually speaks and executes most of the player 's commands . Other characters include , among others , Yukiko ( ゆきこ ) , daughter of a man named Hirata ( ひらた ) ; and Toshiyuki ( としゆき ) , Kouzou 's nephew and heir .
= = Development and release = =
The game was conceived by Yuji Horii around 1981 , when he was 27 years old , shortly after he bought his first computer and learned to program with it by modifying other games . During this time , he read a PC magazine article about a computer game genre called adventure games in the United States . Horii noticed the lack of such games in the Japanese market and decided to create an adventure game of his own , one that was " a program in which the story would develop through entering a command and by receiving an answer to it . " The game was developed using the BASIC programming language .
Following its 1983 release , the game was ported to various Japanese personal computers . A Famicom port was then released in 1985 and was the first adventure game to be released on that platform . The Famicom version was also the first collaboration between Yuuji Horii and Koichi Nakamura of Chunsoft , before Dragon Quest . The Famicom version was programmed by Nakamura , who was 19 years old at the time . The game was never released in the Western world , largely due to its mature content , involving themes such as murder , suicide , fraud , bankruptcy , interrogation beatings , drug dealings , and a strip club . The lack of a Western release prompted ROM hacking group DvD Translations to develop an unofficial translation of the Famicom version .
The first mobile phone version of the game was branded as a part of a Horii Yūji Gekijō ( 堀井雄二劇場 , " Yūji Horii Theater " ) trilogy along with mobile versions of Hokkaido Rensa Satsujin Okhotsk ni Kiyu and Karuizawa Yūkai Annai . It was released in 2003 on EZweb and Yahoo ! Keitai services . It features a list of set commands similar to the Famicom version but also improved graphics , no free @-@ moving cursor , and a save function . The games of the trilogy , which was retitled Yuuji Horii Mysteries ( 堀井雄二ミステリーズ ) , were re @-@ released in 2005 and 2006 on the same services . The second Portopia version possesses the same content as the first mobile one , in addition to updated graphics , background music , a bonus function obtained after completing the game , and a hint option which nullifies the ending bonus if it is used too frequently .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Famicom version of the game sold 700 @,@ 000 copies . The game was well received in Japan for allowing multiple ways to achieve objectives , its well @-@ told storyline , and its surprising twist ending . The Japanese press described it as " a game without game over " because " there was technically no way to lose . " According to Square Enix , it was " the first real detective adventure " game . The game , along with Super Mario Bros. , inspired Hideo Kojima ( creator of the Metal Gear series ) to enter the video game industry . He praised Portopia for its mystery , drama , humor , 3D dungeons , for providing a proper background and explanation behind the murderer 's motives , and expanding the potential of video games .
In 2003 , Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken ranked 19th in a poll to determine the thirty best Famicom games ; the poll was conducted by the Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography as part of its " Level X " exhibition . The English @-@ language webzine Retrogaming Times Monthly compared the game to the later @-@ released Shadowgate where the player must examine and collect objects and find their true purpose later on , and recommended Portopia to fans of " slower paced games that require [ players ] to think through puzzles " . John Szczepaniak of Retro Gamer called the game simple , but praised its pacing and quality of writing , and considers the gameplay and plot to be sophisticated for its time . He also considers it " one of the most influential games " as it was responsible for defining the visual novel genre , comparing it to the role of Super Mario Bros. , Tetris and Street Fighter in defining their own respective genres ( platform game , puzzle game , and fighting game , respectively ) . He noted that it contains elements found in later titles such as Dragon Quest , Snatcher , Déjà Vu , 428 : Fūsa Sareta Shibuya de , and 999 : Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors . 1UP also noted that Portopia is very similar to ICOM Simulations ' Déjà Vu released several years later and that Horii 's own seminal console role @-@ playing game Dragon Warrior used storytelling techniques and a menu @-@ based command system very similar to Portopia . Nintendo 's successful Famicom Detective Club series of adventure games were also inspired by Portopia .
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= Flag of Lithuania =
The flag of Lithuania consists of a horizontal tricolor of yellow , green and red . It was re @-@ adopted on March 20 , 1989 , almost two years before the re @-@ establishment of Lithuania 's independence and more than three years before the collapse of the Soviet Union .
It was first used in Lithuania 's first period of independence ( in the 20th century ) from 1918 to 1940 , which ceased with the occupation first by Soviet Russia and Lithuania 's illegal annexation into the Soviet Union , and then by Nazi Germany ( 1941 – 44 ) . During the post @-@ WW2 Soviet occupation , from 1945 until 1989 , the Soviet Lithuanian flag consisted first of a generic red Soviet flag with the name of the republic , then changed to the red flag with white and green bars at the bottom . The last alteration to the current flag occurred in 2004 when the aspect ratio changed from 1 : 2 to 3 : 5 .
= = History = =
= = = Historical state flag = = =
The earliest known flags with a Lithuanian identity were recorded in the 15th @-@ century Banderia Prutenorum , written by Jan Długosz . At the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 , two distinct flags were present . The majority of the 40 regiments carried a red banner depicting a mounted knight in pursuit . This flag , known as the Vytis , would eventually be used as the Lithuanian war flag , and again in 2004 as the state flag . The remainder of the regiments carried a red banner displaying the Columns of Gediminas . Those that bore the Vytis , also known as the Pahonia , were armies from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , while those who bore the Columns of Gediminas were from noble families of Lithuania . Until the end of the 18th century , when it was annexed by the Russian Empire , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania used the Vytis as its flag .
= = = Creation of modern flag = = =
The birth of the yellow , green , and red tricolor occurred during a drive by other European republics to change their flags . One example that gave life to the idea of the tricolor was the French blue , white and red flag adopted after the French Revolution . The only tricolor that existed for Lithuania before the yellow , green and red flag was a green , white and red flag used to represent Lithuania Minor .
It is not known who originally suggested the yellow , green and red , but the idea is usually attributed to Lithuanian exiles living elsewhere in Europe or in the United States during the 19th century . These three colors were frequently used in folk weavings and traditional dress . At the Great Seimas of Vilnius of 1905 , this flag was favored over the Vytis banner as the flag of the Lithuanian nation . The Vytis , strongly advocated by Jonas Basanavičius , was not chosen for three reasons : the first was that as part of the drive for national identity , the Seimas wished to distance itself somewhat from the flag of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which also encompassed now @-@ distinct nations such as Belarus , and Ukraine . The second issue was the choice of the color red by revolutionaries who aligned themselves with Marxist or Communist causes . And finally , the flag with Vytis would be too complicated and could not be easily sewn .
Debates about the national flag occurred again in 1917 during the Vilnius Conference . Two colors , green and red , were chosen based on their prevalence in folk art . Artist Antanas Žmuidzinavičius decorated the conference hall with small red and green flags . However , the delegates did not like the design as it was too dark and gloomy . Then Tadas Daugirdas suggested adding a narrow strip of yellow ( to symbolize the rising sun ) in between the red ( clouds lit up by the morning sun ) and green ( fields and forests ) . However , the delegates decided that the matter should be settled by a special commission , composed of Basanavičius , Žmuidzinavičius , and Daugirdas . On April 19 , 1918 , they submitted their final protocol to the Council of Lithuania . The flag was supposed to be a tri @-@ color ( yellow at the top , green in the middle , and red at the bottom ) with Vytis in the upper left corner or in the middle . The Council accepted the proposal , but the 1922 Constitution of Lithuania did not include any mention of the coat of arms . It adopted the national flag that is used today . Any of the debates failed to produce a historical flag . Discussions of the national flag continued ; its opponents considered gold an inappropriate color , since the combination of yellow , green and red did not follow the existing rules of heraldry . However , no changes were made during the inter @-@ war period .
= = = Soviet period = = =
During World War II , Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union ( 1940 – 1941 , 1944 – 1990 ) and Nazi Germany ( 1941 – 1944 ) . The use of the national flag during this period was prohibited and prosecuted . Two flags were used during the period of Soviet occupation ( 1944 – 1989 ) : immediately after the war , the flag consisted of a red field , golden hammer and sickle with the Latin characters LIETUVOS TSR ( Lithuanian SSR in the Lithuanian language ) above them in gold sans @-@ serif lettering . That flag was replaced in 1953 by the last flag used by the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic — a red flag , with the hammer and sickle and star in the hoist . At the bottom of the flag , a white and green horizontal bar was placed . The red portion of the flag took 8 / 12 of the flag 's width , the white 1 / 12 and the green 3 / 12
= = = Restoration of modern flag = = =
During 1988 , when the Lithuanian movement towards independence was gaining strength , the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet again recognized the tricolor as the national flag , by amending article 168 of the Constitution ( Fundamental Law ) of the Lithuanian SSR . The flag was defined as rectangular tricolor which consists of three equally sized horizontal stripes : the upper is yellow , the middle is green , the lower is red ; the flag ratio was to be 1 : 2 ( as that of Soviet flags ) . This flag was confirmed by the Provisional Constitution of 11 March 1990 № I @-@ 10 .
After independence from the Soviet Union , the tricolor flag was written into the new Constitution of Lithuania , which was adopted by a referendum in 1992 . This constitution has not specified the flag aspect ratio and therefore it has remained 1 : 2 until 2004 , when 1991 law " On the national flag and other flags " was revised by 8 July 2004 law № IX @-@ 2331 , making flag ratio 3 : 5 .
= = Design and symbolism = =
Passed on June 26 , 1991 , the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on the Lithuanian State Flag governs the design , sizes and use of the state flag . The law was last amended on July 8 , 2004 , with the most notable changes including the switching of the national flag ratio from 1 : 2 to 3 : 5 and the official adoption of a historical flag as the state ( government ) flag . The amendment came into force on September 1 , 2004 , after it was approved by President Valdas Adamkus .
The yellow in the flag is meant to symbolize the sun and prosperity , the green is for the forests , the countryside , liberty , and hope , and the red represents the blood and bravery of those who have died for Lithuania . The proper colors of both the national and state flag are made according to the Pantone Matching System , specifically Pantone textile @-@ paper ( TP ) . The ratio of both the national and state flag must be 3 : 5 , with the standard flag size to be 1 meter by 1 @.@ 7 meters . Different sizes of the flag can be created , but they must conform to the color codes and ratio requirements set in the law . The official Pantone colors have been published since 2004 ; the list below shows the official colors and their suggested equivalents :
= = State ( historical ) flag = =
In 2004 , along with the law authorizing the change of the flag ratio , a state flag was adopted . This flag displays the national emblem in a banner form . The ratio of the flag is the same as that of the national flag , i.e. 3 : 5 . The state flag , called the historical flag in law , was proposed by Česlovas Juršėnas , the vice @-@ speaker of the Seimas , and by Edmundas Rimša , the chairman of the Commission of Heraldry . This flag was also proposed at the same time as the grand coat of arms ; both were meant to honor the 750th anniversary of the coronation of Mindaugas in 1253 . The designer of the State ( historic ) flag and coat of arms was Arvydas Každailis . Historically , this flag was used during the Battle of Grunwald , and has served as the government flag for Central Lithuania from 1922 until 1939 . This was one of the few flags considered to become the national flag during the drive for national independence . Several other countries , including Finland , Spain , Venezuela , Germany and Thailand , have an official national flag for civilian use and a state flag for government use .
Under the National Flag Law , the state flag is permanently hoisted at three locations : the Royal Palace of Lithuania , Trakai Island Castle , and the grounds of the Vytautas the Great War Museum in Kaunas . In addition , the flag is hoisted at the following locations on these days :
February 16 – next to the House of the Signatories , on Pilies Street in Vilnius
March 11 – next to Seimas Palace
July 6 – next to the Presidential Palace , Vilnius
July 15 – next to the Ministry of Defense
October 25 – next to the Seimas Palace , the Presidential Palace , and the Gedimino 11 building that houses the Government of Lithuania
= = Flag protocol = =
The flag can be flown vertically or horizontally from public buildings , private homes , businesses , ships , town squares , or during official ceremonies . If the flag is flown horizontally , the yellow stripe must be at top ; when flown vertically , the yellow stripe must be facing Left with the red stripe facing Right . While the flag should be flown from sunrise to sunset , government offices in Lithuania and abroad must fly the flag on a 24 @-@ hour basis . The flags must conform to the legal standards , and cannot be soiled or damaged in any way .
For mourning activities , the flag can be flown in either of the following ways . The first method , commonly known as half @-@ staffing , is performed when the flag is hoisted to the top of the flagpole , then lowered to the pole 's one @-@ third position . The other method is to attach a black ribbon to a flag that is permanently affixed to a staff . The ribbon itself is ten centimetres wide and it is attached to the mast so that the ends of the ribbon reach the bottom of the flag . During a funeral ceremony , the flag may be used to cover the coffins of government officials , soldiers , signatories of the Act of the Re @-@ Establishment of the State of Lithuania , and persons designated by an act of the President ; these flags are later folded and presented to the next of kin before interment .
When flying the Lithuanian flag with other flags , the following is the correct order of precedence : The national flag , the historical ( state ) flag , flags of foreign states , the flag of the European Union , international NGOs , the presidential standard , military and government standards , county flags , city flags and any others . When foreign flags are used alongside the Lithuanian flag , the flags are sorted according to their countries ' names in the Lithuanian language . The only exception is when the congress or meeting held in Lithuanian dictates a different language to be used for sorting . The European Union flag has been hoisted since Lithuania became a member of the organization . While not mentioned by name in the law , the flag of NATO can be used in Lithuania , since it belongs to that organization as well . It is also common to fly the flags of Estonia and Latvia during certain occasions , mainly the celebration of independence of the three Baltic states . The Law of the Republic of Lithuania on the National Flag and Other Flags governs the rules , use , protocol and manufacturing of the national and other flags used inside the country .
= = = National flag days = = =
As part of the flag protocol , the daily display of the Lithuanian flag is encouraged , but is strongly encouraged or legally required on the following days :
Apart from these days , the flag is flown at election polling sites . The national government , under Article 4 , Section 7 of the flag law , is given the authority to call for the display of the national flag and to determine special conditions , such as marking for mourning .
= = Other Lithuanian flags = =
A naval ensign has been used by Lithuania starting in 1992 . The ensign has a white background charged with a blue cross , with the national flag in the canton . The width of each cross is 1 / 7th of the total width of the ensign , with the ratio being 1 : 2 . Historically , this flag was used as the ensign of the Kaunas Yacht Club , but with a different ratio of 2 : 3 . The naval jack consists of a white field , charged with a blue anchor covered by the naval badge of Lithuania . The badge consists of the Columns of Gediminas in yellow on a red disc . A masthead pennant have been adopted by the Lithuanian Navy to use on their ships .
The President of Lithuania was officially given a standard by the Seimas in 1993 . The standard is the State Emblem of Lithuania charged in the center on a single @-@ color background . Under state law , the background color is stated as purple , but the color used in practice is dark red . The ratio of the standard is 1 : 1 @.@ 2 .
Each county of Lithuania has adopted a flag , each of them conforming to a pattern : a blue rectangle , with ten instances of the Cross of Vytis ( double cross or ) appearing in gold , acts as a fringe to the central feature of the flag , which is chosen by the county itself . Most of the central designs were adapted from the counties ' coat of arms .
= = Similar flags = =
Save for the exact color shades and aspect ratio , the flag is identical to the flag of the Danish island Ærø , also located by the Baltic Sea , and to that of the Colombian department of Bolívar . It is also similar to the flag of Myanmar , which is defaced with a large white star .
= = = Countries = = =
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
= = = Cities = = =
= = = Historical = = =
= = = Other = = =
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= Indian Head gold pieces =
The Indian Head gold pieces or Pratt @-@ Bigelow gold coins were two separate coin series , identical in design , struck by the United States Mint : a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half dollar piece , or quarter eagle , and a five @-@ dollar coin , or half eagle . The quarter eagle was struck from 1908 to 1915 and from 1925 – 1929 . The half eagle was struck from 1908 to 1916 , and in 1929 . The pieces remain the only US circulating coins with recessed designs . These coins were the last of their denominations to be struck for circulation , ending series which had begun in the 1790s .
President Theodore Roosevelt , from 1904 , vigorously advocated new designs for United States coins , and had the Mint engage his friend , the sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , to design five coins ( the four gold pieces and the cent ) that could be changed without congressional authorization . Before his death in August 1907 , Saint @-@ Gaudens completed designs for the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) and double eagle , although both required subsequent work to make them fully suitable for coining .
With the eagle and double eagle released into circulation by the end of 1907 , the Mint turned its attention to the half eagle and quarter eagle , originally planning to duplicate the double eagle 's design . The Mint had difficulty fitting the required inscriptions on the small gold coins . President Roosevelt , in April 1908 , convinced Mint Director Frank Leach that it would be a better idea to strike a design similar to that of the eagle , but below the background , to secure a high @-@ relief effect . Such coins were designed by Boston sculptor Bela Lyon Pratt at the request of the President 's friend , William Sturgis Bigelow . After some difficulty , the Mint was successful in this work , though Pratt was unhappy at modifications made by the Mint 's engravers , headed by longtime Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber .
The two pieces were struck until World War I caused gold to vanish from circulation , and then again in the late 1920s . Neither coin circulated much ; the quarter eagle saw popularity as a Christmas present . In 1933 , President Franklin Roosevelt stopped the issuance of gold in coin form , and recalled many pieces which were in private or bank hands .
= = Inception = =
In 1904 , US President Theodore Roosevelt complained about the artistic quality of American coinage to his Secretary of the Treasury , Leslie Mortier Shaw , and asked if it were possible to hire a private sculptor such as the President 's friend Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens to give modern , artistic designs to US coins . At Roosevelt 's instigation , Shaw had the Mint ( part of the Department of the Treasury ) hire Saint @-@ Gaudens to redesign five denominations of US coinage that could be changed without an Act of Congress : the cent and the four gold pieces ( the quarter eagle , half eagle , eagle and double eagle ) . By the Mint Act of 1792 , an " eagle " was made equivalent to ten dollars .
Mint officials originally assumed that whatever design was selected for the double eagle would simply be scaled down for the three lower denominations . In May 1907 , however , President Roosevelt decided that the eagle and double eagle would bear different designs , a departure from past practice . In August ( the month of Saint @-@ Gaudens ' death from cancer ) , outgoing Mint Director George E. Roberts wrote , " no instructions have been received from the President as to the half and quarter eagle , but I expected that the eagle design would be used upon them " . After considerable difficulties , the Mint issued the eagle and double eagle based on Saint @-@ Gaudens ' designs later that year . The eagle featured Liberty wearing an Indian headdress on the obverse and a perched bald eagle on the reverse ; the double eagle featured Liberty striding forward on the obverse and a flying eagle on the reverse .
Due to the difficulties with the two larger coins , little attention was given to the half eagle and quarter eagle until late 1907 . On November 28 , 1907 , Treasury Secretary George Cortelyou wrote in a letter that the double eagle design was to be used for the two small gold pieces . On December 2 , Mint Director Frank Leach instructed the Philadelphia Mint to prepare coinage dies for the small pieces , using the double eagle design . Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber replied a week later that it would be difficult to put all the legends that were required by law on the new pieces , such as the name of the country . On the double eagle , " E Pluribus Unum " is placed on the edge , an impractical setting on pieces about the size of the nickel and dime . Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis forwarded Barber 's letter to Leach with his own note , stating , " I know it will be difficult to put the inscription ' E Pluribus Unum ' on the periphery of a quarter eagle , but I do not see where else it can [ go ] and we must try to do it " .
Barber was assigned the task of solving these difficulties . He planned to use his low @-@ relief version of Saint @-@ Gaudens ' double eagle design , but he made slow progress on the assignment . Leach wrote to Saint @-@ Gaudens ' attorney to ask if the sculptor 's assistant Henry Hering could do the work . Hering was willing , and asked for enlarged models of the double eagle designs . Barber opposed bringing in outsiders , citing delays in the preparation of the earlier gold coin designs which he attributed to the Saint @-@ Gaudens studio : " it is entirely unnecessary to trouble Mr. Hering any further , unless another year is to be wasted in vain endeavor " . On January 3 , 1908 , Leach wrote to Hering to inform him that all work would be done by the Mint .
= = Innovation = =
The President 's friend , Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow , had been in Japan for most of 1907 ; on his return to his Boston home he heard about the Saint @-@ Gaudens coinage from Senator Henry Cabot Lodge . Bigelow was one of a number of Roosevelt 's friends given early specimens of the double eagle . He wrote to the President on January 8 , 1908 , praising the Saint @-@ Gaudens coins and stating that he was working with a Boston sculptor , Bela Pratt , on an idea that would allow coins to be struck in high relief . Pieces struck in this manner would have the designs protected from wear and be able to stack easily ( both problems with high relief coins ) . The President responded to express his interest on January 10 , and Pratt was soon busy on a model for him to examine . Roosevelt did not then tell the Mint of the new proposal .
The newly released eagle and double eagle had provoked considerable controversy over their omission of the motto " In God We Trust " , and with Congress already preparing to require the motto 's use , Leach ordered work suspended on the half and quarter eagle on January 18 . The Mint had not expected to have to put " In God We Trust " on small coins of the double eagle design , on which it was already having trouble finding space for the other required legends . On the assumption the bill would succeed , Leach had Barber continue with his work , and at least one pattern half eagle was struck on February 26 for Leach to show the President .
Pratt completed plaster models for the coin , using the obverse design for the ten @-@ dollar piece as the basis , but using a photograph of an unknown , male Indian from his photo collection rather than Saint @-@ Gaudens ' female Liberty . He displayed one model in his Connecticut studio , and sent another to Bigelow for presentation to the President the next time the two friends met . Roosevelt and Bigelow had lunch with Mint Director Leach on April 3 . The President was enthusiastic about the proposed coin . Leach recalled in his memoirs :
Originally it was the intention to give the $ 5 and $ 2 @.@ 50 pieces the same design as that used on the double eagle or $ 20 piece , but before final action to that end was taken President Roosevelt invited me to lunch with him at the White House . His purpose was to have me meet Doctor William Sturgis Bigelow of Boston , a lover of art and friend of the President , who was showing great interest in the undertaking for improving the appearance of American coins , and who had a new design for the smaller gold coins . It was his idea that the commercial needs of the country required coins that would " stack " evenly , and that the preservation of as much as possible of the flat plane of the piece was desirable . A coin , therefore , with the lines of the design , figures , and letters depressed or incused , instead of being raised or in relief , would meet the wishes of the bankers and business men , and at the same time introduce a novelty in coinage that was artistic as well as adaptable to the needs of business .
As a result of the White House lunch meeting , Leach agreed to abandon the idea that the double eagle design be used for the small gold pieces , and to cooperate with Bigelow and Pratt in the making of the new coins . Leach even undertook to reimburse Pratt 's fee of $ 300 to Bigelow from government funds . The President wanted to see Saint @-@ Gaudens ' standing eagle from the ten @-@ dollar piece adapted in a recessed surface for the smaller pieces , and , if it did not constitute a change of design , used on the ten @-@ dollar piece as well ( a project that did not go beyond the talking stage ) . Bigelow wrote to Pratt on May 1 after conferring with Leach , stating that the Mint Director would likely not object if Pratt were to improve Saint @-@ Gaudens ' standing eagle , but " I would not , if I were you , get too far from the original , as the President likes it . Perhaps you can make him like it better . "
Dies had been cut for the Saint @-@ Gaudens half eagle , causing Leach to ask for a legal opinion on whether that constituted a change of design — if it did , no further change could be made for 25 years without an Act of Congress . The opinion must have been satisfactory , as Roosevelt approved Pratt 's obverse design in mid @-@ May , subject to minor changes requested by the Mint . Leach decided that both the Mint and Pratt would make versions of the standing eagle reverse ; Pratt 's was adopted . Pratt sent the models and casts to the Mint on June 29 . Barber did not make master dies based on Pratt 's work until he returned from his August vacation at Ocean Grove , New Jersey . Experimental pieces to a total face value of $ 75 ( likely ten half eagles and ten quarter eagles ) were sent to Leach in Washington from the Philadelphia Mint on September 21 . Leach showed the pieces to the President , who kept a half eagle and gave it to Bigelow . As Leach had worked against practices that allowed pattern coins to leave the Mint , the coin sent to Bigelow may have been the only pattern not to be melted . The present location of the coin is not known ; no pattern coins of the Indian Head gold pieces are presently known to exist . Leach approved the designs subject to some " improvements " which Barber wanted to make . The Mint Director wrote to Superintendent Landis on September 26 @,@
I desire that this shall be accomplished as soon as possible as I am under obligation to the President to have several thousand pieces coined by the first of November next and I want enough half eagle dies prepared so that a couple of pairs at least can be supplied [ to ] Denver and San Francisco . The quarter eagle will be coined only at your institution .
After production of the new coins began , Bigelow received one of each ; he showed them to Pratt who wrote to his mother , " They have ' knocked spots ' out of my design at the mint . They let their die cutter spoil it , which he did most thoroughly ... but they tried to retouch it and gee ! They made a mess of it . With a few deft strokes the butcher or blacksmith [ Barber ] who is at the head of things there , changed it from a thing that I was proud of to one [ of which ] I am ashamed . "
= = Design = =
The half eagle and quarter eagle are identical in design , and are unique in American coinage in having incuse ( engraved , as opposed to bas @-@ relief ) designs . The obverse features the head of a Native American man , wearing a headdress and facing left . The designer 's initials , BLP , are found just above the date . The reverse features a standing eagle on a bunch of arrows , its left talon holding an olive branch in place . The mint mark is found to the left of the arrowheads .
Although Saint @-@ Gaudens ' design for the eagle had featured Liberty in an Indian @-@ style headdress , no attempt was made to make her features appear to be Native American . According to numismatist Mike Fuljenz in his book on early 20th century American gold coinage , the obverse of the eagle had featured " Lady Liberty topped with a fanciful head covering designed to look like an Indian headdress " . Until Saint @-@ Gaudens ' and Pratt 's pieces were struck , only Mint Chief Engraver James Longacre had attempted to depict Indians on US circulating coinage ( in the 1850s ) , with his Indian Head cent and Indian Princess designs for the gold dollar and three @-@ dollar pieces . After Pratt , only James Earle Fraser 's depiction of an Indian in 1913 on the Buffalo nickel would appear until the 2000 arrival of the Sacagawea dollar .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule in 1970 dismissed complaints made at the time of issuance that the Indian was too thin : " the Indian is far from emaciated , and the coins show more imagination and daring of design than almost any other issue in American history . Pratt deserves to be admired for his medals and coins . " Vermeule suggests that Pratt 's design " marked a transition , in the ' emaciated ' Indian at least , to naturalism " .
Breen suggests the sunken surfaces were similar to those on coins from Egypt 's Fourth Dynasty . Under the Mint Act of 1792 , the obverse was to bear an " impression emblematic of Liberty " ; he notes that a Native American on the obverse was particularly appropriate " for after all the Indians were free peoples before the white man 's laws made them third @-@ class citizens " and suggests that Pratt 's eagle , before it was modified by Barber , was " worthy of J.J. Audubon " .
= = Production , circulation , and collecting = =
Dies for the half eagle were sent to the mints in Denver and San Francisco ; both western mints reported difficulties in striking the new pieces . Landis wrote to his counterparts at the other mints , advising them that the planchets , or blanks , needed to be shaved very slightly to strike properly . The new coins proved to be thinner than earlier coins of their denomination , due to the field being raised above the design . This meant that automated sorting machines could not reliably sort them when mixed with earlier coins .
The new gold pieces entered circulation in early November 1908 , attracting some negative comment . Philadelphia numismatist Samuel Chapman wrote to Roosevelt in early December to criticize the new coins . The indentations in the new coins would harbor dirt and germs , Chapman argued ; the coins could be easily counterfeited by carving a disc of metal . They could not adequately stack , and they were in any event not handsome , with the Indian " emaciated " .
According to numismatic historian Roger Burdette , " Chapman 's letter caused some consternation at the White House " . The President prepared a reply in which he expressed himself strongly to Chapman , but Bigelow persuaded him to substitute a milder letter over Bigelow 's signature , defending the new coins . Bigelow 's letter replied to Chapman 's complaint about the Indian , " The answer to this is that the head was taken from a recent photograph of an Indian whose health was excellent . Perhaps Mr. Chapman has in mind the fatter but less characteristic type of Indian sometimes seen on the reservations . " Chapman wrote again , and had the correspondence published in the numismatic press , but no one at the lame duck Roosevelt White House bothered to reply , according to Burdette , " the new coins were issued and would remain as they were for twenty @-@ five years , or until Congress ordered them changed " . Leach wrote to Bigelow on January 2 , 1909 , " I was somewhat amused by their savage attack , and should have liked to have been in a position to reply to this unjust criticism . However , I am pleased to say that adverse criticism of the coins is an exception . I feel very well pleased with the result . "
Both the half and quarter eagle were struck each year through 1915 . While " hard money " circulated in quantity in the West , in the East banknotes were much more common . A common use of the small gold pieces was as Christmas presents — the pieces would be produced at the various mints late in the year , be purchased from banks in December and return to vaults by late January . The establishment of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 increased the circulation of banknotes , and the Mint ceased to strike quarter eagles after 1915 and half eagles after 1916 . An additional factor was the economic unrest caused by World War I , causing gold prices to rise and coins made of that metal to vanish from circulation . After the war , gold did not return to circulation , and most gold coins struck were double eagles , used for international transactions and backing for gold certificates .
The quarter eagle remained popular as a Christmas gift but did not initially come back into production as the Treasury held stocks of the pieces from the prewar years . This surplus was slow to dissipate , as gift givers preferred the older Liberty Head quarter eagle that had been struck until 1908 . With the Liberty Head pieces becoming rarer and acquiring a premium above face value , the quarter eagle was finally struck again in 1925 , principally to be given as presents . The 1925 quarter eagle was struck only at Denver , and it was then struck from 1926 to 1929 only at Philadelphia . With the economic collapse which started the Depression , the quarter eagle was not called for in commerce , and the Mint halted production .
The half eagle was not struck again until 1929 , at Philadelphia . Coins of that date have a rarity not reflected in the mintage of 668 @,@ 000 as few entered commerce . Gold coins not released were melted in the mid @-@ 1930s , along with those recalled from banks and private holders , after President Franklin Roosevelt in 1933 ended the issuance of gold coins . Roosevelt 's actions put an end to the quarter and half eagle series , which had begun in 1796 and 1795 , respectively .
There are only 15 different Indian Head quarter eagles by date and mintmark ; the key is the 1911 struck at Denver ( 1911 @-@ D ) , which the 2014 A Guide Book of United States Coins values at $ 2 @,@ 850 even in well @-@ circulated VF ( Very Fine , or 20 on the Mint State scale ) condition . The half eagle series is longer ; 24 pieces by date and mint mark . The final entry , 1929 is the key date for the half eagle series , followed by the 1909 @-@ O , struck at the New Orleans Mint in its final year of operation .
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= Bergen Line =
The Bergen Line ( Norwegian : Bergensbanen or Bergensbana ) , also called the Bergen Railway , is a 371 @-@ kilometre ( 231 mi ) long standard gauge railway line between Bergen and Hønefoss , Norway . The name is often applied for the entire route from Bergen via Drammen to Oslo , where the passenger trains go , a distance of 496 kilometres ( 308 mi ) . It is the highest mainline railway line in Northern Europe , crossing the Hardangervidda plateau at 1 @,@ 237 metres ( 4 @,@ 058 ft ) above sea level .
The railway opened from Bergen to Voss in 1883 as the narrow gauge Voss Line . In 1909 the route was continued over the mountain to Oslo and the whole route converted to standard gauge , and the Voss Line became part of the Bergen Line . The line is single track , and was electrified in 1954 @-@ 64 . The Bergen Line is owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration , and served with passenger trains by Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and freight trains by CargoNet . The Flåm Line remains as the only branch line , after the closure of the Hardanger Line . The western section from Bergen to Voss is also served by the Bergen Commuter Rail , and was shortened following the 1966 opening of the Ulriken Tunnel .
= = History = =
= = = First step to Voss = = =
The first documented idea of building a railway between Norway 's two largest cities was launched by Hans Gløersen on 24 August 1871 in Bergensposten . The forest supervisor in Voss suggested building the railway via Voss and Hallingdal to connect with the Krøderen Line . Back in 1866 the same person had launched the idea of the Jæren Line . Within days of the launch of the Bergen Line the city council had assimilated support for the suggestion . In 1872 the railway director Carl Abraham Pihl and two engineers went on a survey tour to look at the suggested line . At the time it was common that proposals for railways came from local initiative , and that local municipalities and private investors would then pay about 20 % of the investments , the state covering the rest , mostly through foreign debt .
= = = = Political processes = = = =
On 20 October 1871 two engineers traversed the two possible routes from Bergen to Voss ; the one via Fana , Os and Hardangerfjord , the other via Dale and Sørfjord . Though covering a less populated area , the latter would be cheaper to build , and have less elevation . A railway committee was created on 25 January 1872 with a limited mandate , which was increased again 20 December . At the same time there was a dispute between the Ministry of Labour and Pihl about whether to prioritize the Bergen Line , but in July 1872 surveys were performed in person by Pihl and two engineers , and their report was positive . At the same time he launched the idea of a branch line up Valdres to Lærdal .
By 1873 agreement had been reached as to the right @-@ of @-@ way to Voss , but not onwards towards Oslo . On 13 January 1874 Bergen city council started issuing stock for the Voss Line , to begin with 400 @,@ 000 Norwegian speciedaler ( NOK 1 @.@ 6 million ) was issued . In the 1873 parliamentary election the railway supporter Peter Jebsen was elected , spending the next few years furiously defending the railway . Parliament chose to not issue new railway projects in the 1874 session , and instead make a complete plan for all railway construction in the country — to be proposed by a committee . When the report was launched on 20 March 1875 , the Voss Line was not included since it could not show a higher profitability than 1 % . During the 1875 session there was not a majority for the Voss Line , partially due to the lack of capital available for local investors . This was based on a claim from Johan Jørgen Schwartz , the chairman of the committee , that the investment costs were underestimated . This was countered by Nils Henrik Bruun , a constructor from Bergen , who was willing to construct all tunnels on the railway for less than the budgeted sum . When Jebsen in addition was willing to act as personal guarantee for Bruun in case of his death , the majority in the parliament shifted . On 9 June 1875 parliament voted with 61 against 42 to build Vossebanen .
= = = = Construction = = = =
Vossebanen was built with narrow gauge , 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) . The first parts of the construction started in December 1875 , while the largest part started in March 1876 . During the winter the engineers had done the last finesses on the plans . At any given time at least 800 men worked on construction , and at the peak 1 @,@ 800 men were employed . They worked 12 hours per day , for which they had a daily wage of NOK 2 @.@ 55 , the highest wage for navvies in the country . To a large extent the labor came from Sweden , who had just finished the Norway / Väneren Line and had an excess of skilled labor for construction . This import of labor had the effect of pumping money into the local economy , and several taverns were built along the line . There were some accidents , and several deaths among the workers .
The construction work was finished in 1882 and some test services began , though not scheduled until the spring of 1883 . Official opening commenced on 11 July 1883 . Many of the navvies settled on Vossebanen after construction , and started working for the NSB as part of the operation .
= = = Across the mountain = = =
By the time the Voss Line was completed Norway had plunged into recession . Parliament was not willing to give more money to railways , and the country had to make do with a transport plan launched in 1886 that did not follow up with any funding . On 1 March 1894 parliament after five days of debate chose , with 60 against 53 votes , to build the Bergen Line . Several different routes had been proposed , including over Krøderen , or down Numedal ( which later would get the Numedal Line ) . In the end Hallingdal was chosen , connecting to Hønefoss and via Sandvika . To save costs a preliminary line would connect Hønefoss to Roa with the branch Roa – Hønefoss Line . The final stage would be along the Gjøvik Line to Oslo . The line would also connect to the system via the Randsfjorden Line at Hønefoss .
Local financing was ready within a year , yet it took six years to survey the line properly , and construction start had to wait until 1901 . Construction started with the building of roads to get in supplies to the construction sites , completed in 1902 . The construction was exceptionally challenging , at high altitudes in a region without roads and with a climate that saw many meters of snow in the winter and temperatures far below freezing . 113 tunnels , totaling 28 kilometres ( 17 mi ) had to be built ; the longest being the 5 @,@ 311 metres ( 17 @,@ 425 ft ) Gravehalsen Tunnel , alone costing NOK 3 million and the longest tunnel north of the Alps . It took six years to build , and had to be excavated manually through solid gneiss . Laying of track was started in 1906 , and in 1907 the two groups , both having started at their own end , met at Ustaoset . A small celebration was made at the spot ( see image ) .
It had been decided that the Bergen Line , unlike the Voss Line , was to be built with standard gauge . So the newly laid line from Bergen to Voss had to be converted in time for the opening of the Bergen Line . This was especially challenging because of the continuous traffic on the line , with 36 departures per day to Nesttun , six to Garnes and four to Voss . In preparation a few curves had to be straightened , the tunnels widened and the bridges strengthened . On the night of 10 / 11 August 1904 all the track was changed and in the morning the trains could operate on standard gauge to Voss .
The first services started on 1 July 1907 from Voss to Myrdal . An official opening train attempted to cross part of the line to Gulsvik on 9 December 1907 , but got stuck in heavy snow and had to return . It turned out that the railway had to close and it took one and a half month to clear it for snow . Even a rotary snowplow at 750 kW was not powerful enough to get rid of the snow . A new attempt to open the line in 1908 succeeded , and a train went from Gulsvik to Bergen . The line from Roa to Gulsvik was still under construction , so passage was along the Drammen Line via the Krøder Line with ship over Krøderen to Gulsvik . The first scheduled train from Oslo West Station en route to Bergen departed 10 June 1908 .
On 25 November 1909 a train en route from Bergen rolled into Oslo Østbanestasjon , and two days later the railway was officially opened at Voss . King Haakon VII stated upon the opening that the line was the Norwegian engineering masterpiece of his generation .
= = = Steaming up = = =
World War II was a demanding time for the railway line , as the track was in heavy use for both civilian and military transportation , and much of the equipment and maintenance was lacking . On 28 February 1944 a descending eastbound freight train loaded with oil and petrol lost its braking power and became a runaway train , finally ploughing into a westbound passenger train at Breifoss , just east of Geilo . The crash and subsequent fire killed 25 civilians and an unknown number of German soldiers . Poor lubrication oil combined with the cold weather is believed to have caused the accident .
= = = Electrification = = =
Norway is a country with abundance of hydroelectricity and NSB saw huge amounts of money burning up with the imported coal . Plans for electrification of the line is as old as the railway itself , and in 1912 the line from Nesttun to Bergen was proposed electrified and rebuilt to double track , having seen the Thamshavn Line open with electric traction in 1908 . During the planning of the Hardanger Line and the Flåm Line during the 30s the suggestion again arose , and both the branch lines were built with electric traction , but not the main line . Countersuggestions were raised proposing a conversion to the locomotives running on oil or coal dust . In 1939 a plan for national electrification was launched , and the Voss Line was top priority . But the breakout of World War II set the plans back , and not until the 50s was it again possible to afford such investments . Vossebanen took electric traction into use on 2 July 1954 .
In 1952 a new plan was launched by parliament to electrify 1 @,@ 153 kilometres ( 716 mi ) of railway , with the line from Voss to Hønefoss prioritized fourth . The following year NSB launched the " away with the steam " -campaign , that would replace all steam locomotives with electric or diesel traction . Since electrification was not imminent , NSB introduced diesel traction on the Bergen Line in 1958 , predominantly using Di 3 stock . Travel time between the two termini was reduced by about one hour . During summer the Class 66 diesel multiple units were put into service , but they were not heavy enough to cope with winter and thus only served during the summer months . The line was electrified in four stages , from Roa to Hønefoss on 1 February 1961 , from Hønefoss to Ål on 1 December 1962 , from Ål to Ustaoset on 15 December 1963 and finally from Ustaoset to Voss on 7 December 1964 . As the point of electrification moved across the mountain , so did the point NSB changed locomotive on the train . The new locomotive El 13 was put into service on the electric parts . The electrification cost NOK 143 million .
The express trains have as one of the main lines always been allocated the newest locomotives by NSB . When the El 14 was delivered in 1968 , it was put into service on Bergensbanen , as was the El 16 in 1977 , the El 17 in 1981 , and finally the El 18 in 1996 . The older locomotives have been relegated to freight service . In 2000 electric multiple units were put into service with the Class 73 tilting trains , branded as Signatur and capable of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) . However , they cannot be used at those speed on any part of the Bergen Line , and only some parts of the Asker Line and around Finse can they operate quicker than the locomotive hauled trains . There has also been reason to doubt their winter capability on the very demanding Bergen Line . Occasionally they have been stuck in the snow , and on February 21 , 2007 a multiple unit derailed after running into a pack of snow . As refurbished carriages become available , the multiple units will be removed from the line , and replaced by traditional locomotive @-@ hauled trains .
= = = Through the first mountain = = =
The first 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) form Bergen to Takvam represented a very roundabout way , and it was clear that it would be possible to reduce the line by 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) with the construction of three tunnels , Ulriken Tunnel ( 7 @,@ 660 metres or 25 @,@ 130 feet ) , Arnanipa Tunnel ( 2 @,@ 177 metres or 7 @,@ 142 feet ) and Tunestveit Tunnel ( 40 metres or 130 feet ) . The idea was approved by parliament in 1956 , based on private financing from the businessman Fritz Rieber . Construction started in 1959 with the tunnels being finished in 1963 while the tracks were finished laid on 29 May 1964 when the first train entered the tunnel .
Rieber has suggested a package for the politicians , where he would create a company that would borrow money to build both the Ulriken Tunnel , a shortening of the line from Hønefoss to Sandvika ( the Ringerike Line ) and electrify the railway . Since NSB based their fares on the route length traveled , financing would be covered by a surcharge equal to the distance saved ; ticket price would remain the same and within twenty years the debt would be covered . The government opposed the suggestion — Trygve Bratteli commenting that even though the financing was private , it would still have to use the same funding as government debt , and would jeopardize other projects , like the Nordland Line .
In 1980 the Oslo Tunnel was opened , allowing trains along the Drammen Line to go to the new Oslo Central Station , an upgrade of the former Oslo Ø . As a consequence of this , passenger trains were since the late 1980s rerouted via Drammen instead of via Roa , following the Drammen Line and the Randsfjord Line to Hønefoss . This allows the trains to pass through more densely populated areas and on trackage with more capacity . However , the change of route actually increased the length between the two termini with 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) . But the better track standard via Drammen results in about the same travel time . Freight trains still goes via Roa .
= = = Lowering the peak = = =
During winter NSB had large costs keeping the line snow @-@ free . Large diesel @-@ electric snowploughs were stationed at Finse , and tens of kilometers of snow sheds were built on the most vulnerable parts . Especially the 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) part between Finse Station and Hallingskeid was a tear on resources , and heavy snowfall and drifts regularly closed the entire line . A solution was proposed by NSB 's director Robert Nordén in 1984 , involving construction of a 10 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) tunnel between the two stations .
In 1989 the Parliament of Norway approved the plans , including the upgrade of part of the line east of Finse . In total NOK 750 million was invested in rebuilding 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) of line , shortening it by 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) . At the same time the permitted speed could be increased from 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) to 170 kilometres per hour ( 110 mph ) . The tunnel opened on 16 June 1992 while the rest of the upgrades opened in five steps in the period 1995 – 98 . The highest point of the line was reduced from 1 @,@ 301 metres ( 4 @,@ 268 ft ) to 1 @,@ 237 metres ( 4 @,@ 058 ft ) — located inside the tunnel . After the opening the base for snow removal was closed at Finse .
= = Operation = =
The Bergen Line as a through line is used for up to five express trains operated by Norwegian State Railways , as well as freight trains by CargoNet . From Myrdal to Bergen there are commuter rail services operated by NSB .
= = = Line = = =
The total distance from Oslo to Bergen via Drammen is 493 kilometres ( 306 mi ) , while the Bergen Line proper is 372 kilometres ( 231 mi ) . The line has 182 tunnels , totaling ca . 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) , of which ten are over 2 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . Finse Station remains the highest elevated station at 1 @,@ 222 @.@ 2 metres ( 4 @,@ 010 ft ) , while the highest point is in the Finse Tunnel at 1 @,@ 237 metres ( 4 @,@ 058 ft ) .
= = = Commuter rail = = =
NSB operates a commuter rail service from Bergen with two hourly departures to Arna , plus fourteen daily departures to Voss , of which up to six continue to Myrdal . Rolling stock is the Class 69 multiple units . The first part to Arna represents an important part of the public transport in Bergen , since the rail direct line through the mountain Ulriken is considerably faster than driving around .
= = = Express service = = =
Express trains operated by NSB have always been the primary passenger service on Bergensbanen . Passenger trains follow the Drammen Line and the Asker Line to Drammen , before heading north to Hønefoss on the Randsfjord Line . The express trains offer both transport from villages along the line to either Bergen or Oslo , as well travel between Norway 's two largest cities . Up to two day trains are provided with Class 73 multiple units , while the remaining services are with locomotive hauled trains . Six nights a week there is a night train service . Several parts of the line service places without road access , such as Finse and Myrdal . Operating deficits are covered by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications .
= = = Freight = = =
Freight trains are operated by CargoNet , hauled by El 14 and El 16 locomotives . Most transport is from the terminal at Alnabru in Oslo to the terminal at Bergen Station . Freight trains use the Roa @-@ Hønefoss Line instead of going via Drammen since it is shorter — distance is more important than speed for freight trains . CargoNet operates up to four daily trains from Oslo , plus one from Drammen . Rail freight on Bergensbanen increased by 80 % from 2001 – 05 , but further growth is not possible without better infrastructure ; CargoNet has indicated they want five more passing loops , as well as extending them to increase train length from 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) to 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) , claiming they could double freight traffic with adequate infrastructure .
= = = Heritage = = =
Parts of the closed sections of Vossebanen , from Midttun to Garnes has been converted to a heritage railway — the Old Voss Line — that is operated with steam trains by the Norwegian Railway Club during the summer . At Finse there is a navvy museum , and the old navvy road has become a cycle track .
The branch Flåm Line has been converted to a tourist route . The railway has spectacular scenery and a vertical descent of 864 metres ( 2 @,@ 835 ft ) or 5 @.@ 5 % along the 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) route from Myrdal to Flåm . Operation is still performed by NSB , but marketing is performed by Flåm Utvikling . The stock used on the railway are El 17 hauling B3 wagons , all painted green .
= = Future propositions = =
= = = Closing = = =
In 2002 the Norwegian National Rail Administration warned that lack of funding might lead to a closure of all long @-@ distance passenger trains in Norway , including the Bergen Line . Torild Skogsholm , Minister of Transport and Communications assured that it was not the government 's policy to close railway lines . In 2004 the Progress Party suggested closing down the railway line and replacing it with a motorway between Bergen and Oslo , arguing that the railway was unprofitable , and that bus transport was cheaper while easier truck transport would aid business . Other political parties rejected the proposal pointing out the better environmental performance of the railway and that the railway transports large volumes of freight . On 16 June 2011 , a welding accident caused a fire at Hallingskeid Station , causing the complete destruction of the platform . This caused a temporary closure of the line until 23 June 2011 .
= = = Upgrades = = =
Ulriken Tunnel represents the largest bottleneck on the Bergen Line , due to the commuter trains to Arna . Building double track on the westernmost part of Bergensbanen would free up capacity not only of that part of the line , but the whole line across the mountains .
The original plans for Bergensbanen from 1894 included the construction of a new line — the Ringerike Line — from Hønefoss to Sandvika just west of Oslo . This line would reduce the distance on Bergensbanen by 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) and 50 minutes travel time . There has been a continual decision to build this railway line , but it has never received any funding . These plans were discussed more after 2000 , and a detailed plan has been done . Combined with other improvements totaling investments of NOK 7 billion , travel time could be reduced to four and a half hours . The project is scheduled to be built between 2019 and 2024 .
= = = High @-@ speed rail = = =
Several suggestions for high @-@ speed rail from Oslo to Bergen have been launched . Preliminary studied performed for the National Rail Administration with positive cost @-@ benefit ratios on building high @-@ speed rail from Oslo to Bergen . The most suitable route would approximately follow the existing route ( but a new tunnel Oslo – Hønefoss ) . Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Halden are assumed to be built earlier because of lower cost . Two lobbyist suggestions to the route have also been launched . The one involves a " high @-@ speed ring " from Oslo , via Numedal to Geilo , then following Bergensbanen to Bergen and continuing south to Stavanger and back to Oslo via Kristiansand . Norsk Bane has launched the idea of building a common line from Oslo to Haukeli and then from branching off to Bergen and Stavanger .
Such long @-@ distance high @-@ speed railways are not included in the preliminary long @-@ term plan for 2010 – 2040 , and it is likely that railways Hamar – Trondheim and Drammen – Kristansand will be built first since they are easier to build . It is likely that a high @-@ speed railway to Bergen will be built sometime in the period 2030 – 2060 .
= = Stations = =
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= I 'm Not Your Hero =
" I 'm Not Your Hero " is a song written , recorded and performed by Canadian duo Tegan and Sara and produced by Greg Kurstin for the album Heartthrob ( 2013 ) . Recorded at Echo Studio and EastWest Studios in California in 2012 , it was released on October 21 of that year as a promotional single . The lyrics for the new wave synthpop ballad were written by Sara Quin , and discuss her teenage life in the 1990s when she was unable to identify with the lives of pop culture figures and had unforeseen thoughts about her later life . Guitar chords , drums , bass guitar , synths and harmonized vocals are also played in the track .
" I 'm Not Your Hero " was mostly well @-@ received by critics for its songwriting and composition . The track garnered comparisons to the works of Santigold , Fleetwood Mac and The Temper Trap . Commercially , it peaked at number 58 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 and 157 on the French SNEP singles chart . Tegan and Sara have performed it at the Austin City Limits Music Festival , their Let 's Make Things Physical tour , and on shows and services such as Soundcheck and Queen 's TV .
= = Production and composition = =
In November 2011 , it was revealed on Tegan and Sara Quinn 's official website that they were writing new material for their seventh studio album : " [ we ] are back in our home studios working away at more songs . We ’ re really looking forward to making a new record now . Our hope is to be in the studio by early 2012 . " " I 'm Not Your Hero " was written for the album , which was later named Heartthrob and recorded between February and May 2012 . Sara , who wrote the lyrics , said the song was based on her life as a teenager when she was unable to identify with the lives of pop culture figures and had unforeseen thoughts about her future . She claimed the lyrics were about her political views from watching The West Wing , her identity and her sexuality . Tegan stated that when Sara showed the song to her and the producers , it was initially more of a love song and much more acoustic and slow than the final mix that would be released , and said she " was haunted by it almost immediately . I found the verses to be quintessential Sara . "
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Naked in a Snowsuit Publishing , the new wave synthpop ballad is performed in common time at a tempo of 122 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A Major , with the vocal range spanning from E4 to D6 . A chord progression of A5 − E5 − F ♯ m − Dmaj7 − F ♯ m − E − Dmaj7 is followed in the verse , D − A in the pre @-@ chorus , and D − E − F ♯ m − D in the chorus . The track opens with guitar chords before loud drums are played . Harmonized vocals , bass guitar and blurred synthesizers are also parts of the track 's arrangement . Reviewers made comparisons of its musical structure to songs such as " L.E.S. Artistes " by Santigold The Temper Trap 's " Sweet Disposition " , and the works of Fleetwood Mac . Alt Rock Live author Martine Johansen found the " non @-@ traditional " rhythms " strangely reminiscent " of
= = Release and live performances = =
" I 'm Not Your Hero " was first available for digital download in the United Kingdom as part of their compilation extended play called In Your Head : An Introduction to Tegan and Sara , which was issued on October 19 , 2012 . On October 21 , it was released as a promotional single for worldwide streaming . It received mostly positive reviews from critics upon its release , some calling it one of the best songs off Heartthrob . Brodsky described it as " a track that honors their previous work but shows their dedication to musical development . " Bryne Yancey of Punknews.org wrote the song " blows out its chorus rather impressively from the verses with some neat , alternated instrumentation . " A more mixed opinion came from Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz ; he praised the song 's " eloquent " message , but felt the track overall was not as engaging as the other songs on the album .
In an interview with MTV Hive , Tegan and Sara said " I 'm Not Your Hero " was one of their favorite songs to perform live . The duo first did so , along with " Now I 'm All Messed Up " and " I Was a Fool " , in Vancouver on September 23 , 2012 . They performed it at the 2012 Austin City Limits Music Festival , and the song was also a part of the set list of their 2014 " Let 's Make Things Physical " promotional tour . In April 2014 , the pair played it at the Juno Awards in Burton Cummings Theatre live on Queen 's TV . The duo has performed two acoustic renditions of the song , one in November 2012 in a studio session for Alter The Press ! , and in July 2013 on their interview by the WNYC program Soundcheck .
= = Personnel and credits = =
The following information adapted from the liner notes of Heartthrob :
Locations
Recorded and engineered at Echo Studio , Los Angeles , California ; drums recorded at EastWest Studios , Hollywood , California
Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios , Los Angeles , California
Mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering , Hollywood , California .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
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= Protocol of Corfu =
The Protocol of Corfu ( Greek : Πρωτόκολλο της Κέρκυρας , Albanian : Protokolli i Korfuzit ) , signed on May 17 , 1914 , was an agreement between the representatives of the Albanian Government and the Provisional Government of Northern Epirus , which officially recognized the area of Northern Epirus as an autonomous self @-@ governing region under the sovereignty of the prince of the newly established Principality of Albania . The agreement granted the Greeks of the districts of Korytsa and Argyrokastro , which form Northern Epirus , wider religious , educational , cultural and political autonomy , inside the borders of the Albanian state .
After the end of the Balkan Wars ( 1912 – 1913 ) , the subsequent peace treaties ceded the region to Albania . This turn of events catalyzed an uprising among the local Greeks , which led to the Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence , on February 28 , 1914 . The International Commission of Control , an organization responsible for securing peace and stability in the region , eventually intervened and the Protocol of Corfu was signed on May 17 , 1914 . However the protocol ’ s terms were never implemented because of the politically unstable situation in Albania following the outbreak of World War I , and it was eventually annulled in 1921 during the Conference of Ambassadors .
= = Background = =
During the First Balkan War , the Greek Army defeated the Ottoman forces and pushed north through the region of Epirus , reaching a line from Himara on the Ionian coast east to Prespa Lake by February 1913 . Pending the final adjudication of the Great Powers regarding the border between Greece and the newly established state of Albania , the region remained under Greek military control . On 17 December 1913 , the Protocol of Florence ceded the northern part of this area , which became known as " Northern Epirus " , to Albania . This turn of events was highly unpopular among local Greeks , who decided to declare their independence and secure the region against any opposing threat . The Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was thus proclaimed in Argyrokastro ( Gjirokastër ) on 28 February 1914 , with Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos , a distinguished Epirote politician from Lunxhëri , as its head .
Meanwhile , the Greek army evacuated from the region , and , on 1 March , Korytsa ( Korçë ) was ceded to the newly formed Albanian gendarmerie . Serious disturbances broke out in a number of places between the Autonomist forces and Albanian gendarmerie units and irregulars . Meanwhile , an International Commission formed by the Great Powers to secure stability and peace in the region was unable to achieve an agreement between the two sides .
= = Negotiations = =
By early May , the Albanian authorities , being unable to suppress the revolt , became willing to start discussions with the intervention of the International Commission . Thus , Prince William of Wied of Albania asked the Commission , which represented the Albanian government , to initiate negotiations . Subsequently , on May 6 , the members of the Commission informed Zografos that they were willing to discuss the demands of the Northern Epirote side .
Since incorporation into Greece was not an option after the recent political developments , Zografos proposed three main solutions to the representatives of the International Commission : complete autonomy under the sovereignty of the Albanian prince , administrative and canton type autonomy , and direct administration and control by the European Powers . The Northern Epirote side also demanded the extension of the area in which the Greek population would enjoy education in its native language to include the regions around Vlorë and Durrës ( in central Albania , to the north of Northern Epirus ) , the appointment of Greek Orthodox higher officials in the main towns of Northern Epirus and the exemption from military service of the local population , even in time of war .
The representatives of both sides met for negotiations in Saranda , a coastal town in Northern Epirus , but the final negotiations took place in the nearby island of Corfu , Greece . Finally , on May 17 , 1914 , the representatives of Northern Epirus and Albania signed an agreement that granted the chief demands of the Epirotes and became known as the Protocol of Corfu . The Protocol is prefaced by a signed agreement of the Commission :
The International Commission of Control , in order to avoid the resumption of hostilities , believes it to be its duty to reconcile as much as possible the point of the Epirote populations with regard to the special disposition which they ask for , and that of the Albanian Government .
It is with this idea in mind that the Commission has agreed to submit to the Great Powers which it represents , as well as to the Albanian Government , the enclosed text , which is the result of discussions between the members of the Commission and the Epirote delegates .
= = = Terms = = =
The Protocol fulfilled the main demands of the Northern Epirote side . According to its terms , the two provinces of Korytsa and Argyrokastron , which constituted Northern Epirus , would become autonomous under Albanian sovereignty and under the auspices of Prince William of Wied ; he , however , was granted no effective power whatsoever .
The Albanian government , in agreement with the Commission , had the right to appoint and dismiss governors and upper rank officials , taking into account the demographic composition of the local religious communities . Other terms included the proportional recruitment of natives into the local gendarmerie , and the prohibition of military levies from non @-@ indigenous people of the region . In Orthodox schools , the Greek language would be the sole medium of instruction , except for grades one through three . However , religious education would be exclusively in Greek . Moreover , Greek was also made equal to Albanian in all public affairs , including courts and elective councils .
As for the coastal area of Himara , the special autonomous status that it enjoyed during the Ottoman era was renewed , with the addition that a foreigner was to be appointed as its " captain " for 10 years . Moreover , the Protocol stated that the city of Korçë – which was under control of the Albanian gendarmerie – was to come under the Northern Epirote administration . The Great Powers would guarantee the implementation of the terms of the Protocol , while its execution and maintenance was entrusted to the International Control Commission .
= = = Reactions and approval = = =
On June 1 the Great Powers ( including Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary ) approved the results of the negotiations and on June 23 the terms of the Protocol were officially approved by the Albanian Government . The Greek government , without being involved until then in the situation , was aware of the negotiations and the possibility of a final agreement . Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos advised Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos to approve the protocol ’ s terms without asking for even wider autonomy .
The Northern Epirote representatives in the following Panepirotic Assembly of Delvino had to take the final decision on whether to accept the Protocol . The Protocol was eventually accepted after the intervention of Venizelos ; however the representatives of Himara found the terms too humiliating , arguing that the only viable solution would be union with Greece and not autonomy inside the Albanian state .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Political situation and outbreak of World War I = = =
Soon after the outbreak of World War I ( July 1914 ) , the situation in Albania became unstable and political chaos ensued . When the country became split into a number of regional governments , Prince William departed the country in September 1914 . On 27 October , after approval from the Great Powers , the Greek army re @-@ entered Northern Epirus . The Provisional Government of Northern Epirus formally ceased to exist , declaring that it had accomplished its objectives . The region was de facto annexed to Greece until the second half of 1916 , when Italian troops evicted the Greek army from the area .
= = = Interwar Period and Annulment of the Protocol = = =
In 1921 the Protocol of Corfu was annulled during the Conference of Ambassadors and Northern Epirus was definitively ceded to the Albanian state . However attempts to re @-@ establish an autonomous Northern Epirus continued . In 1921 the Albanian government , during the country 's entrance to the League of Nations , committed itself to protect the rights of minorities within its territory , which were ratified by the local Parliament next year . However , these rights were granted within a much more limited area compared to the Protocol , which included only some villages in the regions of Himara , Gjirokastër and Sarande , and none of the main towns . Moreover , Greek education was viewed as a potential threat to the territorial integrity of the Albanian state and Greek schools were either closed or converted to Albanian ones . As a result of this policy , education in Greek was limited and for a time virtually eliminated ( 1934 – 1935 ) . Only after the intervention of the Permanent Court of International Justice , in April 1935 , did the Albanian side allow the reopening of Greek @-@ language schools and waive its insistence on the use of Albanian in Greek schools .
The Albanian state led also efforts to establish an independent orthodox church , contrary to the provisions of the Protocol of Corfu and thereby reducing the influence of Greek language in the region . According to a 1923 law , priests who were not Albanian speakers , as well as not of Albanian origin , were excluded from this new autocephalous church .
= = Legacy = =
The Protocol of Corfu is often mentioned by Northern Epirote and human rights organizations when referring to the discrimination against the Greek minority in Albania . On the other hand , in Albanian historiography this agreement is scarcely mentioned or its interpretation is often grounded on different positions : it is seen as an attempt to divide the Albanian state and as a proof of the Great Powers ' disregard for the national integrity of Albania .
Notably , during the 1960s , the Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev asked the communist leader of Albania Enver Hoxha about giving autonomy to the minority , but this initiative was without any result . The autonomy question remains one of the main issues on the diplomatic agenda in Albanian @-@ Greek relations , after the collapse of the communist regime in Albania ( 1991 ) . Moreover , a certain degree of autonomy , based on the terms of the Protocol of Corfu , is the main objective of the organization Omonoia , as well as the Unity for Human Rights Party , which represents the Greek minority in the Albanian government . Such proposals were rejected in 1991 by the Albanian government , thus spurring Omonoia 's radical wing to call for Union with Greece . In another incident , in 1993 , Omonoia ’ s chairman was immediately arrested by the Albanian police , after explaining in public that the goal of the Greek minority was autonomy inside the Albanian borders , based on the terms of the Protocol .
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= Chase Promenade =
Chase Promenade ( formerly Bank One Promenade ) is an open @-@ air , tree @-@ lined pedestrian walkway that opened July 16 , 2004 . It is part of Millennium Park , which is located in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois in the United States . The Promenade was made possible by a gift from the Bank One Foundation . It is 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) and used for exhibitions , festivals and other family events as well as private rentals .
The Chase Promenade has hosted the 2005 Revealing Chicago : An Aerial Portrait photo exhibition , the 2008 Paintings Below Zero exhibition and the 2009 Burnham Pavilions . The Burnham Pavilions were the cornerstone of the citywide Burnham Plan centennial celebration .
= = Details = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Today , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
The Promenade , which spans the park from Randolph Street on the north to Monroe Street on the south , has three sections : North Promenade , Central Promenade , and South Promenade . Throughout the year it is available for private rental , and it has permanent tent anchors that make it accommodating year @-@ round .
= = = Past exhibitions = = =
The city has used the Promenade to host several festivals and exhibitions .
Revealing Chicago : An Aerial Portrait was displayed on the Central Chase Promenade and South Boeing Gallery from June 10 to October 10 , 2005 . The exhibit featured 100 images from Chicago metropolitan area taken on 50 flights that occurred between March 2003 and August 2004 at various seasons of the year . Photographer Terry Evans , a Chicagoan , says that although 90 % of the photographs were taken while in a helicopter , her preferred method of travel is hot air balloon , but Chicago was usually too windy to shoot by balloon .
Chicago Tribune art critic Alan G. Artner noted that the Mark di Suvero installation ( 2007 – -08 ) hosted at the smaller Boeing Galleries was limited to his midsize pieces , and even these were a bit tightly bunched . He felt the Chase Promenade might have served as a better forum and would have left the artist unfettered to choose from a wider range of pieces .
From February 1 through February 29 , 2008 , Millennium Park hosted a winter celebration called the Museum of Modern Ice . This event featured an exhibition located on the Central Promenade by artist Gordon Halloran entitled Paintings Below Zero . The exhibition 's centerpiece was an abstract artwork on the surface of four ice panels that measured 95 by 12 feet ( 29 @.@ 0 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) . In addition to the ice wall painting , Halloran painted the surface of the McCormick Tribune Ice Rink .
In 2009 , the celebration of the fifth anniversary Millennium Park and the 100th anniversary of the Burnham Plan will include two temporary the privately funded pavilions located on the South end of the Chase Promenade . The pavilions by Zaha Hadid and Ben van Berkel will feature information highlighting the Burnham Plan and its implications for Chicago 's present and future . They will be on display from June 19 – October 31 , 2009 .
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= 2009 Giro d 'Italia , Stage 1 to Stage 11 =
The 2009 Giro d 'Italia began on 9 May , with Stage 11 occurring on 20 May . The first stage , like it had been since 2007 , was a team time trial , a stage where each member of the team raced together against the clock . Like most cycling Grand Tours do , the beginning of the 2009 Giro included a string of flat stages that were contested by sprinters . These stages were contested by Alessandro Petacchi and Mark Cavendish , among others , with Petacchi in victory becoming one of the only riders to defeat Cavendish in a sprint in the 2009 season .
At the end of the race 's first week and beginning of its second were three hilly medium @-@ mountain stages . These stages took the Giro through Austria and Switzerland before returning to Italy . Each of these stages took more than five hours to complete , and the rain that fell each day combined with the difficulties presented by the numerous ascents and descents made the courses potentially unsafe in the riders ' opinion . This opinion was perhaps validated by the life @-@ threatening injuries sustained by Pedro Horrillo in the eighth stage after he crashed while descending a mountain . While the ninth stage was meant to be a showy criterium in celebration of this being the 100th anniversary of the Giro d 'Italia , the riders collectively protested the safety conditions of that stage and the ones before it . This meant it would be neutralized , with every rider receiving the same finishing time as the stage winner regardless of when they finished .
The tenth stage was the longest of this year 's Giro , and one of its most mountainous . It , along with a stage later in the race , were both called the race 's queen stage , its most difficult stage . Danilo Di Luca won this stage to pad his overall lead going into the second half of the Giro .
= = Stage 1 = =
9 May 2009 — Lido ( Venice ) , 20 @.@ 5 km ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) ( team time trial )
The 2009 Giro began , as it had since 2007 , with a team time trial ( TTT ) . The 20 @.@ 5 km ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) ride over a perfectly flat course in Venice decided who would wear the first pink jersey .
Team Columbia – High Road was the first team to ride the course , and wound up being the stage winners . They all finished together , which is relatively uncommon ( especially for a winning team : only Caisse d 'Epargne , which took the course nearly a minute slower , managed to also have all nine riders cross the finish line together ) . Garmin – Slipstream , who had said previously it was their goal to replicate their TTT victory from the 2008 Giro d 'Italia , finished officially 6 seconds back of Team Columbia – High Road , but they had only the minimum of 5 riders finishing together ( the team 's time is taken for the fifth rider to cross the line ) . As the first Team Columbia – High Road rider to cross the line , Mark Cavendish was awarded the first pink jersey as general classification ( GC ) leader ; he was also awarded the white jersey as youth classification leader .
= = Stage 2 = =
10 May 2009 — Jesolo to Trieste , 156 km ( 97 mi )
This stage was very flat . It had only one categorized climb , at low elevation , near the end . This climb award the first points in the mountains classification and thus , the first green jersey awarded to its leader . The riders took three laps of an 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) finishing circuit in Trieste , with the points for the climb taken on their second time over the hill at Montebello .
Leonardo Scarselli was free of the main field for most of the stage after escaping early in the morning . The bunch caught him with 31 km ( 19 mi ) to race , though . David García won the climb in Trieste to become the first wearer of the green jersey , and Alessandro Petacchi won the group sprint to the line , narrowly edging out race leader Mark Cavendish .
A crash on the third pass over the Montebello hill meant the field was broken , with only 51 riders together for the sprint finish . The rest of the peloton finished 13 seconds back , and since this crash occurred outside 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the finish line , all time lost stood as lost . Notables among those who lost 13 seconds were Levi Leipheimer and Ivan Basso .
= = Stage 3 = =
11 May 2009 — Grado to Valdobbiadene , 198 km ( 123 mi )
This stage was also flat , and ended in a mass sprint .
A five rider breakaway , which had a maximum advantage of seven minutes , took the points at the one intermediate sprint and the one categorised climb of the day , but were caught with some 38 km ( 24 mi ) remaining . A number of crashes occurred starting at the 50 km ( 31 mi ) remaining mark , and a series of attempted breaks meant that the peloton was fragmented , and Alessandro Petacchi took a second successive stage from a depleted group sprint .
The biggest victim of the repeated crashes was Garmin – Slipstream leader Christian Vande Velde , who had to retire from the Giro with a broken rib and a hairline fracture of his pelvis . The crashes also made it so Mark Cavendish was not with the main peloton as it approached the finish line ; he came to within 15 seconds of the group before abandoning the attempt to reach them , and essentially conceding the pink jersey . Petacchi 's second straight stage win gave him the race leadership .
= = Stage 4 = =
12 May 2009 — Padova to San Martino di Castrozza , 162 km ( 101 mi )
This was the first mountain stage of the Giro , with a high climb coming at 123 km ( 76 mi ) and a mountain finish at San Martino di Castrozza .
A group of 6 riders escaped after just 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . This group comprised Serafin Martinez , Francesco Bellotti , Davide Viganò , Ian Stannard , Francesco De Bonis , and Jens Voigt . They attained a maximum advantage of six and a half minutes , and with a healthy pace of 45 km / h ( 28 mph ) through the stage 's first three hours , it appeared possible that one of them would be the stage winner . The pace caught up with the group as they reached the foot of the day 's final climb , and only Voigt and Bellotti remained together as the climb began . Two kilometers into the climb , Voigt attacked again and tried to solo to victory over the last 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) .
The top GC men in the peloton and the specialist climbers formed a chase group that overhauled Voigt in the final 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . The attacks of Colombian climber Mauricio Soler had been responsible for driving this group to catch the remnants of the breakaway , and he attacked again in the final 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , quickly getting a gap over the competition and appearing poised for the stage win . As Soler had been the one who caused the crash that kept Mark Cavendish from potentially defending the pink jersey the day before , his combativeness on this stage was described as his " redemption " . 2007 Giro d 'Italia winner Danilo Di Luca timed his sprint to the line just right and overtook Soler for the victory . Sixteen riders finished with the same time as Di Luca , ten more were six seconds back , and a further 26 were inside a minute of his winning time . Thomas Lövkvist , who finished in the same group as Di Luca , took a narrow lead in the overall classification after the stage . However , Di Luca later tested positive for EPO and was stripped of his victory . The stage win was subsequently awarded to Stefano Garzelli , the runner @-@ up .
= = Stage 5 = =
13 May 2009 — San Martino di Castrozza to Alpe di Siusi , 125 km ( 78 mi )
This was one of the shortest road race stages in the 2009 Giro , but its profile was quite unusual . It saw the riders start where they ended the previous day , on the mountaintop at San Martino di Castrozza , climb some 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) for a categorized climb at Passo Rolle , and then descend over 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) before climbing most of that distance right back for another mountaintop finish at Alpe di Siusi .
A seven @-@ man breakaway was clear over the Passo Rolle climb and took a maximum lead of four and a half minutes in the valley between peaks . Giovanni Visconti was briefly race leader on the road , as he began the stage just under three minutes behind pink jersey wearer Thomas Lövkvist in the General Classification . The peloton , paced by Liquigas , caught them without about 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) left to race , leading the way for Sylwester Szmyd and then Ivan Basso to try to fracture the field before the finish . Six riders were able to keep his pace to the finish , with Denis Menchov the first to Alpe di Suisi for the stage win . The other six in the leading group kept close to the stage winner , with only Carlos Sastre losing more than ten seconds . Danilo Di Luca became the new race leader after his second place on the stage .
Damiano Cunego , Lance Armstrong and Stefano Garzelli , all of whom had been considered as possible favorites for overall victory in the Giro , all lost more than two minutes on this stage , being unable to take Liquigas ' pace on the way up to Alpe di Suisi . As they , along with Michael Rogers , had shown weakness on the climb , one report named as the only remaining possibilities for Giro champion Menchov , Di Luca , Lövkvist , Basso , Levi Leipheimer , and Sastre . The victory gave Menchov stage wins in all three Grand Tours for his career , and his team Rabobank its first ever Giro d 'Italia stage win .
= = Stage 6 = =
14 May 2009 — Brixen to Mayrhofen ( Austria ) , 248 km ( 154 mi )
This stage was one of the longest in the 2009 Giro . The first half of the stage was undulating , without a categorized climb . The second half featured two short climbs with a flat 22 km ( 14 mi ) valley in between them . The descent from the second climb , Gerlospass , left a flat 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) to race before the finish in Austria .
The day 's breakaway comprised five riders , and it formed after 55 km ( 34 mi ) in the saddle . Their maximum advantage was just under eight minutes . Michele Scarponi and Vasil Kiryienka shed their mates on the second climb of the day , about 60 km ( 37 mi ) from the finish . Scarponi dropped Kiryienka 50 km ( 31 mi ) later and went it alone for the stage win . The pink jersey group absorbed all the other members of the morning breakaway and finished half a minute behind Scarponi , with six from that group gaining four seconds on race leader Danilo Di Luca at the finish . Lance Armstrong lost even more time , finishing 43 seconds behind second place man Edvald Boasson Hagen .
= = Stage 7 = =
15 May 2009 — Innsbruck ( Austria ) to Chiavenna , 244 km ( 152 mi )
The race returned to Italy , after also passing through Switzerland , in another long stage . The one climb of the day occurred a little over 200 km ( 120 mi ) into the stage , the Passo Maloja . The entire stage to that point was on a slight increase in elevation , while the finish was on a long and drastic descent into Chiavenna . Its profile made it seem an inviting stage for breakaway attempts .
This stage saw numerous breakaways get away and stay away for a time . The first of them comprised four riders , coming clear after 24 km ( 15 mi ) . This group attained a maximum advantage of over nine minutes , but the peloton was able to catch them before the Passo Maloja . Right at the summit , Alessandro Bertolini attacked and came free for a time . He was able to lengthen his escape somewhat by descending the Passo Maloja in an extremely aerodynamic position , out of the saddle with all his weight over the handlebars . A crucial four @-@ man break took place 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish line , with Bertolini able to stay with them as they caught him , making it a five @-@ man leading group . Andriy Hryvko tried to make his way up to them after they were well away , but could not make it . Despite the presence of more experienced riders and riders noted as sprinters in the break , it was young Norwegian Edvald Boasson Hagen who made it to the line first .
Controversy had arisen before the Giro when it was revealed that many of Astana 's sponsors in Kazakhstan had not paid their full obligations to the team , and that the riders had therefore not been paid their full salaries to that point in the season . In protest , the team wore new jerseys beginning with this stage , that had the names of those underpaying sponsors faded out to the point of being unreadable .
= = Stage 8 = =
16 May 2009 — Morbegno to Bergamo , 209 km ( 130 mi )
There were two categorized climbs on this course , including a fairly tall and steep one at Culmine di San Pietro after 64 km ( 40 mi ) . However , the amount of flat racing after the descent suggested that the type of finish this stage would see was far from certain .
Between the 30 km ( 19 mi ) and 40 km ( 25 mi ) marks in this stage , a ten @-@ man breakaway slowly formed . Their maximum advantage was just over four minutes as they neared the day 's second climb , the Colle del Gallo . A group of GC favorites and domestiques from their teams were first over this climb , with race leader Danilo Di Luca not among them at first , almost a minute back . As the leading group seemed unwilling to work together , Di Luca was able to bridge the gap and make it to them . Kanstantsin Sivtsov made the decisive attack of the day , coming clear some 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the line , and though he never held even half a minute 's advantage , he managed to stay away for the stage win .
This stage also saw a dramatic and life @-@ threatening crash from Pedro Horrillo , on the Culmine di San Pietro . His bike skidded on wet leaves during the descent , causing him to lose control of his machine , slide into a guardrail , and tumble head over heels down the mountainside . Horrillo fell 60 m ( 200 ft ) and sustained fractures to his thighbones , kneecaps , and T12 and C3 vertebrae , as well as a punctured lung and internal bleeding . He was airlifted off the mountain and was then taken by ambulance to a nearby hospital . Horrillo woke up in the ambulance , but was put in a chemically induced coma to aid his treatment . He was taken out of the coma the next day , with scans revealing no brain damage . The peloton 's protest of Stage 9 the next day was largely in reaction to Horrillo 's serious injury .
After spending some five weeks in hospitals both in Italy and his native Spain , Horrillo eventually recovered .
= = Stage 9 = =
17 May 2009 — Milan , 165 km ( 103 mi ) ( Milano Show 100 )
This stage was a circuit race . The field took 10 laps of a 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) course in Milan ( there was a 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) run @-@ in before the circuits began ) . The course was flat , and the stage figured to be a major sprinters ' battle .
The character of this stage changed drastically after the dramatic injury sustained by Pedro Horrillo the day before brought attention to safety conditions on this and other courses in the Giro . With the course passing over numerous different surfaces , including tram tracks and cobblestones , the peloton collectively protested racing this course , and as such it was neutralized , with everyone receiving the same time as the stage winner and no points were awarded for the points classification as had been planned . There were also parked cars at the side of the road in many places , forcing the riders into narrow tunnels to get through them .
Originally , the result of the riders ' protest was only that the stage times would not count . The peloton rode the first four laps very slowly , about 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) slower than previous stages , and at the end of the fourth lap , the race stopped altogether as race leader Danilo Di Luca took a microphone to address the crowd and explain why they were riding so slowly . Lance Armstrong , who along with Di Luca had been considered the voice of the peloton in the protest , apologized to the fans for the effect it had on what was supposed to be a grand spectacle , but also contended that it was the correct decision for the peloton to make .
The pace did eventually pick up , on the last lap , and the finish was contested in a bunched sprint , won by Mark Cavendish .
= = Stage 10 = =
19 May 2009 — Cuneo to Pinerolo , 262 km ( 163 mi )
After the rest day , the riders were faced with the Giro 's longest stage , with numerous high mountain climbs along the course and the distinction of being the race 's queen stage . It was originally scheduled to include the Col d 'Izoard , which has been featured numerous times in the Tour de France as an Hors Categorie climb . Race officials later decided to alter the course , staying on the Italian side of the Alps , believing the stretches that were to take place in France were too remote and that radio communication in the area could not be assured . The course as it originally was designed mimicked exactly a course used in the 1949 Giro d 'Italia .
The resulting alterations caused the course to be even longer than first planned , 262 km ( 163 mi ) rather than 250 km ( 160 mi ) , with a small categorized climb just under 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the finish . This came after a 50 km ( 31 mi ) long descent from what became the course 's principal climb , Sestrière . The race 's overall contenders were expected to distinguish themselves on this stage .
A surprisingly fast beginning to the stage , with a first hour that covered over 50 km ( 31 mi ) , managed to keep any breakaways from going clear for over two hours . Twelve eventually came ahead of the peloton , with seven in the lead and five chasing between the leaders and the peloton . The third group on the road eventually dwindled to a select contingent of overall favorites , which included race leader Danilo Di Luca . Former Giro champion Stefano Garzelli attacked from this group on the day 's first climb and got to the leading group of five before the summit , claiming maximum points on it and on Sestrière to gain leadership of the mountains classification at the end of the day . Garzelli 's maximum advantage , at the summit of Sestrière , was just over six minutes .
A group of most of the top riders in the GC , paced by the race leader himself , caught every one of the twelve initial leaders , and subsequently Garzelli just before the day 's last climb , Prà Martino . Di Luca 's aggressive descent of Prà Martino gave him a gap over the elite group of riders who had been able to hold his wheel to that point , and the stage win . The day saw a big winner in time gains and a big loser : Lance Armstrong finished 29 seconds behind Di Luca in the same group as the man finishing sixth on the stage , gaining seven places in the GC , while Thomas Lövkvist lost over a minute and fell from second to eighth in the GC .
= = Stage 11 = =
20 May 2009 — Turin to Arenzano , 214 km ( 133 mi )
The Passo del Turchino , famous for its use every year in the classic one @-@ day race Milan – San Remo , was visited 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the end of this stage . The climb is not difficult enough to be at all selective , so pre @-@ stage analysis led to expectations that either a mass sprint would occur or a breakaway of riders deep down in the GC would finish first on this stage .
Astana rider Chris Horner did not start the stage due to a leg injury sustained in a fall in Stage 10 , leaving Levi Leipheimer and Lance Armstrong without their usual support rider . At the 56 km ( 35 mi ) mark , Caisse d 'Epargne rider Joaquim Rodríguez dropped out after a 9th place finish in the previous stage .
A break formed after 65 km ( 40 mi ) , including Gustavo César , Cameron Meyer , Dmytro Grabovskyy and Alessandro Donati . Soon after , Levi Leipheimer crashed , but was unhurt . The break was caught , and a solo break was formed by Vladimir Isaichev . Astana drove the peloton up the Turchino , the day 's lone climb , with Armstrong leading the descent and race leader Danilo Di Luca somewhat surprisingly coming forward to hold Armstrong 's wheel . Some riders tried to escape for victory on the way into Arenzano , but the sprinters ' teams worked to keep the field together , and Mark Cavendish took another bunched sprint win over Tyler Farrar and Alessandro Petacchi .
It was after this stage , on the eve of the Cinque Terre time trial , that Danilo Di Luca gave his first of two positive tests for continuous erythropoiesis receptor activator ( CERA ) , the results of which became public after the Giro was over .
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= Colony ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Colony " is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 10 , 1995 . It was directed by Nick Marck , and written by series creator Chris Carter based on a story developed by Carter and lead actor David Duchovny . " Colony " featured guest appearances by Megan Leitch , Peter Donat and Brian Thompson . The episode helped explore the series ' overarching mythology . " Colony " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 3 , being watched by 9 @.@ 8 million households in its initial broadcast . " Colony " is a two @-@ part episode , with the plot continuing in the next episode , " End Game " .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the murders of human clones working in abortion clinics at the hands of a shapeshifting assassin ( Thompson ) . Mulder receives news that his younger sister Samantha ( Leitch ) , who had been abducted as a child , may have returned . It is one of the X @-@ Files episodes that " feminizes the monstrous through reproduction . " In the episode , " the bodies of the male clones are feminized " and Scully becomes the protector of the monstrous when in one scene she meets several identical men in white lab coats .
" Colony " introduced the recurring role of the Alien Bounty Hunter . Actor Brian Thompson auditioned and later won the role . Frank Spotnitz and Carter did not have much time to cast this character , but they knew this casting would be important since he was intended to be a recurring character . Thompson was chosen according to Spotnitz because he had a very " distinctive look " about him , most notably his face and mouth .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in medias res with Fox Mulder in a field hospital in the Arctic . As Mulder is lowered into a tub of water , Dana Scully bursts in and tells the doctors that the cold is the only thing keeping him alive . Suddenly , Mulder 's heart monitor flatlines .
Two weeks earlier , in the Beaufort Sea , crewmen on a ship spot a light in the sky that soon crashes into the sea . A body is retrieved from the crash , revealed to be an Alien Bounty Hunter . Two days later , the Bounty Hunter arrives in Scranton , Pennsylvania , at an abortion clinic and kills a doctor by stabbing him in the back of the neck with a stiletto weapon , then sets the building on fire and escapes . Mulder receives emails containing the doctor 's obituary along with two other identical doctors . After interviewing an anti @-@ abortion priest who had threatened one of the doctors , they are able to use a newspaper advertisement looking for one of the men to track another one , Aaron Baker , to Syracuse , New York .
Mulder has a fellow FBI agent , Barrett Weiss , visit Baker 's residence . Weiss and Baker are both killed by the Bounty Hunter , who impersonates Weiss and tells Mulder and Scully that no one is home . After Walter Skinner hears of Weiss ' death and closes the case , the agents meet CIA official Ambrose Chapel , who tells them that the doctors are clones from a Soviet genetics program , and are being systematically killed by the Russian and U.S. governments . Mulder , Scully and Chapel head to pick up another doctor named James Dickens , but Dickens flees at the sight of Chapel , who is really the disguised Bounty Hunter . Dickens is killed by the Bounty Hunter in the subsequent pursuit , unknowingly aided by Mulder and Scully .
Scully doubts " Chapel 's " credibility , but Mulder believes his story due to his credentials and experience . Scully performs an autopsy on Weiss and finds that his blood has coagulated , while his red blood cell count is excessively high . Scully finds an address on a bag recovered from Dickens ' residence and heads there , discovering a lab that is in the process of being destroyed by " Chapel . " Meanwhile , Mulder is summoned to the home of his father , Bill , and learns that his sister Samantha has seemingly returned home after being abducted decades before . Samantha claims that she was returned around age nine with no memory , and recently recalled her experience through regression hypnosis .
Samantha tells Mulder that the Bounty Hunter and the clones are actually aliens , and the Bounty Hunter will begin chasing her as soon as he has killed the remaining clones . Meanwhile , Scully heads to a hotel to hide from the Bounty Hunter . Returning to the lab , she finds four more clones , who claim to be the last . Scully arranges for them to be transported to a safe place , but the Bounty Hunter follows her and watches . At her hotel room , Scully lets in a man who seems to be Mulder , only to receive a phone call from the actual Mulder soon after .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
As in all other episodes of The X @-@ Files at that point , the casting process took eight days . Megan Leitch , the woman who portrayed Samantha Mulder , did according to Frank Spotnitz a " phenomenal job " . Leitch returned to The X @-@ Files over the years to portray Samantha or one of her many clones . She had a lot of lines , which she felt were " very hard " and " specific . " Actor Darren McGavin , star of Kolchak : The Night Stalker , was originally sought to play the role of Bill Mulder , but was unable due to his work schedule . The role was ultimately played by Peter Donat .
Brian Thompson auditioned for the role of the bounty hunter in a casting session , where he was competing with another actor . Frank Spotnitz and Carter did not have much time to cast this character , but they knew this casting would be important since he intended to be a recurring character . Thompson was chosen according to Spotnitz because he had a very " distinctive look " about him , most notably his face and mouth . After casting him , they told Thompson 's agent that Thompson needed a hair cut , because at the start the Alien Bounty Hunter was supposed to be a kind of military pilot who 'd been shot down . But when the day came that Thompson came to Vancouver , there had been some " misunderstanding " and he hadn 't been told of the " crewcut " , so the hairstyle seen in this episode was a " compromise " of sorts .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
Carter said that while " Colony " was a " crystallization of the series ' mythology " , it " came about inadvertently " , following David Duchovny 's suggestion to face an alien bounty hunter . Thus he sat with the actor and decided to also add Mulder 's disappeared sister . The alien weapon , described by the cast and crew as " the ice pick " , was done with an air hose that ran through Brian Thompson 's arm . To create a unique and otherworldly sound made by the weapon used by the hunter , several sound effects were considered before co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin voiced the noise himself on a microphone .
Carter had initially wanted to set the first season episode " Ice " at the North Pole , but this was too ambitious at the time . " Colony " provided an opportunity to create an episode using such a setting . Some of the interior shots on the icebreaker were filmed on the HMCS Mackenzie , a decommissioned Canadian Forces destroyer , which was also used in the episode 's follow @-@ up , " End Game " , and the later second season episode " Død Kalm " .
= = Reception = =
" Colony " premiered on the Fox network on February 10 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 11 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 3 with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 9 @.@ 8 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a B + . The review stated that " untangling this web of shifting allegiances and identities requires intense concentration . Hang on , though ; the payoff 's worth it " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , noting that it was " X @-@ Files in top form " . He praised how the character of Samantha Mulder was presented , saying that " In the seasons to come , we end up with enough Samantha 's [ sic ] to fill a clown @-@ car , but here , the reveal is shocking , effective , and unsettling " ; and also felt that the episode 's flashforward cold open was particularly well @-@ handled . Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X , wrote that " Colony " presents a moral dilemma for the characters , noting that " on the surface Mulder 's quest appears righteous , however , the results of his quest would suggest otherwise " , and adding " generally the ideology that focuses on a single life 's ( be that human or alien ) importance is successful , whereas Mulder 's ideology of finding the truth at all costs is not " . Duchovny 's portrayal of Fox Mulder in this episode has been cited as an example of the character 's reversal of traditional gender roles — his openness and vulnerability when confronted with what he believes is his prodigal sister casts him " in a pattern typically engendered as female . "
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= Ohio State Route 85 =
State Route 85 ( SR 85 , OH 85 ) is an east – west state highway in the northeastern Ohio . The western terminus of SR 85 is in the center of Andover where it intersects U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) and SR 7 . Its eastern terminus is just over 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) east of Andover at the Pennsylvania State Line in the middle of the Pymatuning Causeway , where Pennsylvania Route 285 ( PA 285 ) continues east .
The shortest of three state routes that lie completely within Ashtabula County , the current SR 85 is a fraction of the route it was when first designated in the mid @-@ 1920s , when it ran from Euclid to Andover and onto the Pymatuning Causeway . When US 6 was designated in Ohio in the early 1930s , SR 85 was at first co @-@ signed with the U.S. highway from Euclid to Andover , but by the late 1930s , the SR 85 shields were removed from this stretch of roadway , leaving just the stretch of highway that exists today .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of SR 85 is situated in the eastern portion of Ashtabula County . No part of SR 85 is included within the National Highway System , a system of routes deemed most important for the economy , defense and mobility of the country .
SR 85 begins at an intersection with US 6 and SR 7 at a rectangular traffic circle that encircles Andover Township Park in downtown Andover . The two @-@ lane state highway , which runs generally due east for its entire length , departs from the intersection and passes through a primarily commercial stretch of roadway to the point where it crosses the village limits of Andover , and enters into Andover Township . The tree @-@ lined highway passes a mix of businesses and residences before reaching a signalized intersection with Pymatuning Lake Road , a road that follows the western edge of the Pymatuning Reservoir and connects SR 85 with the facilities of Pymatuning State Park . East of the traffic light , SR 85 traverses the Pymatuning Causeway , which crosses the middle of the Pymatuning Reservoir . Approximately halfway across the causeway , the roadway hits the Pennsylvania state line . At that point , SR 85 comes to an end , and PA 285 picks up the rest of the route across the causeway .
= = History = =
SR 85 was first designated around 1923 , running from SR 2 in Euclid , to its current eastern terminus at PA 285 . When US 6 was routed into Ohio in 1932 , it was routed via the stretch of SR 85 between Euclid and Andover . For the six years following , US 6 and SR 85 were run concurrently along that stretch of roadway . By 1938 , SR 85 was truncated to its current routing between Andover and the connection to Pennsylvania Route 285 on the Pymatuning Causeway , leaving US 6 to be the lone route running between Euclid and Andover .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ashtabula County .
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= Fifty Years of Freedom =
Fifty Years of Freedom : A Study of the Development of the Ideas of A. S. Neill is a 1972 intellectual biography of the British pedagogue A. S. Neill by Ray Hemmings . It traces how Homer Lane , Wilhelm Reich , Sigmund Freud and others influenced Neill as he developed the " Summerhill idea " , the philosophy of child autonomy behind his Summerhill School . The book follows Neill 's early life and career in rural , Calvinist Scotland and continues through the influence of his mentors , Lane and Reich , and the origins of Summerhill after World War I. Written fifty years from Summerhill 's founding , Fifty Years is a sociological and historical analysis of Neill 's ideas in the context of intellectual and educational trends both during Neill 's life and at the time of publication . Hemmings also surveyed progressive school leaders about Neill 's impact on the field , and reported their perception of influence on teacher – pupil relations . Fifty Years was first published in England in 1972 by George Allen and Unwin , and was later renamed Children 's Freedom : A. S. Neill and the Evolution of the Summerhill Idea for its 1973 American publication by Schocken Books .
Contemporary reviewers considered Fifty Years to be the best available biography of Neill . They largely praised its clarity and biographical detail and insight , but found the book 's philosophical sections comparatively weak and the author biased , as a former teacher from the school .
= = Overview = =
Fifty Years of Freedom is an intellectual biography of the British pedagogue A. S. Neill that traces the influence of Homer Lane , Wilhelm Reich , Sigmund Freud and others on his thought . Released fifty years after the school 's founding , the book is a sociological and historical analysis that presents the development of Neill 's " Summerhill idea " — the philosophy of his Summerhill School — in context of related social , political , educational , and intellectual trends . Hemmings himself saw the work as less of a biography than an analysis of Neill 's ideas in development and of the outward reception of these ideas . The book was first published in England in 1972 by George Allen and Unwin as Fifty Years of Freedom : A Study of the Development of the Ideas of A. S. Neill , and was later renamed Children 's Freedom : A. S. Neill and the Evolution of the Summerhill Idea for its 1973 American publication by Schocken Books . The book includes photographs .
The book follows the course of Neill 's life sequentially from his youth in " rural , Calvinist Scotland " to the start of Summerhill between the two World Wars . Hemmings focuses on Neill 's relation to education but also minds other biographical detail : the influence of Freudian psychoanalysis and Homer Lane 's theories in the 1920s , and of Wilhelm Reich 's psychological theories in the 1930s . Hemmings compares Neill 's thought with that of Maria Montessori , Bertrand Russell , Fred Clarke , Erich Fromm , Susan Sutherland Isaacs , Benjamin Spock , and contemporaries Paul Goodman , Ivan Illich , R. D. Laing , and Herbert Marcuse . Compared to pedagogues such as Russell , who advocated for the inculcation of certain virtues in a child 's education , Neill instead insisted that the child be left to make its own values and decisions apart from adult influence and manipulation . Hemmings also reviews the roles of freedom , authority , and anarchy throughout the maturation of Neill 's thought . The final sections explain Summerhill 's internal processes , philosophy , and position in both British and global social order . Hemmings contends that Summerhill has remained consistent to its principles while it cycled through roles as one of many 1920s educational experiments , a bastion in the 1930s , and an advocate for " children 's freedom " throughout the post @-@ World War II movement for " ' informal ' education " .
Hemmings conducted a study that surveyed 102 progressive heads — broadly defined — of infant , elementary , and secondary schools about Neill 's influence . Their responses indicated that Neill had significant impact on how the profession perceived teacher – pupil relations . The respondents also reported significant influence from Neill on moral and sex education . Contrarily , Neill had little impact on school curriculum and classroom teaching methods . Hemmings received little response from heads of state comprehensive schools .
Hemmings had previously taught at Summerhill . In 1973 , he was Lecturer in Education at the University of Leicester . Other contemporaneous and significant biographies of Neill include Neill 's autobiography ( Neill ! Neill ! Orange Peel ! , 1972 ) and Robert Skidelsky 's Part Three of English Progressive Schools ( 1969 ) . Jonathan Croall 's Neill of Summerhill ( 1983 ) later cited Hemmings 's book .
= = Reception = =
Though Hemmings did not think of his work as a biography , Richard L. Hopkins ( Comparative Education Review ) said it essentially was strongest as one . Hopkins wrote in 1976 that Hemmings 's book was the best biography of Neill available at the time , and called it " comprehensive " , " objective " , and " sympathetically thoughtful " . In comparison , Neill 's autobiography " rambles " and Skidelsky 's biography " preens " over " small insights " , while Hemmings unpacks larger issues to contextualize " a complex man in a complex world " . Reflecting on these three biographies of Neill , Hopkins added that Hemmings 's book would interest " comparative educators " most , as that it addressed the two points readers would find most interesting about Neill : the role of his history on his ideas , and the role of his ideas in the outside world . Still , Hopkins thought many readers would find the work " too long and detailed " . Hopkins himself found Hemmings 's book " a struggle to work through " , though more complete compared to Neill 's " easy " , " stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness " prose . Leonard W. Cowie ( British Journal of Educational Studies ) said that Fifty Years was written with " great competence " and would be both " interesting and essential " for those interested in understanding Neill . Choice recommended the " excellent volume " for " all readership levels " , and considered it more telling than Neill 's own autobiography . Shelley Neiderbach ( Library Journal ) agreed that Hemmings 's " admiring ... historical biography " remained " clear , cool , and evenhanded " . Sarah Curtis ( The Times Literary Supplement ) wrote in 1972 that Hemmings 's account of Neill was " the most lucid , dispassionate yet sympathetic " published . No system , she wrote , has reconciled the needs for individual freedom and societal regulation .
Commenting on the book 's survey study , Cowie ( British Journal of Educational Studies ) wrote that it was hard to ascertain Neill 's true pedagogical influence when state schools , which constitute the majority of schools , had a poor response rate . He added that the progressive education topics reported to be most influenced by Neill continued to be controversial in 1973 . Cowie asked whether challenges to authoritarian education were replaced by Neill 's methods or by chaos . Hopkins ( Comparative Education Review ) said the sociological study was more descriptive of Neill 's role than contributive to the evolution of his philosophy . Hopkins wrote that the book functioned best as a biography , and that its philosophy sections were " piecemeal " and " sketchy " rather than " comprehensive and coherent " . Indeed , he felt that the study and the philosophical portions were more illuminative of Neill 's life than of " any broader picture " . Robert B. Nordberg ( Best Sellers ) appreciated some of the book 's " important points " , such that many advocates for educational freedom , in practice , instead seek more insidious techniques for controlling children . While Curtis ( The Times Literary Supplement ) felt that the book added little new content , she appreciated the book 's detail , such as that Neill 's A Dominie 's Log was based in fact , not fiction .
Multiple reviewers highlighted Hemmings 's association with the school . Cowie ( British Journal of Educational Studies ) wrote that although Neill did not want disciples , Hemmings " accepts generally the ' Summerhill idea ' " and would fit the role . Nicholas Tucker ( New Statesman ) too noted the book as " very one @-@ sided , verging on the uncritical " despite its readability and signs of thorough research . He said that a balanced account of Summerhill was elusive because of the " sensationalized " press and " rosy " recollections of Neill and his former pupils , similar to the memoirs of " Old Boys ' clubs elsewhere " . He wrote , however , that Hemmings 's position was understandable when considering the criticism that Summerhill and Neill withstood from " conventional educational wisdom " and " horrified hearsay " , which had turned the school into " a type of scholastic folk myth " to set straight . Still , Tucker saw less cause for Summerhill 's defense by the time of publication as Neill had wider acceptance . He had become a powerful figure in education and his school a template for the American free school movement . Cowie wrote that Neill seemed to be enjoying greater acceptance in his later life as Summerhill was " losing its uniqueness as ' that dreadful school ' " . Nordberg ( Best Sellers ) said that while Hemmings has some criticism for Neill and " open education " , " he is basically an enthusiast " who wrote a " sympathetic portrayal " . Even from this sympathetic angle , Nordberg felt that Neill came across as " the child of an overly strict and demanding father who has spent the rest of his life in a rather one @-@ dimensional crusade , more visceral than rational , against authority in all forms . " Altogether , Nordberg wrote , Fifty Years succeeds in its " systematic , scholarly look at the Summerhill idea " but fails to provide " a balanced , profound look " at its counterpart : " need for restraint , rationality , and responsibility in the world " .
Neill himself " liked " Fifty Years and thought Hemmings had done a " wonderful job " but " wasn 't critical enough " . He noted that the work received few reviews compared to his own .
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= Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 =
The Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 were a series of shark attacks along the coast of New Jersey , in the United States , between July 1 and July 12 , 1916 , in which four people were killed and one injured . Since 1916 , scholars have debated which shark species was responsible and the number of animals involved , with the great white shark and the bull shark most frequently cited . The incidents occurred during a deadly summer heat wave and polio epidemic in the Northeastern United States that drove thousands of people to the seaside resorts of the Jersey Shore . Shark attacks on the Atlantic Coast of the United States outside the semitropical states of Florida , Georgia , and the Carolinas were rare , but scholars believe that the increased presence of sharks and humans in the water led to them in 1916 .
Local and national reaction to the fatalities involved a wave of panic that led to shark hunts aimed at eradicating the population of " man @-@ eating " sharks and protecting the economies of New Jersey 's seaside communities . Resort towns enclosed their public beaches with steel nets to protect swimmers . Scientific knowledge about sharks before 1916 was based on conjecture and speculation . The attacks forced ichthyologists to reassess common beliefs about the abilities of sharks and the nature of shark attacks .
The Jersey Shore attacks immediately entered into American popular culture , where sharks became caricatures in editorial cartoons representing danger . The attacks became the subject of documentaries for the History Channel , National Geographic Channel , and Discovery Channel , which aired 12 Days of Terror ( 2004 ) and the Shark Week episode Blood in the Water ( 2009 ) .
= = Incidents and victims = =
Between July 1 and July 12 , 1916 , five people were attacked along the coast of New Jersey by sharks ; only one of the victims survived . The first major attack occurred on Saturday , July 1 at Beach Haven , a resort town established on Long Beach Island off the southern coast of New Jersey . Charles Epting Vansant , 25 , of Philadelphia was on vacation at the Engleside Hotel with his family . Before dinner , Vansant decided to take a quick swim in the Atlantic with a Chesapeake Bay Retriever that was playing on the beach . Shortly after entering the water , Vansant began shouting . Bathers believed he was calling to the dog , but a shark was actually biting Vansant 's legs . He was rescued by lifeguard Alexander Ott and bystander Sheridan Taylor , who claimed the shark followed him to shore as they pulled the bleeding Vansant from the water . Vansant 's left thigh was stripped of its flesh ; he bled to death on the manager 's desk of the Engleside Hotel at 6 : 45 p.m.
Despite the Vansant incident , beaches along the Jersey Shore remained open . Sightings of large sharks swarming off the coast of New Jersey were reported by sea captains entering the ports of Newark and New York City but were dismissed . The second major attack occurred 45 miles ( 72 km ) north of Beach Haven at the resort town of Spring Lake , New Jersey . The victim was Charles Bruder , 27 , a Swiss bell captain at the Essex & Sussex Hotel . Bruder was killed on Thursday , July 6 , 1916 , while swimming 130 yards ( 120 m ) from shore . A shark bit him in the abdomen and severed his legs ; Bruder 's blood turned the water red . After hearing screams , a woman notified two lifeguards that a canoe with a red hull had capsized and was floating just at the water 's surface . Lifeguards Chris Anderson and George White rowed to Bruder in a lifeboat and realized he had been bitten by a shark . They pulled him from the water , but he bled to death on the way to shore . According to The New York Times , " women [ were ] panic @-@ stricken [ and fainted ] as [ Bruder 's ] mutilated body ... [ was ] brought ashore . " Guests and workers at the Essex & Sussex and neighboring hotels raised money for Bruder 's mother in Switzerland .
The next two major attacks took place in Matawan Creek near the town of Keyport on Wednesday , July 12 . Located 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of Spring Lake and inland of Raritan Bay , Matawan resembled a Midwestern town rather than an Atlantic beach resort . Matawan 's location made it an unlikely site for shark @-@ human interaction . When Thomas Cottrell , a sea captain and Matawan resident , spotted an 8 ft ( 2.40m ) long shark in the creek , the town dismissed him . Around 2 : 00 p.m. local boys , including epileptic Lester Stilwell , 11 , were playing in the creek at an area called the Wyckoff dock when they saw what appeared to be an " old black weather @-@ beaten board or a weathered log . " A dorsal fin appeared in the water and the boys realized it was a shark . Before Stilwell could climb from the creek , the shark pulled him underwater .
The boys ran to town for help , and several men , including local businessman Watson Stanley Fisher , 24 , came to investigate . Fisher and others dived into the creek to find Stilwell , believing him to have suffered a seizure . After locating the boy 's body and attempting to return to shore , Fisher was also bitten by the shark in front of the townspeople , losing Stilwell in the process . His right thigh was severely injured and he bled to death at Monmouth Memorial Hospital in Long Branch at 5 : 30 p.m. Stilwell 's body was recovered 150 feet ( 46 m ) upstream from the Wyckoff dock on July 14 .
The fifth and final victim , Joseph Dunn , 14 , of New York City was attacked a half @-@ mile from the Wyckoff dock nearly 30 minutes after the fatal attacks on Stilwell and Fisher . The shark bit his left leg , but Dunn was rescued by his brother and friend after a vicious tug @-@ of @-@ war battle with the shark . Joseph Dunn was taken to Saint Peter 's University Hospital in New Brunswick ; he recovered from the bite and was released on September 15 , 1916 .
= = Reaction = =
As the national media descended on Beach Haven , Spring Lake , and Matawan , the Jersey Shore attacks started a shark panic . According to Capuzzo , this panic was " unrivaled in American history , " " sweeping along the coasts of New York and New Jersey and spreading by telephone and wireless , letter and postcard . " At first , after the Beach Haven incident , scientists and the press reluctantly blamed the death of Charles Vansant on a shark . The New York Times reported that Vansant " was badly bitten in the surf ... by a fish , presumably a shark . " Still , State Fish Commissioner of Pennsylvania and former director of the Philadelphia Aquarium James M. Meehan asserted in the Philadelphia Public Ledger that the shark was preying on the dog , but bit Vansant by mistake . He specifically de @-@ emphasized the threat sharks posed to humans :
Despite the death of Charles Vansant and the report that two sharks having been caught in that vicinity recently , I do not believe there is any reason why people should hesitate to go in swimming at the beaches for fear of man @-@ eaters . The information in regard to the sharks is indefinite and I hardly believe that Vansant was bitten by a man @-@ eater . Vansant was in the surf playing with a dog and it may be that a small shark had drifted in at high water , and was marooned by the tide . Being unable to move quickly and without food , he had come in to bite the dog and snapped at the man in passing .
The media 's response to the second attack was more sensational . Major American newspapers such as the Boston Herald , Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Philadelphia Inquirer , Washington Post and San Francisco Chronicle placed the story on the front page . The New York Times ' headline read , " Shark Kills Bather Off Jersey Beach " . The growing panic had cost New Jersey resort owners an estimated $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in lost tourism , and bathing had declined 75 percent in some areas . A press conference was convened on July 8 , 1916 at the American Museum of Natural History with scientists Frederic Augustus Lucas , John Treadwell Nichols , and Robert Cushman Murphy as panelists . To calm the growing panic , the three men stressed that a third run in with a shark was unlikely , although they were admittedly surprised that sharks bit anyone at all . Nevertheless , Nichols — the only ichthyologist in the trio — warned swimmers to stay close to shore and to take advantage of the netted bathing areas installed at public beaches after the first attack .
Shark sightings increased along the Mid @-@ Atlantic Coast following the attacks . On July 8 , armed motorboats patrolling the beach at Spring Creek chased an animal they thought to be a shark , and Asbury Park 's Asbury Avenue Beach was closed after lifeguard Benjamin Everingham claimed to have beaten off a 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) long shark with an oar . Sharks were spotted near Bayonne , New Jersey ; Rocky Point , New York ; Bridgeport , Connecticut ; Jacksonville , Florida ; and Mobile , Alabama , and a columnist from Field & Stream captured a sandbar shark in the surf at Beach Haven . Actress Gertrude Hoffmann was swimming at the Coney Island beach shortly after the Matawan fatalities when she claimed to have encountered a shark . The New York Times noted that Hoffman " had the presence of mind to remember that she had read in the Times that a bather can scare away a shark by splashing , and she beat up the water furiously . " Hoffman was certain she was going to be devoured by the " Jersey man @-@ eater " , but later admitted she was " not sure ... whether she had had her trouble for nothing or had barely escaped death . "
Local New Jersey governments made efforts to protect bathers and the economy from man @-@ eating sharks . The Fourth Avenue Beach at Asbury Park was enclosed with a steel @-@ wire @-@ mesh fence and patrolled by armed motorboats ; it remained the only beach open following the Everingham incident . After the fatal attacks of Stilwell , Fisher , and Dunn , residents of Matawan lined Matawan Creek with nets and detonated dynamite in an attempt to catch and kill the shark . Matawan mayor Arris B. Henderson ordered the Matawan Journal to print wanted posters offering a $ 100 reward ( $ 2 @,@ 200 in 2016 dollars ) to anyone killing a shark in the creek . Despite the town 's efforts , no sharks were captured or killed in Matawan Creek . The " Matawan Journal " reported the shark account incident in the front page of its July 13 , 1916 issue with another article about the capture of a shark in Keyport a neighboring town in the issue of July 20 , 1916 .
Resort communities along the Jersey Shore petitioned the federal government to aid local efforts to protect beaches and hunt sharks . The House of Representatives appropriated $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 110 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) for eradicating the New Jersey shark threat , and President Woodrow Wilson scheduled a meeting with his Cabinet to discuss the fatal attacks . Treasury secretary William Gibbs McAdoo suggested that the Coast Guard be mobilized to patrol the Jersey Shore and protect bathers . Shark hunts ensued across the coasts of New Jersey and New York ; as the Atlanta Constitution reported on July 14 , " Armed shark hunters in motor boats patrolled the New York and New Jersey coasts today while others lined the beaches in a concerted effort to exterminate the man @-@ eaters ... " New Jersey governor James Fairman Fielder and local municipalities offered bounties to individuals hunting sharks . Hundreds of sharks were captured on the East Coast as a result of the attacks . The East Coast shark hunt is described as " the largest scale animal hunt in history . "
= = Identifying the " Jersey man @-@ eater " = =
After the second incident , scientists and the public presented theories to explain which species of shark was responsible for the Jersey Shore attacks or whether multiple sharks were involved . Lucas and Nichols proposed that a northward @-@ swimming rogue shark was responsible . They believed it would eventually arrive along New York 's coast : " Unless the shark came through the Harbor and went through the north through Hell Gate and Long Island Sound , it was presumed it would swim along the South Shore of Long Island and the first deep water inlet it reaches will be the Jamaica Bay . "
Witnesses of the Beach Haven fatality estimated that the shark was 9 feet ( 3 m ) long . A sea captain who saw the event believed it was a Spanish shark driven from the Caribbean Sea decades earlier by bombings during the Spanish – American War . Several fishermen claimed to have caught the " Jersey man @-@ eater " in the days following the attacks . A blue shark was captured on July 14 near Long Branch , and four days later the same Thomas Cottrell who had seen the shark in Matawan Creek claimed to have captured a sandbar shark with a gillnet near the mouth of the creek .
On July 14 , Harlem taxidermist and Barnum and Bailey lion tamer Michael Schleisser caught a 7 @.@ 5 foot ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) , 325 pound ( 147 kg ) shark while fishing in Raritan Bay only a few miles from the mouth of Matawan Creek . The shark nearly sank the boat before Schleisser killed it with a broken oar . When he opened the shark 's belly , he removed a " suspicious fleshy material and bones " that took up " about two @-@ thirds of a milk crate " and " together weighed fifteen pounds . " Scientists identified the shark as a young great white and the ingested remains as human . Schleisser mounted the shark and placed it on display in the window of a Manhattan shop on Broadway but it was later lost . The only surviving photograph appeared in the Bronx Home News .
No further attacks were reported along the Jersey Shore in the summer of 1916 after the capture of Schleisser 's shark . Murphy and Lucas declared the great white to be the " Jersey man @-@ eater " . Skeptical individuals , however , offered alternative hypotheses . In a letter to The New York Times , Barrett P. Smith of Sound Beach , New York wrote :
Having read with much interest the account of the fatality off Spring Lake , N.J. , I should like to offer a suggestion somewhat at variance with the shark theory . In my opinion it is most unlikely that a shark was responsible , and I believe it much more likely that the attack was made by a sea turtle . I have spent much time at sea and along shore , and have several times seen turtles large enough to inflict just such wounds . These creatures are of a vicious disposition , and when annoyed are extremely dangerous to approach , and it is my idea that Bruder may have disturbed one while it was asleep on or close to the surface .
Another letter to The New York Times blamed the shark infestation on the maneuvers of German U @-@ boats near America 's East Coast . The anonymous writer claimed , " These sharks may have devoured human bodies in the waters of the German war zone and followed liners to this coast , or even followed the Deutschland herself , expecting the usual toll of drowning men , women , and children . " The writer concluded , " This would account for their boldness and their craving for human flesh . "
Decades later , there is no consensus among researchers over Murphy and Lucas 's investigation and findings . Richard G. Fernicola published two studies of the event , and notes that " there are many theories behind the New Jersey attacks , " and all are inconclusive . Researchers such as Thomas Helm , Harold W. McCormick , Thomas B. Allen , William Young , Jean Campbell Butler , and Michael Capuzzo generally agree with Murphy and Lucas . However , the National Geographic Society reported in 2002 that " some experts are suggesting that the great white may not in fact be responsible for many of the attacks pinned on the species . These people say the real culprit behind many of the reported incidents — including the famous 1916 shark attacks in New Jersey that may have served as inspiration for Jaws — may be the lesser known bull shark . "
Biologists George A. Llano and Richard Ellis suggest that a bull shark could have been responsible for the fatal Jersey Shore attacks . Bull sharks swim from the ocean into freshwater rivers and streams and have attacked people around the world . In his book Sharks : Attacks on Man ( 1975 ) , Llano writes ,
One of the most surprising aspects of the Matawan Creek attacks was the distance from the open sea . Elsewhere in the book are accounts of well @-@ documented shark @-@ human interactions at Ahwaz , Iran , which is 90 miles ( 140 km ) upriver from the sea . It may also be of interest to note that sharks live in Lake Nicaragua , a fresh @-@ water body , and in 1944 there was a bounty offered for dead freshwater sharks , as they had " killed and severely injured lake bathers recently . "
Ellis points out that the great white " is an oceanic species , and Schleisser 's shark was caught in the ocean . To find it swimming in a tidal creek is , to say the least , unusual , and may even be impossible . The bull shark , however , is infamous for its freshwater meanderings , as well as for its pugnacious and aggressive nature . " He admits that " the bull shark is not a common species in New Jersey waters , but it does occur more frequently than the white . "
In an interview with Michael Capuzzo , ichthyologist George H. Burgess surmises , " The species involved has always been doubtful and likely will continue to generate spirited debate . " Burgess , however , does not discount the great white :
The bull draws a lot of votes because the location , Matawan Creek , suggests brackish or fresh waters , a habitat that bulls frequent and whites avoid . However , our examination of the site reveals that the size of the " creek , " its depth , and salinity regime were closer to a marine embayment and that a smallish white clearly could have wandered into the area . Since an appropriate sized white shark with human remains in its stomach was captured nearby shortly after the attacks ( and no further incidents occurred ) , it seems likely that this was the shark involved in at least the Matawan fatalities . The temporal and geographical sequence of the incidents also suggests that earlier attacks may have involved the same shark .
The casualties of the 1916 attacks are listed in the International Shark Attack File — of which Burgess is director — as victims of a great white .
The increased presence of humans in the water proved a factor in the attacks : " As the worldwide human population continues to rise year after year , so does ... interest in aquatic recreation . The number of shark attacks in any given year or region is highly influenced by the number of people entering the water . " However , the likelihood that one shark was involved is contested . Scientists such as Victor M. Coppleson and Jean Butler , relying on evidence presented by Lucas and Murphy in 1916 , assert that a single shark was responsible . On the other hand , Richard Fernicola notes that 1916 was a " shark year " as fishermen and captains were reporting hundreds of sharks swimming in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region of the United States . Ellis remarks that " to try to make the facts as we know them conform to the ' rogue shark ' theory is stretching sensationalism and credibility beyond reasonable limits . " He admits , " The evidence is long gone , and we will never really know if it was one shark or several , one species or another , that was responsible . "
In 2011 , further study was conducted in the Smithsonian Channel 's The Real Story : Jaws . The documentary takes a closer look at the series of events from different perspectives . It was demonstrated in the Matawan Creek attacks , for example , that the full moon of the lunar cycle , which would have coincided with the attacks , would have raised the salinity in the water by more than double just a few hours before high tide . This would have shown support for the theory that a great white could have been responsible . Other evidence such as Joseph Dunn 's injury suggested that the type of bite was more likely made by a bull shark as opposed to a great white , leading some to believe more than one shark was likely involved in the five incidents .
= = Revising science = =
Before 1916 , American scholars doubted that sharks would fatally wound a living person in the temperate waters of the United States without provocation . One skeptical scientist wrote , " There is a great difference between being attacked by a shark and being bitten by one . " He believed that sharks tangled in fishing nets or feeding on carrion might accidentally bite a nearby human . In 1891 , millionaire banker and adventurer Hermann Oelrichs offered a $ 500 reward in the New York Sun " for an authenticated case of a man having been attacked by a shark in [ the ] temperate waters " north of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . He wanted proof that " in temperate waters even one man , woman , or child , while alive , was ever attacked by a shark . " The reward went unclaimed and scientists remained convinced that the eastern coast of the United States was inhabited by harmless sharks .
Academics were skeptical that a shark could produce fatal wounds on human victims . Ichthyologist Henry Weed Fowler and curator Henry Skinner of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia asserted that a shark 's jaws did not have the power to sever a human leg in a single bite . Frederic Lucas , director of the American Museum of Natural History , questioned whether a shark even as large as 30 feet ( 9 m ) could snap a human bone . He told the Philadelphia Inquirer in early 1916 that " it is beyond the power even of the largest Carcharodon to sever the leg of an adult man . " Lucas summed up his argument by pointing to Oelrichs 's unclaimed reward and that the chances of being bitten by a shark were " infinitely less than that of being struck by lightning and that there is practically no danger of an attack from a shark about our coasts . "
The Jersey Shore attacks compelled scientists in the United States to revise their assumptions that sharks were timid and powerless . In July 1916 , ichthyologist and editor for the National Geographic Society Hugh McCormick Smith published an article in the Newark Star @-@ Eagle describing some shark species as " harmless as doves and others the incarnation of ferocity . " He continued , " One of the most prodigious , and perhaps the most formidable of sharks is the man @-@ eater , Carcharodon carcharias [ great white ] . It roams through all temperate and tropical seas , and everywhere is an object of dread . Its maximum length is forty feet and its teeth are three inches ( 76 mm ) long . "
By the end of July 1916 , John Nichols and Robert Murphy were taking the great white more seriously . In Scientific American , Murphy wrote that the " white shark is perhaps the rarest of all noteworthy sharks ... their habits are little known , but they are said to feed to some extent on big sea turtles ... Judging from its physical make @-@ up , it would not hesitate to attack a man in open water . " He concluded that " because it is evident that even a relatively small white shark , weighing two or three hundred pounds , might readily snap the largest human bones by a jerk of its body , after it has bitten through the flesh . "
Robert Murphy and John Nichols wrote in October 1916 :
There is something peculiarly sinister in the shark 's make @-@ up . The sight of his dark , lean [ dorsal ] fin lazily cutting zig @-@ zags in the surface of some quiet , sparkling summer sea , and then slipping out of sight not to appear again , suggests an evil spirit . His leering , chinless face , his great mouth with its rows of knife @-@ like teeth , which he knows too well to use on the fisherman 's gear ; the relentless fury with which , when his last hour has come , he thrashes on deck and snaps at his enemies ; his toughness , his brutal , nerveless vitality and insensibility to physical injury , fail to elicit the admiration one feels for the dashing , brilliant , destructive , gastronomic bluefish , tunny , or salmon .
After the Matawan attacks , Frederic Lucas admitted on the front page of The New York Times that he had underestimated sharks . The paper reported that " the foremost authority on sharks in this country has doubted that any shark ever attacked a human being , and has published his doubts , but the recent cases have changed his view . " Nichols later documented the occurrence of the great white shark in his biological survey Fishes of the Vicinity of New York City ( 1918 ) , " Carcharodon carcharias ( Linn . ) White Shark . " Man @-@ eater . " Accidental in summer . June to July 14 , 1916 . "
= = Cultural impact = =
While sharks had been seen as harmless , the pendulum of public opinion quickly swung to the other extreme , and sharks quickly came to be viewed not only as eating machines , but also as fearless , ruthless killers .
After the first fatality , newspaper cartoonists began using sharks as caricatures for political figures , German U @-@ boats , Victorian morality and fashion , polio , and the deadly heat wave threatening the Northeast . Fernicola notes , " Since 1916 was among the years that Americans were trying to break away from the rigidity and conservatism of the Victorian period , one comic depicted a risqué polka @-@ dot bathing suit and advertised it as the secret weapon to keep sharks away from our swimmers . " Another cartoon depicted " an exasperated individual at the end of a dock that displays a ' Danger : No Swimming ' sign and mentions the three most emphasized ' danger ' topics of the day : ' Infantile Paralysis ( polio ) , Epidemic Heat Wave , and Sharks in the Ocean ' . " The cartoon is entitled " What 's a Family Man to Do ? " With America 's growing distrust of Germany in 1916 , cartoonists depicted U @-@ boats with the mouth and fins of a shark assaulting Uncle Sam while he wades in the water .
In 1974 , writer Peter Benchley published Jaws , a novel about a rogue great white shark that terrorizes the fictional coastal community of Amity Island . Chief of police Martin Brody , biologist Matt Hooper , and fisherman Quint hunt the shark after it kills four people . The novel was adapted as the film Jaws by Steven Spielberg in 1975 . Spielberg 's film makes reference to the events of 1916 : Brody ( Roy Scheider ) and Hooper ( Richard Dreyfuss ) urge Amity 's Mayor Vaughn ( Murray Hamilton ) to close the beaches on the Fourth of July after the deaths of two swimmers and a fisherman . Hooper explains to the mayor , " Look , the situation is that apparently a great white shark has staked a claim in the waters off Amity Island . And he 's going to continue to feed here as long as there is food in the water . " Brody adds , " And there 's no limit to what he 's gonna do ! I mean we 've already had three incidents , two people killed inside of a week . And it 's gonna happen again , it happened before ! The Jersey beach ! ... 1916 ! Five people chewed up on the surf ! " Richard Ellis , Richard Fernicola , and Michael Capuzzo suggest that the 1916 Jersey Shore attacks , Coppleson 's rogue shark theory , and the exploits of New York fisherman Frank Mundus inspired Benchley . While Benchley states Mundus was an inspiration for Quint , he has denied the book was inspired by attacks off New Jersey in 1916 . The attacks are also briefly referred to in Benchley 's novel White Shark ( 1994 ) .
The 1916 fatal attacks are the subject of three studies : Richard G. Fernicola 's In Search of the " Jersey Man @-@ Eater " ( 1987 ) and Twelve Days of Terror ( 2001 ) and Michael Capuzzo 's Close to Shore ( 2001 ) . Capuzzo offers an in @-@ depth dramatization of the incident , and Fernicola examines the scientific , medical , and social aspects of the attacks . Fernicola 's research is the basis of an episode of the History Channel 's documentary series In Search of History titled " Shark Attack 1916 " ( 2001 ) and the Discovery Channel 's docudrama 12 Days of Terror ( 2004 ) . Fernicola also wrote and directed a 90 @-@ minute documentary called Tracking the Jersey Man @-@ Eater . It was produced by the George Marine Library in 1991 ; however , it was never widely released .
The attacks at Matawan are the subject of the National Geographic Channel documentary Attacks of the Mystery Shark ( 2002 ) , which examines the possibility that a bull shark was responsible for killing Stanley Fisher and Lester Stilwell ; Discovery Channel 's Blood in the Water ( 2009 ) ; Shore Thing , a fictional short film directed by Lovari and James Hill that received the award for Best Suspense Short at the 2010 NY International Film And Video Festival ; and Smithsonian Channel 's The Real Story : Jaws ( 2011 ) .
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= Welara =
The Welara is a part @-@ Arabian pony breed developed from the Arabian horse and the Welsh pony . It was originally bred in England by Lady Wentworth at the Crabbet Arabian Stud in the early 1900s from imported Arabian stallions and Welsh pony mares . Breeding then spread throughout North America . In 1981 , a breed registry was formed in the United States , and a studbook began to be published . They are used for many disciplines of English riding , and are known for their refinement , hardiness and spirit .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Welara stallions average 14 to 15 hands ( 56 to 60 inches , 142 to 152 cm ) and mares 13 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 53 to 59 inches , 135 to 150 cm ) . To be registered , Welaras must stand between 11 @.@ 2 and 15 hands ( 46 and 60 inches , 117 and 152 cm ) high . Crosses between Arabians and each of the four sections of Welsh Pony ( A , B , C and D ) tend to produce slightly different types of pony . Section A Welsh Pony crosses ( the smallest ) tend to be under 13 hands ( 52 inches , 132 cm ) , and be used mainly as light driving ponies and mounts for small children . Section B crosses usually stand 13 to 13 @.@ 2 hands ( 52 to 54 inches , 132 to 137 cm ) and can be used for driving and as riding ponies for larger children and small adults . Section C crosses average 13 @.@ 2 to 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 54 to 58 inches , 137 to 147 cm ) hands and tend to be a heavier pony , sometimes with feathered feet , although still showing the refinement of their Arabian ancestors . Section D crosses generally stand 13 @.@ 3 to 15 hands ( 55 to 60 inches , 140 to 152 cm ) high . The latter two types are suited to riding by average and slightly larger adults and for the majority of disciplines .
All colors other than Appaloosa are allowed for registration . Welara Sport Ponies may be of any color or size , without the restrictions of the purebred Welara . The mix of Arabian and Welsh blood gives the breed refinement , spirit and hardiness , as well as good movement . The head is small and slightly concave , the neck is arched ( and prone to be cresty in stallions ) . The shoulders and croup are long and the back short . Welaras are used mainly in English riding , especially in hunter classes . They are also seen in show jumping , three @-@ day eventing , pleasure driving and as general leisure riding horses . Welara / Thoroughbred crosses are popular mounts for riders competing in hunter and jumper classes .
= = History = =
Crosses began to be made between the Arabian horse and the Welsh Pony in Sussex , England the early 1900s , by Lady Wentworth of the Crabbet Arabian Stud . She began breeding Arabian stallions , including Skowronek ( 1909 – 1930 ) , a Polish Arabian stud , to Welsh mares from North Wales , especially the Coed Coch stud farm , which she imported beginning in the early 1920s . Other breeders in England and North America soon followed suit , although at this time they were not focused on creating a new breed , and the cross became known as the Welara .
In 1981 , a breed registry , called the American Welara Pony Registry , was created in the US in order to develop and promote the breed . A studbook also began to be published , and pedigrees of Welaras were collected and preserved . Only Welsh and Arabian blood is allowed for purebreds , and all registered ponies must have at least 1 / 8 and no more than 7 / 8 blood from each breed . As of 2005 , the registry claimed slightly over 1 @,@ 500 ponies registered in North America , with around 100 new foals registered annually . Welara Sport Ponies may also be registered – these are ponies at least 50 percent Welara but with blood from other breeds , often the Thoroughbred . The association also registers pureblood Welsh and Arabian foundation stock .
Welaras have now spread to additional areas of the world , including the Caribbean , Oceania and Europe . In Europe , Welsh / Arabian crosses , sometimes with additional Thoroughbred blood , are often called " riding ponies " or " sport ponies " . In the US , the breed is seen most often in the central and western parts of the country .
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= Battle of Öland =
The Battle of Öland was a naval battle between an allied Danish @-@ Dutch fleet and the Swedish navy in the Baltic Sea , off the east coast of Öland on 1 June 1676 . The battle was a part of the Scanian War ( 1675 – 79 ) fought for supremacy over the southern Baltic . Sweden was in urgent need of reinforcements for its north German possessions ; Denmark sought to ferry an army to Scania in southern Sweden to open a front on Swedish soil .
Just as the battle began , the Swedish flagship Kronan sank , taking with it almost the entire crew , including the Admiral of the Realm and commander of the Swedish navy , Lorentz Creutz . The allied force under the leadership of the Dutch admiral Cornelis Tromp took full advantage of the ensuing disorder on the Swedish side . The acting commander after Creutz 's sudden demise , Admiral Claes Uggla , was surrounded and his flagship Svärdet battered in a drawn @-@ out artillery duel , then set ablaze by a fire ship . Uggla drowned while escaping the burning ship , and with the loss of a second supreme commander , the rest of the Swedish fleet fled in disorder .
The battle resulted in Danish naval supremacy , which was upheld throughout the war . The Danish King Christian V was able to ship troops over to the Swedish side of the Sound , and on 29 June a force of 14 @,@ 500 men landed at Råå , just south of Helsingborg in southernmost Sweden . Scania became the main battleground of the war , culminating with the bloody battles of Lund , Halmstad and Landskrona . Danish and Dutch naval forces were left free to raze Öland and the Swedish east coast all the way up to Stockholm . The Swedish failure at Öland also prompted King Charles XI to order a commission to investigate the fiasco , but in the end no one was found responsible .
= = Background = =
In the 1660s , Sweden reached its height as a European great power . It had recently defeated Denmark , one of its main competitors for hegemony in the Baltic , in the Torstenson War ( 1643 – 45 ) and the Dano @-@ Swedish War ( 1657 – 58 ) . At the Treaties of Brömsebro ( 1645 ) and Roskilde ( 1658 ) , Denmark was forced to cede the islands of Gotland and Ösel , all of its eastern territories on the Scandinavian Peninsula , and parts of Norway . In a third war , from 1658 to 1660 , King Charles X of Sweden attempted to finish off Denmark for good . The move was in part due to bold royal ambition , but also a result of Sweden 's being a highly militarized society geared for almost constant warfare , a fiscal @-@ military state . Disbanding the Swedish forces meant settling outstanding pay , so there was an underlying incentive to keep hostilities alive and let soldiers live off enemy lands and plunder . In the end , the renewed attack failed with interventions by the leading naval powers of England and the Dutch Republic . Charles ' plans to subdue Denmark were thwarted and Trøndelag and Bornholm were returned to Denmark in the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660 while Sweden was allowed to keep the rest of its recent conquests .
Charles X died in February 1660 and was succeeded by a regency council — led by the queen mother Hedvig Eleonora — that ruled in the name of Charles XI who was only four at the time of his father 's death . Sweden had come close to almost complete control over trade in the Baltic , but the war revealed the need to work against the formation of anti @-@ Swedish alliances that included Denmark , especially with France , the most powerful state in Europe at the time . There were some successes in foreign policy with the anti @-@ French 1668 Triple Alliance of England , Sweden , and the Dutch Republic .
While the Swedish policy was to avoid war and to consolidate its gains , Danish policy after 1660 was to seek an opportunity to regain its losses . Under the Oldenburg King Frederick III , the foreign policy was aimed at isolating Sweden while setting itself up in a favorable position in future wars . Denmark attempted to position itself in the alliances among the 17th century Europe great powers . Bourbon France and the Habsburg @-@ dominated Holy Roman Empire competed for continental domination while the Dutch Republic and England fought several wars over naval hegemony . At the same time , Denmark sought to rid itself of the generous toll treaties it was forced to grant Dutch merchants after the Republic 's assistance in the wars against Sweden . Attempts were made to ally with both England and France , but without success . In the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1665 – 66 ) Denmark had to side with the Dutch at the Battle of Vågen , souring its relations with England . In 1670 France allied with England against the Republic . Sweden 's relations with France had improved greatly and in 1672 it joined the Anglo @-@ French coalition , pushing Denmark into the Dutch camp .
In 1672 , French King Louis XIV launched an attack on the Dutch Republic , igniting the Franco @-@ Dutch War . The attack was opposed by the Holy Roman Empire led by Leopold I. In 1674 , Sweden was pressured into joining the war by attacking the Republic 's northern German allies . France promised to pay Sweden desperately needed war subsidies only on the condition that it moved in force on Brandenburg . A Swedish army of around 22 @,@ 000 men under Carl Gustaf Wrangel advanced into Brandenburg in December 1674 and suffered a minor tactical defeat at the Battle of Fehrbellin in June 1675 . Though not militarily significant , the defeat tarnished the reputation of near @-@ invincibility that Sweden had enjoyed since the Thirty Years ' War and emboldened its enemies . By September 1675 , Denmark , the Dutch Republic , the Holy Roman Empire and Spain were all joined in war against Sweden and its ally France .
= = = Scanian War = = =
With the declaration of war against Sweden on 2 September 1675 , Denmark saw a chance to regain its recently lost eastern provinces . The southern Baltic became an important strategic theatre for both Denmark and Sweden . Denmark needed the sea lanes to invade Scania , and Sweden needed to reinforce Swedish Pomerania on the Baltic coast ; both stood to gain by taking control of the Baltic trade routes . As war broke out between Denmark and Sweden a strong naval presence also became essential for Sweden to secure its interests at home and overseas .
In October 1675 the Swedish fleet under Gustaf Otto Stenbock put to sea , but sailed no further than Stora Karlsö off Gotland before it had to turn back to Stockholm after less than two weeks , beset by cold and stormy weather , disease , and the loss of vital equipment . Stenbock , held personally responsible for the failure by King Charles XI , was forced to pay for the campaign out of his own pocket . During the winter of 1675 – 76 the Swedish fleet was placed under the command of Lorentz Creutz , who attempted to put to sea in January to February 1676 , but was iced in by exceptionally cold weather .
= = State of the fleets = =
The First Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1652 – 54 ) saw the development of the line of battle , a tactic where ships formed a continuous line to fire broadsides at an enemy . Previously , decisive action in naval engagements had been achieved through boarding and melee , but after the middle of the 17th century tactical doctrine focused more on disabling or sinking an opponent through superior firepower from a distance . This entailed major changes in military doctrines , shipbuilding , and professionalism in European navies from the 1650s onwards . The line of battle favored very large ships that could hold the line in the face of heavy fire , later known as ships of the line . The new tactics also depended on the ability of strong , centralized governments to maintain large , permanent fleets led by a professional officer corps . The increased power of the state at the expense of individual landowners led to the expansion of armies and navies , and in the late 1660s Sweden embarked on an expansive shipbuilding program .
In 1675 , the Swedish fleet was numerically superior to its Danish counterpart ( 18 ships of the line against 16 and 21 frigates against 11 ) , but it was older and of poorer quality than the Danish fleet , which had replaced a larger proportion of its vessels . The Swedes had problems with routine maintenance , and both rigging and sails were generally in poor condition . Swedish crews lacked the professionalism of Danish and Norwegian sailors , who commonly had valuable experience from service in the Dutch merchant navy , and the Swedish navy also lacked a core of professional officers . The Danish had seasoned veterans like Cort Adeler and Niels Juel . The Danish fleet was also reinforced with Dutch units under the command Philip van Almonde and Cornelis Tromp , the latter an experienced officer who had served under Michiel de Ruyter , famous for his skilled command in the Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars .
= = Prelude = =
A Danish fleet of 20 ships under Admiral Niels Juel put to sea in March 1676 , and on 29 April his forces landed on Gotland , which surrendered . The Swedish fleet was ordered out on 4 May with 23 warships of over 50 guns , 21 of less than 50 and 16 minor supporting vessels manned by about 12 @,@ 000 men , but encountered adverse winds and was delayed until 19 May . Juel had by then left Visby , the main port on Gotland , to join up with a smaller Danish @-@ Dutch force at Bornholm , between the southern tip of Sweden and the northern coast of Germany . Together they intended to cruise between Scania and the island of Rügen to stop Swedish troops from landing on the island and reinforcing Swedish Pomerania . On 25 – 26 May the two fleets fought the indecisive battle at Bornholm . The Swedish force was superior in numbers but was unable to inflict any serious losses , and two of the fleet 's fireships were captured , one by the allies and the other by a Brandenburg squadron headed for Copenhagen .
Several Swedish accounts say that Creutz argued with his officers after Bornholm . Major Taube of the Mars testified that after the battle , the officers had been " scolded like boys " and that Creutz , " without regard for guilt or innocence , accused them almost all alike " . The army captain Rosenberg told a later inquiry that Creutz " almost had a paroxysm in the night " over the conduct of Johan Bär ( one of his flag officers ) at Bornholm , and that he swore " never to go to serve at sea with such rascals " . Maritime archaeologist Lars Einarsson has concluded that the relationship between Creutz and his subordinates had hit rock bottom before the battle .
After the unsuccessful action the Swedish fleet anchored off Trelleborg , where King Charles was waiting with new orders to recapture Gotland . The fleet was to refuse combat with the allies at least until they reached the northern tip of Öland , where they could fight in friendly waters . After the Swedish fleet left Trelleborg on 30 May , the allied fleet soon came in contact with it and began pursuing the Swedes . By this time the allies had been reinforced by a small squadron and now totaled 42 vessels , with 25 large or medium ships of the line . The reinforcements also brought with them a new commander , the Dutch Admiral General Cornelis Tromp , one of the ablest naval tacticians of his time . The two fleets sailed north and on 1 June passed the northern tip of Öland in a strong gale . The rough winds were hard on the Swedish ships . Many lost masts and spars . The Swedes , forming a barely cohesive battle line , tried to sail ahead of Tromp 's ships , hoping to get between them and the shore , thus putting themselves on the allied fleet 's windward side and gaining the tactical advantage of holding the weather gage . The Dutch ships of the allied fleet managed to sail closer to the wind and faster than the rest of the force , and slipped between the Swedes and the coast , snatching the weather gage . Later that morning the two fleets closed on each other , and were soon within firing range .
= = Battle = =
Around noon , as a result of poor coordination and signaling , the Swedish line unexpectedly turned toward the allied fleet . When the flagship Kronan came about in the maneuver it suddenly heeled over and began to take in water . According to master gunner Anders Gyllenspak , the sails were not reefed and the ship leaned over so hard that water flooded in through the lower gunports . As the ship was leaning over , a gust of wind pushed the ship on her side , bringing her masts and sails down in line with the surface of the sea . Shortly afterwards , the gunpowder store exploded and ripped the forward section of the starboard side apart . Kronan quickly lost buoyancy and sank , taking most of her 850 @-@ man crew with her .
The sudden loss of the flagship and the fleet admiral threw the already scattered Swedish line into confusion and sapped morale . Four ships from Creutz 's and Uggla 's squadrons immediately fled when they saw that the flagship was lost . Claes Uggla was next in command after Creutz and became the acting commander of the Swedish fleet . When the line came about , Uggla and his ship Svärdet came on a collision course with the still floating wreckage of Kronan , and were forced to jibe ( turn the stern into the wind direction ) to avoid it . Svärdet 's second turn was interpreted by many ships as a signal to turn again ; others interpreted it as the beginning of a general retreat , leading to major disorder . Uggla reduced speed in an attempt to gather his forces , but instead was separated from his squadron .
Tromp on Christianus Quintus , Vice Admiral Jens Rodsten on Tre Løver and Niels Juel on Churprindsen took advantage of the chaos . They quickly surrounded Svärdet and three supporting ships ( Hieronymus , Neptunus and Järnvågen , an armed merchantman ) and began to hammer them into submission . Several other Swedish vessels attempted to assist Uggla , but they were in a lee position and could not provide effective support . After about an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to two hours of hard fighting Svärdet 's mainmast went overboard and Uggla had to surrender to Tromp . Despite this , Svärdet was ignited by accident or misunderstanding by the Dutch fireship ' t Hoen . The second largest Swedish ship after Kronan sank in the blaze and took with it 600 out of a crew of 650 , including Admiral Uggla himself . Only Hieronymus escaped the assault by the allied admirals , though badly damaged , and the others were captured by Juel on Churprindsen together with one of his lieutenants on Anna Sophia .
By six o 'clock in the evening the Swedes had lost two flagships along with two fleet admirals , including the supreme commander of the navy . The entire force now began a disorderly retreat : the smaller ships Enhorn , Ekorren , Gripen and Sjöhästen were outsailed and captured and the rest of the ships sought shelter in friendly harbors . Most set course for Dalarö , north of Stockholm ; others tried for Kalmar Strait , between Öland and the Swedish mainland . The allied fleet tried to capitalize further on its victory by giving chase , but the dash up the coast had scattered its forces and there was disagreement among the Danish commanders on how far they should pursue the Swedish ships .
= = Aftermath = =
The Swedish fleet had suffered a major blow by losing its two largest ships , its commander @-@ in @-@ chief and one of its most experienced admirals . Even after the battle , the misfortunes continued . Äpplet came off its moorings at Dalarö , went aground and sank . Around fifty survivors were picked up by pursuing Danish ships and taken as prisoners to Copenhagen . The battle gave Denmark undisputed naval supremacy and the Swedish fleet did not dare to venture out for the rest of the year . The army that had been amassed in Denmark could now be shipped to Scania to take the war to Swedish soil and on 29 June 1676 , 14 @,@ 500 troops were landed at Råå south of Helsingborg . The Battle of Öland was the first major Swedish defeat at sea to Denmark and was followed by further Swedish defeats at Møn and Køge Bay in 1677 . The latter was a resounding success for Admiral Niels Juel and has become the most celebrated victory in Danish naval history .
The Battle of Öland was the first of several major Swedish defeats at sea that ended in complete Danish dominance over the southern Baltic for the duration of the Scanian War . That the main naval base in Stockholm was locked in ice during the winter of 1675 – 76 showed the necessity of an ice @-@ free harbor that was closer to Danish home waters . In 1679 , King Charles personally chose the site for a new base at what would later become Karlskrona . The lessons from the war also led to improvements in Swedish naval organization under the guidance of Hans Wachtmeister ( 1641 – 1714 ) which included better funding and maintenance , increased readiness for mobilization in the southern Baltic and permanent recruitment of skilled personnel through the allotment system .
= = = The Swedish commission = = =
Within a week , the news of the failure at Bornholm and the major defeat at Öland reached King Charles , who immediately ordered that a commission be set up to investigate what had happened . Charles wanted to see if Bär and other officers were guilty of cowardice or incompetence . On 13 June , the King wrote " some of our sea officers have shown such cowardly and careless behavior " that they have " placed the safety , welfare and defense of the kingdom at great peril " , and that " such a serious crime should be severely punished " .
The commission began its work on 7 June 1676 . At the hearings , strong criticism surfaced and was directed against individual officers as well as Swedish conduct in general . Anders Homman , one of the officers on Svärdet , was among those who chastised his colleagues the hardest . In his testimony he said that that Admiral Uggla had exclaimed " look how those dog cunts run " when he was surrounded , fighting the allied flagships . Homman himself described the actions of his colleagues as those of " chickens running about the yard , each in his own direction " , and added that he " had been in seven battles , but had never seen our people fight so poorly " .
The commission did not find anyone guilty of negligence or misconduct , but Lieutenant Admiral Bär , commander of Nyckeln , and Lieutenant Admiral Christer Boije , who had run aground on Äpplet , were never again given a command in the navy . Lieutenant Admiral Hans Clerck , commander of Solen , went through the process unscathed , and was promoted to full Admiral by the King before the commission even presented its verdict . Creutz has quite consistently been blamed for the loss of his ship by historians , and has been described as an incompetent sea officer and sailor who more or less single @-@ handedly brought about the sinking through lack of naval experience . Military historians Lars Ericson Wolke and Olof Sjöblom have attempted to nuance the picture by pointing out that Creutz 's task was akin to that of an administrator rather than a military commander . The practical issues of ship maneuvering should have been the responsibility of his subordinates , who had experience in naval matters .
= = = Disputes among the allied officers = = =
Despite the victories , several allied officers were displeased with the conduct of their forces . Naval historian Jørgen Barfod explains that the battle was fought " in a disorganized manner from beginning to end " since Tromp had given the order for each commander to attack the enemy ship closest to him . Most of the Danish fleet was unable to keep pace with the faster Dutch ships , so the race for an advantageous position along the coast had contributed to the scattering of the allied fleet . Juel later complained in a letter to the Danish Admiral of the Realm that the Dutch had not assisted him in pursuing the fleeing Swedes . He claimed that if he had received proper support , they could have " brought [ the Swedes ] such a fever on their throats that it would take years for all the doctors in Stockholm to cure it " . When Tromp sent a report of the battle to the Danish King he reproached his subordinates , but not by name , and asked that no punishment be dealt out .
The captain of ' t Hoen , the fireship that had set Svärdet ablaze after she had surrendered , was arrested and incarcerated directly after the battle , and was subjected to such harsh treatment that he died within a few days . Tromp later reported that his ship Delft , which had seen some of the roughest fighting , had lost around 100 men and that most of its officers were wounded .
= = Forces = =
Below is a list of the ships that participated in the battle . The figures in parentheses indicate the number of guns for each ship .
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= 1996 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1996 Pacific hurricane season was one of least active Pacific hurricane seasons that most of the storms strike Mexico . It officially began May 15 , 1996 in the eastern north Pacific and on June 1 , 1996 in the central north Pacific . It ended on November 30 , 1996 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The season slightly exceeded these bounds when tropical storm One @-@ E formed on May 13 .
Few storms formed this season , but it was very eventful . Twelve tropical cyclones formed during this season , of which five made landfall and two other impacted land areas . Two tropical cyclones that formed in other basins entered the eastern north Pacific Ocean . Early in the season three tropical cyclones impacted Mexico in a ten @-@ day span , while the first cyclone of the season formed before it officially began . Hurricane Douglas was the strongest storm , reaching Category 4 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale and had its beginnings in the Atlantic as Hurricane Cesar .
= = Season summary = =
This hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1996 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1996 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1996 . These dates limit the time period when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . In actuality the season exceeded these limits slightly with the formation of Tropical Depression One @-@ E on May 13 and ended on November 11 with the dissipation of Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E.
This season was below average in activity . In the eastern north Pacific , eleven tropical cyclones formed . Of these , four became hurricanes , one of which were major hurricanes because they reached Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The remainder were tropical storms . In addition , one Atlantic hurricane , Hurricane Cesar , crossed into this zone from the Atlantic Ocean and was renamed Douglas . None of the systems in the eastern north Pacific crossed 140 ° W and entered the central Pacific . The last time that happened was in the 1979 season .
In the central north Pacific , one tropical depression formed . In addition , a depression crossed the dateline from the western Pacific before dissipating in this basin . None of these two systems reached tropical storm strength .
In terms of the number of storms , the season was below average . Despite this , there were a large number of landfalls . Of note is the fact that three tropical cyclones approached close to , or made landfall on , Mexico during a ten @-@ day span from June 23 to July 3 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One @-@ E = = =
The season had an early start on May 13 when a tropical wave in the open ocean organized into Tropical Depression One @-@ E. The depression moved west @-@ northwest and strengthened into a tropical storm on May 14 . On that day , the tropical storm reached its peak intensity , with maximum sustained winds at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 000 hPa ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . Wind shear steadily weakened the cyclone until it dissipated early on May 17 . This system was the only tropical storm to form in May during the period from 1992 @-@ 99 .
Tropical Storm One @-@ E was not assigned a name because it was determined to be a tropical storm after the season was over . The storm was initially forecast to become a tropical storm , but information available at the time did not warrant the upgrade . Subsequently , wind reports relayed from the US Coast Guard to the National Hurricane Center suggested that this cyclone was a tropical storm .
This tropical cyclone impacted two ships . The first — called the True Blue - was near the fringes of the storm and escaped . The other — the trimaran Solar Wind - provided wind observations until communications with the vessel were lost after 0600 UTC on May 14 . Despite a search by the US Coast Guard , the ship and its two @-@ person crew were never found .
= = = Tropical Depression Two @-@ E = = =
On May 15 an area of disturbed weather in the Intertropical Convergence Zone developed into a tropical depression . The disturbance was not readily traceable back to a tropical wave from the Atlantic . On its first day of its existence , Tropical Depression Two @-@ E was a well @-@ organized system with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . As it slowly moved west , Two @-@ E experienced a few intermittent bursts of convection . However , the depression gradually became less organized during the remainder of its life . On May 18 , the cyclone 's organization deteriorated markedly until it dissipated the next morning .
Tropical Depression Two @-@ E never threatened land . Consequently , there were no reports of deaths or damage .
= = = Hurricane Alma = = =
On June 20 , the southern part of the same tropical wave that spawned Tropical Storm Arthur in the Atlantic overcame shear to strengthen into Tropical Depression Three @-@ E. It reached tropical storm intensity that same day . When the shear relaxed , Alma strengthened into a hurricane . Weak steering currents sent Alma towards the Mexican coast . It made landfall near Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán on June 23 and almost immediately went back out to sea . Alma slowly paralleled the coast as the topography disrupted the cyclone 's circulation . Alma weakened to tropical storm intensity on June 24 and to tropical depression intensity on June 26 . It dissipated the next day . Alma 's maximum winds were 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and Alma 's minimum pressure was 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
Hurricane Alma was the first of three consecutive storms to come close to , or make landfall on , the Pacific coast of Mexico during a ten @-@ day span . At least three , and possibly twenty , people were killed . Three were killed when a house near Lázaro Cárdenas collapsed . There were unconfirmed reports that 17 people were killed by floods in the state of Puebla caused by Alma 's rains . Trees were downed and power was knocked out to many places . Roads were flooded and covered with debris throughout the affected area .
= = = Hurricane Boris = = =
On June 27 , a tropical wave developed convection and became Tropical Depression Four . It moved north and slowly intensified . The rate of intensification increased and the depression became a tropical storm on June 28 . Boris reached hurricane intensity on June 28 and peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a central pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Boris then made landfall on June 29 about midway between Lázaro Cárdenas and Acapulco . Boris then moved offshore after turning to the southwest and dissipated on July 1 while south of Puerto Vallarta .
Hurricane Boris was , in general , a well @-@ forecast storm . Due to the short time when the system was at or above tropical storm intensity , long @-@ range forecasts were not verified . The average errors were 116 mi ( 187 km ) at one and a half days in the future . Boris caused at least five deaths . One person was killed in Tecpan . Nearby , three other people drowned and five fishers were missing . In Acapulco , a child was killed when a roof collapsed . Rain was heavy throughout the impacted region , with the highest totals in Guerrero . The highest total was 14 @.@ 98 in ( 380 mm ) at Paso de San Antonio , to the east of the point of landfall .
= = = Tropical Storm Cristina = = =
On July 1 , a tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Five @-@ E. The location of the depression was the easternmost since the depression that eventually became Hurricane Paul in the 1982 season . Five @-@ E strengthened into Tropical Storm Cristina on July 2 as it continued its west @-@ northwest track . Cristina was almost a hurricane at the time of its landfall near Puerto Angel on July 3 . It peak strength , which occurred at landfall , was 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Cristina dissipated over the mountains of Mexico on July 3 .
As a whole , both Cristina 's intensity and track were well @-@ forecast . However , the tropical cyclone 's short life made verification of a small number of forecasts limited . When Cristina was approaching , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm warning for the coast between Tapachula and Punta Maldonado on July 2 .
Tropical Storm Cristina killed one person , a fisherman , who was aboard a boat caught at sea . Another person from that boat was missing , and a third individual was rescued . Eleven other fishing boats , with a total of twenty @-@ two people aboard , were missing . Their fate is unknown . The National Hurricane Center received no reports of damage due to Tropical Storm Cristina ; however , there was flooding due to storm surge and damage from wind . It also produced rain .
= = = Tropical Depression Six @-@ E = = =
On July 4 , a persistent area of thunderstorms organized into a tropical depression . Weak steering currents slowly moved it northwest . Easterly wind shear inhibited the development of the system . Despite the wind shear , Six @-@ E was forecast to strengthen into a tropical storm , but it instead weakened to a swirl of clouds and advisories were ended on July 5 . Tropical Depression Six @-@ E dissipated on July 6 . At its peak strength , Six @-@ E had winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and a central pressure of 1 @,@ 003 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
This cyclone never came ashore . Consequently , no reports of damage or deaths were received by the National Hurricane Center .
= = = Hurricane Douglas = = =
Hurricane Douglas was a continuation of Atlantic Hurricane Cesar , which crossed Central America . Continuing Cesar 's nearly due @-@ west heading , it was still a tropical storm when it entered the Pacific on July 29 , and quickly regained hurricane status .
Douglas strengthened over the next two days as it turned west @-@ northwest , paralleling the coast of Mexico . It reached its peak intensity on August 1 , with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a central pressure of 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) , making it the strongest hurricane of the season at a Category 4 strength . It slow weakening began on August 2 as it entered cooler waters , and it officially dissipated on August 6 , though like many Pacific hurricanes , a remnant circulation could be tracked westward for several days afterward .
Compared with the long @-@ tern average , Hurricane Douglas was a well @-@ forecast storm . The cyclone passed close enough to Mexico to necessitate a tropical storm warning starting on July 29 for the coast from Salina Cruz to Acapulco , with a watch along a further section of coast . The watches and warnings were discontinued on July 30 .
Hurricane Douglas brought up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain on the south coast of Mexico and resulted in a 4 @-@ ft ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ m ) storm surge . No deaths or damages were attributed to the Douglas portion of Hurricane Cesar @-@ Douglas .
= = = Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ W = = =
A tropical depression , which formed August 13 from a cutoff area of low pressure area , crossed the dateline on August 14 . It continued to head east , passing close to Midway Island . It dissipated on August 14 , although the remnants of the system hung around the area for a few more days . At its strongest in the central north Pacific , Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ W had winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) .
Seventeen @-@ W brought light winds , with gusts reaching gale @-@ force , to Midway Island . It also brought about 2 @.@ 5 in ( 63 @.@ 5 mm ) of rain . After the cyclone dissipated , showers and gusty winds continued to occur on Midway and Kure for a few more days .
Seventeen @-@ W was the first tropical cyclone to cross the international dateline in either direction since Typhoon John in the 1994 season .
= = = Tropical Storm Elida = = =
A tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E on August 30 . The cyclone paralleled the coast of Mexico and also gradually decelerated . Despite some wind shear , Eight @-@ E strengthened into a tropical storm on September 2 and was named Elida . On September 3 and 4 , Elida came close to the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula at its peak intensity of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The cyclone then drifted into cooler waters , was devoid of deep convection on September 5 , and dissipated the next day .
The storm was forecast slightly better than the long @-@ term averages for the eastern North Pacific . Elida posed enough of a threat to the Baja California Peninsula to require a tropical storm warning for the Baja California Peninsula south of Cabo San Lázaro on September 3 . The warning was lifted on September 5 after the threat ended . Moderate to heavy rains fell in association with the tropical cyclone across southwest Mexico and the Baja California Peninsula , with the maxima falling at San Marcos / Compostela in southwest mainland Mexico , which measured 6 @.@ 60 in ( 168 mm ) , and a maximum for Baja California of 3 @.@ 88 in ( 99 mm ) at La Poza Honda / Comondu . While passing offshore , the tropical storm killed six people and affected 1 @,@ 200 others , but Elida caused no known damage .
= = = Hurricane Fausto = = =
The precursor disturbance to Fausto was first noticed over Venezuela as early as August 31 , and may have been related to the tropical wave that spawned Hurricane Fran . By September 4 the wave had crossed Central America into the Pacific ; it steadily organized until it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fausto on September 10 .
Fausto intensified rapidly after it reached hurricane intensity on the September 12 , peaking with sustained winds of 105 knots ( 194 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 955 mb . The hurricane weakened as an approaching trough increased shear over the storm ; this same trough also turned the storm north on the September 13 , where it made landfall as a minimal hurricane on Baja California that day . On September 14 , the storm turned northeastward across the Gulf of California , and dissipated inland over the Sierra Madre range after its second landfall as a hurricane . Its extratropical remnants flared up briefly over northern Mexico and the U.S. state of Texas , but otherwise soon lost their identity .
Heavy rainfall was accompanied with the passage of this cyclone , with a storm total of 18 @.@ 50 inches ( 470 mm ) reported at San Vicente de la Sierra . Damage in Mexico was relatively minor , with only a single casualty caused by a downed power line . Damage totaled to around $ 800 @,@ 000 ( 1996 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = =
A tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression on September 15 . It headed west until September 17 . That day , it turned to the west for two days before heading back west @-@ northwest on September 19 . It soon began to weaken and dissipated the next day . At its most intense , Tropical Depression One @-@ C had winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and unknown pressure .
The tropical cyclone caused no known impact and never came near land .
= = = Tropical Storm Genevieve = = =
In the Gulf of Tehuantepec , an area of disturbed weather containing convection formed on September 23 . It moved westward without incident until September 27 , when it developed stronger convection and became Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E. Immediately thereafter , it strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Genevieve while it continued its westward track .
Genevieve slowly got better organized , and reached its peak intensity of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) and 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on September 29 . The tropical storm then turned to the west @-@ southwest as steering currents collapsed . The cyclone began a time of erratic motion , which included two loops . The erratic motion also exposed Genevieve to wind shear , and the tropical storm weakened to a tropical depression on October 1 . On October 6 , the shear temporarily weakened , and Tropical Depression Genevieve restrengthened into a tropical storm . The cyclone 's wandering continued , and it entrained dry air . This dry air weakened the system to a depression for a second time on October 8 , and Genevieve dissipated the next day . Brief flare @-@ ups of convection could still be seen for a few days thereafter .
Tropical Storm Genevieve was a rather poorly forecast storm . Most tropical cyclone prediction models indicated a northwesterly track that never happened , and also over @-@ intensified the system . In addition , advisories on Tropical Depression Genevieve were discontinued on October 3 , and only resumed three days later . Later analysis determined that Genevieve had been a tropical depression for this whole time .
Tropical Storm Genevieve never came near land , and consequently no watches or warnings were required for any location . The tropical cyclone had no impact on any land .
= = = Hurricane Hernan = = =
On September 30 , a tropical wave organized into Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E. Gradual strengthening ensued , and the depression strengthened into a tropical storm twelve hours later and was named Hernan . Hernan 's initial track was to the west , but the system gradually started to recurve . Its center of circulation reformed , and Hernan briefly turned to the northwest again . By October 2 , and Hernan was close to the coast . It strengthened into a hurricane that day . Late on October 2 and early on October 3 Hernan closely paralleled the coast . Interaction with land weakened the cyclone , and when Hernan made landfall on October 3 near Barra de Navidad , Jalisco , it was only a minimal hurricane . Land weakened the cyclone , and by the time it emerged into the ocean north of Puerto Vallarta , it was so disorganized that it dissipated on October 5 . At its strongest , Hurricane Hernan had winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a central pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) .
The National Hurricane Center forecasts on the Hurricane were generally forecast slightly worse than the " average " system . Errors by tropical cyclone prediction models were attributed mainly to Hernan 's recurvature . In terms of intensity , this system was correctly predicted to become a hurricane although advisories underforecast its eventual intensity .
For the coast from Acapulco to Manzanillo , a tropical storm warning was issued on October 1 . A hurricane watch was issued from Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo on October 2 . It was upgraded to a warning later that day . Also on October 2 , the coast from Manzanillo to San Blas was placed under a tropical storm warning . Meanwhile , the hurricane warning was extended to Cabo Corrientes . On October 3 , the hurricane warning was extended to San Blas and the tropical storm warning was extended to Mazatlán .
Because it made landfall in a sparsely populated area , Hernan killed no one . Around 1 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed and 100 people were injured . Flooding occurred in Melaque , Jalisco . Flooding also caused washed @-@ out roads along Mexico Route 200 and 80 . In many areas , telephone service was interrupted and power outages occurred . Along the coasts of Colima and Jalisco , waves caused by Hernan reached 13 ft ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) in height .
= = = Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E = = =
A system acquired enough convection and became organized enough to be considered a tropical depression on November 7 . Although the environment was initially favourable and the system was almost upgraded into a tropical storm as was forecast , wind shear kept the cyclone weak . Its convection was eventually destroyed and advisories were ended on November 10 . Twelve @-@ E dissipated on November 11 and no deaths or damages were reported .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Rick = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , on September 1 Tropical Depression Rick crossed the International Dateline , entering into CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database . The storm eventually became extratropical on September 3 over open waters .
= = Season effects = =
= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) = =
Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) is a measure of how active a season is . It is found by taking a tropical storm or hurricane 's windspeed in knots every six hours , squaring it , adding up the results , and dividing the total by 104 . The ACE of this season makes it a below @-@ normal season . It is one of the lowest totals ever recorded , indeed only the 2007 , 1977 and 2010 seasons had lower totals .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1996 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 2002 season . This is the same list used for the 1990 season , except for Winnie , which had interchanged with Wallis .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1996 are shown below ; however , none of them were used .
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= Rock & Chips =
Rock & Chips is a British television comedy @-@ drama and a prequel to the sitcom Only Fools and Horses . Set in 1960s Peckham , it focuses primarily on the lives of Del Trotter , Freddie Robdal and Joan and Reg Trotter . Nicholas Lyndhurst , who played Rodney in Only Fools and Horses , plays Robdal alongside James Buckley ( Del Boy ) , Kellie Bright ( Joan ) , Shaun Dingwall ( Reg ) and Phil Daniels ( Grandad ) . The Shazam Productions and BBC co @-@ production was written by Only Fools and Horses creator John Sullivan , directed by Dewi Humphreys and produced by Gareth Gwenlan .
The 90 minute production was conceived in 1997 and commissioned in 2003 , with the premise established in the final episode of Only Fools and Horses in 2003 . It was shelved and Only Fools and Horses spin @-@ off The Green Green Grass was developed ; its success led to the prequel being recommissioned in July 2009 . Filming began in October in London and the production was first broadcast on BBC One and BBC HD on 24 January 2010 . It was the second most watched programme of the day and gained mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
The story starts in February 1960 , by setting up the characters . Joan Trotter ( played by Kellie Bright ) is in an unhappy marriage with the work @-@ shy Reg ( Shaun Dingwall ) , whose father Ted ( Phil Daniels ) has just moved in . Her 15 @-@ year @-@ old son Derek , often shortened to Del Boy , ( James Buckley ) and his friends Boycie , Trigger , Jumbo Mills and new @-@ in @-@ town Denzil ( Stephen Lloyd , Lewis Osborne , Lee Long and Ashley Gerlach ) are still in school , following an increase in the school leaving age . She works at the local cinema with Trigger 's aunt Renee Turpin ( Emma Cooke ) and Raymond ( Billy Seymour ) for cinema manager Ernie Rayner ( Robert Daws ) , and at the Town Hall as " a part @-@ time filing clerk who sometimes makes the tea " . Convicted thief Freddie Robdal ( Nicholas Lyndhurst ) has just been released from Dartmoor Prison and returned to Peckham with explosives expert Gerald " Jelly " Kelly ( Paul Putner ) .
At the Town Hall , Joan asks Mr Johnson ( Colin Prockter ) about applying for a flat in the new high @-@ rise estate ; she is told she is unlikely to get a tenancy , as preference will be given to those with young children . At the Nag 's Head , Freddie and Reg meet , and Reg invites him to his house to continue drinking . After meeting Joan and buying her a drink , Freddie realises that she is a Trotter , a family he has a dislike for . After they return to the Trotters ' house , Freddie shows his affection for Joan .
At the cinema , Joan is promoted to part @-@ time assistant manager and Rayner tells her that the safe sometimes contains over £ 2 @,@ 000 at weekends . She later tells Freddie , after he goes round to her house to offer Reg some work ( Reg was not at home as Freddie told him to meet him at the pub ) . They talk about art , and he invites her ( and Reg ) to his house @-@ warming party . In March , Joan has a Marilyn Monroe hairstyle and the safe at the cinema is broken into . Ahead of the party , Freddie gives Reg the use of his car , to return unused decorating materials to Guildford and he takes his father , Renee and her boyfriend Clayton Cooper ( Roger Griffiths ) with him . They run out of petrol on the way , leaving Freddie and Joan the only ones at the party . They dance , and Freddie admits that he wanted to be alone with Joan so they could talk about art . They end the night by sleeping together .
In June , Renee accompanies Joan to a pregnancy testing clinic , while the boys are on the Jolly Boys Outing to Margate ( providing Freddie and Jelly the opportunity to burgle a jewellers ) . On their journey home , Renee tells Joan about Freddie 's time in prison and she realises he burgled the cinema . After Freddie tells Kelly he thinks he 's in love with Joan , Reg announces her pregnancy in the pub . While Joan is completing a housing request form , Freddie goes to see her and she fails to acknowledge the baby is his .
The Trotters ' housing application is successful in August , September sees them view a flat in the new Sir Walter Raleigh House , which they have moved into in October . In November , Joan has her baby , which she calls Rodney ( after the " handsome actor " Rod Taylor , and to the surprise of everyone else ) . The closing scene sees Joan enter the balcony of her flat with Rodney in her arms . After telling him that Del will be very rich one day , Joan sees Freddie on a balcony in a tower opposite ; she shows him Rodney and nods her head , to his delight .
Throughout , the story tells of Del 's strained relationship with his father and his affection for his mother ; Reg 's affair with the barmaid at the Nag 's Head ; Del and Jumbo selling goods from the docks out of the back of a van ; Del and Boycie 's attempt at dating Pam and Glenda ( Jodie Mooney and Katie Griffiths ) ; Joan fending off advances from her perverted boss and provides an introduction to Roy Slater ( Calum MacNab ) and Albie Littlewood ( Jonathan Readwin ) .
= = Production = =
Writer John Sullivan had the idea for a prequel to the sitcom Only Fools and Horses in 1997 ; its commission was announced in 2003 and the premise for the series was established in the final Only Fools and Horses episode " Sleepless in Peckham " in 2003 , where Rodney discovers a photograph of Freddie Robdal from 1960 . His uncanny resemblance to Rodney confirmed that he , and not Reg , was Rodney 's biological father . A lot of the groundwork for this had been both laid and explored in the Episode " The Frog 's Legacy " the 1987 Christmas Day hour @-@ long special . In the episode Rodney goes to ask about his father to which Albert diplomatically replies ' They 're rumours Rodney . That 's all . Rumours . ' The proposed prequel , was to be titled Once Upon a Time in Peckham , it would see young versions of Del , Boycie , Denzil and Trigger , and Sullivan said " Joanie will be a key character , and during the film will give birth to Rodney . " However , the prequel was shelved , and spin @-@ off The Green Green Grass was developed to follow secondary characters , Boycie , Marlene and their son Tyler , as they escape the London Mafia and attempt to live in the Shropshire countryside . It was reported in January 2009 that the prequel was being considered again , following the success of The Green Green Grass . In April 2009 , Sullivan told The Mail on Sunday that he had started writing the prequel , and that Lyndhurst was " keen " to play Robdal , a local criminal and Rodney 's biological father , although the production had yet to be commissioned .
On 3 July 2009 , the BBC announced that the prequel had been commissioned as a 90 @-@ minute comedy drama , titled Sex , Drugs & Rock ' n ' Chips , to be co @-@ produced by the BBC and Sullivan 's production company , Shazam Productions . Originally scheduled for August , filming began in October 2009 in London , lasting 19 days . Nicholas Lyndhurst , who played Rodney in Only Fools and Horses , would play villain and art connoisseur Freddie Robdal in a reprise of his role in the " Sleepless in Peckham " photograph , Kellie Bright ( Bad Girls , The Archers ) would play the " glamorous " Joan Trotter , her husband Reg would be portrayed by Shaun Dingwall ( Soldier Soldier ) , and his father by Phil Daniels ( Quadrophenia , EastEnders ) . James Buckley ( The Inbetweeners ) , would play the teenage Derek , Joan and Reg 's son , portrayed by David Jason in Only Fools and Horses . Dewi Humphreys ( The Green Green Grass ) would direct . It was announced in January 2010 that the production would be shown on 24 January on BBC One with the title Rock & Chips .
Sullivan said when the production was announced that it would " give us a bit of an insight into why Del and Rodney turned out they [ sic ] way they did " in a period " before The Beatles and Mary Quant made London the coolest place on the planet " when " the staple diet was rock salmon and chips and the flicks offer the only hint of glamour " . Expanding further on the basis for the prequel , he said :
... the most important person in the flat [ in Only Fools and Horses ] was never , ever seen ; it was the spirit of Del 's ( and Rodney 's ) beloved mother Joan who had passed away 17 years before , and throughout the run of the series Del constantly referred to her and past events within the Trotter Family . ... But much of his historical information was at best contradictory , and at worse [ sic ] outright lies . We were left with a situation where the only person who really knew what had happened was an unreliable witness , so I decided to return to those misty days of 1960 to meet all those characters we 'd only ever heard about ...
. The ' Nags Head ' pub used in the pilot episode is a de @-@ furbished version of the existing ' Pelton Arms ' pub in Greenwich , SE10 9PQ which maintains the ' Only Fools And Horses ' look , style and ' feel ' .
The drama was produced by Gareth Gwenlan , who worked on Only Fools and Horses between 1988 and 2003 . Speaking to the Western Mail , he described it as " essentially a love story " between Joan and Freddie , and he said that Lyndhurst " told me he thinks it 's the best thing he 's ever done " . Speaking about the casting of Lyndhurst , he said he " would make a marvellous villain , which is something people will never have seen him do on TV before " .
In an interview in the press pack for the production , Lyndhurst described Freddie Robdal as " a villain – charming , but nasty " , and comparing him to Rodney , said that : " They 're from two entirely different suitcases as far as I 'm concerned . I didn 't want to bring into it anything that I 'd already done with Rodney and fortunately there wasn 't any opportunity to do so . They 're like chalk and cheese . " Speaking about the 19 day filming schedule and the " not great " budget , he also told Michael Deacon of The Daily Telegraph that :
I was very pleased it was made at all . ... There were people who said , ' I don 't think we 're going to do this ' , and we had to wait months to get the green light . We thought , ' Well , we haven 't got the budget we want , we haven 't got the schedule we want , so we 're going to have to make it as brilliant as we can . ' It was a costume drama and it needed a costume drama budget , and it didn 't get that .
Speaking about continuing the story , Gwenlan said that the production was " run on the idea it 'll be turned into a series . This one lays the groundwork and John [ Sullivan ] has enough for about two more series . "
On 13 September 2010 , while promoting the third series of The Inbetweeners on BBC Radio 5 Live , James Buckley confirmed that Rock & Chips would return for two more specials , one for Christmas 2010 , and the other for Easter 2011 . John Sullivan died on 23 April 2011 , five days before the final episode was broadcast .
= = Reception = =
Overnight figures estimated Rock & Chips was seen by 7 @.@ 4 million viewers with a 28 % audience share , winning the slot against ITV 's Wild at Heart and the Dancing on Ice results show . It was the second most @-@ watched programme of the day , behind the first Dancing on Ice programme of the evening . Final figures showed it was seen by 8 @.@ 42 million viewers on BBC One and 279 @,@ 000 on BBC HD .
Sam Wollaston for The Guardian said he was missing the interplay between Rodney and Del Boy from the original , and that the only fun in the drama was " recognising the nods , working out who 's who and how it all fits into place . Otherwise , it 's pretty lame . " The Daily Mirror 's Jim Shelley didn 't find the storyline " interesting or convincing " , finding Lyndhurst 's performance as Freddie " laughable " and saying it was " bizarre " that the storyline " virtually abandoned its main character ( the young Del Boy ) and its best actor ( the engaging James Buckley from The Inbetweeners ) who played him " . In The Independent , Tom Sutcliffe said that " the narrative 's focus was blurred and the pacing weirdly off – quite a lot of the time you were well ahead of the drama and hanging around for it to catch up with you " . Benji Wilson from The Daily Telegraph also wasn 't impressed saying the viewer would have been disappointed if they " tuned in wanting to be entertained , enthused , or anything in between " , and that it was an " ocean @-@ going stinker " .
However , The Scotsman 's Paul Whitelaw said that , despite a " disjointed " plot and it being " overstretched at 90 minutes " : " It was actually pretty good . Not great , not perfect , but a watchable production from which everyone emerged with their dignity intact . " He said that Buckley " delivered a charming performance in what was effectively a supporting role . Wisely choosing to suggest Del 's familiar mannerisms without opting for outright impersonation , he carried off a difficult task with modest élan . " Writing for The Stage , Harry Venning found the performances " top notch " and praised the script as " first class " , saying " the comic moments were of the highest quality and beautifully crafted into the narrative " . Andrew Billen from The Times described Bright 's portrayal of Joan as " winsome " , said Lyndhurst " produced a detailed performance " and that " Rock & Chips was better than the sequel that preceded it . " Keith Watson in the Metro also praised the performances of Buckley and Bright , saying " They deserved a show all to themselves . " Although he found the period detail " squeaky clean " and " unconvincing " , he closed his review by saying : " Somehow it made me care about the Trotters in a way decades of Only Fools and Horses never came close to . "
= = Cast = =
= = Episode list = =
= = Home media = =
The pilot of Rock & Chips was released on Region 2 DVD on 5 April 2010 . The Christmas special " Five Gold Rings " was released on DVD on 28 March 2011 . On 2 May 2011 a three @-@ disc DVD set titled " Rock & Chips - The Complete Collection " was released , comprising all three of the episodes .
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= Unforgiven ( 2007 ) =
Unforgiven ( 2007 ) was the tenth annual Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It took place on September 16 , 2007 , from the FedExForum in Memphis , Tennessee and featured talent from the Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands .
The main match on the SmackDown brand was The Undertaker versus Mark Henry , which Undertaker won by pinfall after executing a Last Ride . The predominant match on the Raw brand was John Cena versus Randy Orton for the WWE Championship ; Cena lost the match by disqualification but retained the title . The primary match on the ECW brand was CM Punk versus Elijah Burke for the ECW Championship , which Punk won after pinning Burke with a rolling cradle . The featured matches on the undercard included The Great Khali versus Batista versus Rey Mysterio in a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship and Triple H versus Carlito in a match where Carlito could not be disqualified .
The event had 210 @,@ 000 buys , down from the Unforgiven 2006 figure of 289 @,@ 000 buys .
= = Background = =
The main feud heading into Unforgiven on the SmackDown brand was between The Undertaker and Mark Henry . Their rivalry started in early 2006 when Henry 's interference caused Undertaker to lose a match for the World Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle . This culminated in a Casket match at WrestleMania 22 which Undertaker won , extending his WrestleMania winning streak to 14 – 0 . On the May 11 , 2007 episode of SmackDown , Henry , who made his return from an injury he sustained in mid @-@ 2006 , assaulted The Undertaker after Undertaker had retained the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista in a Steel Cage match . Following the assault , Edge cashed in his Money in the Bank contract to defeat Undertaker and win the World Heavyweight Championship . As a result , Undertaker was out of action for four months . In August , vignettes started airing about Undertaker 's return and his match with Henry at Unforgiven .
The main feud on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton for the WWE Championship . Cena had retained the title against Orton at SummerSlam . The following night on Raw , Orton demanded a rematch for the title , but his request was declined by General Manager William Regal . Orton proceeded his demands to Mr. McMahon , who also refused to give him a rematch unless he proved himself . That night , Orton interfered in Cena 's match by assaulting Cena and kicking Cena 's father , who was at ringside , in the head . The following week , Orton was granted a title rematch against Cena at Unforgiven .
The main feud on the ECW brand was between CM Punk and Elijah Burke over the ECW Championship . The rivalry started on the September 11 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , when Burke became the number one contender to the title . After the fact was revealed , Punk dropkicked Burke . Later that same night , Punk teamed up with Stevie Richards in the main event against Burke and Kevin Thorn , which saw Punk and Richards win the match .
The secondary feud on the SmackDown brand was between The Great Khali , Batista and Rey Mysterio for the World Heavyweight Championship . After Batista was unable to win the World Heavyweight Championship from Khali at SummerSlam , he participated in a tournament in which he lost to Mysterio , the eventual winner . As a result , Mysterio got a title shot against Khali at Unforgiven . On the September 7 , 2007 episode of SmackDown , after Mysterio defeated Chavo Guerrero in an " I Quit " match , Khali put Mysterio in a Khali Vise Grip . Batista made the save , and as a result , he was made a part of the match , making it a Triple Threat match at Unforgiven .
= = Event = =
Before the event began , Kane defeated Kenny Dykstra in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match was for the ECW Championship between CM Punk and Elijah Burke . Punk won the match after pinning Burke with a rolling cradle . As a result , Punk retained the ECW Championship .
Next was a match for the WWE Tag Team Championship between Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) against Deuce ' n Domino , who dominated early in the match and mocked the champions because of their rivalry over the WWE United States Championship , which MVP held . Deuce N ' Domino took the advantage of Hardy and MVP 's fight with each other and isolated Hardy . Hardy tossed MVP out of the ring and delivered a Twist of Fate to Deuce followed by a pinfall victory . As a result , MVP and Matt Hardy retained the WWE Tag Team Championship .
The third match was between Triple H and Carlito in which Carlito could not be disqualified . Carlito took advantage of the situation as he could use any weapon . He attacked Triple H several times with steel chairs , and threw powder in his eyes . With the referee distracted , a blinded Triple H struck Carlito with a low blow followed by a Pedigree , leading to Triple H pinning Carlito to win the match .
The next match was for the WWE Women 's Championship between Candice Michelle and Beth Phoenix . Phoenix was in control early in the match . When Phoenix had Candice on her shoulders , Candice reversed the attack and pinned Phoenix with a crucifix . As a result , Michelle won the match , and retained the WWE Women 's Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fifth match was a Triple Threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between The Great Khali , Batista and Rey Mysterio . Late in the match , Mysterio performed a 619 onto Khali , and attempted to score the pinfall . Batista , however , pulled Mysterio off of Khali and threw him out of the ring . Batista picked Khali up and delivered a spinebuster . Batista then pinned Khali to win the match . As a result , Batista became the new World Heavyweight Champion .
The following match was for the World Tag Team Championship between the team of Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch and the team of Paul London and Brian Kendrick . Cade and Murdoch had the advantage over London and Kendrick early on . At one point , Murdoch pulled Kendrick outside of the ring , over the top rope , and threw him into Cade , who performed a sitout spinebuster onto Kendrick . London tried to help his partner until Cade superplexed him over the top rope . Murdoch took the advantage and pinned Kendrick for the win . As a result , Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch retained the World Tag Team Championship .
The seventh match was for the WWE Championship between John Cena and Randy Orton . Cena entered the ring with rage and started beating on Orton until Orton struck Cena down . Orton covered Cena , but he could only get a two count . Cena angrily lost his control and started beating Orton . The referee Mike Chioda tried to stop Cena from continuously punching Orton , but Cena continued and was disqualified . Therefore , Orton won the match , but not the title , because a title changes hands only by pinfall or submission . As a result , John Cena retained the WWE Championship . Outside the ring , Cena put Orton in the STFU while Cena 's father kicked in the head of Orton in the same way as Orton had kicked in his head on a previous episode of Raw . After the match , Jonathan Coachman booked John Cena in a Last Man Standing match against Orton for the WWE Championship at No Mercy .
The main event was between The Undertaker and Mark Henry . During the match , Henry hit Undertaker with a series of splashes and superplexes , but Undertaker was able to continue fighting in the match . Henry put Undertaker in the bear hug but Undertaker broke the hold . In the end , Undertaker delivered a Last Ride to Henry from the top rope . Undertaker then pinned Henry to win the match .
= = Aftermath = =
Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch continued to feud with Paul London and Brian Kendrick while Jeff Hardy got involved in a rivalry with Mr. Kennedy . At No Mercy , London and Kendrick teamed up with Hardy to take on the team of Cade , Murdoch and Kennedy in a six @-@ man tag team match . Cade , Murdoch and Kennedy won the match after Kennedy delivered a Green Bay Plunge to London . On the September 17 episode of Raw , Candice Michelle and Mickie James defeated Melina and Jillian in a tag team match . Beth Phoenix was at ringside during the match At No Mercy , Candice and Phoenix had a rematch for the Women 's Championship , which Phoenix won to capture the title .
On the September 18 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , General Manager Armando Estrada announced an " Elimination Chase " to determine the number one contender for the ECW Championship at No Mercy . The first match involved Elijah Burke , Kevin Thorn , Tommy Dreamer and Stevie Richards . Burke eliminated Richards from the Elimination Chase after pinning him . In the second round , which was held on the September 25 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Burke went on to eliminate Kevin Thorn in a Triple Threat match after pinning him . On the October 2 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Tommy Dreamer and Elijah Burke faced each other in the final match of the tournament . Dreamer won the final match after a DDT and was made the number one contender for the title until Estrada came and said that Elimination Chase was not over . He announced that Big Daddy V would be the final man in the Elimination Chase . Big Daddy V defeated Dreamer and became the number one contender to the ECW Championship . At No Mercy , CM Punk defended the ECW Championship against Big Daddy V and retained the title after Big Daddy V got disqualified .
On the September 21 episode of SmackDown , Michael Cole interviewed Rey Mysterio until John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) said that he would conduct the interview instead . JBL claimed that he was the best wrestler ever and insulted Mysterio . Mysterio attacked JBL and challenged him to a fight until JBL introduced Finlay as Mysterio 's opponent . Finlay attacked Mysterio with a shillelagh , which started a feud between the two . Finlay and Mysterio faced each other at No Mercy in a match which was fought to no contest . Also on the September 21 episode of SmackDown , the new World Heavyweight Champion Batista faced Mark Henry in a non @-@ title match which Batista won by disqualification . Henry was disqualified after The Great Khali interfered and attacked Batista . After the match , Khali performed a Khali Vise Grip on Batista and challenged him to a Punjabi Prison match for the World Heavyweight Championship . At No Mercy , the two faced each other in a Punjabi Prison match for the World Heavyweight Championship , which Batista won to retain the title .
John Cena and Randy Orton continued their feud over the WWE Championship , as the two were scheduled to compete in a Last Man Standing match for the title . The match , however , never occurred . On the October 1 episode of Raw , Cena defeated Mr. Kennedy in a non @-@ title match . After the match , Orton attacked Cena and then counted to ten , which Cena was unable to answer to . Cena was legitimately injured in the match , and as a result , the following night on ECW on Sci Fi , Mr. McMahon vacated the WWE Championship because Cena 's right pectoral tendon was legitimately torn while executing a hip toss during his match with Kennedy . At No Mercy , Mr. McMahon entered the ring and said that a new WWE Champion was to be crowned , and Orton was crowned as champion , but he was challenged by Triple H for the title on the spot . Triple H , however , defeated Orton to win the WWE Championship , but later that same night , Triple H lost the title to Orton back in a Last Man Standing match after a title defense against Umaga , who he was booked to face in a standard wrestling match .
= = Results = =
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= The End of All Things =
" The End of All Things " is the fourteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science @-@ fiction drama television series Fringe , and the series ' 79th episode overall . In the episode , the fringe team investigates Olivia 's ( Anna Torv ) disappearance , ultimately tracing back to David Robert Jones ( guest star Jared Harris ) .
It was written by co @-@ executive producer David Fury and directed by Jeff Hunt . The episode marked the beginning of a four @-@ week break for the series , though the producers initially thought the gap would start with the following episode , " A Short Story About Love " . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner called it a " game @-@ changer " that would " peel back some layers " surrounding the Observer 's background .
" The End of All Things " first aired on February 24 , 2012 in the United States on the Fox network to an estimated 3 @.@ 1 million viewers , an increase from the previous week . It received generally positive reviews from critics , with many praising Harris ' performance and the unveiling of more of the series ' mythology . In 2013 , following the conclusion of the final season , IGN ranked the episode the fourth best of the entire series .
= = Plot = =
Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) has been taken to a disused medical facility by David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) and his agents . She is placed in the same room along with Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , also secured to a chair , revealing she was also abducted by Jones the night before . Jones arrives and asserts that Olivia has great abilities due to her Cortexiphan doping but he must coax them out of Olivia . He presents a light box test that Olivia should be able to activate with her mind , torturing Nina to create the emotional driver , but Olivia admits she can 't do it without rest . During this period , Olivia , her memories a mix of her own and that of Olivia from Peter Bishop 's ( Joshua Jackson ) timeline , asks Nina to help her make an emotional connection , but she recognizes that this Nina is not the real one but instead the one from the parallel universe . Olivia continues to play along , explaining to Nina that her Cortexiphan abilities could only be induced by being near Peter ; Nina fakes illness to be extracted from the room , where she explains to a complicit Jones that they need to abduct Peter .
Following Olivia 's disappearance , Peter discovers a surveillance camera in her apartment . He takes its memory device , which has been overwritten numerous times like a palimpsest , to Walter Bishop 's ( John Noble ) laboratory , using forensic tools to examine previous images on the disc . Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) and Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) take Nina into custody , learning that someone with Nina 's bio @-@ metric signature had accessed the Massive Dynamic supply of Cortexiphan over the last few months ; Nina is surprised by this but refuses to talk . As they work , Walter accuses Peter of taking advantage of Olivia 's state , even if unintentionally , imprinting his memories of Olivia of the original timeline onto her . They identify a face belonging to Leland Spivey ( Monte Markham ) , a man with ties to Jones and Nina , and Peter suspects that they are dosing Olivia with Cortexiphan for nefarious purposes . Their work is disrupted by the sudden appearance of the Observer September ( Michael Cerveris ) , bleeding from a chest wound .
With September nearly dead , Peter decides to use Walter 's equipment to enter the Observer 's mind to try to learn of Olivia 's location . Within September 's consciousness , Peter learns the Observers are a team of scientists from one possible future of humanity , having used technology to travel to the past to witness their own creation . September , however , disrupted events by attempting to observe the point where Peter 's cure was discovered , and his disruption has since caused several unintended changes within the timeline , including the war between the two universes . Ultimately , this would lead to the birth of Henry , Peter 's child with the parallel universe 's Olivia , which September claimed never should have happened and will be a catalyst for disruption of future events . By Peter entering the Machine and altering the timeline , Henry also ceased to exist . September explains that Peter 's reappearance may be a means to set things right , and insists he find a way to reunite his romance with his original Olivia . As the reality of September 's mind breaks down and he claims " they are coming " , the Observer tells Peter to " go home " . Peter is suddenly woken up in the lab , September 's body goes into convulsions and vanishes .
Peter realizes that September 's message was literal , and returns to his home , where he is knocked out by Jones ' men . He is brought to the same facility as Olivia and tied up . As they prepare to torture him , Olivia begins to use her powers to activate the lights , not only on the box but within the facility , creating electrical sparks that kill one of Jones ' men . As Jones and Nina retreat , Olivia frees Peter and they give chase , though Olivia suffers from a seizure , following excessive use of her powers . They catch up to Jones and Nina as they are crossing back to the parallel universe , but the two are able to escape . Peter contacts the authorities to bring medical help for Olivia . As they are waiting , Peter admits to Olivia that he fears what he has done to her memories , and has seen his original Olivia through the Observer 's mind . He leaves her , believing that staying away from this Olivia would be for the best .
= = Production = =
" The End of All Things " was written by co @-@ executive producer David Fury , while being directed by CSI : Crime Scene Investigation veteran , Jeff Hunt . It was Hunt 's third series credit ( his other two being " The Man from the Other Side " and " The Box " ) . Leading up to the episode 's broadcast , executive producer Jeff Pinkner remarked in a conference call with journalists that it was a " game @-@ changer " because " our characters learn a lot more and the audience is going to learn a lot more about the über @-@ plot of the season ’ s bad guy , David Robert Jones . " Referring to the Observer September , Pinker added that the episode would also peel " back some layers about what his agenda has been and use that as an opportunity to revisit the things on the show we ’ ve seen before . " Fellow executive producer J.H. Wyman elaborated " We always said you would find out about the Observers this season and we were going to investigate them a lot more . We ’ re excited about it all . That ’ s a highlight – the Observers are a highlight . For us to constantly break what you know and reset and have people go , ' Wow , I didn ’ t see that coming ! ' That ’ s why we get up in the morning is to take people along for the ride . We ’ re excited about what ’ s coming up , too . "
" The End of All Things " began a four @-@ week break for the series , though the producers initially thought this gap would commence with the following episode . They were pleased that the switch did not cause issues , with Pinkner noting that " we ’ re sort of in a zone of episodes where each one is amazing and each one either turns the story or resolves something important or there ’ s a cliffhanger – several episodes where each one is pretty awesome in itself and is also important to the overall patchwork of the season . We were very happy this ended up being one before we went on a little break . I think the fans are going to be well satisfied to come back and watch the next one as well . "
The episode was the first time that the characters of Nina Sharp and David Robert Jones had common scenes within the show , but both Blair Brown and Jared Harris had previously acted together as mother and son in an off @-@ Broadway production of the play Humble Boy . During the scene in which Nina was tortured to taunt Olivia into using her powers , Brown actually injured herself on the rusty bedsprings used as the prop for the show . Brown referred to the alternative version of her character as " Meana " due to her seemingly " mean " personality , and speculated that Nina may have become this way because without William Bell , " she wasn ’ t at the party with all of the boys , the science boys " and thus developed an " outsider " perspective . She said of the role , " It ’ s a really interesting thing to play . I love the fact that they look exactly the same , at least for a while . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The End of All Things " first aired on February 24 , 2012 in the United States . The last episode before a four @-@ week hiatus , it was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 1 million viewers , with a ratings share of 1 @.@ 2 , an improvement from the previous episode , " A Better Human Being " . Fringe and its lead @-@ in Kitchen Nightmares helped its network , Fox , tie for third place with NBC for the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode has received generally positive reviews from television critics . Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times remarked , " Great acting , a decent twist and the truth behind one of the most enigmatic characters in television history . Why can ’ t more Fringe episodes be like this ? Why can ’ t more television be like ' Fringe ? ' " . Hanson also lauded Jared Harris ' performance , calling him " a fantastic villain . Arrogant and superior , with hints of insecurity . Jones ’ speech about all living creatures needing incentive might have been goofy coming from any other actor , but from Harris , it is creepy beyond belief . So glad Fringe found a way to bring David Robert Jones back . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated it 9 @.@ 0 / 10 for being a " fast @-@ paced story " that was " the best episode of the season so far " . He continued " Olivia 's great escape from Jones and Bad Nina was fantastic television and some clever writing . " Isler did find some of the Observer revelations " a bit of a let @-@ down " however , as he felt he had already been made aware of them ; this was not enough to make him critical of the episode .
Writing for The A.V. Club , columnist Noel Murray graded the episode with an A- , and praised September 's stumbling entrance into the lab as " yet another rich and remarkable scene " . Entertainment Weekly writer Jeff Jensen had a more negative opinion , and commented that the episode " failed to make my dinger hum , " which he attributed to high expectations set by fellow staff writer and former Fringe reviewer Ken Tucker . Jensen continued , " It was , to my eyes , ' just okay . ' Certainly not the equal of the past two episodes . And not the strongest possible kicker to a strong second act for Fringe 's fourth season , which now takes a four @-@ week snooze before rising anew on March 23 for the first of eight consecutive episodes – a sweep of story that might represent the very end of all things Fringe . Damn , I ’ m such a downer this week , aren ’ t I ? Ah , but so was this episode . " In January 2013 , IGN ranked the episode as the fourth best episode of the series , explaining that " when Season 4 needed a boost of excitement , this episode delivered it in a timely fashion . It had a thrilling pace and offered answers to some questions that have lingering since the series began . "
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= Clan MacIntyre =
Clan MacIntyre is a Highland Scottish clan . The name MacIntyre ( from Scottish Gaelic Mac an t @-@ Saoir ) , means " son of the carpenter or mason . " Although no documented history of the clan exists , it is most commonly said to descend from Maurice Mac Neil a nephew of Somerled , the great 12th century leader of the Scottish Gaels . Through an ingenious strategy , Maurice secured the marriage of Somerled to the daughter of the King of Mann and the Isles , thus greatly increasing Somerled ’ s territories . At an unknown date the clan journeyed from the Hebrides to the Scottish mainland where the chiefs established their home at Glen Noe on Loch Etive .
The earliest recorded clan chiefs do not emerge until the 17th century . According to tradition , they had held the land at Glen Noe for centuries , although subject to a feudal tenure converted to money rent in later years . In 1806 , however , the chief was forced to relinquish the tenancy of Glen Noe due to inability to meet the payments . He and his family subsequently emigrated to the United States .
MacIntyres participated in military campaigns during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Jacobite rising of 1745 – 46 but they did not operate as an independent body . Clan members served as hereditary foresters to the Lords of Lorne and as hereditary pipers to the chiefs of Clan Menzies and the MacDonalds of Clanranald . Perhaps the clan 's most illustrious member , Duncan Ban MacIntyre is regarded as one of the finest Gaelic poets .
= = Origins = =
The name MacIntyre ( Scottish Gaelic : Mac an t @-@ Saoir ) , means " son of the carpenter " , or " son of the craftsman " . Iain Moncreiffe notes that some consider the name to be a trade name , equivalent to the names Gow ( smith ) or MacNair ( " son of the heir " ) and attribute the existence of the surname in various parts of Scotland to the fact that the name signifies descent from various individuals who were wood workers . In 1990 , Scotland 's heraldic authority , the Lord Lyon King of Arms , recognised MacIntyre of Glenoe as Chief of the Name and Arms of the name MacIntyre . Although several works mention a " Black Book of Glen Noe , " now lost , said to have contained the history of Clan MacIntyre , no documented record of the clan ’ s origins has ever been discovered . There are , however , several accounts that purport to identify its founder and explain its name . The most frequently repeated story ties the MacIntyres to Somerled , who lived in the 12th century and who has been described as “ one of the greatest warrior kings born to the Gaels of Alba ( Scotland ) . ” An ambitious figure almost from the outset , Somerled sought the hand of Ragnhilda , daughter of King Olav the Red , Norse King of Man and the Isles . The story of how , after being initially rebuffed by that island magnate , Somerled would ultimately succeed through the stealth of one of his kinsmen , is recorded in the history of MacDonald of Sleat .
According to this account , Somerled agreed to join Olav in an expedition to raid Skye . The night before sailing , however , a ship wright or carpenter known as Maurice Mac Neil ( the second name sometimes given as MacNiall or MacArill ) , by some accounts Somerled 's nephew , secretly bored holes in the hull of Olav ’ s ship using tallow and butter to temporarily seal them . On entering the open seas the tallow was washed away by the action of the waves and the king ’ s ship began rapidly taking on water . Olav ’ s urgent appeal for help was spurned by Somerled , until he consented to the previously sought marriage . Maurice then boarded the King ’ s ship and filled the holes with wooden plugs he had previously prepared for the purpose . From that time the descendants of Maurice were called “ MacIntyres , ” “ carpenters ( or shipwrights ) sons ” . ” ,
The sought @-@ after marriage would take place in 1140 . One line of Somerled ’ s MacDonald descendants would become known as Kings and Lords of the Isles and over several centuries would contend with the Scottish monarchy for control of a large portion of northwestern Scotland .
Another account , involving seafaring , holds that the name arose from the misfortune of a mariner afloat . In this version the clan ’ s founder , sometimes identified as son of one of the Lords of the Isles , cuts off his thumb in order to plug a leak in his sinking vessel .
The original home of Clan MacIntyre is likewise the subject of conjecture . There is general agreement that the clan arose in the Hebrides , the islands west of the Scottish mainland . Some accounts , however , identify Skye as the ancestral home , while another tradition holds Islay to have been the locale . The story of how the clan made its way to the mainland and settled along the shore of Loch Etive in the vicinity of Ben Cruachan is again shrouded in myth and magic . It is said that seeking fresh pastures for their cattle they were initially obstructed by a mountain spirit . After testing their perseverance and courage the spirit instructed them to make their new home where the white cow in their herd should first lie down to rest . This site became known as Glen Noe . G
= = History = =
Many accounts relate that at some point in the 13th century the MacIntyres became foresters to the Lords of Lorne , a hereditary post in which they continued as the territory subsequently passed from the MacDougalls to the control of the Stewarts and finally to the Campbells .
After settling at Glen Noe , the chiefs are said to have held the land for centuries . While presumably owning the property outright originally , it is generally agreed that at some , uncertain date , they acquired a feudal obligation to the Campbells of Breadalbane . Initially , this entailed only a symbolic payment . Tradition identifies this as a snowball supplied at midsummer and a white calf surrendered but then killed and shared by landlord and tenant as a token of mutual esteem .
The earliest recorded clan chiefs do not emerge until the 17th century . The earliest chief is Duncan , who married Mary , daughter of Patrick Campbell of Barcaldine . He died in 1695 and is buried at Ardchattan Priory .
From this era comes a traditional account that the home of the MacIntyre chief was saved by the clan ’ s ties to the MacDonalds . At the time of the civil war in Scotland the forces of James Graham , 1st Marquess of Montrose , had sacked Inveraray and marched north to the area of Glen Noe . As a tenant of the Campbells , the chief was deemed an opponent of the Royalist faction , which Montrose served . The chief , expecting no mercy , fled . As part of their campaign , the Royalist troops were under orders to destroy all houses in the neighbourhood and began to set fire to the chief 's house . The commander of Montrose ’ s men , Sir Alexander MacDonald , extinguished the blaze before it became widespread and sent word to the chief that his property had been spared in recognition of the services the clan ’ s founder had performed in contriving the marriage of Somerled , ancestor of the MacDonalds to Ragnhilda half a millennium earlier . ,
Many MacIntyres subsequently joined MacDonald 's army including the chief 's piper . The chief , however , was with Campbell of Argyll at the battle of Inverlochy in February 1645 when the Campbells were surprised by Montrose 's forces and routed .
It is said that the MacIntyre chief at the time of the Jacobite rising of 1745 , James ( born c . 1727 ) , would have joined the clans rallying to Prince Charles Edward Stuart but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife , who was a Campbell , and his neighbors . His loyalties to the Campbells were further deepened by the fact that his legal studies had been sponsored by the Campbell Earl of Breadalbane . Nonetheless , many MacIntyres were in the clan regiment of Stewart of Appin in the campaign of 1745 – 46 , but they did not serve as an independent body .
At some unknown date the symbolic snowball and calf tokens owed to the Campbells were commuted to payment of money rent which increased over the years . In 1806 , the chief was forced to relinquish the tenancy of Glen Noe due to inability to meet the payments . The chief and his family emigrated to the United States , where the family continues to reside . Although the identities of the chiefs were always known to interested clan members , the chiefship of the clan was not officially recognized by Scottish authorities until 1991 , when the coat of arms of James Wallace MacIntyre of Glenoe was confirmed by the Lord Lyon , King of Arms . The current chief of the clan is Donald Russell MacIntyre of Glenoe . The MacIntyre chiefs hold membership in the Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs .
= = Tartan = =
= = Pipers , poets and bards = =
The MacIntyres of Rannoch , were hereditary pipers to the chiefs of Clan Menzies and composed some of that clan ’ s music . They supplied hereditary pipers to the MacDonalds of Clanranald , and a noted pibroch commemorating the battle of Sheriffmuir is attributed to one of these MacIntyres .
In the 18th century two members of the clan earned considerable regard for their Gaelic poetry . James , the poet @-@ chief , ( 1727 – 1799 ) is best remembered for a biting satire he composed in Gaelic in response to Samuel Johnson , the English encyclopedist , who had made derogatory comments about the Scots in his famous trip to the Hebrides .
The poet @-@ chief would find himself eclipsed by one of his own kinsmen , however . Born on 20 March 1724 , in Druimliaghart , Glenorchy , Argyllshire , Duncan Ban MacIntyre would become known to his countrymen as “ Fair Duncan of the Songs . ” One historian has described him as " one of the twin peaks of the century 's Gaelic verse " and some have even called him the “ Burns of the Highlands . ” His work was described as possessing “ an unrivaled originality of conception , with the most mellifluous flow of language . ” Yet his biographers agree that he was wholly illiterate .
His most critically acclaimed work is “ The Praise of Ben Dorain , ” but he is well known for his poetic commentaries on contemporary events . In the Jacobite rising of 1745 which attempted to return the House of Stuart to the throne of Scotland and England , Duncan fought on the Hanoverian side and composed a humorous song after losing his borrowed sword at the battle of Falkirk in January 1746 . Following that uprising , however , he composed a best selling poem attacking the portion of the Act of Proscription outlawing the wearing of highland dress and was briefly imprisoned . , When the ban against the wearing of the kilt was repealed , he celebrated with another poem , entitled Orain na Briogas or “ Song of the Breeches . ”
He was named bard to the Highland Society of London and was so esteemed that in his later years schoolchildren were allowed out of class to see him when he traveled to their community . He died on 6 October 1812 . In 1859 , a monument to the memory of Duncan Ban MacIntyre ( described in contemporary press accounts as " in the druid style of architecture " ) was erected near Dalmally at the head of Loch Awe .
= = Other MacIntyre families and groups = =
Camus @-@ na @-@ h @-@ erie : In 1955 Alastair MacIntyre of Camus @-@ na @-@ h @-@ erie recorded arms in the Lyon Court as a cadet of the chiefly house of MacIntyre , although with a shield significantly different from that subsequently granted to the clan chief in 1991 .
This branch of the family claims descent from Patrick , a son of a chief of Glenoe . The family established themselves on the shores of the Inverness @-@ shire Loch Leven at Camus @-@ na @-@ h @-@ erie . John Macintyre of Camus @-@ na @-@ h @-@ erie , 10th of his line , fought on the Jacobite side in the 1745 and was wounded at the battle of Falkirk . It is reported that nine members of MacIntyre of Camus @-@ na @-@ h @-@ erie were taken prisoners in the 1745 rising . In the early 19th century , the family was represented by the Rev. John MacIntyre , D.D. of Kilmonivaig .
Badenoch : The MacIntyres of Badenoch are said to have been descended from a bard taken under the protection of the Clan Mackintosh chief at the end of the 15th century . The Badenoch MacIntyres were a constituent group of Clan Chattan , an alliance of clans headed by the Mackintosh chief which fought on the Jacobite side in the risings of 1715 and 1745 .
Cladich : The little hamlet of Cladich above Loch Awe near the road to Inveraray was a center of weaving and almost all of the inhabitants were MacIntyres . A specialty of the industry were men 's hose and garters , which were prized at that time for wearing with the highland costume .
= = Irish MacIntyres = =
The relationship of MacIntyres in Scotland to those in Ireland is not entirely clear . Given the proximity of the two countries and the similarity of their languages , some Scottish MacIntyres undoubtedly settled in Ireland , mainly in Ulster .
Dr. Edward MacLysaght , authority on Irish genealogy , does not include MacIntyre as a separate entry in his two works on Irish families . Rather , he lists MacIntyre , along with Carpenter , Freeman , O ’ Seery , and Searson in his entry on the name “ Macateer . ” He likewise specifies that in Ireland MacIntyres are found chiefly in Ulster , and in County Sligo . It would appear , in Dr. MacLysaght 's view , that those MacIntyres who are of native Irish ancestry originally were Macateers who changed their names . ,
It is believed that some Irish MacIntyres descend from native Irish stock whose ancestors were living in the same areas in which Scottish MacIntyres settled and who assumed the Scottish surname , rather than Macateer , as an anglicization of the Irish name Mac an tSoir .
= = Septs = =
Septs are family names associated with a particular clan . In the case of MacIntyre , the surname Wright , when of Scottish origin , is considered an anglicized form of the name . Other family names associated with the clan include Glenoe , MacCoiseam , Tyrie ( also Tyree ) and MacTear .
= = Clan profile = =
Chief : Donald Russell MacIntyre of Glenoe Chief of the Name and Arms of MacIntyre ,
Arms : A coat of arms consisting of a shield divided into quarters . In the upper left and lower right quarter , a red eagle , its wings outstretched . The upper right quarter shows a ship with furled sails , while in the lower left quarter a red hand grasps a blue cross . A cow , standing on two hooves , appears on either side of the shield . The shield is surmounted by a silver helmet above which there is a hand grasping a dagger . | Coat of arms of the chief of Clan MacIntyre .
Motto : Per ardua ( Through hardship or difficulty ) .
War Cry : " Cruachan " ( A mountain , Ben Cruachan , near Loch Awe ) . ,
Pipe Music : " We Will Take The Good Old Way " ( Scottish Gaelic : Gabhaidh Sinn An Rathad Mór ) .
Plant Badge : White Heather . ,
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= MIND MGMT =
MIND MGMT is an ongoing American comic book series created by Matt Kindt and published through Dark Horse Comics . The first issue was released on May 23 , 2012 to positive reviews and received a second printing in April 2013 . The series continued to receive positive coverage during its run , but Kindt 's art style was a common point of criticism . The series concluded with issue 36 in August 2015 . The story has been collected into six hardcovers .
The story is about Meru , a true crime writer who searches for the truth behind a mysterious airline flight and discovers a secret government agency of super spies , espionage , and psychic abilities . Henry Lyme , the former top agent , has gone rogue and is working to dismantle the organization .
The film rights were optioned by 20th Century Fox in December 2012 . Producer Ridley Scott and screenwriter David J. Kelly began pre @-@ production in January 2013 .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for MIND MGMT came from the title , which one of Kindt 's friends gave to him . He worked on the concept for over a year , and the plot was outlined in a twelve @-@ page synopsis .
After partnering for one of Kindt 's previous works , 3 Story : The Secret History of the Giant Man , Dark Horse Publisher Mike Richardson asked Kindt to pitch another book . Kindt sent the proposal for MIND MGMT and was happy when it was accepted because Dark Horse was " the only publisher able to pay me a living wage and also let me do exactly what I wanted no matter what . " The series was initially approved for over 50 issues , but Kindt pruned away excess material and reduced the run to 36 issues . Despite the reduction in length , the final product is still almost identical to the original pitch . Diana Schutz , editor of 3 Story , was originally slated to work with Kindt again , but the project was handed to newly promoted editor Brendan Wright very early in production . Kindt described their input as " invaluable " and considers Wright to be a collaborator .
Although Dark Horse had approved 36 issues , there was still a chance the book could sell poorly and receive an early cancellation . The decision would be made after receiving the final sales number for the third issue , meaning Kindt was only guaranteed six issues . Not wanting to risk the series being cut off in the middle of a story , he designed the first six issues to stand alone if necessary . Kindt pencilled two endings for the last page of issue six so he would be prepared either way .
Kindt took on additional comic scripting work while making MIND MGMT , but MIND MGMT was always his top priority . He scripted six issues at a time , then worked on the art during the hours his daughter was at school . At any given time , he would have one issue completed and ready to print .
Kindt said naming characters was the hardest part during the story 's creation . Meru Marlow , the main character , is named after a Webster University student who attended a class taught by Kindt . Henry Lyme , another main character , is a reference to " Harry Lime " from the Orson Welles film " The Third Man " and is visually based on Zach Galifianakis in " The Hangover " . Other supporting cast get their names from a mix of real people , film references , and even everyday objects , like Perrier mineral water .
MIND MGMT was Kindt 's first solo monthly series . After creating several original graphic novels , Kindt felt the format was becoming too " easy " from a creative standpoint . He wanted to create a monthly series partly out of nostalgia , and to create a dialogue between readers and himself during publication . As an incentive to draw in readers who would otherwise wait for the collected edition , each issue included material which was not reprinted in the collected editions . Kindt stated he was enjoyed the experience and the increased interaction with fans , even to the point of saying he may never do another graphic novel .
= = = Publication = = =
A six @-@ page preview of the first issue was included with 3 Story : Secret files of the Giant Man , a one @-@ issue continuation of another work by Kindt , in April 2012 . The same month , three short stories were released online for free to promote the series . They were later printed as issue # 0 in November 2012 .
The first issue was published May 23 , 2012 , and the series ran monthly through November 2012 . In December , a short chapter appeared in Dark Horse Presents vol 2 # 19 as a prologue to the second story arc . The series returned to a monthly schedule in January 2013 . The first issue was reprinted at a discount price in April 2013 . Additional short chapters appeared in Dark Horse Presents vol 2 # 31 ( December 2013 ) and Dark Horse Presents vol 3 # 5 ( February 2015 ) and acted as introductions to the fourth and sixth arcs respectively . A one page bonus strip written by Alex di Campi and drawn by Kindt was included in the third issue of Archie vs. Predator , published jointly by Dark Horse and Archie Comics in June 2015 . The final issue was published as NEW MGMT # 1 on August 26 , 2015 .
A 200 @-@ page hardcover collecting issues # 0 @-@ 6 , collectively titled " The Manager , " was released April 3 , 2013 . It was followed by " The Futurist " ( collecting issues 7 @-@ 12 , Dark Horse Presents # 19 short , and five strips originally published as webcomics on i09 ) , " The Homemaker " ( collecting issues 13 @-@ 18 ) , " The Magician " ( collecting issues 19 @-@ 24 and the Dark Horse Presents vol 2 # 31 short ) , and " The Eraser " ( collecting issues 25 @-@ 30 ) A final hardcover titled " The Immortals " will collect issues 31 @-@ 35 , New MGMT # 1 , and the short story from Dark Horse Presents vol 3 # 5 .
Kindt has mentioned the possibility of MIND MGMT annuals or additional mini @-@ series exploring the history of the series .
= = Plot = =
= = = The Manager = = =
MIND MGMT is a government agency of spies , formed during or after World War I , who have psychic abilities . Henry Lyme is recruited as a child , and becomes their greatest agent . The work exhausts him , and Lyme is retired to Zanzibar . While there , he has a breakdown and loses control of his abilities , causing the city 's inhabitants to murder one another . Lyme decides MIND MGMT is too dangerous to exist , and flees . In an effort to cover his escape , he accidentally causes everyone aboard a plane with him to develop amnesia .
Meru , a true – crime writer , investigates the amnesia flight two years later . She finds a lead in Mexico , where she meets a CIA agent named Bill . They are attacked by two former MIND MGMT agents , but escape . Meru eventually locates Lyme , who tells her his story . Meru learns she was a child in Zanzibar during the massacre and was saved by Lyme . He erased her memory of the event and arranged a foster family for her . During her investigative career she has located Lyme several times , but he continuously causes her to forget . She leaves determined to expose the truth about MIND MGMT , but falls asleep instead . Waking in her apartment , she decides to uncover the truth behind the amnesia flight .
= = = The Futurist = = =
When former MIND MGMT agent The Eraser tries to reform the agency , she tries to have Meru assassinated . Lyme recruits Meru and fellow former agents Perrier and Dusty to stop the Eraser . At Perrier 's insistence , they also team with Duncan " The Futurist " Jones , an agent who can see his own future . Duncan is aware of Lyme 's manipulation of Meru , and insists he will not go along if Lyme continues to lie to her . Lyme agrees , but does not confess the truth to Meru . Believing the best way to stop the Eraser is to prevent her from contacting other former agents , the quintet travel to the MIND MGMT headquarters , Shangri @-@ la , for a master list of all MIND MGMT personnel . There , Meru finds a library which contains the history of the world and reads the book containing her life . Meanwhile , three of the Eraser 's allies engage Lyme and the others . Now aware of how Lyme has manipulated her , Meru helps stop the Eraser 's crew but chooses not to remain with Lyme . She instead leaves with Bill , the CIA agent who is revealed to have been a MIND MGMT sleeper agent with whom she was previously romantically involved .
= = = The Homemaker = = =
After the events at Shangri @-@ la , all parties know the present whereabouts of the sleeper agent Megan , code named " The Homemaker . " However , they are unaware she was originally a mole for the Russian MIND MGMT counterpart known as Zero . When Lyme and Duncan try to activate her , they also awaken her Zero training and Megan begins to orchestrate the selfdestruction of her subdivision through subterfuge . As the groups prepare to recruit Megan for their various agendas , Lyme , Eraser , and Meru reflect on how they arrived at their present position . Lyme regrets his multiple manipulations of Meru , and is currently on a mission of atonement . Meru is still adjusting to her recently awakened memories of her own training as a MIND MGMT agent . The Eraser dreams of her dead husband , a former MIND MGMT agent , and the night she was framed for his murder . As the Homemaker 's plan climaxes in a massacre , Eraser , Lyme , and Meru all arrive at the same time . Megan joins the Eraser in order to take revenge on MIND MGMT for leaving her in her undercover status after the agency was dismantled . Meru and Bill reunite with Lyme , Duncan , Perrier , and Dusty . While she is unable to forgive Lyme 's previous actions , Meru decides he is the lesser evil in the present situation .
= = = The Magician = = =
Meru , Lyme , and their allies travel to Germany to find the Magician , another former agent . They arrive during one of the Magician 's acts and Meru unintentionally negates the her abilities , ruining the performance . This angers the Magician , who decides to ally herself with the Eraser out of spite . The Eraser 's recruits use the Magician 's help to set a trap for Lyme , Duncan , and Perrier . Lyme is beaten into a coma and left for dead , although he is found by passersby and taken to a hospital . Duncan and Perrier escape , but are now disconnected from Meru and the others . Meanwhile , Meru , Bill , and Dusty follow up a different lead in Hong Kong . They too are attacked by the Eraser , resulting in Dusty and Bill 's deaths . Meru escapes , and is now more resolved than ever to stop the Eraser .
= = Critical reception = =
The series debuted with positive reviews , and the first issue sold 7535 copies in May 2012 , making it the 236th best selling issue by units for the month . Reorders caused the first two issues to sell out at the distribution level . Reviewing for Comic Book Resources , Kelly Thompson gave the first issue 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , and described the quality as " simply sublime . "
Kindt 's art style is a common area of criticism for the book . Writing for iFanboy , Paul Montgomery said " “ Kindt ’ s aesthetic won ’ t win over every reader , [ but ] his watercolors lend perfectly to the story ’ s themes and tone ” . Reviewer Colin Smith initially felt the art was a weak point the good story could not overcome , but changed his mind after subsequent issues . Later issues continued to receive praise ; however , sales for later issues fell until bottoming out with 4706 orders for issue seven . Sales then began to increase , with 5842 orders for issue ten . The final issue had estimated sales slightly over 6 @,@ 000 .
When the first hardcover collection was released , it was on the New York Times bestseller list for two weeks . Seth Peagler of the HeroesOnline blog praised the first storyline , describing the series as " one of the most underappreciated , innovative monthly comics on the stands today " . In January 2014 , the Young Adult Library Services Association included the first hardcover of MIND MGMT on their top ten list of great graphic novels from 2013 . The following month , it was at the top of the New York Times list of comic books that should be adapted to television .
The series appeared on numerous comic media " Best of " lists in 2012 , 2013 , and 2014 .
= = Film = =
Talks with 20th Century Fox for a film adaptation began in December 2012 , and the project was optioned for one year in early 2013 . In late January 2013 , Ridley Scott was announced as producer for the film with Mike Richardson and Keith Goldberg . Kindt is acting as a consultant for the film and has shared the complete outline for the story with Scott and David J. Kelly , the screenwriter . He believes Scott has " a good take on it " and will not mind if it is not a faithful adaption . The option has been renewed twice to give the screenwriter more time to work .
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= Robert de Chesney =
Robert de Chesney ( died December 1166 ) was a medieval English Bishop of Lincoln . He was the brother of an important royal official , William de Chesney , and the uncle of Gilbert Foliot , successively Bishop of Hereford and Bishop of London . Educated at Oxford or Paris , Chesney was Archdeacon of Leicester before his election as bishop in December 1148 .
Chesney served as a royal justice in Lincolnshire during his bishopric , and maintained a close relationship with his nephew , Foliot . He was also an early patron of Thomas Becket , and gave the young cleric an office in his diocese early in Becket 's career . Although shown favour by King Stephen of England , including the right to a mint , Chesney was present at the coronation of King Henry II of England in 1154 and went on to serve Henry as a royal justice . Around 1160 , Chesney became embroiled in a dispute with St Albans Abbey in the diocese of Lincoln , over his right as bishop to supervise the abbey . The dispute was eventually settled when the abbey granted Chesney land in return for his relinquishing any right to oversee St Albans .
Chesney was active in his diocese ; more than 240 documents relating to his episcopal career survive . They show him mediating disputes between religious houses and granting exemptions and rights in his diocese . Chesney bought a house in London to serve as an episcopal residence , constructed an episcopal palace in Lincoln , and founded a religious house outside the city . He died in December 1166 , probably on the 27th , and was buried in Lincoln Cathedral .
= = Historical background = =
After Henry I 's death in 1135 , the succession was disputed as the king 's only legitimate son , William , had died in 1120 . The main contenders were the king 's nephews , Stephen , Count of Boulogne and his elder brother Theobald II , Count of Champagne , and his surviving legitimate daughter , Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V. After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to her father in England , who then secured her marriage to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but after Henry I 's death in 1135 Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned , before Theobald or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald contented himself with his possessions in France . But Matilda was less patient : she secured the support of the king of Scotland , David I , her maternal uncle , and the support of her half @-@ brother Robert , Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I , in 1138 .
Stephen was initially secure on his throne but , by 1139 , stresses had appeared . David I invaded England in 1138 , and some of the English nobles rebelled , but Stephen had dealt with both threats by April 1139 . Later that year , he arrested Roger , the Bishop of Salisbury , and his nephews Nigel , the Bishop of Ely and Alexander , the Bishop of Lincoln , who were not only powerful ecclesiastics but important royal administrators . In September 1139 , Matilda landed in England to contest the throne , supported by her half @-@ brother Robert . Stephen himself was captured in February 1141 by Matilda 's forces , but Robert 's subsequent capture by forces loyal to Stephen later that year allowed his exchange for Stephen in November 1141 . The result was an effective stalemate , with Stephen controlling parts of the country and others under the control of Matilda 's supporters . During the 1140s , Matilda 's husband , Geoffrey of Anjou , wrested Normandy from Stephen .
= = Early life = =
Chesney 's family originated from Quesnay @-@ Guesnon in the Calvados region of Normandy near Bayeux in France , but they had settled in the Midlands of England and held lands there , particularly in Oxfordshire . His parents were Roger de Chesney and Alice de Langetot . His brother William de Chesney remained a layman , and became one of Oxfordshire 's leading landowners . Another brother , Reginald , was the abbot of Evesham Abbey . Chesney 's sister Agnes was married to Robert Foliot , steward to the Earl of Huntingdon . Agnes and Robert were probably the parents of Gilbert Foliot , later Bishop of Hereford and Bishop of London . Although it is a surmise that Foliot 's mother was a sibling of Chesney , it is certain that Chesney was Gilbert 's uncle .
Chesney probably attended schools in either Oxford or Paris , as later in life he was referred to with the title of magister , signifying that he was educated . He was Archdeacon of Leicester by about 1146 , and held the prebend of Stow . He was also a canon of the chapel of St. George at Oxford Castle .
= = Election = =
Chesney was elected to the See of Lincoln on 13 December 1148 , by his cathedral chapter , apparently without outside interference . He was consecrated by Theobald of Bec at Canterbury Cathedral on 19 December , the day after his ordination as a priest .
Gilbert Foliot 's letters provide some background to Chesney 's election , showing that King Stephen of England and Stephen 's brother Henry of Blois , the Bishop of Winchester , attempted to secure Lincoln for one of their relatives : the royal candidates were the abbots of Fécamp , Westminster , and St Benet 's of Hulme . They were rejected by Pope Eugene III , paving the way for the chapter to elect Chesney . Foliot relates that the electors from the chapter travelled to London , where they proceeded to elect Chesney in front of Foliot , Theobald , and some other bishops . That account is contradicted by Chesney 's profession of obedience to Theobald , which claims that the election took place on 13 December 1148 at Westminster . Henry of Huntingdon and Ralph de Diceto , both medieval chroniclers , approved of the election and mentioned the unanimous nature of Chesney 's selection . That Chesney 's brother William was a firm supporter of Stephen 's probably helped reconcile Stephen and his brother to Chesney 's election .
Chesney returned to Lincoln on 6 January 1149 , where he received a letter from Arnulf , the Bishop of Lisieux in Normandy , congratulating him on his appointment . Arnulf also asked Chesney to help the cause of Henry fitzEmpress , Empress Matilda 's eldest son and a contender for the English throne .
= = Bishop under Stephen = =
Correspondence between Chesney and his nephew Gilbert Foliot suggests their relationship was quite close . Foliot strongly supported his uncle 's candidacy for Lincoln , writing to Pope Eugene III to encourage papal approval of the election . Foliot later ordered a copy of the Digest for his uncle , which demonstrates Chesney 's interest in Roman law . Some of Archbishop Theobald 's letters , written to Chesney and recorded in John of Salisbury 's collection of letters , contain the earliest recorded quotations from Gratian 's Decretum in an English source . They were part of a letter sent by Theobald to Chesney discussing difficult legal cases , and giving advice on how to resolve them .
Shortly after his consecration , Chesney was presented with a copy of the newly updated version of Henry of Huntingdon 's Historia Anglorum ; Huntingdon had been a fellow archdeacon . Chesney was present at several of King Stephen 's courts , and the king named the bishop as the local justice for Lincolnshire .
At the height of the civil war during Stephen 's reign , and shortly after Chesney 's consecration , the bishop acted as a guarantor for the treaty between Ranulf de Gernon , the Earl of Chester , and Robert de Beaumont , the Earl of Leicester , drawn up to limit the fighting between the two earls during the civil war . Chesney was present at the legatine council held by Theobald in March 1151 , and was one of the judges , along with Theobald and Hilary of Chichester , the Bishop of Chichester , in a dispute between the monks of Belvoir Priory and a secular clerk over the right of the clerk to a church . Chesney appointed the future Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , to a prebend in his cathedral chapter during the latter part of Stephen 's reign .
The civil war ended with the Treaty of Winchester , late in 1153 , which provided that Matilda 's son Henry would succeed Stephen after his death . When Stephen died the next year , this became a lasting peace . In the last year of Stephen 's reign , in mid @-@ 1154 , Chesney acquired the right to operate a mint in the town of Newark , granted in perpetuity . But as there are no surviving coins , it seems that the mint was not in operation for long . Chesney also acquired the right of justice in the city of Lincoln , and was involved in the commercial life of his diocese , establishing a fair in the town of Banbury in 1154 .
= = Bishop under Henry II = =
Chesney witnessed a charter of Henry fitzEmpress ' before Henry 's succession to the throne as Henry II , and was present at the consecration of Roger de Pont L 'Évêque as Archbishop of York on 10 October 1154 . The bishop then was present at Henry II 's coronation on 19 December 1154 , and appears to have continued to act as a royal justice in Lincolnshire during the early part of King Henry II 's reign ; the 1156 Pipe Roll has the sheriff of the county accounting for 10 marks arising from the pleas of the bishop in the county . Chesney was often with the royal court , as he attested a number of Henry II 's charters during the early part of the king 's reign , and accompanied him to northern England in 1158 and to Normandy in 1160 .
The bishop served as the judge in a dispute in 1158 between a dean from the diocese of York and a citizen of Scarborough , in which the layman alleged that the dean had extorted large sums of money from him by repeatedly charging his wife with adultery and fining her . The dean 's actions were contrary to a royal decree , but although he appeared before a royal court he escaped secular penalties because he was a clerk . The result of the case , a precursor to the later Becket dispute , aroused King Henry 's anger , but the death of the king 's brother Geoffrey and the king 's subsequent travel to the Continent to deal with that issue meant that the matter was eventually dropped .
In 1161 Chesney became embroiled in a dispute with St Albans Abbey , resulting from his efforts to enforce his right , as bishop , to supervise religious houses within his diocese . Although Pope Alexander III sent a papal bull to England ordering the case to be heard by a panel of two bishops , King Henry II felt that the papal order infringed on his royal rights and had the case decided at the royal court instead . In 1155 – 1156 St Albans had secured papal privileges from the English Pope Adrian IV , who had previously been a monk there , that exempted the abbey from diocesan supervision , and it was these privileges that Chesney challenged . Chesney secured not only the papal bull but a royal commission to investigate the rights of the abbey as they were in the time of King Henry I. The final disposition of the case took place in 1163 , at a royal council at Westminster , where the abbey produced both the papal privileges and a forged charter of Offa of Mercia in support of their case . As Chesney was unable to produce any documents in support of his own position , the king and council told the bishop that they favoured the abbey 's cause . The king also ruled that the abbey was a royal proprietary church , and thus had special exemptions . In the end , a compromise was reached , whereby the abbey compensated the bishopric with some land in return for the bishop renouncing his claims .
Early in 1162 Chesney was summoned to Normandy by the king , along with Roger , the Archbishop of York , Hugh de Puiset , the Bishop of Durham , and Hilary of Chichester , in order to lend their support to the election of Thomas Becket to the see of Canterbury . In July 1163 , Chesney was present at the royal court held at Woodstock Palace , which included the Welsh prince Rhys ap Gruffydd , the prince of Northern Wales Owain Gwynedd , and King Malcolm IV of Scotland . The two Welsh princes and the Scots ' king did homage to Henry II while at this court . In 1163 Chesney was excused from attending a papal council at Tours because of his health , but he attended the royal councils of Clarendon and Northampton in 1164 , which dealt with the growing dispute , now known as the Becket controversy , between the king and Becket . At those councils Chesney attempted to persuade Becket to compromise , but was unsuccessful . The king subsequently sent Chesney to northern England as an itinerant justice in 1166 .
Chesney 's contributions to the king 's military campaigns on the continent caused him financial difficulties ; at the time of his death he was in debt to a moneylender .
= = Diocesan affairs = =
Chesney 's acta , or documents , contain many examples of him settling judicial disputes , demonstrating how active he was in his diocese . More than 240 of his acta have survived , many of them concerning the religious houses within his jurisdiction . Chesney was appointed a papal judge @-@ delegate at least once , and it was in his court that the case of Philip de Broy , a canon in Bedfordshire accused of murdering a knight , was heard . The case was one of those that contributed to King Henry 's determination that criminous clerks should be subject to royal justice , not just ecclesiastical justice .
In addition to judicial affairs , Chesney worked to ensure good relations with his cathedral chapter , and allowed them exemptions from episcopal jurisdiction . He also permitted the clergy of his diocese to remit the payment of chrism money and forwent the traditional annual payment from the archdeacons of the diocese to the bishop . He suppressed unlicensed schools in Huntingdon and employed a number of educated clerks ; his acta almost always include one witness entitled magister , and often as many as six .
Chesney was a builder in his diocese , where he ordered the construction of the episcopal palace . He also founded a Gilbertine house of canons just outside the city of Lincoln , the priory of St Catherine , shortly after the order was recognised by the papacy in 1148 . Unusually for its time it was only founded for men , although Gilbertine monastic houses typically accommodated both men and women . In 1161 he bought the Old Temple in London as a house for himself . These expenditures contributed to his financial difficulties , along with royal demands , which led to complaints about Chesney 's spending . Another cause for complaint was that he gave away some of his estates as marriage portions for his nieces . Chesney also was a benefactor to the town of Banbury , to which he granted the right to hold a fair some time before 1154 .
= = Death and legacy = =
The exact date of Chesney 's death is uncertain . It may have been 27 December 1166 ; the event is commemorated on both 26 and 27 December . He was buried in the eastern cross aisle of Lincoln Cathedral , along the north side . The modern historian David Knowles wrote that Chesney was " not a man of strong character or decided opinions " .
Chesney left at least ten books to Lincoln Cathedral , of which seven survive . Five of the seven show a uniformity of handwriting , leading to speculation that there may have been a scriptorium at Lincoln Cathedral during Chesney 's tenure , but other surviving books that were in the cathedral library at the same time do not share any handwriting or other characteristics ; Chesney may simply have commissioned the books at the same time from the same scribes .
In addition to Foliot , the brothers Gerard , a canon of Lincoln , and Martin , treasurer of Lincoln , were also Chesney 's nephews . He may also have been related to Fulk de Chesney , another canon at Lincoln . Chesney helped to further the career of Richard Barre , who became a writer and a royal judge and first appears in the record as a witness to some of Chesney 's documents during 1160 – 1164 . Geoffrey of Monmouth 's last work , the Vita Merlini , was dedicated to Chesney . Foliot owned a copy of the Digest , part of the Corpus iuris civilis , that had originally been glossed for Chesney .
Traditionally , Chesney 's predecessor Alexander has been credited with commissioning the baptismal font in Lincoln Cathedral , made of Tournai marble . Recent scholarship has cast doubt upon this idea , and suggests that the font was instead carved on Chesney 's orders , and commissioned after 1150 .
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= Charlie and the Chocolate Factory ( film ) =
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 British @-@ American musical fantasy film directed by Tim Burton . The screenplay by John August is the second adaptation of the 1964 British book of the same name by Roald Dahl . The film stars Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka and Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket . The storyline concerns Charlie , who takes a tour he has won , led by Wonka , through the most magnificent chocolate factory in the world .
Development for another adaptation of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , filmed previously as Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , began in 1991 , 20 years after the first film version , which resulted in Warner Bros. providing the Dahl Estate with total artistic control . Prior to Burton 's involvement , directors such as Gary Ross , Rob Minkoff , Martin Scorsese and Tom Shadyac had been involved , while Warner Bros. either considered or discussed the role of Willy Wonka with Bill Murray , Nicolas Cage , Jim Carrey , Michael Keaton , Brad Pitt , Will Smith , Adam Sandler , and many others .
Burton immediately brought regular collaborators Depp and Danny Elfman aboard . Charlie and the Chocolate Factory represents the first time since The Nightmare Before Christmas that Elfman contributed to the film score using written songs and his vocals . Filming took place from June to December 2004 at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom , where Burton avoided using digital effects as much as possible . Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was released to critical praise and was a box office success , grossing approximately $ 475 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Charlie Bucket ( Freddie Highmore ) is a kind and loving boy living in poverty with his parents ( Noah Taylor and Helena Bonham Carter ) and four bedridden grandparents . They all rely on his father for income , employed at a toothpaste factory , responsible for putting the caps on the tubes . Down the street is Willy Wonka 's ( Johnny Depp ) chocolate factory , which reopened after industrial espionage forced him into seclusion and sacking his employees . Charlie 's Grandpa Joe ( David Kelly ) worked for Wonka before the termination .
Wonka announces a contest whereby children that find five Golden Tickets hidden in Wonka bars will be given a tour of the factory and one a chance to be presented with an unknown grand prize . Four tickets are quickly found : the greedy and gluttonous Augustus Gloop ( Philip Wiegratz ) from Düsseldorf ; the spoiled and rotten Veruca Salt ( Julia Winter ) from Buckinghamshire ; the competitive and boastful Violet Beauregarde ( AnnaSophia Robb ) from Atlanta ; and the arrogant and aggressive Mike Teavee ( Jordan Fry ) from Denver . Charlie hopes to find a ticket but chances are small as money is tight so the best has to be made of his annual birthday present of one Wonka bar and a bar bought by Grandpa Joe 's money . All hope is crushed when the last ticket is claimed in Russia . Charlie , on finding some money in the street , just intends to enjoy one chocolate bar when news breaks that the last ticket was fake . Charlie finds the bar he just bought has the last Golden Ticket . Bystanders attempt to separate him from it , only for the shopkeeper ( Oscar James ) to see that he keeps the ticket and gets back home with it .
Grandpa Joe offers to accompany Charlie on the tour , but Charlie explains how he was offered money for the ticket and intends to sell it . Grandpa George ( David Morris ) reminds Charlie that money is far more common than the tickets , and convinces Charlie to keep it . The visitors find Wonka to be peculiar , lonely and acting odd at the mention of " parents " . The tour shows how fantastical the factory operates under the efforts of the short humans called Oompa @-@ Loompas . The other four children succumb to temptation , and end up being caught in the factory workings and have to be safely recovered by the Oompa @-@ Loompas , albeit in worse shape than at the start of the tour : Augustus falls into a river of chocolate and has been sucked up by a pipe before being rescued from the fudge processing center ; Violet expands into an oversized blueberry when she tries an experimental piece of chewing gum ; Veruca is thrown away as a " bad nut " by trained squirrels ; and Mike is shrunk down to a few inches in height after being the first person transported by Wonka 's new television advertising invention .
Charlie is congratulated as the only remaining child and the winner of the grand prize , Wonka 's heir to the factory . Unfortunately , Wonka stipulates that Charlie 's family has to stay behind ; therefore , Charlie rejects the offer . Charlie learns that Wonka had a troubled past with his father , Wilbur Wonka ( Christopher Lee ) , a dentist . Willy was forbidden from eating candy of any type or quantity and had torture device @-@ like braces affixed to his teeth . But once Willy got a taste , he wanted to become a confectioner , against his father 's wishes and he left home to follow his dream . Wonka later returned to find his father and home completely gone . Wonka 's candies are selling poorly and he comes to associate his unhappiness with the sorry financial state of his company , so he makes an effort to find Charlie who helps him locate Wilbur . When they visit , it appears that despite his strict avoidance of candy , the dentist has followed Willy 's success and they reconcile . Wonka allows Charlie 's family to move into the factory while he and Charlie plan new product lines to produce .
= = Cast = =
Nitin Ganatra as Prince Pondicherry
Shelley Conn as Princess Pondicherry
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Author Roald Dahl disapproved of the 1971 film adaptation and declined the film rights to produce the sequel , Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator . Warner Bros. and Brillstein @-@ Grey Entertainment entered discussions with the Dahl estate in 1991 , hoping to purchase the rights to produce another film version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory . The purchase was finalized in 1998 , with Dahl 's widow , Felicity ( " Liccy " ) , and daughter , Lucy , receiving total artistic control and final privilege on the choices of actors , directors and writers . The Dahl Estate 's subsequent protection of the source material was the main reason that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had languished in development hell since the 1990s .
Scott Frank was hired to write the screenplay in February 1999 , after approaching Warner Bros. for the job . Frank , a recent Oscar nominee for the R @-@ rated crime film Out of Sight , wanted to work on a film that his children could enjoy . As an enthusiastic fan of the book , he intended to remain more truthful to Dahl 's vision than the 1971 film had been . Nicolas Cage was under discussions for Willy Wonka , but lost interest . Gary Ross signed to direct in February 2000 , which resulted in Frank completing two drafts of the screenplay before leaving with Ross in September 2001 . Both Warner Bros. and the Dahl Estate wanted Frank to stay on the project , but he faced scheduling conflicts and contractual obligations with Minority Report ( 2002 ) and The Lookout ( 2007 ) .
Rob Minkoff entered negotiations to take the director 's position in October 2001 , and Gwyn Lurie was hired to start from scratch on a new script in February 2002 . Lurie said she would adapt the original book and ignore the 1971 film adaptation . Dahl 's estate championed Lurie after being impressed with her work on another Dahl adaptation , a live @-@ action adaptation of The BFG , for Paramount Pictures , which was never made ( Paramount distributed the earlier 1971 film version of Charlie , and later sold the rights to WB ) . In April 2002 , Martin Scorsese was involved with the film , albeit briefly , but opted to direct The Aviator instead . Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn wanted Tom Shadyac to direct Jim Carrey as Willy Wonka , believing the duo could make Charlie and the Chocolate Factory relevant to mainstream audiences , but Liccy Dahl opposed this .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
After receiving enthusiastic approval from the Dahl Estate , Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct in May 2003 . Burton compared the project 's languishing development to Batman ( 1989 ) , which he directed , in how there had been varied creative efforts with both films . He said , " Scott Frank 's version was the best , probably the clearest , and the most interesting , but they had abandoned that . " Liccy Dahl commented that Burton was the first and only director the estate was happy with . He had previously produced another of the author 's adaptations with James and the Giant Peach ( 1996 ) , and , like Roald and Liccy , disliked the 1971 film because it strayed from the book 's storyline .
During pre @-@ production Burton visited Dahl 's former home in the Buckinghamshire village of Great Missenden . Liccy Dahl remembers Burton entering Dahl 's famed writing shed and saying , " This is the Buckets ' house ! " and thinking to herself , " Thank God , somebody gets it . " Liccy also showed Burton the original handwritten manuscripts , which Burton discovered were more politically incorrect than the published book . The manuscripts included a child named Herpes after the sexually transmitted disease . Burton immediately thought of Johnny Depp for the role of Willy Wonka , who joined the following August for his fourth collaboration with the director .
Lurie 's script received a rewrite by Pamela Pettler , who worked with Burton on Corpse Bride , but the director hired Big Fish screenwriter John August in December 2003 to start from scratch . Both August and Burton were fans of the book since their childhoods . August first read Charlie and the Chocolate Factory when he was eight years old , and subsequently sent Dahl a fan letter . He did not see the 1971 film prior to his hiring , which Burton believed would be fundamental in having August stay closer to the book . The writer updated the Mike Teavee character into an obsessive video game player , as compared to the novel , in which he fantasized about violent crime films . The characters Arthur Slugworth and Prodnose were reduced to brief cameo appearances , while Mr. Beauregarde was entirely omitted .
Burton and August also worked together in creating Wilbur Wonka , Willy 's domineering dentist father . Burton thought the paternal character would help explain Willy Wonka himself and that otherwise he would be " just a weird guy " . The element of an estranged father @-@ son relationship had previously appeared in Big Fish , similarly directed by Burton and written by August . Warner Bros. and the director held differences over the characterizations of Charlie Bucket and Willy Wonka . The studio wanted to entirely delete Mr. Bucket and make Willy Wonka the idyllic father figure Charlie had longed for his entire life . Burton believed that Wonka would not be a good father , finding the character similar to a recluse . Burton said , " In some ways , he 's more screwed up than the kids . " Warner Bros. also wanted Charlie to be a whiz kid , but Burton resisted the characterization . He wanted Charlie to be an average child who would be in the background and not get in trouble .
= = = Casting = = =
Prior to Burton 's involvement , Warner Bros. considered or discussed Willy Wonka with Bill Murray , Christopher Walken , Steve Martin , Robin Williams , Nicolas Cage , Jim Carrey , Michael Keaton , Robert De Niro , Brad Pitt , Will Smith , Mike Myers , Ben Stiller , Leslie Nielsen , John Cleese , Eric Idle , Michael Palin , Patrick Stewart , and Adam Sandler . Dustin Hoffman and Marilyn Manson reportedly wanted the role as well . Pitt 's production company , Plan B Entertainment , however , stayed on to co @-@ finance the film with Warner Bros. Coincidentally , Cleese , Idle and Palin ( as well as the other three Monty Python members ) had all previously expressed interest in playing Wonka in the 1971 film adaptation . Johnny Depp was the only actor Burton considered for the role , although Dwayne Johnson was Burton 's second choice in case Depp was unavailable . Depp signed on without reading the script under the intention of going with a completely different approach than what Gene Wilder did in the 1971 film adaptation . Depp said regardless of the original film , Gene Wilder 's characterization of Willy Wonka stood out as a unique portrayal .
Depp and Burton derived their Willy Wonka from children 's television show hosts such as Bob Keeshan ( Captain Kangaroo ) , Fred Rogers , and Al Lewis from The Uncle Al Show , and Depp also took inspiration from various game show hosts . Burton recalled from his childhood that the characters were bizarre but left lasting impressions . He said , " It was kind of a strange amalgamation of these weird children 's TV show hosts . " Depp based Wonka 's look ( over @-@ exaggerated bob cut and sunglasses ) on Vogue magazine editor Anna Wintour .
Comparisons were drawn between Willy Wonka and Michael Jackson . Burton disagreed with the comparisons and said Jackson , unlike Wonka , liked children . Depp said the similarities with Jackson never occurred to him . Instead , he compared Wonka to Howard Hughes in his " reclusive , germaphobe , controlling " manner . Burton agreed with the similarity to Hughes . He also compared Wonka to Charles Foster Kane in Citizen Kane as inspiration : " somebody who was brilliant but then was traumatized and then retreats into their own world " . Depp wanted to sport prosthetic makeup for the part and have a long , elongated nose , but Burton believed it would be too outrageous . During production , Gene Wilder , in an interview with The Daily Telegraph , accused the filmmakers of only remaking the 1971 film for the purpose of money . Depp said he was disappointed by Wilder 's comment , and responded that the film was not a remake , but a new adaptation of Dahl 's 1964 book .
The casting calls for Charlie Bucket , Violet Beauregarde , Veruca Salt , and Mike Teavee took place in the United States and United Kingdom , while Augustus Gloop 's casting took place in Germany . Burton said he sought actors " who had something of the character in them " and found Mike Teavee the hardest character to cast . Burton was finding trouble casting Charlie , until Depp , who worked with Freddie Highmore on Finding Neverland , suggested Highmore for the part . Highmore had already read the book before , but decided to read it once more prior to auditioning . The actor did not see the original film adaptation and chose not to see it until after Burton 's production so his portrayal would not be influenced .
Before Adam Godley was officially cast as Mr. Teavee , Dan Castellaneta , Tim Allen , Ed O 'Neill , Bob Saget , and Ray Romano were all considered for the role .
It has been rumored that Gregory Peck was considered for the role of Grandpa Joe . Other actors that were considered for Grandpa Joe included Richard Attenborough , Kirk Douglas , Albert Finney , Anthony Hopkins , Paul Newman , Max von Sydow , David Warner , Christopher Lloyd and Peter Ustinov .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory started on June 21 , 2004 at Pinewood Studios in England . Director Tim Burton and composer Danny Elfman found filming somewhat difficult because they were simultaneously working on Corpse Bride . The Wonka Factory exterior was coincidentally constructed on the same backlot Burton had used for Gotham City in Batman ( 1989 ) . The ceremonial scene required 500 local extras . The Chocolate Room / River setpiece filled Pinewood 's 007 Stage . As a consequence of British Equity rules , which state that children can only work four and a half hours a day , filming for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory languished for six months and ended in December 2004 .
= = = Design = = =
The architecture of the Bucket family home was influenced by Burton 's visit to Roald Dahl 's writing hut . Like the book , the film has a " timeless " setting and is not set in a specific country . " We 've tried not to pinpoint it to any place , " production designer Alex McDowell explained . " The cars , in fact , drive down the middle of the road . " The town , whose design was shaped by the black and white urban photography of Bill Brandt , Pittsburgh and Northern England , is arranged like a medieval village , with Wonka 's estate on top and the Bucket shack below . The filmmakers also used fascist architecture for Wonka 's factory exterior , and designed most of the sets on 360 ° sound stages , similar to cycloramas . Burton biographer Mark Salisbury wrote that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory " melds 1950s and ' 70s visuals with a futuristic sensibility that seems straight out of a 1960s sense of the future . " The " TV Room " was patterned after photographs from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Danger : Diabolik and THX 1138 . Danger Diabolik also served as inspiration for the Nut Room and Inventing Room .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Tim Burton avoided using too many digital effects because he wanted the younger actors to feel as if they were working in a realistic environment . As a result , forced perspective techniques , oversized props and scale models were used to avoid computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . Deep Roy was cast to play the Oompa @-@ Loompas based on his previous collaborations with Burton on Planet of the Apes and Big Fish . The actor was able to play various Oompa @-@ Loompas using split screen photography , digital and front projection effects . " Tim told me that the Oompa @-@ Loompas were strictly programmed , like robots — all they do is work , work , work , " Roy commented . " So when it comes time to dance , they 're like a regiment ; they do the same steps . "
A practical method was considered for the scene in which Violet Beauregarde turns blue and swells up into a giant 10 @-@ foot blueberry . A suit with an air hose was considered at one point for the beginnings of the swelling scene , before the decision was made to do the entire transformation in CGI . The visual effects house Cinesite was recruited for this assignment . In some shots of AnnaSophia Robb 's head , a facial prosthetic was worn to give the impression that her cheeks had swelled up as well . Because this decision was made late in the film 's production , any traces of Violet 's blueberry scene were omitted from trailers or promotional material .
Rather than rely on CGI , Burton wanted the 40 squirrels in the Nut Room to be real . The animals were trained every day for 10 weeks before filming commenced . They began their coaching while newborns , fed by bottles to form relationships with human trainers . The squirrels were each taught how to sit upon a little blue bar stool , tap and then open a walnut , and deposit its meat onto a conveyor belt . " Ultimately , the scene was supplemented by CGI and animatronics , " Burton said , " but for the close @-@ ups and the main action , they 're the real thing . " Wonka 's Viking boat for the Chocolate River sequence floats down a realistic river filled with 192 @,@ 000 gallons of faux melted chocolate . " Having seen the first film , we wanted to make the chocolate river look edible , " McDowell says . " In the first film , it 's so distasteful . " The production first considered a CGI river , but Burton was impressed with the artificial substance when he saw how it clung to the boat 's oars . Nine shades of chocolate were tested before Burton settled on the proper hue .
= = = Music = = =
The original music score was written by Danny Elfman , a frequent collaborator with director Tim Burton . Elfman 's score is based around three primary themes : a gentle family theme for the Buckets , generally set in upper woodwinds ; a mystical , string @-@ driven waltz for Willy Wonka ; and a hyper @-@ upbeat factory theme for full orchestra , Elfman 's homemade synthesizer samples and the diminutive chanting voices of the Oompa @-@ Loompas .
Elfman also wrote and performed the vocals for four songs , with pitch changes and modulations to represent different singers . The lyrics to the Oompa @-@ Loompa songs are adapted from the original book , and are thus credited to Roald Dahl . Following Burton 's suggestion , each song in the score is designed to reflect a different archetype . " Wonka 's Welcome Song " is a maddeningly cheerful theme park ditty , " Augustus Gloop " a Bollywood spectacle ( per Deep Roy 's suggestion ) , " Violet Beauregarde " is 1970s funk , " Veruca Salt " is 1960s bubblegum pop / psychedelic pop , and " Mike Teavee " is a tribute to late 1970s hard rock ( such as Queen ) / early 1980s hair bands .
The original motion picture soundtrack was released on July 12 , 2005 on Warner Bros. Records .
= = Release = =
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had its premiere at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre , on July 10 , 2005 , where money for the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation was raised . The film was released in the United States on July 15 , 2005 in 3 @,@ 770 theaters ( including IMAX theaters ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
Early in the development of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory in February 2000 , Warner Bros. announced their intention of marketing the film with a Broadway theatre musical after release . The studio reiterated their interest in May 2003 , however , the idea was postponed by the time filming began in June 2004 . The main tie @-@ in for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory focused on The Willy Wonka Candy Company , a division of Nestlé . A small range of Wonka Bars were launched , utilizing their prominence in the film . The release of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory also rekindled public interest in Roald Dahl 's 1964 book , where it remained on the New York Times Best Seller list from July 3 to October 23 , 2005 .
= = = Box office = = =
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory earned $ 56 @,@ 178 @,@ 450 in its opening weekend , the fifth @-@ highest opening weekend gross for 2005 and stayed at # 1 for two weeks . The film eventually grossed $ 206 @,@ 459 @,@ 076 in US totals and $ 268 @,@ 509 @,@ 687 in foreign countries , coming to a worldwide total of $ 474 @,@ 968 @,@ 763 . It was the fifty @-@ eighth highest @-@ grossing film of all time when released , as well as seventh @-@ highest for the US and eighth @-@ highest worldwide for the year of 2005 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory received positive reviews . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 83 % , based on 221 reviews , with an average rating 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Closer to the source material than 1971 's Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is for people who like their Chocolate visually appealing and dark . " By comparison , Metacritic calculated an average score of 72 out of 100 , based on 40 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , writing " Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka may be a stone freak , but he is also one of Burton 's classic crackpot conjurers , like Beetlejuice or Ed Wood . " Roger Ebert gave an overall positive review and enjoyed the film . He was primarily impressed by Tim Burton 's direction of the younger cast members , but was disappointed with Depp 's performance : " What was Depp thinking of ? In Pirates of the Caribbean he was famously channeling Keith Richards , which may have primed us to look for possible inspirations for this performance . " Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle found Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Burton 's " best work in years . If all the laughs come from Depp , who gives Willy the mannerisms of a classic Hollywood diva , the film 's heart comes from Highmore , a gifted young performer whose performance is sincere , deep and unforced in a way that 's rare in a child actor . " Peter Travers wrote in Rolling Stone magazine that " Depp 's deliciously demented take on Willy Wonka demands to be seen . Depp goes deeper to find the bruises on Wonka 's secret heart than what Gene Wilder did . Depp and Burton may fly too high on the vapors of pure imagination , but it 's hard to not get hooked on something this tasty . And how about that army of Oompa @-@ Loompas , all played by Deep Roy , in musical numbers that appear to have been choreographed by Busby Berkeley on crack . "
Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post criticized Depp 's acting . " The cumulative effect isn 't pretty . Nor is it kooky , funny , eccentric or even mildly interesting . Indeed , throughout his fey , simpering performance , Depp seems to be straining so hard for weirdness that the entire enterprise begins to feel like those excruciating occasions when your parents tried to be hip . Aside from Burton 's usual eye @-@ popping direction , the film 's strenuous efforts at becoming a camp classic eventually begin to wear thin . "
In 2007 , Gene Wilder said he chose not to see the film . " The thing that put me off ... I like Johnny Depp , I like him , as an actor I like him very much ... but when I saw little pieces in the promotion of what he was doing , I said I don 't want to see the film , because I don 't want to be disappointed in him . " In 2013 , Wilder called the film " an insult " . He also criticized the choices that Burton made as a director , saying " I don 't care for that director . He 's a talented man , but I don 't care for him doing stuff like he did . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Costume designer Gabriella Pescucci received an Academy Award nomination , but lost to Colleen Atwood on Memoirs of a Geisha . Johnny Depp lost the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy to Joaquin Phoenix in Walk the Line . More nominations followed from the British Academy Film Awards for Visual Effects , Costume Design ( Pescucci ) , Makeup & Hair ( Peter Owen and Ivana Primorac ) and Production Design ( Alex McDowell ) . Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film , as well as Performance by a Younger Actor ( Freddie Highmore ) , Music ( Danny Elfman ) and Costume ( Pescucci ) . Elfman and screenwriter John August were nominated for a Grammy Award with " Wonka 's Welcome Song " .
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= Newport News , Virginia =
Newport News is an independent city located in the U.S. state of Virginia . As of the 2010 census , the population was 180 @,@ 719 . In 2013 , the population was estimated to be 183 @,@ 412 , making it the fifth @-@ most populous city in Virginia .
Newport News is included in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area . It is at the southeastern end of the Virginia Peninsula , on the northern shore of the James River extending southeast from Skiffe 's Creek along many miles of waterfront to the river 's mouth at Newport News Point on the harbor of Hampton Roads . The area now known as Newport News was once a part of Warwick County . Warwick County was one of the eight original shires of Virginia , formed by the House of Burgesses in the British Colony of Virginia by order of King Charles I , in 1634 . The county was largely composed of farms and undeveloped land until almost 250 years later .
In 1881 , 15 years of explosive development began under the leadership of Collis P. Huntington , whose new Peninsula Extension of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway from Richmond opened up transportation along the Peninsula and provided a new pathway for the railroad to bring West Virginia bituminous coal to port for coastal shipping and worldwide export . With the new railroad came a terminal and coal piers where the colliers were loaded . Within a few years , Huntington and his associates also built a large shipyard . In 1896 , the new incorporated town of Newport News , which had briefly replaced Denbigh as the county seat of Warwick County , had a population of 9 @,@ 000 . In 1958 , by mutual consent by referendum , Newport News was consolidated with the former Warwick County ( itself a separate city from 1952 to 1958 ) , rejoining the two localities to approximately their pre @-@ 1896 geographic size . The more widely known name of Newport News was selected as they formed what was then Virginia 's third largest independent city in population .
With many residents employed at the expansive Newport News Shipbuilding , the joint U.S. Air Force @-@ U.S. Army installation at Joint Base Langley – Eustis , and other military bases and suppliers , the city 's economy is very connected to the military . The location on the harbor and along the James River facilitates a large boating industry which can take advantage of its many miles of waterfront . Newport News also serves as a junction between the rails and the sea with the Newport News Marine Terminals located at the East End of the city . Served by major east @-@ west Interstate Highway 64 , it is linked to others of the cities of Hampton Roads by the circumferential Hampton Roads Beltway , which crosses the harbor on two bridge @-@ tunnels . Part of the Newport News / Williamsburg International Airport is in the city limits .
= = Etymology = =
The original area near the mouth of the James River was first referred to as Newportes Newes as early as 1621 .
The source of the name " Newport News " is not known with certainty . Several versions are recorded , and it is the subject of popular speculation locally . Probably the best @-@ known explanation holds that when an early group of Jamestown colonists left to return to England after the Starving Time during the winter of 1609 – 1610 aboard a ship of Captain Christopher Newport , they encountered another fleet of supply ships under the new Governor Thomas West , 3rd Baron De La Warr in the James River off Mulberry Island with reinforcements of men and supplies . The new governor ordered them to turn around , and return to Jamestown . Under this theory , the community was named for Newport 's " good news " . Another possibility is that the community may have derived its name from an old English word " news " meaning " new town " . At least one source claims that the " New " arose from the original settlement 's being rebuilt after a fire .
Another source gave the original name as New Port Newce , named for a person with the name Newce and the town 's place as a new seaport . The namesake , Sir William Newce , was an English soldier and originally settled in Ireland . There he had established Newcestown near Bandon , County Cork . He sailed to Virginia with Sir Francis Wyatt in October 1621 and was granted 2 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 012 ha ) of land . He died two days later . His brother , Capt. Thomas Newce , was given " 600 acres at Kequatan , now called Elizabeth Cittie . " A partner Daniel Gookin completed founding the settlement .
Fiske writes :
... several old maps where the name is given as Newport Ness , being the mariner 's way of saying Newport Point .
The fact that the name formerly appeared as " Newport 's News " is verified by numerous early documents and maps , and by local tradition . The change to Newport News came about through usage , for by 1851 the Post Office Department sanctioned " New Port News " ( three words ) as the name of the first post office . In 1866 it approved the name as " Newport News " , the current form .
= = History = =
= = = European settlement = = =
During the 17th century , shortly after founding of Jamestown , Virginia in 1607 , English settlers explored and began settling the areas adjacent to Hampton Roads . In 1610 , Sir Thomas Gates " took possession " of a nearby Native American village , which became known as Kecoughtan . At that time , settlers began clearing land along the James River ( the navigable part of which was called Hampton Roads ) for plantations , including the present area of Newport News .
In 1619 , the area of Newport News was included in one of four huge corporations of the Virginia Company of London . It became known as Elizabeth Cittie and extended west all the way to Skiffe 's Creek ( currently the border between Newport News and James City County ) . Elizabeth Cittie included all of present @-@ day South Hampton Roads .
By 1634 , the English colony of Virginia consisted of a population of approximately 5 @,@ 000 inhabitants . It was divided into eight shires of Virginia , which were renamed as counties shortly thereafter . The area of Newport News became part of Warwick River Shire , which became Warwick County in 1637 . By 1810 , the county seat was at Denbigh . For a short time in the mid @-@ 19th century , the county seat was moved to Newport News .
= = = Restoration = = =
Newport News was a rural area of plantations and a small fishing village until after the American Civil War . Construction of the railroad and establishment of the great shipyard brought thousands of workers and associated development . It was one of only a few cities in Virginia to be newly established without earlier incorporation as a town . ( Virginia has had an independent city political subdivision since 1871 . ) Walter A. Post served as the city 's first mayor .
The area that formed the present @-@ day southern end of Newport News had long been established as an unincorporated town . During Reconstruction , the period after the American Civil War , the new City of Newport News was essentially founded by California merchant Collis P. Huntington . Huntington , one of the Big Four associated with the Central Pacific Railroad , in California , formed the western part of the country 's First Transcontinental Railroad . He was recruited by former Confederate General Williams Carter Wickham to become a major investor and guiding light for a southern railroad . He helped complete the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway to the Ohio River in 1873 .
Huntington knew the railroad could transport coal eastbound from West Virginia 's untapped natural resources . His agents began acquiring land in Warwick County in 1865 . In the 1880s , he oversaw extension of the C & O 's new Peninsula Subdivision , which extended from the Church Hill Tunnel in Richmond southeast down the peninsula through Williamsburg to Newport News , where the company developed coal piers on the harbor of Hampton Roads .
His next project was to develop Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company , which became the world 's largest shipyard . Opened as Chesapeake Dry Dock & Construction Company , the shipbuilding was intended to build boats to transition goods from the rails to the seas . With president Theodore Roosevelt 's declaration to create a Great White Fleet , the company entered the warship business by building seven of the first sixteen warships . Today , the shipyard holds a dominant position in the American warship construction business .
= = = 1900s = = =
In addition to Collis , other members of the Huntington family played major roles in Newport News . From 1912 to 1914 , his nephew , Henry E. Huntington , assumed leadership of the shipyard . Huntington Park , developed after World War I near the northern terminus of the James River Bridge , is named for him .
Collis Huntington 's son , Archer M. Huntington and his wife , sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington , developed the Mariners ' Museum beginning in 1932 . They created a natural park and the community 's Lake Maury in the process . A major feature of Newport News , the Mariners ' Museum has grown to become one of the largest and finest maritime museums in the world .
In 1958 , the citizenry of the cities of Warwick and Newport News voted by referendum to consolidate the two cities , choosing to assume the better @-@ known name of Newport News . The merger created the third largest city by population in Virginia , with a 65 square miles ( 168 km2 ) area . The boundaries of the City of Newport News today are essentially the boundaries of the original Warwick River Shire and the traditional one of Warwick County , with the exception of minor border adjustments with neighbors .
The city 's original downtown area , on the James River waterfront , changed rapidly from a farm trading town to a new city in the last quarter of the 19th century . Development of the railroad terminal , with its coal piers , other harbor @-@ related facilities , and the shipyard , brought new jobs and workers to the area . Although fashionable housing and businesses developed in downtown , the increase in industry and the development of new suburbs pushed and pulled retail and residential development to the west and north after World War II . Such suburban development was aided by national subsidization of highway construction and was part of a national trend to newer housing .
In July 1989 the United States Navy commissioned the third naval vessel named after the city with the entry of the Los Angeles @-@ class nuclear submarine USS NEWPORT NEWS ( SSN @-@ 750 ) , built at Newport News Shipbuilding , into active service .
The ship was initially commanded by CDR . Mark B. Keef ; the city held a public celebration of the event , which was attended by Vice President of the United States Dan Quayle . In conjunction with this milestone , a song was written by a city native and formally adopted by Newport News City Council in July 1989 . The lyrics appear with permission from the author :
( First verse ) : Harbor of a thousand ships / Forger of a nation 's fleet / Gateway to the New World / Where ocean and river meet
( Chorus ) : Strength wrought from steel / And a people 's fortitude / Such is the timeless legacy / Of a place called Newport News
( Second verse ) : Nestled in a blessed land / Gifted with a special view / Forever home for ev 'ry man / With a spirit proud and true
( repeat chorus to fade )
= = = 2000s = = =
Despite city efforts at large @-@ scale revitalization , by the beginning of the 21st century the downtown area consisted largely of the coal export facilities , the shipyard , and municipal offices . It is bordered by some harbor @-@ related smaller businesses and lower income housing .
Newport News grew in population from the 1960s through the 1990s . The city began to explore New Urbanism as a way to develop areas midtown . City Center at Oyster Point was developed out of a small portion of the Oyster Point Business Park . It opened in phases from 2003 through 2005 . The city invested $ 82 million of public funding in the project . Closely following Oyster Point , Port Warwick opened as an urban residential community in the new midtown business district . Fifteen hundred people now reside in the Port Warwick area . It includes a 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) city square where festivals and events take place .
= = Geography = =
Newport News is located at 37 ° 4 ′ 15 ″ N 76 ° 29 ′ 4 ″ W ( 37 @.@ 071046 , − 76 @.@ 484557 ) . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 120 square miles ( 310 km2 ) , of which 69 square miles ( 180 km2 ) is land and 51 square miles ( 130 km2 ) ( 42 @.@ 4 % ) is water .
The city is located at the Peninsula side of Hampton Roads in the Tidewater region of Virginia , bordering the Atlantic Ocean . The Hampton Roads Metropolitan Statistical Area ( officially known as the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA ) is the 37th largest in the nation with a 2014 population estimate of 1 @,@ 716 @,@ 624 . The area includes the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Chesapeake , Hampton , Newport News , Poquoson , Portsmouth , Suffolk , Williamsburg , and the counties of Gloucester , Isle of Wight , James City , Mathews , Surry , and York , as well as the North Carolina counties of Currituck and Gates . Newport News serves as one of the business centers on the Peninsula . The city of Norfolk is recognized as the central business district , while the Virginia Beach oceanside resort district and Williamsburg are primarily centers of tourism .
Newport News shares land borders with James City County on the northwest , York County on the north and northeast , and Hampton on the east . Newport News shares water borders with Portsmouth on the southeast and Suffolk on the south across Hampton Roads , and Isle of Wight County on the southwest and west and Surry County on the northwest across the James River .
= = = Cityscape = = =
The city 's downtown area was part of the earliest developed area which was initially incorporated as an independent city in 1896 . The earlier city portions also included the " Southeast " community , which was predominantly African @-@ American , the " North End " and the shipyard and coal piers . After World War II , public housing projects and lower income housing were built to improve housing in what came to be known as the East End or " The Bottom " by locals . The city expanded primarily westward where land was available and highways were built . While the shipyard and coal facilities , and other smaller harbor @-@ oriented businesses have remained vibrant , the downtown area went into substantial decline . Crime problems have plagued the nearby lower @-@ income residential areas .
West of the traditional downtown area , another early portion of the city was developed as Huntington Heights . In modern times been called the North End . Developed primarily between 1900 and 1935 , North End features a wealth of architectural styles and eclectic vernacular building designs . Extending along west to the James River Bridge approaches , it includes scenic views of the river . A well @-@ preserved community , the North End is an historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Register .
The 1958 merger by mutual agreement with the City of Warwick removed the political boundary , which was adjacent to Mercury Boulevard . This major north @-@ south roadway carries U.S. Route 258 between the James River Bridge and the Coliseum @-@ Central area of adjacent Hampton . At the time , the county was mostly rural , although along Warwick Boulevard north of the Mercury Boulevard , Hilton Village was developed during World War I as a planned community . Beyond this point to the west , much of the city takes on a suburban nature . Many neighborhoods have been developed , some around a number of former small towns . Miles of waterfront along the James River , and tributaries such as Deep Creek and Lucas Creek , are occupied by higher @-@ end single family homes . In many sections , wooded land and farms gave way to subdivisions . Even at the northwestern reaches , furthest from the traditional downtown area , some residential development has occurred . Much land has been set aside for natural protection , with recreational and historical considerations . Along with some newer residential areas , major features of the northwestern end include the reservoirs of the Newport News Water System ( which include much of the Warwick River ) , the expansive Newport News Park , a number of public schools , and the military installations of Fort Eustis and a small portion of the Naval Weapons Station Yorktown .
At the extreme northwestern edge adjacent to Skiffe 's Creek and the border with James City County is the Lee Hall community , which retains historical features including the former Chesapeake and Ohio Railway station which served tens of thousands of soldiers based at what became nearby Fort Eustis during World War I and World War II . The larger @-@ than @-@ normal rural two @-@ story frame depot is highly valued by rail fans and rail preservationists .
In downtown Newport News , the Victory Arch , built to commemorate the Great War , sits on the downtown waterfront . The " Eternal Flame " under the arch was cast by Womack Foundry , Inc. in the 1960s . It was hand crafted by the Foundry 's founder and president , Ernest D. Womack . The downtown area has a number of landmarks and architecturally interesting buildings , which for some time were mostly abandoned in favor of building new areas in the northwest areas of the city ( a strategy aided by tax incentives in the postwar years ) .
City leaders are working to bring new life into this area , by renovating and building new homes and attracting businesses . The completion of Interstate 664 restored the area to access and through traffic which had been largely rerouted with the completion of the Hampton Roads Bridge @-@ Tunnel in 1958 and discontinuance of the Newport News @-@ Norfolk ferry service at that time . The larger capacity Monitor @-@ Merrimac Memorial Bridge @-@ Tunnel and the rebuilt James River Bridge each restored some accessibility and through traffic to the downtown area .
Much of the newer commercial development has been along the Warwick Boulevard and Jefferson Avenue corridors , with newer planned industrial , commercial , and mixed development such as Oyster Point , Kiln Creek and the City Center . While the downtown area had long been the area of the city that offered the traditional urban layout , the city has supported a number of New Urbanism projects . One is Port Warwick , named after the fictional city in William Styron 's novel , Lie Down in Darkness . Port Warwick includes housing for a broad variety of citizens , from retired persons to off @-@ campus housing for Christopher Newport University students . Also included are several high @-@ end restaurants and upscale shopping .
City Center at Oyster Point , located near Port Warwick , has been touted as the new " downtown " because of its new geographic centrality on the Virginia Peninsula , its proximity to the retail / business nucleus of the city , etc . Locally , it is often called simply " City Center " . Nearby , the Virginia Living Museum recently completed a $ 22 @.@ 6 million expansion plan .
Newport News is also home to a small Korean ethnic enclave on Warwick Boulevard near the Denbigh neighborhood on the northern end of the city . Although it lacks the density and character of larger , more established enclaves , it has been referred to as " Little Seoul " — being the commercial center for the Hampton Roads Korean community .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Newport News has many distinctive communities and neighborhoods within its boundaries , including Brandon Heights , Brentwood , City Center , Colony Pines , Christopher Shores @-@ Stuart Gardens , Denbigh , Glendale , East End , Hidenwood , Hilton Village , Hunter 's Glenn , Beaconsdale , Ivy Farms , North End Huntington Heights ( Historic District – roughly from 50th to 75th street , along the James River ) , Jefferson Avenue Park , Kiln Creek , Lee Hall , Menchville , Maxwell Gardens , Morrison ( also known as Harpersville and Gum Grove ) , Newmarket Village , Newsome Park , Oyster Point , Parkview , old North Newport News ( Center Ave. area ) , Port Warwick , Richneck , Riverside , Shore Park , Summerlake , Village Green , Windsor Great Park and Warwick . Some of these neighborhoods are located in the former City of Warwick and Warwick County .
= = = Climate = = =
Newport News is located in the humid subtropical climate zone , with cool to mild winters , and hot , humid summers . Due to the inland location , throughout the year , highs are 2 to 3 ° F ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 7 ° C ) warmer and lows 1 to 2 ° F ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 1 ° C ) cooler than areas to the southeast . Snowfall averages 5 @.@ 8 inches ( 15 cm ) per season , and the summer months tend to be slightly wetter . The geographic location of the city , with respect to the principal storm tracks , favours fair weather , as it is south of the average path of storms originating in the higher latitudes , and north of the usual tracks of hurricanes and other major tropical storms .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 180 @,@ 719 people , 69 @,@ 686 households , and 46 @,@ 341 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 637 @.@ 9 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 018 @.@ 5 / km ² ) . There were 74 @,@ 117 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 085 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 419 @.@ 0 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 49 @.@ 0 % White , 40 @.@ 7 % African American , 0 @.@ 5 % Native American , 2 @.@ 7 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pacific Islander , 2 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 4 @.@ 3 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7 @.@ 5 % of the population ( 2 @.@ 5 % Puerto Rican , 2 @.@ 5 % Mexican , 0 @.@ 4 % Cuban , 0 @.@ 3 % Panamanian , 0 @.@ 2 % Dominican , 0 @.@ 2 % Guatemalan , 0 @.@ 2 % Honduran ) .
There were 69 @,@ 686 households out of which 35 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 44 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 17 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 33 @.@ 5 % were non @-@ families . 27 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8 @.@ 1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 50 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 04 .
The age distribution is : 27 @.@ 5 % under the age of 18 , 11 @.@ 5 % from 18 to 24 , 32 @.@ 2 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 8 % from 45 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 1 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 32 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 8 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 90 @.@ 3 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 36 @,@ 597 , and the median income for a family was $ 42 @,@ 520 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 275 versus $ 22 @,@ 310 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 843 . About 11 @.@ 3 % of families and 13 @.@ 8 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 20 @.@ 6 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 8 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Crime = =
Newport News experienced 20 murders giving the city a murder rate of 10 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 people in 2005 . In 2006 , there were 19 murders giving the city a rate of 10 @.@ 5 per 100 @,@ 000 people . In 2007 the city had 28 murders with a rate of 15 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 people .
The total crime index rate for Newport News is 434 @.@ 7 ; the United States average is 320 @.@ 9 . According to the Congressional Quarterly Press ' " 2008 City Crime Rankings : Crime in Metropolitan America , " Newport News ranked as the 119th most dangerous city larger than 75 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The neighborhood with the highest crime rates in Newport News is the East End .
= = Economy = =
Among the city 's major industries are shipbuilding , military , and aerospace . Newport News Shipbuilding , owned by Huntington Ingalls Industries , and the large coal piers supplied by railroad giant CSX Transportation , the modern Fortune 500 successor to the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway ( C & O ) . Miles of the waterfront can be seen by automobiles crossing the James River Bridge and Monitor @-@ Merrimac Memorial Bridge @-@ Tunnel , which is a portion of the circumferential Hampton Roads Beltway , linking the city with each of the other major cities of Hampton Roads via Interstate 664 and Interstate 64 . Many U.S. defensive industry suppliers are based in Newport News , and these and nearby military bases employ many residents , in addition to those working at the shipyard and in other harbor @-@ related vocations .
Newport News plays a role in the maritime industry . At the end of CSX railroad tracks lies the Newport News Marine Terminal . Covering 140 acres ( 0 @.@ 57 km2 ) , the Terminal has heavy @-@ lift cranes , warehouse capabilities , and container cranes .
Newport News ' location next to Hampton Roads along with its rail network has provided advantages for the city . The city houses two industrial parks which enabled manufacturing and distribution to take root in the city . As technology @-@ oriented companies flourished in the 1990s , Newport News became a regional center for technology companies .
Additional companies headquartered out of Newport News include Ferguson Enterprises and L @-@ 3 Flight International Aviation .
Newport News Shipbuilding serves as the city 's largest employer with over 15 @,@ 000 employees . Fort Eustis employs over 10 @,@ 000 , making it the second largest employer in the city . Newport News School System creates over 5000 jobs and acts as the city 's third largest employer .
Established during World War I at historic Mulberry Island , the large base at Fort Eustis in modern times hosts the U.S. Army 's Transportation Corps and other important activities . In adjacent localities , other U.S. military facilities include Fort Monroe , Langley Air Force Base , Naval Weapons Station Yorktown , and Camp Peary . Across the harbor in South Hampton Roads , the world 's largest naval base , the Naval Station Norfolk and other installations are also located .
Research and education play a role in the City 's economy . The Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility ( TJNAF ) is housed in Newport News . TJNAF employs over 675 people and more than 2 @,@ 000 scientists from around the world conduct research using the facility . Formerly named the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility ( CEBAF ) , its stated mission is " to provide forefront scientific facilities , opportunities and leadership essential for discovering the fundamental structure of nuclear matter ; to partner in industry to apply its advanced technology ; and to serve the nation and its communities through education and public outreach . "
= = Culture = =
As with most of Virginia , Newport News is most often associated with the larger American South . People who have grown up in the Hampton Roads area have a unique Tidewater accent which sounds different than a stereotypical Southern accent . Vowels have a longer pronunciation than in a typical southern accent .
Near the city 's western end , a historic C & O railroad station , as well as American Civil War battle sites near historic Lee Hall along U.S. Route 60 and several 19th century plantations have all been protected . Many are located along the roads leading to Yorktown and Williamsburg , where many sites of the Historic Triangle are of both American Revolutionary War and Civil War significance . The first modern duel of ironclad warships , the Battle of Hampton Roads , took place not far off Newport News Point in 1862 .
Recovered artifacts from USS Monitor are displayed at the Mariners ' Museum , one of the more notable museums of its type in the world . The museum 's collection totals approximately 32 @,@ 000 artifacts , international in scope , which include ship models , scrimshaw , maritime paintings , decorative arts , figureheads and engines . The museum also owns and maintains a 550 @-@ acre park on which is located the Noland Trail , and the 167 @-@ acre Lake Maury .
The Virginia War Museum covers American military history . The Museum 's collection includes , weapons , vehicles , artifacts , uniforms and posters from various periods of American history . Highlights of the Museum 's collection include a section of the Berlin Wall and the outer wall from Dachau Concentration Camp .
The Peninsula Fine Arts Center contains a rotating gallery of art exhibits . The Center also maintains a permanent " Hands on For Kids " gallery designed for children and families to interact in what the Center describes as " a fun , educational environment that encourages participation with art materials and concepts . "
The U.S. Army Transportation Museum is a United States Army museum of vehicles and other U.S. Army transportation @-@ related equipment and memorabilia . Located on the grounds of Fort Eustis , The museum reflects the history of the Army , especially of the United States Army Transportation Corps , and includes close to 100 military vehicles such as land vehicles , watercraft and rolling stock , including stock from the Fort Eustis Military Railroad . It is officially dedicated to General Frank S. Besson , Jr . , who was the first four @-@ star general to lead the transportation command , and extends over 6 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land , air and sea vehicles and indoor exhibits . The exhibits cover transportation and its role in US Army operations , including topic areas from the American Revolutionary War through operations in Afghanistan .
The Ferguson Center for the Arts is a theater and concert hall on the campus of Christopher Newport University . The complex fully opened in September 2005 and contains three distinct , separate concert halls : the Concert Hall , the Music and Theatre Hall , and the Studio Theatre .
The Port Warwick area hosts the annual Port Warwick Art and Sculpture Festival where art vendors gather in Styron Square to show and sell their art . Judges have the chance to name art work best of the Festival .
The Virginia Living Museum is an outdoor living museum combining aspects of a native wildlife park , science museum , aquarium , botanical preserve , and planetarium .
= = Sports = =
Newport News has been the home to sports franchises , including the semi @-@ pro football Mason Dixon League 's Peninsula Pirates and Peninsula Poseidons and now the Virginia Crusaders . The Christopher Newport University Captains field fourteen sports and compete in the USA South Athletic Conference in Division III of the NCAA .
High school sports ( especially football ) play a large role in the City 's culture . Sporting stars such as Michael Vick , Mike Tomlin , Al Toon , Aaron Brooks and Antoine Bethea are from Newport News . The City 's stadium , John B. Todd Stadium , houses five high schools ' worth of football games usually spread over Thursday , Friday , and Saturday nights . The stadium also holds the schools ' track and field meets .
Additional sports options can be found just outside Newport News . On the collegiate level , the College of William and Mary , Hampton University , Norfolk State University and Old Dominion University offer NCAA Division I athletics . Virginia Wesleyan College also provides sports at the NCAA Division III level . The Peninsula Pilots play just outside the city limits at War Memorial Stadium in Hampton . The Pilots play in the Coastal Plain League , a summer baseball league . In Norfolk , the Norfolk Tides of the International League and the Norfolk Admirals of the American Hockey League . In Virginia Beach , the Hampton Roads Piranhas field men 's and women 's professional soccer teams . The Atlantic 10 Conference has been headquartered in Newport News since 2009 .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Newport News Parks is responsible for the maintenance of 32 city parks . The smallest is less than half an acre ( 2 @,@ 000 m ² ) . The largest , Newport News Park , is 8 @,@ 065 acres ( 32 @.@ 64 km2 ) , the second @-@ largest city park in the United States . They are scattered throughout the city , from Endview Plantation in the northern end of the city to King @-@ Lincoln Park in the southern end near the Monitor @-@ Merrimac Memorial Bridge @-@ Tunnel . The parks offer services to visitors , ranging from traditional park services like camping and fishing to activities like archery and disc golf .
Newport News Park is in the northern part of the city . The city 's golf course lies in the park along with camping and outdoor activities . There are over 30 miles ( 48 km ) of trails in the Newport News Park complex . It has a 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) multi @-@ use bike path . The park offers bicycle and helmet rental , and requires helmet use by children under 14 . Newport News Park offers an archery range , disc golf course , and an " aeromodel flying field " for remote @-@ controlled aircraft , complete with a 400 ft ( 120 m ) runway .
The city supplies two public boat ramps for its citizens : Denbigh Park Boat Ramp and Hilton Pier / Ravine .
Denbigh Park allows access into the Warwick River , a tributary of the James River . Denbigh Park also offers a small fishing pier . Hilton Pier offers a small beach in addition to a ravine . Croaker and trout are the fish primarily caught during the summer months and the pier is accessible to visitors in wheelchairs .
= = Media = =
Newport News 's daily newspaper is the Daily Press . Other papers include the Port Folio Weekly , the New Journal and Guide , the Hampton Roads Business Journal , and the James River Journal .
Christopher Newport University publishes its own newspaper , The Captain 's Log . Hampton Roads Magazine serves as a bi @-@ monthly regional magazine for Newport News and the Hampton Roads area . Hampton Roads Times serves as an online magazine for all the Hampton Roads cities and counties . Newport News is served by a variety of radio stations on the AM and FM dials , with towers located around the Hampton Roads area .
Newport News is also served by several television stations . The Hampton Roads designated market area ( DMA ) is the 43rd largest in the U.S. with 712 @,@ 790 homes ( 0 @.@ 64 % of the total U.S. ) . The major network television affiliates are WTKR @-@ TV 3 ( CBS ) , WAVY 10 ( NBC ) , WVEC @-@ TV 13 ( ABC ) , WGNT 27 ( CW ) , WTVZ 33 ( MyNetworkTV ) , WVBT 43 ( Fox ) , and WPXV 49 ( ION Television ) . The Public Broadcasting Service station is WHRO @-@ TV 15 . Newport News residents also can receive independent stations , such as WSKY broadcasting on channel 4 from the Outer Banks of North Carolina and WGBS @-@ LD broadcasting on channel 11 from Hampton .
= = Government = =
Newport News is an independent city with services that counties and cities in Virginia provide , such as a sheriff , social services , and a court system .
Newport News operates under a council @-@ manager form of government , which consists of a city council with representatives from three districts serving in a legislative and oversight capacity , as well as a popularly elected , at @-@ large mayor . The city manager serves as head of the executive branch and supervises all city departments and executing policies adopted by the council . Citizens in the three wards elect two council representatives each to serve a four @-@ year term . The city council meets at City Hall twice a month and , as of July 2010 , consisted of Mayor McKinley L. Price , Vice Mayor Madeline McMillan , Herbert H. Bateman Jr . , Sharon P. Scott , Dr. Patricia " Pat " Woodbury , Tina L. Vick , and Joseph C. Whitaker . The city manager is James M. Bourey . For the first time in the history of Newport News there is a female majority on the city council .
Newport News has a federal courthouse for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia . A new courthouse will be constructed in the future . Additionally , Newport News has its own General District and Circuit Courts which convene downtown . The city is in the Virginia 's 1st congressional district , served by U.S. Representative Rob Wittman and in the Virginia 's 3rd congressional district , served by U.S. Representative Robert C. Scott .
= = Education = =
The main provider of primary and secondary education in the city is Newport News Public Schools . The school system includes many elementary schools , six middle schools , and the high schools , Denbigh High School , Heritage High School , Menchville High School , Warwick High School and Woodside High School . All middle , high schools , and elementary schools are fully accredited . Dutrow Elementary is an example of an elementary school that offers a Talented And Gifted program for fifth graders , or rising sixth graders . Crittenden Middle School offers a STEM magnet program to students throughout the district , preparing them for careers in Science , Technology , Engineering and Math . Warwick High School is widely known for its IB program to prepare students at all grade levels for college course levels of thinking .
Several private schools are located in the area , including Denbigh Baptist Christian School , Hampton Roads Academy , Peninsula Catholic High School , Trinity Lutheran School , and Warwick River Christian School .
The city contains Christopher Newport University , a public university . Other nearby public universities include Old Dominion University , Norfolk State University and The College of William and Mary . Hampton University , a private university , also sits a few miles from the City limits . Newport News Shipbuilding operates The Apprentice School , a vocational school teaching various shipyard and related trades .
Thomas Nelson Community College serves as the community college . Located in neighboring Hampton and in nearby Williamsburg , Thomas Nelson offers college and career training programs . Most institutions in the Hampton Roads areas are home to a variety of students but commuter students make up a large portion .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Newport News has an elaborate transportation network , including interstate and state highways , bridges and a bridge @-@ tunnel , freight and passenger railroad service , local transit bus and intercity bus service , and a commercial airport . There are miles of waterfront docks and port facilities .
Newport News is served by three airports . Newport News / Williamsburg International Airport , in Newport News ; Norfolk International Airport , in Norfolk ; and Richmond / Byrd International Airport all of which cater to passengers from Hampton Roads .
The primary airport for the Virginia Peninsula is the Newport News / Williamsburg International Airport . As of 2011 , it was experiencing a 5th year of record , double @-@ digit growth , making it one of the fastest growing airports in the country . In January 2006 , the airport reported having served 1 @,@ 058 @,@ 839 passengers . On February 4 , 2010 , the airport announced a new airline , Frontier Airlines , with direct flights to Denver , Colorado . It is also undergoing a $ 23 million expansion project . In 2012 , Newport News became home to its own airline , PeoplExpress , which launched with headquarters at the Newport News / Williamsburg airport . Its inaugural first flights took place June 30 , 2014 and now includes more than seven destinations . ( IATA : PHF , ICAO : KPHF , FAA LID : PHF ) ,
Norfolk International Airport ( IATA : ORF , ICAO : KORF , FAA LID : ORF ) also serves the region . The airport is near the Chesapeake Bay , along the city limits of Norfolk and Virginia Beach . Seven airlines provide nonstop services to 25 destinations . ORF had 3 @,@ 703 @,@ 664 passengers take off or land at its facility and 68 @,@ 778 @,@ 934 pounds of cargo were processed through its facilities . The Chesapeake Regional Airport provides general aviation services and is on the other side of the Hampton Roads Harbor .
Amtrak serves the city with four trains a day . The line runs west along the Virginia Peninsula to Richmond and points beyond . Connecting buses are available to Norfolk and Virginia Beach . A high @-@ speed rail connection at Richmond to the Northeast Corridor and the Southeast High Speed Rail Corridor is under study .
Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound Lines ( Carolina Trailways ) . The bus station is on Warwick Boulevard in the Denbigh area . Transportation in the city , as well as with other major cities of Hampton Roads is served by a regional bus service , Hampton Roads Transit . A connecting service for local routes serving Williamsburg , James City County , and upper York County is operated by Williamsburg Area Transport at Lee Hall .
= = = Utilities = = =
The Newport News Waterworks was begun as a project of Collis P. Huntington as part of the development of the lower peninsula with the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway , the coal piers on the harbor of Hampton Roads , and massive shipyard which were the major sources of industrial growth which helped found Newport News as a new independent city in 1896 . It included initially an impoundment of the Warwick River in western Warwick County . Later expansions included more reservoirs , including one at Skiffe 's Creek and another at Walker 's Dam on the Chickahominy River .
A regional water provider , in modern times it is owned and operated by the City of Newport News , and serves over 400 @,@ 000 people in the cities of Hampton , Newport News , Poquoson , and portions of York County and James City County .
The City provides wastewater services for residents and transports wastewater to the regional Hampton Roads Sanitation District treatment plants .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Newport News is served by two acute care hospitals . The largest facility is Riverside Regional Medical Center ( a part of the Riverside Health System ) and the second is Mary Immaculate Hospital ( a part of the Bon Secours Hampton Roads Health System ) .
Riverside Hospital also known as Riverside Regional Medical Center ( a Regional Referral Hospital ) , began serving the Virginia Peninsula community in 1916 . In 1963 the Riverside Hospital was moved to the present 56 @-@ acre location in Newport News on J. Clyde Morris Boulevard in the heart of the city of Newport News . It completed a $ 104 million expansion and improvement project in 2011 .
In 1952 , Mary Immaculate Hospital opened its doors in the only faith @-@ based hospital on the Peninsula . The Mary Immaculate Hospital is an acute care hospital , and was relocated to the Denbigh area of the city and offers a wide range of services , including minimally invasive surgery , orthopedic services , The Liver Institute of Virginia , and women 's services .
= = Sister cities = =
Newport News has three sister cities :
Neyagawa , Osaka @-@ fu , Japan
Taizhou , Jiangsu , People 's Republic of China
Greifswald , Germany
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= South African War Memorial ( South Australia ) =
The South African War Memorial ( also known as the Boer War Memorial or , prior to 1931 , the National War Memorial ) is an equestrian memorial dedicated to the South Australians who served in the Second Boer War of 11 October 1899 to 31 May 1902 . It was the first war in which South Australians fought , and 1531 men were sent in nine contingents , with over 1500 horses to accompany them . Over 59 South Australians died in the war .
The memorial is located in front of the main entrance to Government House , one of the most prominent buildings in Adelaide , on the corner of North Terrace and King William Street . It was constructed with a budget of £ 2500 raised through public donations , and was designed by the London @-@ based sculptor Adrian Jones . While the statue itself was not intended to represent any particular soldier , there is evidence suggesting that the head of the rider was based on that of George Henry Goodall .
The statue was unveiled by the Governor of South Australia , George Le Hunte , on 6 June 1904 . It has since become one of the focal points for the Anzac day marches , as well as being regarded as one of the most " eye @-@ catching " and significant statues in the city . As such , it was added to the national heritage listing in 1990 .
= = Background = =
In 1899 , the Orange Free State and Transvaal declared war on Britain . South Australia , " fiercely " loyal to the British Empire and still " two years away from federation " , joined the other Australian colonies in sending troops to support the Empire in the conflict . With the support of Adelaide 's newspapers , nine contingents of South Australian troops were sent to the war during the three years of hostilities , totaling 1531 men and 1507 horses . Funding for the endeavor was garnered through the State and Imperial Governments in combination with funds raised through public subscriptions . In addition to the formal contingent , a number of Australians served as colonial troops , either having paid their way to Southern Africa after the conflict had begun or having already been present in the region prior to the outbreak of hostilities . By the time hostilities ended on 31 May 1902 , at least 59 South Australians had been killed in the war .
= = Design and construction = =
A committee to build a memorial to those who served and died in the Second Boer War was formed shortly after the war was ended , spurred by a suggestion in July 1901 by J. Johnson to erect an equestrian statue . Chaired by George Brookman , the committee rapidly raised £ 2500 from public donations . With the assistance of the Agent @-@ General , Henry A Grainger , a subcommittee consisting of members who were present in London at the time was engaged to find a sculptor who would be able to provide the statue that they desired . The original intent of the committee was to purchase a secondhand statue and to make alterations to suit . Nevertheless , the Agent @-@ General recommended Captain Adrian Jones , a veterinarian , military officer and sculptor who had an " affinity for animals " , and who had previously worked on equestrian projects . Jones made two offers to the committee : the first was to construct a replica of a work that he had entered into a South African competition , on the condition that it would be cast only if the original was accepted ; while the second was to model a smaller work based on a sketch he had produced . The second option he priced at £ 1600 , arguing that the reduced cost was acceptable as it would allow him to keep his staff in employment until the larger South African commission was finalized . The committee were quite taken by his sketch , agreeing to the second option and looking no further .
Finding that he needed advice in regard to accouterments and the attitude of Australian soldiers , Jones made inquiries about consulting with an Australian . George Henry Goodall , a South Australian veteran of the Second Boer War , was at the time serving as Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant with the Australian Corps engaged in London at the coronation ceremonies for King Edward VII . Goodall was " volunteered " to attend Jones in order to model and to provide advice . Goodall later described how Jones had requested that he pose while the sculptor created a clay model of his head , but Simon Cameron observed that Jones 's memoirs " do not mention any sittings . " Nevertheless , a 1940 memorandum , based on a conversation with Goodall , noted that " a comparison of a photograph of Mr Goodall , taken in 1902 with the statue itself certainly indicates a strong facial likeness " . In the same memorandum it was noted that Goodall only posed for the head , and that he insisted that his selection to model for the statue was not based on any outstanding merit as a soldier .
With the choice of statues settled , a competition was run in Adelaide in 1903 to find the design for the pedestal . A total of 12 entries were received , with the submission by Garlick , Sibley and Wooldridge being selected as the winner . The pedestal is 12 feet in height , and was constructed from granite quarried from the nearby town of Murray Bridge .
The bronze plaques which are mounted on the sides of the pedestal list the names of 59 South Australians who died in the conflict , and were cast from gun plates by A. W. Dobbie and Company . ( A. W. Dobbie and Company were later responsible for the bronze castings on the South Australian National War Memorial to those who served in World War I ) . A further 16 South Australians died in relation to the Boer War , while an additional four died either during training or upon their return . Also missing from the list is Harry " Breaker " Morant , who had served in the second contingent of troops to be sent from South Australia , and was executed by the British after being found guilty by court martial of the murder of unarmed Boer troops . There was no controversy at the time in regard to his omission , although the decision not to include his companion Peter Handcock ( who was executed alongside Morant ) on the Bathurst , New South Wales , memorial was more problematic , and was rescinded in 1964 .
The memorial is located in front of Government House on the corner of North Terrace and King William Street , one of the busiest corners in the city .
= = Unveiling = =
The memorial was unveiled on 6 June 1904 . This date was significant both as the birthday of the then Prince of Wales , George V , and the third anniversary of the Battle of Graspan , ( in which South Australian soldiers had served ) . A large crowd gathered to view the unveiling , and the speakers included the chair of the memorial committee , George Brookman , and George Le Hunte , the Governor of South Australia . The memorial itself was shrouded by canvas and the Union Jack , which fell away to reveal the statue underneath .
At the time of the unveiling the memorial was referred to as the South Australian " National War Memorial " , but the name was later changed to the South African War Memorial after the 1931 completion of a new memorial on the corner of Kintore Avenue and North Terrace , which was built to remember those who served in the first World War .
When it was unveiled , the South African War Memorial was one of only two public equestrian sculptures in the country ( the other being a depiction of Saint George and the Dragon at the National Gallery of Victoria ) , and the only commemorative equestrian work .
= = Reception = =
The memorial has been well received from the outset . When shown sketches the design , one of the Adelaide contingent described it as " spirited " – a word that was echoed by King Edward VII upon being shown a photograph of the model that was produced . When the completed statue arrived in Adelaide in 1904 , the committee was reportedly delighted , and many in Australia viewed it as the best statue in the country .
In more recent times , Ken Inglis has described the work as the " apotheosis " of the bushman soldier , representing the bushman and the horse at war ( the " Australian centaur " ) , and noted that it was possible to view the memorial as commemorating " dead horses as well as dead men " . Simon Cameron , in his work " Silent Witness : Adelaide 's statues and monuments " , described the memorial as the most eye @-@ catching statue in Adelaide , a view that was echoed by Chris Brice in 1999 . More generally , the memorial is regarded as one of " Adelaide 's most significant statues " . The statue received national heritage listing in 1990 , having been described both as a " significant landmark " and an " important piece of public sculpture of its period . "
= = The memorial today = =
After World War I the memorial became one of the centerpieces of the Adelaide Anzac Day march . The route for the march starts at the National War Memorial , heads west along North Terrace , and turns right down King William Road before culminating in a service at the Cross of Sacrifice ( in the Adelaide Park Lands opposite the St Peter 's Cathedral ) . As the marchers turn on to King William Road they salute the South African War Memorial .
As part of the State of South Australia 's sesqui @-@ centenerary in 1986 , referred to locally as " Jubilee 150 " , a " Jubilee 150 Walkway " was created along the north side of North Terrace , commencing at the memorial .
The memorial 's location on a busy street corner has caused it to deteriorate , resulting in at least two recent clean @-@ up and restoration projects . The first involved a clean @-@ up of the granite base , while the second involved more extensive restoration , and was completed in April , 2007 at a cost of $ 90 @,@ 000 .
A commemoration ceremony for the memorial was to be held on the 100th Anniversary of its dedication , 6 June 2004 , with the Governor Marjorie Jackson @-@ Nelson in attendance .
In recent years there has been talk of building a replica of the memorial . On 31 May 2008 on ANZAC Parade , Canberra , the formal dedication of a site in which will be placed a new national Boer War memorial was held . A National Boer War Memorial Committee was formed prior to that date , and they will be conducting a national competition to find a design for the new memorial . In the design brief for the memorial , the committee state that it is their desire to build a memorial along the same lines as Adelaide 's : going so far as to say that they would be willing to accept a replica of the statue from the South Australian memorial if the original mould could be located or if a duplicate could otherwise be produced .
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= Maximilian Kolbe =
Maximilian Maria Kolbe , O.F.M. Conv . ( Polish : Maksymilian Maria Kolbe [ maksɨˌmʲilʲjan ˌmarʲja ˈkɔlbɛ ] ; 8 January 1894 – 14 August 1941 ) was a Polish Conventual Franciscan friar , who volunteered to die in place of a stranger in the German death camp of Auschwitz , located in German @-@ occupied Poland during World War II . He was active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary , founding and supervising the monastery of Niepokalanów near Warsaw , operating a radio station , and founding or running several other organizations and publications .
Kolbe was canonized on 10 October 1982 by Pope John Paul II , and declared a martyr of charity . He is the patron saint of drug addicts , political prisoners , families , journalists , prisoners , and the pro @-@ life movement . John Paul II declared him " The Patron Saint of Our Difficult Century " .
Due to Kolbe 's efforts to promote consecration and entrustment to Mary , he is known as the Apostle of Consecration to Mary .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Raymund Kolbe was born on 8 January 1894 in Zduńska Wola , in the Kingdom of Poland , which was a part of the Russian Empire , the second son of weaver Julius Kolbe and midwife Maria Dąbrowska . His father was an ethnic German and his mother was Polish . He had four brothers . Shortly after his birth , his family moved to Pabianice .
Kolbe 's life was strongly influenced in 1906 by a childhood vision of the Virgin Mary . He later described this incident :
That night I asked the Mother of God what was to become of me . Then she came to me holding two crowns , one white , the other red . She asked me if I was willing to accept either of these crowns . The white one meant that I should persevere in purity , and the red that I should become a martyr . I said that I would accept them both .
= = = Franciscan friar = = =
In 1907 , Kolbe and his elder brother Francis joined the Conventual Franciscans . They enrolled at the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in Lwow later that year . In 1910 , Kolbe was allowed to enter the novitiate , where he was given the religious name Maximilian . He professed his first vows in 1911 , and final vows in 1914 , adopting the additional name of Maria ( Mary ) .
Kolbe was sent to Rome in 1912 , where he attended the Pontifical Gregorian University . He earned a doctorate in philosophy in 1915 there . From 1915 he continued his studies at the Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure where he earned a doctorate in theology in 1919 or 1922 ( sources vary ) . He was active in the consecration and entrustment to Mary . During his time as a student , he witnessed vehement demonstrations against Popes St. Pius X and Benedict XV in Rome during an anniversary celebration by the Freemasons . According to Kolbe ,
They placed the black standard of the " Giordano Brunisti " under the windows of the Vatican . On this standard the archangel , St. Michael , was depicted lying under the feet of the triumphant Lucifer . At the same time , countless pamphlets were distributed to the people in which the Holy Father ( i.e. , the Pope ) was attacked shamefully .
Soon afterward , Kolbe organized the Militia Immaculata ( Army of the Immaculate One ) , to work for conversion of sinners and enemies of the Catholic Church , specifically the Freemasons , through the intercession of the Virgin Mary . So serious was Kolbe about this goal that he added to the Miraculous Medal prayer :
O Mary , conceived without sin , pray for us who have recourse to thee . And for all those who do not have recourse to thee ; especially the Masons and all those recommended to thee .
In 1918 , Kolbe was ordained a priest . In July 1919 he returned to the newly independent Poland , where he was active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary . He was strongly opposed to leftist – in particular , communist – movements . From 1919 to 1922 he taught at the Kraków seminary . Around that time , as well as earlier in Rome , he suffered from tuberculosis , which forced him to take a lengthy leave of absence from his teaching duties . In January 1922 he founded the monthly periodical Rycerz Niepokalanej ( Knight of the Immaculate ) , a devotional publication based on French Le Messager du Coeur de Jesus ( Messenger of the Heart of Jesus ) . From 1922 to 1926 he operated a religious publishing press in Grodno . As his activities grew in scope , in 1927 he founded a new Conventual Franciscan monastery at Niepokalanów near Warsaw , which became a major religious publishing center . A junior seminary was opened there two years later .
Between 1930 and 1936 , Kolbe undertook a series of missions to East Asia . At first , he arrived in Shanghai , China , but failed to gather a following there . Next , he moved to Japan , where by 1931 he founded a monastery at the outskirts of Nagasaki ( it later gained a novitiate and a seminary ) and started publishing a Japanese edition of the Knight of the Immaculate ( Seibo no Kishi ) . The monastery he founded remains prominent in the Roman Catholic Church in Japan . Kolbe built the monastery on a mountainside that , according to Shinto beliefs , was not the side best suited to be in harmony with nature . When the atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki , Kolbe 's monastery was saved because the other side of the mountain took the main force of the blast . In mid @-@ 1932 he left Japan for Malabar , India , where he founded another monastery ; this one however closed after a while . Meanwhile , the monastery at Niepokalanów began in his absence to publish the daily newspaper , Mały Dziennik ( The Little Daily ) , in alliance with the political group , the National Radical Camp ( Obóz Narodowo Radykalny ) . This publication reached a circulation of 137 @,@ 000 , and nearly double that , 225 @,@ 000 , on weekends .
Poor health forced Kolbe to return to Poland in 1936 . Two years later , in 1938 , he started a radio station at Niepokalanów , the Radio Niepokalanów . He held an amateur radio licence , with the call sign SP3RN .
= = = Death at Auschwitz = = =
After the outbreak of World War II , which started with the invasion of Poland by Germany , Kolbe was one of the few brothers who remained in the monastery , where he organized a temporary hospital . After the town was captured by the Germans , he was briefly arrested by them on 19 September but released on 8 December . He refused to sign the Deutsche Volksliste , which would have given him rights similar to those of German citizens in exchange for recognizing his German ancestry . Upon his release he continued work at his monastery , where he and other monks provided shelter to refugees from Greater Poland , including 2 @,@ 000 Jews whom he hid from German persecution in their friary in Niepokalanów . Kolbe also received permission to continue publishing religious works , though significantly reduced in scope . The monastery thus continued to act as a publishing house , issuing a number of anti @-@ Nazi German publications . On 17 February 1941 , the monastery was shut down by the German authorities . That day Kolbe and four others were arrested by the German Gestapo and imprisoned in the Pawiak prison . On 28 May , he was transferred to Auschwitz as prisoner # 16670 .
Continuing to act as a priest , Kolbe was subjected to violent harassment , including beating and lashings , and once had to be smuggled to a prison hospital by friendly inmates . At the end of July 1941 , three prisoners disappeared from the camp , prompting SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Karl Fritzsch , the deputy camp commander , to pick 10 men to be starved to death in an underground bunker to deter further escape attempts . When one of the selected men , Franciszek Gajowniczek , cried out , " My wife ! My children ! " , Kolbe volunteered to take his place .
According to an eye witness , an assistant janitor at that time , in his prison cell , Kolbe led the prisoners in prayer to Our Lady . Each time the guards checked on him , he was standing or kneeling in the middle of the cell and looking calmly at those who entered . After two weeks of dehydration and starvation , only Kolbe remained alive . “ The guards wanted the bunker emptied , so they gave Kolbe a lethal injection of carbolic acid . Kolbe is said to have raised his left arm and calmly waited for the deadly injection . His remains were cremated on 15 August , the feast day of the Assumption of Mary .
= = Canonization = =
On 12 May 1955 , Kolbe was recognized as the Servant of God . Kolbe was declared venerable by Pope Paul VI on 30 January 1969 , beatified as a Confessor of the Faith by the same Pope in 1971 and canonized as a saint by Pope John Paul II on 10 October 1982 . Upon canonization , the Pope declared St. Maximilian Kolbe not a confessor , but a martyr . The miracle which was used to confirm his beatification was the July 1948 cure of intestinal tuberculosis in Angela Testoni , and in August 1950 , the cure of calcification of the arteries / sclerosis of Francis Ranier was attributed to Kolbe 's intercession .
After his canonization , St. Maximilian Kolbe 's feast day was added to the General Roman Calendar . He is one of ten 20th @-@ century martyrs who are depicted in statues above the Great West Door of Westminster Abbey , London .
= = = Controversies = = =
Kolbe 's recognition as a Christian martyr also created some controversy within the Catholic Church . While his ultimate self @-@ sacrifice of his life was most certainly saintly and heroic , he was not killed strictly speaking out of odium fidei ( hatred of the faith ) , but as the result of an act of Christian charity . Pope Paul VI himself had recognized this distinction at his beatification by naming him a Confessor and giving him the unofficial title " martyr of charity " . Pope John Paul II , however , when deciding to canonize him , overruled the commission he had established ( which agreed with the earlier assessment of heroic charity ) , wishing to make the point that the systematic hatred of ( whole categories of ) humanity propagated by the Nazi regime was in itself inherently an act of hatred of religious ( Christian ) faith , meaning Kolbe 's death equated to martyrdom .
Kolbe has also been accused of antisemitism based on the content of newspapers he was involved with , as they printed articles about topics such as a Zionist plot for world domination . Slovenian sociologist Slavoj Žižek criticized Kolbe 's activities as " writing and organizing mass propaganda for the Catholic Church , with a clear anti @-@ Semitic and anti @-@ Masonic edge . " However , a number of writers pointed out that the " Jewish question played a very minor role in Kolbe 's thought and work " . On those grounds allegations of Kolbe 's antisemitism have been denounced by Holocaust scholars Daniel L. Schlafly , Jr. and Warren Green , among others .
During World War II Kolbe 's monastery at Niepokalanów sheltered Jewish refugees , and , according to a testimony of a local : " When Jews came to me asking for a piece of bread , I asked Father Maximilian if I could give it to them in good conscience , and he answered me , ' Yes , it is necessary to do this , because all men are our brothers . ' "
Nonetheless Kolbe has been " often vilified in Jewish literature as an avowed anti @-@ Semite " , despite " hundreds of testimonials of gratitude for the assistance ... several from the survivors of the Polish Jewish community " . Kolbe 's alleged antisemitism was a source of the controversy in the 1980s in the aftermath of his canonization . Kolbe is not recognized as Righteous Among the Nations .
= = = Relics = = =
First @-@ class relics of Kolbe exist , in the form of hairs from his head and beard , preserved without his knowledge by two friars at Niepokalanów who served as barbers in his friary between 1930 and 1941 . Since his beatification in 1971 , more than 1 @,@ 000 such relics have been distributed around the world for public veneration . Second @-@ class relics such as his personal effects , clothing and liturgical vestments , are preserved in his monastery cell and in a chapel at Niepokalanów , and may be viewed by visitors .
= = Influence = =
Kolbe 's influence has found fertile ground in his own Order of Conventual Franciscan friars , in the form of continued existence of the Militia Immaculatae movement . In recent years new religious and secular institutes have been founded , inspired from this spiritual way . Among these the Missionaries of the Immaculate Mary – Father Kolbe , the Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate , and a parallel congregation of Religious Sisters , and others . The Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate are even taught basic Polish so they can sing the traditional hymns sung by Kolbe , in the saint 's native tongue . According to the friars ,
Our patron , St. Maximilian Kolbe , inspires us with his unique Mariology and apostolic mission , which is to bring all souls to the Sacred Heart of Christ through the Immaculate Heart of Mary , Christ 's most pure , efficient , and holy instrument of evangelization – especially those most estranged from the Church .
Kolbe 's views into Marian theology echo today through their influence on Vatican II . His image may be found in churches across Europe . Several churches in Poland are under his patronage , such as the Sanctuary of Saint Maxymilian in Zduńska Wola or the Church of Saint Maxymilian Kolbe in Szczecin . A museum , Museum of St. Maximilian Kolbe " There was a Man " , was opened in Niepokalanów in 1998 .
In 1963 Rolf Hochhuth published a play significantly influenced by Kolbe 's life and dedicated to him , The Deputy . In 2000 , the National Conference of Catholic Bishops ( U.S. ) designated Marytown , home to a community of Conventual Franciscan friars , as the National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe . Marytown is located in Libertyville , Illinois , and also features the Kolbe Holocaust Exhibit . The Polish Senate declared the year 2011 to be the year of Maximilian Kolbe .
= = Immaculata prayer = =
Kolbe composed the Immaculata prayer as a prayer of consecration to the Immaculata , i.e. the immaculately conceived Virgin Mary .
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= Carletonomys =
Carletonomys cailoi is an extinct rodent from the Pleistocene of Buenos Aires Province , Argentina . Although known only from a single maxilla ( upper jaw ) with the first molar , its features are so distinctive that it is placed in its own genus , Carletonomys . Discovered in 1998 and formally described in 2008 , it is part of a well @-@ defined group of oryzomyine rodents that also includes Holochilus , Noronhomys , Lundomys , and Pseudoryzomys . This group is characterized by progressive semiaquatic specializations and a reduction in the complexity of molar morphology .
The single known molar is high @-@ crowned ( hypsodont ) and flat @-@ crowned ( planar ) and is distinctive in lacking the ridge that connects the front to the middle part of the molar , the anterior mure , and in the configuration of another ridge , the mesoloph . Carletonomys was probably herbivorous and lived in a wet habitat .
= = Taxonomy = =
Carletonomys cailoi was discovered in 1998 in a silt deposit in San Cayetano Partido , southeastern Buenos Aires Province . The stratigraphic context suggests this locality is slightly over 1 million years old ( Ensenadan South American Land Mammal Age ) , making Carletonomys the oldest known oryzomyine . The single known specimen is now in the collections of the Museo de La Plata . It was initially referred to the genus Noronhomys , which is currently known only from the island of Fernando de Noronha off northeastern Brazil , but in 2008 Argentinean mammalogist Ulyses Pardiñas established it as the holotype of a new genus and species of rodent in a publication in the Journal of Mammalogy . The generic name , Carletonomys , combines the name of American mammalogist Michael Carleton with the Ancient Greek μυς mys " mouse " and the specific name , cailoi , honors Argentinean biologist Carlos " Cailo " Galliari .
The fossil has a number of features that suggest a relation to a group of oryzomyine rodents that includes the South American marsh rat Holochilus , its living relatives Lundomys and Pseudoryzomys , and the extinct Noronhomys and Holochilus primigenus . They share high @-@ crowned ( hypsodont ) molars and several simplifications of molar morphology , as well as other features that cannot be assessed in Carletonomys , which indicate specializations towards a semiaquatic lifestyle . It shows the most similarity to Noronhomys and Holochilus , so much so that Pardiñas considered placing it in either of these two genera , but its distinctive morphological features justify placement in a separate genus .
This group of genera encompasses only a small part of the diversity of the tribe Oryzomyini , a group of over a hundred species distributed mainly in South America , including nearby islands such as the Galápagos Islands and some of the Antilles . Oryzomyini is one of several tribes recognized within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which encompasses hundreds of species found across South America and into southern North America . Sigmodontinae itself is the largest subfamily of the family Cricetidae , other members of which include voles , lemmings , hamsters , and deermice , all mainly from Eurasia and North America .
= = Description = =
The holotype is a right maxilla ( upper jaw ) with the upper first molar ( M1 ) in it . It is broken off behind the M1 , but much of the front part is preserved , including the zygomatic plate , the flattened front portion of the zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) . The M1 is moderately worn , indicating that it is from an adult individual . With an M1 length of 3 @.@ 59 mm and width of 2 @.@ 53 mm , C. cailoi was one of the largest oryzomyines known , rivaled only by Lundomys and the extinct Antillean Megalomys and " Ekbletomys " . The height of the M1 is 1 @.@ 37 mm and it has four roots , including a large one in front , another large one on the inner ( lingual ) side , and two smaller ones on the outer ( labial ) side . The presence of a second labial root is a variable character among oryzomyines , occurring among others in Holochilus and Pseudoryzomys but not in Lundomys . The maxilla itself shows few significant characters . The back margin of the incisive foramen , which perforates the palate between the upper incisors and the molars , is not visible , suggesting that the foramen was short , as in Holochilus . The configuration of the zygomatic plate shows features that distinguish C. cailoi from some of its relatives .
The molar is plane and hypsodont : the crowns are relatively high and the main cusps are about as high as the other parts of the crown , as they are in Holochilus . Most other oryzomyines have bunodont and brachydont molars , in which the crowns are lower and the cusps are higher than the rest of the crown . As in closely related species , the front part of the molar is relatively simple , lacking an anteroloph , an additional ridge that is well @-@ developed in most oryzomyines . A shallow anteromedian flexus is present , superficially dividing the front cusp ( anterocone ) . Uniquely , the anterior mure , which connects the anterocone to the rest of the crown , is absent ; although this structure is sometimes missing in young individuals of other oryzomyines , it usually develops as a result of wear in adults . The two cusps on the middle part of the molar , the paracone and the protocone , are broadly connected . The median mure , which connects the middle to the back pair of cusps , is attached to the back of the paracone . A complete mesoloph is present , descending from the median mure slightly behind the paracone . The configuration of the paracone – median mure – mesoloph complex is unique to Carletonomys . The two posterior cusps , the hypocone and the metacone , are connected at the back margin of the molar . Unlike in most oryzomyines , no posteroflexus is present , so that the metacone is situated directly at the back margin .
= = Ecology = =
Carletonomys was found in association with remains of several other animals , including fishes , chelid turtles , frogs , birds , armadillos , and several rodents , including Reithrodon auritus , the coypu ( Myocastor ) , both of which still live in the area , the extinct echimyid Dicolpomys , and unidentified caviids and octodontids . C. cailoi probably lived in a wetland habitat under relatively warm and moist climatic conditions . Although the limited material known permits few inferences as to the animal 's natural history , it likely fed on hard plant material , as do related , morphologically similar extant species .
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= Codename : Gordon =
Codename : Gordon ( also known as Half @-@ Life 2D ) is a 2D side @-@ scrolling shooter video game made by Paul " X @-@ Tender " Kamma and Sönke " Warbeast " Seidel . The game was produced on behalf of Nuclearvision Entertainment , and was distributed free of charge over Valve Corporation 's Steam online delivery system as a promotional title for the then @-@ upcoming Half @-@ Life 2 . The game has since been removed from Steam 's storefront due to factors related to the developer 's bankruptcy .
The game started off as a fan project of Paul Kamma and Sönke Seidel , the concept being inspired by various Half @-@ Life 2 advertisements . Soon after , the two started working on Codename : Gordon on behalf of Nuclearvision Entertainment . The company also presented the game to Valve , the developer team of the original Half @-@ Life series , who later distributed the game through Steam .
Codename : Gordon has been overall well received by both reviewers , and the public , the game attracting over 600 @,@ 000 players in the first three weeks after its release . Reviewers appreciated the game for its gameplay and unique dialog style , but also criticized it for its improper optimization , and lack of opponent variety .
= = Plot = =
Codename : Gordon presents an alternative to the storyline of Half @-@ Life 2 , with locations inspired by both Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 . Along the way , Gordon Freeman — the protagonist from the canon games — meets with some of the main characters of the Half @-@ Life series and tries to find what caused the disappearance of the third dimension .
The game starts with Gordon Freeman in a dock area . After making his way through a few zombies and headcrabs , Gordon meets with Barney Calhoun , a prominent character in the later Half @-@ Life titles . He tells Gordon of an " entire dimension " missing and also notes that the science team is working on solving the problem . Being injured , Barney cannot leave the place , so he gives Gordon his pistol , telling him to leave without him .
In the second chapter , the player meets with Eli Vance and his daughter Alyx who tell Gordon to take their car , which will help him reach City 17 , as seemingly it is the center of the problem . They also tell him to talk to Dr. Kleiner , about his new invention , the gravity gun . Soon after , the player finds Dr. Kleiner , who tells Gordon about his worries regarding the missing dimension and also gives him the gravity gun mentioned by Eli and Alyx .
After being attacked by an alien gunship and getting past a prison heavily guarded by Combine soldiers , Gordon manages to reach City 17 , where he finds the G @-@ Man . He tells the player he has been expecting him and claims to not be behind the situation regarding the missing dimension , instead he says he is but a " lowly pawn in a shady game being played by sinister powers " . Soon after , Gordon confronts a strider — a large tripod assault unit — which turns out to be the source of the problem , as upon defeating it a portal is opened ; stepping into this portal , Gordon is sent back to the third dimension .
= = Gameplay = =
Just as in Half @-@ Life 2 , the player takes control of Gordon Freeman . However , unlike the other games in the Half @-@ Life series , Codename : Gordon is set in a two @-@ dimensional world . The sidescroller shooter game offers the player the ability to control Gordon by using the keyboard for movement , and the mouse for aiming and firing weapons .
Armed with various weapons , including the trademark crowbar , and the gravity gun introduced by Half @-@ Life 2 , the player makes their way around six levels encountering enemies such as zombies , headcrabs , and the Combine . Similarly to the main titles in the Half @-@ Life series , the action sequences of the gameplay are broken up by various puzzles .
Along the way the player meets with some of the key characters of the main series , who communicate with Gordon through text dialog , as the game does not feature voice acting . Unlike the core games of the Half @-@ Life series , in Codename : Gordon the player is able to participate interactively in the dialog , by using emoticons , such as : ] , : - ) , each associated with a different type of answer .
Upon finishing Codename : Gordon , a new bonus game is unlocked , called " Crow Chase " , in which the player has to try and gather as many points as possible , within a given time limit , by chasing crows , in an attempt to keep them in the air for as long as possible .
= = Production and publication = =
Development on Codename : Gordon began in mid @-@ 2003 . The game started as a fan project of Paul " X @-@ Tender " Kamma , responsible for the software coding , and Sönke " Warbeast " Seidel , responsible for the game graphics . The game was created using Macromedia Flash , the reason for this choice being the developers ' familiarity with the software . The initial intention was to create a platform game , the setting only being decided upon after noticing various pre @-@ release advertisements of Valve 's Half @-@ Life 2 video game . Soon after the project 's initiation the game was noticed by Tim Bruns , co @-@ founder of Nuclearvision Entertainment , whose company then started working on Codename : Gordon together with Kamma and Seidel .
Originally the game was planned to be released for the Nintendo DS portable console ; this decision has been changed only after Nuclearvision Entertainment had contact with Valve Corporation . Being positive about the game , the producers of the Half @-@ Life series begun offering aid in the development of Codename : Gordon , Doug Wood overseeing the project on behalf of Valve . The game was released on 17 May 2004 , and was distributed freely on Valve 's Steam online delivery system , as a form of publicity for the , at that time , upcoming Half @-@ Life 2 . As stated by Gabe Newell , the game was originally supposed to be released on 1 April as an April Fools ' Day joke , with Codename : Gordon supposedly being Valve 's Half @-@ Life 2 .
Originally we were going to release it on April 1st . I even wrote a fake press release that went something like , ' Due to tremendous pressure from the gaming community to ship Half @-@ Life 2 , we looked long and hard at the game to see if there was anything we could cut that would let us ship sooner . It looked like if we cut the third dimension , we 'd be all set , so after five years in development , Valve and Nuclearvision proudly present Half @-@ Life 2D . ' Fortunately saner minds prevailed .
Codename : Gordon was initially meant to receive several updates , including a second bonus game which could be unlocked after finishing the game , however Paul Kamma announced that the update was eventually canceled . The game was eventually removed from the Steam storefront in February 2008 following the liquidation of developer Nuclearvision Entertainment .
= = Reception = =
The game received much attention from the community , even before its release to the public ; as noted by Tim Bruns , art director of Nuclearvision Entertainment , the game attracted over 600 @,@ 000 players in the first three weeks of its release . Bruns declared himself surprised by this number , and said that " the ability to reach this many gamers almost overnight is amazing " .
Codename : Gordon has received overall good reviews from game critics . Home of the Underdogs , described it as being " one of the best fangames " . The game has also been widely appreciated for its inclusion of the gravity gun , Gameplanet saying that it " works as advertised , and is indeed , pretty [ cool ] " ,
However the game has received negative feedback as well . Home of the Underdogs complained about the game 's high system requirements , considering its complexity , a 1 @.@ 6 GHz processor or higher being necessary in order to play . The game has also been criticized for its lack of opponent variety , and simple but awkward control scheme , as well as its lack of a save function .
= = Removal from Steam = =
The game was taken off of the Steam Store because of issues with the website banner built into the game . The original developers ( due to their bankruptcy ) allowed the domain to expire , and it was purchased for advertising use . This led to the site containing links to pornographic content and viruses . The game is still obtainable through Steam through the obscure method of entering steam : / / install / 92 in a web browser 's address field after installing the Steam client or by enabling the steam developer console and typing " app _ install 92 " .
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= Smith @-@ Harris House ( East Lyme , Connecticut ) =
The Smith @-@ Harris House , listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Thomas Avery House , is a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story clapboarded Greek Revival home on Society Road in East Lyme , Connecticut . It is believed that the farmhouse was built in 1845 @-@ 1846 as a wedding gift for Thomas Avery and Elizabeth Griswold . It remained in the Avery family until 1877 when it was purchased by William H. Smith . By the 1890s , the farm was managed by Smith 's younger brother , Herman W. Smith and nephew , Frank A. Harris . In 1900 , the two married Lula and Florence Munger , sisters , and both resided in the house . In 1955 , the house was sold to the Town of East Lyme and the sisters continued to live in the house until requiring a nursing home . The house was saved from demolition by citizens and restored . It opened on July 3 , 1976 , as a historic house museum , operated and maintained by the Smith @-@ Harris House Commission and the Friends of Smith @-@ Harris House . It is open from June through August and throughout the year by appointment . The Smith @-@ Harris house was added to the National Historic Register of Places on August 22 , 1979 .
= = History = =
The Smith @-@ Harris House is believed to have been preceded by another dwelling that was used in the original construction . The Avery family was originally in the area from at least 1751 and the property and the surrounding farm was consolidated under Jonathan Avery 's son , Abraham Avery . It is believed , through a newspaper discovered in the wall and other records that the house was built in 1845 @-@ 1846 as a wedding gift for Thomas Avery and Elizabeth Griswold . The house remained in the Avery family until 1877 when it was sold to William H. Smith .
By the 1890s , the farm was managed by Smith 's younger brother , Herman W. Smith and nephew , Frank A. Harris . In 1900 , the two married Lula and Florence Munger , sisters , and both resided in the house . William H. Smith deeded the house to his brother and nephew in 1921 . Smith died in 1951 and his widow and Frank Harris , shortly before his death , sold the house and the 103 acres ( 41 @.@ 6 hectare ) of land to the Town of East Lyme for $ 34 @,@ 000 . The two widows continued to live in the house until they went to a nursing home . The land served as a farm under the Avery family including a dairy and cattle farm ; the dairy farm would continue to operate under the Harris family . Portions of the land were later used for the construction of Interstate 95 and two East Lyme schools . The two schools are the East Lyme Junior High School ( East Lyme Middle School ) and Lillie B. Haines Elementary School .
= = Design = =
The Smith @-@ Harris House is a two @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half story clapboarded Greek Revival house with a pedimented gable on the front facade . The house is composed of a two @-@ and @-@ one half story 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) by 45 feet ( 14 m ) block and a single @-@ story 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) kitchen wing . It retains the original clapboarding with horizontal flush on the facade . The front facade has a typical three @-@ bay design with the entrance supported by pilasters with squared , recessed panels for the main door frame and frieze . The entrance porch is not original , it was replaced as part of the restoration effort and its design originates from previous photographs . The foundation is made of locally @-@ sourced granite slabs and includes a full basement . The square gable windows feature small panes in wooden muntins . All windows retain their original double @-@ hung sash with 6 @-@ over @-@ 6 windows , except for the rear windows on the second floor . The one @-@ story kitchen wing has a pitched lean @-@ to roof . Another part of the restoration was the open porch that replaced an ell . At the time of its National Historic Register of Places nomination , the gable roof was covered with cedar shingles as part of the restoration effort .
Passing through the entrance leads to the stairhall , with the on the right stairs side and a doorway leading to the parlor on the left . The back of the stairwell leads to another room that connects to a side @-@ room on the left and into the kitchen . The kitchen features access to the other rooms , a back entrance , a back stairway and a separate kitchen pantry in the rear wing . The interior is designed with the lines and moldings of the Greek Revival styling . The fireplace has a simple projecting mantel and the walls are plain with plastered walls and cornice moldings . In adherence to fire code standards , the rear chimney was rebuilt , yet " accurately reproduces the large bake oven . " The second floor is similar to the first floor except the rear rooms have been converted to bedrooms . Cleary believes that the boards used to finish the attic stairway and part of the attic may come from the replaced ell , which possibly was from a previous house on the site .
= = Operation as a museum = =
After the deaths of the widows , the house was boarded up and repeatedly vandalized . The Town of East Lyme considered destroying the house for municipal purposes , but citizens successfully petitioned and restored it . The Smith @-@ Harris House opened as a historic house museum on July 3 , 1976 . The restoration the addition of murals painted by the Connecticut Society of Decorative Painters in the style of Rufus Porter . The website notes that " [ t ] hese murals are meant to show visitors a decorative style that was available in the mid 19th century and not meant to be exactly what was in this house at that time . " Currently , the Smith @-@ Harris House Commission , created by the town to maintain the property , has incorporated the Friends of Smith @-@ Harris House into the care of the property . The house is open from June through August and throughout the year by appointment . The Smith @-@ Harris House was added to the National Historic Register of Places on August 22 , 1979 .
= = Gallery = =
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= Valley Girls =
" Valley Girls " is the twenty @-@ fourth episode of the second season of The CW television series Gossip Girl . The episode served as a backdoor pilot for a potential Gossip Girl spin @-@ off series set in the 1980s , entitled Valley Girls . The episode was directed by Mark Piznarski and written by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage ( this was the first episode of the series since " Much ' I Do ' About Nothing " to be co @-@ written by Schwartz ) . It was filmed on location in New York City , New York and in Los Angeles , California . References to elements of 1980s popular culture were heavily accentuated in the episode , which the producers hoped would bridge the generation gap between the characters and audience . " Valley Girls " aired on the CW in the United States on May 11 , 2009 and was viewed live by an audience of 2 @.@ 31 million Americans . Although the episode received generally positive reviews , the spin @-@ off series was not picked up .
" Valley Girls " provides insight on the mysterious past of character Lily van der Woodsen ( played by Kelly Rutherford as an adult and Brittany Snow as a teenager ) through a series of flashbacks to her life as a teenager in the 1980s . In the past , Lily runs away from her wealthy parents to live in the San Fernando Valley with her sister Carol Rhodes ( Krysten Ritter ) , the black sheep of the family . In the present , Lily 's daughter Serena van der Woodsen ( Blake Lively ) rebels against her mother while her classmates prepare for the Prom . The episode introduces the main cast of Valley Girls as guest actors .
= = Plot summary = =
To prove she is able to handle her own affairs , Serena refuses to leave jail with either Lily or CeCe ( Caroline Lagerfelt ) although Lily drops the charges on which she had Serena arrested . Rufus ( Matthew Settle ) is also angry with Lily for Serena 's arrest ; Dan ( Penn Badgley ) and Jenny ( Taylor Momsen ) inform Vanessa ( Jessica Szohr ) that Rufus returned home without proposing to Lily , and he has remained in his bedroom ever since . Lily feuds with CeCe for telling Rufus about their lovechild . From jail , Serena encourages Blair ( Leighton Meester ) to enjoy prom with Nate ( Chace Crawford ) in the way Blair had chronicled in a scrapbook as a preteen , but each of the couple ’ s prom plans , such as the limo , hotel reservation and Blair 's dress , inexplicably go awry . Nate suspects Chuck ( Ed Westwick ) of sabotaging the prom in an effort to win Blair back , but Chuck denies involvement . Dan convinces Serena to allow him to pay her bail and escort her to the Prom .
At the Prom , Chuck foils a plot by Penelope ( Amanda Setton ) , Hazel ( Dreama Walker ) , Isabel ( Nicole Fiscella ) , and Nelly Yuki ( Yin Chang ) to humiliate Blair during Prom royalty elections . Chuck admits to Serena and Dan that he has secretly been altering Nate and Blair ’ s Prom night in order to recreate the scenes from Blair 's Prom scrapbook . Meanwhile , Blair feels disconcerted while dancing with Nate and ends their relationship by the end of the night . Blair explains to Serena that after completing high school with Nate , he feels like simply a high school boyfriend . The girls reminisce about growing up together through crazy times , like sisters . Lily apologizes to Rufus and CeCe . Rufus expresses concern that Lily is too unpredictable and too much like her mother . CeCe remains indifferent , but agrees to return to Lily 's home .
Throughout the episode , dialogue and objects prompt Lily to recall the events of her own first arrest . During flashbacks , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Lily Rhodes ( Brittany Snow ) , having deliberately gotten expelled from The Thacher School in Santa Barbara , California , travels to Malibu , California to meet with her father , Rick Rhodes ( Andrew McCarthy ) , the wealthy owner of Rhodes Records . Sadly for Lily , Rick already phoned her mother CeCe , who drove to Malibu from Montecito to deal with Lily . When Rick rejects the idea of Lily living with him in Malibu , Lily decides to find her sister Carol ( Krysten Ritter ) rather than move in with CeCe , whom Lily detests . Carol , an aspiring actress , had rejected the Rhode ’ s upscale life and moved a year earlier to the San Fernando Valley . While searching for Carol , Lily meets Owen Campos ( Shiloh Fernandez ) , who takes her to a club where they find Shep , Owen ’ s musician friend , and Carol . Carol and Shep are in the midst of a dispute with Keith van der Woodsen ( Matt Barr ) , the rich , antagonistic director of Shep ’ s music video in which Carol stars , and are headed to his party to confront him for raising his price and holding the video hostage . When Lily asks why Carol does not simply use their father ’ s company , Carol insists she does not want anyone to know of their privileged background . When the antagonism escalates to a fight at the party , security arrests Owen and Lily although Carol and Shep manage to escape . From jail , Lily calls CeCe . CeCe calls her daughters irresponsible . Carol , who has come to pay Lily ’ s bail , overhears Lily defend Carol 's lifestyle . Carol takes the phone from Lily , informs CeCe that Lily will be moving in with her , and takes Lily back to the city .
= = Production = =
" Valley Girls " doubles as both a Gossip Girl episode and the pilot episode of Valley Girls , a possible Gossip Girl prequel . The spin @-@ off television series would chronicle the life of Lily Rhodes while attending high school and living with Carol in 1980s Los Angeles .
Discussion about a Gossip Girl spin @-@ off began in 2008 . Despite believing the project was " unlikely , " Gossip Girl executives explored potential concepts including an adaptation of the Gossip Girl book series ' spin @-@ off , The It Girl . However , they felt that The It Girl 's world , centered on character Jenny Humphrey 's stay at boarding school , was too small and insular to sustain a television series . They were also concerned about disrupting Gossip Girl 's chemistry by taking away any of the show 's cast members . In December 2009 , Variety magazine reported that while the " Gossip Girl spinoff [ was ] still in the very early stages of development " , CW had begun to consider making a backdoor pilot . Such a pilot would allow the company to evaluate viewer interest in a spin @-@ off while saving money .
On January 14 , 2009 , CW green @-@ lit a back @-@ door pilot for an untitled spin @-@ off series starring a young Lily van der Woodsen . The concept was based on an original idea by Gossip Girl producers Schwartz and Savage . The pilot episode , eventually named " Valley Girls " , was written by Stephanie Savage and Josh Schwartz and directed by Mark Piznarski , all of whom had previously worked the same roles for the Gossip Girl pilot . " Valley Girls " was shot on location in New York City , New York and in Los Angeles , California beginning in February 2009 . Flashbacks were set apart from present day scenes through a grainy , sepia tone . A scene in which Lily conceives and carries out an " elaborate plan to kiss a boy , and then lie about it " in order to violate her school 's honor code and be expelled , was cut from the final episode . " Valley Girls " aired on May 11 , 2009 .
= = = Casting = = =
On February 5 , 2009 , Krysten Ritter became the first guest star to be officially cast for the Valley Girls pilot . Brittany Snow was the producers ' top choice for young Lily Rhodes and was offered the role in early February 2009 without auditioning . Initially , the series ' producers wanted to cast an undiscovered star in the role while Snow was interested in continuing her film career . However , after viewing a reel featuring Snow 's work ranging from Hairspray to Nip / Tuck , Savage and Schwartz found her " perfect " and " pulled out all the stops " to convince her to come back to TV . Ryan Hansen had previously starred as " Douche " on Schwartz 's web series Rockville CA . Schwartz deemed Hansen 's performance there " so unlikable in such a likable way , that we cast him on the Gossip Girl spin @-@ off . " On March 6 , 2009 , Entertainment Weekly reported that Cynthia Watros and Andrew McCarthy were in final talks to join the show as Lily 's parents , thereby filling Valley Girls ' last starring roles .
= = = Fashion and music = = =
When asked what was being done to make modern day audiences comfortable with 1980s American culture , Schwartz replied ,
If you never lived through that era — like most of our “ Gossip Girl ” audience didn ’ t — there is a fascination , like we were fascinated by the ’ 70s . My sense [ ... ] is that their connection to that era is via Michael Jackson , Madonna — those broader pop culture references . Fashion @-@ driven , especially . So there ’ s an appetite there , they want to go deeper into that era . [ ... ] In the same way New York is a character on “ Gossip Girl , ” the ’ 80s will be a character on Valley Girls " .
The producers worked to incorporate 1980s fashion into the show in a way that " felt fun , definitely , but also grounded in a reality where [ they ] could tell dramatic stories . " The styles featured were therefore constructed so that viewers would not be distracted from an emotional scene by characters wearing 1980s makeup , hairstyles , or shoulder pads . In addition , show makers wanted to make the series feel " like something that you 'd want to be a part of , rather than make fun of " , and that young women would be inspired by the clothing styles featured in the spin @-@ off as well as on Gossip Girl . During flashbacks in " Valley Girls " , Lily dresses in two styles of clothing . She appears in a preppy , upper @-@ crust riding outfit while associating with her rich parents , but changes into a dress more typical of the " underground punk @-@ rock scene " after running away to the San Fernando Valley . Snow describes her hairstyle as " a little teased , feathered like Farrah Fawcett with curly bangs like Brooke Shields . " In present @-@ day scenes , Blair and Serena both attend Prom in designer dresses ; Blair dons a black and gold gown from the Marchesa Spring 2008 collection , while Serena wears a pink halter dress from the Christian Dior Spring 2009 collection . Belinda Goldsmith of Reuters cited the episode 's Prom scene as an example of the media 's glamorization of U.S. formal dances , which she says has caused the cost of formal dances around the world to rise .
Songs featured within " Valley Girls " were taken from both the Los Angeles punk rock scene and mainstream 1980s hits in order to represent the two worlds surrounding character Lily Rhodes . " Jumping between these two worlds is important to the show . Lily is living with her sister in the Valley and kind of hanging out in the punk rock scene , but she and her sister come from a wealthy family and their parents are more aligned with a Pacific Palisades / Beverly Hills / Malibu , Less Than Zero world . So her struggle ... is to try and figure out what kind of world she wants to be in " , says Savage . Music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas oversaw music selection for the episode . With the exception of Fountains of Wayne 's " Prom Theme " ( 1999 ) , every song featured within " Valley Girls " was released prior to or in 1983 , the year in which Lily 's flashbacks take place . Savage explains that the show makers hoped to introduce modern audiences to bands and music they had not known before . No Doubt makes an uncredited guest appearance during the episode as a fictional band called " Snowed Out " , a play on words of " No Doubt " . During the cameo , part of the band 's return to music after a four @-@ year hiatus , No Doubt premiered their cover of Adam and the Ants ' " Stand and Deliver " , the band 's first new song in five years . The band performs in the Sunset Strip club where Lily meets Carol for the first time in a year .
= = = Pick @-@ up = = =
Rumors that the spin @-@ off would not be picked up as a series began well before the pilot premiered due to the limited number of spots available on CW 's fall line @-@ up . Seven CW series were renewed for another season , leaving three spots open for pick @-@ ups . " Valley Girls " competed against pilots for several other promising shows . On May 7 , Nikki Finke wrote on her blog , Deadline Hollywood , that despite enthusiasm of CW executives , " the show went from hot , to lukewarm , to ' fading but wouldn 't count out ' , to now dead , according to my insiders . " CW eventually chose to pick up Melrose Place , The Beautiful Life , and The Vampire Diaries .
However , on May 21 , 2009 , the day CW 's fall schedule was formally announced , CW President of Entertainment Dawn Ostroff told reporters at a CW upfront that Valley Girls was still in contention for use as a midseason replacement . Said Ostroff ,
" It was the toughest year we 've ever had , figuring out what to pick up , because [ our pilots ] were all really , really good . We do have room for another midseason show . We have some reality , and we 'll probably have another scripted drama . We 're just going to take a beat and see where we are . In all honesty , I think the Gossip Girl spinoff is the show that we would love to be able to find a place for as the season goes on . "
During a television press tour on August 4 , 2009 , when Ostroff was asked if the series would ever be green @-@ lit , she said , " Not right now . " She explained that she believed using " Valley Girls " episode as a backdoor pilot " instead of doing a full pilot " put the potential series at a disadvantage because " it was hard for everybody to understand what the world would be like on its own . " However , she stated that if Schwartz and Savage were interested in creating a different Gossip Girl spin @-@ off , CW would " of course [ ... ] be open to it . "
= = Reception = =
" Valley Girls " received generally positive comments from reviewers . TV Guide 's Jennifer Sankowski enjoyed the episode and believed the producers had captured all aspects of popular 1980s teen culture well , but that " at times it felt like they were trying too hard , throwing everything and anything ' 80s at us " such as a montage of 1980s outfits worn by Lily and mentions of MTV videos , fanny packs , Rubik 's Cube , and Jane Fonda workout videos . " At this rate , " said Sankowski , " they won 't have anything left to showcase . " Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly " loved " the episode and complimented the casting choices , but agrees with Sankowski in that " if this ends up being an actual series , they need to dial down the ' 80s references a tad . " Kona Gallagher of Cinema Blend said the premise was interesting and that " [ Valley Girls ] has the potential to be a strong spinoff , and [ she ] hope [ s ] that CW decides to pick it up this fall . " Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times writes that he " especially liked the moxie of Brittany Snow as young Lily and Krysten Ritter [ ... ] as her sister , Carol . And of course the retro soundtrack was a total trip . " A few review sites took issue with the episode 's script , such as BuddyTV , which claimed it was cliché , and Television Without Pity , which found it repetitive . While writing for The Frisky , Sara Benincasa praised the clothing styles and called the overall episode " awesome fun ! [ ... ] weirdly sentimental , and sweet " . She also believed that the confrontation between the Valley dwellers and the rich attendees of Keith 's party was " clearly a giant , dance @-@ friendly metaphor for Reaganomics and the woes of a trickle @-@ down world . " Michelle Graham for Film School Rejects liked both the 1980s and present day scenes separately , but when put togetether , " the overall effect was disjointed and showed it for what it was : an attempt to shove two shows together in order to save money on a proper pilot . "
" Valley Girls " was viewed live by a relatively small audience of 2 @.@ 31 million in the United States according to Nielsen Media Research . However , Schwartz notes that " Gossip Girl became the first show that indicated that the way people watch television is changing . You can go on iTunes , every episode is No. 1 , ahead of all these bigger shows . The streams are high , the DVR time @-@ shifting number was something like 40 % . There ’ s a much bigger audience for the show than the ( Nielsen ) numbers might indicate . "
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= Frederick Browning =
Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Arthur Montague " Boy " Browning , GCVO , KBE , CB , DSO ( 20 December 1896 – 14 March 1965 ) was a senior officer of the British Army who has been called the " father of the British airborne forces " . He was the commander of I Airborne Corps and deputy commander of First Allied Airborne Army during Operation Market Garden in September 1944 . During the planning for this operation he memorably said : " I think we might be going a bridge too far . " He was also an Olympic bobsleigh competitor , and the husband of author Dame Daphne du Maurier .
Educated at Eton College and then at the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , Browning was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Grenadier Guards in 1915 . During the First World War he fought on the Western Front , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for conspicuous gallantry during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917 . In September 1918 , he became aide de camp to General Sir Henry Rawlinson . After the war , he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , Switzerland , in which his team finished tenth . He married Daphne du Maurier in July 1932 .
During the Second World War , Browning commanded the 1st Airborne Division and I Airborne Corps . He led the latter during Operation Market Garden , travelling by glider to participate in the assault . In December 1944 he became Chief of Staff of Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten 's South East Asia Command . From September 1946 to January 1948 , he was Military Secretary of the War Office .
In January 1948 , Browning became Comptroller and Treasurer to Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth , Duchess of Edinburgh . After she ascended to the throne to become Queen Elizabeth II in 1952 , he became treasurer in the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh . He suffered a severe nervous breakdown in 1957 and retired in 1959 . He died at Menabilly , the mansion that inspired his wife 's novel Rebecca , on 14 March 1965 .
= = Early life = =
Frederick Arthur Montague Browning was born on 20 December 1896 at his family home in Kensington , London . The house was later demolished to make way for an expansion of Harrods , allowing him to claim in later life that he had been born in its piano department . He was the first son of Frederick Henry Browning , a wine merchant , and his wife Nancy ( née Alt ) . He had one sibling , his older sister Helen Grace . From an early age he was known to his family as " Tommy " . He was educated at West Downs School and Eton College , which his grandfather had attended . While at Eton , he joined the Officer Training Corps .
= = First World War = =
Browning sat the entrance examinations for the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , on 24 November 1914 . Although he did not achieve the necessary scores in all the required subjects , the headmasters of some schools , including Eton , were in a position to recommend students for nomination by the Army Council . The head master of Eton , Edward Lyttelton , put Browning 's name forward and in this way he entered Sandhurst on 27 December 1914 . He graduated on 16 June 1915 , and was commissioned a second lieutenant into the Grenadier Guards . Joining such an exclusive regiment , even in wartime , required a personal introduction and an interview by the regimental commander , Colonel Sir Henry Streatfield .
Initially , Browning joined the 4th Battalion , Grenadier Guards , which was training at Bovington Camp . When it departed for the Western Front in August 1915 , he was transferred to the 5th ( Reserve ) Battalion . In October 1915 he left to join the 2nd Battalion at the front . Around this time he acquired the nickname " Boy " . For a time he served in the same company of 2nd Battalion as Major Winston Churchill . Upon Churchill 's arrival , Browning was given the job of showing him the company 's trenches . When Browning discovered that Churchill had no greatcoat , Browning gave Churchill his own . Browning was invalided back to England with trench fever in January 1916 , and , although only hospitalised for four weeks , did not rejoin the 2nd Battalion at the front until 6 October 1916 .
Browning participated in the Battle of Pilckem Ridge on 31 July , the Battle of Poelcappelle on 9 October and the Battle of Cambrai in November . He distinguished himself in this battle , for which he received the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) . The order was generally given to officers in command , above the rank of captain . When a junior officer like Browning , who was still only a lieutenant , was awarded the DSO , this was often regarded as an acknowledgement that the officer had only just missed out on the award of the Victoria Cross . His citation read :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . He took command of three companies whose officers had all become casualties , reorganised them , and proceeded to consolidate . Exposing himself to very heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire , in two hours he had placed the front line in a strong state of defence . The conduct of this officer , both in the assault and more especially afterwards , was beyond all praise , and the successful handing over of the front to the relieving unit as an entrenched and strongly fortified position was entirely due to his energy and skill .
He was awarded the French Croix de Guerre on 14 December 1917 , and mentioned in despatches on 23 May 1918 . In September 1918 , Browning became aide de camp to General Sir Henry Rawlinson , after which he returned to his regiment . He was promoted to the temporary rank of captain , and appointed adjutant of the 1st Battalion , Grenadier Guards , in November 1918 .
= = Inter @-@ war period = =
Browning was granted the substantive rank of captain on 24 November 1920 . He retained his post as adjutant until November 1921 , when he was posted to the Guards ' Depot in Caterham . In 1924 he was posted to Sandhurst as adjutant . He was the first adjutant , during the Sovereign 's Parade of 1926 , to ride his horse ( named " The Vicar " ) up the steps of Old College and to dismount in the Grand Entrance . There is no satisfactory explanation as to why he did it . After the Second World War this became an enduring tradition , but since horses have great difficulty going down steps , a ramp is now provided for the horse to return . Other members of staff at Sandhurst at the time included Richard O 'Connor , Miles Dempsey , Douglas Gracey , and Eric Dorman @-@ Smith , with whom he became close friends . Browning relinquished the appointment of adjutant at Sandhurst on 28 April 1928 , and was promoted to major on 22 May 1928 . Following a pattern whereby tours of duty away from the regiment alternated with those in it , he was sent for a refresher course at the Small Arms School before being posted to the 2nd Battalion , Grenadier Guards , at Pirbright .
His workload was very light , allowing plenty of time for sports . Browning competed in the Amateur Athletic Association of England championships in hurdling but failed to make Olympic selection . He did however make the Olympic five @-@ man bobsleigh team as brake @-@ man . An injury incurred during a training accident prevented his participation in the bobsleigh at the 1924 Winter Olympics , but he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , Switzerland , in which his team finished tenth . Browning was also a keen sailor , competing in the Household Cavalry Sailing Regatta at Chichester Harbour in 1930 . He purchased his own motor boat , a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) cabin cruiser that he named Ygdrasil .
In 1931 , Browning read Daphne du Maurier 's novel The Loving Spirit and , impressed by its graphic depictions of the Cornish coastline , set out to see it for himself in Ygdrasil . Afterwards , he left the boat moored in the River Fowey for the winter , but returned in April 1932 to collect it . He heard that the author of the book that had impressed him so much was convalescing from an appendix operation , and invited her out on his boat . After a short romance , he proposed to her but she rejected this , as she did not believe in marriage . Dorman @-@ Smith then went to see her and explained that their living together without marriage would be disastrous for Browning 's career . Du Maurier then proposed to Browning , who accepted . They were married in a simple ceremony at the Church of St Willow , Lanteglos @-@ by @-@ Fowey on 19 July 1932 , and honeymooned on Ygdrasil . Their marriage produced three children : two daughters , Tessa and Flavia , and a son , Christian , known as Kits .
Browning was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel on 1 February 1936 , and was appointed commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion , Grenadier Guards . The battalion was deployed to Egypt in 1936 and returned in December 1937 . His term as commander ended on 1 August 1939 ; he was removed from the Grenadier Guards ' regimental list but remained on full pay . On 1 September , he was promoted to colonel , with his seniority backdated to 1 February 1939 , and became Commandant of the Small Arms School .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Airborne troops = = =
In mid @-@ May 1940 , Browning was given command of the 128th ( Hampshire ) Infantry Brigade ( consisting of three battalions of the Hampshire Regiment ) with the rank of brigadier . Part of the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division , the 128th Brigade was a Territorial Army brigade that was preparing to join the British Expeditionary Force in France . This was pre @-@ empted by the Fall of France in June 1940 , and the division assumed a defensive posture . In February 1941 , Browning became commander of the 24th Guards Brigade Group , whose mission was to defend London from an attack from the south .
On 3 November 1941 , Browning was promoted to major @-@ general , and appointed commander of the 1st Airborne Division . In this new role he was instrumental in parachutists adopting the maroon beret , and assigned an artist , Major Edward Seago , to design the Parachute Regiment 's now famous emblem of the warrior Bellerophon riding Pegasus , the winged horse . However , Browning " designed his own uniform , made of barathea with a false Uhlan @-@ style front , incorporating a zip opening at the neck to reveal regulation shirt and tie , worn with medal ribbons , collar patches , and rank badges , capped off with grey kid gloves , and a highly polished Guards Sam Browne belt and swagger stick " , all of which were worn in the field . He qualified as a pilot in 1942 , and henceforth wore the Army Air Corps wings , which he also designed himself .
Browning supervised the newly formed division as it underwent a prolonged period of expansion and intensive training , with new brigades raised and assigned to the division , and new equipment tested . Though not considered an airborne warfare visionary , he proved adept at dealing with an apathetic War Office and an obstructionist Air Ministry , and demonstrated a knack for overcoming bureaucratic obstacles . As the airborne forces expanded in size , the major difficulty in getting the 1st Airborne Division ready for operations was a shortage of aircraft . The Royal Air Force had neglected air transport before the war , and the only available aircraft for airborne troops were conversions of obsolete bombers like the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley . Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris in particular felt that the 1st Airborne Division was not worth the drain on Bomber Command 's resources .
When Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the United States Army Chief of Staff , General George C. Marshall , visited the 1st Airborne Division on 16 April 1942 , they were treated to a demonstration involving every available aircraft of No. 38 Wing RAF — 12 Whitleys and nine Hawker Hector biplanes towing General Aircraft Hotspur gliders . At a meeting on 6 May chaired by Churchill , Browning was asked what he required . He stated that he needed 96 aircraft to get the 1st Airborne Division battle @-@ ready . Churchill directed Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal to find the required aircraft , and Portal agreed to supply 83 Whitleys , along with 10 Halifax bombers to tow the new , larger General Aircraft Hamilcar gliders .
In July 1942 , Browning travelled to the United States , where he toured airborne training facilities with his American counterpart , Major General William C. Lee . Browning 's tendency to lecture the Americans on airborne warfare made him few friends among the Americans , who felt that the British were still novices themselves . Browning was envious of the Americans ' equipment , particularly the C @-@ 47 Dakota transports . On returning to the United Kingdom , he arranged for a joint exercise to be conducted with the 2nd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry . In mid – September , as the 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength , Browning was informed that Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , would take place in November . When he found that the 2nd Battalion , 503rd Parachute Infantry , was to take part , Browning argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised , as the vast distances and comparatively light opposition would provide opportunities for airborne operations .
The War Office and the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Home Forces , General Sir Bernard Paget , were won over by Browning 's arguments , and agreed to detach 1st Parachute Brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion . After it had been brought to full operational strength , partly by cross @-@ posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade , and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources , the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November .
The results of British airborne operations in North Africa were mixed , and the subject of a detailed report by Browning . The airborne troops had operated under several handicaps , including shortages of photographs and maps . All the troop carrier aircrew were American , who lacked familiarity with airborne operations and in dealing with British troops and equipment . Browning felt that the inexperience with handling airborne operations extended to Eisenhower 's Allied Forces Headquarters ( AFHQ ) and that of the British First Army , resulting in the paratroops being misused . He felt that had they been employed more aggressively and in greater strength they might have shortened the Tunisia Campaign by some months . The 1st Parachute Brigade had been called the " Rote Teufel " or " Red Devils " by the German troops they had fought . Browning pointed out to the brigade that this was an honour , as " distinctions given by the enemy are seldom won in battle except by the finest fighting troops . " The title was officially confirmed by General Sir Harold Alexander and henceforth applied to all British airborne troops .
On 1 January 1943 , Browning was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath . He relinquished command of the 1st Airborne Division in March 1943 to take up a new post as major @-@ general , Airborne Forces at Eisenhower 's AFHQ . He soon clashed with the commander of the US 82nd Airborne Division , Major General Matthew Ridgway . When Browning asked to see the plans for Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily , Ridgway replied that they would not be available for scrutiny until after they had been approved by the U.S. Seventh Army commander , Lieutenant General George Patton . When Browning protested , Patton backed Ridgway , but Eisenhower and his chief of staff , Major General Walter Bedell Smith , supported Browning and forced them to back down .
Browning 's dealings with the British Army were no smoother . His successor as commander of the 1st Airborne Division , Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson , had sold the commander of the British Eighth Army , General Sir Bernard Montgomery , on Operation Ladbroke , a glider landing to seize the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse . Browning 's objections to the operation were ignored , and attempts to discuss airborne operations with the corps commanders elicited a directive from Montgomery that all such discussion had to go through him . Browning concluded that to be effective , the airborne advisor had to have equal rank with the army commanders .
In September 1943 , Browning travelled to India , where he inspected the 50th Parachute Brigade , and met with Major @-@ General Orde Wingate , the commander of the Chindits , an airborne special force . Browning held a series of meetings with General Sir Claude Auchinleck , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , India ; Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse , the Air Officer Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ; and Lieutenant @-@ General Sir George Giffard , the General Officer Commanding Eastern Army . They discussed plans for improving the airborne establishment in India and expanding the airborne force there to a division . As a result of these discussions , and Browning 's subsequent report to the War Office , the 44th Indian Airborne Division was formed in October 1944 . Browning sent his most experienced airborne commander , Major @-@ General Ernest Down , to India to command it . Down 's replacement as commander of the 1st Airborne Division by Montgomery 's selection , Major @-@ General Roy Urquhart , an officer with no airborne experience , rather than Browning 's choice , Brigadier Gerald Lathbury of the 1st Parachute Brigade , would become controversial .
Some saw him as " a ruthless and manipulative empire builder who brooked no opposition " . Brigadier @-@ General James M. Gavin , assistant division commander of the 82nd Airborne Division , recalled that when he travelled to England in November 1943 , Ridgway " cautioned me against the machinations and scheming of General F. M. Browning , who was the senior British airborne officer , and well he should have . " Major @-@ General Ray Barker told him that Browning was " an empire builder " , an assessment that Gavin came to agree with .
= = = Operation Market Garden = = =
Browning assumed a new command on 4 December 1943 . His Directive No. 1 announced that " the title of the force is Headquarters , Airborne Troops ( 21st Army Group ) . All correspondence will bear the official title , but verbally it will be known as the Airborne Corps and I will be referred to as the Corps Commander . " He was promoted to lieutenant @-@ general on 7 January 1944 , with his seniority backdated to 9 December 1943 . He officially became commander of I Airborne Corps on 16 April 1944 .
I Airborne Corps became part of the First Allied Airborne Army , commanded by Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton , in August 1944 . While retaining command of the corps , Browning also became Deputy Commander of the Army , despite a poor relationship with Brereton and being disliked by many American officers , including Major General Ridgway , now commander of the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps . During preparations for one of many cancelled operations , Linnete II , his disagreement with Brereton over a risky operation caused him to threaten resignation , which , due to differences in military culture , Brereton regarded as tantamount to disobeying an order . Browning was forced into a humiliating backdown .
When I Airborne Corps was committed to action in Operation Market Garden in September 1944 , Browning 's rift with Brereton had severe repercussions . Browning was concerned about the timetable put forward by Major @-@ General Paul L. Williams of the IX Troop Carrier Command , under which the drop was staggered over several days , and not to make two drops on the first day . This restricted the number of combat troops available on the first day . He also disagreed with the British drop zones proposed by Air Vice Marshal Leslie Hollinghurst of No. 38 Group RAF , which he felt were too distant from the bridge at Arnhem , but Browning now felt unable to challenge the airmen .
Browning downplayed evidence brought to him by his intelligence officer , Major Brian Urquhart , that the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen and the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg were in the Arnhem area , but was not as confident as he led his subordinates to believe . According to Major @-@ General Urquhart , commander of the British 1st Airborne , when informed that his airborne troops would have to hold the bridge for two days , Browning responded that they could hold it for four , but then added : " But I think we might be going a bridge too far . "
'Boy ' Browning landed by gliders with a tactical headquarters near Nijmegen . His use of 38 aircraft to move his corps headquarters on the first lift has been criticised . Half of these gliders carried signal equipment but for much of the operation he had no contact with either the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem or Major General Taylor 's U.S. 101st Airborne Division at Eindhoven . His headquarters had not been envisaged as a frontline unit , and the signals section that had been hastily assembled just weeks before lacked training and experience . In his pack , Browning carried three teddy bears and a framed print of Albrecht Dürer 's The Praying Hands .
Major General Gavin , now commanding the 82nd Airborne Division , was critical of Browning , writing in his diary on 6 September 1944 that he " ... unquestionably lacks the standing , influence and judgement that comes from a proper troop experience .... his staff was superficial ... Why the British units fumble along ... becomes more and more apparent . Their tops lack the know @-@ how , never do they get down into the dirt and learn the hard way . "
After the war , Gavin and his staff were criticised for the decision to secure the high ground around Groesbeek before attempting the capture of the Waal bridge at Nijmegen . Browning took responsibility for this , noting that he " personally gave an order to Jim Gavin that , although every effort should be made to effect the capture of the Grave and Nijmegen bridges as soon as possible , it was essential that he should capture the Groesbeek Ridge and hold it " .
After the battle , Browning was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta ( II class ) by the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , but his critical evaluation of the contribution of Polish forces led to the removal of Major @-@ General Stanisław Sosabowski as commanding officer of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade . Some writers later claimed that Sosabowski had been made a scapegoat for the failure of Market Garden . Field Marshal Montgomery attached no blame to Browning or any of his subordinates , or indeed acknowledged failure at all . He told the Chief of the Imperial General Staff , Sir Alan Brooke , that he would like Browning to take over VIII Corps in the event that Richard O 'Connor were transferred to another theatre .
= = = South East Asia Command = = =
Events took a different course . Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten , the Supreme Allied Commander , South East Asia Command ( SEAC ) , had need of a new chief of staff owing to the poor health of Lieutenant @-@ General Henry Royds Pownall . Brooke turned down Mountbatten 's initial request for either Lieutenant @-@ General Archibald Nye or Lieutenant @-@ General John Swayne . Brooke then offered Browning for the post , and Mountbatten accepted . Pownall considered that Browning was " excellently qualified " for the post , although he had no staff college training and had never held a staff job before . Pownall noted that his " only reservation is that I believe [ Browning ] is rather nervy and highly strung " . For his services as a corps commander , Browning was mentioned in despatches a second time , and was awarded the Legion of Merit in the degree of Commander by the United States government .
Browning served in South East Asia from December 1944 until July 1946 ; Mountbatten soon came to regard him as indispensable . Browning had an American deputy , Major @-@ General Horace H. Fuller , and brought staff with him from Europe to SEAC headquarters in Kandy , Ceylon . SEAC headquarters developed an adversarial relationship with that of Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Oliver Leese 's Allied Land Forces South East Asia ( ALFSEA ) . Matters came to a head when Leese attempted to replace the victorious commander of the Fourteenth Army , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir William Slim . In the resulting furore , Leese was relieved instead . Slim took over ALFSEA and was replaced as Fourteenth Army commander by Browning 's friend General Sir Miles Dempsey . For his services at SEAC , Browning was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1946 . His last major military post was as Military Secretary of the War Office from September 1946 to January 1948 .
= = Later life = =
In January 1948 , Browning became Comptroller and Treasurer to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth Duchess of Edinburgh , although he did not officially retire from the Army until 5 April 1948 . This appointment was made on the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten , whose nephew Philip Mountbatten was now the Duke of Edinburgh . As such , Browning became the head of the Princess ' personal staff . He also juggled other duties . In 1948 he was involved with the 1948 Summer Olympics as Deputy Chairman of the British Olympic Association , and commandant of the British team . From 1944 to 1962 he was Commodore of the Royal Fowey Yacht Club ; on stepping down in 1962 , he was elected its first Admiral .
Upon the death of King George VI in 1952 , the Duchess of Edinburgh inherited the throne as Queen Elizabeth II . Browning and his staff became redundant , as the Queen was now served by the large staff of the monarch . The domestic staff remained at Clarence House , where they continued to serve the Queen Mother . The remainder were reorganised as the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh , with Browning as treasurer , the head of the office , moving into a new and larger office at Buckingham Palace . Like the Duke they served , the office had no constitutional role , but followed his sporting , cultural and scientific interests . Browning became involved with the Cutty Sark Trust , set up to preserve the famous ship , and in the administration of the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award . In June 1953 , Browning and Du Maurier attended the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II .
Browning had been drinking since the war , but it had now become chronic . This led to a severe nervous breakdown in July 1957 , forcing his resignation from his position at the Palace in 1959 . Du Maurier had known of his taking a mistress in Fowey , but his breakdown brought to light two other girlfriends in London . For her part , Du Maurier confessed to her own wartime affair . For his services to the Royal Household , Browning was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1953 , and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in 1959 . He retreated to Menabilly , the mansion that had inspired Du Maurier 's novel Rebecca , which she had leased and restored in 1943 . In 1960 he was appointed Deputy Lieutenant of Cornwall . Browning caused a scandal in 1963 when , under the influence of prescription drugs and alcohol , he was involved in an automobile accident in which two people were injured . He was fined £ 50 and forced to pay court and medical costs . He died from a heart attack at Menabilly on 14 March 1965 .
= = Legacy = =
Browning was portrayed by Dirk Bogarde in the film A Bridge Too Far , based on the events of Operation Market Garden . A copy of Browning 's uniform was made to Bogarde 's measurements from the original in the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum . The Airborne Forces Museum , which opened in 1969 , was for many years located in Browning Barracks , which had been built in 1964 and named after Browning . Browning Barracks remained the depot of the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces until 1993 . The museum moved to the Imperial War Museum Duxford in 2008 , and Browning Barracks was sold for housing development .
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= Capture of Jenin =
The Capture of Jenin occurred on 20 September 1918 , during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought between 19 and 25 September during the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon carried out by the Desert Mounted Corps , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , Australian Mounted Division attacked and captured the town of Jenin located on the southern edge of the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon ) 40 – 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) behind the front line in the Judean Hills . The Australian light horse captured about 2 @,@ 000 prisoners , the main supply base and the ordnance depot of the Seventh and the Eighth Armies in and near the town . They also cut the main road from Nablus and a further 6 @,@ 000 Ottoman Empire and German Empire prisoners , were subsequently captured as they attempted to retreat away from the Judean Hills .
The Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) cavalry had ridden through a gap on the Mediterranean Sea coast , created by the infantry during the Battle of Tulkarm , to capture the two Ottoman armies ' main lines of communication and supply north of the Judean Hills , while the infantry battles continued . On 20 September , the Desert Mounted Corps captured Afulah , Beisan and Jenin on the Esdrealon Plain . The next day the headquarters of the Seventh Army at Nablus , and the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) of the Yilderim Army Group at Nazareth , were both captured , while Haifa was captured two days later . During a subsequent early morning attack on 25 September , a German rearguard was captured during the Battle of Samakh , which ended the Battle of Sharon . During these operations the greater part of one Ottoman army was captured in the Judean Hills and at Jenin . These and other battles fought during the Battle of Megiddo including the Battle of Nablus and Third Transjordan attack , forced the retreating Ottoman Fourth , and remnants of the Seventh and the Eighth Armies , to the eastern side of the Jordan River . As they withdrew northwards towards Damascus they were pursued by the Desert Mounted Corps .
After the infantry established a gap in the Ottoman front line on the coast early on the morning of 19 September , the Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades ( less the 5th Light Horse Brigade temporarily detached to the 60th Division ) in reserve , followed the 4th Cavalry Division north on the Plain of Sharon and across the Mount Carmel Range , by the Musmus Pass , to Lejjun on the Esdrealon Plain . While the 4th Light Horse Brigade remained to garrison Lejjun and provide various guards for artillery , supplies , and corps headquarters before being ordered to capture Samakh , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to Jenin , where the 9th and 10th Light Horse captured the town after a brief fire fight . Subsequently , these two regiments captured some 8 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers , who had been attempting to retreat northwards out of the Judean Hills , during the night of 20 / 21 September . The outnumbered Australian Light Horsemen were reinforced as quickly as possible , and the majority of the prisoners were marched back into holding camps , near Lejjun in the morning . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade remained in the area to garrison Jenin until they advanced to capture Tiberias on 25 September 1918 , before participating in the pursuit to Damascus .
= = Background = =
Following the Capture of Jericho in February , the commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , General Edmund Allenby ordered the occupation of the Jordan Valley . In March – April and April – May 1918 , the First and the Second Transjordan attacks took place , while the front line across the Judean Hills to the Mediterranean Sea was defended . During this time , three @-@ quarters of the British infantry and yeomanry cavalry regiments were redeployed to the Western Front to counter Ludendorff 's Spring Offensive . They were replaced by British India Army infantry and cavalry which required a reorganisation . These newly arrived soldiers carried out a series of attacks on sections of the Ottoman front line in the Judean Hills during the summer months , as part of their training . These attacks including the Battle of Tell ' Asur and Action of Berukin in March and April , were aimed at pushing the front line to more advantageous positions in preparation for a major attack , and to acclimatise the newly arrived infantry . This fighting continued during the summer months . By the middle of September the consolidated EEF was once again ready for large @-@ scale offensive operations .
On 19 September , the Battle of Megiddo commenced with the XXI Corps ( commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin ) , under cover of a creeping barrage , broke through the Ottoman front line to begin the Battle of Sharon . In the afternoon the XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode began the Battle of Nablus , also supported by an artillery barrage . This offensive by the XX and XXI Corps , continued until midday on 21 September , when a successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps , combined with the XX Corps assault , forced the Seventh and the Eighth Armies , to disengage . The Seventh Army retreated from the Nablus area towards the Jordan River , crossing at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge before a rearguard at Nablus was captured . While the EEF infantry were fighting the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills , the Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel advanced through the gap created by the XXI Corps infantry on the morning of 19 September , to ride northwards and virtually encircle the Ottoman forces before they disengaged . The cavalry divisions captured Nazareth , Haifa , Afulah , Beisan , and Jenin before and Samakh and the Capture of Tiberias ended the Battle of Megiddo . During this time , Chaytor 's Force ( temporarily detached from Desert Mounted Corps ) commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor , captured part of the retreating Ottoman and German column at the Capture of Jisr ed Damieh bridge over the Jordan River to cut off this line of retreat , during the Third Transjordan attack . To the east of the river , as the Ottoman Fourth Army began its retreat , Chaytor 's Force advanced to capture Es Salt on 23 September and Amman on 25 September . Units of Chaytor 's Force captured Amman after defeating a strong Fourth Army rearguard during the Second Battle of Amman .
= = Prelude = =
In preparation for the Battle of Megiddo , the Desert Mounted Corps , consisting of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions , the Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades , concentrated near Ramleh , Ludd ( Lydda ) , and Jaffa . Here dumps were formed of all surplus equipment , before the brigades and divisions moved up close behind the XXI Corps infantry divisions , near the Mediterranean coast .
Each mounted division of about 3 @,@ 500 troopers , consisted of three brigades , each brigade being made up of three regiments . Five of the six brigades of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions , most of which had recently arrived from France , consisted of one British yeomanry regiment and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments , one of which was usually lancers , including the Indian Princely States ' 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade of three lancer regiments . Some of the cavalry regiments were armed in addition to their Lee – Enfield rifles , bayonets and swords , with lances . The Australian Mounted Division consisting of three light horse brigades , each with three regiments , containing a headquarters and three squadrons . With 522 men and horses in each regiment , they were armed in addition to their rifles and bayonets with swords . The mounted divisions were supported by machine gun squadrons , three artillery batteries from the Royal Horse Artillery or the Honourable Artillery Company , and light armoured car units — two Light Armoured Motor Batteries , and two Light Car Patrols .
By 17 September the 5th Cavalry Division , which would lead the advance , was deployed north @-@ west of Sarona , eight miles ( 13 km ) from the front line , with the 4th Cavalry Division in orange groves to the east , ten miles ( 16 km ) from the front , and the Australian Mounted Division in reserve near Ramleh and Ludd , 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the front line . All movement , restricted to the night hours , culminated in a general move forward on the eve of battle during the night of 18 / 19 September , when the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona . The supplies for the three divisions concentrated in the rear in divisional trains , in massed horse @-@ drawn transport and on endless strings of camels , clogging every road in the area . One iron ration and two days ' special emergency ration for each man , and 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) of grain for each horse , was carried on the trooper 's horse , with an additional day 's grain for each horse , carried on the first @-@ line transport limbered wagons .
= = = Advance to Lejjun = = =
During the initial cavalry advance up the coastal Plain of Sharon to Litera on the Nahr el Mefjir , the Desert Mounted Corps was to advance , " strictly disregarding any enemy forces " which were not on the path of their advance . The mounted units were to cross the Mount Carmel Range from the coast to the Esdraelon Plain , through two passes . The 5th Cavalry Division took a northern and more difficult track from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh , 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ east of Haifa , heading towards Nazareth , while the 4th Cavalry Division followed by the Australian Mounted Division in reserve crossed the mountain range by the historic southern Musmus Pass , ( used by armies of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thothmes III in the 15th century BC , and the Roman Emperor Vespasian in the 1st century AD ) to Lejjun before advancing to Afulah in the centre of the Esdrealon Plain . This southern pass was about 14 miles ( 23 km ) long and about 300 yards ( 270 m ) wide , as it followed the Wadi Ara up the side of the Samarian Hills to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level , before falling to the plain . During their advance , the Australian Mounted Division halted for ten minutes every hour , when saddle girths may have been loosened and a few minutes sleep snatched , with the reins looped around an arm jammed deeply into a pocket .
The Esdrealon Plain , also known as the Jezreel Valley , and the Plain of Armageddon , stretches to the white houses of Nazareth in the foothills of the Galilean Hills on its northern edge 10 miles ( 16 km ) away , to Jenin on its southern edge at the foot of the Judean Hills , through Afulah to Beisan on its eastern edge , close to the Jordan River . On its western edge near Lejjun , at the mouth of the Musmus Pass , the ancient fortress of Megiddo on Tell al Mutesellim , dominates the Esdrealon Plain , across which Romans , Mongols , Arabs , Crusaders and the army of Napoleon had marched and fought . The road and railway network , on which the German and Ottoman forces in Palestine depended for supplies and communications , crossed this plain via the two important communication hubs of Afulah and Beisan . ( See Falls Map 21 Cavalry advances detail ) The railway passed from the plain into the Judean Hills south of Jenin , to wind through a narrow pass in the foothills before climbing to Messudieh Junction , where it again branched . One line ran westward to Tulkarm and Eighth Army headquarters , before turning south to the railhead to supply the Eight Army front line troops on the coastal plain , while the main railway line continued south @-@ eastward to Nablus , and the Seventh Army headquarters .
No defensive works of any kind had been identified on the Esdrealon Plain , or covering the approaches to it during aerial reconnaissance flights , except German troops known to garrison the commander of the Yildirim Army Group , General Otto Liman von Sanders ' headquarters in Nazareth . However , at 12 : 30 on 19 September , Liman von Sanders ordered the 13th Depot Regiment at Nazareth and military police , a total of six companies with 12 machine guns , to occupy Lejjun to defend the Musmus Pass against a possible attack . In reserve , the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades , Australian Mounted Division rode 28 miles ( 45 km ) from the south @-@ east of Jaffa at 08 : 45 to arrive at 01 : 45 at the Nahr Iskanderun , still on the coast , on the Plain of Sharon . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade and divisional troops of the Australian Mounted Division resumed their advance , passing through Kerkuk at 05 : 00 on 20 September , to move through the Musmus Pass before rest between 07 : 30 and 08 : 30 for breakfast . They arrived on the Esdrealon Plain at Lejjun at 11 : 45 on 20 September . The 4th Light Horse Brigade had been detached to various escort and guard duties . The 4th Light Horse Regiment served as escort to the Desert Mounted Corps ' headquarters , while the 11th Light Horse Regiment escorted divisional transport . The remainder of the brigade moved to Liktera at 03 : 00 on 20 September to organize and escort the transport convoy through the Musmus Pass . The transport of the Australian Mounted Division , and the Desert Mounted Corps , was consolidated by the brigade at Liktera , before moving at 14 : 00 to Kerkuk , where the 5th Cavalry Division 's transport joined their column . At 16 : 30 the combined transport began moving through the Musmus Pass . ' A ' echelon arrived at Lejjun at 21 : 00 on 20 September .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps objectives = = =
According to Woodward , " [ c ] oncentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " The question of whether or not it was Allenby 's plan has been raised in the literature . According to Chauvel , Allenby had already decided on his plan before the Second Transjordan attack in April / May . Victory at the Battle of Megiddo depended on the intense British Empire artillery barrage successfully covering the front line infantry attacks , and to drive a gap in the line so the cavalry could advance quickly to the Esdraelon Plain 50 miles ( 80 km ) away during the first day of battle . Control of the skies was achieved and maintained by destroying German aircraft or forcing them to retire . Constant bombing raids by the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) and Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , were carried out on Afulah , Tulkarm and Nablus , which cut communications with the Yildirim Army Group commander , Liman von Sanders at Nazareth .
After entering the Esdraelon Plain the Desert Mounted Corps was to ride as far as the Jordan River to encircle the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies in the Judean Hills , where they were still busy fighting the XXI and the XX Corps . If the Esdraelon Plain could be quickly captured , the railways cut , the roads controlled , the lines of communication and retreat cut , two Ottoman armies could be captured . The main objectives for 20 September were :
The 5th Cavalry Division 's attack on Nazareth and Liman von Sanders ' Yildirim Army Group 's headquarters 70 miles ( 110 km ) from Asurf , before clearing the plain to Afulah .
The 4th Cavalry Division 's capture of Afulah and Beisan and occupation of the bridges over the Jordan River — in particular , they were to hold or destroy the Jisr Mejamieh bridge 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Beisan , 97 miles ( 156 km ) from the old front line .
The Australian Mounted Division , in reserve , was to occupy Lejjun , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to capture Jenin , 68 miles ( 109 km ) from their starting point , cutting the main line of retreat for the German and Ottoman soldiers . Nazareth has been mentioned as the place where the brigade was to " await the retreating Turks beginning to stream back through the Dothan pass . " Without communications , no combined action could be organized by the Ottoman forces , and the continuing EEF infantry attack forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies to withdraw northwards from the Judean Hills . They withdrew along the main roads and railways from Tulkarm and Nablus through the Dothan Pass to Jenin . After capturing Jenin , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was to wait for them .
= = Battle = =
At 15 : 35 on 20 September , Major General Henry Hodgson , commanding the Australian Mounted Division , ordered Brigadier General Lachlan Wilson 's 3rd Light Horse Brigade to capture Jenin . The 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments , accompanied by the Nottinghamshire Battery ( RHA ) , and four cars of the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery moved out , leaving the 8th Light Horse Regiment for local protection at Lejjun . By 16 : 30 , this force had left Lejjun to advancing at the fast rate of ten miles ( 16 km ) per hour towards Jenin . As they were approaching Kufr Adan , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north @-@ west of Jenin , a detached troop " rode down an enemy outpost " of between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 800 German and Ottoman soldiers in an olive grove on the right flank . They had " immediately deployed " with swords drawn before charging " right into the Turks . " The whole force was captured including several wounded .
The 10th Light Horse Regiment with six machine guns of the 3rd Machine Gun Squadron formed the advanced guard . With the Afulah to Nazareth road already cut , one squadron of the advanced guard moved swiftly to control the road north from Jenin to Zir 'in , on which a column of Ottoman soldiers was retiring . The remainder of the advanced guard rode directly towards Jenin , passing the railway station about 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) on their right to cut the main road leading north , and the road east towards Beisan , with the 9th Light Horse Regiment following at the trot . Having cut the road and railway the 10th Light Horse Regiment turned south riding directly towards the village and railway station . They had galloped the 11 miles ( 18 km ) from Lejjun in 70 minutes to arrive from the north @-@ west . The Australian light horsemen charged into the town with drawn swords , to swiftly overwhelm all the German and Ottoman troops caught in the open . The 9th and the 10th Light Horse Regiments had attacked the town from two different directions , throwing the garrison into confusion . However , a " machine gun duel " between the 3rd Machine Gun Squadron and Germans , firing from windows and gardens on the light horsemen in the streets , developed . After about two hours of fighting , the Germans attempted to withdraw , when a number were killed and the remainder were captured . A total of about 4 @,@ 000 prisoners were captured , along with what the General Staff Headquarters of the Australian Mounted Division 's War Diary described as , an " enormous amount of booty . "
Jenin had been the main supply and ordnance depot of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies , and huge quantities of war material , including guns , machine guns , and ammunition , were captured . In nearby caves , large stores of German beer , wine , and canned food were found . Jenin had also been the main German air base , and 24 burnt aircraft were found on two aerodromes . At the railway station , locomotives and rolling stock were captured , along with a number of well @-@ equipped workshops . Three hospitals were also captured . An armed guard was placed on 120 cases of champagne ( some of which was later distributed ) and a " wagon load of bullion " , worth nearly £ 20 @,@ 000 . Some of the gold was later used to buy food and forage for the Desert Mounted Corps , when they had outdistanced their lines of communication , and were forced to requisition supplies from the local population .
After securing the town , the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments were deployed across the main line of retreat from the Judean Hills , at the outlet of the Dothan Pass , about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Jenin , to wait for the expected retreating columns . At 21 : 00 on 20 September , a burst of machine gun fire stopped a long column of retreating German and Ottoman soldiers , resulting in the capture of 2 @,@ 800 prisoners and four guns . During the night the light horsemen were to capture 8 @,@ 000 prisoners who had retreated , in the face of EEF infantry attacks in the Judean Hills , along the good quality road from Nablus and Tulkarm , north towards Jenin and Damascus .
= = Aftermath = =
Outnumbered many times over , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade force patrolled 7 @,@ 075 prisoners for the remainder of the night , with drawn swords until reinforcements began to arrive . The first were the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery , which arrived at 04 : 15 on 21 September . The 4th Light Horse Brigade left Lejjun at 04 : 30 on 21 September , to reinforce the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin . The brigade moved out less one squadron , but with the 4th and 11th Light Horse Regiments and a section of the Nottinghamshire Battery RHA , and / or the 19th Brigade RHA ( less one battery and one section ) to arrive at 06 : 00 . They found virtually the whole plain covered with prisoners , motor cars , lorries , wagons , animals , and stores " in an inextricable confusion . " The headquarters of the Australian Mounted Division arrived Jenin at 06 : 30 and , half an hour later , the 14th Cavalry Brigade ( 5th Cavalry Division ) also arrived at Jenin to help manage the thousands of prisoners , but were able to return to their division at Afulah at 16 : 15 that afternoon . Meanwhile , the 8th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) also quickly followed after being relieved at Lejjun . They arrived at Jenin at 07 : 00 and two hours later departed , on their way back to Lejjun , escorting a convoy of about 7 @,@ 000 prisoners . It took 10 hours to escort them to the prison compound , where a total of about 14 @,@ 000 prisoners would eventually be held .
More than 40 hours after the offensive began , substantial columns of the Seventh Ottoman Army were seen withdrawing northeastwards from Nablus , in the direction of the Jordan River where many would be captured by the 11th Cavalry Brigade of the 4th Cavalry Division . Liman von Sanders , the commander of the Yildirim Army Group , had been surprised by the arrival of EEF cavalry at Nazareth in the early hours of 20 September . With no combat formations available to stop the EEF cavalry , he and his staff were forced to retire from Nazareth , driving via Tiberias , to reach Samakh in the late afternoon . Here he made arrangements to establish a strong rearguard garrison in what he planned would be the center of a rearguard line which was to stretch from Lake Hule to Irbid . Liman von Sanders drove on to Deraa on the morning of 21 September , where he received a report from the Ottoman Fourth Army , which he ordered to withdraw to the Deraa @-@ to @-@ Irbid line , without waiting for the southern Hejaz garrisons . He subsequently continued his journey back to Damascus .
As a result of the capture of Jenin , all the main direct northern routes across the Esdrealon Plain , which the retreating Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies could have used , were now held by the Desert Mounted Corps . The 4th Cavalry Division controlled the Beisan area on the eastern edge of the plain after they captured both Afulah and Beisan , while the 5th Cavalry Division garrisoned the Afulah and Nazareth areas in the center and to the north , with the Australian Mounted Division holding Jenin in the south and patrolling the surrounding area .
The 4th Cavalry Division had ridden 70 miles ( 110 km ) ( the first 20 miles ( 32 km ) over sandy soil ) and fought two actions , in 34 hours . The 13th Brigade of the 5th Cavalry Division covered 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 22 hours . On its way to Jenin , the Australian Mounted Division rode 62 miles ( 100 km ) , with its 3rd Light Horse Brigade riding 51 miles ( 82 km ) in less than 25 hours . These cavalry divisions had started the advance with three days rations , so they were on their last day 's supplies when their brigade transport and supply companies arrived . These divisional trains had been supplied from motor lorry convoys , one of which arrived at Jenin during 21 September . The Australian Mounted Division motor ambulance transport , also rejoined their division at Jenin on 21 September , after the main road had been cleared .
The 5th Light Horse Brigade ( Australian Mounted Division ) , which had been attached to the infantry in the Judean Hills , was ordered to rejoin their division at Jenin . The brigade doubled back to turn down the road to Jenin , arriving on dusk at 18 : 00 on 22 September to relieve the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which then withdrew to Afulah . The 4th Light Horse Brigade remained at Jenin until 22 September , when it was ordered back to Afulah , where they arrived at midday on 23 September . The 5th Light Horse Brigade was still at Jenin on 25 September , the last day of the Battle of Megiddo , when it was ordered to send a regiment to reinforce the 4th Light Horse Brigade 's pre @-@ dawn attack on Samakh . They charged against a well prepared German and Ottoman rearguard during the Battle of Samakh . Later in the day , one squadron of the 8th Light Horse Regiment , 3rd Light Horse Brigade approached Tiberias along the road from Nazareth , while a squadron from the 12th Light Horse Regiment , advanced north from Samakh . Together they captured Tiberias and 56 prisoners , half of which were German . The next day Allenby held a corps commanders ' conference at Jenin where he ordered the pursuit to Damascus . Infantry from the 7th Brigade of the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division were detached to the Desert Mounted Corps to relieve the mounted and cavalry divisions of their garrison duties . The infantry took over the captured areas , marching via Jenin , and Nazareth , to arrive at Samakh on 28 September .
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= Eddy Furniss =
Wilburn Edward " Eddy " Furniss III ( born September 18 , 1975 ) is an American retired professional baseball first baseman and designated hitter . A standout college baseball player for Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , Furniss has been inducted into the College Baseball Hall of Fame , the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame , and the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame .
With the LSU Tigers , Furniss was a two @-@ time College World Series champion and a two @-@ time All @-@ American . He won the Dick Howser Trophy as college baseball 's best player in 1998 , and set Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) records in numerous offensive categories , including home runs and runs batted in ( RBIs ) . He was among the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's all @-@ time leaders in home runs and RBIs at the time he graduated from college .
Drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1998 , Furniss played in their minor league system through 2000 . He played for the Oakland Athletics organization in 2001 and the Texas Rangers organization in 2002 . Unable to advance beyond Class AA , Furniss decided to retire from baseball and attend medical school . He graduated from the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston and completed his residency at John Peter Smith Hospital . He practices family medicine in his native Nacogdoches , Texas .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Furniss attended Nacogdoches High School in Nacogdoches , Texas , where he played for the school 's baseball team . In his senior season , Furniss had a .430 batting average , and was named to the All @-@ State team . He had no intention of playing college baseball , expecting to study medicine in college . Following the persistence of college coaches who tried to recruit him , Furniss agreed to continue his baseball career in college .
After graduating from high school in 1994 , Furniss enrolled at Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , where he played college baseball for the LSU Tigers baseball team in the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division I. Furniss batted .326 as a freshman with the LSU Tigers in 1995 , and was named to the All @-@ Tournament Team in the 1995 SEC Baseball Tournament . As a sophomore , Furniss was named the SEC Player of the Year , as he batted .374 and hit 26 home runs with 103 RBIs , the most in the nation . He was also named a first @-@ team All American as a designated hitter , as the Tigers won the 1996 College World Series ( CWS ) .
As a junior , Furniss batted .378 with 17 home runs and 77 RBIs . The Tigers repeated , winning the 1997 CWS . The SEC presented Furniss with their Sportsmanship Award after the season . Furniss sought to improve his physical shape for the 1998 season , and after losing weight , Furniss batted .403 average in 1998 with 27 doubles , three triples , 28 home runs , 85 runs scored , and 76 RBIs . He also set a career @-@ high with 72 walks and a career @-@ low in strikeouts with 40 . He earned first @-@ team All @-@ America and All @-@ SEC honors , and won the Dick Howser Trophy as the top collegiate baseball player . He was also a semifinalist for the Golden Spikes Award , though the award was won by Pat Burrell .
Furniss had a .371 batting average in his four years at LSU , and set SEC career records for hits ( 349 ) , doubles ( 87 ) , home runs ( 80 ) , runs batted in ( 309 ) , and total bases ( 689 ) . At the end of his career , he was among the NCAA 's all @-@ time leaders in various offensive categories , ranking third in total bases , fourth in home runs and doubles , and fifth in RBIs .
= = = Professional career = = =
Selected in the 14th round of the 1997 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft by the Minnesota Twins , Furniss opted to return to LSU for his senior season , rather than sign for the signing bonus typically given to a player selected in that round . After his senior season , Furniss was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the fourth round of the 1998 MLB Draft .
Furniss made his professional debut with the Augusta GreenJackets of the Class A South Atlantic League . After a strong showing with Augusta , batting 40 @-@ for @-@ 86 ( .465 ) with seven doubles , nine home runs , 31 RBIs and 32 runs scored in 24 games , the Pirates promoted Furniss to the Carolina Mudcats of the Class AA Southern League in mid @-@ July , bypassing the Lynchburg Hillcats of the Class A @-@ Advanced Carolina League . Furniss struggled in Carolina , and the Pirates demoted Furniss to Lynchburg on August 4 . He batted .193 in 36 games with Lynchburg to close the season .
The Pirates assigned Furniss to Lynchburg in 1999 , where he batted .261 with 23 home runs and 87 RBIs , and was honored as the Carolina League 's All @-@ Star first baseman . He also set a Hillcats franchise record for walks with 94 . The Pirates sent Furniss to play in the Arizona Fall League after the 1999 regular season . He played for the Altoona Curve of the Class AA Eastern League , the Pirates ' new Class AA affiliate , in 2000 , where he batted .239 in 121 games played .
Signed as a free agent by the Oakland Athletics organization after the season , Furniss started the 2001 season with the Midland RockHounds of the Class AA Texas League , but was demoted to the Visalia Oaks of the Class A @-@ Advanced California League in April . The Athletics promoted him back to Midland later in the season . Joining the Texas Rangers organization for the 2002 season , he played for the Tulsa Drillers , also in the Texas League , where he played in 26 games and batted .143 .
= = = Honors = = =
In honor of his LSU career , Furniss has been inducted into three halls of fame ; the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame in 2007 , the College Baseball Hall of Fame in 2010 , and the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 2012 . During his 2012 induction speech , Furniss quoted the character based on Moonlight Graham from Field of Dreams . Graham played in one MLB game before he retired to practice medicine . On April 22 , 2016 the LSU baseball team retired Furniss ' No. 36 jersey .
= = Medical career = =
Furniss graduated LSU with an academic major in zoology on a pre @-@ medical track , and grade point averages above 3 @.@ 5 in each of his last three years . He took his laboratory courses during the fall semester , so they did not distract from the baseball season in the spring semester .
After the 2002 season , Furniss retired from baseball , as he promised himself he would if he found himself unable to advance beyond Class AA . He enrolled in medical school at University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston , and completed his residency at John Peter Smith Hospital in Fort Worth , Texas . Furniss practices in the Nacogdoches Medical Center , the same building where his father practices .
= = Personal life = =
Furniss was raised in Nacogdoches , Texas , on a 36 @-@ acre ( 15 ha ) ranch . His father , a medical doctor who practices family medicine , built Eddy a batting cage so that he could take 200 to 300 practice swings a day as a child .
Furniss married his high school girlfriend , Crystal , with whom he has two sons and a daughter .
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= Swaminarayan =
Swaminarayan ( IAST : Svāmīnārāyaṇa , 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830 ) , also known as Sahajanand Swami , is the central figure in a modern sect of Hinduism known as the Swaminarayan Hinduism .
Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya , Uttar Pradesh , India in 1781 . In 1792 , he began a seven @-@ year pilgrimage across India at the age of 11 years , adopting the name Nilkanth Varni.During this journey , he did welfare activities and after 9 years and 11 months of this journey , he settled in the state of Gujarat around 1799 . In 1800 , he was initiated into the Uddhav sampradaya by his guru , Swami Ramanand , and was given the name Sahajanand Swami . In 1802 , his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him before his death . Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and taught the Swaminarayan Mantra . From this point onwards , he was known as Swaminarayan . The Uddhav Sampraday became known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday .
Swaminarayan developed a good relationship with the British Raj . He had followers not only from Hindu denominations but also from Islam and Zoroastrianism . He built six temples in his lifetime and appointed 500 paramahamsas to spread his philosophy . In 1826 , Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri , a book of social principles . He died on 1 June 1830 and was cremated according to Hindu rites in Gadhada , Gujarat . Before his death , Swaminarayan appointed his adopted nephews as acharyas to head the two dioceses of Swaminarayan Sampraday .
Swaminarayan is also remembered within the sect for undertaking reforms for women and the poor , performing yajñas ( fire sacrifices ) on a large scale as well as performing miracles . Swaminarayan had an estimated 1 @.@ 8 million followers when he died . By 2007 , he had an estimated of 20 million followers . He has , however , been criticised by people such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Mahatma Gandhi . The acceptance of Swaminarayan as God and secondary treatment of women is questioned by critics .
= = Childhood as Ghanshyam = =
Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 ( Chaitra Sud 9 , Samvat 1837 ) in Chhapaiya , Uttar Pradesh , a village near Ayodhya , in a Hindi speaking region in India . Born into the brahmin or priestly caste of Sarvariya , Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents , Hariprasad Pande ( father , also known as Dharmadev ) and Premvati Pande ( mother , also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi ) . The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami , celebrating the birth of Rama . The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of the waxing moon in the month of Chaitra ( March – April ) , is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers . This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers . Swaminarayan had an elder brother , Rampratap Pande , and a younger brother , Ichcharam Pande . He is said to have mastered the scriptures , including the Vedas , the Upanishads , the Puranas , the Ramayana , and the Mahabharata by the age of seven .
= = Travels as Nilkanth Varni = =
After the death of his parents , Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 ( Ashadh Sud 10 , Samvat 1849 ) at the age of 11 . He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey . Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram , or hermitage , that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta , Samkhya , Yoga , and Pancaratra , the four primary schools of Hindu philosophy . To find such an ashram , Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories :
What is Jiva ?
What is Ishvara ?
What is Maya ?
What is Brahman ?
What is Para Brahman ?
While on his journey , Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga ( eightfold yoga ) in a span of 9 months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi . In Nepal , it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness . As a result , the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned . Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath , Rameshwaram , Nashik , Dwarka and Pandharpur .
In 1799 , after a seven @-@ year journey , Nilkanth 's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj , a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat . In Loj , Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami , a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami . Muktanand Swami , who was twenty @-@ two years older than Nilkanth , answered the five questions to Nilkanth 's satisfaction . Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami , whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat . He later claimed in the Vachnamrut that during this period , he took up a severe penance to eliminate his mothers flesh and blood from his body so that the sign of his physical attachment to family , was completely removed .
= = Leadership as Sahajanand Swami = =
According to the sect , Nilkanth 's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha @-@ tattvas ( five eternal elements ) , together with his mental and physical discipline , inspired senior sadhus of Ramanand Swami .
Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800 , and with it was granted the names Sahajanand Swami and Narayan Muni to signify his new status .
At the age of 21 , Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the Uddhav Sampraday by Ramanand Swami , prior to his death . The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday . According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity , Krishna or Narayana . Krishna was considered by him his own ista devata . In contrast with the Vaishnava sect known as the Radha @-@ vallabha Sampradaya , he had a more puritanical approach , rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery . While being a worshipper of Krishna , Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in Krishnology in favor of worship in the mood of majesty , alike to earlier Vaisnava teachers , Ramanuja and Yamunacarya .
Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering , in Faneni , a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami . He gave his followers a new mantra , known as the Swaminarayan mantra , to repeat in their rituals : Swaminarayan . When chanting this mantra , some devotees went into samadhi ( a form of meditation ) This act is also called maha @-@ samadhi ( " great samadhi " ) and claimed that they could see their personal gods , even though they had no knowledge of Astanga Yoga . Swaminarayan also became known by the names Ghanshyam Maharaj , Shreeji Maharaj , Hari Krishna Maharaj and Shri Hari . As early as 1804 , Swaminarayan , who was reported to have performed miracles , was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple and paramhansa , Nishkulanand Swami . This work , the Yama Danda , was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect .
Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life . Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation , Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots . He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples . Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat , alcohol or drugs , adultery , suicide , animal sacrifices , criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals . Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes . Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple . He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation : dharma , bhakti ( devotion ) , gnana ( knowledge ) and vairagya ( detachment ) . Doctrinally , Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja and was critical of Shankaracharya 's concept of advaita , or monistic non @-@ dualism . Swaminarayan 's ontology maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form .
= = Work and views = =
= = = Women = = =
According to the author Raymond Brady Williams , " Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women 's rights without personal involvement with women " . To counter the practice of sati ( self @-@ immolation by a widow on her husband ’ s funeral pyre ) , Swaminarayan argued that , as human life was given by God it could be taken only by God , and that sati had no Vedic sanction . He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide . Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide , calling infanticide a sin .
The Swaminarayan faith has been linked to patriarchal class structures that subjugate women . Professor David Hardiman states that Swaminarayan was not free from misogyny and " after travelling as an ascetic throughout India he was reported to vomit if approached by even the shadow of a woman " . Swaminarayan 's writings like the Shikshapatri portray women as polluted beings who pull men down . Swaminarayan taught that “ the woman who attracts attention is made up of bones , blood vessels , spittle , blood , mucus and feces ; she is simply a collection of these things , and there is nothing to be attractive . ” Women are thus depicted as dirty , slimy , polluted beings who pull men down . This discriminative treatment is endorsed to the full by the Shikshapatri . Swaminarayan refused to interact with women himself and barred them from leadership positions in his movement , causing critics to label him a hypocrite regarding the status of women . No women are allowed to serve on the managing committees of temples ; neither can they act as trustees of the trusts which look after temple funds .
Members of the faith are defensive of the fact that some practices seem to restrict women and make gender equality in leadership impossible . Female followers are segregated rigorously . They are only permitted to enter special sections of the temple reserved for women or have to go to separate women 's temples . Concepts of pollution associated with the menstrual cycle lead to the exclusion of women from the temples and daily worship . Swaminarayan also directed male devotees not to listen to religious discourses given by women .
In case of widows , Swaminarayan directed those who could not follow the path of chastity to remarry . For those who could , he lay down strict rules which included them being under the control of male members of the family . This may seem regressive , however it gave them " a respected and secure place in the social order " of the time . Swaminarayan restricted widows " to live always under the control of male members of their family and prohibited them from receiving instruction in any science from any man excepting their nearest relations . "
However , while " many would assert that Swaminarayan Hinduism serves a patriarchal agenda , which attempts to keep women in certain roles " , Swaminarayan himself , despite considerable criticism from those in his own contemporary society who " loathed the uplift of lower caste women , " insisted that education was the inherent right of all people . At that time , influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition . Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members . The literacy rate among females began to increase , and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects . Within the sect , Swaminarayan is considered a pioneer of education of females in India .
= = = Caste system and the poor = = =
After assuming the leadership of the Sampraday , Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water . He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor . Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought . The faith largely had excluded the mass of the poor , such as marginal peasants , agricultural labourers , the informal sector working class , adivasisand dalits . Dalits were banned from Swaminarayan temples from the beginning though in one case a separate temple was created for their use .
Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system , allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampraday . However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him . A political officer in Gujarat , Mr. Williamson reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had " destroyed the yoke of caste . " He instructed his paramhansas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants . Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status . Swaminarayan would eat along with the lower Rajput and Khati castes but not any lower . He established separate places of worship for the lower caste population where they were in large numbers . However , Dalits - the lowest in the caste system - were formally excluded from Swaminarayan temples . In the Shikshapatri , he wrote do not take food or water from a person of a lower caste . Members of a lower caste are prohibited from wearing a full sect mark ( tilak chandlo ) on their forehead . Even now , however , for the vast majority of Gujarat 's lower @-@ caste , Untouchable and tribal population , the sect is out of bounds .
According to Narrative of a Journey Through the Upper Provinces of India , from Calcutta to Bombay , Volume 2 1824 to 1825 by Reginald Bishop Heber - Lord Bishop of Calcutta , which says that desciples of Swaminarayan are across the casts including Muslims / Musalmans and lower casts such as Vaghari , Bheels and Kolis . They all pray to one god with no difference of casts . They live as if they are brothers .
Page 109 under head " Swaamee Narain " discussion between Mr. Williamson and Bishop Heber about The social and law & order situation of Kutch ( then Cutch ) and Kathiyawar ( then Catteywar ) during AD 1824 : " On other occasions , however , their opposition to law has been sufficiently open and daring . The districts of Cutch and Cattywar have ever been , more or less in a state of rebellion ; and neither the refency of the former state nor the Guicwar , as feudal sovereign of the latter , nor the English government in the districts adjoining to both , which are under their controul , have ever got through a year whiout one or more sieges of different forts or fastnesses .
Some good had been done , Mr. Williamson said , among many of these wild people , by the preaching and popularity of the Hindoo reformer , Swaamee Narain , who had been mentioned to me at Baroda . His morality was said to be far better than any which could be learned from Shaster ( Shashtra ) . He preached a great degree of purity , forbidding his disciples so much as to ( not ) look on any woman whom they passed . He condemned theft and bloodshed ; and those villages and districts which had received him , from being among worst , were now among the best and most orderly in the provinces . Nor was this all , insomuch as he was said to have destroyed the yoke of caste , - to have preached one God , and in shord , to have made so considerable approaches to the truth , that I could not but hope he might be an appointed instrument to prepare the way for gospel .
While I was listening with much interest to Mr. Williamson 's account of this map , six persons came to the tent , four in the dress of peasants or bunyans ; one , a yong man , with a large which turban and the quilted lebada , of a Coolie , but clean and decent , with a handsome sward and shield and other marks of rustic wealth ; and the sixth , an old Mussalman , which a white beard and pretty much appearance , dress , and manner of an ancient serving @-@ man . After offering some sugar and sweetmeats , as their nuzzur , and as usual , sitting down on the ground , one of the peasants began , to my exceeding surprise and delight , " Pundit Swaamee Narain , send his salaam " . and proceeded to say that person whom I so much desired to see was in the neighbourhood and asked permission to call on my next day . I , of course , returned a favourable answer , and stated with truth that I greatly desired his acquaintanee , and had heard much good of him . I asked if they were his disciples , and was answered in the affirmative . ... He added that though of different castes , they were all disciples of Swaamee Narain , and taught to regard each other as brethren . "
Page 115 - Meeting with Swaminarayain and discussion between Bishop and Swaminarayan " I ( Bishop Heber ) asked ( to Swaminarayan ) about castes , to which he answered , that he did not regard the subject as of much importance , but that he wished not to give offence ( to ancient Hindu system ) ; that people might eat separately or together in this world , but that above " oopur " pointing to heaven , those distinctions would cease , where we should be all " ek ekhee Jat " ( one like another ) . "
Swaminarayan 's few of the closest Muslim disciples were Karrimji , Kesharmiya ( Commander of Vadhawan state ) and Miyaji
It is said that Swaminarayan dispelled the myth that moksha ( salvation ) was not attainable by everyone . He taught that the soul is neither male nor female .
= = = Animal Sacrifices and Yagnas = = =
Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices as carried out by Brahmin priests during Vedic rituals , such as yajnas ( fire sacrifices ) , influenced by the Kaula and Vama Marg cults . The priests consumed " sanctified " prasad in the form of meat of these animals . To solve this problem , Swaminarayan conducted several large scale yajnas involving priests from Varanasi . These did not have animal sacrifices and were conducted in strict accordance with Vedic scriptures . Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large scale yajnas . Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption .
According to ShikshaPatri Shloka 12 : " ( My followers ) shall never kill goats and / or other living beings in sacrifice performed for the propitiation of deities and Pitris ( ancestors ) , for non @-@ violence is declared ( by the Shastras ) as the highest Dharma of all the Dharmas . "
Shloka 15 : " None shall ever eat meat , even if it be an offering in a sacrifice or shall ever drink liquor or wine even if it be offered to a deity . "
Shloka 22 : " None shall ever accept prasad of a deity to whom offering of meat and / or liquor @-@ wine are offered and / or before whom goats and / or other living beings are sacrificed . "
= = = Establishing Law and Order of Gujarat = = =
During the time when Swaminarayan came to Gujarat , the law and order situation of Gujarat was in worst ever . Neither British government nor local kings were able to control the robberies , killings , internal conflicts , rapes , and other uncultured events in Kathiyawar , Kutch and Gujarat . Upon reaching to Gujarat , Swaminarayan by His preaching and super natural divine power restored noted notorious criminals as normal civilians . These criminals left their evil nature and started living life with high moral values to the extent that they would never rob , or kill any living being . Even they would not see the unknown women or would not drink alcohol and be strict vegetarian . Bombay Governor Sir Malcolm was impressed by social reforms of Swaminarayan and so had come down to Rajkot to meet Swaminarayan personally and to appreciate His work towards educating high moral values to the people of Gujarat and helping British Government in reducing criminal graph of Gujarat . Swaminarayan had vowed not to kill the evil people but to kill their evil nature .
Joban Pagi of Vadtal
One of the notorious criminal at time of Maharaja Syajirao Gaikwad 2 was Joban Pagi . Joban Pagi had robbed treasury of Gaikwad at Okha Mandal and killed many of the soldiers . He had also killed officers of British government at Vadtal . But neither British Government nor Gaikwad could arrest him alive . He had his robbers network from Puna till Palanpur . Jobanpagi tried to steal Swaminarayan 's favorite mare named " Manaki " at Dabhan but despite of his efforts through out night he could not steal it . Jobanpagi the master of robbery shocked with his defeat and met Swaminarayan during a vast assembly of Dabhan Yagna and confessed his crime and took his shelter . He then left robbery . Sayajirao Gaikwad had invited him and awarded him " Bahadur " by making him State Guest after he became a disciple of Swaminarayan .
Jogidas Khuman
Jogidas Khuman was one of the strongest Baharvatiya - rebellion turned robber . He became rebellion against Bhavnagar state because he was not given share of kingdom and Bhavnagar Maharaja did not supported him in giving justice . The Khumans periodically rob villages belonging to Wajesinhji - Bhavanagar Maharaja , razing them and pilfering the cattle and then escape to nearby Gir Forests . Despite of multiple efforts by British and Wajesinhji , Jogidas was not convinced to settle down the dispute . Wajesinhji was desperate for truce with Jogidas Khuman. in 1829 He come to know that Jogidas had recently visited Gadhada at Data Khachar Darbar and had met Dada and Swaminarayan on demise of Jiva Khachar . Wajesinhi requested Dada Khachar to help make truce with Jogidas . Dada Khachar being a subservient devotee of Swaminarayan asked permission of Swaminarayan Bhagavaan . Swaminarayan gave him permission . Dada become mediator and by bless of Swaminarayan , Dada made truce between Wajehsinh and Jogidas . D.A. Blane , then Political Agent in Rajkot , ratified the truce and sent it to the Bombay Presidency , which approved it . This clearly reflected Swaminarayan 's calming influence on outlaws of Gujarat and make them streamline without killing them .
= = Temples and ascetics = =
Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several Hindu temples and he had built six huge temples by himself and installed the idols of various deities such as Nara @-@ Narayana in two temples , Laxminarayan dev , gopinathji maharaj , Radha Raman dev and madanmohan lalji . The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna . Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals . Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers . He conducted the festivals of Vasant Panchami , Holi , and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas .
The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822 , with the land for construction given by the British Imperial Government . Following a request of devotees from Bhuj , Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand to build a temple there . Construction commenced in 1822 , and the temple was built within a year . A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824 , a temple in Dholera in 1826 , a temple in Junagadh in 1828 and a temple in Gadhada , also in 1828 . By the time of his death , Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli , Dholka and Jetalpur .
From early on , ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan sect . They contribute towards growth and development of the movement , encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life . Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramhansas in a single night . Paramhansa is a title of honour sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment . Paramhansas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect . Prominent paramhansas included Muktanand Swami , Gopalanand Swami , Brahmanand Swami , Gunatitanand Swami , Premanand Swami , Nishkulanand Swami , and Nityanand Swami .
= = Scriptures = =
Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts . He held the Bhagavata Purana in high authority . However , there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan sect . Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut . Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan , Swaminarayan 's authorized biography , the Muktanand Kavya , the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani .
Shikshapatri
Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri on 11 February 1826 . While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available , it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect . The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow . A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma , it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses , outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well @-@ disciplined and moral life . The oldest copy of this text is preserved at the Bodleian Library of Oxford University and it is one of the very few presented by Sahajanand Swami himself . Acharya Tejendraprasad of Ahmedabad has indicated in a letter that he is not aware of any copy from the hand of Sahajanand older than this text .
Vachanamrut
Swaminarayan 's philosophical , social and practical teachings are contained in the Vachanamrut , a collection of dialogues recorded by five prominent saints ( Muktanand Swami , Gopalanand Swami , Nityanand Swami , Shukanand Muni , & Brahmanand Swami ) from his spoken words . The Vachanamrut is the scripture most commonly used in the Swaminarayan sect . It contains views on dharma ( moral conduct ) , jnana ( understanding of the nature of the self ) , vairagya ( detachment from material pleasure ) , and bhakti ( pure , selfless devotion to God ) , the four essentials Hindu scriptures describe as necessary for a jiva ( soul ) to attain moksha ( salvation ) .
Satsangi Jeevan
Satsangi Jeevan is the authorised biography of Swaminarayan . The book contains information on the life and teachings of Swaminarayan . It is written by Shatanand Swami and completed in Vikram Samvat 1885 . Swaminarayan decided to make Gadhada his permanent residence on the insistence of Dada Khachar and his sisters.Swaminarayan instructed Shatanand Swami to write a book on his life and pastimes .
To enable Shatanand swami to write from His childhood , Swaminarayan had blessed Shatanand Swami with Sanjay Drishti - special power to see the entire past right from His childhood .
Once written by Shatanand Swami , this book was verified and authenticated by Swaminarayan . He was much pleased to read the book . Swaminarayan then asked his disciples to do Katha of Satsangi Jeevan
= = Relations with other religions and the British Government = =
Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions , sometimes meeting prominent leaders . His followers cut across religious boundaries , including people of Muslim and Parsi backgrounds . Swaminarayan 's personal attendants included Khoja Muslims . In Kathiawad , many Muslims wore kanthi necklaces given by Swaminarayan . He also had a meeting with Reginald Heber , Lord Bishop of Calcutta and a leader of Christians in India at the time . Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses and carrying Matchlocks and swords . Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him ( fifty horses and fifty muskets ) and mentioned that it was humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies , his being the smaller contingent . As a result of the meeting , both leaders gained mutual respect for one another .
Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government . The first temple he built , in Ahmedabad , was built on 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) of land given by the government . The British officers gave it a 101 gun salute when it was opened . It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of Krishna.Template : Rp = 81 In 1830 , Swaminarayan had a meeting with Sir John Malcolm , Governor of Bombay ( 1827 to 1830 ) . According to Malcolm , Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a lawless region . During the meeting with Malcolm , Swaminarayan gave him a copy of the Shikshapatri . This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford . Swaminarayan also encouraged the British Governor James Walker to implement strong measures to stop the practice of sati .
= = Death and succession = =
In 1830 , Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure . He later died on 1 June 1830 ( Jeth sud 10 , Samvat 1886 ) , and it is believed by followers that , at the time of his death , Swaminarayan left Earth for Akshardham , his abode . He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in Gadhada .
Prior to his death , Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas or preceptors , as his successors . He established two gadis ( seats of leadership ) . One seat was established at Ahmedabad ( Nar Narayan Dev Gadi ) and the other one at Vadtal ( Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi ) on 21 November 1825 . Swaminarayan appointed an acharya to each of these gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship , the Swaminarayan Sampraday . These acharyas came from his immediate family after sending representatives to search them out in Uttar Pradesh . He formally adopted a son from his brothers and appointed them to the office of acharya . Ayodhyaprasad , the son of Swaminarayan 's elder brother Rampratap and Raghuvira , the son of his younger brother Ichcharam , were appointed acharyas of the Ahmedabad Gadi and the Vadtal Gadi respectively . Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family . The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhaag Lekh . Swaminarayan stated to all the devotees and saints to obey both the Acharyas and Gopalanand Swami who was considered as the main pillar and chief ascetic for the Sampraday .
The current acharyas of the Swaminarayan Sampraday are Koshalendraprasad Pande , of the Ahmedabad Gadi , and Rakeshprasadji Pande , of the Vadtal Gadi .
Decades after his death , several divisions occurred with different understandings of succession . This included the establishment of Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha ( BAPS ) , the founder of which left the Vadtal Gadi in 1905 , and Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan , the founder of which left the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s . The followers of BAPS hold Gunatitanand Swami as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan , asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest . Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given administrative leadership of the sect while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan . The current spiritual and administrative leader of BAPS is Shastri Narayanswarupdas . The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold Gopalanand Swami as the successor to Swaminarayan . The current leader of this sect is Purushottampriyadasji Maharaj .
= = Following and manifestation belief = =
According to the biographer Raymond Williams , when Swaminarayan died , he had a following of 1 @.@ 8 million people . In 2001 , Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents , and the congregation was recorded to be five million , the majority in the homeland of Gujarat . The newspaper Indian Express estimated members of the Swaminarayan sect of Hinduism to number over 20 million ( 2 crore ) worldwide in 2007 .
In his discourses recorded in the Vachanamrut , Swaminarayan mentions that humans would not be able to withstand meeting god in his divine form , hence God takes human form ( simultaneously living in his abode ) so people can approach , understand and love him in the form of an Avatar . While no detailed statistical information is available , most of the followers of Swaminarayan share a belief that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or Purushottam Narayana - the Supreme Being and superior to other avatars . A Swaminarayan sectarian legend tells how Narayana from the Nara Narayana pair , was cursed by sage Durvasa to incarnate on the earth as Swaminarayan .
Some of Swaminarayan 's followers believe he was an incarnation of Lord Krishna . The images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna have coincided in the liturgy of the sect . The story of the birth of Swaminarayan parallels that of Krishna 's birth from the scripture Bhagavata Purana . Swaminarayan himself is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God in a meeting with Reginald Heber , the Lord Bishop of Calcutta , in 1825 .
The belief of many followers that their founder was the incarnation of the Supreme God has also drawn criticism . According to Professor Raymond B. Williams , Swaminarayan was criticized because he received large gifts from his followers and dressed and traveled as a Maharaja even though he had taken the vows of renunciation of the world . Swaminarayan responded that he accepts gifts for the emancipation of his followers .
Mahatma Gandhi , leader of the Indian independence movement in British @-@ ruled India , had a low opinion of the sect and he criticized Swaminarayan and Vallabha Acharya for propagating the values which he thought were contrary to the true spirit of Vaishnavism . In a letter dated 25 July 1918 , to Manganlal Gandhi , he stated , “ To be sure , I have felt in all seriousness that Swaminarayan and Vallabhacharaya have robbed us of our manliness . They made the people incapable of self @-@ defense ... It was all to the good that people gave up drinking , smoking , ect . , this , however , is not an end in itself , it only is a means . The love taught by Swaminarayan and Vallabh is all sentimentalism . They have made an undesirable effect on Gujarat ... Do not mix up the Vaishnava tradition with the teaching of Vallabha and Swaminarayan . ”
The manifestation belief and Swaminarayan 's teachings were also criticized by Hindu reformist leader Swami Dayananda ( 1824 – 1883 ) . He questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as the Supreme Being and was disapproving towards the idea that visions of Swaminarayan could form a path to attaining perfection . Accused of deviating from the Vedas , his followers were criticised for the illegal collection of wealth and the " practice of frauds and tricks . " In the views of Swami Dayananda , published as early as 1875 , the Shikshapatri Dhwanta Nivarana pamphlet came as a reaction to bring out the absurdities of the Shikshapatri . Furthermore , he believed it was a historical fact that Swaminarayan decorated himself as Narayana in order to gain followers .
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= Italian cruiser Nino Bixio =
Nino Bixio was a protected cruiser built by the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the early 1910s . She was the lead ship of the Nino Bixio class , which were built as scouts for the main Italian fleet . She was equipped with a main battery of six 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns and had a top speed in excess of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , but her engines proved to be troublesome in service . Nino Bixio saw service during World War I and briefly engaged the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Helgoland in 1915 . Her career was cut short in the post @-@ war period due to severe cuts to the Italian naval budget , coupled with her unreliable engines . Nino Bixio was stricken from the naval register in March 1929 and sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
Nino Bixio was 140 @.@ 3 meters ( 460 ft ) long at the waterline , with a beam of 13 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft ) . She displaced up to 4 @,@ 141 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 076 long tons ; 4 @,@ 565 short tons ) at full load . Her crew consisted 13 officers and 283 enlisted men . The ship 's propulsion system consisted of three Curtiss steam turbines , each driving a screw propeller . Steam was provided by fourteen mixed coal and oil firing Blechynden boilers . The engines were rated at 23 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 26 @.@ 82 knots ( 49 @.@ 67 km / h ; 30 @.@ 86 mph ) . She had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of six 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 50 guns mounted singly . She was also equipped with six 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 50 guns and two 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Nino Bixio was only lightly armored , with a 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick deck , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating on her main conning tower .
= = Service history = =
Nino Bixio , named for the soldier and politician , was built at the Castellammare shipyard ; her keel was laid down on 15 February 1911 , the same day as her sister Marsala . Nino Bixio 's completed hull was launched ten months later on 30 December , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . The ship was completed by 5 May 1914 , when she was commissioned into the Italian fleet . Italy declared neutrality at the start of World War I in August 1914 , but by May 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic , which could also be easily seeded with minefields . The threat from these underwater weapons was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Nino Bixio , Marsala , and the cruiser Quarto were based at Brindisi during the war , where they could patrol the path from the narrow Adriatic to the Mediterranean .
In December 1915 , an Austro @-@ Hungarian force of two cruisers and five destroyers attempted to intercept transports supplying the Serbian Army trapped in Albania . Quarto departed first , along with the British cruiser HMS Dartmouth and five French destroyers ; Nino Bixio followed two hours later with HMS Weymouth and four Italian destroyers . The first flotilla engaged in a running battle with the fleeing Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Helgoland but Nino Bixio 's group was too far behind to join the fray . By May 1917 , the reconnaissance forces at Brindisi had come under the command of Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton . On the night of 14 – 15 May , the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers Helgoland , Novara , and Saida raided the Otranto Barrage — a patrol line of drifters intended to block Austro @-@ Hungarian and German U @-@ boats . She did not participate in the ensuing Battle of the Otranto Straits because she did not have steam up in her boilers when the Italo @-@ British forces counterattacked .
The Regia Marina demobilized after the end of the war in 1918 and the draw @-@ down continued into the 1920s in large part due to severe budgetary shortfalls in the postwar period . The engines installed on Nino Bixio and her sister proved to be problematic throughout her time in service , which ultimately cut her career short . She was stricken from the naval register on 15 March 1929 and subsequently broken up for scrap ; in contrast , the much more efficient Quarto , which had been built before Nino Bixio , remained in service for another decade .
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= Stacy Carter =
Stacy Lee Carter ( born September 29 , 1970 ) is an American former professional wrestling valet and retired professional wrestler , better known as Miss Kitty or The Kat .
During her tenure in the World Wrestling Federation , she held the Women 's Championship once , although she was not a trained wrestler . During the Armageddon pay @-@ per @-@ view in December 1999 , she flashed her breasts in what was an early instance of intentional nudity in the WWF . After the event , she was shown nude several more times on other pay @-@ per @-@ views . She is also an ex @-@ wife of wrestler and color @-@ commentator Jerry Lawler , who quit the WWF after Carter was released in early 2001 but returned after their divorce in July 2001 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Stacy Carter first appeared on World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) ' s flagship program , Raw is War , in August 1999 . She debuted as Miss Kitty , an assistant to Debra , appointed to her by Jeff Jarrett , whom Debra managed . The partnership ended when Jarrett left the company after losing the Intercontinental Championship to Chyna at No Mercy . Because Jarrett was departing the company after the match , Carter began managing Chyna , and then started dressing in ' Chyna @-@ like ' clothing and wearing a black wig .
At Armageddon in December 1999 , Miss Kitty won her only WWF Women 's Championship in a Four Corners Evening Gown Pool match by defeating then @-@ champion Ivory , Jacqueline , and Barbara " BB " Bush by stripping them of their gowns . The special guest referees were The Fabulous Moolah and Mae Young . After the match , Miss Kitty stripped out of her dress in celebration and quickly flashed the crowd her breasts . This was the first instance of intentional nudity in the WWF . The following evening , she announced before successfully defending her title in a Chocolate Pudding Match that she was changing her name to The Kat . The Kat then appeared at the Royal Rumble in the ' Miss Royal Rumble Swimsuit Contest ' , where she appeared in a bikini made out of bubble wrap . The contest , however , was won by Mae Young . She lost the Championship on the January 31 edition of Raw to Hervina in a Lumberjill Snowbunny match , a match that took place in a snow filled pool surrounded by female wrestlers whose purpose was to keep The Kat and Hervina from leaving the pool .
The Kat then began an on @-@ screen rivalry with Terri Runnels , although neither were trained wrestlers . At WrestleMania 2000 , Runnels ( accompanied by The Fabulous Moolah ) defeated The Kat ( with Mae Young ) in a catfight . Val Venis was the special guest referee , but he was distracted during the match when Young kissed him , which allowed Moolah to pull The Kat out of the ring . When Venis saw her out of the ring , he declared Runnels the winner . Post @-@ match , The Kat attacked Runnels by stripping off her pants to expose her thong . The feud continued , and the duo had an arm wrestling match at Insurrextion . Carter was victorious , but after the match , Runnels pulled The Kat 's top off , exposing her breasts , which Carter allowed instead of acting disgusted or embarrassed . The two women continued to feud throughout the summer , often in mixed tag matches . In June 2000 , Carter attempted to regain the Women 's Championship by entering a battle royal to become the # 1 contender , but she was eliminated by her rival Terri . The feud resurfaced in a ' Thong Stink Face ' match at SummerSlam , which The Kat won by performing a stinkface on Runnels .
In early 2001 , The Kat began a new storyline with a stable called the Right to Censor , a group of conservative wrestlers , where she demanded equal time for the " right for nudity " . At No Way Out , Jerry Lawler , who was representing The Kat , lost a match to Steven Richards , the head of the stable , after The Kat mistakenly hit Lawler with the Women 's Championship belt . As a result of Lawler losing the match , she was forced to join the stable . On February 27 , 2001 , however , Carter was released from the WWF in the middle of the storyline . As a result , her husband Jerry Lawler also quit the company . According to Lawler , Carter was released from the WWF because Vince McMahon decided to end the angle with the Right to Censor . Other insiders cite Carter 's negative backstage attitude as the reason for her dismissal .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2001 , 2010 ) = = =
After Carter and Lawler left the World Wrestling Federation , they worked various independent wrestling events . They also signed with Tri @-@ Star Productions and worked at Memphis Championship Wrestling . Carter made her debut for Tri @-@ State Wrestling Alliance ( TWA ) on June 5 , 2001 at the TWA Homecoming event in Plymouth Meeting , Pennsylvania , where she teamed up with Demolition ( Ax and Smash ) in a winning effort defeating Sheeta and The Nigerian Nightmares ( Maifu and Saifu ) in a 6 @-@ person mixed @-@ tag team match . Carter made her debut for Stranglehold Wrestling ( SHW ) on August 26 , 2010 at the Stranglehold Devils Playground Tour in Oshawa , Ontario , Canada , where she competed in an Arm @-@ Wrestling match against Pissed off Pete in a no @-@ contest . Later that event , Carter accompied Sinn Bohdi to the ring where he competed against George Terzis .
= = Personal life = =
Stacy Carter 's family was originally from West Memphis , Arkansas . After her parents divorced , Carter 's mother moved to Memphis , Tennessee . Stacy Carter , however , as well as her younger brother and sister , continued to live with their father , who worked as a policeman , in Arkansas . Carter moved to Memphis to live with her mother , Cathy , after graduating from high school .
Stacy Carter met Jerry Lawler , her future husband , at a charity softball game at Treadwell High School in Memphis on July 23 , 1989 , two months before her nineteenth birthday . She was attending the game with her mother , who was dating one of the players on the team for which Lawler also played . Lawler , however , was married at the time , and he claims that when he initially met Carter , he considered an affair . After Lawler separated from his wife , Carter moved in with him . When Carter first met Lawler , she was working as a bank teller . Lawler later helped her get a job at a photography studio , and she also opened and ran her own hair salon .
Lawler and Carter married in September 2000 . While they were together , former professional wrestler Missy Hyatt offered Carter $ 10 @,@ 000 to pose nude on her website , but Carter refused the offer . Carter decided to leave Lawler in July 2001 , and they separated not long after . She left the wrestling business upon separating from Jerry Lawler . She worked in the field of real estate in Lee County , Florida for Century 21 for some time after the divorce .
Carter and professional wrestler Nick Cvjetkovich announced their engagement on June 12 , 2010 . Cvjetkovich and Carter were married in St. Petersburg Florida July 29 , 2010 on the beach in front of many family and friends . Stevan Cvjetkovich ( Nicholas ' younger brother ) and Edge both stood as best men . Jimmy Hart gave Carter away in the ceremony .
= = In wrestling = =
Signature moves
Monkey flip
One @-@ handed bulldog
Hairpull whip
Stinkface
Wrestlers managed
Eddie Guerrero ( Raw , 10 / 30 / 00 )
Chyna
Debra
Mark Henry
Jeff Jarrett
Jerry Lawler
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
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= Technetium =
Technetium ( / tɛkˈniːʃiəm / ) is a chemical element with symbol Tc and atomic number 43 . It is the lightest element of which all isotopes are radioactive ; none are stable . Only one other element , promethium , is followed ( in the periodic table ) by elements with stable isotopes . Nearly all technetium is produced synthetically , and only minute amounts are found in the Earth 's crust . Naturally occurring technetium is a spontaneous fission product in uranium ore or the product of neutron capture in molybdenum ores . The chemical properties of this silvery gray , crystalline transition metal are intermediate between rhenium and manganese .
Many of technetium 's properties were predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev before the element was discovered . Mendeleev noted a gap in his periodic table and gave the undiscovered element the provisional name ekamanganese ( Em ) . In 1937 , technetium ( specifically the technetium @-@ 97 isotope ) became the first predominantly artificial element to be produced , hence its name ( from the Greek τεχνητός , meaning " artificial " , + -ium ) .
Its short @-@ lived gamma ray @-@ emitting nuclear isomer — technetium @-@ 99m — is used in nuclear medicine for a wide variety of diagnostic tests . Technetium @-@ 99 is used as a gamma @-@ ray @-@ free source of beta particles . Long @-@ lived technetium isotopes produced commercially are by @-@ products of fission of uranium @-@ 235 in nuclear reactors and are extracted from nuclear fuel rods . Because no isotope of technetium has a half @-@ life longer than 4 @.@ 2 million years ( technetium @-@ 98 ) , the 1952 detection of technetium in red giants , which are billions of years old , helped to prove that stars can produce heavier elements .
= = History = =
= = = Search for element 43 = = =
From the 1860s through 1871 , early forms of the periodic table proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev contained a gap between molybdenum ( element 42 ) and ruthenium ( element 44 ) . In 1871 , Mendeleev predicted this missing element would occupy the empty place below manganese and have similar chemical properties . Mendeleev gave it the provisional name ekamanganese ( from eka- , the Sanskrit word for one ) because the predicted element was one place down from the known element manganese .
= = = Early mis @-@ identifications = = =
Many early researchers , both before and after the periodic table was published , were eager to be the first to discover and name the missing element ; its location in the table suggested that it should be easier to find than other undiscovered elements .
= = = Unreproducible results = = =
German chemists Walter Noddack , Otto Berg , and Ida Tacke reported the discovery of element 75 and element 43 in 1925 , and named element 43 masurium ( after Masuria in eastern Prussia , now in Poland , the region where Walter Noddack 's family originated ) . The group bombarded columbite with a beam of electrons and deduced element 43 was present by examining X @-@ ray diffraction spectrograms . The wavelength of the X @-@ rays produced is related to the atomic number by a formula derived by Henry Moseley in 1913 . The team claimed to detect a faint X @-@ ray signal at a wavelength produced by element 43 . Later experimenters could not replicate the discovery , and it was dismissed as an error for many years . Still , in 1933 , a series of articles on the discovery of elements quoted the name masurium for element 43 . Whether the 1925 team actually did discover element 43 is still debated .
= = = Official discovery and later history = = =
The discovery of element 43 was finally confirmed in a December 1936 experiment at the University of Palermo in Sicily by Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè . In mid @-@ 1936 , Segrè visited the United States , first Columbia University in New York and then the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California . He persuaded cyclotron inventor Ernest Lawrence to let him take back some discarded cyclotron parts that had become radioactive . Lawrence mailed him a molybdenum foil that had been part of the deflector in the cyclotron .
Segrè enlisted his colleague Perrier to attempt to prove , through comparative chemistry , that the molybdenum activity was indeed from an element with the atomic number 43 . They succeeded in isolating the isotopes technetium @-@ 95m and technetium @-@ 97 . University of Palermo officials wanted them to name their discovery " panormium " , after the Latin name for Palermo , Panormus . In 1947 element 43 was named after the Greek word τεχνητός , meaning " artificial " , since it was the first element to be artificially produced . Segrè returned to Berkeley and met Glenn T. Seaborg . They isolated the metastable isotope technetium @-@ 99m , which is now used in some ten million medical diagnostic procedures annually .
In 1952 , astronomer Paul W. Merrill in California detected the spectral signature of technetium ( specifically wavelengths of 403 @.@ 1 nm , 423 @.@ 8 nm , 426 @.@ 2 nm , and 429 @.@ 7 nm ) in light from S @-@ type red giants . The stars were near the end of their lives , yet were rich in this short @-@ lived element , indicating that it was being produced in the stars by nuclear reactions . This evidence bolstered the hypothesis that heavier elements are the product of nucleosynthesis in stars . More recently , such observations provided evidence that elements are formed by neutron capture in the s @-@ process .
Since that discovery , there have been many searches in terrestrial materials for natural sources of technetium . In 1962 , technetium @-@ 99 was isolated and identified in pitchblende from the Belgian Congo in extremely small quantities ( about 0 @.@ 2 ng / kg ) ; there it originates as a spontaneous fission product of uranium @-@ 238 . The Oklo natural nuclear fission reactor contains evidence that significant amounts of technetium @-@ 99 were produced and have since decayed into ruthenium @-@ 99 .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Technetium is a silvery @-@ gray radioactive metal with an appearance similar to platinum , commonly obtained as a gray powder . The crystal structure of the pure metal is hexagonal close @-@ packed . Atomic technetium has characteristic emission lines at these wavelengths of light : 363 @.@ 3 nm , 403 @.@ 1 nm , 426 @.@ 2 nm , 429 @.@ 7 nm , and 485 @.@ 3 nm .
The metal form is slightly paramagnetic , meaning its magnetic dipoles align with external magnetic fields , but will assume random orientations once the field is removed . Pure , metallic , single @-@ crystal technetium becomes a type @-@ II superconductor at temperatures below 7 @.@ 46 K. Below this temperature , technetium has a very high magnetic penetration depth , greater than any other element except niobium .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Technetium is located in the seventh group of the periodic table , between rhenium and manganese . As predicted by the periodic law , its chemical properties are between those two elements . Of the two , technetium more closely resembles rhenium , particularly in its chemical inertness and tendency to form covalent bonds . Unlike manganese , technetium does not readily form cations ( ions with a net positive charge ) . Technetium exhibits nine oxidation states from − 1 to + 7 , with + 4 , + 5 , and + 7 being the most common . Technetium dissolves in aqua regia , nitric acid , and concentrated sulfuric acid , but it is not soluble in hydrochloric acid of any concentration .
Technetium can catalyse the destruction of hydrazine by nitric acid , and this property is to its multiplicity of valencies . This caused a problem in the separation of plutonium from uranium in nuclear fuel processing , where hydrazine is used as a protective reductant to keep plutonium in the trivalent rather than the more stable tetravalent state . The problem was exacerbated by the mutually @-@ enhanced solvent extraction of technetium and zirconium at the previous stage , and required a process modification .
= = = = Hydride and oxides = = = =
The reaction of technetium with hydrogen produces the negatively charged hydride TcH2 −
9 ion , which has the same type of crystal structure as ( in other words , it is isostructural with ) ReH2 −
9 . It consists of a trigonal prism with a technetium atom in the center and six hydrogen atoms at the corners . Three more hydrogen atoms make a triangle lying parallel to the base and crossing the prism in its center . Although those hydrogen atoms are not equivalent geometrically , their electronic structure is almost the same . This complex has a coordination number of 9 ( meaning that the technetium atom has nine neighbors ) , which is the highest for a technetium complex . Two hydrogen atoms in the complex can be replaced by sodium ( Na + ) or potassium ( K + ) ions .
Metallic technetium slowly tarnishes in moist air and , in powder form , burns in oxygen . Two oxides have been observed : TcO2 and Tc2O7 . Under oxidizing conditions , which tend to strip electrons from atoms , technetium ( VII ) exists as the pertechnetate ion , TcO −
4 .
At temperatures of 400 – 450 ° C , technetium oxidizes to form the pale @-@ yellow heptoxide :
4 Tc + 7 O2 → 2 Tc2O7
This compound adopts a centrosymmetric structure with two types of Tc − O bonds with 167 and 184 pm bond lengths , and 180 ° Tc − O − Tc angle .
Technetium heptoxide is the precursor to sodium pertechnetate :
Tc2O7 + 2 NaOH → 2 NaTcO4 + H2O
Black @-@ colored technetium dioxide ( TcO2 ) can be produced by reduction of heptoxide with technetium or hydrogen .
Pertechnetic acid ( HTcO4 ) is produced by reacting Tc2O7 with water or oxidizing acids , such as nitric acid , concentrated sulfuric acid , aqua regia , or a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids . The resulting dark red , hygroscopic substance is a strong acid and easily donates protons . In concentrated sulfuric acid , Tc ( VII ) tetraoxidotechnetate anion converts to the octahedral form of technetic ( VII ) acid TcO3 ( OH ) ( H2O ) 2 .
The pertechnate ( tetroxidotechnetate ) anion TcO −
4 consists of a tetrahedron with oxygens in the corners and a technetium atom in the center . Unlike permanganate ( MnO −
4 ) , it is only a weak oxidizing agent . Pertechnetate is often used as a convenient water @-@ soluble source of technetium isotopes , such as 99mTc , and as a catalyst .
= = = = Sulfides , selenides , and tellurides = = = =
Technetium forms various sulfides . TcS2 is obtained by direct reacting technetium with elemental sulfur , while Tc2S7 is formed from pertechnetic acid as follows :
2 HTcO4 + 7 H2S → Tc2S7 + 8 H2O
In this reaction , technetium is reduced to Tc ( IV ) while excess sulfur forms a disulfide ligand . The produced technetium heptasulfide has a polymeric structure ( Tc3 ( µ3 – S ) ( S2 ) 3S6 ) n with a core similar to Mo3 ( µ3 – S ) ( S2 ) 62 − .
Upon heating , technetium heptasulfide decomposes into disulfide and elemental sulfur :
Tc2S7 → 2 TcS2 + 3 S
Analogous reactions occur with selenium and tellurium .
= = = = Clusters and organic complexes = = = =
Several technetium clusters are known , including Tc4 , Tc6 , Tc8 and Tc13 . The more stable Tc6 and Tc8 clusters have prism shapes where vertical pairs of Tc atoms are connected by triple bonds and the planar atoms by single bonds . Every technetium atom makes six bonds , and the remaining valence electrons can be saturated by one axial and two bridging ligand halogen atoms such as chlorine or bromine .
Technetium forms numerous organic complexes , relatively well @-@ investigated because they are important for nuclear medicine . Technetium carbonyl ( Tc2 ( CO ) 10 ) is a white solid . In this molecule , two technetium atoms are weakly bound to each other ; each atom is surrounded by octahedra of five carbonyl ligands . The bond length between technetium atoms , 303 pm , is significantly larger than the distance between two atoms in metallic technetium ( 272 pm ) . Similar carbonyls are formed by technetium 's congeners , manganese and rhenium .
A technetium complex with an organic ligand ( shown in the figure on right ) is commonly used in nuclear medicine . It has a unique Tc − O functional group ( moiety ) oriented perpendicularly to the plane of the molecule , where the oxygen atom can be replaced by a nitrogen atom .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Technetium , with atomic number ( denoted Z ) 43 , is the lowest @-@ numbered element in the periodic table of which all isotopes are radioactive . The second @-@ lightest , exclusively radioactive element , promethium , has an atomic number of 61 . Atomic nuclei with an odd number of protons are less stable than those with even numbers , even when the total number of nucleons ( protons + neutrons ) is even , and odd numbered elements have fewer stable isotopes .
The most stable radioactive isotopes are technetium @-@ 98 with a half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 2 million years ( Ma ) , technetium @-@ 97 with 2 @.@ 6 Ma , and technetium @-@ 99 with 211 @,@ 000 years . Thirty other radioisotopes have been characterized with mass numbers ranging from 85 to 118 . Most of these have half @-@ lives that are less than an hour , the exceptions being technetium @-@ 93 ( half @-@ life : 2 @.@ 73 hours ) , technetium @-@ 94 ( half @-@ life : 4 @.@ 88 hours ) , technetium @-@ 95 ( half @-@ life : 20 hours ) , and technetium @-@ 96 ( half @-@ life : 4 @.@ 3 days ) .
The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than technetium @-@ 98 ( 98Tc ) is electron capture , producing molybdenum ( Z |
= 42 ) . For technetium @-@ 98 and heavier isotopes , the primary mode is beta emission ( the emission of an electron or positron ) , producing ruthenium ( Z =
44 ) , with the exception that technetium @-@ 100 can decay both by beta emission and electron capture .
Technetium also has numerous nuclear isomers , which are isotopes with one or more excited nucleons . Technetium @-@ 97m ( 97mTc ; ' m ' stands for metastability ) is the most stable , with a half @-@ life of 91 days ( 0 @.@ 0965 MeV ) . This is followed by technetium @-@ 95m ( half @-@ life : 61 days , 0 @.@ 03 MeV ) , and technetium @-@ 99m ( half @-@ life : 6 @.@ 01 hours , 0 @.@ 142 MeV ) . Technetium @-@ 99m emits only gamma rays and decays to technetium @-@ 99 .
Technetium @-@ 99 ( 99Tc ) is a major product of the fission of uranium @-@ 235 ( 235U ) , making it the most common and most readily available isotope of technetium . One gram of technetium @-@ 99 produces 6 @.@ 2 × 108 disintegrations a second ( that is , 0 @.@ 62 GBq / g ) .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Only minute traces of technetium occur naturally in the Earth 's crust . This is because technetium @-@ 98 's half @-@ life is only 4 @.@ 2 million years . More a thousand of such periods have passed since the formation of the Earth , so the probability for the survival of even one atom of primordial technetium is effectively zero . However , small amounts exist as spontaneous fission products in uranium ores . A kilogram of uranium contains an estimated 1 nanogram ( 10 − 9 g ) of technetium . Some red giant stars with the spectral types S- , M- , and N contain a spectral absorption line indicating the presence of technetium . These red @-@ giants are known informally as technetium stars .
= = = Fission waste product = = =
In contrast to the rare natural occurrence , bulk quantities of technetium @-@ 99 are produced each year from spent nuclear fuel rods , which contain various fission products . The fission of a gram of uranium @-@ 235 in nuclear reactors yields 27 mg of technetium @-@ 99 , giving technetium a fission product yield of 6 @.@ 1 % . Other fissile isotopes produce similar yields of technetium , such as 4 @.@ 9 % from uranium @-@ 233 and 6 @.@ 21 % from plutonium @-@ 239 . An estimated 49 @,@ 000 TBq ( 78 metric tons ) of technetium was produced in nuclear reactors between 1983 and 1994 , by far the dominant source of terrestrial technetium . Only a fraction of the production is used commercially .
Technetium @-@ 99 is produced by the nuclear fission of both uranium @-@ 235 and plutonium @-@ 239 . It is therefore present in radioactive waste and in the nuclear fallout of fission bomb explosions . Its decay , measured in becquerels per amount of spent fuel , is dominant after about 104 to 106 years after the creation of the nuclear waste . From 1945 to 1994 , an estimated 160 TBq ( about 250 kg ) of technetium @-@ 99 was released into the environment during atmospheric nuclear tests . The amount of technetium @-@ 99 from nuclear reactors released into the environment up to 1986 is on the order of 1000 TBq ( about 1600 kg ) , primarily by nuclear fuel reprocessing ; most of this was discharged into the sea . Reprocessing methods have reduced emissions since then , but as of 2005 the primary release of technetium @-@ 99 into the environment is by the Sellafield plant , which released an estimated 550 TBq ( about 900 kg ) from 1995 – 1999 into the Irish Sea . From 2000 onwards the amount has been limited by regulation to 90 TBq ( about 140 kg ) per year . Discharge of technetium into the sea resulted in contamination of some seafood with minuscule quantities of this element . For example , European lobster and fish from west Cumbria contain about 1 Bq / kg of technetium .
= = = Fission product for commercial use = = =
The metastable isotope technetium @-@ 99m is continuously produced as a fission product from the fission of uranium or plutonium in nuclear reactors . Because used fuel is allowed to stand for several years before reprocessing , all molybdenum @-@ 99 and technetium @-@ 99m is decayed by the time that the fission products are separated from the major actinides in conventional nuclear reprocessing . The liquid left after plutonium – uranium extraction ( PUREX ) contains a high concentration of technetium as TcO −
4 but almost all of this is technetium @-@ 99 , not technetium @-@ 99m .
The vast majority of the technetium @-@ 99m used in medical work is produced by irradiating dedicated highly enriched uranium targets in a reactor , extracting molybdenum @-@ 99 from the targets in reprocessing facilities , and recovering at the diagnostic center the technetium @-@ 99m produced upon decay of molybdenum @-@ 99 . Molybdenum @-@ 99 in the form of molybdate MoO2 −
4 is adsorbed onto acid alumina ( Al
2O
3 ) in a shielded column chromatograph inside a technetium @-@ 99m generator ( " technetium cow " , also occasionally called a " molybdenum cow " ) . Molybdenum @-@ 99 has a half @-@ life of 67 hours , so short @-@ lived technetium @-@ 99m ( half @-@ life : 6 hours ) , which results from its decay , is being constantly produced . The soluble pertechnetate TcO −
4 can then be chemically extracted by elution using a saline solution . A drawback of this process is that it requires targets containing uranium @-@ 235 , which are subject to the security precautions of fissile materials .
Almost two @-@ thirds of the world 's supply comes from two reactors ; the National Research Universal Reactor at Chalk River Laboratories in Ontario , Canada , and the High Flux Reactor at Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group in Petten , Netherlands . All major reactors that produce technetium @-@ 99m were built in the 1960s and are close to the end of life . The two new Canadian Multipurpose Applied Physics Lattice Experiment reactors planned and built to produce 200 % of the demand of technetium @-@ 99m relieved all other producers from building their own reactors . With the cancellation of the already tested reactors in 2008 , the future supply of technetium @-@ 99m became problematic .
The Chalk River reactor was shut down for maintenance in August 2009 , and reopened in August 2010 . The Petten reactor had a 6 @-@ month scheduled maintenance shutdown on Friday , February 19 , 2010 , and reopened September 2010 . With millions of procedures relying on technetium @-@ 99m every year , the low supply has left a gap , leaving some practitioners to revert to techniques not used for 20 years . Somewhat allaying this issue is an announcement from the Polish Maria research reactor that they have developed a technique to isolate technetium .
= = = Waste disposal = = =
The long half @-@ life of technetium @-@ 99 and its potential to form anionic species creates a major concern for long @-@ term disposal of radioactive waste . Many of the processes designed to remove fission products in reprocessing plants aim at cationic species such as caesium ( e.g. , caesium @-@ 137 ) and strontium ( e.g. , strontium @-@ 90 ) . Hence the pertechnetate escapes through those processes . Current disposal options favor burial in continental , geologically stable rock . The primary danger with such practice is the likelihood that the waste will contact water , which could leach radioactive contamination into the environment . The anionic pertechnetate and iodide tend not to adsorb into the surfaces of minerals , and are likely to be washed away . By comparison plutonium , uranium , and caesium are tend to bind to soil particles . Technetium could be immobilized by some environments , such as microbial activity in lake bottom sediments , and the environmental chemistry of technetium is an area of active research .
An alternative disposal method , transmutation , has been demonstrated at CERN for technetium @-@ 99 . In this process , the technetium ( technetium @-@ 99 as a metal target ) is bombarded with neutrons to form the short @-@ lived technetium @-@ 100 ( half @-@ life = 16 seconds ) which decays by beta decay to ruthenium @-@ 100 . If recovery of usable ruthenium is a goal , an extremely pure technetium target is needed ; if small traces of the minor actinides such as americium and curium are present in the target , they are likely to undergo fission and form more fission products which increase the radioactivity of the irradiated target . The formation of ruthenium @-@ 106 ( half @-@ life 374 days ) from the ' fresh fission ' is likely to increase the activity of the final ruthenium metal , which will then require a longer cooling time after irradiation before the ruthenium can be used .
The actual separation of technetium @-@ 99 from spent nuclear fuel is a long process . During fuel reprocessing , it comes out as a component of the highly radioactive waste liquid . After sitting for several years , the radioactivity reduces to a level where extraction of the long @-@ lived isotopes , including technetium @-@ 99 , becomes feasible . A series of chemical processes yields technetium @-@ 99 metal of high purity .
= = = Neutron activation = = =
Molybdenum @-@ 99 , which decays to form technetium @-@ 99m , can be formed by the neutron activation of molybdenum @-@ 98 . When needed , other technetium isotopes are not produced in significant quantities by fission , but are manufactured by neutron irradiation of parent isotopes ( for example , technetium @-@ 97 can be made by neutron irradiation of ruthenium @-@ 96 ) .
= = = Particle accelerators = = =
The feasibility of technetium @-@ 99m production with the 22 @-@ MeV @-@ proton bombardment of a molybdenum @-@ 100 target in medical cyclotrons following the reaction 100Mo ( p , 2n ) 99mTc was demonstrated in 1971 . The recent shortages of medical technetium @-@ 99m reignited the interest in its production by proton bombardment of isotopically @-@ enriched ( > 99 @.@ 5 % ) molybdenum @-@ 100 targets . Other techniques are being investigated for obtaining molybdenum @-@ 99 from molybdenum @-@ 100 via ( n , 2n ) or ( γ , n ) reactions in particle accelerators .
= = Applications = =
= = = Nuclear medicine and biology = = =
Technetium @-@ 99m ( " m " indicates that this is a metastable nuclear isomer ) is used in radioactive isotope medical tests . For example Technetium @-@ 99m is a radioactive tracer that medical imaging equipment tracks in the human body . It is well suited to the role because it emits readily detectable 140 keV gamma rays , and its half @-@ life is 6 @.@ 01 hours ( meaning that about 94 % of it decays to technetium @-@ 99 in 24 hours ) . The chemistry of technetium allows it to be bound to a variety of biochemical compounds , each of which determines how it is metabolized and deposited in the body , and this single single isotope can be used for a multitude of diagnostic tests . More than 50 common radiopharmaceuticals are based on technetium @-@ 99m for imaging and functional studies of the brain , heart muscle , thyroid , lungs , liver , gall bladder , kidneys , skeleton , blood , and tumors .
The longer @-@ lived isotope , technetium @-@ 95m with a half @-@ life of 61 days , is used as a radioactive tracer to study the movement of technetium in the environment and in plant and animal systems .
= = = Industrial and chemical = = =
Technetium @-@ 99 decays almost entirely by beta decay , emitting beta particles with consistent low energies and no accompanying gamma rays . Moreover , its long half @-@ life means that this emission decreases very slowly with time . It can also be extracted to a high chemical and isotopic purity from radioactive waste . For these reasons , it is a National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) standard beta emitter , and is used for equipment calibration . Technetium @-@ 99 has also been proposed for optoelectronic devices and nanoscale nuclear batteries .
Like rhenium and palladium , technetium can serve as a catalyst . In processes such as the dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol , it is a far more effective catalyst than either rhenium or palladium . However , its radioactivity is a major problem in safe catalytic applications .
When steel is immersed in water , adding a small concentration ( 55 ppm ) of potassium pertechnetate ( VII ) to the water protects the steel from corrosion , even if the temperature is raised to 250 ° C ( 523 K ) . For this reason , pertechnetate has been used as an anodic corrosion inhibitor for steel , although technetium 's radioactivity poses problems that limit this application to self @-@ contained systems . While ( for example ) CrO2 −
4 can also inhibit corrosion , it requires a concentration ten times as high . In one experiment , a specimen of carbon steel was kept in an aqueous solution of pertechnetate for 20 years and was still uncorroded . The mechanism by which pertechnetate prevents corrosion is not well understood , but seems to involve the reversible formation of a thin surface layer ( passivation ) . One theory holds that the pertechnetate reacts with the steel surface to form a layer of technetium dioxide which prevents further corrosion ; the same effect explains how iron powder can be used to remove pertechnetate from water . ( Activated carbon can also be used for the same purpose . ) The effect disappears rapidly if the concentration of pertechnetate falls below the minimum concentration or if too high a concentration of other ions is added .
As noted , the radioactive nature of technetium ( 3 MBq / L at the concentrations required ) makes this corrosion protection impractical in almost all situations . Nevertheless , corrosion protection by pertechnetate ions was proposed ( but never adopted ) for use in boiling water reactors .
= = Precautions = =
Technetium plays no natural biological role and is not normally found in the human body . Technetium is produced in quantity by nuclear fission , and spreads more readily than many radionuclides . It appears to have low chemical toxicity . For example , no significant change in blood formula , body and organ weights , and food consumption could be detected for rats which ingested up to 15 µg of technetium @-@ 99 per gram of food for several weeks . The radiological toxicity of technetium ( per unit of mass ) is a function of compound , type of radiation for the isotope in question , and the isotope 's half @-@ life .
All isotopes of technetium must be handled carefully . The most common isotope , technetium @-@ 99 , is a weak beta emitter ; such radiation is stopped by the walls of laboratory glassware . The primary hazard when working with technetium is inhalation of dust ; such radioactive contamination in the lungs can pose a significant cancer risk . For most work , careful handling in a fume hood is sufficient , and a glove box is not needed .
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= George McTurnan Kahin =
George McTurnan Kahin ( January 25 , 1918 – January 29 , 2000 ) was an American historian and political scientist . He was one of the leading experts on Southeast Asia and a critic of United States involvement in the Vietnam War . After completing his dissertation , which is still considered a classic on Indonesian history , Kahin became a faculty member at Cornell University . At Cornell , he became the director of its Southeast Asia Program and founded the Cornell Modern Indonesia Project . Kahin 's incomplete memoir was published posthumously in 2003 .
= = Early life = =
George McTurnan Kahin was born on January 25 , 1918 , in Baltimore , Maryland , and grew up in Seattle , Washington . He received a B.S. in history from Harvard University in 1940 .
Kahin married Margaret Baker in 1942 , but the marriage ended in divorce . During World War II , Kahin served in the United States Army between 1942 and 1945 , where " he was trained as one of a group of 60 GIs who were to be parachuted into Japanese @-@ occupied Indonesia in advance of Allied forces " . However , the operation was canceled after it was determined that U.S. forces would bypass the Indies after the Potsdam Conference . As a result , his unit was sent to the European theater . He earned the rank of sergeant before leaving the Army . Kahin 's interest in Southeast Asia developed during this period , and he learned to speak Indonesian and Dutch .
Kahin returned after the war to complete his M.A. from Stanford University , which he received in 1946 . His thesis was titled The Political Position of the Chinese in Indonesia ( Kahin 1946 ) , describing the role of Chinese Indonesians in the new country . He continued to pursue of his interest in Southeast Asia , going to Indonesia in 1948 to conduct research during the Indonesian National Revolution . During his work , he was arrested by Dutch colonial authorities and expelled from the country . Kahin received a Ph.D. in political science from Johns Hopkins University in 1951 . His dissertation , titled Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia ( Kahin 1952 ) , is considered a classic on Indonesian history .
= = Academic career = =
In 1951 , Kahin became an assistant professor of government at Cornell University . He received tenure and was promoted to associate professor in 1954 ; he became a full professor in 1959 . He became the director of Cornell 's Southeast Asia Program in 1961 and held the position until 1970 . Kahin also founded the Cornell Modern Indonesia Project in 1954 and served as its director until his retirement in 1988 . Between 1962 and 1963 , he became a Fulbright professor at London University . Kahin was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
We voted for the maintenance of academic freedom , believing that without that essential quality there can be no relationship of any kind between blacks and a university , because without that quality you don 't have a university .
— George McTurnan Kahin , April 25 , 1969
On April 19 , 1969 , Cornell 's Afro @-@ American Society occupied the Willard Straight Hall student union in protest against " the university 's racist attitudes and irrelevant curriculum " regarding racial issues . The university was divided between proponents of the inclusion of the principles of social justice in course instruction and advocates of academic freedom for the faculty . This clash affected the Department of Government , where Kahin and a number of professors defending academic freedom resided . Many of these professors had considered leaving the university due to the administration 's policies promoting racial justice , and many did following the end of the occupation . The following week , the Department of Government organized a teach @-@ in on academic freedom , and Kahin was invited to speak at the event by department chair Peter Sharfman . Historian Walter LaFeber would later remember his remarks as " the most eloquent speech about academic freedom I have ever encountered anywhere up to that time or since that time " .
= = = Vietnam War critic = = =
Kahin was a leading critic of the Vietnam War and opposed United States involvement . He participated in a teach @-@ in in May 1965 and led the anti @-@ war position . Later , he co @-@ wrote The United States in Vietnam ( Kahin & Lewis 1969 ) with Stanford professor John Lewis , a publication which helped to turn people in academia against U.S. intervention in Vietnam . It was one of the most comprehensive studies of American involvement in the war to date . According to Kahin and Lewis , American policy was based on a distorted view of Vietnam . " Vietnam is a single nation , not two , " Kahin and Lewis argued , and " South Vietnam constitutes an artificial creation whose existence depends on the sustained application of American power . "
When U.S. Senator George McGovern campaigned in the 1972 presidential election on a platform to end the war , Kahin became his foreign policy adviser .
= = = Khmer Rouge controversy = = =
Kahin , along with his graduate student Gareth Porter , was optimistic about the prospect of a takeover of Cambodia by the communist Khmer Rouge . In early 1975 , Kahin predicted of a Khmer Rouge victory : " I know of no basis for assuming that there is going to be a major bloodbath . " He also spoke highly of the Khmer Rouge leadership , particularly Khieu Samphan , whom he called " a very talented person . "
Following the victory of the Khmer Rouge and the brutal evacuation of Phnom Penh , Kahin backed Porter 's attempts to discredit reports of the mass killings . In his foreword to Porter 's book Cambodia : Starvation and Revolution , Kahin argued that Khmer Rouge policies " were not , then , applications of some irrational ideology , but reflected pragmatic solutions by leaders who had to rely exclusively on Cambodia 's own food resources and who lacked facilities for its internal transport . "
= = = Relations with Indonesia = = =
After Kahin was expelled from Indonesia in 1949 , he helped young Indonesian diplomats Sumitro Djojohadikusumo , Soedarpo Sastrosatomo , and Soedjatmoko during their work at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C. He also developed a close relationship with Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta , the first President and Vice President of Indonesia . In his book Subversion as Foreign Policy ( Kahin & Kahin 1995 ) , he attempted to clear former Prime Minister Mohammad Natsir , with whom he also developed a personal relationship , of any involvement with a rebellion movement against the Indonesian government . The book also described a " destructive relationship " between the United States and Indonesia during Sukarno 's presidency .
Kahin helped develop Indonesian studies in the United States at a time when the majority of material on Indonesia was held at Leiden University in the Netherlands . At Cornell , he introduced a postgraduate education program for diplomats from around the world who were in the middle of their careers . He also helped many Indonesian intellectuals , including Deliar Noer and sociologist Selo Soemardjan , obtain education in the United States . Several of Kahin 's students and associates , including Herbert Feith , went on to establish similar programs at the universities where they subsequently taught .
At one point , the United States blocked Kahin 's passport , and the Suharto government in Indonesia also denied him a visa . In 1991 , Indonesian foreign minister Ali Alatas awarded Kahin the Bintang Jasa Pratama ( English : Medal of Merit , First Class ) for his work as a " pioneer and precursor of Indonesian studies in the U.S. "
= = Death and legacy = =
Kahin died at Strong Memorial Hospital in Rochester , New York , on January 29 , 2000 . Several months after his death , a memorial service was held in Ithaca , New York , for him and to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the end of the Vietnam War . A memoir which he never completed was brought to publication by his wife Audrey Richey Kahin ( Kahin 2003 ) . Kahin is also survived by his son Brian , daughter Sharon , sister Peggy Kahin Webb , and two grandchildren .
Kahin was a major influence on the foreign policy thinking of Sandy Berger , United States National Security Advisor under President Bill Clinton . He is the namesake of Cornell University 's George McT . Kahin Center for Advanced Research on Southeast Asia , dedicated in his honor in 1992 .
= = Major publications = =
Kahin , George McT . ( 2003 ) , Southeast Asia : A testament , Critical Asian Scholarship , London : RoutledgeCurzon , ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 29976 @-@ 4 .
= = = Southeast Asia and Indonesia = = =
Kahin , George McTurnan ( 1946 ) , The Political Position of the Chinese in Indonesia , OCLC 12578741 .
Kahin , George McTurnan ( 1952 ) [ 1951 ] , Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia , Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press , OCLC 406170 .
Hinton , Harold C. ; Ike , Nobutaka ; Palmer , Norman D. ; Callard , Keith & Wheeler , Richard S. ( 1963 ) [ 1958 ] , Kahin , George McT . , ed . , Major Governments of Asia ( 2nd ed . ) , Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press , OCLC 326028 .
Wilson , David A. ; Silverstein , Josef ; Feith , Herbert ; Parmer , J. Norman ; Klein , Wells C. ; Weiner , Marjorie & Wurfel , David ( 1964 ) [ 1959 ] , Kahin , George McTurnan , ed . , Governments and Politics of Southeast Asia ( 2nd ed . ) , Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press , OCLC 501777 .
Kahin , George McT . & Kahin , Audrey R. ( 1995 ) , Subversion as Foreign Policy : The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia , New York : The New Press , ISBN 1 @-@ 56584 @-@ 244 @-@ 8 .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
Kahin , George McTurnan & Lewis , John Wilson ( 1969 ) [ 1967 ] , The United States in Vietnam ( 2nd ed . ) , New York : Dial Press , OCLC 45035 .
Kahin , George McT . ( 1986 ) , Intervention : How America Became Involved in Vietnam ( 1st ed . ) , New York : Knopf , ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 54367 @-@ X.
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= Frog =
Frogs are a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short @-@ bodied , tailless amphibians composing the order Anura ( Ancient Greek an- , without + oura , tail ) . The oldest fossil " proto @-@ frog " appeared in the early Triassic of Madagascar , but molecular clock dating suggests their origins may extend further back to the Permian , 265 million years ago . Frogs are widely distributed , ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions , but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforests . There are approximately 4 @,@ 800 recorded species , accounting for over 85 % of extant amphibian species . They are also one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders .
The body plan of an adult frog is generally characterized by a stout body , protruding eyes , cleft tongue , limbs folded underneath , and the absence of a tail in adults . Besides living in fresh water and on dry land , the adults of some species are adapted for living underground or in trees . The skin of the frog is glandular , with secretions ranging from distasteful to toxic . Warty species of frog tend to be called toads but the distinction between frogs and toads is based on informal naming conventions concentrating on the warts rather than taxonomy or evolutionary history ; some toads are more closely related to frogs than to other toads . Frogs ' skins vary in colour from well @-@ camouflaged dappled brown , grey and green to vivid patterns of bright red or yellow and black to advertise toxicity and warn off predators .
Frogs typically lay their eggs in water . The eggs hatch into aquatic larvae called tadpoles that have tails and internal gills . They have highly specialized rasping mouth parts suitable for herbivorous , omnivorous or planktivorous diets . The life cycle is completed when they metamorphose into adults . A few species deposit eggs on land or bypass the tadpole stage . Adult frogs generally have a carnivorous diet consisting of small invertebrates , but omnivorous species exist and a few feed on fruit . Frogs are extremely efficient at converting what they eat into body mass . They are an important food source for predators and part of the food web dynamics of many of the world 's ecosystems . The skin is semi @-@ permeable , making them susceptible to dehydration , so they either live in moist places or have special adaptations to deal with dry habitats . Frogs produce a wide range of vocalizations , particularly in their breeding season , and exhibit many different kinds of complex behaviours to attract mates , to fend off predators and to generally survive .
Frogs are valued as food by humans and also have many cultural roles in literature , symbolism and religion . Frog populations have declined significantly since the 1950s . More than one third of species are considered to be threatened with extinction and over one hundred and twenty are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s . The number of malformations among frogs is on the rise and an emerging fungal disease , chytridiomycosis , has spread around the world . Conservation biologists are working to understand the causes of these problems and to resolve them .
= = Etymology and taxonomy = =
The name frog derives from Old English frogga , abbreviated to frox , forsc , and frosc , probably deriving from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European preu = " to jump " . About 88 % of amphibian species are classified in the order Anura . These include around 4 @,@ 810 species in 33 families , of which the Leptodactylidae ( 1 @,@ 100 spp . ) , Hylidae ( 800 spp . ) and Ranidae ( 750 spp . ) are the richest in species .
The use of the common names " frog " and " toad " has no taxonomic justification . From a classification perspective , all members of the order Anura are frogs , but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered " true toads " . The use of the term " frog " in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi @-@ aquatic and have smooth , moist skins ; the term " toad " generally refers to species that are terrestrial with dry , warty skins . There are numerous exceptions to this rule . The European fire @-@ bellied toad ( Bombina bombina ) has a slightly warty skin and prefers a watery habitat whereas the Panamanian golden frog ( Atelopus zeteki ) is in the toad family Bufonidae and has a smooth skin .
The Anura include all modern frogs and any fossil species that fit within the anuran definition . The characteristics of anuran adults include : 9 or fewer presacral vertebrae , the presence of a urostyle formed of fused vertebrae , no tail , a long and forward @-@ sloping ilium , shorter fore limbs than hind limbs , radius and ulna fused , tibia and fibula fused , elongated ankle bones , absence of a prefrontal bone , presence of a hyoid plate , a lower jaw without teeth ( with the exception of Gastrotheca guentheri ) consisting of three pairs of bones ( angulosplenial , dentary , and mentomeckelian , with the last pair being absent in Pipoidea ) , an unsupported tongue , lymph spaces underneath the skin , and a muscle , the protractor lentis , attached to the lens of the eye . The anuran larva or tadpole has a single central respiratory spiracle and mouthparts consisting of keratinous beaks and denticles .
Frogs and toads are broadly classified into three suborders : Archaeobatrachia , which includes four families of primitive frogs ; Mesobatrachia , which includes five families of more evolutionary intermediate frogs ; and Neobatrachia , by far the largest group , which contains the remaining 24 families of modern frogs , including most common species throughout the world . The Neobatrachia suborder is further divided into the two superfamilies Hyloidea and Ranoidea . This classification is based on such morphological features as the number of vertebrae , the structure of the pectoral girdle , and the morphology of tadpoles . While this classification is largely accepted , relationships among families of frogs are still debated .
Some species of anurans hybridize readily . For instance , the edible frog ( Pelophylax esculentus ) is a hybrid between the pool frog ( P. lessonae ) and the marsh frog ( P. ridibundus ) . The fire @-@ bellied toads Bombina bombina and B. variegata are similar in forming hybrids . These are less fertile than their parents , giving rise to a hybrid zone where the hybrids are prevalent .
= = Evolution = =
The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians are hotly debated . A molecular phylogeny based on rDNA analysis dating from 2005 suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs and the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe @-@ finned fishes . This would help account for the relative scarcity of amphibian fossils from the period before the groups split . Another molecular phylogenetic analysis conducted about the same time concluded that lissamphibians first appeared about 330 million years ago and that the temnospondyl @-@ origin hypothesis is more credible than other theories . The neobatrachians seemed to have originated in Africa / India , the salamanders in East Asia and the caecilians in tropical Pangaea . Other researchers , while agreeing with the main thrust of this study , questioned the choice of calibration points used to synchronise the data . They proposed that the date of lissamphibian diversification should be placed in the Permian , rather less than 300 million years ago , a date in better agreement with the palaeontological data . A further study in 2011 using both extinct and living taxa sampled for morphological , as well as molecular data , came to the conclusion that Lissamphibia is monophyletic and that it should be nested within Lepospondyli rather than within Temnospondyli . The study postulated that Lissamphibia originated no earlier than the late Carboniferous , some 290 to 305 million years ago . The split between Anura and Caudata was estimated as taking place 292 million years ago , rather later than most molecular studies suggest , with the caecilians splitting off 239 million years ago .
In 2008 , Gerobatrachus hottoni , a temnospondyl with many frog- and salamander @-@ like characteristics , was discovered in Texas . It dated back 290 million years and was hailed as a missing link , a stem batrachian close to the common ancestor of frogs and salamanders , consistent with the widely accepted hypothesis that frogs and salamanders are more closely related to each other ( forming a clade called Batrachia ) than they are to caecilians . However , others have suggested that Gerobatrachus hottoni was only a dissorophoid temnospondyl unrelated to extant amphibians .
Salientia ( Latin salere ( salio ) , " to jump " ) is the name of the total group that includes modern frogs in the order Anura as well as their close fossil relatives , the " proto @-@ frogs " or " stem @-@ frogs " . The common features possessed by these proto @-@ frogs include 14 presacral vertebrae ( modern frogs have eight or 9 ) , a long and forward @-@ sloping ilium in the pelvis , the presence of a frontoparietal bone , and a lower jaw without teeth . The earliest known amphibians that were more closely related to frogs than to salamanders are Triadobatrachus massinoti , from the early Triassic period of Madagascar ( about 250 million years ago ) , and Czatkobatrachus polonicus , from the Early Triassic of Poland ( about the same age as Triadobatrachus ) . The skull of Triadobatrachus is frog @-@ like , being broad with large eye sockets , but the fossil has features diverging from modern frogs . These include a longer body with more vertebrae . The tail has separate vertebrae unlike the fused urostyle or coccyx in modern frogs . The tibia and fibula bones are also separate , making it probable that Triadobatrachus was not an efficient leaper .
The earliest known " true frogs " that fall into the anuran lineage proper all lived in the early Jurassic period . One such early frog species , Prosalirus bitis , was discovered in 1995 in the Kayenta Formation of Arizona and dates back to the Early Jurassic epoch ( 199 @.@ 6 to 175 million years ago ) , making Prosalirus somewhat more recent than Triadobatrachus . Like the latter , Prosalirus did not have greatly enlarged legs , but had the typical three @-@ pronged pelvic structure of modern frogs . Unlike Triadobatrachus , Prosalirus had already lost nearly all of its tail and was well adapted for jumping . Another Early Jurassic frog is Vieraella herbsti , which is known only from dorsal and ventral impressions of a single animal and was estimated to be 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) from snout to vent . Notobatrachus degiustoi from the middle Jurassic is slightly younger , about 155 – 170 million years old . The main evolutionary changes in this species involved the shortening of the body and the loss of the tail . The evolution of modern Anura likely was complete by the Jurassic period . Since then , evolutionary changes in chromosome numbers have taken place about 20 times faster in mammals than in frogs , which means speciation is occurring more rapidly in mammals .
Frog fossils have been found on all continents except Antarctica , but biogeographic evidence suggests they also inhabited Antarctica in an earlier era when the climate was warmer .
A cladogram showing the relationships of the different families of frogs in the clade Anura can be seen in the table above . This diagram , in the form of a tree , shows how each frog family is related to other families , with each node representing a point of common ancestry . It is based on Frost et al . ( 2006 ) , Heinicke et al . ( 2009 ) and Pyron and Wiens ( 2011 ) .
= = Morphology and physiology = =
Frogs have no tail , except as larvae , and most have long hind legs , elongated ankle bones , webbed toes , no claws , large eyes , and a smooth or warty skin . They have short vertebral columns , with no more than 10 free vertebrae and fused tailbones ( urostyle or coccyx ) . Like other amphibians , oxygen can pass through their highly permeable skins . This unique feature allows them to remain in places without access to the air , respiring through their skins . The ribs are poorly developed , so the lungs are filled by buccal pumping and a frog deprived of its lungs can maintain its body functions without them . For the skin to serve as a respiratory organ , it must remain moist . This makes frogs susceptible to various substances they may encounter in the environment , some of which may be toxic and can dissolve in the water film and be passed into their bloodstream . This may be one of the causes of the worldwide decline in frog populations .
Frogs range in size from the recently discovered 7 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) Paedophryne amauensis of Papua New Guinea to the 300 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) goliath frog ( Conraua goliath ) of Cameroon . The skin hangs loosely on the body because of the lack of loose connective tissue . Frogs have three eyelid membranes : one is transparent to protect the eyes underwater , and two vary from translucent to opaque . They have a tympanum on each side of their heads which is involved in hearing and , in some species , is covered by skin . True toads completely lack teeth , but most frogs have them , specifically pedicellate teeth in which the crown is separated from the root by fibrous tissue . These are on the edge of the upper jaw and vomerine teeth are also on the roof of their mouths . No teeth are in the lower jaw and frogs usually swallow their food whole . The teeth are mainly used to grip the prey and keep it in place till swallowed , a process assisted by retracting the eyes into the head . The African bullfrog ( Pyxicephalus ) , which preys on relatively large animals such as mice and other frogs , has cone shaped bony projections called odontoid processes at the front of the lower jaw which function like teeth .
= = = Feet and legs = = =
The structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species , depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground , in water , in trees or in burrows . Frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators , and numerous adaptations help them to do so . Most frogs are either proficient at jumping or are descended from ancestors that were , with much of the musculoskeletal morphology modified for this purpose . The tibia , fibula , and tarsals have been fused into a single , strong bone , as have the radius and ulna in the fore limbs ( which must absorb the impact on landing ) . The metatarsals have become elongated to add to the leg length and allow the frog to push against the ground for a longer period on take @-@ off . The illium has elongated and formed a mobile joint with the sacrum which , in specialist jumpers such as ranids and hylids , functions as an additional limb joint to further power the leaps . The tail vertebrae have fused into a urostyle which is retracted inside the pelvis . This enables the force to be transferred from the legs to the body during a leap .
The muscular system has been similarly modified . The hind limbs of ancestral frogs presumably contained pairs of muscles which would act in opposition ( one muscle to flex the knee , a different muscle to extend it ) , as is seen in most other limbed animals . However , in modern frogs , almost all muscles have been modified to contribute to the action of jumping , with only a few small muscles remaining to bring the limb back to the starting position and maintain posture . The muscles have also been greatly enlarged , with the main leg muscles accounting for over 17 % of the total mass of the frog .
Many frogs have webbed feet and the degree of webbing is directly proportional to the amount of time the species spends in the water . The completely aquatic African dwarf frog ( Hymenochirus sp . ) has fully webbed toes , whereas those of White 's tree frog ( Litoria caerulea ) , an arboreal species , are only a quarter or half webbed .
Arboreal frogs have pads located on the ends of their toes to help grip vertical surfaces . These are not suction pads , the surface consisting instead of columnar cells with flat tops with small gaps between them lubricated by mucous glands . When the frog applies pressure , the cells adhere to irregularities on the surface and the grip is maintained through surface tension . This allows the frog to climb on smooth surfaces , but the system does not function efficiently when the pads are excessively wet .
In many arboreal frogs , a small " intercalary structure " on each toe increases the surface area touching the substrate . Furthermore , since hopping through trees can be dangerous , many arboreal frogs have hip joints to allow both hopping and walking . Some frogs that live high in trees even possess an elaborate degree of webbing between their toes . This allows the frogs to " parachute " or make a controlled glide from one position in the canopy to another .
Ground @-@ dwelling frogs generally lack the adaptations of aquatic and arboreal frogs . Most have smaller toe pads , if any , and little webbing . Some burrowing frogs such as Couch 's spadefoot ( Scaphiopus couchii ) have a flap @-@ like toe extension on the hind feet , a keratinised tubercle often referred to as a spade , that helps them to burrow .
Sometimes during the tadpole stage , one of the developing rear legs is eaten by a predator such as a dragonfly nymph . In some cases , the full leg still grows , but in others it does not , although the frog may still live out its normal lifespan with only three limbs . Occasionally , a parasitic flatworm ( Ribeiroia ondatrae ) digs into the rear of a tadpole , causing a rearrangement of the limb bud cells and the frog develops an extra leg or two .
= = = Skin = = =
A frog 's skin is protective , has a respiratory function , can absorb water and helps control body temperature . It has many glands , particularly on the head and back , which often exude distasteful and toxic substances . The secretion is often sticky and helps keep the skin moist , protects against the entry of moulds and bacteria , and make the animal slippery and more able to escape from predators . The skin is shed every few weeks . It usually splits down the middle of the back and across the belly , and the frog pulls its arms and legs free . The sloughed skin is then worked towards the head where it is quickly eaten .
Being cold @-@ blooded , frogs have to adopt suitable behaviour patterns to regulate their temperature . To warm up , they can move into the sun or onto a warm surface ; if they overheat , they can move into the shade or adopt a stance that exposes the minimum area of skin to the air . This posture is also used to prevent water loss and involves the frog squatting close to the substrate with its hands and feet tucked under its chin and body . The colour of a frog 's skin is used for thermoregulation . In cool damp conditions , the colour will be darker than on a hot dry day . The grey foam @-@ nest tree frog ( Chiromantis xerampelina ) is even able to turn white to minimize the chance of overheating .
Many frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly through the skin , especially around the pelvic area , but the permeability of a frog 's skin can also result in water loss . Glands located all over the body exude mucus which helps keep the skin moist and reduces evaporation . Some glands on the hands and chest of males are specialized to produce sticky secretions to aid in amplexus . Similar glands in tree frogs produce a glue @-@ like substance on the adhesive discs of the feet . Some arboreal frogs reduce water loss by having a waterproof layer of skin , and several South American species coat their skin with a waxy secretion . Others frogs have adopted behaviours to conserve water , including becoming nocturnal and resting in a water @-@ conserving position . Some frogs may also rest in large groups with each frog pressed against its neighbours . This reduces the amount of skin exposed to the air or a dry surface , and thus reduces water loss . Woodhouse 's toad ( Bufo woodhousii ) , if given access to water after confinement in a dry location , sits in the shallows to rehydrate . The male hairy frog ( Trichobatrachus robustus ) has dermal papillae projecting from its lower back and thighs , giving it a bristly appearance . They contain blood vessels and are thought to increase the area of the skin available for respiration .
Some species have bony plates embedded in their skin , a trait that appears to have evolved independently several times . In certain other species , the skin at the top of the head is compacted and the connective tissue of the dermis is co @-@ ossified with the bones of the skull ( exostosis ) .
Camouflage is a common defensive mechanism in frogs . Most camouflaged frogs are nocturnal ; during the day , they seek out a position where they can blend into the background and remain undetected . Some frogs have the ability to change colour , but this is usually restricted to a small range of colours . For example , White 's tree frog ( Litoria caerulea ) varies between pale green and dull brown according to the temperature , and the Pacific tree frog ( Pseudacris regilla ) has green and brown morphs , plain or spotted , and changes colour depending on the time of year and general background colour . Features such as warts and skin folds are usually on ground @-@ dwelling frogs , for whom smooth skin would not provide such effective camouflage . Certain frogs change colour between night and day , as light and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to expand or contract .
= = = Respiration and circulation = = =
The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide , as well as to water . There are blood vessels near the surface of the skin and when a frog is underwater , oxygen diffuses directly into the blood . When not submerged , a frog breathes by a process known as buccal pumping . Its lungs are similar to those of humans , but the chest muscles are not involved in respiration , and no ribs or diaphragm exist to help move air in and out . Instead , it puffs out its throat and draws air in through the nostrils , which in many species can then be closed by valves . When the floor of the mouth is compressed , air is forced into the lungs . The fully aquatic Bornean flat @-@ headed frog ( Barbourula kalimantanensis ) is the first frog known to lack lungs entirely .
Frogs have three @-@ chambered hearts , a feature they share with lizards . Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de @-@ oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter the heart through separate atria . When these chambers contract , the two blood streams pass into a common ventricle before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel , the aorta for oxygenated blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood . The ventricle is partially divided into narrow cavities which minimizes the mixing of the two types of blood . These features enable frogs to have a higher metabolic rate and be more active than would otherwise be possible .
Some species of frog have adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water . The Lake Titicaca frog ( Telmatobius culeus ) is one such species and has wrinkly skin that increases its surface area to enhance gas exchange . It normally makes no use of its rudimentary lungs but will sometimes raise and lower its body rhythmically while on the lake bed to increase the flow of water around it .
= = = Digestion and excretion = = =
Frogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed . These teeth are very weak , and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey . Instead , the frog uses its sticky , cleft tongue to catch flies and other small moving prey . The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth , free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front . It can be shot out and retracted at great speed . Some frogs have no tongue and just stuff food into their mouths with their hands . The eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat . The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up . It then proceeds to the small intestine ( duodenum and ileum ) where most digestion occurs . Pancreatic juice from the pancreas , and bile , produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder , are secreted into the small intestine , where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed . The food residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the wastes are passed out through the cloaca .
Although adapted to terrestrial life , frogs resemble freshwater fish in their inability to conserve body water effectively . When they are on land , much water is lost by evaporation from the skin . The excretory system is similar to that of mammals and there are two kidneys that remove nitrogenous products from the blood . Frogs produce large quantities of dilute urine in order to flush out toxic products from the kidney tubules . The nitrogen is excreted as ammonia by tadpoles and aquatic frogs but mainly as urea , a less toxic product , by most terrestrial adults . A few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic uric acid . The urine passes along paired ureters to the urinary bladder from which it is vented periodically into the cloaca . All bodily wastes exit the body through the cloaca which terminates in a cloacal vent .
= = = Reproductive system = = =
In the male frog , the two testes are attached to the kidneys and semen passes into the kidneys through fine tubes called efferent ducts . It then travels on through the ureters , which are consequently known as urinogenital ducts . There is no penis , and sperm is ejected from the cloaca directly onto the eggs as the female lays them . The ovaries of the female frog are beside the kidneys and the eggs pass down a pair of oviducts and through the cloaca to the exterior .
When frogs mate , the male climbs on the back of the female and wraps his fore limbs round her body , either behind the front legs or just in front of the hind legs . This position is called amplexus and may be held for several days . The male frog has certain hormone @-@ dependent secondary sexual characteristics . These include the development of special pads on his thumbs in the breeding season , to give him a firm hold . The grip of the male frog during amplexus stimulates the female to release eggs , usually wrapped in jelly , as spawn . In many species the male is smaller and slimmer than the female . Males have vocal cords and make a range of croaks , particularly in the breeding season , and in some species they also have vocal sacs to amplify the sound .
= = = Nervous system = = =
The frog has a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain , spinal cord and nerves . Many parts of the frog 's brain correspond with those of humans . It consists of two olfactory lobes , two cerebral hemispheres , a pineal body , two optic lobes , a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata . Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the cerebellum , and the medulla oblongata regulates respiration , digestion and other automatic functions . The relative size of the cerebrum in frogs is much smaller than it is in humans . Frogs have ten pairs of cranial nerves which pass information from the outside directly to the brain , and ten pairs of spinal nerves which pass information from the extremities to the brain through the spinal cord . By contrast , all amniotes ( mammals , birds and reptiles ) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves .
= = = Sight = = =
The eyes of most frogs are located on either side of the head near the top and project outwards as hemispherical bulges . They provide binocular vision over a field of 100 ° to the front and a total visual field of almost 360 ° . They may be the only part of an otherwise submerged frog to protrude from the water . Each eye has closable upper and lower lids and a nictitating membrane which provides further protection , especially when the frog is swimming . Members of the aquatic family Pipidae have the eyes located at the top of the head , a position better suited for detecting prey in the water above . The irises come in a range of colours and the pupils in a range of shapes . The common toad ( Bufo bufo ) has golden irises and horizontal slit @-@ like pupils , the red @-@ eyed tree frog ( Agalychnis callidryas ) has vertical slit pupils , the poison dart frog has dark irises , the fire @-@ bellied toad ( Bombina spp . ) has triangular pupils and the tomato frog ( Dyscophus spp . ) has circular ones . The irises of the southern toad ( Anaxyrus terrestris ) are patterned so as to blend in with the surrounding camouflaged skin .
The distant vision of a frog is better than its near vision . Calling frogs will quickly become silent when they see an intruder or even a moving shadow but the closer an object is , the less well it is seen . When a frog shoots out its tongue to catch an insect it is reacting to a small moving object that it cannot see well and must line it up precisely beforehand because it shuts its eyes as the tongue is extended . Whether a frog sees in colour is debatable but it has been shown that it responds positively to blue light , perhaps because that colour is associated with bodies of water that can provide refuge when the frog feels threatened .
= = = Hearing = = =
Frogs can hear both in the air and below water . They do not have external ears ; the eardrums ( tympanic membranes ) are directly exposed or may be covered by a layer of skin and are visible as a circular area just behind the eye . The size and distance apart of the eardrums is related to the frequency and wavelength at which the frog calls . In some species such as the bullfrog , the size of the tympanum indicates the sex of the frog ; males have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females , the eyes and tympani are much the same size . A noise causes the tympanum to vibrate and the sound is transmitted to the middle and inner ear . The middle ear contains semicircular canals which help control balance and orientation . In the inner ear , the auditory hair cells are arranged in two areas of the cochlea , the basilar papilla and the amphibian papilla . The former detects high frequencies and the latter low frequencies . Because the cochlea is short , frogs use electrical tuning to extend their range of audible frequencies and help discriminate different sounds . This arrangement enables detection of the territorial and breeding calls of their conspecifics . In some species that inhabit arid regions , the sound of thunder or heavy rain may arouse them from a dormant state . A frog may be startled by an unexpected noise but it will not usually take any action until it has located the source of the sound by sight .
= = = Call = = =
The call or croak of a frog is unique to its species . Frogs create this sound by passing air through the larynx in the throat . In most calling frogs , the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs , membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth , that distend during the amplification of the call . Some frog calls are so loud that they can be heard up to a mile away .
Frogs in the genera Heleioporus and Neobatrachus lack vocal sacs but can still produce a loud call . Their buccal cavity is enlarged and dome @-@ shaped , acting as a resonance chamber that amplifies the sound . Species of frog that lack vocal sacs and that do not have a loud call tend to inhabit areas close to constantly noisy , flowing water . They need to use an alternative means to communicate . The coastal tailed frog ( Ascaphus truei ) lives in mountain streams in North America and does not vocalize .
The main reason for calling is to allow male frogs to attract a mate . Males may call individually or there may be a chorus of sound where numerous males have converged on breeding sites . Females of many frog species , such as the common tree frog ( Polypedates leucomystax ) , reply to the male calls , which acts to reinforce reproductive activity in a breeding colony . Female frogs prefer males that produce sounds of greater intensity and lower frequency , attributes that stand out in a crowd . The rationale for this is thought to be that by demonstrating his prowess , the male shows his fitness to produce superior offspring .
A different call is emitted by a male frog or unreceptive female when mounted by another male . This is a distinct chirruping sound and is accompanied by a vibration of the body . Tree frogs and some non @-@ aquatic species have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a shower . Many species also have a territorial call that is used to drive away other males . All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed . A distress call , emitted by some frogs when they are in danger , is produced with the mouth open resulting in a higher @-@ pitched call . It is typically used when the frog has been grabbed by a predator and may serve to distract or disorientate the attacker so that it releases the frog .
Many species of frog have deep calls . The croak of the American bullfrog ( Rana catesbiana ) is sometimes written as " jug o ' rum " . The Pacific tree frog ( Pseudacris regilla ) produces the onomatopoeic " ribbit " often heard in films . Other renderings of frog calls into speech include " brekekekex koax koax " , the call of the marsh frog ( Pelophylax ridibundus ) in The Frogs , an Ancient Greek comic drama by Aristophanes .
= = = Torpor = = =
During extreme conditions , some frogs enter a state of torpor and remain inactive for months . In colder regions , many species of frog hibernate in winter . Those that live on land such as the American toad ( Bufo americanus ) dig a burrow and make a hibernaculum in which to lie dormant . Others , less proficient at digging , find a crevice or bury themselves in dead leaves . Aquatic species such as the American bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana ) normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie , semi @-@ immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water . Their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves . Some frogs can even survive being frozen . Ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose . An apparently lifeless , frozen frog can resume respiration and the heart beat can restart when conditions warm up .
At the other extreme , the striped burrowing frog ( Cyclorana alboguttata ) regularly aestivates during the hot , dry season in Australia , surviving in a dormant state without access to food and water for nine or ten months of the year . It burrows underground and curls up inside a protective cocoon formed by its shed skin . Researchers at the University of Queensland have found that during aestivation , the metabolism of the frog is altered and the operational efficiency of the mitochondria is increased . This means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner . This survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold @-@ blooded and have no need to generate heat . Other research showed that , to provide these energy requirements , muscles atrophy , but hind limb muscles are preferentially unaffected . Frogs have been found to have upper critical temperatures of around 41 degrees Celsius .
= = Locomotion = =
Different species of frog use a number of methods of moving around including jumping , running , walking , swimming , burrowing , climbing and gliding .
Jumping
Frogs are generally recognized as exceptional jumpers and , relative to their size , the best jumpers of all vertebrates . The striped rocket frog , Litoria nasuta , can leap over 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) , a distance that is more than fifty times its body length of 5 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) . There are tremendous differences between species in jumping capability . Within a species , jump distance increases with increasing size , but relative jumping distance ( body @-@ lengths jumped ) decreases . The Indian skipper frog ( Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis ) has the ability to leap out of the water from a position floating on the surface . The tiny northern cricket frog ( Acris crepitans ) can " skitter " across the surface of a pond with a series of short rapid jumps .
Slow @-@ motion photography shows that the muscles have passive flexibility . They are first stretched while the frog is still in the crouched position , then they are contracted before being stretched again to launch the frog into the air . The fore legs are folded against the chest and the hind legs remain in the extended , streamlined position for the duration of the jump . In some extremely capable jumpers , such as the Cuban tree frog ( Osteopilus septentrionalis ) and the northern leopard frog ( Rana pipiens ) , the peak power exerted during a jump can exceed that which the muscle is theoretically capable of producing . When the muscles contract , the energy is first transferred into the stretched tendon which is wrapped around the ankle bone . Then the muscles stretch again at the same time as the tendon releases its energy like a catapult to produce a powerful acceleration beyond the limits of muscle @-@ powered acceleration . A similar mechanism has been documented in locusts and grasshoppers .
Walking and running
Frogs in the families Bufonidae , Rhinophrynidae , and Microhylidae have short back legs and tend to walk rather than jump . When they try to move rapidly , they speed up the rate of movement of their limbs or resort to an ungainly hopping gait . The Great Plains narrow @-@ mouthed toad ( Gastrophryne olivacea ) has been described as having a gait that is " a combination of running and short hops that are usually only an inch or two in length " . In an experiment , Fowler 's toad ( Bufo fowleri ) was placed on a treadmill which was turned at varying speeds . By measuring the toad 's uptake of oxygen it was found that hopping was an inefficient use of resources during sustained locomotion but was a useful strategy during short bursts of high @-@ intensity activity .
The red @-@ legged running frog ( Kassina maculata ) has short , slim hind limbs unsuited to jumping . It can move fast by using a running gait in which the two hind legs are used alternately . Slow @-@ motion photography shows , unlike a horse that can trot or gallop , the frog 's gait remained similar at slow , medium , and fast speeds . This species can also climb trees and shrubs , and does so at night to catch insects . The Indian skipper frog ( Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis ) has broad feet and can run across the surface of the water for several metres ( yards ) .
Swimming
Frogs that live in or visit water have adaptations that improve their swimming abilities . The hind limbs are heavily muscled and strong . The webbing between the toes of the hind feet increases the area of the foot and helps propel the frog powerfully through the water . Members of the family Pipidae are wholly aquatic and show the most marked specialization . They have inflexible vertebral columns , flattened , streamlined bodies , lateral line systems , and powerful hind limbs with large webbed feet . Tadpoles mostly have large tail fins which provide thrust when the tail is moved from side to side .
Burrowing
Some frogs have become adapted for burrowing and a life underground . They tend to have rounded bodies , short limbs , small heads with bulging eyes , and hind feet adapted for excavation . An extreme example of this is the purple frog ( Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis ) from southern India which feeds on termites and spends almost its whole life underground . It emerges briefly during the monsoon to mate and breed in temporary pools . It has a tiny head with a pointed snout and a plump , rounded body . Because of this fossorial existence , it was first described in 2003 , being new to the scientific community at that time , although previously known to local people .
The spadefoot toads of North America are also adapted to underground life . The Plains spadefoot toad ( Spea bombifrons ) is typical and has a flap of keratinised bone attached to one of the metatarsals of the hind feet which it uses to dig itself backwards into the ground . As it digs , the toad wriggles its hips from side to side to sink into the loose soil . It has a shallow burrow in the summer from which it emerges at night to forage . In winter , it digs much deeper and has been recorded at a depth of 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) . The tunnel is filled with soil and the toad hibernates in a small chamber at the end . During this time , urea accumulates in its tissues and water is drawn in from the surrounding damp soil by osmosis to supply the toad 's needs . Spadefoot toads are " explosive breeders " , all emerging from their burrows at the same time and converging on temporary pools , attracted to one of these by the calling of the first male to find a suitable breeding location .
The burrowing frogs of Australia have a rather different lifestyle . The western spotted frog ( Heleioporus albopunctatus ) digs a burrow beside a river or in the bed of an ephemeral stream and regularly emerges to forage . Mating takes place and eggs are laid in a foam nest inside the burrow . The eggs partially develop there , but do not hatch until they are submerged following heavy rainfall . The tadpoles then swim out into the open water and rapidly complete their development . Madagascan burrowing frogs are less fossorial and mostly bury themselves in leaf litter . One of these , the green burrowing frog ( Scaphiophryne marmorata ) , has a flattened head with a short snout and well @-@ developed metatarsal tubercles on its hind feet to help with excavation . It also has greatly enlarged terminal discs on its fore feet that help it to clamber around in bushes . It breeds in temporary pools that form after rains .
Climbing
Tree frogs live high in the canopy , where they scramble around on the branches , twigs , and leaves , sometimes never coming down to earth . The " true " tree frogs belong to the family Hylidae , but members of other frog families have independently adopted an arboreal habit , a case of convergent evolution . These include the glass frogs ( Centrolenidae ) , the bush frogs ( Hyperoliidae ) , some of the narrow @-@ mouthed frogs ( Microhylidae ) , and the shrub frogs ( Rhacophoridae ) . Most tree frogs are under 10 cm ( 4 in ) in length , with long legs and long toes with adhesive pads on the tips . The surface of the toe pads is formed from a closely packed layer of flat @-@ topped , hexagonal epidermal cells separated by grooves into which glands secrete mucus . These toe pads , moistened by the mucus , provide the grip on any wet or dry surface , including glass . The forces involved include boundary friction of the toe pad epidermis on the surface and also surface tension and viscosity . Tree frogs are very acrobatic and can catch insects while hanging by one toe from a twig or clutching onto the blade of a windswept reed . Some members of the subfamily Phyllomedusinae have opposable toes on their feet . The reticulated leaf frog ( Phyllomedusa ayeaye ) has a single opposed digit on each fore foot and two opposed digits on its hind feet . This allows it to grasp the stems of bushes as it clambers around in its riverside habitat .
Gliding
During the evolutionary history of the frog , several different groups have independently taken to the air . Some frogs in the tropical rainforest are specially adapted for gliding from tree to tree or parachuting to the forest floor . Typical of them is Wallace 's flying frog ( Rhacophorus nigropalmatus ) from Malaysia and Borneo . It has large feet with the fingertips expanded into flat adhesive discs and the digits fully webbed . Flaps of skin occur on the lateral margins of the limbs and across the tail region . With the digits splayed , the limbs outstretched , and these flaps spread , it can glide considerable distances , but is unable to undertake powered flight . It can alter its direction of travel and navigate distances of up to 15 m ( 49 ft ) between trees .
= = Life history = =
Like other amphibians , the life cycle of a frog normally starts in water with an egg that hatches into a limbless larva with gills , commonly known as a tadpole . After further growth , during which it develops limbs and lungs , the tadpole undergoes metamorphosis in which its appearance and internal organs are rearranged . After this it is able to leave the water as a miniature , air @-@ breathing frog .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Two main types of reproduction occur in frogs , prolonged breeding and explosive breeding . In the former , adopted by the majority of species , adult frogs at certain times of year assemble at a pond , lake or stream to breed . Many frogs return to the bodies of water in which they developed as larvae . This often results in annual migrations involving thousands of individuals . In explosive breeders , mature adult frogs arrive at breeding sites in response to certain trigger factors such as rainfall occurring in an arid area . In these frogs , mating and spawning take place promptly and the speed of larval growth is rapid in order to make use of the ephemeral pools before they dry up .
Among prolonged breeders , males usually arrive at the breeding site first and remain there for some time whereas females tend to arrive later and depart soon after they have spawned . This means that males outnumber females at the water 's edge and defend territories from which they expel other males . They advertise their presence by calling , often alternating their croaks with neighbouring frogs . Larger , stronger males tend to have deeper calls and maintain higher quality territories . Females select their mates at least partly on the basis of the depth of their voice . In some species there are satellite males who have no territory and do not call . They may intercept females that are approaching a calling male or take over a vacated territory . Calling is an energy @-@ sapping activity . Sometimes the two roles are reversed and a calling male gives up its territory and becomes a satellite .
In explosive breeders , the first male that finds a suitable breeding location , such as a temporary pool , calls loudly and other frogs of both sexes converge on the pool . Explosive breeders tend to call in unison creating a chorus that can be heard from far away . The spadefoot toads ( Scaphiopus spp . ) of North America fall into this category . Mate selection and courtship is not as important as speed in reproduction . In some years , suitable conditions may not occur and the frogs may go for two or more years without breeding . Some female New Mexico spadefoot toads ( Spea multiplicata ) only spawn half of the available eggs at a time , perhaps retaining some in case a better reproductive opportunity arises later .
At the breeding site , the male mounts the female and grips her tightly round the body . Typically , amplexus takes place in the water , the female releases her eggs and the male covers them with sperm ; fertilization is external . In many species such as the Great Plains toad ( Bufo cognatus ) , the male restrains the eggs with his back feet , holding them in place for about three minutes . Members of the West African genus Nimbaphrynoides are unique among frogs in that they are viviparous ; Limnonectes larvaepartus , Eleutherodactylus jasperi and members of the Tanzanian genus Nectophrynoides are the only frogs known to be ovoviviparous . In these species , fertilization is internal and females give birth to fully developed juvenile frogs , except L. larvaepartus , which give birth to tadpoles .
= = = Life cycle = = =
= = = = Eggs / frogspawn = = = =
Frogs ' embryos are typically surrounded by several layers of gelatinous material . When several eggs are clumped together , they are collectively known as frogspawn . The jelly provides support and protection while allowing the passage of oxygen , carbon dioxide and ammonia . It absorbs moisture and swells on contact with water . After fertilization , the innermost portion liquifies to allow free movement of the developing embryo . In certain species , such as the Northern red @-@ legged frog ( Rana aurora ) and the wood frog ( Rana sylvatica ) , symbiotic unicellular green algae are present in the gelatinous material . It is thought that these may benefit the developing larvae by providing them with extra oxygen through photosynthesis . Most eggs are black or dark brown and this has the advantage of absorbing warmth from the sun which the insulating capsule retains . The interior of globular egg clusters of the wood frog ( Rana sylvatica ) has been found to be up to 6 ° C ( 11 ° F ) warmer than the surrounding water and this speeds up the development of the larvae .
The shape and size of the egg mass is characteristic of the species . Ranids tend to produce globular clusters containing large numbers of eggs whereas bufonids produce long , cylindrical strings . The tiny yellow @-@ striped pygmy eleuth ( Eleutherodactylus limbatus ) lays eggs singly , burying them in moist soil . The smoky jungle frog ( Leptodactylus pentadactylus ) makes a nest of foam in a hollow . The eggs hatch when the nest is flooded , or the tadpoles may complete their development in the foam if flooding does not occur . The red @-@ eyed treefrog ( Agalychnis callidryas ) deposits its eggs on a leaf above a pool and when they hatch , the larvae fall into the water below . The larvae developing in the eggs can detect vibrations caused by nearby predatory wasps or snakes , and will hatch early to avoid being eaten . In general , the length of the egg stage depends on the species and the environmental conditions . Aquatic eggs normally hatch within one week when the capsule splits as a result of enzymes released by the developing larvae .
= = = = Tadpoles = = = =
The larvae that emerge from the eggs , known as tadpoles ( or occasionally polliwogs ) , typically have oval bodies and long , vertically flattened tails . As a general rule , free @-@ living larvae are fully aquatic , but at least one species ( Nannophrys ceylonensis ) has semiterrestrial tadpoles which live among wet rocks . Tadpoles lack eyelids and have cartilaginous skeletons , lateral line systems , gills for respiration ( external gills at first , internal gills later ) , and vertically flattened tails they use for swimming .
From early in its development , a gill pouch covers the tadpole 's gills and front legs . The lungs soon start to develop and are used as an accessory breathing organ . Some species go through metamorphosis while still inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs . Tadpoles lack true teeth , but the jaws in most species have two elongated , parallel rows of small , keratinized structures called keradonts in their upper jaws . Their lower jaws usually have three rows of keradonts surrounded by a horny beak , but the number of rows can vary and the exact arrangements of mouth parts provide a means for species identification . In the Pipidae , with the exception of Hymenochirus , the tadpoles have paired anterior barbels , which make them resemble small catfish . Their tails are stiffened by a notochord , but does not contain any bony or cartilaginous elements except for a few vertebrae at the base which forms the urostyle during metamorphosis . This has been suggested as an adaptation to their lifestyles ; because the transformation into frogs happens very fast , the tail is made of soft tissue only , as bone and cartilage take a much longer time to be broken down and absorbed . The tail fin and tip is fragile and will easily tear , which is seen as an adaptation to escape from predators which tries to grasp them by the tail .
Tadpoles are typically herbivorous , feeding mostly on algae , including diatoms filtered from the water through the gills . Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage , eating insects , smaller tadpoles , and fish . The Cuban tree frog ( Osteopilus septentrionalis ) is one of a number of species in which the tadpoles can be cannibalistic . Tadpoles that develop legs early may be eaten by the others , so late developers may have better long @-@ term survival prospects .
Tadpoles are highly vulnerable to being eaten by fish , newts , predatory diving beetles , and birds , such as kingfishers . Some tadpoles , including those of the cane toad ( Bufo marinus ) , are poisonous . The tadpole stage may be as short as a week in explosive breeders or it may last through one or more winters followed by metamorphosis in the spring .
= = = = Metamorphosis = = = =
At the end of the tadpole stage , a frog undergoes metamorphosis in which its body makes a sudden transition into the adult form . This metamorphosis typically lasts only 24 hours , and is initiated by production of the hormone thyroxine . This causes different tissues to develop in different ways . The principal changes that take place include the development of the lungs and the disappearance of the gills and gill pouch , making the front legs visible . The lower jaw transforms into the big mandible of the carnivorous adult , and the long , spiral gut of the herbivorous tadpole is replaced by the typical short gut of a predator . The nervous system becomes adapted for hearing and stereoscopic vision , and for new methods of locomotion and feeding . The eyes are repositioned higher up on the head and the eyelids and associated glands are formed . The eardrum , middle ear , and inner ear are developed . The skin becomes thicker and tougher , the lateral line system is lost , and skin glands are developed . The final stage is the disappearance of the tail , but this takes place rather later , the tissue being used to produce a spurt of growth in the limbs . Frogs are at their most vulnerable to predators when they are undergoing metamorphosis . At this time , the tail is being lost and locomotion by means of limbs is only just becoming established .
= = = = Adults = = = =
After metamorphosis , young adults may disperse into terrestrial habitats or continue to live in water . Almost all frog species are carnivorous as adults , preying on invertebrates , including arthropods , worms , snails , and slugs . A few of the larger ones may eat other frogs , small mammals , and fish . Some frogs use their sticky tongues to catch fast @-@ moving prey , while others push food into their mouths with their hands . A few species also eat plant matter ; the tree frog Xenohyla truncata is partly herbivorous , its diet including a large proportion of fruit , Leptodactylus mystaceus has been found to eat plants , and folivory occurs in Euphlyctis hexadactylus , with plants constituting 79 @.@ 5 % of its diet by volume . Adult frogs are themselves attacked by many predators . The northern leopard frog ( Rana pipiens ) is eaten by herons , hawks , fish , large salamanders , snakes , raccoons , skunks , mink , bullfrogs , and other animals .
Frogs are primary predators and an important part of the food web . Being cold @-@ blooded , they make efficient use of the food they eat with little energy being used for metabolic processes , while the rest is transformed into biomass . They are themselves eaten by secondary predators and are the primary terrestrial consumers of invertebrates , most of which feed on plants . By reducing herbivory , they play a part in increasing the growth of plants and are thus part of a delicately balanced ecosystem .
Little is known about the longevity of frogs and toads in the wild , but some can live for many years . Skeletochronology is a method of examining bones to determine age . Using this method , the ages of mountain yellow @-@ legged frogs ( Rana muscosa ) were studied , the phalanges of the toes showing seasonal lines where growth slows in winter . The oldest frogs had ten bands , so their age was believed to be 14 years , including the four @-@ year tadpole stage . Captive frogs and toads have been recorded as living for up to 40 years , an age achieved by a European common toad ( Bufo bufo ) . The cane toad ( Bufo marinus ) has been known to survive 24 years in captivity , and the American bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana ) 14 years . Frogs from temperate climates hibernate during the winter , and four species are known to be able to withstand freezing during this time , including the wood frog ( Rana sylvatica ) .
= = = Parental care = = =
Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs , up to an estimated 20 % of amphibian species may care for their young in some way . The evolution of parental care in frogs is driven primarily by the size of the water body in which they breed . Those that breed in smaller water bodies tend to have greater and more complex parental care behaviour . Because predation of eggs and larvae is high in large water bodies , some frog species started to lay their eggs on land . Once this happened , the desiccating terrestrial environment demands that one or both parents keep them moist to ensure their survival . The subsequent need to transport hatched tadpoles to a water body required an even more intense form of parental care .
In small pools , predators are mostly absent and competition between tadpoles becomes the variable that constrains their survival . Certain frog species avoid this competition by making use of smaller phytotelmata ( water @-@ filled leaf axils or small woody cavities ) as sites for depositing a few tadpoles . While these smaller rearing sites are free from competition , they also lack sufficient nutrients to support a tadpole without parental assistance . Frog species that changed from the use of larger to smaller phytotelmata have evolved a strategy of providing their offspring with nutritive but unfertilized eggs . The female strawberry poison @-@ dart frog ( Oophaga pumilio ) lays her eggs on the forest floor . The male frog guards them from predation and carries water in his cloaca to keep them moist . When they hatch , the female moves the tadpoles on her back to a water @-@ holding bromeliad or other similar water body , depositing just one in each location . She visits them regularly and feeds them by laying one or two unfertilized eggs in the phytotelma , continuing to do this until the young are large enough to undergo metamorphosis . The granular poison frog ( Oophaga granulifera ) looks after its tadpoles in a similar way .
Many other diverse forms of parental care are seen in frogs . The tiny male Colostethus subpunctatus stands guard over his egg cluster , laid under a stone or log . When the eggs hatch , he transports the tadpoles on his back to a temporary pool , where he partially immerses himself in the water and one or more tadpoles drop off . He then moves on to another pool . The male common midwife toad ( Alytes obstetricans ) carries the eggs around with him attached to his hind legs . He keeps them damp in dry weather by immersing himself in a pond , and prevents them from getting too wet in soggy vegetation by raising his hindquarters . After three to six weeks , he travels to a pond and the eggs hatch into tadpoles . The tungara frog ( Physalaemus pustulosus ) builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs from predation . The foam is made from proteins and lectins , and seems to have antimicrobial properties . Several pairs of frogs may form a colonial nest on a previously built raft . The eggs are laid in the centre , followed by alternate layers of foam and eggs , finishing with a foam capping .
Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies . Both male and female pouched frogs ( Assa darlingtoni ) guard their eggs , which are laid on the ground . When the eggs hatch , the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass . The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side , where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs . The female gastric @-@ brooding frog ( Rheobatrachus sp . ) from Australia , now probably extinct , swallows her fertilized eggs , which then develop inside her stomach . She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid . The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment . After six or seven weeks , they are ready for metamorphosis . The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs , which hop away from her mouth . The female Darwin 's frog ( Rhinoderma darwinii ) from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground , where they are guarded by the male . When the tadpoles are about to hatch , they are engulfed by the male , which carries them around inside his much @-@ enlarged vocal sac . Here they are immersed in a frothy , viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs . They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis , after which they move into the male 's mouth and emerge .
= = Defence = =
At first sight , frogs seem rather defenceless because of their small size , slow movement , thin skin , and lack of defensive structures , such as spines , claws or teeth . Many use camouflage to avoid detection , the skin often being spotted or streaked in neutral colours that allow a stationary frog to merge into its surroundings . Some can make prodigious leaps , often into water , that help them to evade potential attackers , while many have other defensive adaptations and strategies .
The skin of many frogs contains mild toxic substances called bufotoxins to make them unpalatable to potential predators . Most toads and some frogs have large poison glands , the parotoid glands , located on the sides of their heads behind the eyes and other glands elsewhere on their bodies . These glands secrete mucus and a range of toxins that make frogs slippery to hold and distasteful or poisonous . If the noxious effect is immediate , the predator may cease its action and the frog may escape . If the effect develops more slowly , the predator may learn to avoid that species in future . Poisonous frogs tend to advertise their toxicity with bright colours , an adaptive strategy known as aposematism . The poison dart frogs in the family Dendrobatidae do this . They are typically red , orange , or yellow , often with contrasting black markings on their bodies . Allobates zaparo is not poisonous , but mimics the appearance of two different toxic species with which it shares a common range in an effort to deceive predators . Other species , such as the European fire @-@ bellied toad ( Bombina bombina ) , have their warning colour underneath . They " flash " this when attacked , adopting a pose that exposes the vivid colouring on their bellies .
Some frogs , such as the poison dart frogs , are especially toxic . The native people of South America extract poison from these frogs to apply to their weapons for hunting , although few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose . At least two non @-@ poisonous frog species in tropical America ( Eleutherodactylus gaigei and Lithodytes lineatus ) mimic the colouration of dart poison frogs for self @-@ protection . Some frogs obtain poisons from the ants and other arthropods they eat . Others , such as the Australian corroboree frogs ( Pseudophryne corroboree and Pseudophryne pengilleyi ) , can synthesize the alkaloids themselves . The chemicals involved may be irritants , hallucinogens , convulsants , nerve poisons or vasoconstrictors . Many predators of frogs have become adapted to tolerate high levels of these poisons , but other creatures , including humans who handle the frogs , may be severely affected .
Some frogs use bluff or deception . The European common toad ( Bufo bufo ) adopts a characteristic stance when attacked , inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered . The bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana ) crouches down with eyes closed and head tipped forward when threatened . This places the parotoid glands in the most effective position , the other glands on its back begin to ooze noxious secretions and the most vulnerable parts of its body are protected . Another tactic used by some frogs is to " scream " , the sudden loud noise tending to startle the predator . The gray tree frog ( Hyla versicolor ) makes an explosive sound that sometimes repels the shrew Blarina brevicauda . Although toads are avoided by many predators , the common garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) regularly feeds on them . The strategy employed by juvenile American toads ( Bufo americanus ) on being approached by a snake is to crouch down and remain immobile . This is usually successful , with the snake passing by and the toad remaining undetected . If it is encountered by the snake 's head , however , the toad hops away before crouching defensively .
= = Distribution and conservation status = =
Frogs live on all the continents except Antarctica , but they are not present on certain islands , especially those far away from continental land masses . Many species are isolated in restricted ranges by changes of climate or inhospitable territory , such as stretches of sea , mountain ridges , deserts , forest clearance , road construction , or other man @-@ made barriers . Usually , a greater diversity of frogs occurs in tropical areas than in temperate regions , such as Europe . Some frogs inhabit arid areas , such as deserts , and rely on specific adaptations to survive . Members of the Australian genus Cyclorana bury themselves underground where they create a water @-@ impervious cocoon in which to aestivate during dry periods . Once it rains , they emerge , find a temporary pool , and breed . Egg and tadpole development is very fast in comparison to those of most other frogs , so breeding can be completed before the pond dries up . Some frog species are adapted to a cold environment . The wood frog ( Rana sylvatica ) , whose habitat extends into the Arctic Circle , buries itself in the ground during winter . Although much of its body freezes during this time , it maintains a high concentration of glucose in its vital organs , which protects them from damage .
In 2006 , of 4 @,@ 035 species of amphibians that depend on water during some lifecycle stage , 1 @,@ 356 ( 33 @.@ 6 % ) were considered to be threatened . This is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1 @,@ 427 species for which evidence was insufficient to assess their status . Frog populations have declined dramatically since the 1950s . More than one @-@ third of frog species are considered to be threatened with extinction , and more than 120 species are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s . Among these species are the gastric @-@ brooding frogs of Australia and the golden toad of Costa Rica . The latter is of particular concern to scientists because it inhabited the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve and its population crashed in 1987 , along with about 20 other frog species in the area . This could not be linked directly to human activities , such as deforestation , and was outside the range of normal fluctuations in population size . Elsewhere , habitat loss is a significant cause of frog population decline , as are pollutants , climate change , increased UVB radiation , and the introduction of non @-@ native predators and competitors . A Canadian study conducted in 2006 suggested heavy traffic in their environment was a larger threat to frog populations than was habitat loss . Emerging infectious diseases , including chytridiomycosis and ranavirus , are also devastating populations .
Many environmental scientists believe amphibians , including frogs , are good biological indicators of broader ecosystem health because of their intermediate positions in food chains , their permeable skins , and typically biphasic lives ( aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults ) . It appears that species with both aquatic eggs and larvae are most affected by the decline , while those with direct development are the most resistant .
Frog mutations and genetic defects have increased since the 1990s . These often include missing legs or extra legs . Various causes have been identified or hypothesized , including an increase in ultraviolet radiation affecting the spawn on the surface of ponds , chemical contamination from pesticides and fertilizers , and parasites such as the trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae . Probably all these are involved in a complex way as stressors , environmental factors contributing to rates of disease , and vulnerability to attack by parasites . Malformations impair mobility and the individuals may not survive to adulthood . An increase in the number of frogs eaten by birds may actually increase the likelihood of parasitism of other frogs , because the trematode 's complex lifecycle includes the ramshorn snail and several intermediate hosts such as birds .
In a few cases , captive breeding programs have been established and have largely been successful . In 2007 , the application of certain probiotic bacteria was reported to protect amphibians from chytridiomycosis . One current project , the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project , has subsequently been developed to rescue species at risk of this disease in eastern Panama , and to develop field applications for probiotic therapy . The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums named 2008 as the " Year of the Frog " in order to draw attention to the conservation issues faced by them .
The cane toad ( Bufo marinus ) is a very adaptable species native to South and Central America . In the 1930s , it was introduced into Puerto Rico , and later various other islands in the Pacific and Caribbean region , as a biological pest control agent . In 1935 , 3000 toads were liberated in the sugar cane fields of Queensland , Australia , in an attempt to control cane beetles such as Dermolepida albohirtum , the larvae of which damage and kill the canes . Initial results in many of these countries were positive , but it later became apparent that the toads upset the ecological balance in their new environments . They bred freely , competed with native frog species , ate bees and other harmless native invertebrates , had few predators in their adopted habitats , and poisoned pets , carnivorous birds , and mammals . In many of these countries , they are now regarded both as pests and invasive species , and scientists are looking for a biological method to control them .
= = Uses = =
= = = Culinary = = =
Frog legs are eaten by humans in many parts of the world . French cuisses de grenouille or frog legs dish is a traditional dish particularly served in the region of the Dombes ( département of Ain ) . The dish is also common in French @-@ speaking parts of Louisiana , particularly the Cajun areas of Southern Louisiana as well as New Orleans , United States . In Asia , frog legs are consumed in China , Vietnam , Thailand and Indonesia . Chinese edible frog and pig frogs are farmed and consumed on a large scale in some areas of China . Frog legs are part of Chinese Sichuan and Cantonese cuisine . In Indonesia , frog @-@ leg soup is known as swikee or swike . Indonesia is the world 's largest exporter of frog meat , exporting more than 5 @,@ 000 tonnes of frog meat each year , mostly to France , Belgium and Luxembourg .
Originally , they were supplied from local wild populations , but overexploitation led to a diminution in the supply . This resulted in the development of frog farming and a global trade in frogs . The main importing countries are France , Belgium , Luxembourg , and the United States , while the chief exporting nations are Indonesia and China . The annual global trade in the American bullfrog ( Rana catesbeiana ) , mostly farmed in China , varies between 1200 and 2400 tonnes .
Coon , possum , partridges , prairie hen , and frogs were among the fare Mark Twain recorded as part of American cuisine .
= = = Scientific research = = =
Frogs are used for dissections in high school and university anatomy classes , often first being injected with coloured substances to enhance contrasts among the biological systems . This practice is declining due to animal welfare concerns , and " digital frogs " are now available for virtual dissection .
Frogs have served as experimental animals throughout the history of science . Eighteenth @-@ century biologist Luigi Galvani discovered the link between electricity and the nervous system by studying frogs . In 1852 , H. F. Stannius used a frog 's heart in a procedure called a Stannius ligature to demonstrate the ventricle and atria beat independently of each other and at different rates . The African clawed frog or platanna ( Xenopus laevis ) was first widely used in laboratories in pregnancy tests in the first half of the 20th century . A sample of urine from a pregnant woman injected into a female frog induces it to lay eggs , a discovery made by English zoologist Lancelot Hogben . This is because a hormone , human chorionic gonadotropin , is present in substantial quantities in the urine of women during pregnancy . In 1952 , Robert Briggs and Thomas J. King cloned a frog by somatic cell nuclear transfer . This same technique was later used to create Dolly the sheep , and their experiment was the first time a successful nuclear transplantation had been accomplished in higher animals .
Frogs are used in cloning research and other branches of embryology . Although alternative pregnancy tests have been developed , biologists continue to use Xenopus as a model organism in developmental biology because their embryos are large and easy to manipulate , they are readily obtainable , and can easily be kept in the laboratory . Xenopus laevis is increasingly being displaced by its smaller relative , Xenopus tropicalis , which reaches its reproductive age in five months rather than the one to two years for X. laevis , thus facilitating faster studies across generations . The genome of X. tropicalis is being sequenced .
= = = Pharmaceutical = = =
Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse , they have raised the interest of biochemists as a " natural pharmacy " . The alkaloid epibatidine , a painkiller 200 times more potent than morphine is made by some species of poison dart frogs , although it can also cause death by lung paralysis . Other chemicals isolated from the skins of frogs may offer resistance to HIV infection . Dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs .
It has long been suspected that pre @-@ Columbian Mesoamericans used a toxic secretion produced by the cane toad as a hallucinogen , but more likely they used substances secreted by the Colorado River toad ( Bufo alvarius ) . These contain bufotenin ( 5 @-@ MeO @-@ DMT ) , a psychoactive compound that has been used in modern times as a recreational drug . Typically , the skin secretions are dried and then smoked . Illicit drug use by licking the skin of a toad has been reported in the media , but this may be an urban myth .
Exudations from the skin of the golden poison frog ( Phyllobates terribilis ) are traditionally used by native Colombians to poison the darts they use for hunting . The tip of the projectile is rubbed over the back of the frog and the dart is launched from a blowgun . The combination of the two alkaloid toxins batrachotoxin and homobatrachotoxin is so powerful , one frog contains enough poison to kill an estimated 22 @,@ 000 mice . Two other species , the Kokoe poison dart frog ( Phyllobates aurotaenia ) and the black @-@ legged dart frog ( Phyllobates bicolor ) are also used for this purpose . These are less toxic and less abundant than the golden poison frog . They are impaled on pointed sticks and may be heated over a fire to maximise the quantity of poison that can be transferred to the dart .
= = Cultural beliefs = =
Frogs feature prominently in folklore , fairy tales , and popular culture . They tend to be portrayed as benign , ugly , and clumsy , but with hidden talents . Examples include Michigan J. Frog , " The Frog Prince " , and Kermit the Frog . The Warner Brothers cartoon One Froggy Evening features Michigan J. Frog , that will only dance and sing for the demolition worker who opens his time capsule , but will not perform in public . " The Frog Prince " is a fairy tale about a frog that turns into a handsome prince after he has rescued a princess 's golden ball and she has taken him into her palace . Kermit the Frog is a conscientious and disciplined character from The Muppet Show and Sesame Street ; while openly friendly and greatly talented , he is often portrayed as cringing at the fanciful behavior of more flamboyant characters .
Toads have a more sinister reputation . It was believed in European folklore that they were associated with witches as their familiar spirits and had magical powers . The toxic secretions from their skin was used in brewing evil potions , but was also put to use to create magical cures for human and livestock ailments . They were associated with the devil ; in John Milton 's Paradise Lost , Satan was depicted as a toad pouring poison into Eve 's ear .
The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals , and often depicted frogs in their art . In Panama , local legend held that good fortune would come to anyone who spotted a Panamanian golden frog . Some believed when one of these frogs died , it would turn into a golden talisman known as a huaca . Today , despite being extinct in the wild , Panamanian golden frogs remain an important cultural symbol and are illustrated on decorative cloth molas made by the Kuna people . They also appear as part of the inlaid design on a new overpass in Panama City , on T @-@ shirts , and even on lottery tickets .
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= Shrewsbury =
Shrewsbury ( / ˈʃroʊzbri / or / ˈʃruːzbri / ) is the county town of Shropshire , England . It is on the River Severn and has a population of approximately 72 @,@ 000 .
Shrewsbury is a market town whose centre has a largely unaltered medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings , including several examples of timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries . Shrewsbury Castle , a red sandstone fortification , and Shrewsbury Abbey , a former Benedictine monastery , were founded in 1074 and 1083 respectively by the Norman Earl of Shrewsbury , Roger de Montgomery . The town has historically been a centre for the wool trade and brewing . Horticulture remains popular , and the Shrewsbury Flower Show is one of the largest horticultural events in England .
Located 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of the Welsh border , Shrewsbury serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid @-@ Wales , with a retail output of over £ 299 million per year and light industry and distribution centres , such as Battlefield Enterprise Park , on the outskirts . The A5 and A49 trunk roads cross near to the town , and five railway lines meet at Shrewsbury railway station .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The town was the early capital of the Kingdom of Powys , known to the ancient Britons as Pengwern , signifying " the alder hill " ; and in Old English as Scrobbesburh ( dative Scrobbesbyrig ) , which may mean either " Scrobb 's fort " or " the fortified place in the bushes " . This name gradually evolved in three directions , into Sciropscire , which became Shropshire ; into Sloppesberie , which became Salop / Salopia ( an alternative name for both town and county ) , and into Schrosberie , which eventually became the town 's name , Shrewsbury . Its later Welsh name Amwythig means " fortified place " .
Over the ages , the geographically important town has been the site of many conflicts , particularly between the English and Welsh . The Angles , under King Offa of Mercia , took possession in 778 .
Nearby is the village of Wroxeter , 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south @-@ east . This was once the site of Viroconium , the fourth largest cantonal capital in Roman Britain . As Caer Guricon it is a possible alternative for the Dark Age seat of the Kingdom of Powys . The importance of the Shrewsbury area in the Roman era was recently underlined with the discovery of the Shrewsbury Hoard in 2009 .
= = = Medieval = = =
Shrewsbury 's known history commences in the Early Middle Ages , having been founded c . 800 AD . It is believed that Anglo @-@ Saxon Shrewsbury was most probably a settlement fortified through the use of earthworks comprising a ditch and rampart , which were then shored up with a wooden stockade . There is evidence to show that by the beginning of the 900s , Shrewsbury was home to a mint .
The Welsh besieged it in 1069 , but were repelled by William the Conqueror . Roger de Montgomery was given the town as a gift from William , and built Shrewsbury Castle in 1074 , taking the title of Earl . He founded Shrewsbury Abbey as a Benedictine monastery in 1083 . The 3rd Earl , Robert of Bellême , was deposed in 1102 and the title forfeited , in consequence of rebelling against Henry I and joining the Duke of Normandy 's invasion of English in 1101 . In 1138 , King Stephen successfully besieged the castle held by William FitzAlan for the Empress Maud during the period known as the Anarchy .
It was in the late Middle Ages ( 14th and 15th centuries ) when the town was at its height of commercial importance . This was mainly due to the wool trade , a major industry at the time , with the rest of Britain and Europe , especially with the River Severn and Watling Street as trading routes . The Shrewsbury Drapers Company dominated the trade in Welsh wool for many years .
In 1403 the Battle of Shrewsbury was fought a few miles north of the town centre , at Battlefield ; it was fought between King Henry IV and Henry Hotspur Percy , with the King emerging victorious , an event celebrated in William Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Part 1 , Act 5 .
= = = Early Modern = = =
Shrewsbury 's monastic gathering was disbanded with the Dissolution of the Monasteries and as such the Abbey was closed in 1540 . However , it is believed that Henry VIII thereafter intended to make Shrewsbury a cathedral city after the formation of the Church of England , but the citizens of the town declined the offer . Despite this , Shrewsbury thrived throughout the 16th and 17th centuries ; largely due to the town 's fortuitous location , which allowed it to control the Welsh wool trade . As a resultant a number of grand edifices , including the Ireland 's Mansion ( built 1575 ) and Draper 's Hall ( 1658 ) , were constructed . It was also in this period that Edward VI gave permission for the foundation of a free school , which was later to become Shrewsbury School .
During the English Civil War , the town was a Royalist stronghold and only fell to Parliament forces after they were let in by a parliamentarian sympathiser at the St Mary 's Water Gate ( now also known as Traitor 's Gate ) . After Thomas Mytton captured Shrewsbury in February 1645 ; in following with the ordnance of no quarter ; a dozen Irish prisoners were selected to be killed after picking lots . This prompted Prince Rupert to respond by executing Parliamentarian prisoners in Oswestry . Shrewsbury Unitarian Church was founded in 1662 . By the 18th century Shrewsbury had become an important market town and stop off for stagecoaches travelling between London and Holyhead on their way to Ireland ; this led to the establishment of a number of coaching inns , many of which , such as the Lion Hotel , are extant to this day .
Local soldier and statesman Robert Clive was Shrewsbury 's MP from 1762 until his death in 1774 . Clive also served once as the town 's mayor in 1762 .
St Chad 's Church collapsed in 1788 after attempts to expand the crypt compromised the structural integrity of the tower above ; it was , however , rebuilt just four years later as a large neo @-@ classical round church in a new location close to the Quarry Park .
In the period directly after Napoleon 's surrender after Waterloo ( 18 June 1815 ) , the town 's own 53rd ( Shropshire ) Regiment of Foot was sent to guard him in his exile on St Helena . A locket containing a lock of the emperor 's hair ( presented to an officer of the 53rd ) remains to this day in the collections of the Shropshire Regimental Museum at Shrewsbury Castle .
= = = Late Modern = = =
Shrewsbury has also played a part in Western intellectual history , by being the town where the naturalist Charles Darwin was born and brought up . The town is also home to the Ditherington Flax Mill , the world 's first iron @-@ framed building , which is commonly regarded as " the grandfather of the skyscraper " . Its importance was officially recognised in the 1950s , resulting in it becoming a Grade I listed building . Shrewsbury in the Industrial Revolution was also on the Shrewsbury Canal , which linked it with the Shropshire Canal and the rest of the canal network of Great Britain . Despite this , Shrewsbury escaped much of the industrialisation taking place in 19th century Britain due to its isolation from other large manufacturing towns and ports .
The town suffered very little from the bombing runs in the Second World War that did damage to many English locations . The worst case in Shrewsbury , was in 1940 , a woman and her two grandchildren were killed when a cottage was destroyed on Ellesmere Road , the only local air raid deaths . Therefore , many of its ancient buildings remain intact and there was little redevelopment in the 1960s and 1970s , which arguably destroyed the character of many historic towns in the UK . However , a large area of half timbered houses and businesses was destroyed to make way for the Raven Meadows multi @-@ story car park , and other historic buildings were demolished to make way for the brutalist architectural style of the 1960s . The town was saved from a new ' inner ring road ' due to its challenging geography .
From the late 1990s the town experienced severe flooding problems from the Severn and Rea Brook . In the autumn of 2000 large swathes of the town were underwater , notably Frankwell , which flooded three times in six weeks . The Frankwell flood defences were completed in 2003 , along with the new offices of the borough council . More recently , such as in 2005 and 2007 , flooding has been less severe , and the defences have generally held back floodwaters from the town centre areas . However , the town car parks are often left to be flooded in the winter , which reduces trade in the town , most evidenced in the run up to Christmas in 2007 .
In 2000 and again in 2002 , Shrewsbury unsuccessfully applied for city status .
Shrewsbury won the West Midlands Capital of Enterprise award in 2004 . The town has two large expanding business parks , Shrewsbury Business Park by the A5 in the southeast and Battlefield Enterprise Park in the north . There are many residential developments currently under construction in the town to cater for the increasing numbers of people wishing to live in the town , which is a popular place to commute to Telford , Wolverhampton and Birmingham from .
A 2005 report on prison population found that HM Prison Shrewsbury was the most overcrowded in England and Wales . The prison , which was also known as the Dana , was closed in 2013 and then sold by the Ministry of Justice to private property developers in 2014 .
In 2009 Shrewsbury Town Council was formed and the town 's traditional coat of arms was returned to everyday use .
= = Geography = =
Shrewsbury is about 14 miles ( 23 km ) west of Telford , 43 miles ( 69 km ) west of Birmingham and the West Midlands Conurbation , and about 153 miles ( 246 km ) north @-@ west of the capital , London . More locally , the town is to the east of Welshpool , with Bridgnorth and Kidderminster to the south @-@ east . The border with Wales is 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the west . The town centre is partially built on a hill whose elevation is , at its highest , 246 feet ( 75 m ) above sea level . The longest river in the UK , the River Severn , flows through the town , forming a meander around its centre . The town is subject to flooding from the river .
The town is near Haughmond Hill , a site where Precambrian rocks , some of the oldest rocks in the county can be found , and the town itself is sited on an area of largely Carboniferous rocks . A fault , the Hodnet Fault , starts approximately at the town , and runs as far as Market Drayton .
= = = Suburbs and metropolitan area = = =
There are a number of suburbs and surrounding villages . The River Severn separates the western , southern and eastern suburbs from the town centre and northern suburbs . An example of a large neighbouring village that has effectively become part of the metropolitan area is Bayston Hill , which grew considerably in the latter half of the 20th century and is now separated from the Meole Brace suburb by only a few fields and the A5 by @-@ pass . It remains , however , a separate entity to the town , with its own parish council , etc . Bayston Hill lies 3 miles ( 5 km ) south of the town centre of Shrewsbury and on the A49 and near to the A5 . The smaller village of Battlefield , north of the town , is considered a suburb of the metropolitan area . It is covered by the parish of Shrewsbury .
= = Shrewsbury Stores = =
M & S @-@ One Half Was Originally Littlewoods
H & M @-@ Formerly Woolworths
Subway
Wilko
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Shrewsbury is similar to that of the rest of Shropshire , generally moderate . Rainfall averages 76 to 100 cm ( 30 to 39 in ) , influenced by being in the rainshadow of the Cambrian Mountains from warm , moist frontal systems of the Atlantic Ocean , which bring generally light precipitation in autumn and spring . The nearest weather station is at Shawbury , about 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) north @-@ west of Shrewsbury town centre . The local topography , being that of a low @-@ lying plain surrounded by higher ground to the west , south and east gives the Shrewsbury area its own microclimate – the absolute maximum at Shawbury of 34 @.@ 9 ° C ( 94 @.@ 8 ° F ) and absolute minimum of − 25 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 13 @.@ 4 ° F ) represents the largest temperature range of any individual weather station in the British Isles – although the maximum range of average temperatures tends to peak to the south east of the Shrewsbury area , particularly in the south east midlands , inland East Anglia and inland south east England .
In an average year , the warmest day is 28 @.@ 4 ° C ( 83 @.@ 1 ° F ) , giving a total of 8 @.@ 9 days of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or above . The absolute maximum of 34 @.@ 9 ° C ( 94 @.@ 8 ° F ) was recorded in August 1990 .
Conversely , the coldest night of the year typically falls to − 9 @.@ 6 ° C ( 14 @.@ 7 ° F ) – in total 61 @.@ 7 air frosts are recorded in an average year . The absolute minimum of − 25 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 13 @.@ 4 ° F ) was recorded in 1981 .
Annual average rainfall averages around 650 mm , with over 1 mm falling on 124 days of the year .
= = Government = =
The Borough of Shrewsbury 's first Charter was granted by King Henry I allowing the collection of rents . King Richard I granted another early charter in 1189 and from that time the town ’ s regional importance and influence increased , as well as its autonomy from the county of Shropshire . Further charters were granted in 1199 ( King John ) , 1495 ( Henry VII ) , 1638 ( Charles I ) and 1685 ( James II ) . In 1974 a charter from the Queen incorporated the Borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham , under the auspices of which the town remained until 2009 .
Shrewsbury is the administrative centre for the new Shropshire Council , the unitary authority covering most of Shropshire ( but excluding the Borough of Telford and Wrekin , a separate unitary authority area ) . Shropshire Council have their headquarters at the Shirehall , on Abbey Foregate , whilst the Guildhall , on Frankwell Quay , is partly utilised by the council as one of its many offices and customer service points around the county .
Shrewsbury is in the Shrewsbury and Atcham constituency and is the only large settlement in the constituency . At the most recent general election , in 2015 , Daniel Kawczynski of the Conservative Party was elected with a majority of 9 @,@ 565 . Previous MPs for Shrewsbury have included 19th century Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli .
Shrewsbury has been twinned with Zutphen , Netherlands since 1977 . The Royal Navy submarine HMS Talent is affiliated with Shrewsbury and the town also served as the administrative headquarters of the British Army 's regional 143 ( West Midlands ) Brigade whose administrative HQ was based at Copthorne Barracks , until 2014 .
= = = Town Council = = =
Shrewsbury was until 2009 an unparished area and had no town or parish council ( s ) , instead the Mayor of Shrewsbury and Atcham was also the mayor of the town . However , as part of wider changes to local governance in Shropshire , the town was parished on 13 May 2008 , with a single parish created covering the entire town and previously unparished area . Shrewsbury is the second most populous civil parish in England ( only Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare has a greater population ) with a population of approximately 72 @,@ 000 . The area of the parish is 3 @,@ 799 hectares ( 9 @,@ 390 acres ) .
The town council , which is the parish council , first convened on 1 April 2009 , and its chair is the Mayor of Shrewsbury . For the interim period before the first elections , the existing county councillors who represented electoral divisions covering Shrewsbury were the town councillors . On 4 June 2009 , the first election was held to the town council , with councillors elected from 17 single @-@ member wards coterminous with Shropshire Council electoral divisions .
The political make @-@ up of the town council , as of the 2013 local elections , sees Labour as the largest party with 7 seats , and the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats both on 5 . The current Mayor of Shrewsbury is Liberal Democrat councillor Miles Kenny .
The town council has its headquarters and meeting place at The Guildhall , which was the headquarters of the former Shrewsbury and Atcham borough council .
= = = = Coat of arms = = = =
The coat of arms of the former Shrewsbury Borough Council , and now the Town Council , depicts three loggerheads , with the motto Floreat Salopia , a Latin phrase that can be translated to " May Shrewsbury Flourish " . The coat of arms of the ( now abolished ) Shrewsbury and Atcham Borough Council was Shrewsbury 's shield with the addition of Atcham Bridge running above the loggerheads . Shrewsbury Town F.C. historically used the loggerheads , but from 1986 till 1992 had a Celtic shrew and from 2007 to 2015 had a badge depicting a lion rather than a loggerhead . A new loggerheads badge embedded in a circular shape returned for 2015 @-@ 16 season . ( A loggerhead , in heraldry , means a leopard 's head – its naming derived from the carving of such faces on the ends of logs , including battering rams ) . The flag of Shropshire , and other county crests etc . , also uses the three loggerheads .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the population of the town of Shrewsbury was 67 @,@ 126 . The same census put the population of the wider ( and now abolished ) borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham at 95 @,@ 850 . In 1981 the population of the town was 57 @,@ 731 and in 1991 the population of the town was 64 @,@ 219 . Shrewsbury is Shropshire 's second largest town , after Telford .
The 2001 census also indicates that the population of the town consists of 51 @.@ 1 % females , and 48 @.@ 9 % males , which echoes the trend of Shrewsbury and Atcham borough , and that of Shropshire as a whole . According to the same census , the ethnic composition of the town is largely white , at 98 @.@ 5 % of the total population . The next largest ethnic group is mixed race , at 0 @.@ 5 % of the town 's population . 0 @.@ 4 % of the population is Indian , Pakistani or Bangladeshi , and 0 @.@ 1 % of the population is South Asian or British Asian . A further 0 @.@ 1 % is Black , Caribbean or African .
= = = Historical population = = =
The population figures below are for the borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham , which existed only between 1974 and 2009 , and covered a much wider area than the town .
In 2011 , the actual town and parish of Shrewsbury had a population of 71 @,@ 715 .
In 2011 , 6 @.@ 1 % of Shrewsbury 's population was non white British compared with 4 @.@ 6 % for the surrounding district .
= = Economy = =
Throughout the Medieval period , Shrewsbury was a centre for the wool trade , and used its position on the River Severn to transport goods across England via the canal system . Unlike many other towns in this period , Shrewsbury never became a centre for heavy industry . By the early 1900s , the town became focused on transport services and the general service and professional sector , owing to its position on the A5 road , part of the strategic route to North Wales .
The town is the location of the town and county councils , and a number of retail complexes , both in and out of the town centre , and these provide significant employment . Four in five jobs in the town are in the service industry . Within this sector , the largest employers are the administration and distribution sectors , which includes retail , food and accommodation .
Shrewsbury is home to four shopping centres . The principal centres comprise the Darwin and Pride Hill shopping centres , which house many high street retailers such as Marks & Spencer , H & M , Next , and Boots . Riverside provides further retail accommodation for stores including Wilkinson . A plan to redevelop Riverside and integrate a new development with the Darwin and Pride Hill centres was granted planning permission in April 2012 . The project is dubbed " New Riverside " . The Parade Shopping Centre is a fourth centre exclusively housing independent retailers . There are also two retail warehouse clusters : at Meole Brace Retail Park to the south , and at Sundorne Retail Park to the north . Major supermarkets in the town are the environmentally friendly Tesco Extra at Harlescott , Morrisons on Whitchurch Road , Asda on Old Potts Way , Sainsbury 's at Meole Brace , and most recently a Waitrose on Oteley Road .
The visitor economy of Shrewsbury and Atcham was worth about £ 115 million in 2001 , with about 2 @,@ 500 people employed directly in the visitor industry and 3 @,@ 400 indirectly . There were about 3 @.@ 1 million visitors – both day visitors and staying visitors – to the borough in 2001 , with 88 % being day visitors and 12 % being staying visitors ; staying visitors accounted for 42 % of spending . Shrewsbury 's position of being the only sizable town for a large area , especially to the west in Mid @-@ Wales , allows it to attract a large retail base beyond that of its resident population . This is not only evident in the retail sector , but also in the healthcare sector , where the Royal Shrewsbury Hospital has the only A & E department westwards until Aberystwyth , about 75 miles ( 121 km ) away .
Although a less prominent brewing centre than at Burton @-@ on @-@ Trent , beer made in Shrewsbury was celebrated as early as about 1400 when bard Iolo Goch praised the supply of " Crwg Amwythig " dispensed at the Sycharth palace of Owain Glyndwr . In 1900 there were eight breweries in the town , chief among them being Southam 's and Trouncer 's , which also had their own maltings and owned many local public houses , as well as five other maltsters , but the conventional brewing industry gradually closed after takeovers in the 1960s , and the last maltings , at Ditherington , in 1986 . A real ale brewery was established in the town in 1995 . The Salopian Brewery is based in the Old Dairy in Mytton Oak Road , and produces cask ale and bottle conditioned beers . It has a production of 80 barrels a week and mainly serves the pubs in and around Shrewsbury .
In terms of social and economic deprivation , according to the Overall Index of Multiple Deprivation of 2004 , one Super Output Area ( SOA ) in the town is in the bottom 15 % of all areas nationally . This area is in the ward of Harlescott . A further four SOAs fall into the bottom 30 % nationally , these being in the wards of Monkmoor , Sundorne , Battlefield and Heathgates and Meole Brace . The most affluent areas of the town are generally to the south and west , around the grounds of Shrewsbury School , and the Copthorne area .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Landmarks = = =
The historic town centre still retains its medieval street pattern and many narrow streets and passages . Some of the passages , especially those that pass through buildings from one street to the next , are called " shuts " ( the word deriving from " to shoot through " from one street to another ) . Many specialist shops , traditional pubs and local restaurants can be found in the hidden corners , squares and lanes of Shrewsbury . Many of the street names have also remained unchanged for centuries and there are some more unusual names , such as Butcher Row , Longden Coleham , Dogpole , Mardol , Frankwell , Roushill , Grope Lane , Gullet Passage , Murivance , the Dana , Portobello , Bear Steps , Shoplatch and Bellstone .
The public library , in the pre @-@ 1882 Shrewsbury School building , is on Castle Hill . Above the main entrance are two statues bearing the Greek inscriptions " Philomathes " and " Polymathes " . These portray the virtues " Lover of learning " and " Much learning " to convey the lesson that it is good to gain knowledge through a love of learning .
In the centre of the town lies the Quarry . This 29 acre ( 120 @,@ 000 m ² ) riverside park attracts thousands of people throughout the year and is enjoyed as a place of recreation . Shrewsbury has traditionally been known as the " Town of Flowers " , a moniker incorporated into many of the signs on entrance to the town via major roads , although this was replaced in 2007 with ' the birthplace of Charles Darwin ' .
The British Army 's Light Infantry has been associated with Shrewsbury since the 17th century when the first regiments were formed and many more regiments have been raised at Shrewsbury before being deployed all over the world from the American Revolutionary War to the current conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan . Today , after several major reorganisations , the Light Infantry now forms part of the regiment known simply as the Rifles . Shrewsbury 's Copthorne Barracks , spiritual home of the Light Division , still houses the Headquarters of the British Army 's 143 ( West Midlands ) Brigade , while that of the 5th Division disbanded in April 2012 as part of the reorganisation of the Army 's Support Command .
Between 1962 and 1992 there was a hardened nuclear bunker , built for No 16 Group Royal Observer Corps Shrewsbury , who provided the field force of the United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation and would have sounded the four @-@ minute warning alarm in the event of war and warned the population of Shrewsbury in the event of approaching radioactive fallout . The building was manned by up to 120 volunteers who trained on a weekly basis and wore a Royal Air Force style uniform . After the breakup of the communist bloc in 1989 , the Royal Observer Corps was disbanded between September 1991 and December 1995 . However , the nuclear bunker still stands just inside Holywell Street near the Abbey as a lasting reminder of the Cold War , but is now converted and used as a veterinary practice .
The tourist information centre is situated in the Shrewsbury Museum & Art Gallery in what used to be the old Music Hall theatre in the town square . The three main museums are Shrewsbury Museum & Art Gallery , Shrewsbury Castle ( which houses the Shropshire Regimental Museum ) and the Coleham Pumping Station . Also , there is the Gateway arts and drama centre and there are also various private galleries and art shops around the town . Another notable feature of the town is Lord Hill 's Column , the largest free @-@ standing Doric column in the world .
The Quantum Leap is an abstract sculpture unveiled in the town centre in 2009 to mark the bicentenary on the birth of Shrewsbury biologist Charles Darwin .
= = = Bridges = = =
Shrewsbury , being almost entirely encircled by the River Severn , has nine bridges across the river and many that cross the Rea Brook .
Working downstream from Frankwell Bridge , a modern pedestrian footbridge spans the River Severn between Frankwell and the town centre . Welsh Bridge was built in the 1790s to replace the ancient St George 's Bridge .
Further along from the Welsh Bridge is the Porthill Bridge , a pedestrian suspension bridge running between the Quarry and Porthill , built in 1922 . The next bridge along the river is Kingsland Bridge , a privately owned toll bridge , and the subsequent bridge is the Greyfriars Bridge , a pedestrian bridge between Coleham and the town centre . Following the Greyfriars Bridge is the English Bridge , historically called Stone Bridge , which was rebuilt in the 1930s . Beyond it is the railway station , which is partly built over the river . After the station is Castle Walk Footbridge , another modern pedestrian footbridge . The last bridge to cross the river within the Shrewsbury bypass area is called Telford Way , which has separate lanes for vehicles ( A5112 ) , bicycles and pedestrians . A. E. Housman wrote of the area this verse , which mentions the bridges of the town :
= = Religious sites = =
There are many churches in Shrewsbury , including Shrewsbury Abbey , founded by Roger de Montgomery in 1083 . Shrewsbury Greek Orthodox Church , a former Anglican church building , is off Sutton Road to the south . Shrewsbury is home to the Roman Catholic Shrewsbury Cathedral , by the Town Walls , as well as two other parishes in Harlescott and Monkmoor , within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury . One of the houses in Fish Street , facing St Alkmund 's Church , was the site of John Wesley 's first preaching in Shrewsbury ; a wall plaque records the date as 16 March 1761 . According to legend , the spire of St Alkmund 's Church was damaged by the Devil in 1553 , and climbed four times by a drunken steeplejack in 1621 .
There are several Anglican churches in Shrewsbury . Methodists , Baptists and the United Reformed Church are also represented , alongside newer church groups including Elim Pentecostal and Newfrontiers . Shrewsbury Evangelical Church meets in the former Anglican parish church of St Julian at the Wyle Cop end of Fish Street . Shrewsbury 's first non @-@ Christian place of worship , a Muslim centre , was approved in 2013 .
Many community projects in Shrewsbury are based in , or have been started by local churches , including the Isaiah 58 project , which is the primary work amongst homeless people in the town , whilst ' Churches Together in Shrewsbury ' works to help homeless people through the Ark project . Basics Bank , based at the Barnabas Centre , provides debt relief for local people .
= = Culture = =
= = = Museums and entertainment = = =
Shrewsbury is home to one of the largest horticultural events in the UK , it is also the ' Longest running flower show in the world ' – the annual Shrewsbury Flower Show . A two @-@ day event , the Flower Show takes place in mid @-@ August , has been running for more than 125 years , and attracts around 100 @,@ 000 visitors each year . Set in the Quarry park , there are a multitude of events , exhibitions and displays , with a fireworks display at the end of each day . The town is well known for its flower displays , and has won numerous awards in recent years .
Theatre Severn is the town 's main performing arts complex . It is situated in Frankwell next to the Welsh Bridge and alongside its namesake , the River Severn . The theatre includes two performance spaces , the 635 seat Main Auditorium and a smaller studio space , the Walker Theatre which can accommodate 250 seating or 500 standing . In November 2015 the theatre celebrated the sale of its 1 millionth ticket since its opening in 2009 . The venue also includes a full sized dance studio , function rooms and restaurant . The new complex replaced the old theatre , the Music Hall , which itself has been refurbished and expanded in preparation for its current use as home to Shrewsbury Museum and Art Gallery ( opened 2014 ) . Further museums in the town include the acclaimed Shropshire Regimental Museum , based at Shrewsbury Castle , and the restored 19th century steam @-@ powered Coleham Pumping Station , which opens for tours on specific days each year . Nearby National Trust properties include Attingham Park , former home of the Hill family , Barons of Berwick , and the last remaining Town Walls Tower which dates from the 14th century .
Shrewsbury is also home to one of the region 's main agricultural shows – the Shropshire County Show ( formerly the West Mid Show ) . This is held every year , usually in May , at the Shropshire Agricultural Showground on the outskirts of town at Coton Hill . The town is host to the Shrewsbury International Music Festival , when musical groups from all over the world come to perform for about a week for local residents , and give a final concert in the abbey . The festival is organised by WorldStage Tours . 2006 saw the first Shrewsbury Folk Festival , after the event moved to the town from nearby Bridgnorth . Held annually over the August bank holiday , the event is very popular , with people travelling from across the UK to attend . In 2006 much of the event was held in the Quarry , with other related festivities happening around the town . For 2007 the event moved to the West Midlands Showground on the other side of the river . A new annual arts festival – the Shrewsbury Summer Season – was established in 2004 and runs each year from June to August with an extensive programme of music , visual arts , theatre and spectacle .
There are some very old public houses , which have been continuously open , such as the Golden Cross in Princess Street , the Dun Cow in Abbey Foregate , and the King 's Head in Mardol . The Golden Cross is reputed to be the oldest licensed public house in Shrewsbury and records show that it was used as an inn as far back as 1428 . Its original name was the Sextry , because it was originally the sacristy of Old St Chad 's Church .
= = = Shrewsbury in the arts = = =
Famous literary figures who have visited the town include ( in the 17th century ) Daniel Defoe , Celia Fiennes , the Shrewsbury School @-@ educated Arthur Mainwaring and Ambrose Phillips and playwright George Farquhar whose 1706 play ' The Recruiting Officer ' was set in the town .
Later , in the 18th and 19th centuries , the likes of John Wesley , Thomas de Quincey and Benjamin Disraeli the latter of which was MP for Shrewsbury 1841 – 47 , would visit the town . Charles Dickens once also visited to present a series of lectures at the Music Hall , staying at the Lion Hotel . However , in this period the town 's most prolific literary figure and famous son was born – Charles Darwin . Darwin was educated at Shrewsbury School and later , with the development of his 1859 work On the Origin of Species became the preeminent naturalist of the 19th century . Although Darwin 's work was both revolutionary and highly controversial at the time , his teachings and beliefs have become ever more globalised and he is today widely recognised as the father of the modern theory of evolution .
In his 1910 novel Howards End , E. M. Forster makes a brief reference to " astonishing Shrewsbury " , an impression he received after having visited the town in the early 20th century . In the same century Shrewsbury became famous for its poets . The Great War poet Wilfred Owen was a resident , whilst his fellow poet Mary Webb much loved the town and referred to it many a time in her works under the guise of Silverton . Owen is the subject of the 1993 sculpture Symmetry , which was unveiled in the grounds of Shrewsbury Abbey , whilst Webb was finally laid to rest in one of the town 's cemeteries .
The town appears in the Brother Cadfael novels by Ellis Peters ( pen name of Edith Pargeter ) . The novels take Shrewsbury Abbey for their setting , with Shrewsbury and other places in Shropshire portrayed regularly , and have made Medieval Shrewsbury familiar to a wide worldwide readership .
The local author , Carol Ewels has written two children 's books , including Jack the Cat , which are set in the town . Also , the children 's author Pauline Fisk wrote about a town called Pengwern , which is based entirely on Shrewsbury , in books including Midnight Blue and Sabrina Fludde . Frank Cottrell Boyce , another children 's author , writes briefly about Shrewsbury in his book Millions . Shrewsbury Library also hosts the West Midlands Literary Heritage website , developed to provide information about West Midland people and places , including those featured in the library 's own West Midland Creative Literature Collection .
In film Shrewsbury was used as the setting for the popular 1984 film , A Christmas Carol , which filmed many of its interior and exterior shots in and around the town . The gravestone prop of Ebenezer Scrooge ( played by George C. Scott ) that was used in the movie is still present in the graveyard of St Chad 's Church .
= = = Media = = =
Two newspapers are published for Shrewsbury – the local edition of the county 's Shropshire Star and the more traditional Shrewsbury Chronicle , which is one of the oldest weekly newspapers in the country , having produced its first edition in 1772 . There are presently three radio stations that specifically serve either the Shrewsbury area or encompass it as part of a Shropshire @-@ wide broadcast . They include : Free Radio Shropshire & Black Country ; , BBC Radio Shropshire , which is based in Shrewsbury ; and , as of September 2006 , The Severn , which broadcasts from the Shropshire Star building in Telford .
In 2009 a brand new online independent media company launched covering Shrewsbury and Shropshire. shropshirelive.com , is based in Shrewsbury with local residents encouraged to get involved with the web site by becoming citizen journalists and contributors .
= = = Food = = =
Shrewsbury is well known in culinary circles for being the namesake of a classic English dessert . Shrewsbury cakes ( or biscuits ) are typically crisp and brittle creations that may incorporate fruit . They can be small in size for serving several at a time , or large for serving as a dessert in their own right . Traditionally Shrewsbury cakes have a distinct hint of lemon .
The playwright William Congreve mentioned Shrewsbury cakes in his play The Way of the World in 1700 as a simile ( Witwoud – " Why , brother Wilfull of Salop , you may be as short as a Shrewsbury cake , if you please . But I tell you ' tis not modish to know relations in town " ) . The recipe is also included in several early cookbooks including The Compleat Cook of 1658 . A final reference to the cakes can be seen to this day as the subject of a plaque affixed to a building close to Shrewsbury 's town library at the top of Pride Hill . The aforementioned plaque marks the spot where the Shrewsbury Cake 's recipe is said to have been pioneered in 1760 by Mr Pailin ; a further quote , drawn from Richard Harris Barham 's Ingoldby Legends , reads :
Shrewsbury is also the origin of the most popular Simnel cake recipe . Different towns had their own recipes and shapes of the Simnel cake . Bury , Devizes and Shrewsbury produced large numbers to their own recipes , but it is the Shrewsbury version that became most well known . Shrewsbury also had a large cheese market in Victorian times .
= = Education = =
Shrewsbury is home to Shrewsbury School , a public school , on a large site ( " Kingsland " ) just south of the town centre overlooking the loop of the Severn . The school was once in the town centre , in the buildings that are now the main county library on Castle Street . Opposite it on the other side of the river is Shrewsbury High School , an independent girls ' day school .
The long established Prestfelde School is an independent preparatory school , on London Road , close to the Lord Hill column . As part of the Woodard Schools group , it is affiliated to the largest group of Church of England schools in the country . Whilst originally a school for boys only it diversified and , in the late 1990s , started also accepting girls between the ages of three and thirteen . The school is set in 30 acres ( 12 ha ) of grounds on the outskirts of the town . The town 's other long @-@ established boys ' preparatory school , Kingsland Grange ( on Old Roman Road in Kingsland ) , in 2007 merged with the junior department of Shrewsbury Girls ' High School , sharing the two sites with some classes remaining all @-@ boys or all @-@ girls , but others switching to a co @-@ ed format .
Adcote School is an independent day and boarding school for girls , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northwest of Shrewsbury . The school was founded in 1907 and is set in a Grade I listed country house built in 1879 for Rebecca Darby – a great niece of Abraham Darby and a member of the iron @-@ master family who built Ironbridge .
However , the majority of the town 's pupils attend one of the seven comprehensive schools . The Priory School , formerly a grammar school for girls ; Meole Brace School currently carries the status of Science College ; The Grange School the status of Arts College ; Sundorne School the status of Sports College and Belvidere School has the status of Technology College .
The Wakeman School , which was geographically the closest school to the town centre ' loop ' , next to the English Bridge , was previously called Shrewsbury Technical School , and was attended by the notable First World War poet Wilfred Owen . It closed as part of reorganisation in July 2013 . Additionally , two other establishments outside town serve town students . The Corbet School to the north at Baschurch ; and Mary Webb School , in the village of Pontesbury to the south @-@ west .
Post @-@ 16 education is handled by Shrewsbury Sixth Form College , previously the Priory School for Boys recently ranked 17th in the top 20 of sixth form colleges nationally by the Sunday Times newspaper and Shrewsbury College of Arts and Technology , which handles primarily vocational courses .
University Centre Shrewsbury has been offering postgraduate courses since autumn 2014 and undergraduate students are being welcomed to the institution from autumn 2015 .
Established by the University of Chester and Shropshire Council , the University Centre is focused on high @-@ quality teaching and research , fostering entrepreneurship , contributing to the community and , ultimately , making a global impact .
= = Transport = =
Shrewsbury is the county 's public transport hub and has road and rail links to the rest of the county and country .
Five railway lines connect the town to most corners of Shropshire and the region , and the town is known as the " Gateway to Wales " . Shrewsbury railway station is served by Arriva Trains Wales and London Midland with trains running north to Chester , Manchester , Crewe and Wrexham , south to Hereford and Cardiff , west to Aberystwyth , and east to Birmingham via Telford , Shifnal , and Wolverhampton . Heart of Wales Line trains also operate to Swansea . On 28 April 2008 , open access operator Wrexham & Shropshire commenced services to London , restoring the county 's direct rail link to the capital ; previously , Shropshire had been one of only two mainland English counties without a dedicated service to the capital , the other being Rutland . However , the service ceased on 28 January 2011 . Virgin Trains announced in September 2014 that a new London service comprising two trains in each direction daily would be introduced in December of that year .
The main railway station building includes a clock tower , imitation Tudor chimneys and carved heads in the frames of every window . There is a small British Transport Police station within the building .
Bus services in the town are operated by Arriva Midlands and serve most parts of the town , congregating at the town 's bus station adjacent to the Darwin Shopping Centre and a short stroll from the railway station . Arriva also operate county services both independent of and on behalf of Shropshire County Council . There are other bus companies operating around the Shrewsbury area , including Boulton 's of Shropshire , Minsterley Motors , Bryn Melyn and Tanat Valley Coaches with the last operating services crossing from over the Welsh border from nearby towns including Llanfyllin , Montgomery , Newtown and Welshpool .
Shrewsbury has a Park and Ride bus scheme in operation and three car parks on the edge of town are used by many who want to travel into the town centre . The three car parks are at Harlescott ( to the north , colour @-@ coded blue ) , Oxon ( to the west , colour @-@ coded pink ) and Meole Brace ( to the south , colour @-@ coded green ) . It is proposed that a fourth one be built to the east of the town , at either Emstrey or Preston .
Shrewsbury has been an important centre for road traffic . In 1815 , Thomas Telford designed a new coaching route from London to Holyhead in order to improve communications with Ireland . He routed the new road via Shrewsbury , which opened in 1830 . The road is now the A5 . The road connects the town northwest to Oswestry , and east towards Telford , where it joins the M54 . The A5 once ran through the town centre , until a bypass was built in the 1930s . Subsequently , in 1992 , a 17 @-@ mile ( 27 km ) dual carriageway was completed at a cost of 79 million pounds to the south of the town , and was made to form part of the A5 route . This dual carriageway was built further out of the town to act as a substantial link to Telford , as well as a bypass for the town .
The A49 also goes to Shrewsbury , joining the A5 at the south of the town , coming from Ludlow and Leominster . At this point the road merges with the A5 for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , before separating again to the east of the town . From there it runs north , passing Sundorne , then Battlefield , before heading out towards Whitchurch . At Battlefield , the A53 route begins and heads northeast towards Shawbury and Market Drayton then onwards towards Newcastle @-@ under @-@ Lyme and Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent .
The A458 ( Welshpool @-@ Bridgnorth ) runs through the town centre , entering in the west and leaving to the southeast . The A528 begins in the town centre and heads north , heading for Ellesmere . The A488 begins just west of the town centre in Frankwell and heads out to Bishop 's Castle , Clun and Knighton crossing the border in the southwest of Shropshire .
Major roads within the town include the A5112 , A5191 and A5064 . The A5191 goes north @-@ south via the town centre , while the A5112 runs north @-@ south to the east of the town centre . The A5064 is a short , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of road to the southeast of the town centre , called " London Road " . Additionally , the A5124 , the most recent bypass , was completed in 1998 , and runs across the northern edge of the town at Battlefield ( connecting the A49 / A53 to the A528 ) , though it did exist before as Harlescott Lane ( which has since become unclassified ) .
= = = Cycling = = =
Shrewsbury has a comprehensive network of on @-@ road and traffic @-@ free cycle routes . In 2008 Shrewsbury was awarded Cycling Town status by Cycling England . As a result , Shrewsbury benefited from £ 1 @.@ 8 million of grant funding from the Department for Transport between 2008 and 2011 . The funding was used to make improvements to the cycle network in Shrewsbury , and to provide cycle training , information and advice to people to help encourage them to cycle to school and work .
= = Sport = =
Shrewsbury is home to a professional football club , Shrewsbury Town . The team currently competes in the third tier of English football , Football League One and since 2007 has played their home games at New Meadow – from 1910 to 2007 the club played at the Gay Meadow stadium . Shrewsbury Town 's achievements include winning the Welsh Cup six times , a record for an English club , a 10 @-@ year run in the old Second Division now known as The Championship from 1979 until 1989 , a Third Division Championship in 1979 , a Division 3 Championship and victory in the Conference National Playoff Final 2004 .
There is also a local rugby club , Shrewsbury Rugby Club . The River Severn in the town is used for rowing by both Pengwern Boat Club and the Shrewsbury School Boat Club . Shrewsbury Sports Village is a sports centre in the Sundorne district of the town , aimed at providing a wide range of sports facilities for townspeople . There are also a number of motorsports and golf facilities ( including Meole Brace Municipal Golf Course ) in the area . The local motorsports heritage includes the Loton Park Hillclimb and Hawkstone Park Motocross Circuit near Shrewsbury . Shrewsbury Motocross Club has staged motocross events in the area for over 30 years .
Shrewsbury Cricket Club is currently one of the most successful club cricket sides in the country . They have won the EBC National Club Championship twice in 1983 and recently in 2011 . England International player James Taylor currently plays for Shrewsbury .
A free weekly parkrun takes place in the centre of Shrewsbury . The event is attended by over 250 runners every week and is ' twinned ' with Darwin parkrun in Northern Territory , Australia due to the city of Darwin being named after Charles Darwin . Shrewsbury has also seen activity in the physical discipline , Parkour .
= = Notable Salopians = =
There have been a number of notable Salopians , and people otherwise associated with the town of Shrewsbury , including Charles Darwin , a biologist and evolutionary theorist , one of the most important thinkers of the 19th century , who was born in Shrewsbury on 12 February 1809 at the Mount House , and was educated in the town at Shrewsbury School .
People with political associations also have connections with the town . Leo Blair , the father of former Prime Minister Tony Blair , was a resident of the town . Former residents have included Michael Heseltine , a Conservative politician who was educated at Shrewsbury School , and Sir William Pulteney , 5th Baronet , who was once Britain 's richest man , and was MP for Shrewsbury . He lived in apartments at Shrewsbury Castle . Robert Clive was MP for Shrewsbury , and also the mayor .
Ian Hunter ( or Ian Patterson ) , the lead singer of the ' 70s pop group Mott the Hoople , was a resident of 23a Swan Hill in the town centre , and wrote a song of the same name . Also a resident of the town was John Peel , a DJ and radio presenter , who was educated at Shrewsbury School . Another DJ from the town is Lange , a producer of dance music , who was born in Shrewsbury . The 1980s pop group T 'Pau was formed in the town and the band 's vocalist Carol Decker was born and educated in the town , along with other members of the band . Notable music historian Charles Burney was born and educated in the town .
Shrewsbury has also been home to contributors to literature . In the early years of the 18th century , the Irish dramatist George Farquhar resided in the town while acting as a recruiting officer for the Army . He drew on this experience in writing the comedy The Recruiting Officer . Prior to the First World War , the poet Wilfred Owen lived in the town . The romantic novelist Mary Webb is buried there . Michael Palin , the writer , actor and comedian attended Shrewsbury School . Other actors with associations with the town include Nick Hancock , presenter of They Think It 's All Over , who , like Palin , was educated at Shrewsbury School . Nick Conway is another actor connected to the town , and was born in it in 1962 . Actor Jason Bateman 's mother was born in Shrewsbury . Comedian George Robey lived in the town , near Lord Hill 's Column , before and during the Second World War .
Sporting Salopians include footballers Danny Guthrie of Newcastle United and Shrewsbury Town youth academy graduates England goalkeeper Joe Hart and Wales midfielder David Edwards , both of whom are currently playing in the Premier League . Sunderland and Scotland striker Steven Fletcher was also born in the town , where his serviceman father was stationed . Four FA Cup Final winning players who took part in the first decade of the Cup 's history were born in or lived in Shrewsbury : John Hawley Edwards , Henry Wace and John Wylie , of the Wanderers and Clopton Lloyd @-@ Jones of Clapham Rovers . Sandy Lyle , a professional golfer , was also born in the town . Neville Cardus spent some of his formative years as assistant cricket coach at Shrewsbury School .
Other notable people of the town include Robert Cadman , a performer and steeplejack , who is buried in the town , at St Mary 's Church . Simon Gosling , a visual effects designer was born in the town , and was resident there until 1994 . John Gwynn , an 18th @-@ century architect , who designed the English Bridge and the bridge at Atcham was born in the town . Percy Thrower , the gardener and broadcaster lived in Shrewsbury , where he set up the garden centre near Meole Brace and just down the road from the football club . It is currently the home of renowned singer Steve Winwood , with his family .
Flight Lieutenant Eric Lock DSO , DFC and Bar was born in nearby Bayston Hill and was educated at Prestfelde public school on London Road . Lock became internationally recognised as a high scoring fighter ace of the Royal Air Force in the Second World War with 26 victories before his death in combat at the age of 21 . He was the RAF 's most successful British @-@ born pilot in the Battle of Britain , shooting down 16 @.@ 5 German aircraft in a period of just a few weeks .
One Victoria Cross recipient is known to have lived in Shrewsbury ; Arthur Herbert Procter , who was decorated in 1916 during World War I and retired from his later full @-@ time clergy ministry in 1964 to briefly live at Mytton Oak Road , Copthorne .
The forerunner of Private Eye was a school magazine edited by Richard Ingrams , Willie Rushton , Christopher Booker and Paul Foot at Shrewsbury School in the mid @-@ 1950s .
Comic book artist Charlie Adlard was born in Shrewsbury and is most known for illustrating The Walking Dead . Actor Adam Rayner was born in Shrewsbury and grew up in the United States .
= = Twin Town = =
Shrewsbury is twinned with Zutphen , Netherlands , a move inspired by the fact Sir Philip Sidney , an alumnus of Shrewsbury School , was fatally wounded there in 1586 . At the end of the Second World War Shrewsbury 's then Mayor , Harry Steward , who was made in 1946 an honorary citizen of Zutphen in return , launched an appeal for second @-@ hand tools , clothes , bedding and other materials towards the town 's post @-@ war reconstruction after Nazi German occupation and war damage .
A potential twinning with Shrewsbury by Bayreuth , Germany , was under discussion in 2009 .
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= Domestic of the Schools =
The office of the Domestic of the Schools ( Greek : δομέστικος τῶν σχολῶν , domestikos tōn scholōn ) was a senior military post of the Byzantine Empire , extant from the 8th century until at least the early 14th century . Originally simply the commander of the Scholai , the senior of the elite tagmata regiments , the Domestic quickly rose in prominence : by the mid @-@ 9th century , its holders essentially occupied the position of commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Byzantine army , next to the Emperor . The office was eclipsed in the 12th century by that of the Grand Domestic , and in the Palaiologan period ( 13th – 15th centuries ) , it was reduced to a purely honorary , mid @-@ level court dignity .
= = History = =
The first holder of the office of Domestic of the Schools first appears in the sources ( the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor ) for the year 767 , shortly after the creation of the tagmata . These were elite cavalry regiments stationed in or around the capital Constantinople , commanded by officers titled " Domestics " ( δομέστικοι , domestikoi ) and distinct from the provincial armies of the themes under their respective stratēgoi . The Schools ( Latin : scholae ; Greek : σχολαὶ , scholai ) was the senior tagma , tracing their origin to the Scholae Palatinae established by Constantine the Great ( reigned ( r . ) 306 – 337 ) and originally placed under the command of the magister officiorum . The historian J.B. Bury has traced a reference to a certain Anianos , " Domestic of the magister " , in the Chronicon Paschale for the year 624 , and considers this official to be the predecessor of the Domestic of the Schools . As the magister officiorum was gradually deprived of some of his functions in the 7th and 8th centuries , the Domestic apparently became an independent official . The Kletorologion of 899 lists his subordinate officials as comprising his deputy or topotērētēs ( τοποτηρητής ) , the secretary or chartoularios ( χαρτουλάριος ) , the head messenger or proximos ( πρόξιμος ) and the other messengers ( μανδάτορες , mandatores ) , as well as the various subordinate officers of the regiment ( cf. the article on the Scholae Palatinae ) .
In the 9th century , the office of the Domestic , or " Domesticate " ( δομεστικάτον , domestikaton ) , of the Schools rose in importance and its holder was often appointed as the head of the army in the absence of the emperor . However , this role was not yet enshrined : it depended rather on the abilities of the current Domestic , and other generals of inferior rank were sometimes entrusted with supreme command instead . The Domestic of the Schools nevertheless rose to such prominence that the sources frequently speak of the office as " the Domestic " without further qualification , and the power and influence of the post saw it frequently occupied by persons closely related to the emperor . From the time of Michael III ( r . 842 – 867 ) on , the Domestic ranked in the imperial hierarchy above all other military commanders except for the stratēgos of the Anatolic Theme . In practice , he quickly became senior even to the latter , as demonstrated by the fact that military leaders like Nikephoros Phokas and John Tzimiskes were promoted from the generalship of the Anatolics to the Domesticate .
In the reign of Romanos II ( r . 959 – 963 ) the post was split , with a " Domestic of the West " ( δομέστικος τῆς δύσεως , domestikos tēs dyseōs ) and a " Domestic of the East " ( δομέστικος τῆς ἀνατολῆς , domestikos tēs anatolēs ) being created for operations in Europe and Asia respectively . The ceremony for the Domestic 's appointment is described in the De Ceremoniis ( II.3 ) ; the same work describes his duties and role in court ceremonies .
With some exceptions , most notably the unparalleled 22 @-@ year tenure of John Kourkouas , or in times of domestic instability , Domestics were changed on the average every three to four years . During the 10th century , the Domesticate of the Schools was dominated by members of the Phokas family , which produced six holders of the office . Their attempts to monopolize the office led a series of emperors , concerned over the power of the military aristocracy , to entrust the potentially over @-@ powerful office to non @-@ military court officials , including — especially in the first half of the 11th century , before the military aristocracy reasserted its authority — to eunuchs , even though this was in theory forbidden , with the alternate office of stratopedarches having been created for this purpose .
In the 10th and 11th centuries , the variant " Grand Domestic " ( μέγας δομέστικος , megas domestikos ) appears sporadically , used in parallel with other variants such as " Grand Domestic of the Schools " or " Grand Domestic of the East / West " for the same person . The Byzantinist Rodolphe Guilland considers most of these early references either as anachronistic references by 12th @-@ century writers , or simply cases where " megas " is used as an honorific prefix , as was the norm with other senior offices during this period , like the Drungary of the Watch or the Domestic of the Excubitors . Nevertheless , Guilland argues that from the time of Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) on , the " Grand Domestic " became a separate office , senior to the " plain " Domestics of the Schools and in effect the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army beside the Emperor . However , the usage of the titles is not consistent , and the habitual division of command between East and West seems to have been sometimes applied to the Grand Domesticate as well during the 12th century , causing some confusion as to the nature of the office and its relation to the " plain " Domestic . In the 13th century however the two titles became clearly distinct : the Grand Domestic was the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the entire army and one of the highest offices of state , while the Domestic of the Schools was relegated to a simple dignity without duties , awarded to provincial governors and other middle @-@ ranking officials . In the words of the mid @-@ 14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , " the Domestic of the Schools once had an office similar to that of the Grand Domestic currently , but he now holds none " .
In Pseudo @-@ Kodinos ' work , the Domestic of the Schools ranks 31st in the imperial hierarchy , between the mystikos and the Grand Drungary of the Fleet . The Domestic 's distinctive court dress , as reported by Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , consisted of a gold @-@ brocaded hat ( skiadion ) , a plain silk kabbadion tunic and a silver staff ( dikanikion ) with a knob on top and another in the middle . For ceremonies and festivities , he bore the domed skaranikon , of yellow silk and decorated with gold wire embroidery , and with a portrait of the emperor seated on a throne in front and another with the emperor on horseback on the rear .
= = List of known holders = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified .
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= Barely Real =
Barely Real is the 1992 extended play ( EP ) by the American indie rock band Codeine . After releasing their previous album Frigid Stars LP in 1990 , the group accepted an invitation from the quartet Bastro to tour in Europe in 1991 . Following the tour the group was invited to record a single for Sub Pop Singles Club and attempted to record their followup album The White Birch in 1992 . The recording sessions proved to be disastrous for the group since it found themselves often with unusable tracks over several different studios . As Codeine could not record enough material for a full @-@ length album , they decided to release what tracks they had as an EP .
The music on Barely Real continued their slowcore music style of their previous album . Barely Real also featured contributions from guest musicians such as Jon Fine of Bitch Magnet playing additional guitar on the song " Jr " and a piano cover of the song " Wird " performed by David Grubbs . Following the recording sessions , the groups drummer Chris Brokaw left the group being replaced by Doug Scharin .
Barely Real had one single ( " Realize " ) released and was initially released in Germany through Sub Pop , followed by release in the United States in 1993 . The band toured North America to promote the release which included an opening spot for Mazzy Star and their first shows in Canada . The album received praise from the Alternative Press and Melody Maker on its initial release , with the latter calling the work " 25 minutes of snowblind glory " . The EP was re @-@ issued by The Numero Group in 2012 , including various unreleased songs and new material . The re @-@ issue was acclaimed Spin and Pitchfork Media , with the latter describing the release as " masterful " .
= = Background and production = =
Following the well received release of Frigid Stars LP ( 1990 ) , Codeine accepted and invitation from David Grubbs and John McEntire to open for their group Bastro on their European tour in 1991 . To prepare for the tour , Codeine and Bastro met in a studio to record the song " Produkt " and " A l 'Ombre de Nouse " as a seven @-@ inch single for the label Glitterhouse . Following the tour , Immerwahr returned to New York working as an engineer at Mike McMacklin 's Sound on Sound studio . John Engle worked as a delivery man for a restaurant and Chris Brokaw waited tables and wrote songs with Thalia Zedek that would later be released on Eleven : Eleven , the debut album for Come .
Towards the end of 1991 , Sub Pop gave the group $ 1000 to record the July 1992 entry in the labels singles club series . The group entered James Kavoussi 's Toxic Shock Studios on Broadway in New York with Frigid Stars LP producer Mike McMacklin to record early versions of " Realize " , " Jr " , and a cover of the MX @-@ 80 song " Promise of Love " . The tracks were not successful with only " Promise of Love " being usable . Engle noted that Codeine desired the song to be loud on both sides of the single , but could not get the song " Jr " to come together . The group had already gone through most of their budget for recording , which led to the group going to an eight @-@ track studio in the Boston suburb of Allston . Immerwahr went into the studio where the group were able to complete a version of the song " Realize " . The group met up again to work in early 1992 towards their second LP ( Long playing record ) The White Birch , with recording commencing in June at Harold Dessau Recording at 25 Murray Street in Manhattan . At the studio , the group attempted to record versions of " Realize " , " Jr " , " Tom " , " Wird " " Smoking Room " , " Barely Real " , " Something New " and " Sea " within a months time . Immerwahr was not content with the tracks , noting several issues such as : his own vocals , his desire to record music with even slower tempos , and the presence of high pitched noises in the songs that no one else could hear . On attempting to fix a broken toilet at the studio , Immerwahr accidentally flooded the clothing store below the studio .
Codeine decided to continue their recording sessions in July at the studio in Boston where " Barely Real " and their third recording of " Jr " were completed . The band then continued to Night Owl studio to record " Hard To Find " with a drum machine . Jon Fine of the band Bitch Magnet added guitar to " Jr " while Mike McMacklin began to EQ the tracks from Toxic Shock , Night Owl , and the Boston studio . Immerwahr also contributed to the mixing of the album without McMacklin , stating that they were not getting along after their extended periods of time spent recording . The band quickly noticed that the amount of material they had recorded would not be enough for the length of an LP which lead the group to releasing what they had as an EP . To balance out the EP 's sides , the band revisited the instrumental song " Wird " that was made as a tribute to the band Slint . Immerwahr described " Wird " as a song he regretted making , as it was an attempt to do a version of a song from Slint 's album Tweez . He sent a tape of the track to David Grubbs to do a piano version of the song that was re @-@ titled " W. " . John McEntire recorded the song in a music room at the University of Chicago where he was working on an undergraduate degree .
After completing the album , Brokaw left Codeine to focus on his band Come . The group shot the video for " Realize " without him . Engle took longer than he expected to replace Brokaw as after placing a classified ad , he ended up " flooded with calls " and that " Half of them hadn 't heard Codeine . I 'd say , well , we play a very particular style that you should really know about . " The group chose Doug Scharin , who had attended Codeine 's first show in Boston .
= = Music = =
Stephen Immerwhar , who wrote the lyrics to the original songs on Barely Real described composing these lyrics as " probably the hardest work . Not that we have these prodigious texts , but there 's a consistency between the lyrical subject and content and the presentation of the music " . Immerwhar described his lyrics as expressing feelings of alienation and banality . When he was asked regarding the lyrics on Barely Real and The White Birch , Immerwhar said he preferred the lyrics on latter album where he desired to " have more writerly songs " , where he found " out that there were different sources of the same feelings that seemed to inspire earlier Codeine songs . "
The Toronto Star described the Codeine 's music as slowcore , a style AllMusic stated was famous for having a slow pace and skeletal music with " melodies linger forever and rhythms lurch forward , all shrouded in thick , dank atmospherics . " Stewart Mason of AllMusic described the music of Barely Real as a continuation of the style made on their previous album " , while comparing a review of the compilation album When I See The Sun in Exclaim ! proposed that the group 's music " didn 't change much during their five years together ― all the songs are relentlessly slow and possess an emotional detachment verging on apathy . " When asked about the music 's pace , on Barely Real , Immerwahr said the music was in contrast to grunge music of the era , and that slowing it down made it " challenging for people and challenging for audiences . And I actually kind of like that . " In a contemporary review , Ned Raggett of AllMusic stated this style is exemplified on songs like " Realize " , which continued the hybrid of a deliberate pace with electric guitar playing with softly sung vocals . Some tracks contained a variation on Codeine 's music , such as " Promise of Love " , which Raggett characterized as having a " late @-@ night jazz club style " that only contains more traditional Codeine styled music towards the end . Other songs that veried the sound included the piano @-@ based track " W. " performed by David Grubbs and quick stuttering guitar riff on " Jr " . Immerwhar spoke about the tracks " W. " and " Promise of Love " , opining that " W. " created a " nice transition from the severity of ' Hard to Find ' to the jazzy ' Promise of Love ' "
= = Release and tour = =
Prior to the release of the EP , a single for " Realize " was released on July 1 , 1992 . It was released on as a seven @-@ inch single on clear and whtie vinyl limited to 2 @,@ 933 copies . Barely Real was released by Sub Pop in Germany in November 1992 . The cover of the album is taken from a postcard of Belvedere Palace Stephen Immerwahr had found on their 1991 tour of Europe . Immerwahr felt that the image reminded him of the film Last Year at Marienbad , which he described as a film that was " all stylish surface to the point where time itself seems suspended , and without the possibility of human emotional connection . " Immerwahr related the image with his own lyrical themes of what he described as " an impossible need to connect with others . " Codeine and the band Love Child did a five @-@ week European tour in late 1992 after the release of the EP . When the tour went through Vienna in 1992 , the group stopped to visit the palace . During the tour , Codeine would occasionally encore with the song " Broken Hearted Wine " , a B @-@ side on the single for " Barely Real " .
The album received a released in the United States through Sub Pop on July 1 , 1993 . In 1993 , Codeine opened for Mazzy Star on selected dates in the Midwest and toured through North America . This tour had Codeine perform their first shows in Canada . Stephen Immerwahr spoke about the audiences to the Toronto Star , noting that they were people " who sit and really listen to stuff ... Not people drinking themselves into oblivion . " Reviewing one of their 1993 shows , Mark Jenkins of the Washington Post stating that Codeine " pursues the intoxicating dislocation offered by slow @-@ mo cinematography " and that the drumming of Doug Scharin " rattled rib cages throughout the club " . The review concluded that despite the self @-@ imposed limitations that Codeine 's music had , the result was a " curiously effective marriage of meditation and aggression . "
The Numero Group re @-@ released Barely Real with nine bonus tracks on both compact disc and vinyl in 2012 . This release added unreleased songs , Peel sessions , demo tracks , and the songs " Cracked in Two " , " Broken @-@ Hearted Wine " , and a live cover of Unrest 's " Hydroplane " . On the reissue , Brokaw commented that " we were all happy with the [ Barely Real ] . Some of the Dessau sessions are being included in the reissues on Numero , which I 'm very glad about . The best way I can describe it is that we had high aspirations around what we wanted to achieve and it wasn 't always easy ( or even possible ) to make those happen . "
= = Reception = =
In contemporary reviews , Peter Paphides wrote in Melody Maker that the EP was " 25 minutes of snowblind glory waiting here if you want them . Each of them is a towering monument to nothingness " . The Alternative Press opined that the EP was not " a progression from the gorgeously devastated Frigid Stars and I couldn 't be happier . Codeine have hit upon a formula so pure and righteous it would be tragic for them to deviate from it . " The Washington Post gave the album a mixed review , explaining that " There 's not a lot going on here , but songs such as " Realize " and " Hard to Find " are hardly nothing . " and that tracks such as " W. " allow Codeine to achieve " both earthly aggression and unearthly calm . " Charles Aaron of Spin , reviewed the single " Realize " , stating that the song " inches along as if Codeine 's still wondering whether it 's worth the effort " . The b @-@ side " Broken @-@ hearted Wine " was described as a song that " coolly walks a delicate line between delibitating sadness and cartoon regret . "
From retrospective reviews , The The Virgin Encyclopedia of Nineties Music commented that Barely Real was " on first hearing , slightly soporific and listless , but it rewards repeated listening with its depth and emotional texture . " Ned Raggett ( AllMusic ) gave the album a rating of four and a half stars out of five , explaining that " Those put off by earlier Codeine CDs won 't want to continue ; those taken by the band 's way of doing things will happily embrace it . " The Numero Group 's reissue received positive reviews from Spin and Pitchfork Media , with Pitchfork declaring that after The Frigid Stars LP , the EP " felt masterful in its compression of what we 'd come to expect from them . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Barely Real initial releases liner notes and Numero Groups 2012 re @-@ issue .
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= Bali Strait Incident =
The Bali Strait Incident was an encounter between a powerful French Navy frigate squadron and a convoy of British East India Company East Indiamen merchant ships in the Bali Strait on 28 January 1797 . The incident took place admidst the East Indies campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars — repeated French attempts to disrupt the highly valuable British trade routes with British India and Qing Dynasty China . In 1796 , a large squadron of French frigates arrived in the Indian Ocean under the command of Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey . In July this force sailed on a commerce raiding cruise off British Ceylon , but a subsequent attack into the Straits of Malacca was driven off in an inconclusive engagement with two British ships of the line off Northeastern Sumatra . Forced to make repairs , Sercey took his squadron to the allied Batavian city of Batavia , sheltering there until January 1797 .
As Sercey left Batavia , the very valuable annual British trade convoy from Macau ( Portuguese treaty port in Southern China ) was due to sail . This convoy was worth millions of pounds and its capture would seriously harm the British economy . The British commander in the region , Admiral Peter Rainier split the convoy , taking four ships with a heavy escort through the Straits of Malacca , while the remaining six East Indiamen sailed unescorted through the supposedly safer Bali Strait . On 28 January , at the entrance to the Strait near the coast of Java the convoy was discovered by Sercey 's squadron .
The British commander , Charles Lennox , knew that if he fled his ships would be rapidly overwhelmed and instead attempted to bluff Sercey into believing that the convoy was formed not from lightly armed East Indiamen , but from the powerful ships of the line which they resembled . Lennox ordered his ships to advance on the French who retreated , convinced they were facing a superior enemy . Sercey did momentarily reconsider , when the British ships declined to attack the temporarily disabled frigate Forte , but eventually withdrew completely , retiring to his base at Île de France ( now Mauritius ) where he learned of his error . The China Fleet reached its destination with only one ship lost , wrecked in a storm the day after the encounter .
= = Background = =
Trade through the East Indies was a vital component of the economy of Great Britain during the late eighteenth century . This trade was administered by the East India Company , which maintained trading ports throughout the region , most notably in British India at Bombay , Madras and Calcutta . The main bulk of this was carried on large merchant ships known as East Indiamen , which weighed between 500 and 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 510 and 1 @,@ 220 t ) and traveled well @-@ armed , carrying up to 36 cannon . Due to their size and weaponry they could be mistaken for ships of the line , standard large warships of the period , a deception usually augmented by paintwork and dummy cannon . Despite their appearance however they could not fight off an enemy frigate or ship of the line as their guns were of inferior design , and their crew smaller and less well trained than those on a naval ship . An important component of the East India trade was an annual trade convoy from Macau , a Portuguese port in Qing Dynasty China . Early in each year , a large convoy of East Indiamen would sail from Macau , through the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic to Britain . The value of the trade carried in this convoy , nicknamed the " China Fleet " , was enormous : one convoy in 1804 was reported to be carrying goods worth over £ 8 million in contemporary values ( the equivalent of £ 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
By 1797 , Britain and the new French Republic had been engaged in the French Revolutionary Wars for nearly four years . Although there had been much fighting in Europe , the East Indies had remained largely under British control . French forces in the region were limited , and apart from a few raiding cruises the French squadron in the region had been under intermittent blockade at Île de France . The Royal Navy , commanded in Eastern waters by Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier had focused on commerce protection and the elimination of the colonies of the French @-@ allied Batavian Republic , capturing Dutch Ceylon , the Dutch Cape Colony and parts of the Dutch East Indies in 1795 and 1796 . Rainier had been engaged in pacifying local uprisings around Malacca during the latter part of the campaign , and there had been few forces left in reserve to protect British interests in the Indian Ocean .
In response to British activity in the region and the reluctance of the inhabitants of Île de France to follow orders from the National Convention abolishing slavery , the French dispatched a squadron of frigates to the East Indies early in 1796 . This force , led by Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey , originally comprised three frigates , subsequently joined by three more vessels , forming a powerful raiding squadron . After resupplying on Île de France in July , Sercey 's frigates cruised off the Ceylon coast , dissuaded from attacking the undefended ports of British India by false information fed to his scouts that a British battle squadron was at anchor in Calcutta . Turning eastwards , Sercey hoped to raid George Town at Penang , but was driven off in an inconclusive engagement with a British squadron off Sumatra on 9 September . He spent the winter sheltering in the Batavian harbour of Batavia on Java .
= = China Fleet = =
Sercey 's presence in the East Indies was known to the East India Company committee at Canton , who requested assistance from Rainier . The British admiral sailed to Macau in his flagship , the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Suffolk with the sloop HMS Swift and on 30 December met with four East Indiamen and two smaller " country ships " used for regional trade . Rainier elected to sail immediately , without waiting for the remainder of the convoy to assemble , escorting the small convoy through the Straits of Malacca during January reaching first Penang and then Madras by 13 February . Malacca was thought to be the most likely point for an ambush by the French squadron , and orders were issued by the committee for the remainder of the convoy , originally commanded by Captain Lestock Wilson and then by Captain Charles Lennox , to sail through either the Sape Strait , the Alas Strait or the Bali Strait , which were thought to be safer than Malacca .
Rainier did not meet Sercey , who had learned of the British plans and altered his own accordingly . Sailing from Batavia on 4 January , he cruised the Java Sea in search of the China convoy , wary that Rainier might be searching for him in turn . On 28 January , as his ships passed through the Bali Strait in bad weather , sails were sighted . Sercey immediately ordered the frigate Cybèle under Captain Pierre Julien Tréhouart to reconnoitre the approaching ships . Lennox had led his convoy directly into the path of the French squadron , whose six frigates were easily more powerful than his own six East Indiamen . The British officer was aware that he could not win a naval engagement with such a force and so instead resolved to bluff the French into thinking his merchant convoy was a squadron of ships of the line . When he saw Cybèle approaching , Lennox brought two ships forward to meet the frigate , gambling that in the low light Tréhouart might mistake the East Indiamen for warships .
Lennox compounded his ruse by raising Rainier 's Blue ensign on his flagship Woodford and instructing the rest of the convoy to raise ensigns of their own . The deception was so convincing that Tréhouart turned away well short of the British convoy , signalling to Sercey that " L 'ennemi est supérieur aux forces Français " ( " The enemy is superior in force to the French " ) . Sercey turned his squadron away , Cybèle passing close by the flagship Forte , Tréhouart hailing that the British ships comprised a battle squadron of two ships of the line and four frigates . Forte had lost its main topmast in the early stages of the retreat , and Sercey had noted that the British ships were not pursuing with the fervour expected of a superior force encountering a weaker one , but Tréhouart 's declaration convinced him he was outnumbered and he ordered his squadron to withdraw .
= = = Orders of battle = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Lennox turned the convoy westwards , bringing his ships safely into the Indian Ocean . One exception was the East Indiaman Ocean , which a storm drove onto a reef at Pulau Kalaotoa in the Lesser Sunda Islands the day after the incident , wrecking her . Three men drowned during the evacuation , and the local Makassar inhabitants killed another seven on 15 February in an attack . The survivors departed on hired proas three days later , reaching Amboyna safely on 28 February . Taunton Castle was damaged in the same storm and forced to make repairs at Amboyna , where she also took on board survivors from Ocean . Taunton Castle eventually reached Yarmouth in a disabled state some months later . The British commander was given the thanks of the East India Company and awarded 500 guineas .
Sercey retired with his frigates to Île de France , where he learned to his horror of the opportunity he had missed in the Bali Strait . His squadron required extensive repairs , but the Colonial Committee on Île de France remained rebellious over attempts to abolish slavery and denied his ships men and food supplies . Eventually Sercey was forced to disband his squadron , sending four frigates back to France . Seven years after the Bali Strait Incident , early in the Napoleonic Wars a much larger China Fleet was attacked by another strong French naval squadron at the Battle of Pulo Aura . As in 1797 , the British commander Nathaniel Dance managed to convince the French admiral that there were warships among his convoy and the French retired after a brief exchange of gunfire .
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= 1941 Texas hurricane =
The 1941 Texas hurricane , the second storm of the 1941 Atlantic hurricane season , was a large and intense tropical cyclone that struck coastal Texas as a major hurricane in September 1941 , causing relatively severe damage . The storm is estimated to have formed in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 16 . After attaining hurricane strength , it completed a clockwise loop and turned northwestward . The hurricane continued to strengthen until it made landfall near East Matagorda Bay , Texas , with winds of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) , but rapidly weakened as it headed inland . Damage from the storm amounted to about $ 6 @.@ 5 million , and crops throughout the region were largely destroyed . The city of Houston suffered extensive damage as the storm passed to the east . The hurricane disrupted activities related to the Louisiana Maneuvers . Later , the system became extratropical and passed over Lake Huron , killing three people in Toronto . Overall , seven people lost their lives due to the cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the middle of September , disturbed atmospheric conditions from a trough or tropical wave existed over the western Caribbean Sea and gradually coalesced near western Cuba on September 15 – 16 . Even so , surrounding surface weather observations did not suggest that an area of low pressure had generated , but gradual organization continued until a tropical depression formed on September 17 in the central Gulf of Mexico about 120 miles ( 193 km ) north of the Yucatán Peninsula . Operationally , the United States Weather Bureau failed to detect a tropical cyclone in the Gulf of Mexico until a day later . After formation , the system initially moved northwestward , a heading that continued early on September 18 . At that time , the system became a tropical storm more than 300 mi ( 483 km ) to the south @-@ southeast of New Orleans , Louisiana .
Over the next three days , the intensifying storm executed a gradual clockwise loop , moving to the south @-@ southeast before turning back to the west . After intensifying into a hurricane on September 21 , the storm began assuming a more northwestward course , toward the Texas Gulf Coast . It continued to strengthen into a major hurricane , peaking at 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) late on September 23 . Just afterward , the storm went ashore east of Bay City , Texas , at peak intensity with an estimated central pressure of 942 millibars ( 27 @.@ 82 inHg ) . However , few weather instruments were sited close to the point of landfall , so the lowest recorded pressure on land was only 970 @.@ 5 mb ( 28 @.@ 66 inHg ) in Houston . After landfall , the cyclone curved to the northeast and passed just west of Houston early on September 24 . It accelerated as it continued to move inland and transitioned into an extratropical storm on September 25 . The post @-@ tropical system dissipated early on September 27 over northeastern Quebec , near the Torngat Mountains National Park .
= = Preparations = =
In advance of the storm , advisories and warnings were widely distributed by press , radio , telegraph and telephone . About 25 @,@ 000 residents evacuated their homes ; some small towns along the coast were described as " deserted " . People in low @-@ lying areas of coastal Louisiana sought shelter as storm surge from the hurricane affected the northern Gulf Coast . Residents in Texas prepared their homes and businesses for the hurricane , and boat owners pulled their craft out of the water . In Port Arthur , structures were boarded up and hundreds of refugees sought shelter in local hotels . American Red Cross workers were dispatched to the state . In Houston , a temporary hospital was erected . Police and firefighters in the city were put on alert . Vessels near the storm were advised to proceed with caution .
= = Impact = =
Overall damage from the storm totaled approximately $ 7 million , of which about $ 4 million can be attributed to the destruction of crops , notably rice and cotton . The hurricane affected the southern Louisiana region one week before the Louisiana Maneuvers , a series of military exercises held during August and September 1941 . The exercise was designed to test US troop training , logistics , doctrine , and commanders and is considered a prelude to World War II . The rainfall triggered flooding and swelled rivers , and army vehicles became stuck in the mud as a result . Hundreds of military aircraft were forced to move inland for shelter .
Winds along the coast of Texas reached 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) at numerous points near the hurricane 's center . A report from Galveston explained , " There was little characteristic sky appearance prior to the advent of the storm , the sky being mostly clear until lower clouds appeared suddenly between 6 and 7 a. m . C. S. T. , on the 22d with altocumulus and alto @-@ stratus overcast showing through breaks occasionally during the day . By late afternoon of the 22d the sky became completely overcast with low clouds of bad weather which predominated throughout the remainder of the storm . " Tides at the city , already slightly above @-@ normal due to a previous storm , rose to a crest of 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) on September 23 , flooding large portions of Galveston Island . A local airport was flooded with 1 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of tidewater .
As the hurricane moved inland , the city of Houston was hit especially hard . Three people in the area died and several others were injured . Winds blew at up to 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) , catching many off @-@ guard after a previous forecast that deemed the region was safe . Some sections of the city were left without power . The winds destroyed poorly built structures and damaged others , and some streets were flooded . An athletic stadium was demolished by the storm , and glass windows were shattered in downtown stores . A preliminary estimate placed the damage in Houston at $ 500 @,@ 000 . In the aftermath of the storm , fifteen truckloads of shattered glass were removed .
After spreading across the United States , the remnants moved through Ontario and Quebec , producing hurricane @-@ force wind gusts and 40 ft ( 12 m ) waves along Lake Ontario . Throughout the lake , 55 vessels sunk due to the storm , resulting in tens of thousands of dollars in damage . High winds caused power outages and structural damage , as well as destroyed wheat fields across Ontario . In Toronto , the storm killed three people and injured others .
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= Breaking Out Is Hard to Do =
" Breaking Out Is Hard to Do " is the ninth episode of the fourth season of Family Guy . It originally broadcast on July 17 , 2005 , guest @-@ starred Dat Phan and Brian Tochi , and was written by Tom Devanney . The episode sees Lois becoming addicted to the rush of shoplifting ; she , however , is soon arrested and sentenced to three years imprisonment . Peter successfully smuggles her out of the prison , and the Griffins begin a new life in " Asiantown " away from where they are high profile fugitives , only for Joe to track them down and attempt to arrest them . Overall , the episode was received positively by critics and media sources .
= = Plot = =
During a grocery shopping trip , Lois realizes she is short on money to pay for food . She pretends to return a ham to the meat department but decides to hide it in her purse instead . Hooked on the thrill of shoplifting , she begins stealing other items , quickly becoming addicted to theft . She begins to indulge in large shoplifting sprees , including stealing a Matisse painting , which arouses the suspicion of Brian . While attempting to steal from an auto parts store , Lois is caught by Brian , who tells her she is doing wrong and that her stealing is not going to solve problems . Lois accepts his reasoning , but as she loads up the car to return her stolen goods , she is caught by Joe and arrested .
In court , Lois is sentenced to serve three years in prison . The Griffin household turns to chaos in Lois ' absence , and the family realizes they need to break Lois out of jail . During a visit to Lois in the prison , Peter smuggles her out by stuffing her into his mouth . As Lois ' escape is realized , the Griffins jump into a laundry van , where they escape to Quahog 's Asiantown ( which evokes the traits of Chinatown and Japantown ) and rent a run @-@ down apartment to begin new lives .
Chris begins a career as a rickshaw driver , Stewie takes a job at sewing shoes ( but is fired after sewing a shoe to his hand , and replaced with a baby ) . Peter becomes a sumo wrestler , but is spotted by Joe on the television shortly afterward . Joe successfully tracks the family down and pursues them through Asiantown , leading them into the city sewers . Lois decides to surrender and face the consequences so that the rest of the family won 't have to , but as Joe attempts to detain her , he slips in the sewer and is almost swept off a nearby ledge . Lois pulls Joe to safety , and in gratitude , Joe manages to get Lois ' sentence cancelled , and life returns to normal for the family .
= = Production = =
" Breaking Out Is Hard to Do " is the first Family Guy episode to be written by Tom Devanney . When Stewie attempts to asphyxiate himself in the supermarket , he was originally meant to state " Either I was a C @-@ section or you 're Stretch Vagstrong " , which would have been a reference to the Stretch Armstrong action figure , but broadcasting standards prohibited them from showing it . During the " Take On Me " sequence , Family Guy had obtained full rights to use the " Take On Me " music video completely , but animators re @-@ produced the video to make it easier for production . Originally , a joke had been drafted showing Brian standing next to a tabloid newspaper with a picture of Kirstie Alley and commenting on her weight , only for her to enter the grocery shop in Godzilla @-@ like size and throw items from the shelves , but the sketch was removed to save time during the episode . The Matisse painting shown in the Griffins ' dining room is only animated similar to an actual Matisse painting due to a legal issue with the paintings . The episode production staff spent a lot of time deciding what would be Lois ' motivation for stealing en masse .
An unused scene was drafted showing Chris , directly after hearing Lois ' prison term , flashbacking back to him watching Six Feet Under , seeing a same @-@ sex couple kissing , and exclaiming " Oh , come on ! " The song based around Glen Quagmire was sung and recorded by professional studio singers who sing at events such as the Academy Awards . The scene following Peter saying to Lois : " I had to do , well you know , that thing that you usually do for me every Thursday night " showing Peter attempting to give himself fellatio , hitting his head on the wall and falling down the stairs was repeatedly fought by broadcasting standards , but they eventually allowed the scene . In the original episode draft , Peter was to be seen falling down the stairs , and Stewie 's foot was to be lodged inside Peter 's anus , where he was to lose his shoe . Peter breaks the fourth wall and begins to speak with viewers during his interview with the sumo wrestling employee ; Executive Producer David A. Goodman comments in the episode DVD commentary that this is " one of the few times , maybe the only time , when [ the show ] can step out of format and point out the format . " The " CBS Asiantown " logo shown on the Griffins ' television was prohibited from broadcast on the televised version of the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
Chris is shown participating in the video " Take on Me " — a song released by a @-@ ha in 1985 — while fetching milk for Lois . He then breaks out on the other side , with no understanding of what just happened . Lois calls on Brian saying he was too busy eye @-@ balling Glenn Close on Redbook magazine . Peter riding Falkor the luckdragon is a reference to fantasy novel The Neverending Story . The chase sequence between Lois and Joe is a reference to a sequence from Raiders of the Lost Ark as Joe is pulled along by the attached garden hose and pulls himself under the moving car . Peter goes to a book club while Lois is gone , where the members are reading The Lovely Bones . The Griffins escaping out of their apartment to evade Joe is a reference to Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kids , with the rest of the chase through Asiantown being a reference to Revenge of the Pink Panther . The police helicopter pilot in Asiantown stating he pretends he is shooting at Jamie Farr and Alan Alda when firing rockets is a reference to the actors of M * A * S * H. Joe shooting down two TIE fighters while flying through the sewer is a reference to Star Wars . Characters from 1985 adventure – comedy film The Goonies are seen talking with the Griffins in the sewer . The episode title is a reference to the Neil Sedaka song , " Breaking Up Is Hard To Do . "
= = Reception = =
This episode was the most @-@ watched Fox program on its airdate among adults 18 to 49 ; 5 @.@ 75 million viewers watched . In his review of the Family Guy volume 3 DVD , Francis Rizzo III of DVD Talk wrote " But if any moment stands out among this run , it 's the supermarket scene in " Breaking Out is Hard to Do . " When Chris is pulled into the " Take On Me " video by a @-@ ha , it 's a perfect blend of what this show does best , combining nonsense , the ' 80s and some neat animation . The lead @-@ in , the punchline and the execution of the whole scene is handled so well that it might be one of the show 's most memorable ever . " In her review of the episode , Kim Voynar of TV Squad wrote " This was , overall , a very funny episode . Lots of funny references — the Trix Rabbit , Karl Malden , MASH , Star Wars , " Three 's Company " The funniest moment for me , was the bit with Stewie walking in on Brian cross @-@ dressing . That alone was worth the price of admission . "
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= Fortress ( Grin ) =
Fortress is the code name of a cancelled action role @-@ playing video game that was in development by Grin . Director Ulf Andersson devised the concept for Fortress and preproduction began in the second half of 2008 . During development , Square Enix approached the developer and proposed making the game a spin @-@ off of Final Fantasy XII . Grin reconceived the game in the recurring Final Fantasy world of Ivalice , and included elements of Final Fantasy XII such as stylistic motifs and character designs ; additional elements included chocobos and other recurring creatures from the Final Fantasy series . It was to be released on the Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 platforms .
During development , Square Enix did not pay Grin over several months , and disapproved of the game 's Nordic art style . Grin worked to bring the game 's art style closer to the Final Fantasy series , but after six months of development was told that no funding would ever come from Square Enix , and the developer filed for bankruptcy several days later . Word of the project leaked out through art portfolios of those who worked on the project and even a tech demo surfaced . In 2011 , Fortress was thought to have been in development by an undisclosed studio , but this was also suspended and the game will not be released in any form .
= = Premise = =
According to scenario writer Ulf Andersson , the story was set several years after the events of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings . The plot revolved a magical fortress designed to defend Ivalice from a being known as the Sea King Loemund , who rose every 10 @,@ 000 years to attempt to conquer the land . During his last attempt , he was slain and his crown was lost in the fortress . Though the myth is mostly disregarded , the story is believed by Basch fon Ronsenburg , now serving the current Archadian Emperor Larsa Solidor under the name of " Judge Gabranth " . Marching to the fortress ' location , he and his forces would have needed to fend off the forces of Loemund , who seeks vengeance against his killer 's descendant Queen Ashelia B 'nargin Dalmasca . A central character plot was to be a romantic connection between Bache and Ashe that would fade as Larsa and Ashe grew closer and Bache became entrenched in his fight against Loemund . Other characters involved included the sky pirate Balthier , and earlier main protagonists Vaan and Penelo . A new character , a demigod named Laegd , would join Bache after being defeated in single combat . The main aim of the story was to bring the entire cast of Final Fantasy XII back together for a final fight to save Ivalice .
= = Development = =
Fortress started out as an original fantasy game concept designed by Ulf Andersson , Grin 's co @-@ founder . Preproduction began in the second half of 2008 . Lead character artist Björn Albihn described Fortress as " a game with an epic scale both in story and production values . " The project was developed on a game engine compatible with Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . The development team , led by Andersson as a creative director , produced concept art and 3D assets under art director Anders De Geer and Albihn . The game design was led by technical artist Erik Lindqvist . The art style of the game was supposed to be realistic and similar to The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim according to Guillaumue Mraz , a level designer at Grin .
The game was pitched to various publishers , and the Japanese gaming company Square Enix took an interest in the project . Square Enix president Yoichi Wada visited Grin several times , and liked the action role @-@ playing game concept and its Nordic visual style . After getting the chance to see a boss fight from Bionic Commando , which at the time was being developed by Grin for the Japanese company Capcom , Wada said he had seen enough , and decided that Square Enix would publish Fortress as a Final Fantasy spin @-@ off .
Once it became a Final Fantasy title , the Grin founders stated , " We wanted to come in and revolutionize Final Fantasy , which is exactly what they need . " Fortress was to be set in the fictional world of Ivalice , specifically the version seen in Final Fantasy XII , only set some time in the future . In addition to many original characters and locations , concept art for the game included the character Ashe and a Judge from Final Fantasy XII , as well as chocobos and other recurring creatures of the Final Fantasy series . A portfolio video created by lead technical artist Anders Bodbacka revealed that Larsa Solidor and Basch fon Ronsenburg from Final Fantasy XII were also to be featured . The setting was to be different from a normal Final Fantasy game , with familiar characters exploring a " Nordic " version of Final Fantasy , and " primarily set in a massive fortress " according to Linda Dahlberg , a Grin associate producer . Other landscapes such as plains , forests , deserts and snowfields were also designed .
Invaders from the sea were to be the main enemies of the game . They were visually based on the Vikings and wielded armor and weapons decorated with sea and sea monster imagery . Planned boss battles included fighting a gargantuan version of the Final Fantasy monster Malboro , where the player would use the seaweed on its back to climb on top of it and drop bombs on the creature 's weak spots . According to a design document , the game was divided into at least seven chapters , starting at the gate of the Fortress and leading up to the top of the stronghold . Grin 's music director Erik Thunberg was responsible for the game 's score , including a track that features a rearrangement of the " Prelude " theme from the Final Fantasy series .
= = Cancellation = =
Square Enix was supposed to pay Grin US $ 16 @.@ 5 million for the production of Fortress in successive waves in accordance with the project 's milestones . No payments were made during the first two months of development , but Grin 's co @-@ founder Bo Andersson was initially not worried as he considered delayed payments common and had faith in the project . However , several more months went by without payments , costing the studio 12 million krona a month . Grin closed all of their offices except for the main one in Stockholm , but still no money came . In 2009 , Grin released Terminator Salvation , Wanted : Weapons of Fate , and Bionic Commando to negative reviews and poor sales , which caused further financial woes and seemed to make Square Enix nervous . The publisher wanted updates and asked that all of the game 's assets , including the code , the music files , and even the game 's developer language be faxed to them . This move was described as impossible and " almost a criminal behavior " by Andersson .
Square Enix had changed its mind , and no longer liked the Nordic style of this spin @-@ off game , so a last @-@ minute style change was attempted . The game had been such a well @-@ guarded secret , and had been through so many changes , that most employees did not know they had been working on a Final Fantasy game until very late in development . Grin attempted to change the art style to fit more with traditional Final Fantasy games , but still did not receive any positive feedback . In response , Grin sent Square Enix an image of one of the latter 's own games , Final Fantasy XII , and were told that it does not look like a game in Final Fantasy 's style . Following that exchange , Grin came to the conclusion that there was no longer any way to satisfy the publisher .
In early August 2009 , a call was received from Square Enix telling them that no payments were coming . Grin 's founders considered suing , but had run out of money , leading them to stop production after six months of work . Furthermore , Grin ceased production on all of their other projects and declared bankruptcy due to Sweden 's severe laws against operating businesses under a debt load . Magnus Ihrefors , one of the 3D artists who worked on the project , stated that he had only found out about the game 's cancellation in August , but it was like a " punch in the belly ; this was our last chance to get on track again . " The developer closed its offices on August 12 , 2009 , stating that delayed payments from " too many publishers " caused " an unbearable cashflow situation , " and referred to Fortress in a farewell note as an " unreleased masterpiece that [ they ] weren 't allowed to finish . " According to the bankruptcy papers , Square Enix felt that the development goals for Fortress " had not been met in a satisfactory way , " whereas Andersson claimed the contrary , arguing that the milestones initially set up with a producer from Square Enix had been met . Mraz stated that Grin seemed to have ignored Square Enix 's requests for changes , and the Final Fantasy franchise was too important to overlook this behavior .
= = Aftermath = =
After Grin 's closure , the former existence of Fortress spread as mentions and concept art of the project appeared on former employees ' resumes and portfolios . In January 2010 , footage from an alleged tech demo of Fortress was leaked onto the Internet . The video description stated the game 's events are " set some time after Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , " and mentioned Square Enix 's subsidiary Eidos Montreal as a possible new home for the project . Replying to a fan question in May 2010 , David Hoffman , director of business development at the North American branch of Square Enix , mentioned Fortress without confirming its existence , stating , " I have and had no involvement in the rumored project Fortress . " The Fortress project , still supported by Square Enix , was for a time being developed by a different , undisclosed studio , but this ended as well . At an interview at the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo , Motomu Toriyama of Square Enix stated that Fortress was suspended , saying that the game " won 't be released . " In 2012 , music director Erik Thunberg posted a music track intended for the game .
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= HMS Blonde ( 1910 ) =
HMS Blonde was the lead ship of the her class of scout cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She led the 7th Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean Fleet from completion until 1912 . The ship was temporarily assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla before she joined the 4th Battle Squadron in 1913 . During the First World War , Blonde was assigned to various battleship squadrons of the Grand Fleet . The ship was converted into a minelayer in 1917 , but never actually laid any mines . She was reduced to reserve in 1919 and sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design and description = =
Designed to provide destroyer flotillas with a command ship capable of outclassing enemy destroyers with her 10 four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , Blonde proved too slow in service from the start of her career . Her 25 @-@ knot ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) speed was inadequate to match the 27 @-@ to @-@ 30 @-@ knot ( 50 to 56 km / h ; 31 to 35 mph ) speeds of the destroyers she led in her flotilla .
Displacing 3 @,@ 350 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 t ) , the ship had an overall length of 406 feet ( 123 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 41 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 6 m ) and a deep draught of 14 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines , each driving one shaft . The turbines produced a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam produced by 12 Yarrow boilers , and gave a maximum speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 780 long tons ( 790 t ) of coal and 189 long tons ( 192 t ) of fuel oil . Her crew consisted of 314 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of 10 breech @-@ loading ( BL ) four @-@ inch Mk VII guns . The forward pair of guns were mounted side by side on a platform on the forecastle , three pairs were port and starboard amidships , and the two remaining guns were on the centreline of the quarterdeck , one ahead of the other . The guns fired their 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells to a range of about 11 @,@ 400 yards ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) . Her secondary armament was four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) three @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) ) Vickers Mk I guns and two submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes .
As a scout cruiser , the ship was only lightly protected to maximize her speed . She had a curved protective deck that was one inch ( 25 mm ) thick on the slope and .5 inches ( 13 mm ) on the flat . Her conning tower was protected by four inches of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
Blonde , the eighth and last ship of that name , was laid down on No. 5 Slipway at Pembroke Royal Dockyard , on 6 December 1909 and launched on 22 July 1910 by Lady Frances Williams , wife of Sir Osmond Williams , 1st Baronet . She was completed in May 1911 with Captain Thomas Bonham in command and became the leader of the 7th Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean through 1912 . Captain Arthur Hulbert assumed command of the ship and the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the First Fleet on 10 May 1912 . He was lost at sea on 12 January 1913 and replaced by Captain Thomas Shelford . He was relieved by Captain William Blunt on 25 April and transferred to the scout cruiser , Fearless , when that ship was assigned to the flotilla . The ship had been transferred to the 4th Battle Squadron as of 18 June and Captain Albert Scott assumed command on 5 July .
The ship was still assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet in Scapa Flow at the start of the war in August 1914 . Captain John Casement was in command 20 March – 21 May 1916 . Blonde and the Flotilla leader Broke were on patrol east of Scapa Flow when a depth charge carried by Blonde accidently exploded . , damaging here upper deck and killing two of her crew . The accident resulted in the type of depth charge carried by Blonde , the Egerton Depth Charge , being withdrawn from use by the Grand Fleet . The ship was under refit in April 1916 and missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . Blonde was still detached in August . By October , she had rejoined the 4th Battle Squadron , with Captain Basil Brooke in command , but had been transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron by April 1917 , Captain The Honourable Arthur Forbes @-@ Sempill having assumed command in February . On 1 June , Commander Theodore Hallett relived Forbes @-@ Semphill . In September 1917 , she was converted into a minelayer , but never laid any mines in combat . Hallett was relived by Captain Gregory Wood @-@ Martin on 30 December and he retained command until 10 January 1919 when he was relieved in turn by Captain Maurice Evans . Blonde was in reserve by February and had been assigned to the Nore Reserve by 1 May , together with her sister ship Blanche . The sisters were listed for sale by 18 March 1920 and Blonde was sold for scrap on 6 May to T. C. Pas , and was broken up in the Netherlands .
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= Fulla =
In Germanic mythology , Fulla ( Old Norse , possibly " bountiful " ) or Volla ( Old High German ) is a goddess . In Norse mythology , Fulla is described as wearing a golden band and as tending to the ashen box and the footwear owned by the goddess Frigg , and , in addition , Frigg confides in Fulla her secrets . Fulla is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in skaldic poetry . Volla is attested in the " Horse Cure " Merseburg Incantation , recorded anonymously in the 10th century in Old High German , in which she assists in healing the wounded foal of Phol and is referred to as Frigg 's sister . Scholars have proposed theories about the implications of the goddess .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the prose introduction to the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , Frigg makes a wager with her husband — the god Odin — over the hospitality of their human patrons . Frigg sends her servant maid Fulla to warn the king Geirröd — Frigg 's patron — that a magician ( actually Odin in disguise ) will visit him . Fulla meets with Geirröd , gives the warning , and advises to him a means of detecting the magician :
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur . High lists Fulla fifth , stating that , like the goddess Gefjun , Fulla is a virgin , wears her hair flowing freely with a gold band around her head . High describes that Fulla carries Frigg 's eski , looks after Frigg 's footwear , and that in Fulla Frigg confides secrets .
In chapter 49 of Gylfaginning , High details that , after the death of the deity couple Baldr and Nanna , the god Hermóðr wagers for their return in the underworld location of Hel . Hel , ruler of the location of the same name , tells Hermóðr a way to resurrect Baldr , but will not allow Baldr and Nanna to leave until the deed is accomplished . Hel does , however , allow Baldr and Nanna to send gifts to the living ; Baldr sends Odin the ring Draupnir , and Nanna sends Frigg a robe of linen , and " other gifts . " Of these " other gifts " sent , the only specific item that High mentions is a finger @-@ ring for Fulla .
The first chapter of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Fulla is listed among eight ásynjur who attend an evening drinking banquet held for Ægir . In chapter 19 of Skáldskaparmál , poetic ways to refer to Frigg are given , one of which is by referring to her as " queen [ ... ] of Fulla . " In chapter 32 , poetic expressions for gold are given , one of which includes " Fulla 's snood . " In chapter 36 , a work by the skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is cited that references Fulla 's golden headgear ( " the falling sun [ gold ] of the plain [ forehead ] of Fulla 's eyelashes shone on [ ... ] " ) . Fulla receives a final mention in the Prose Edda in chapter 75 , where Fulla appears within a list of 27 ásynjur names .
= = = " Horse Cure " Merseburg Incantation = = =
One of the two Merseburg Incantations ( the " horse cure " ) , recorded in Old High German , mentions Volla . The incantation describes how Phol and Wodan rode to a wood , and there Balder 's foal sprained its foot . Sinthgunt sang charms , her sister Sunna sang charms , Friia sang charms , her sister Volla sang charms , and finally Wodan sang charms , followed by a verse describing the healing of the foal 's bone . The charm reads :
Phol and Wodan went to the forest .
Then Balder 's horse sprained its foot .
Then Sinthgunt sang charms , and Sunna her sister ;
Then Friia sang charms , and Volla her sister ;
Then Wodan sang charms , as he well could :
be it bone @-@ sprain , be it blood @-@ sprain , be it limb @-@ sprain :
bone to bone , blood to blood ,
limb to limb , so be they glued together .
= = Theories = =
Andy Orchard comments that the seeming appearance of Baldr with Volla in the Merseburg Incantation is " intriguing " since Fulla is one of the three goddesses ( the other two being Baldr 's mother Frigg and his wife Nanna ) the deceased Baldr expressly sends gifts to from Hel . John Lindow says that since the name Fulla seems to have something to do with fullness , it may also point to an association with fertility .
Rudolf Simek comments that while Snorri notes that Baldr sends Fulla a golden ring from Hel in Gylfaginning , " this does not prove that she plays any role in the Baldr myth , but merely shows that Snorri associated her with gold " because of kennings used associating Fulla with gold . Simek says that since Fulla appears in the poetry of Skalds as early as the 10th century that she was likely " not a late personification of plenty " but that she is very likely identical with Volla from the Merseburg Incantation . Simek adds that it is unclear as to who Fulla actually is ; Simek says that she may be an independent deity or simply identical with the goddess Freyja or with Frigg .
John Knight Bostock says that theories have been proposed that the Fulla may at one time have been an aspect of Frigg . As a result , this notion has resulted in theory that a similar situation may have existed between the figures of the goddesses Sinthgunt and Sunna , in that the two may have been understood as aspects of one another rather than entirely separate figures .
Hilda Ellis Davidson states that the goddesses Gefjun , Gerðr , Fulla , and Skaði " may represent important goddesses of early times in the North , but little was remembered about them by the time Snorri was collecting his material . " On the other hand , Davidson notes that it is also possible that these goddesses are viewable as aspects of a single Great Goddess . Davidson calls Fulla and Volla " vague , uncertain figures , emerging from odd references to goddesses which Snorri has noted in the poets , but they suggest the possibility that at one time three generations were represented among the goddesses of fertility and harvest in Scandinavia . " Fulla , also spelled Volla , may be identified by the sound of the name to stand as the deified image of the seers , and harbingers of events of ceremonial force known as völva , appearing to be special priestesses of Frigg , the goddess mother .
= = Popular culture = =
Fulla is one of the incarnated goddesses in the New Zealand comedy / drama " The Almighty Johnsons " . The part of Stacey / Fulla is played by Eve Gordon .
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= Hilary of Chichester =
Hilary ( c . 1110 – 1169 ) was a medieval Bishop of Chichester in England . English by birth , he studied canon law and worked in Rome as a papal clerk . During his time there , he became acquainted with a number of ecclesiastics , including the future Pope Adrian IV , and the medieval writer John of Salisbury . In England , he served as a clerk for Henry of Blois , who was the Bishop of Winchester and brother of King Stephen of England . After Hilary 's unsuccessful nomination to become Archbishop of York , Pope Eugene III compensated him by promoting him to the bishopric of Chichester in 1147 .
Hilary spent many years in a struggle with Battle Abbey , attempting to assert his right as bishop to oversee the abbey . He also clashed with Thomas Becket , then chancellor to King Henry II of England , later Archbishop of Canterbury ; Hilary supported King Henry II 's position in the conflict with Becket . Henry appointed Hilary a sheriff , and employed him as a judge in the royal courts . The papacy also used Hilary as a judge @-@ delegate , to hear cases referred back to England . Known for supporting his clergy and as a canon lawyer , or someone trained in ecclesiastical law , Hilary worked to have Edward the Confessor , a former English king , canonized as a saint .
= = Early life = =
Hilary was probably born around 1110 , and was likely of low birth , but nothing is known of his ancestry . His brother was a canon of Salisbury Cathedral , and they both may have come from around Salisbury . Hilary served as a clerk for Henry of Blois , Bishop of Winchester , and as Dean of the church of Christchurch in Twynham , Hampshire , probably receiving both offices through the influence of Henry of Blois . Christchurch was a collegiate church of secular clergy , or clergy who were not monks , and Hilary was dean of the church by 1139 . He was educated as a canon lawyer , and was an advocate , or lawyer , in Rome in 1144 . While in Rome , he also served in the papal chancery , or writing office , in 1146 . Some of his coworkers in the chancery were Robert Pullen , John of Salisbury , and Nicholas Breakspear who later became pope , as Adrian IV .
As Dean of Christchurch , Hilary restored the organization to its traditional round of religious ceremonies that had been abandoned by his predecessors , as well as securing grants of privileges and lands . He ordered the writing of a history of the church at Christchurch , a book which still survives . Hilary was unsuccessful as a candidate for the archbishopric of York against Henry Murdac in 1147 , but Pope Eugene III chose to compensate him by appointing him to the see of Chichester . His candidacy to York had been supported by Hugh de Puiset , then treasurer of York and later Bishop of Durham , and by Robert of Ghent , who was Dean of York and Lord Chancellor of England , as well as by King Stephen of England . Hilary seems to have received the largest number of votes , but because the election was disputed by Murdac 's supporters the result was referred to the papacy , and Eugene chose Murdac . Hilary was appointed to Chichester in July 1147 , and he was consecrated on 3 August 1147 . Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury , consecrated him at Canterbury , with Nigel , the Bishop of Ely , Robert , the Bishop of Bath , and William de Turbeville , the Bishop of Norwich , assisting in the ceremony . For a number of years , Hilary continued to hold the deanship in plurality , which is the holding of two ecclesiastical benefices at once .
= = Stephen 's reign = =
King Stephen sent Hilary to attend a church council at Reims in 1148 along with Robert de Bethune , who was the Bishop of Hereford , and William de Turbeville . Theobald of Bec was also present , even though the king had forbidden him to attend . The medieval chronicler Gervase of Canterbury stated that Stephen wanted to weaken Theobald 's standing with the papacy , but Stephen also would have wished to assert his authority over the English Church by insisting on the right to limit papal contact with the English bishops , something that his predecessors had always done .
Hilary attempted to excuse the king 's attempt to exclude Theobald from the council , which appears to be the main reason why Stephen allowed Hilary to attend . Hilary was rewarded for his loyalty by being named a queen 's chaplain . Soon after the council , Robert de Bethune died and Gilbert Foliot was elected to the see of Hereford , at the direction of the pope . Theobald was in exile in Flanders because he had defied the king , so the pope ordered Robert de Sigello , the Bishop of London , Josceline de Bohon , the Bishop of Salisbury , and Hilary , to go to Flanders to help Theobald consecrate Gilbert . However , the three bishops were reluctant , and told the pope that because Gilbert had not received the royal assent , nor had he sworn fealty to Stephen , they would not consecrate him . Theobald then consecrated Gilbert with the help of some continental bishops . Hilary was one of the bishops who made peace between Theobald and Stephen after the council at Reims , helping in the negotiations after Theobald 's return to England . Theobald settled himself at Hugh Bigod 's castle of Framlingham ; negotiations between the royal party and the archbishop 's party resulted in the king yielding , and in the restoration of the archbishop to his lands .
= = Struggle with Battle Abbey = =
Hilary struggled with the abbot of Battle Abbey for many years over the exemption claimed by the abbey from the oversight of the Bishop of Chichester , in whose diocese it was located . The abbey had never received a papal exemption , but relied instead on its royal foundation by King William I of England , and its status as an eigenkirche , or proprietary church of the king . Under King Stephen , the abbey 's claims prevailed , but after Stephen 's death Hilary excommunicated the abbot , who appealed to the papacy . The appeal backfired however , as Hilary obtained from both Pope Eugenius III and Pope Hadrian IV orders for the abbot to obey the bishop . In 1157 , the then Abbot of Battle , Walter de Lucy , brother of Richard de Luci the Chief Justiciar , took the case before King Henry II , at a council held at Colchester .
At the council , Walter de Lucy produced William I 's foundation charter and the confirmation by King Henry I of England , Henry II 's grandfather . Both documents were admitted as genuine , and as freeing the abbey from ecclesiastical oversight , as Henry II had at his coronation confirmed all his grandfather 's charters . Modern scholarship has shown , however , that at least one of the documents had been recently forged , shortly before 1155 . Hilary argued that only a papal privilege could exempt a monastery from episcopal oversight , and that the abbey had no such privilege . Hilary argued that no king could grant such an exemption , unless they had a licence from the papacy . Henry was unimpressed by this argument , for it impinged on his royal prerogative . Thomas Becket , then Henry 's chancellor but later to be famous for his dispute with Henry over ecclesiastical privileges , was one of Hilary 's chief opponents at this council . Eventually , the case was decided by persuading Hilary to renounce any episcopal claims on the abbey .
Henry II 's biographer , the historian W. L. Warren , suggests that Hilary was pressed to bring the case against Battle Abbey by his cathedral chapter , and that Hilary did not pursue the case vigorously . The historian Henry Mayr @-@ Harting , sees the case against the abbey as the lone exception in Hilary 's long career of support for the royal position against the papacy , and argues that the only reason Hilary opposed the king in this respect was that it was Hilary 's own rights as a diocesan bishop that were being flouted . Mayr @-@ Harting also suggests that Theobald of Bec was supporting Hilary 's efforts to assert Chichester 's rights .
The historian Nicholas Vincent argues that the entire basis of this account , which ultimately rests on the Chronicle of Battle Abbey , is part of the forgeries produced by the Battle monks . He argues that the only documentary evidence detailing course of the legal battle besides the Chronicle is a forged charter of Henry II to the abbey and a letter of Theobald 's that itself may be forged , as it repeats the story of the Chronicle almost word for word . Vincent 's point is that although there was no doubt a dispute between Hilary and the abbey over a claimed exemption , as evidenced by an 1170 letter of Becket 's referring to some sort of settlement between the monks and the bishop , the actual account in the Chronicle is untrustworthy . Unfortunately , the 1170 letter does not give any details of the dispute , merely stating that the bishop was " forced to make public peace with the abbot " .
= = Henry II 's reign = =
Hilary held the office of Sheriff of Sussex in 1155 , and then again in 1160 through 1162 . It was very unusual for a bishop to hold the post of sheriff , and was a measure of the trust that King Henry II had in Hilary . Hilary was the only bishop to hold the office of sheriff during Henry 's reign , with the possible exception of Robert de Chesney , the Bishop of Lincoln . An English church council in 1143 had forbidden clergy to hold office as stewards or tax gatherers for non @-@ clergy . As the office of sheriff involved the gathering of the county farm , or income from the county , and the payment of those revenues into the Exchequer , clergy holding office as sheriffs would have been acting against the decrees of the 1143 council . Hilary was well known as a canon lawyer , and was often employed by the papacy as a judge @-@ delegate , hearing cases that had been appealed to Rome , and then sent back to the country of origin for trial . He also assisted other papal judges , including Theobald of Bec . Hilary served in England as a royal justice in 1156 , and then was with the king in Normandy from late 1156 to April 1157 . Hilary acted as judge @-@ delegate for the papacy in at least 15 cases during his bishopric . He acted as a legal advisor to Henry II on a number of occasions , and Hilary 's clerks occasionally drew up documents for the king .
Hilary created the offices of treasurer and chancellor of the diocese of Chichester , in order to regulate and improve the finances of the cathedral chapter and the diocese . He also was involved in the canonization of Edward the Confessor , writing a letter to Pope Alexander III in favour of Edward 's sainthood , and was one of the three bishops who announced the canonization at Westminster Abbey and celebrated a mass in honour of the new saint . The other bishops were Robert de Chesney and Nigel , Bishop of Ely .
In May 1162 , Hilary was part of the deputation sent to the monks of Christ Church Priory by King Henry II to secure the election of Thomas Becket as the next Archbishop of Canterbury . When Gilbert Foliot , the Bishop of Hereford , objected to Becket 's candidacy , Hilary took the position that the king desired the election , so the bishops and electors should elect the king 's choice . When it was suggested that a monk should hold Canterbury , as had been the custom previously , Hilary asked if the questioners thought that only one way of life was satisfactory to God .
The next year , a council held at Westminster became one of the early stages in the king 's growing quarrel with Becket over criminal clerks . The quarrel was sparked by the problem of clergy who committed crimes ; Becket supported the Church 's position that all clergy , even those in minor orders , could be tried only in ecclesiastical courts . As perhaps as many as a fifth of the population of England may have been in some form of clerical orders , including the minor ones , allowing this would have diminished the king 's authority . In the past , English law had tried clerks who committed serious offences in the royal courts , but recent changes in canon law were changing this practice . At Westminster , Henry tried to get the leading laymen and bishops to swear to uphold the old customs of England , instead of the newer canon law practices . All the bishops swore , with the reservation that the customs were not in conflict with canon law . Hilary , however , added no qualifiers to his oath . Although the oath supported Becket 's position , after the council most of the bishops , including Hilary , were persuaded by the king to support some compromise position , and threw their support behind Henry .
After the Council of Westminster , Hilary supported the king throughout the Becket dispute , and one factor in his royalist position may have been that Hilary remembered who had opposed his case against Battle Abbey , and thus refused to support the archbishop . Towards the end of 1163 , Henry sent Hilary on an embassy to Becket , to persuade the archbishop to modify his position , but Becket was unmoved . Hilary also took part in the king 's embassy in 1164 to Pope Alexander III and King Louis VII of France , which attempted to persuade the pope and the king of France to favour King Henry instead of Becket , and to keep Becket from finding a haven in France during his exile .
= = Death and legacy = =
Hilary died in July 1169 , probably on 13 July . The historian David Knowles described Hilary as " an extremely quick @-@ witted , efficient , self @-@ confident , voluble , somewhat shallow man , fully acquainted with the new canon law but not prepared to abide by principles to the end . His talents were great but he used them as an opportunist . " In Hilary 's favour , he was heavily involved in providing livings for the vicars who resided at the parish churches and performed the actual cure of souls , or pastoral duties , in his diocese . He was also a benefactor of libraries , and worked hard to recover lands once belonging to his church but lost in the years of Stephen 's reign . He also promoted clerical reform in his diocese , working to change many of the churches that had chapters of secular clergy into churches with chapters of Augustinian canons . Hilary secured the consent of his cathedral chapter for any grants of lands , even those that he had acquired personally . Thirty @-@ five documents survive from his bishopric , but few of them can be attributed to a specific date . One is his profession of obedience to the Archbishop of Canterbury , and the others are a mix of charters , judgements made by Hilary , and confirmations of rights and privileges .
Hilary 's clerks were trained in administration , and one of them , his nephew Jocelin , was named chancellor of Chichester Cathedral by his uncle . Jocelin later became Archdeacon of Lewes , and a royal judge . A number of Hilary 's clerks served with Thomas Becket for a time , most of them after leaving Hilary 's service .
= = Note = =
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= Dolphin drive hunting =
Dolphin drive hunting , also called dolphin drive fishing , is a method of hunting dolphins and occasionally other small cetaceans by driving them together with boats and then usually into a bay or onto a beach . Their escape is prevented by closing off the route to the open sea or ocean with boats and nets . Dolphins are hunted this way in several places around the world , including the Solomon Islands , the Faroe Islands , Peru , and Japan , the most well @-@ known practitioner of this method . By numbers , dolphins are mostly hunted for their meat ; some end up in dolphinariums .
Despite the controversial nature of the hunt resulting in international criticism , and the possible health risk that the often polluted meat causes , thousands of dolphins are caught in drive hunts each year .
= = By country = =
= = = Faroe Islands = = =
On the Faroe Islands mainly Pilot Whales are killed by drive hunts for their meat and blubber . Other species are also killed on rare occasion such as the Northern bottlenose whale and Atlantic White @-@ sided Dolphin . The Northern bottlenose whale is mainly killed when it accidentally swims too close to the beach and cannot return to the water . When the locals find them stranded or nearly stranded on the beach , they kill them and share the meat to all the villagers .
The stranding of the Northern bottlenose whale mainly happens in two villages in the northern part of Suðuroy : Hvalba and Sandvík . It is believed that it happens because of a navigation problem of the whale , because there are isthmuses on these places , where the distance between the east and west coasts are short , around one kilometer or so . And for some reason it seems like the bottlenose whale want to take a short cut through what it thinks is a sound , and too late it discovers , that is on shallow ground and is unable to turn around again . It happened on 30 August 2012 , when two Northern bottlenose whales swam ashore to the gorge Sigmundsgjógv in Sandvík . Two men who were working on the harbour noticed these whales , and some time later they had either died by themselves or were killed by the locals and then cut up for food for the people of Sandvík and Hvalba ( Hvalba municipality ) .
The hunt of the pilot whale is known by the locals as the Grindadráp . There are no fixed hunting seasons . As soon as a pod close enough to land is spotted , the locals set out to begin the hunt , after approval from the sysselman . The animals are driven into a bay which is approved for whaling by the Faroese government , and then they try to make the whales to beach themselves . The only way out is being blocked off by some of the boats , which stay there until men who have been waiting on shore have slaughtered all the whales .
When on the beach , most of them get stuck . Those that have remained too far in the water are dragged onto the beach by putting a hook in their blowhole . When on land , they are killed by cutting down to the major arteries and spinal cord at the neck . The time it takes for a whale to die varies from a few seconds Up to half a minute , depending on the cut . If the locals fail to beach the animals altogether , they are let free again .
The pilot whale stock in the eastern and central North Atlantic is estimated to number 778 @,@ 000 . About a thousand pilot whales are killed this way each year on the Faroe Islands together with usually a few dozen up to a few hundred animals belonging to other small cetaceans species , but numbers vary greatly per year . The amount of Pilot Whales killed each year is not believed to be a threat to the sustainability of the population , but the brutal appearance of the hunt has resulted in international criticism especially from animal welfare organisations .
Due to pollution , consumption of the meat and blubber is considered unhealthy by some . Especially children and pregnant women are at risk , with prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCBs primarily from the consumption of pilot whale meat has resulted in neuropsychological deficits amongst children .
In November 2008 , the New Scientist reported in an article that research done in the Faroe Islands lead to the recommendation by Faroese government that the consumption of Pilot Whale meat in the Faroes should stop as it had been proved to be too toxic . However , the Faroese government did not forbid people to eat Pilot Whale meat due to the contamination , but the advice from the Joensen and Weihe had an effect , it has resulted in reduced consumption , according to a senior Faroese health official .
In June 2011 the Faroese Food and Veterinary Authorities sent out an official recommendation regarding the consumption of meat and blubber from the pilot whale . They recommend that because of the pollution of the whale :
Adults should only eat one dinner with pilot whale meat and blubber per month .
Special advice for women and girls :
Girls and women should not eat blubber at all until they have finished given birth to children .
Women who plan to get pregnant within 3 months , pregnant women and women who breastfeed should probably not eat whale meat at all .
The kidneys and liver of the pilot whales should not be eaten .
= = = Iceland = = =
In mid @-@ 1950s , fishermen in Iceland requested assistance from the government to remove Killer Whales from Icelandic waters as they damaged fishing equipment . With fisheries accounting for 20 % of Iceland 's employment at the time , the perceived economic impact was significant . The Icelandic government asked the United States for assistance . As a NATO ally with an air base in Iceland , the US Navy deployed Patrol Squadrons VP @-@ 18 and VP @-@ 7 to achieve this task . According to the US Navy , hundreds of animals were killed with machineguns , rockets and depth charges .
In the late 1970s , after the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and the ban on hunting Killer Whales in Washington in 1976 as discussed later in this article , the hunting of Killer Whales in Iceland resumed , this time aiming to capture live animals for the entertainment industry . The first two Killer Whales captured went to Dolfinarium Harderwijk in the Netherlands . One of these animals was soon after transferred to SeaWorld . These captures continued until 1989 , with the additional animals going to SeaWorld , Marineland Antibes , Marineland Canada , Kamogawa Sea World , Ocean Park Hong Kong and Conny @-@ Land .
Although commercial whaling does still take place in Icelandic waters today , dolphins are no longer hunted and whale watching is popular amongst tourists .
= = = Japan = = =
In Japan , Striped , Spotted , Risso 's , and Bottlenose dolphins are most commonly hunted , but several other species such as the False Killer Whale are also occasionally caught . A small number of Orcas have been caught in the past as well . Relatively few Striped Dolphins are found in the coastal waters , probably due to hunting ( 65 Striped Dolphin were caught and killed on January 28 , 2014 . Despite their rarity , the entire pod was killed using a painful and inhumane method that causes severe distress . )
Catches in 2007 amounted to 384 Striped Dolphins , 300 Bottlenose Dolphins , 312 Risso 's Dolphins and 243 Southern Short Finned Pilot Whales , for a total of 1 @,@ 239 animals . These numbers do not include dolphins or other small whale species killed using various other methods , such as offshore harpoon hunts , in which mainly porpoises are killed . Another 77 Bottlenose Dolphins , 8 Risso Dolphins , 5 Southern Short Finned Pilot Whales were captured for use in the entertainment industry in Japan , China , Korea , and Taiwan . The quota set by the government for the species that were targeted in drive hunts that year allowed for the capture of 685 Striped Dolphins , 1 @,@ 018 Bottlenose Dolphins , 541 Risso 's Dolphins , and 369 Southern Short Finned Pilot Whales . The quota applies to all hunting methods .
Taiji , Wakayama Prefecture is the only town in Japan where drive hunting still takes place on a large scale . Captive dolphin are now sold to aquariums and swim programs all over the world . The animals that are captured often die within days due to shock and injury . Many die during transport . The rest will live out their considerably shortened lives in captivity . A hunt took place in the Futo area of Itō , Shizuoka in 2004 . In 2007 , Taiji wanted to step up its dolphin hunting programs , approving an estimated ¥ 330 million for the construction of a massive cetacean slaughterhouse in an effort to popularize the consumption of dolphins in the country .
An increase in criticism and the considerable toxicity of the meat appears to be achieving the opposite . During the first hunt of the season in Taiji in 2009 , an estimated 50 Pilot Whales and 100 Bottlenose Dolphins were captured . Although all the Pilot Whales were killed , and 30 Bottlenose Dolphins were taken for use in dolphinariums , the 70 remaining animals were set free again instead of being killed for consumption .
A number of dolphin welfare advocacy groups such as Earth Island Institute , Surfers for Cetaceans and Dolphin Project Inc . , dispute these official Japanese claims . These groups assert that the number of dolphins and porpoises killed is much higher , estimated at 25 @,@ 000 per year .
In 2014 an Australian non @-@ profit organisation called Australia for Dolphins ( featured in the documentary The Killing Cove ) launched a world @-@ first lawsuit against the brokers of the drive hunts , the Taiji Whale Museum . The lawsuit , known as the Action for Angel case , alleges that the museum illegally refused entry to dolphin welfare observers , and aims to open the museum up to public scrutiny . The lawsuit , which is ongoing , is expected to reach an outcome in 2015 .
In 2014 , Prime Minister Shinzo Abe asked for understanding of Japanese dolphin hunting in a small town ( Taiji ) in western Japan responding to U.S. Ambassador to Japan Caroline Kennedy . He said " The dolphin hunting is an ancient practice rooted in their culture and supports their livelihood . In every country and region , there are practices and ways of living and culture that have been handed down from ancestors . Naturally , I feel that they should be respected . " .
= = = = Method = = = =
In Japan , the hunting is done by a select group of fishermen . When a pod of dolphins has been spotted , they 're driven into a bay by the fishermen while banging on metal rods in the water to scare and confuse the dolphins . When the dolphins are in the bay , it is quickly closed off with nets so the dolphins cannot escape . The dolphins are usually not caught and killed immediately , but instead left to calm down over night . The following day , the dolphins are caught one by one and killed .
The killing of the animals used to be done by slitting their throats , but the Japanese government banned this method and now dolphins may officially only be killed by driving a metal pin into the neck of the dolphin , which causes them to die within seconds according to a memo from Senzo Uchida , the executive secretary of the Japan Cetacean Conference on Zoological Gardens and Aquariums . A veterinary team 's analysis of 2011 video footage of a Japanese hunters killing striped dolphins using this method suggested that in one case death took over four minutes .
= = = = Entertainment industry = = = =
As briefly mentioned above , occasionally , some of the captured dolphins are left alive and taken to mainly , but not exclusively , Japanese dolphinariums . Prior to the practice being banned in 1993 , dolphins were exported to the United States to several parks .
The US National Marine Fisheries Service has refused a permit for Marine World Africa USA on one occasion to import four False Killer Whales caught in a Japanese drive hunt . In recent years , dolphins from the Japanese drive hunts have been exported to China , Taiwan and to Egypt . On multiple occasions , members of the International Marine Animal Trainers Association ( IMATA ) have also been observed at the drive hunts in Japan .
= = = = Human health risks = = = =
The meat and blubber of the dolphins caught has been found to have high levels of mercury , cadmium , the pesticide DDT , and organic contaminants like PCBs . The levels are high enough to pose a health risk for those frequently eating the meat and researchers warn that children and pregnant women shouldn 't eat the meat at all . Because of the health concerns , the price of dolphin meat has decreased significantly .
In 2010 , hair samples from 1 @,@ 137 Taiji residents were tested for mercury by the National Institute for Minamata Disease . The average amount of methyl mercury found in the hair samples was 11 @.@ 0 parts per million for men and 6 @.@ 63 ppm for women , compared with an average of 2 @.@ 47 ppm for men and 1 @.@ 64 ppm for women in tests conducted in 14 other locations in Japan . One hundred eighty @-@ two Taiji residents showing extremely high mercury levels underwent further medical testing to check for symptoms of mercury poisoning . None of the Taiji residents displayed any of the traditional symptoms of mercury poisoning , according to the Institute .
Japan 's National Institute of Population and Social Security Research , however , reports that the mortality rate for Taiji and nearby Koazagawa , where dolphin meat is also consumed , is over 50 % higher than the rate for similarly @-@ sized villages throughout Japan . The chief of the NIMD , Koji Okamoto , said , " We presume that the high mercury concentrations are due to the intake of dolphin and whale meat . There were not any particular cases of damaged health , but seeing as how there were some especially high concentration levels found , we would like to continue conducting surveys here . "
Due to its low food self @-@ sufficiency rate , around 40 % , Japan relies on stockpiling to secure a stable food supply . As of 2009 , Japan 's 1 @.@ 2 million ton seafood stockpile included nearly 5000 tons of whale meat . Japan has started to serve whale meat in school lunches as part of a government initiative to reduce the amounts . However , there has been criticism of serving whale meat to school children due to allegations of toxic methyl mercury levels .
Consequently , Taiji 's bid to expand their school lunch programs to include dolphin and whale meat brought about much controversy . An estimated 150 kg ( 330 lbs ) of dolphin meat was served in Taiji school lunches in 2006 . In 2009 , dolphin meat was taken off school menus because of the contamination . The levels of mercury and methylmercury taken from samples of dolphin and whale meat sold at supermarkets most likely to be providing the schools ' lunch programs was 10 times that advised by the Japanese Health Ministry . The mercury levels were so high that the Okuwa Co. supermarket chain in Japan permanently removed dolphin meat from its shelves .
= = = = Protests = = = =
Protests and campaigns are now common in Taiji . In 2003 , two activists were arrested for cutting fishing nets to release captured dolphins . They were detained for 23 days . In 2007 , American actress Hayden Panettiere was involved in a confrontation with Japanese fishermen as she tried to disrupt the hunt . She paddled out on a surfboard , with five other surfers from Australia and the United States , in an attempt to reach a pod of dolphins that had been captured . The following confrontation lasted more than 10 minutes before the surfers were forced to return to the beach . The surfers drove straight to Osaka airport and left the country to avoid being arrested for trespassing by the Japanese police .
Taiji 's fishery cooperative union argues that these protesters " continue willfully to distort the facts about this fishery " and that protester 's agendas are " based neither on international law nor on science but rather on emotion for economic self @-@ interest . " Some of the animal welfare organizations campaigning against the drive hunts are Ric O 'Barry 's Dolphin Project , Sea Shepherd Conservation Society , One Voice , Blue Voice , the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society , and World Animal Protection .
Since much of the criticism is the result of photos and videos taken during the hunt and slaughter , it is now common for the final capture and slaughter to take place on site inside a tent or under a plastic cover , out of sight from the public . The most circulated footage is probably that of the drive and subsequent capture and slaughter process taken in Futo in October 1999 ( a still of which can be seen on the right ) , shot by the Japanese animal welfare organization Elsa Nature Conservancy . Part of this footage was , amongst others , shown on CNN .
In recent years , the video has also become widespread on the internet and was featured in the animal welfare documentary Earthlings , though the method of killing dolphins as shown in this video is now officially banned . In 2009 , a critical documentary on the hunts in Japan titled The Cove was released and shown amongst others at the Sundance Film Festival . Well known are also the images from Iki Island taken in 1979 of a Japanese fisherman stabbing dolphins to death with spears in shallow water .
= = = Kiribati = = =
Similar drive hunting existed in Kiribati at least until the mid 20th century .
= = = Peru = = =
Though it is forbidden under Peruvian law to hunt dolphins or eat their meat ( sold as chancho marino , or sea pork in English ) , a large number of dolphins are still killed illegally by fishermen each year . To catch the dolphins , they are driven together with boats and encircled with nets , then harpooned , dragged on to the boat , and clubbed to death if still alive . Various species are hunted , such as the Bottlenose and Dusky Dolphin .
According to estimates from local animal welfare organisation Mundo Azul released in October 2013 , between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 dolphins are killed annually for consumption , with a further 5 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 being killed for use as shark bait . Sharks are captured primarily for use in shark fin soup .
= = = Solomon Islands = = =
On a smaller scale , drive hunting for dolphins also takes place in the Solomon Islands , more specifically on South Malaita Island . After capture , the meat is shared equally between households . Dolphin 's teeth are also used in jewelry and as currency on the island . The dolphins are hunted in a similar fashion as in Japan , using stones instead of metal rods to produce sounds to scare and confuse the dolphins . Various species are hunted , such as Spotted and Spinner dolphins .
The amount of dolphins killed each year is not known , but anecdotal information suggests between 600 and 1500 dolphins per hunting season . The hunting season lasts roughly from December to April , when the dolphins are closest to shore . As in Japan , some dolphins ( exclusively Bottlenoses ) from the Solomon Islands have also been sold to the entertainment industry .
There was much controversy in July 2003 , when 28 Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops trancatus aduncus ) were exported to Parque Nizuc , a water park in Cancun . A large portion of the animals were later transported to Cozumel , to do interaction programs . Though the export of dolphins had been banned in 2005 , the export of dolphins was resumed in October 2007 when the ban was lifted following a court decision , allowing for 28 dolphins to be sent to a dolphinarium in Dubai . A further three dolphins were found dead near the holding pens .
The dealer that exported these dolphins has stated that they intend to release their 17 remaining dolphins back into the wild in the future . In 2015 the tourism minister visited Bita 'ama community and announced the government would financially support the development of eco @-@ tourism dolphin swimming if they stopped killing dolphins .
In April 2009 it was decided by CITES that an in @-@ depth review of the commercial dolphin trade conducted from the Solomon Islands should take place , this after the IUCN Cetacean Specialist Group came to the conclusion that insufficient population data exists to prove the sustainability of the wild captures and the current export quota of 100 animals per year . The Solomon Island Dolphin Abundance Project was established to provide data on the size of the local Indo @-@ Pacific Bottlenose population and the sustainability of the dolphin hunts . A report published in March 2013 as a result of this effort indicated that the capture of dolphins in the Solomon Islands can only be sustainable at a very low rate and that previous rates of capture as seen between 2003 and 2013 would not be sustainable in the future .
The Solomon Islands signed the Memorandum of Understanding ( MoU ) for the Conservation of Cetaceans and their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region under the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species in 2007 , which is a commitment to improve conservation efforts , reduce threats and undertake research and monitoring of cetaceans and provide reports . Gordon Lilo , the prime minister of the Solomon Islands , announced in 2014 that he opposes export of live dolphins , but defends the traditional hunting of dolphin . The capture and trade of wild dolphins is prohibited in the Western Province of the Solomon Islands .
In recent years only villages in South Malaita Island have continued to hunt dolphin . In 2010 , the villages of Fanalei , Walende , and Bitamae signed a MoU with the non @-@ governmental organization , Earth Island Institute , to stop hunting dolphin . However , in early 2013 the agreement broke down and some men in Fanalei resumed hunting . The hunting of dolphin continued in early 2014 .
Tourism minister Bartholomew Parapolo visited the Bita 'ama community in 2015 and offered to fund eco @-@ tourism business project involving swimming with dolphins , if they ceased killing .
= = = Taiwan = = =
On the Penghu Islands in Taiwan , drive fishing of Bottlenose Dolphins was practiced until 1990 , when the practice was outlawed by the government . Mainly Indian Ocean Bottlenose Dolphins but also common Bottlenose Dolphins were captured in these hunts .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Hawaii = = = =
In ancient Hawaii , fishermen occasionally hunted dolphins for their meat by driving them onto the beach and killing them . In their ancient legal system , dolphin meat was considered to be kapu ( forbidden ) for women together with several other kinds of food . Today , dolphin drive hunting no longer takes place in Hawaii .
= = = = Texas = = = =
Hunting dolphins ( at the time still often incorrectly referred to as fish or porpoises ) , primarily using harpoons and firearms , was considered a form of recreational hunting along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico in Texas in the late 19th and early 20th century . Pleasure dolphin hunting cruises could be booked in Corpus Christi in the 1920s , with a promise to tourists that if no successful dolphin kill was made , the excursion would be free of charge . The brutality of the practice started to spark animal welfare concerns and there is no reference of this practice still occurring in Texas after the Second World War .
= = = = Washington = = = =
Drive hunting methods were used to capture Orcas in the Puget Sound in the 1960s and 1970s . These hunts were led by aquarium owner and entrepreneur Edward " Ted " Griffin and his partner Don Goldsberry . After Edward purchased an Orca that was caught by accident by fishermen in Namu , British Columbia , in 1965 , Edward and Don used drive hunting techniques in the Puget Sound area to capture Orcas for the entertainment industry . Others followed and despite the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 the practice continued until 1976 when the state of Washington ordered the release of a number of Orcas that were being held in Budd Inlet and subsequently banned the practice .
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= Enid Blyton =
Enid Mary Blyton ( 11 August 1897 – 28 November 1968 ) was an English children 's writer whose books have been among the world 's best @-@ sellers since the 1930s , selling more than 600 million copies . Blyton 's books are still enormously popular , and have been translated into almost 90 languages ; her first book , Child Whispers , a 24 @-@ page collection of poems , was published in 1922 . She wrote on a wide range of topics including education , natural history , fantasy , mystery , and biblical narratives and is best remembered today for her Noddy , Famous Five , Secret Seven , and Adventure series .
Following the commercial success of her early novels such as Adventures of the Wishing Chair ( 1937 ) and The Enchanted Wood ( 1939 ) , Blyton went on to build a literary empire , sometimes producing fifty books a year in addition to her prolific magazine and newspaper contributions . Her writing was unplanned and sprang largely from her unconscious mind ; she typed her stories as events unfolded before her . The sheer volume of her work and the speed with which it was produced led to rumours that Blyton employed an army of ghost writers , a charge she vigorously denied .
Blyton 's work became increasingly controversial among literary critics , teachers and parents from the 1950s onwards , because of the alleged unchallenging nature of her writing and the themes of her books , particularly the Noddy series . Some libraries and schools banned her works , which the BBC had refused to broadcast from the 1930s until the 1950s because they were perceived to lack literary merit . Her books have been criticised as being elitist , sexist , racist , xenophobic and at odds with the more liberal environment emerging in post @-@ war Britain , but they have continued to be best @-@ sellers since her death in 1968 .
Blyton felt she had a responsibility to provide her readers with a strong moral framework , so she encouraged them to support worthy causes . In particular , through the clubs she set up or supported , she encouraged and organised them to raise funds for animal and paediatric charities . The story of Blyton 's life was dramatised in a BBC film entitled Enid , featuring Helena Bonham Carter in the title role and first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Four in 2009 . There have also been several adaptations of her books for stage , screen and television .
= = Early life and education = =
Enid Blyton was born on 11 August 1897 in East Dulwich , London , the eldest of three children , to Thomas Carey Blyton ( 1870 – 1920 ) , a cutlery salesman , and his wife Theresa Mary ( née Harrison ; 1874 – 1950 ) . Enid 's younger brothers , Hanly ( 1899 – 1983 ) and Carey ( 1902 – 1976 ) , were born after the family had moved to a semi @-@ detached villa in Beckenham , then a village in Kent . A few months after her birth Enid almost died from whooping cough , but was nursed back to health by her father , whom she adored . Thomas Blyton ignited Enid 's interest in nature ; in her autobiography she wrote that he " loved flowers and birds and wild animals , and knew more about them than anyone I had ever met " . He also passed on his interest in gardening , art , music , literature and the theatre , and the pair often went on nature walks , much to the disapproval of Enid 's mother , who showed little interest in her daughter 's pursuits . Enid was devastated when he left the family shortly after her thirteenth birthday to live with another woman . Enid and her mother did not have a good relationship , and she failed to attend either of her parents ' funerals .
From 1907 to 1915 Blyton attended St Christopher 's School in Beckenham , where she enjoyed physical activities and became school tennis champion and captain of lacrosse . She was not so keen on all the academic subjects but excelled in writing , and in 1911 she entered Arthur Mee 's children 's poetry competition . Mee offered to print her verses , encouraging her to produce more . Blyton 's mother considered her efforts at writing to be a " waste of time and money " , but she was encouraged to persevere by Mabel Attenborough , the aunt of a school friend .
Blyton 's father taught her to play the piano , which she mastered well enough for him to believe that she might follow in his sister 's footsteps and become a professional musician . Blyton considered enrolling at the Guildhall School of Music , but decided she was better suited to becoming a writer . After finishing school in 1915 as head girl , she moved out of the family home to live with her friend Mary Attenborough , before going to stay with George and Emily Hunt at Seckford Hall near Woodbridge in Suffolk . Seckford Hall , with its allegedly haunted room and secret passageway provided inspiration for her later writing . At Woodbridge Congregational Church Blyton met Ida Hunt , who taught at Ipswich High School , and suggested that she train as a teacher . Blyton was introduced to the children at the nursery school , and recognising her natural affinity with them she enrolled in a National Froebel Union teacher training course at the school in September 1916 . By this time she had almost ceased contact with her family .
Blyton 's manuscripts had been rejected by publishers on many occasions , which only made her more determined to succeed : " it is partly the struggle that helps you so much , that gives you determination , character , self @-@ reliance – all things that help in any profession or trade , and most certainly in writing " . In March 1916 her first poems were published in Nash 's Magazine . She completed her teacher training course in December 1918 , and the following month obtained a teaching appointment at Bickley Park School , a small independent establishment for boys in Bickley , Kent . Two months later Blyton received a teaching certificate with distinctions in zoology and principles of education , 1st class in botany , geography , practice and history of education , child hygiene and class teaching and 2nd class in literature and elementary mathematics . In 1920 she moved to Southernhay in Hook Road Surbiton as nursery governess to the four sons of architect Horace Thompson and his wife Gertrude , with whom Blyton spent four happy years . Owing to a shortage of schools in the area her charges were soon joined by the children of neighbours , and a small school developed at the house .
= = Early writing career = =
In 1920 Blyton relocated to Chessington , and began writing in her spare time . The following year she won the Saturday Westminster Review writing competition with her essay " On the Popular Fallacy that to the Pure All Things are Pure " . Publications such as The Londoner , Home Weekly and The Bystander began to show an interest in her short stories and poems .
Blyton 's first book , Child Whispers , a 24 @-@ page collection of poems , was published in 1922 . It was illustrated by a schoolfriend , Phyllis Chase , who collaborated on several of her early works . Also in that year Blyton began writing in annuals for Cassell and George Newnes , and her first piece of writing was accepted for publication in Teachers ' World , " Peronei and his Pot of Glue " . Her success was boosted in 1923 when her poems were published alongside those of Rudyard Kipling , Walter de la Mare and G. K. Chesterton in a special issue of Teachers ' World . Blyton 's educational texts were quite influential in the 1920s and ' 30s , her most sizeable being the three @-@ volume The Teacher 's Treasury ( 1926 ) , the six @-@ volume Modern Teaching ( 1928 ) , the ten @-@ volume Pictorial Knowledge ( 1930 ) , and the four @-@ volume Modern Teaching in the Infant School ( 1932 ) .
In July 1923 Blyton published Real Fairies , a collection of thirty @-@ three poems written especially for the book with the exception of " Pretending " , which had appeared earlier in Punch magazine . The following year she published The Enid Blyton Book of Fairies , illustrated by Horace J. Knowles , and in 1926 the Book of Brownies . Several books of plays appeared in 1927 , including A Book of Little Plays and The Play 's the Thing with the illustrator Alfred Bestall .
In the 1930s Blyton developed an interest in writing stories related to various myths , including those of ancient Greece and Rome ; The Knights of the Round Table , Tales of Ancient Greece and Tales of Robin Hood were published in 1930 . In Tales of Ancient Greece Blyton retold sixteen well @-@ known ancient Greek myths , but used the Latin rather than the Greek names of deities and invented conversations between the characters . The Adventures of Odysseus , Tales of the Ancient Greeks and Persians and Tales of the Romans followed in 1934 .
= = Commercial success = =
= = = New series : 1934 – 1948 = = =
The first of twenty @-@ eight books in Blyton 's Old Thatch series , The Talking Teapot and Other Tales , was published in 1934 , the same year as the first book in her Brer Rabbit series , Brer Rabbit Retold ; her first serial story and first full @-@ length book , Adventures of the Wishing @-@ Chair , followed in 1937 . The Enchanted Wood , the first book in the Faraway Tree series , published in 1939 , is about a magic tree inspired by the Norse mythology that had fascinated Blyton as a child . According to Blyton 's daughter Gillian the inspiration for the magic tree came from " thinking up a story one day and suddenly she was walking in the enchanted wood and found the tree . In her imagination she climbed up through the branches and met Moon @-@ Face , Silky , the Saucepan Man and the rest of the characters . She had all she needed . " As in the Wishing @-@ Chair series , these fantasy books typically involve children being transported into a magical world in which they meet fairies , goblins , elves , pixies and other mythological creatures .
Blyton 's first full @-@ length adventure novel , The Secret Island , was published in 1938 , featuring the characters of Jack , Mike , Peggy and Nora . Described by The Glasgow Herald as a " Robinson Crusoe @-@ style adventure on an island in an English lake " , The Secret Island was a lifelong favourite of Gillian 's and spawned the Secret series . The following year Blyton released her first book in the Circus series and her initial book in the Amelia Jane series , Naughty Amelia Jane ! According to Gillian the main character was based on a large handmade doll given to her by her mother on her third birthday .
During the 1940s Blyton became a prolific author , her success enhanced by her " marketing , publicity and branding that was far ahead of its time " . In 1940 Blyton published two books – Three Boys and a Circus and Children of Kidillin – under the pseudonym of Mary Pollock ( middle name plus first married name ) , in addition to the eleven published under her own name that year . So popular were Pollock 's books that one reviewer was prompted to observe that " Enid Blyton had better look to her laurels " . But Blyton 's readers were not so easily deceived and many complained about the subterfuge to her and her publisher , with the result that all six books published under the name of Mary Pollock – two in 1940 and four in 1943 – were reissued under Blyton 's name . Later in 1940 Blyton published the first of her boarding school story books and the first novel in the Naughtiest Girl series , The Naughtiest Girl in the School , which followed the exploits of the mischievous schoolgirl Elizabeth Allen at the fictional Whyteleafe School . The first of her six novels in the St. Clare 's series , The Twins at St. Clare 's , appeared the following year , featuring the twin sisters Patricia and Isabel O 'Sullivan .
In 1942 Blyton released the first book in the Mary Mouse series , Mary Mouse and the Dolls ' House , about a mouse exiled from her mousehole who becomes a maid at a dolls ' house . Twenty @-@ three books in the series were produced between 1942 and 1964 ; 10 @,@ 000 copies were sold in 1942 alone . The same year , Blyton published the first novel in the Famous Five series , Five on a Treasure Island , with illustrations by Eileen Soper . Its popularity resulted in twenty @-@ one books between then and 1963 , and the characters of Julian , Dick , Anne , George ( Georgina ) and Timmy the dog became household names in Britain . Matthew Grenby , author of Children 's Literature , states that the five were involved with " unmasking hardened villains and solving serious crimes " , although the novels were " hardly ' hard @-@ boiled ' thrillers " . Blyton based the character of Georgina , a tomboy she described as " short @-@ haired , freckled , sturdy , and snub @-@ nosed " and " bold and daring , hot @-@ tempered and loyal " , on herself .
Blyton had an interest in biblical narratives , and retold Old and New Testament stories . The Land of Far @-@ Beyond ( 1942 ) is a Christian parable along the lines of John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress ( 1698 ) , with contemporary children as the main characters . In 1943 she published The Children 's Life of Christ , a collection of fifty @-@ nine short stories related to the life of Jesus , with her own slant on popular biblical stories , from the Nativity and the Three Wise Men through to the trial , the crucifixion and the resurrection . Tales from the Bible was published the following year , followed by The Boy with the Loaves and Fishes in 1948 .
The first book of Blyton 's Five Find @-@ Outers series , The Mystery of the Burnt Cottage , was published in 1943 , as was the second book in the Faraway series , The Magic Faraway Tree , which in 2003 was voted 66th in the BBC 's Big Read poll to find the UK 's favourite book . Several of Blyton 's works during this period have seaside themes ; John Jolly by the Sea ( 1943 ) , a picture book intended for younger readers , was published in a booklet format by Evans Brothers . Other books with a maritime theme include The Secret of Cliff Castle and Smuggler Ben , both attributed to Mary Pollock in 1943 ; The Island of Adventure , the first in the Adventure series of eight novels from 1944 onwards ; and various novels of the Famous Five series such as Five on a Treasure Island ( 1942 ) , Five on Kirrin Island Again ( 1947 ) and Five Go Down to the Sea ( 1953 ) .
Capitalising on her success , with a loyal and ever @-@ growing readership , Blyton produced a new edition of many of her series such as the Famous Five , the Five Find @-@ Outers and St. Clare 's every year in addition to many other novels , short stories and books . In 1946 Blyton launched the first in the Malory Towers series of six books based around the schoolgirl Darrell Rivers , First Term at Malory Towers , which became extremely popular , particularly with girls .
= = = Peak output : 1949 – 1959 = = =
The first book in Blyton 's Barney Mysteries series , The Rockingdown Mystery , was published in 1949 , as was the first of her fifteen Secret Seven novels . The Secret Seven Society consists of Peter , his sister Janet , and their friends Colin , George , Jack , Pam and Barbara , who meet regularly in a shed in the garden to discuss peculiar events in their local community . Blyton rewrote the stories so they could be adapted into cartoons , which appeared in Mickey Mouse Weekly in 1951 with illustrations by George Brook . The French author Evelyne Lallemand continued the series in the 1970s , producing an additional twelve books , nine of which were translated into English by Anthea Bell between 1983 and 1987 .
Blyton 's Noddy , about a little wooden boy from Toyland , first appeared in the Sunday Graphic on 5 June 1949 , and in November that year Noddy Goes to Toyland , the first of at least two dozen books in the series , was published . The idea was conceived by one of Blyton 's publishers , Sampson , Low , Marston and Company , who in 1949 arranged a meeting between Blyton and the Dutch illustrator Harmsen van der Beek . Despite having to communicate via an interpreter , he provided some initial sketches of how Toyland and its characters would be represented . Four days after the meeting Blyton sent the text of the first two Noddy books to her publisher , to be forwarded to van der Beek . The Noddy books became one of her most successful and best @-@ known series , and were hugely popular in the 1950s . An extensive range of sub @-@ series , spin @-@ offs and strip books were produced throughout the decade , including Noddy 's Library , Noddy 's Garage of Books , Noddy 's Castle of Books , Noddy 's Toy Station of Books and Noddy 's Shop of Books .
In 1950 Blyton established the company Darrell Waters Ltd to manage her affairs . By the early 1950s she had reached the peak of her output , often publishing more than fifty books a year , and she remained extremely prolific throughout much of the decade . By 1955 Blyton had written her fourteenth Famous Five novel , Five Have Plenty of Fun , her fifteenth Mary Mouse book , Mary Mouse in Nursery Rhyme Land , her eighth book in the Adventure series , The River of Adventure , and her seventh Secret Seven novel , Secret Seven Win Through . She completed the sixth and final book of the Malory Towers series , Last Term at Malory Towers , in 1951 .
Blyton published several further books featuring the character of Scamp the terrier , following on from The Adventures of Scamp , a novel she had released in 1943 under the pseudonym of Mary Pollock . Scamp Goes on Holiday ( 1952 ) and Scamp and Bimbo , Scamp at School , Scamp and Caroline and Scamp Goes to the Zoo ( 1954 ) were illustrated by Pierre Probst . She introduced the character of Bom , a stylish toy drummer dressed in a bright red coat and helmet , alongside Noddy in TV Comic in July 1956 . A book series began the same year with Bom the Little Toy Drummer , featuring illustrations by R. Paul @-@ Hoye , and followed with Bom and His Magic Drumstick ( 1957 ) , Bom Goes Adventuring and Bom Goes to Ho Ho Village ( 1958 ) , Bom and the Clown and Bom and the Rainbow ( 1959 ) and Bom Goes to Magic Town ( 1960 ) . In 1958 she produced two annuals featuring the character , the first of which included twenty short stories , poems and picture strips .
= = = Final works = = =
Many of Blyton 's series , including Noddy and The Famous Five , continued to be successful in the 1960s ; by 1962 , 26 million copies of Noddy had been sold . Blyton concluded several of her long @-@ running series in 1963 , publishing the last books of The Famous Five ( Five Are Together Again ) and The Secret Seven ( Fun for the Secret Seven ) ; she also produced three more Brer Rabbit books with the illustrator Grace Lodge : Brer Rabbit Again , Brer Rabbit Book , and Brer Rabbit 's a Rascal . In 1962 many of her books were among the first to be published by Armada Books in paperback , making them more affordable to children .
After 1963 Blyton 's output was generally confined to short stories and books intended for very young readers , such as Learn to Count with Noddy and Learn to Tell Time with Noddy in 1965 , and Stories for Bedtime and the Sunshine Picture Story Book collection in 1966 . Her declining health and a falling off in readership among older children have been put forward as the principal reasons for this change in trend . Blyton published her last book in the Noddy series , Noddy and the Aeroplane , in February 1964 . In May the following year she published Mixed Bag , a song book with music written by her nephew Carey , and in August she released her last full @-@ length books , The Man Who Stopped to Help and The Boy Who Came Back .
= = Magazine and newspaper contributions = =
Blyton cemented her reputation as a children 's writer when in 1926 she took over the editing of Sunny Stories , a magazine that typically included the re @-@ telling of legends , myths , stories and other articles for children . That same year she was given her own column in Teachers ' World , entitled " From my Window " . Three years later she began contributing a weekly page in the magazine , in which she published letters from her fox terrier dog Bobs . They proved to be so popular that in 1933 they were published in book form as Letters from Bobs , and sold ten thousand copies in the first week . Her most popular feature was " Round the Year with Enid Blyton " , which consisted of forty @-@ eight articles covering aspects of natural history such as weather , pond life , how to plant a school garden and how to make a bird table . Among Blyton 's other nature projects was her monthly " Country Letter " feature that appeared in The Nature Lover magazine in 1935 .
Sunny Stories was renamed Enid Blyton 's Sunny Stories in January 1937 , and served as a vehicle for the serialisation of Blyton 's books . Her first Naughty Amelia Jane story , about an anti @-@ heroine based on a doll owned by her daughter Gillian , was published in the magazine . Blyton stopped contributing in 1952 , and it closed down the following year , shortly before the appearance of the new fortnightly Enid Blyton Magazine written entirely by Blyton . The first edition appeared on 18 March 1953 , and the magazine ran until September 1959 .
Noddy made his first appearance in the Sunday Graphic in 1949 , the same year as Blyton 's first daily Noddy strip for the London Evening Standard . It was illustrated by van der Beek until his death in 1953 .
= = Writing style and technique = =
Blyton worked in a wide range of fictional genres , from fairy tales to animal , nature , detective , mystery , and circus stories , but she often " blurred the boundaries " in her books , and encompassed a range of genres even in her short stories . In a 1958 article published in The Author , she wrote that there were a " dozen or more different types of stories for children " , and she had tried them all , but her favourites were those with a family at their centre .
In a letter to the psychologist Peter McKellar , Blyton describes her writing technique :
I shut my eyes for a few minutes , with my portable typewriter on my knee – I make my mind a blank and wait – and then , as clearly as I would see real children , my characters stand before me in my mind 's eye ... The first sentence comes straight into my mind , I don 't have to think of it – I don 't have to think of anything .
In another letter to McKellar she describes how in just five days she wrote the 60 @,@ 000 @-@ word book The River of Adventure , the eighth in her Adventure Series , by listening to what she referred to as her " under @-@ mind " , which she contrasted with her " upper conscious mind " . Blyton was unwilling to conduct any research or planning before beginning work on a new book , which coupled with the lack of variety in her life according to Druce almost inevitably presented the danger that she might unconsciously , and clearly did , plagiarise the books she had read , including her own . Gillian has recalled that her mother " never knew where her stories came from " , but that she used to talk about them " coming from her ' mind 's eye ' " , as did William Wordsworth and Charles Dickens . Blyton had " thought it was made up of every experience she 'd ever had , everything she 's seen or heard or read , much of which had long disappeared from her conscious memory " but never knew the direction her stories would take . Blyton further explained in her biography that " If I tried to think out or invent the whole book , I could not do it . For one thing , it would bore me and for another , it would lack the ' verve ' and the extraordinary touches and surprising ideas that flood out from my imagination . "
Blyton 's daily routine varied little over the years . She usually began writing soon after breakfast , with her portable typewriter on her knee and her favourite red Moroccan shawl nearby ; she believed that the colour red acted as a " mental stimulus " for her . Stopping only for a short lunch break she continued writing until five o 'clock , by which time she would usually have produced 6 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 words .
A 2000 article in The Malay Mail considers Blyton 's children to have " lived in a world shaped by the realities of post @-@ war austerity " , enjoying freedom without the political correctness of today , which serves modern readers of Blyton 's novels with a form of escapism . Brandon Robshaw of The Independent refers to the Blyton universe as " crammed with colour and character " , " self @-@ contained and internally consistent " , noting that Blyton exemplifies a strong mistrust of adults and figures of authority in her works , creating a world in which children govern . Gillian noted that in her mother 's adventure , detective and school stories for older children , " the hook is the strong storyline with plenty of cliffhangers , a trick she acquired from her years of writing serialised stories for children 's magazines . There is always a strong moral framework in which bravery and loyalty are ( eventually ) rewarded " . Blyton herself wrote that " my love of children is the whole foundation of all my work " .
Victor Watson , Assistant Director of Research at Homerton College , Cambridge , believes that Blyton 's works reveal an " essential longing and potential associated with childhood " , and notes how the opening pages of The Mountain of Adventure present a " deeply appealing ideal of childhood " . He argues that Blyton 's work differs from that of many other authors in its approach , describing the narrative of The Famous Five series for instance as " like a powerful spotlight , it seeks to illuminate , to explain , to demystify . It takes its readers on a roller @-@ coaster story in which the darkness is always banished ; everything puzzling , arbitrary , evocative is either dismissed or explained " . Watson further notes how Blyton often used minimalist visual descriptions and introduced a few careless phrases such as " gleamed enchantingly " to appeal to her young readers .
From the mid @-@ 1950s rumours began to circulate that Blyton had not written all the books attributed to her , a charge she found particularly distressing . She published an appeal in her magazine asking children to let her know if they heard such stories , and after one mother informed her that she had attended a parents ' meeting at her daughter 's school during which a young librarian had repeated the allegation , Blyton decided in 1955 to begin legal proceedings . The librarian was eventually forced to make a public apology in open court early the following year , but the rumours that Blyton operated " a ' company ' of ghost writers " persisted , as some found it difficult to believe that one woman working alone could produce such a volume of work .
= = Charitable work = =
Blyton felt a responsibility to provide her readers with a positive moral framework , and she encouraged them to support worthy causes . Her view , expressed in a 1957 article , was that children should help animals and other children rather than adults :
[ children ] are not interested in helping adults ; indeed , they think that adults themselves should tackle adult needs . But they are intensely interested in animals and other children and feel compassion for the blind boys and girls , and for the spastics who are unable to walk or talk .
Blyton and the members of the children 's clubs she promoted via her magazines raised a great deal of money for various charities ; according to Blyton , membership of her clubs meant " working for others , for no reward " . The largest of the clubs she was involved with was the Busy Bees , the junior section of the People 's Dispensary for Sick Animals , which Blyton had actively supported since 1933 . The club had been set up by Maria Dickin in 1934 , and after Blyton publicised its existence in the Enid Blyton Magazine it attracted 100 @,@ 000 members in three years . Such was Blyton 's popularity among children that after she became Queen Bee in 1952 more than 20 @,@ 000 additional members were recruited in her first year in office . The Enid Blyton Magazine Club was formed in 1953 . Its primary object was to raise funds to help those children with cerebral palsy who attended a centre in Cheyne Walk , in Chelsea , London , by furnishing an on @-@ site hostel among other things .
The Famous Five series gathered such a following that readers asked Blyton if they might form a fan club . She agreed , on condition that it serve a useful purpose , and suggested that it could raise funds for the Shaftesbury Society Babies ' Home in Beaconsfield , on whose committee she had served since 1948 . The club was established in 1952 , and provided funds for equipping a Famous Five Ward at the home , a paddling pool , sun room , summer house , playground , birthday and Christmas celebrations , and visits to the pantomime . By the late 1950s Blyton 's clubs had a membership of 500 @,@ 000 , and raised £ 35 @,@ 000 in the six years of the Enid Blyton Magazine 's run .
By 1974 the Famous Five Club had a membership of 220 @,@ 000 , and was growing at the rate of 6 @,@ 000 new members a year . The Beaconsfield home it was set up to support closed in 1967 , but the club continued to raise funds for other paediatric charities , including an Enid Blyton bed at Great Ormond Street Hospital and a mini @-@ bus for disabled children at Stoke Mandeville Hospital .
= = Jigsaw puzzles and games = =
Blyton capitalised upon her commercial success as an author by negotiating agreements with jigsaw puzzle and games manufacturers from the late 1940s onwards ; by the early 1960s some 146 different companies were involved in merchandising Noddy alone . In 1948 Bestime released four jigsaw puzzles featuring her characters , and the first Enid Blyton board game appeared , Journey Through Fairyland , created by BGL . The first card game , Faraway Tree , appeared from Pepys in 1950 . In 1954 Bestime released the first four jigsaw puzzles of the Secret Seven , and the following year a Secret Seven card game appeared .
Bestime released the Little Noddy Car Game in 1953 and the Little Noddy Leap Frog Game in 1955 , and in 1956 American manufacturer Parker Brothers released Little Noddy 's Taxi Game , a board game which features Noddy driving about town , picking up various characters . Bestime released its Plywood Noddy Jigsaws series in 1957 and a Noddy jigsaw series featuring cards appeared from 1963 , with illustrations by Robert Lee . Arrow Games became the chief producer of Noddy jigsaws in the late 1970s and early 1980s . Whitman manufactured four new Secret Seven jigsaw puzzles in 1975 , and produced four new Malory Towers ones two years later . In 1979 the company released a Famous Five adventure board game , Famous Five Kirrin Island Treasure . Stephen Thraves wrote eight Famous Five adventure game books , published by Hodder & Stoughton in the 1980s . The first adventure game book of the series , The Wreckers ' Tower Game , was published in October 1984 .
= = Personal life = =
On 28 August 1924 Blyton married Major Hugh Alexander Pollock , DSO ( 1888 – 1971 ) at Bromley Register Office , without inviting her family . Pollock was editor of the book department in the publishing firm of George Newnes , which became her regular publisher . It was he who requested that Blyton write a book about animals , The Zoo Book , which was completed in the month before they married . They initially lived in a flat in Chelsea before moving to Elfin Cottage in Beckenham in 1926 , and then to Old Thatch in Bourne End ( called Peterswood in her books ) in 1929 .
Blyton 's first daughter Gillian , was born on 15 July 1931 , and after a miscarriage in 1934 , she gave birth to a second daughter , Imogen , on 27 October 1935 . In 1938 Blyton and her family moved to a house in Beaconsfield , which was named Green Hedges by Blyton 's readers following a competition in her magazine . By the mid @-@ 1930s , Pollock – possibly due to the trauma he had suffered during the First World War being revived through his meetings as a publisher with Winston Churchill – withdrew increasingly from public life and became a secret alcoholic . With the outbreak of the Second World War , he became involved in the Home Guard . Pollock entered into a relationship with a budding young writer , Ida Crowe , and arranged for her to join him at his posting to a Home Guard training centre at Denbies , a Gothic mansion in Surrey belonging to Lord Ashcombe , and work there as his secretary . Blyton 's marriage to Pollock became troubled , and according to Crowe 's memoir , Blyton began a series of affairs , including a lesbian relationship with one of the children 's nannies . In 1941 Blyton met Kenneth Fraser Darrell Waters , a London surgeon with whom she began an affair . Pollock discovered the liaison , and threatened to initiate divorce proceedings against Blyton . Fearing that exposure of her adultery would ruin her public image , it was ultimately agreed that Blyton would instead file for divorce against Pollock . According to Crowe 's memoir , Blyton promised that if he admitted to infidelity she would allow him parental access to their daughters ; but after the divorce he was forbidden to contact them , and Blyton ensured he was subsequently unable to find work in publishing . Pollock , having married Crowe on 26 October 1943 , eventually resumed his heavy drinking and was forced to petition for bankruptcy in 1950 .
Blyton and Darrell Waters married at the City of Westminster Register Office on 20 October 1943 . She changed the surname of her daughters to Darrell Waters and publicly embraced her new role as a happily married and devoted doctor 's wife . After discovering she was pregnant in the spring of 1945 , Blyton miscarried five months later , following a fall from a ladder . The baby would have been Darrell Waters 's first child and it would also have been the son for which both of them longed .
Blyton 's health began to deteriorate in 1957 , when during a round of golf she started to complain of feeling faint and breathless , and by 1960 she was displaying signs of dementia . Her agent George Greenfield recalled that it was " unthinkable " for the " most famous and successful of children 's authors with her enormous energy and computer @-@ like memory " to be losing her mind and suffering from what is now known as Alzheimer 's disease in her mid @-@ sixties . Blyton 's situation was worsened by her husband 's declining health throughout the 1960s ; he suffered from severe arthritis in his neck and hips , deafness , and became increasingly ill @-@ tempered and erratic until his death on 15 September 1967 .
The story of Blyton 's life was dramatised in a BBC film entitled Enid , which aired in the United Kingdom on BBC Four on 16 November 2009 . Helena Bonham Carter , who played the title role , described Blyton as " a complete workaholic , an achievement junkie and an extremely canny businesswoman " who " knew how to brand herself , right down to the famous signature " .
= = Death and legacy = =
During the months following her husband 's death Blyton became increasingly ill , and moved into a nursing home three months before her death . She died at the Greenways Nursing Home , London , on 28 November 1968 , aged 71 . A memorial service was held at St James 's Church , Piccadilly , and she was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium , where her ashes remain . Blyton 's home , Green Hedges , was auctioned on 26 May 1971 and demolished in 1973 ; the site is now occupied by houses and a street named Blyton Close . An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Blyton at Hook Road in Chessington , where she lived from 1920 to 1924 . In 2014 a plaque recording her time as a Beaconsfield resident from 1938 until her death in 1968 was unveiled in the town hall gardens , next to small iron figures of Noddy and Big Ears .
Since her death and the publication of her daughter Imogen 's 1989 autobiography , A Childhood at Green Hedges , Blyton has emerged as an emotionally immature , unstable and often malicious figure . Imogen considered her mother to be " arrogant , insecure , pretentious , very skilled at putting difficult or unpleasant things out of her mind , and without a trace of maternal instinct . As a child , I viewed her as a rather strict authority . As an adult I pitied her . " Blyton 's eldest daughter Gillian remembered her rather differently however , as " a fair and loving mother , and a fascinating companion " .
The Enid Blyton Trust for Children was established in 1982 with Imogen as its first chairman , and in 1985 it established the National Library for the Handicapped Child . Enid Blyton 's Adventure Magazine began publication in September 1985 , and on 14 October 1992 the BBC began publishing Noddy Magazine and released the Noddy CD @-@ Rom in October 1996 .
The first Enid Blyton Day was held at Rickmansworth on 6 March 1993 , and in October 1996 the Enid Blyton award , The Enid , was given to those who have made outstanding contributions towards children . The Enid Blyton Society was formed in early 1995 , to provide " a focal point for collectors and enthusiasts of Enid Blyton " through its thrice @-@ annual Enid Blyton Society Journal , its annual Enid Blyton Day , and its website . On 16 December 1996 Channel 4 broadcast a documentary about Blyton , Secret Lives . To celebrate her centenary in 1997 exhibitions were put on at the London Toy & Model Museum ( now closed ) , Hereford and Worcester County Museum and Bromley Library , and on 9 September the Royal Mail issued centenary stamps .
The London @-@ based entertainment and retail company Trocadero plc purchased Blyton 's Darrell Waters Ltd in 1995 for £ 14 @.@ 6 million and established a subsidiary , Enid Blyton Ltd , to handle all intellectual properties , character brands and media in Blyton 's works . The group changed its name to Chorion in 1998 , but after financial difficulties in 2012 sold its assets . Hachette UK acquired from Chorion world rights in the Blyton estate in March 2013 , including The Famous Five series but excluding the rights to Noddy , which had been sold to DreamWorks Classics ( formerly Classic Media , now a subsidiary of DreamWorks Animation ) in 2012 .
Blyton 's granddaughter , Sophie Smallwood , wrote a new Noddy book to celebrate the character 's 60th birthday , 46 years after the last book was published ; Noddy and the Farmyard Muddle ( 2009 ) was illustrated by Robert Tyndall . In February 2011 , the manuscript of a previously unknown Blyton novel , Mr Tumpy 's Caravan , was discovered by the archivist at Seven Stories , National Centre for Children 's Books in a collection of papers belonging to Blyton 's daughter Gillian , purchased by Seven Stories in 2010 following her death . It was initially thought to belong to a comic strip collection of the same name published in 1949 , but it appears to be unrelated and is believed to be something written in the 1930s , which had been rejected by a publisher .
In a 1982 survey of 10 @,@ 000 eleven @-@ year @-@ old children Blyton was voted their most popular writer . She is the world 's fourth most translated author , behind Agatha Christie , Jules Verne and William Shakespeare . From 2000 to 2010 , Blyton was listed as a Top Ten author , selling almost 8 million copies ( worth £ 31 @.@ 2 million ) in the UK alone . In 2003 The Magic Faraway Tree was voted 66 in the BBC 's Big Read . In the 2008 Costa Book Awards , Blyton was voted Britain 's best @-@ loved author . Her books continue to be very popular among children in Commonwealth nations such as India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Singapore , Malta , New Zealand , and Australia , and around the world . They have also seen a surge of popularity in China , where they are " big with every generation " . In March 2004 Chorion and the Chinese publisher Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press negotiated an agreement over the Noddy franchise , which included bringing the character to an animated series on television , with a potential audience of a further 95 million children under the age of five . Chorion spent around £ 10 million digitising Noddy , and as of 2002 had made television agreements with at least 11 countries worldwide .
Novelists influenced by Blyton include the crime writer Denise Danks , whose fictional detective Georgina Powers is based on George from the Famous Five . Peter Hunt 's A Step off the Path ( 1985 ) is also influenced by the Famous Five , and the St. Clare 's and Malory Towers series provided the inspiration for Jacqueline Wilson 's Double Act ( 1996 ) and Adèle Geras 's Egerton Hall trilogy ( 1990 – 92 ) respectively .
= = = Ghost writing = = =
After Blyton 's death author Pamela Cox was asked to continue two of the author 's series , St. Clare 's and Malory Towers . To date Cox has published three St. Clare 's novels , Third Form at St. Clare 's , Sixth Form at St. Clare 's , and Kitty at St Clare 's , and six in the Malory Towers series , New Term At Malory Towers , Summer Term At Malory Towers , Winter term At Malory Towers , Fun And Games At Malory Towers , Secrets At Malory Towers , and Goodbye Malory Towers .
= = Critical backlash = =
Blyton 's range of plots and settings has been described as limited and continually recycled . Responding to claims that her moral views were " dependably predictable " , Blyton commented that " most of you could write down perfectly correctly all the things that I believe in and stand for – you have found them in my books , and a writer 's books are always a faithful reflection of himself " . Many of her books were critically assessed by teachers and librarians , deemed unfit for children to read , and removed from syllabuses and public libraries .
From the 1930s to the 1950s the BBC operated a de facto ban on dramatising Blyton 's books for radio , considering her to be a " second @-@ rater " whose work was without literary merit . The children 's literary critic Margery Fisher likened Blyton 's books to " slow poison " , and Jean E. Sutcliffe of the BBC 's schools broadcast department wrote of Blyton 's ability to churn out " mediocre material " , noting that " her capacity to do so amounts to genius ... anyone else would have died of boredom long ago " . Michael Rosen , Children 's Laureate from 2007 until 2009 , wrote that " I find myself flinching at occasional bursts of snobbery and the assumed level of privilege of the children and families in the books . " The children 's author Anne Fine presented an overview of the concerns about Blyton 's work and responses to them on BBC Radio 4 in November 2008 , in which she noted the " drip , drip , drip of disapproval " associated with the books . Blyton 's response to her critics was that she was uninterested in the views of anyone over the age of 12 , claiming that half the attacks on her work were motivated by jealousy and the rest came from " stupid people who don 't know what they 're talking about because they 've never read any of my books " .
Although Blyton 's works have been banned from more public libraries than those of any other author , there is no evidence that the popularity of her books ever suffered , and by 1990 she was still described as being very widely read . Although some criticised her in the 1950s for the volume of work she produced , Blyton astutely capitalised on being considered a more " savoury " English alternative to what was seen by contemporaries as an invasion by American culture in the form of Disney and comics .
= = = Simplicity = = =
Some librarians felt that Blyton 's restricted use of language , a conscious product of her teaching background , was prejudicial to an appreciation of more literary qualities . In a scathing article published in Encounter in 1958 , the journalist Colin Welch remarked that it was " hard to see how a diet of Miss Blyton could help with the 11 @-@ plus or even with the Cambridge English Tripos " , but reserved his harshest criticism for Blyton 's Noddy , describing him as an " unnaturally priggish ... sanctimonious ... witless , spiritless , snivelling , sneaking doll . "
The author Nicholas Tucker notes that it was common to see Blyton cited as people 's favourite or least favourite author according to their age , and argues that her books create an " encapsulated world for young readers that simply dissolves with age , leaving behind only memories of excitement and strong identification " . Fred Inglis considers Blyton 's books to be technically easy to read , but to also be " emotionally and cognitively easy " . He mentions that the psychologist Michael Woods believed that Blyton was different from many other older authors writing for children in that she seemed untroubled by presenting them with a world that differed from reality . Woods surmised that Blyton " was a child , she thought as a child , and wrote as a child ... the basic feeling is essentially pre @-@ adolescent ... Enid Blyton has no moral dilemmas ... Inevitably Enid Blyton was labelled by rumour a child @-@ hater . If true , such a fact should come as no surprise to us , for as a child herself all other children can be nothing but rivals for her . " Inglis argues though that Blyton was clearly devoted to children and put an enormous amount of energy into her work , with a powerful belief in " representing the crude moral diagrams and garish fantasies of a readership " . Blyton 's daughter Imogen has stated that she " loved a relationship with children through her books " , but real children were an intrusion , and there was no room for intruders in the world that Blyton occupied through her writing .
= = = Racism , xenophobia and sexism = = =
Accusations of racism in Blyton 's books were first made by Lena Jeger in a Guardian article published in 1966 , in which she was critical of Blyton 's The Little Black Doll , published a few months earlier . Sambo , the black doll of the title , is hated by his owner and the other toys owing to his " ugly black face " , and runs away . A shower of rain washes his face clean , after which he is welcomed back home with his now pink face . Jamaica Kincaid also considers the Noddy books to be " deeply racist " because of the blonde children and the black golliwogs . In Blyton 's 1944 novel The Island of Adventure , a black servant named Jo @-@ Jo is very intelligent , but is particularly cruel to the children .
Accusations of xenophobia were also made . As George Greenfield observed , " Enid was very much part of that between @-@ the @-@ wars middle class which believed that foreigners were untrustworthy or funny or sometimes both " . The publisher Macmillan conducted an internal assessment of Blyton 's The Mystery That Never Was , submitted to them at the height of her fame in 1960 . The review was carried out by the author and books editor Phyllis Hartnoll , in whose view " There is a faint but unattractive touch of old @-@ fashioned xenophobia in the author 's attitude to the thieves ; they are ' foreign ' ... and this seems to be regarded as sufficient to explain their criminality . " Macmillan rejected the manuscript , but it was published by William Collins in 1961 , and then again in 1965 and 1983 .
Blyton 's depictions of boys and girls are considered by many critics to be sexist . In a Guardian article published in 2005 Lucy Mangan proposed that The Famous Five series depicts a power struggle between Julian , Dick and George ( Georgina ) , in which the female characters either act like boys or are talked down to , as when Dick lectures George : " it 's really time you gave up thinking you 're as good as a boy " .
= = = Revisions to later editions = = =
To address criticisms levelled at Blyton 's work some later editions have been altered to reflect more liberal attitudes towards issues such as race , gender and the treatment of children ; modern reprints of the Noddy series substitute teddy bears or goblins for golliwogs , for instance . The golliwogs who steal Noddy 's car and dump him naked in the Dark Wood in Here Comes Noddy Again are replaced by goblins in the 1986 revision , who strip Noddy only of his shoes and hat and return at the end of the story to apologise .
The Faraway Tree 's Dame Slap , who made regular use of corporal punishment , was changed to Dame Snap who no longer did so , and the names of Dick and Fanny in the same series were changed to Rick and Frannie . Characters in the Malory Towers and St. Clare 's series are no longer spanked or threatened with a spanking , but are instead scolded . References to George 's short hair making her look like a boy were removed in revisions to Five on a Hike Together , reflecting the idea that girls need not have long hair to be considered feminine or normal .
In 2010 Hodder , the publisher of the Famous Five series , announced its intention to update the language used in the books , of which it sold more than half a million copies a year . The changes , which Hodder described as " subtle " , mainly affect the dialogue rather than the narrative . For instance , " school tunic " becomes " uniform " , " mother and father " becomes " mum and dad " , " bathing " is replaced by " swimming " , and " jersey " by " jumper " . Some commentators see the changes as necessary to encourage modern readers , whereas others regard them as unnecessary and patronising .
= = Stage , film and TV adaptations = =
In 1954 Blyton adapted Noddy for the stage , producing the Noddy in Toyland pantomime in just two or three weeks . The production was staged at the 2660 @-@ seat Stoll Theatre in Kingsway , London at Christmas . Its popularity resulted in the show running during the Christmas season for five or six years . Blyton was delighted with its reception by children in the audience , and attended the theatre three or four times a week . TV adaptations of Noddy since 1954 include one in the 1970s narrated by Richard Briers . In 1955 a stage play based on the Famous Five was produced , and in January 1997 the King 's Head Theatre embarked on a six @-@ month tour of the UK with The Famous Five Musical , to commemorate Blyton 's centenary . On 21 November 1998 The Secret Seven Save the World was first performed at the Sherman Theatre in Cardiff .
There have also been several film and television adaptations of the Famous Five : by the Children 's Film Foundation in 1957 and 1964 , Southern Television in 1978 – 79 , and Zenith Productions in 1995 – 97 . The series was also adapted for the German film Fünf Freunde , directed by Mike Marzuk and released in 2011 .
The Comic Strip , a group of British comedians , produced two extreme parodies of the Famous Five for Channel 4 television : Five Go Mad in Dorset , broadcast in 1982 , and Five Go Mad on Mescalin , broadcast the following year . A third in the series , Five Go to Rehab , was broadcast on Sky in 2012 .
In October 2014 it was announced that a deal had been signed with publishers Hachette for " The Faraway Tree " series to be adapted into a live action film by director Sam Mendes ’ production company . Marlene Johnson , head of children ’ s books at Hachette , said : " Enid Blyton was a passionate advocate of children ’ s storytelling , and The Magic Faraway Tree is a fantastic example of her creative imagination . "
= = Papers = =
Seven Stories , the National Centre for Children 's Books in Newcastle upon Tyne , holds the largest public collection of Blyton 's papers and typescripts . The Seven Stories collection contains a significant number of Blyton 's typescripts , including the previously unpublished novel , Mr Tumpy 's Caravan , as well as personal papers and diaries . The purchase of the material in 2010 was made possible by special funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund , the MLA / V & A Purchase Grant Fund , and two private donations .
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= Hurricane Bridget ( 1971 ) =
Hurricane Bridget of June 1971 was one of the worst hurricanes to strike the Mexican city of Acapulco . It formed on June 14 as a tropical depression , which is a minimal tropical cyclone with winds less than gale force . However , it was soon upgraded to a tropical storm , and Bridget steadily intensified to become a hurricane on June 15 . After peaking at Category 2 intensity , it weakened to a tropical storm on June 17 , then made landfall in Mexico . Hours later , however , it turned offshore as a tropical depression . Bridget dissipated on June 20 after leaving heavy damage and 17 deaths in the Acapulco area .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the hurricane were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on June 3 . Around four days later the system entered the Caribbean Sea , passing over the San Andres islands on June 12 . The area of convection , or thunderstorms , spread across Central America . A surface circulation developed offshore El Salvador , and the system formed into a tropical depression on June 14 . For much of the summer of 1971 , a large pool of anomalously warm water temperatures extended from Central America to the Gulf of California off the Mexican coast , reaching 89 @.@ 6 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . This allowed for steady intensification as it tracked through the Gulf of Tehuantepec .
Early on June 15 , a ship reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) seas , which prompted the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) to upgrade the depression to Tropical Storm Bridget . The storm maintained a general northwest track toward the southwest Mexican coastline . It gradually intensified , and satellite images late on June 16 indicated that Bridget attained hurricane status about 55 mi ( 95 km ) southwest of Puerto Ángel , Oaxaca . It quickly intensified as it neared the coast , reaching winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) just southwest of Acapulco coastline before weakening . Bridget paralleled the Mexican coastline just offshore before making landfall at 1200 UTC on June 17 , about 100 mi ( 160 km ) southeast of Manzanillo , Colima . The hurricane rapidly weakened over the mountainous terrain , emerging into the Pacific Ocean as a tropical depression after being over land for only a few hours . Bridget turned westward as a weak tropical cyclone , eventually dissipating on June 20 to the south of the Baja California peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
While passing to the southwest of Acapulco , Bridget produced heavy rainfall and strong wind gusts reaching 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . The winds damaged or destroyed many roofs across Acapulco , signs , and windows . Strong winds also downed trees and power lines , which left most of Acapulco without electricity . Along the coast , the hurricane produced high tides and waves which flooded low @-@ lying coastal areas with around 1 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) of water . The high tides damaged coastal properties and destroyed 21 boats , including the flagship of the Admiral of the Mexican Navy . Debris @-@ clogged drains caused drainage facilities to exceed their capacities following the heavy rainfall . Overall , the storm killed 17 people in the region , and caused five additional injuries .
Damage in the area around Acapulco was estimated at around 500 million pesos ( $ 40 million USD ) . This made it the worst hurricane to hit the city in at least 25 years . Where Bridget made its final landfall , no damage reports were available due to the sparse population of the area .
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= Yadier Molina =
Yadier Benjamin Molina ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ʝaˈdjer moˈlina ] ; born July 13 , 1982 ) , also known as " Yadi " , is a Puerto Rican professional baseball catcher for the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . A two @-@ time World Series champion , he is considered an essential figure in the Cardinals ' postseason success , with nine appearances in his twelve seasons . Other awards realized include seven consecutive selections to the All Star Game , eight consecutive Rawlings Gold Glove Awards , and one Silver Slugger Award . He has accrued more than 1 @,@ 500 hits , 100 home runs , 600 runs batted in , and a .283 batting average . He became the all @-@ time Cardinals ' leader in games caught with his 1,439th on April 8 , 2016 .
Coming from a baseball family , Molina grew up in Vega Alta , Puerto Rico . His father was an amateur second baseman in Puerto Rico , and his two older brothers , Bengie and José , were also major league catchers . Molina 's pitch @-@ handling and throwing skills originally caught the attention of scouts before being drafted . The Cardinals ' fourth round selection in the 2000 MLB draft , he made his MLB debut four years later , quickly garnering a reputation for possessing one of the strongest and most accurate arms in the game . As of 2014 , he had thrown out 44 % of runners attempting a stolen base over his career and led active MLB catchers with 55 pickoffs . Molina also formulates fielder positioning plans and complete pitching strategies to opposing hitters , earning a reputation as an on @-@ field leader .
Initially considered a light hitter , Molina significantly improved his offense and raised his career batting average from .248 in 2007 . As of 2014 , he had a .290 career batting average in the postseason . In 2006 , he became just the third catcher to play in two World Series before age 25 , following Johnny Bench and Yogi Berra . He also played for Puerto Rico in all three tournaments of the World Baseball Classic . Molina is under contract through 2017 .
= = Early life = =
Molina was born in Bayamón , Puerto Rico , to Gladys Matta and Benjamín Molina , Sr. and attended Maestro Ladíslao Martínez High School in Vega Alta . Molina 's father played second base as an amateur and worked as a tools technician ten hours per day in a Westinghouse factory . He was a .320 lifetime hitter and the all @-@ time hits leader in the Doble @-@ A Beísbol league , gaining election to the Puerto Rican baseball hall of fame in 2002 . Molina 's two older brothers , Bengie and José , eventually also became major league catchers . Each day when he completed work , Molina directly went home , ate dinner and crossed the street from his family 's home with his sons to Jesús Mambe Kuilan Park , where he spent countless evening hours teaching them the fundamentals of the sport . He remained hopeful that his sons would become professional baseball players .
Molina 's catching aptitude showed as early as age five , and he developed quickly . Nonetheless , he played all over the baseball field , and as Bengie Molina recalled , always seemed to " be the first player taken in the youth league draft . " Molina concentrated on infield positions until about age 16 , when he began developing into the familiar Molina physique ; as of 2013 , he stood 5 ' 11 " and weighed 220 pounds .
Molina 's father also sought to accelerate him on the diamond . Following a suspension from his youth league about age 15 , Benjamín Molina anticipated the desistance would stagnate his development , so he searched for an alternative . Against the wishes of coaches , family members and friends , he scheduled Yadier for a workout with the Hatillo Tigres , an amateur league team . Molina made the team after a single workout and immediately became the starting catcher . The Tigres ' first baseman , Luis Rosario , was the one that recommended him to the organization . The Tigres played in a league composed mainly of players ten or more years older than Molina , well before he was eligible for the Major League Baseball draft .
= = Scouting and minor leagues = =
Minnesota Twins scout Edwin Rodríguez scrutinized Molina starting in high school . He observed that Molina 's skills closely resembled that of both his older brothers – both accomplished major league catchers – and decided that his defense was " polished " enough to be considered more advanced than most high schoolers in the United States . However , Molina 's hitting lagged behind his defense . The initial report on his skill set was " defensive catcher , great arm , weak bat " ; his closest comparable hitter as catcher was one who the Cardinals eventually placed at the top of their organizational ladder , and his future manager , Mike Matheny . Before he was drafted , Molina worked out for the Cincinnati Reds . He put on a spectacle at Riverfront Stadium with his arm and bat that grabbed the attention of executives , scouts , and prominent former Reds who attended his workout , including Johnny Bench and Bob Boone . As Molina recalled , he left the session with the impression the Reds intended to draft him .
Undeterred by the universal reservations about his offensive ceiling , the St. Louis Cardinals instead took Molina in the fourth round of the 2000 MLB draft and signed him for $ 325 @,@ 000 . In the spring training following his draft , the young catcher was described as " raw " and purposed with fascination to emulate Matheny . Matheny , in turn , told his wife one day that he " saw the kid that 's going to steal [ his ] job . "
In that extended spring training , longtime Cardinals instructor Dave Ricketts observed Molina from a golf cart during a game as he was still learning how to catch ; he had been transitioning from third base . After allowing a passed ball through his legs with a runner on third base , Molina raced to the backstop to retrieve the ball . Still hoping to prevent the runner from scoring , he instead found Ricketts in the golf cart parked on top of home plate . Ricketts had a reputation for getting upset when Cardinals minor league catchers allowed balls to bounce between their legs ; for this , he removed Molina from the game and drove him to the batting cage . There , Ricketts batted 150 to 200 ground balls , as Molina estimated , to improve the young catcher 's ability to block pitches .
Molina began his professional career with the Johnson City Cardinals of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League in 2001 , playing 44 total games and batting .259 . He advanced one level in each of four seasons in the minor leagues . Even without highly developed offensive skills , Molina proved difficult to strike out . Mainly a singles hitter who favored hitting the ball the other way , he batted .278 with 14 home runs and 133 runs batted in ( RBI ) with 118 strikeouts in 1 @,@ 044 at bats in four minor league seasons . In his first three seasons , he threw out 111 base runners attempting to steal while allowing 133 stolen bases , for a caught @-@ stealing percentage of 45 % .
= = St. Louis Cardinals ( 2004 – present ) = =
= = = 2004 – 06 = = =
Molina 's first chance in the Major Leagues arrived when incumbent Matheny went on the disabled list ( DL ) with a strained rib in the Cardinals ' pennant @-@ winning season of 2004 . Molina made his Major League debut on June 3 . One of his first game @-@ winning hits occurred on August 7 . He stroked a broken @-@ bat single to shallow center field in the bottom of the ninth inning against the New York Mets that center fielder Mike Cameron did not recognize had splintered , allowing Jim Edmonds to score . Three weeks later ( August 29 ) , the Cardinals were victorious over the Pittsburgh Pirates 6 – 4 thanks in part to two separate plays in which Molina tagged out the runner at home plate , including a collision with Ty Wigginton .
Molina appeared in 51 regular @-@ season games and batted .267 with two home runs and 15 RBI in 151 plate appearances . He made an immediate impact with his arm , throwing out more than 50 % percent of would @-@ be basestealers ( nine of 17 ) . In the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , manager Tony La Russa elected to start Molina over Matheny in Game 4 . The Red Sox swept the Cardinals and claimed the title that game , their first in 86 years . The following offseason , Matheny signed a three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 5 @-@ million contract with the San Francisco Giants , clearing the way for Molina to become the Cardinals ' starting catcher .
In 2005 , Molina struggled with injuries and saw a drop off in the offensive performance in his rookie season . He doubled and scored on David Eckstein 's go @-@ ahead single on his way to three hits in a June 12 defeat of the New York Yankees , 5 – 3 . Molina returned from a 33 @-@ game absence on August 19 induced by a hairline fracture of his left fifth metacarpal bone from being hit by a pitch on July 7 . Starting pitcher Chris Carpenter , attempting to extend a winning streak to ten games on an August 20 game versus the San Francisco Giants , found himself in a 4 – 0 deficit in the ninth inning . Capped by Molina 's three @-@ run home run , the Cardinals rallied and won 5 – 4 in the ninth . The next day , Molina 's suicide squeeze bunt scored Mark Grudzielanek , tying the game and allowing the Cardinals to win 4 – 2 . Those were just two wins of 100 as St. Louis made their way to another division title following 105 wins the season before .
In 114 games , Molina posted a .252 batting average with eight home runs and 49 RBI with just 30 strikeouts in 421 plate appearances . Defensively , he registered career @-@ highs of nine pickoffs and a 64 % caught @-@ stealing percentage from throwing out 25 of 39 would @-@ be basestealers . According to Baseball @-@ Reference.com , as of 2013 , that percentage ranked as the 26th @-@ highest all @-@ time season @-@ single caught stealing percentage . Further , it was the second @-@ highest figure since 1957 ; only Mike LaValliere 's 1993 figure of 72 @.@ 7 % was higher during that time period .
Before the 2006 season commenced , Molina participated in the inaugural World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) for Puerto Rico . After returning to the Cardinals , he changed his jersey number from 41 to 4 . However , the regular season presented some of his greatest offensive challenges as he struggled through a career @-@ worst .216 batting average in 461 regular @-@ season plate appearances . In fact , in a culmination of a three @-@ year downward trend in his offense , Molina 's on @-@ base plus slugging percentages declined from .684 in 2004 , .654 in 2005 and a career @-@ worst .595 in 2006 . The low batting average was due in part to a deflated batting average on balls in play ( BABIP ) of .226 ( normal is around .300 ) , a career low .
In a May 27 game against the San Diego Padres at Petco Park in San Diego with the Cardinals holding a 4 – 3 lead in the bottom of the ninth , Molina picked Brian Giles off first to end the game , the first pickoff to end a major league game in nearly four years . The Cardinals faced the Padres again in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) playoff game in the playoffs , he again picked a Padre off at first , this time Mike Piazza , while bailing pitcher Jeff Suppan out of a jam . For the season , he caught 41 % of all base @-@ stealing attempts and picked off seven runners .
Even as his bat languished , Molina 's defense was instrumental in propelling the Cardinals to the National League Central division crown in a season heavily marred by injuries . However , the following playoffs marked a turning point in his career offensive output . He posted a .358 composite batting average , .424 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , two home runs and eight RBI in 16 games as the Cardinals reached the World Series . He batted .308 in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , .348 in the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) and .412 in the World Series .
One of Molina 's landmark playoff performances came in Game 7 of the NLCS against the New York Mets , the final game of the series tied at three games each . Starting in the top of the ninth , he batted with a 1 – 1 score . In the sixth inning , Mets left fielder Endy Chávez had prevented the Cardinals from taking the lead when he leapt to catch Scott Rolen 's near @-@ miss home run over the center field fence . This time , however , Molina hit a two @-@ run home run off Aaron Heilman over center field that was too high for Chávez to catch and gave the Cardinals a 3 – 1 edge .
In the bottom of the ninth , rookie pitcher Adam Wainwright – filling in as an emergency closer – found himself in a two @-@ out , bases @-@ loaded situation against center fielder Carlos Beltrán , who had already homered three times in the NLCS . Molina called for a mound conference . Initially , he wanted a sinker from Wainwright but changed his mind because he suspected he would overthrow it and give Beltrán an easy pitch to hit . He made an unconventional choice by calling for a changeup to start the sequence against Beltrán . It was called for a strike . Had Beltrán successfully got a base hit , the scheme may have caused tension for the third @-@ year catcher with La Russa and pitching coach Dave Duncan because throwing a first @-@ pitch changeup ran contrary to Duncan 's teaching . Molina then called for two curveballs . Beltrán fouled off the first , but Wainwright struck him out looking at a " bender that started up and away and bit hard to the low inside corner " for the final out of the game . The Cardinals ' conquest of the NLCS gave them a return trip to the World Series after two years . They proceeded to defeat the Detroit Tigers in five games , giving Molina his first championship ring . His mask was turned in for display at the Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = = 2007 – 09 = = =
Batting out of the number @-@ five spot in the batting order for the first time in his career on Opening Day , 2007 , Molina collected two hits . In a game against the Milwaukee Brewers on April 15 , Molina picked Prince Fielder off first base as he leaned far off the bag , tipping off Molina and first baseman Albert Pujols to a hit and run the Brewers were planning . Four days later , Molina faced his brother Bengie for the first time in a game against the San Francisco Giants . It was also the first time they had seen each other in about three and one @-@ half years .
From May 1 to May 24 , Molina strung together a then @-@ career high 15 @-@ game hitting streak , during which he batted .373 . It was the longest streak for a Cardinals catcher since Erik Pappas ' 16 @-@ game streak in 1993 . Molina was absent for most of the month of June due of a fractured left wrist . In the third inning of the May 29 game against Colorado , he took a foul tip off his wrist from Rockies right fielder Brad Hawpe 's bat . After missing 26 games , the Cardinals activated him from the disabled list on June 28 .
The first multi @-@ error game of Molina 's career occurred July 13 against the Philadelphia Phillies on a catch and throw . In a span of 11 starts from August 2 – 16 , he racked up four three @-@ hit games . On August 16 , he hit two home runs against the Brewers for his first career multi @-@ homer game . Molina homered and stroked the go @-@ ahead double in an August 22 defeat of Florida . One week later , he homered in back @-@ to @-@ back games against the Cincinnati Reds ; he , Edmonds , and Rick Ankiel each drove in three runs in an 11 – 3 victory on September 2 . On Yadier Molina Bobblehead Night September 19 versus Philadelphia , he stroked three hits including the game @-@ winning single in the tenth inning .
Molina suffered a concussion in September and underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair torn cartilage in his right knee . The knee surgery ended his season early on September 24 . In Molina 's final 50 games , he successfully collected 49 hits in 158 AB for a .310 AVG . Of his final 35 starts , 12 were multi @-@ hit games . His .281 batting average after the All @-@ Star break ranked fifth among NL catchers . He finished the season with a new career @-@ best .275 batting average , six home runs , and 40 RBI in 111 games . He threw out 50 % ( 23 of 46 ) baserunners attempting to steal , the highest percentage in the majors . From 2005 – 07 , he led all MLB with a 47 % caught @-@ stealing rate and 18 pick @-@ offs .
On January 14 , 2008 , Molina and the Cardinals agreed to a four @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 5 million deal with a club option for a fifth , cementing his position as their starting catcher . He reported to spring training having lost 15 pounds and in improved physical shape from rehabilitating following knee surgery . He started the season with an Opening Day home run and seven @-@ game hitting streak . After a home plate collision with Eric Bruntlett on June 15 against the Philadelphia Phillies in the ninth inning , Molina sustained head and neck injuries and was removed from the field on a stretcher . There were no indications of a concussion . He held on to the ball to help the Cardinals win . He missed the next four games . To that point , Molina was batting .295 with three home runs and 24 RBI . He also had thrown out 10 of 32 baserunners ( 31 @.@ 3 % ) – well below his career average of 45 % – but an Associated Press reporter attributed the decline to an inexperienced pitching staff .
Molina returned to the field against Boston at Fenway Park as the designated hitter . In that game , his solo home run provided the difference in a 5 – 4 Cardinals victory . It was also the first game of the first of two 13 @-@ game hitting streaks for the season . His first career start at first base , also against Boston , occurred two days later . During that streak , he collected 17 hits in 47 at @-@ bats for a .362 batting average . The second hitting streak spanned from August 16 to September 2 , where he successfully hit 19 times in 50 at bats for a .380 average . On September 2 , he and Felipe López hit consecutive home runs against the Arizona Diamondbacks en route to an 8 – 2 victory .
Overall , Molina enjoyed a breakout offensive season , finishing with new career highs with a .304 batting average – his first over .300 – and in hits ( 135 ) , OBP ( .349 ) , SLG ( .392 ) , runs ( 37 ) and RBI ( 56 ) . Of all catchers in franchise history with at least 450 PA in a season , he became just the second ever , after Simmons , to bat over .300 ; it was then the fourth @-@ best season batting average ; and , his 29 strikeouts were the fewest since Simmons fanned 20 times in 1976 . Molina led the team and was sixth in the NL with a .340 batting average with runners in scoring position . For the season , he successfully caught 35 % of opposing baserunners , still higher than the league average of 27 % . He led all MLB with seven pickoffs . That November , Molina received his first Gold Glove Award , becoming the third Cardinal catcher ever to win the honor , after Tom Pagnozzi and Matheny .
Before the 2009 season commenced , Molina participated with Puerto Rico in his second WBC . When the event concluded , he returned to the Cardinals . In an April 16 game against the Arizona Diamondbacks , he reached base in all five of his plate appearances in a 12 – 7 victory . Starting pitcher Joel Piñeiro – struggling with his fastball command in previous starts – experimented with a sinker and shut out the New York Mets on June 24 with just two hits . Molina erased a Mets runner by throwing out Luis Castillo attempting to steal second base . Molina was batting .278 with five home runs and 25 RBI through July 5 , 2009 . He was selected through fan vote to represent the Cardinals in the All @-@ Star Game in St. Louis ' Busch Stadium – his first All @-@ Star Game . As the top vote @-@ getter among NL catchers with 2 @,@ 641 @,@ 467 votes , Molina was named the NL 's starting catcher . He caught eight innings and drove home a run .
Following the All @-@ Star break on July 18 , Molina 's four hits and Albert Pujols ' two home runs helped cap Chris Carpenter 's 6 – 1 victory over the Diamondbacks , who pitched around nine runners on base in eight innings . On August 15 , Molina picked off San Diego 's Kevin Kouzmanoff at first on the way to a 7 – 4 victory , the 33rd of his career . At that point , Bill James Online rated that Molina saved his team fifteen total runs from pickoffs alone in his career .
A sore left knee sustained after taking a foul ball of his kneecap temporarily disabled Molina on September 26 . He was back in action on October 1 against Cincinnati , although he was removed from that game due to a " tweaked " knee . He finished the season with a .293 batting average , six home runs , 54 RBI , and a major league @-@ leading 136 games caught , the highest franchise total since Ted Simmons ' total in 1977 . His strikeout rate of once every 13 @.@ 9 PA was the second @-@ lowest in the NL . While accumulating 39 mult @-@ hit games , the Cardinals won 27 of them . He led the major leagues with eight pickoffs and was second in the NL in innings caught . He also won his second Gold Glove award after the season . The Sporting News announced that major league managers and coaches had selected Molina for the magazine 's end @-@ of @-@ season All @-@ Star award . For the first time in his career , Molina earned Most Valuable Player Award ( MVP ) consideration . He finished tied for 23rd with Miguel Tejada with one percent of the vote share .
= = = 2010 – 11 = = =
On Opening Day , April 5 , 2010 , Molina connected for a grand slam , becoming just the third Cardinals player to hit an Opening Day grand slam , following Mark McGwire and Scott Rolen . On April 17 , he caught all 20 innings of a game against the Mets . Molina turned in a productive April , driving in 15 runners , the most for a Cardinals catcher in the month of April since Ted Simmons drove in 20 in 1977 . He also continued his productivity with the bases loaded that month , collecting four hits and 11 RBI in five at bats .
Before the All @-@ Star break , Molina batted just .223 . However , he was voted to start his second consecutive game , and second overall , and played four innings . After the All @-@ Star break , his hitting improved , as he stroked 63 hits in 200 at bats for .315 batting average . During a game against the Cincinnati Reds on August 10 , as second baseman Brandon Phillips came to bat , he exchanged words with Molina that escalated to a bench @-@ clearing confrontation , although no one was ejected . On September 17 , he amassed a career @-@ high five RBI and career @-@ tying four hits against San Diego , including two doubles . After an examination on his sore right knee on September 23 , Molina was shut down for the rest of the season , missing 12 games .
The final batting results for Molina 's 2010 season consisted of a .262 batting average , six home runs , and 62 RBI . He ranked as the fourth toughest in the NL to strike out with 10 @.@ 2 at bats per strikeout . He led all NL catchers in at @-@ bats ( 465 ) and stolen bases ( eight ) , and his 122 hits ranked second , just behind Brian McCann 's 123 . He was tops in the NL with 24 bases @-@ loaded RBI , collecting eight hits in 15 AB for a .533 batting average in those situations . He also was first in the Majors with a .455 batting average ( 10 – 22 ) on 0 – 2 counts . He led all MLB catchers in innings ( 1138 @.@ 0 ) , games started ( 130 ) and assists ( 79 ) , and led the NL for the third time in caught @-@ stealing percentage at 49 % . On November 1 , he won his fourth consecutive Fielding Bible Award as the sole catcher . In addition , Molina became the first player at any position to win the award unanimously with a perfect score of 100 . Nine days later , he was awarded his third consecutive Gold Glove Award .
With increased offensive productivity in 2011 , Molina continued to help anchor the middle of Cardinals lineup in addition to the pitching staff and defense . From May 15 to May 18 , he put together four consecutive multi @-@ hit games . Selected to his third consecutive All @-@ Star Game , he substituted for the starter , McCann , played four innings and doubled in his only at @-@ bat . Molina hit safety in 14 consecutive games from July 21 to August 11 , one fewer than his career high . From July 22 – 25 , he homered in three consecutive games , the second time in his career he had done so .
On August 2 , Molina was ejected from a game against the Milwaukee Brewers for arguing a called strike . He bumped umpire Rob Drake in the chest multiple times and appeared to spit upon him . Molina later apologized , stating that he did not intend to spit on the umpire and that he " was caught up in the moment . That 's what happens when you 're caught up in the race and trying to win . I didn 't handle it the right way . " He served a five @-@ game suspension handed down by MLB for " making contact with umpire Rob Drake multiple times and spraying him with spit twice while arguing . "
Although the Cardinals stayed competitive , they were , at best , on the fringes of making the playoffs through August . As of August 28 , with a 70 – 64 record , they faced a 10 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ game deficit to the Braves for the wild card playoff berth with 28 left to play . Molina provided a spark to the offense in the close of the season , batting .342 in August and .341 in September . With his 30th double on September 21 , he became the fourth catcher in Cardinals history to reach that milestone , following Simmons , Bob O 'Farrell and Walker Cooper .
St. Louis won 20 of 28 games to finish the season , allowing them to tie the Braves for the wild card lead going into the final day . Molina caught Carpenter 's 8 – 0 shutout of the Astros , the final game of the regular season . Meanwhile , the Philles defeated the Braves 4 – 3 in 13 innings , giving the Cardinals the wild card title and eliminating the Braves from the playoffs . The 10 1 ⁄ 2 games @-@ won deficit marked the largest lead surrendered with 28 left to play in MLB history , consummating what St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sportswriter Bernie Miklasz termed an " improbable comeback , " and one of the greatest sports history . It was just the first in a series of improbable comebacks for the Cardinals in 2011 .
Molina compiled a .305 batting average , 32 doubles , 14 home runs and 65 RBI during the 2011 regular season . His batting average led the Cardinals and was eighth in the NL . However , his posted a career @-@ low 29 % caught @-@ stealing percentage . His OPS + ( 126 ) , batting average , and hit totals led NL catchers , doubles placed second and RBI third . His .337 batting average following the All @-@ Star Break tied for seventh in the NL . He also led all NL catchers with 12 three @-@ hit games , and collated 39 multi @-@ hit games and 13 multi @-@ RBI games .
By making the playoffs , Molina became the first catcher in franchise history to appear in five postseasons for the Cardinals . He batted .333 in the NLCS against Milwaukee , including five hits in eight AB in the final two games . In Game 1 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers , Molina threw out Ian Kinsler attempting to steal in the first inning on the way to a 3 – 2 win . It was the Rangers ' only attempted steal of the game . That caught stealing gave Molina five in seven total chances in the 2011 postseason to that point ; the Rangers had been tied with the Cardinals for most steals in that postseason . For the series , the Rangers attempted to steal four bases and were successful just once . In Game 3 , Molina accumulated four RBI , and two more each in Games 6 and 7 .
The Cardinals won the Series in seven games , giving Molina his second championship ring . He batted .333 and set a team World Series record with nine RBI . It was the highest World Series RBI total among catchers since Sandy Alomar , Jr . , drove in 10 in 1997 . Molina started all 18 games and played every inning in that 2011 playoff run , including one at first . Overall , he batted .299 with five doubles and 12 RBI . His 20 hits were the most by a catcher in the postseason since Iván Rodríguez stroked 21 in 2003 . On November 1 , Molina won his fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award , becoming just the fifth catcher on a pennant @-@ winning club to lead his position in OPS + in his league while winning a Gold Glove . He also won the first @-@ ever National League Rawlings Platinum Glove Award , bestowed upon one player in each league . For the second time in his career , he won MVP consideration ; he finished tied for 21st for the NL MVP balloting .
= = = 2012 = = =
On March 1 , 2012 , Molina signed a five @-@ year extension with the Cardinals worth $ 75 million through 2017 . The contract included a $ 1 million signing bonus , no @-@ trade clause , and a mutual option for 2018 worth another $ 15 million . The deal made him the second @-@ highest @-@ paid catcher in the majors . He collected his tenth career four @-@ hit game against the Brewers on April 29 with a two @-@ run home run that led the Cardinals to a 7 – 3 win . On May 1 , Molina mounted the first of two two @-@ stolen base games of the season ; the other occurred August 3 .
On May 27 against the Phillies , Molina blasted his third career grand slam against Roy Halladay . His made his 1,000th career appearance in an MLB game against the Chicago White Sox on June 12 . From July 25 to August 7 , he maintained a season @-@ best 11 @-@ game hitting streak in which he batted .413 . In a game against Pittsburgh at PNC Park on August 28 , he sustained head , neck and back injuries – although no concussion – in a second @-@ inning home plate collision with second baseman Josh Harrison . In August , he batted .403 with a .453 OBP , both tied for third in the NL . As the season progressed , he garnered widespread consideration for the National League MVP award . On September 4 , Molina collected his 1,000th career hit , an infield single against the Mets at home in the second inning .
The 2012 season was one of Molina 's crowning achievements as a hitter , especially considering early professional scouting reports did not forecast his bat being much of a factor in the major leagues . He set new career highs in multiple offensive categories , including a .315 batting average , 22 home runs , 76 RBI , 65 runs scored , .373 OBP , .501 slugging percentage and 12 stolen bases . He led the team in batting average for the second straight season , thus becoming the first catcher in franchise history to do so .
Panning Molina 's performance National League @-@ wide , he ranked fourth batting , tenth in OBP , 14th in SLG and tied for 18th with 46 multihit games . He led NL catchers in stolen bases and set a Cardinals single @-@ season record for catchers , and ranked second among NL catchers in HR and third in RBI and batting average . An aggressive hitter , he batted .380 with seven HR on the first pitch ; the HR total on first pitches ranked seventh in the NL . His 32 baserunners caught stealing topped MLB , 47 @.@ 9 caught stealing percentage ranked second , and three pickoffs tied for first in the NL and were second in MLB .
From a historic perspective , Fangraphs ' Dave Cameron noted that Molina 's combination of offensive productivity and interception of base runners in 2012 was one of the rarest performances in history . He became just the ninth MLB catcher to post a season with a weighted runs created ( WRC + ) factor of 140 and 45 percent of runners caught stealing . At 143 , his WRC + was tied for eighth all @-@ time among catchers with at 45 % of base runners caught stealing . Further , those figures aligned with peak seasons of other catchers such as Johnny Bench , Elston Howard , Carlton Fisk , and Rick Wilkins .
After being the subject of much speculation for the MVP award throughout the season , Molina ultimately finished fourth . He and winner Buster Posey became the first pair of catchers to finish in the top four in the award 's 88 @-@ year history . However , like in years past , other awards were on their way . In November , he won his fifth straight Gold Glove award , making him the first Cardinal since Jim Edmonds to win that many consecutively , which Edmonds did in 2004 . On December 4 , he won his first GIBBY Award for Defensive Player of the Year . The St. Louis chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) named him the St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year for 2012 . In a Los Angeles Times report that published the top MLB jersey sales from the All @-@ Star break until October 1 , his jersey ranked 18th .
= = = 2013 = = =
With increased profile coming in conjunction with his offensive breakout from the year before , Molina 's popularity with fans around the game also increased . Following his 2012 fourth @-@ place MVP finish , his 2013 in @-@ season jersey sales rose to third place , just after Posey and retiring New York Yankees closer Mariano Rivera , according to a July 11 report . On June 2 he was ejected by 1st base umpire Clint Fagan for throwing his helmet . Molina collected two doubles in a three @-@ hit game on June 12 , giving him 21 doubles for the season , a pre @-@ All @-@ Star break career high . It was also the second @-@ highest pre @-@ All @-@ Star break total in franchise history following Ted Simmons ' 29 thirty @-@ five years earlier . That three @-@ hit game also gave Molina 78 for his career , tied for 43 on the all @-@ time list for catchers .
Through July 15 , Molina led the NL with a .341 ( 110 hits in 323 at @-@ bats ) batting average . In the final All @-@ Star Game balloting , Molina ( 6 @,@ 883 @,@ 258 votes ) edged out Posey ( 6 @,@ 474 @,@ 088 ) for the role of the NL 's starting catcher in the game held at Citi Field in Queens , New York City . The Cardinals placed Molina on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on July 31 due to a right knee sprain . At the time he went on the DL , Molina was batting .330 with eight homers , thirty doubles , and 54 RBI . A magnetic resonance image ( MRI ) indicated inflammation but no structural damage , so the knee was drained of excess fluid buildup and Molina was given a cortisone injection .
The knee injury impacted his batting average , contributing to a late @-@ season slump . On September 16 , Molina collected four hits with three runs scored to help the Cardinals to a 12 – 2 win over the Seattle Mariners and break an 0 – 15 slump , raising his batting average to .317 . Eight days later , Molina was behind the plate to call rookie Michael Wacha 's one @-@ hit , 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings of shutout work in a 2 – 0 victory over the Washington Nationals . It was actually a no @-@ hitter through that point until Ryan Zimmerman broke it up with a high @-@ bouncing ground ball that glanced off Wacha 's glove for the Nationals ' only hit of the game .
For the year , Molina set new career highs in batting average ( .319 ) , doubles ( 44 ) , runs scored ( 68 ) , and RBI ( 80 ) . He also hit .373 with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) in a season in which the Cardinals set the all @-@ team team record for batting average with RISP at .330 . He finished fourth in the NL in batting average , second in doubles and sixth in batting average with RISP . His 44 doubles were the most in the Major Leagues among catchers since Iván Rodríguez ' 47 in 1996 .
Molina was also noted for his handling of the pitching staff . The Cardinals overcame losing key pitchers Chris Carpenter , Jason Motte , and Jaime García – among others – early in the season by substituting twelve rookie pitchers en route to winning a competitive NL Central division title over the Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds ( each team finished with at least 90 wins ) . A continuously evolving core exceeded expectations by filling in for 52 games started , 36 wins , and five saves and Molina was credited with their success in a large part due to his pitch @-@ calling skills and aptness to guide . The rookies ' 36 wins were the most in franchise history since 1941 .
The Cardinals squared off against the Pirates in the NLDS . Two weeks removed from just missing a no @-@ hitter , Wacha again nearly repeated the feat with Molina behind the plate in an elimination game , Game 4 . Molina threw out pinch runner Josh Harrison attempting to steal second base in the eighth inning to help the Cardinals preserve a 2 – 1 lead . In the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , Molina became just the ninth player – and the first in the expansion era – in franchise history to appear in four World Series with the club , and the first since Stan Musial in the 1946 World Series , also against the Red Sox . Molina collected more awards following the season , including his first Silver Slugger Award , sixth Gold Glove , and a third @-@ place finish in MVP voting . Molina was a co @-@ winner , along with Wainwright and Matt Carpenter , for the BBWAA St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year .
= = = 2014 = = =
Along with three other players each separately displayed , Sports Illustrated featured Molina on the cover of their March 31 issue complementing the 2014 MLB season preview article . On the 2014 Opening Day – the same day Sports Illustrated published the Molina cover edition – he stroked his second season @-@ entry home run and the 90th of his career , accounting for the difference in a 1 – 0 defeat of the Reds in Cincinnati . It also secured the 100th win for batterymate Adam Wainwright . Molina added a single for two of the Cardinals ' five hits .
With a one ball , two strike pitch from relief pitcher Randy Choate incoming to Cubs outfielder Nate Schierholtz in a May 4 game , the batter foul tipped the pitch . Instead of Molina being in a position to catch it cleanly with his glove , the ball hit the thigh . Molina instantly hunched over the ball , trapping it between the thigh and rib cage . He held on , qualifying it as a third strike .
With the All @-@ Star Game nearing , Brewers catcher Jonathan Lucroy aired a satirical television commercial in the style of a political advertising campaign on June 17 to outgain Molina in the All @-@ Star voting totals . The voice @-@ over narrator posed the question , " Do you want another St. Louis Cardinals catcher to star in an All Star game ? Isn ’ t there a better way ? Cast a ballot for change . Cardinals fans need to know that enough is enough . " At that point , Molina led the vote total for NL catchers with more than two million , while Posey was second at 1 @.@ 4 million and Lucroy third with 1 @.@ 1 million .
Some , including Matheny , took the message literally . However , Brad Weimer , the advertisement 's creator , confirmed the humor was meant to be tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek . Molina stayed in the lead and won the vote as the starting catcher in the All @-@ Star Game at Target Field in Minneapolis , Minnesota , his sixth consecutive appearance .
His season was interrupted on July 9 against the Pirates . While sliding past third base , he attempted to grab the bag to stay on . However , during the play , he injured his right thumb . An MRI revealed torn ligaments , requiring surgery and forcing him to miss the next eight to 12 weeks . Regarding the injury as having a significance impact on the Cardinals ' season , St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sportswriter Bernie Miklasz commented , " Losing the best catcher in the world for the next 8 to 12 weeks with a torn thumb ligament is a horrendous , demoralizing setback for the Cardinals . This could be a season @-@ ending injury . " At that point , he was batting .287 with a .341 OBP , .409 SLG , 16 doubles , seven homers , and 30 RBI through 83 games . He also led MLB with a 49 caught @-@ stealing percentage .
He returned from the DL ahead of schedule , about seven weeks and 40 games missed after the injury , and was activated August 29 before a series against the Cubs . However , he still had not fully recovered , as he batted .250 in September with a pronounced drop in power production . His 110 appearances were his fewest since his rookie season in 2004 . He finished the season with a .282 batting average , seven HR , 38 RBI , 21 doubles , a .333 OBP and .386 SLG , all lower totals than 2013 , and many since 2010 . Among players with at least 90 games played , Molina 's 48 % caught stealing and 3 @.@ 20 catcher 's ERA were both first in the major leagues .
During Game 1 of the NLDS against the Dodgers , Wainwright hit Adrian Gonzalez with a pitch , and both benches cleared . Umpire Jerry Meals attempted to get between Gonzalez and Molina , but Molina briefly shoved Meals . MLB fined Molina $ 5 @,@ 000 without suspending him . In Game 2 of the NLCS against the Giants , Molina collected his 89th career hit in the postseason , passing Pujols for the franchise record . However , he sustained his second significant injury of the season in that same game , straining his left abdominal oblique muscle during another at bat , due in part to compensation in his swing for lost power following his thumb injury earlier in the season .
After missing the next game , his string of 83 consecutive playoff games started was stopped , which was a major league record . The last playoff game he had not started was Game 3 of the 2004 World Series . On November 4 , Molina was announced as winning his seventh consecutive Gold Glove , tying Boone as having won the third @-@ most Gold Gloves among catchers . Further , only Bench and Rodríguez had won more consecutive ( 10 each ) as catchers in major league history . He won the National League Platinum Glove award on November 8 , his third time in the award 's first four years .
= = = 2015 = = =
With his 11th consecutive Opening Day start on April 5 , 2015 , against the Cubs , Molina became the first catcher in club history to achieve this feat . On May 10 against the Pirates , he was on the dubious end of a piece of MLB history : lining out into the first " 4 – 5 – 4 " triple play in MLB history . Second baseman Neil Walker caught his line drive with two runners on , then threw to third baseman Jung @-@ ho Kang to double up Jhonny Peralta for the second out . Kang briefly pirouetted the ball in his hand , albeit confused , but threw back to Walker to tag Jason Heyward for the third out . Molina 's first home run of the season and first in 95 games occurred against the Minnesota Twins on June 15 ; his previous home run dated back to June 27 , 2014 .
On July 7 , he was selected to his seventh consecutive All @-@ Star Game , played at Great American Ball Park in Cincinnati . In the Reds ' clubhouse for the All @-@ Star Game , Molina shared a locker with Reds ' second baseman Brandon Phillips . Since the brawl between the Cardinals and Reds in 2010 , the two mended their schism , and Molina has a photograph of their families together . When informed whose locker he was using , Molina replied , " This is Phillips ' locker ? How about that ? I 'll have to write something to him . " While the pregame roster introductions were made , Reds fans booed all six Cardinals players who were selected , and even former Cardinal Albert Pujols . When Molina was introduced , he smiled and turned and pointed his thumbs toward the back of his jersey . Pujols provided levity when he then joined in the booing . After the game , Molina remarked to reporters , " when you spend 12 years coming to Cincinnati and you beat them so many times , they ’ re going to boo you . " In his career to that point , he hit .319 with a .352 on @-@ base percentage and .500 slugging percentage in 270 career at @-@ bats at Great American Ball Park .
Hitting his first triple in more than four years and 2 @,@ 000 at bats , with the bases loaded , Molina provided the decisive run in a 3 – 2 outcome against the Chicago White Sox on July 22 . In the annual Baseball America Toolbox Awards , managers and coaches around the National League rated Molina as both the " Best hit and run artist " and " Best defensive catcher " in the NL . His 100th career home run was well @-@ timed , becoming the game @-@ winning run in the bottom of the eighth inning at Busch Stadium on August 19 in a 4 – 3 win over San Francisco . After sustaining an injury to his left thumb during a September 20 game against the Cubs , an MRI revealed a partial ligament tear , preventing him from playing . Molina won his eighth consecutive Gold Glove Award and fourth Platinum Glove Award in 2015 . In December , it was revealed that Molina had a second surgery on his left thumb , pushing his return to late in 2016 spring training . He was winner of the Darryl Kile Good Guy Award .
= = = 2016 = = =
At age 33 , Molina broke the Cardinals ' all @-@ time games caught record on April 8 , 2016 , in his 1,440th game , passing Ted Simmons ( 1968 – 80 ) . His 1 @,@ 343 games started since the beginning of the 2005 season was the highest total in the major leagues . He made his 1,500th career major league appearance on May 14 in a 5 – 3 loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers . While playing the Washington Nationals in the seventh inning of a 2 – 1 loss at Nationals Park on May 26 , Stephen Drew hit a high infield fly that stayed over the pitcher 's mound . With both Aledmys Díaz and Mike Leake attempting to catch the ball , Molina posited himself and waited . As the ball deflected off Díaz ' glove , he almost collided with Leake , but Molina instinctively moved his glove and caught the ball before it hit the ground . He recorded his 1,500th career hit on July 2 against Milwaukee , becoming the 34th catcher in MLB history , and second for the Cardinals , after Simmons .
= = Puerto Rico ( World Baseball Classic ) = =
Three World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) tournaments have been held – 2006 , 2009 and 2013 – and Molina has participated in all of them for the Puerto Rican team . He was fellow defensive standout Iván Rodríguez ' understudy in 2006 and 2009 and the primary catcher for the 2013 squad .
In his first classic in 2006 , Molina played four games and collected three hits in five at @-@ bats . In a 2009 tournament game against the Netherlands on March 9 , Molina 's eighth @-@ inning double keyed a rally in which Puerto Rico won 3 – 1 . Speaking the next day , Molina stated that the previous night 's double had been a bigger thrill than his two @-@ run homer to beat the Mets in Game 7 of the 2006 NLCS .
With Molina as the starting catcher in 2013 , Puerto Rico earned the silver medal . Edwin Rodríguez , who scouted Molina in Puerto Rico before the Cardinals signed him , became the manager for the 2013 squad . Shortly after learning he would be the 2013 manager , Rodríguez contacted Molina for input on constructing the roster . Molina prepared for the Classic by playing 14 games for the winter league team in Puerto Rico Rodríguez managed . Molina was voted on the All @-@ World Baseball Classic Team for the first time .
In a 2013 semifinal game against Japan , Molina alertly took advantage of a baserunning mistake to record an unusual putout . With Shinnosuke Abe batting for Japan in the top of the eighth inning , and Hirokazu Ibata on second and Seiichi Uchikawa on first , J. C. Romero was pitching for Puerto Rico . Abe took a pitch from Romero inside for a ball as the runners went in motion . However , Ibata retreated to second as Uchikawa charged toward him . Instead of throwing and risking an error , Molina held on to the ball . He then chased Uchikawa , cornered him by positioning himself between first and second and tagged out Uchikawa – an unassisted caught stealing . The Japanese later stated they were attempting to exploit Romero 's slow delivery .
= = Skills profile = =
= = = Defense , pitch calling , throwing and hands = = =
The winner of eight consecutive Gold Gloves , Molina has been widely praised for his preparation , defense and leadership , not just of the pitching staff , but also of the entire team . Fellow catchers Jorge Posada and Brian McCann stated in 2009 that Molina was " the best defensive catcher in baseball ; " Víctor Martínez also called him " the best behind the plate . " In 2013 , a scout pronounced Molina the " one piece the St. Louis Cardinals cannot lose " while another commented that he is " irreplaceable . " When the club did lose Molina midway through the 2014 season to a thumb injury , ESPN 's Keith Law tweeted , " Yadier Molina missing two @-@ plus months would be bad for the Cardinals , but also just bad for baseball , period . " In his time in the major leagues , Molina has been widely viewed as evolving into a competitive influence and an unofficial , on @-@ field coach .
As a part of his pre @-@ game preparation , Molina meticulously studies and prepares for the upcoming game 's opposing hitters by creating a complete pitching and defensive plan . Other preparation includes handling ground balls at shortstop and third base , extending his agility for blocking pitches thrown in the dirt . According to former Cardinals starter Jake Westbrook , he was " a part of every aspect of the game : starters , relievers , offense , defense . "
Advanced defensive metrics – known as sabermetrics – show he is a top defender among catchers in MLB history . Molina ranked second all @-@ time among catchers at the end of the 2014 season on Baseball @-@ Reference.com 's career defensive runs saved ( DRS ) with 120 , behind only Iván Rodríguez ( 167 ) , and ahead of Jim Sundberg ( 114 ) , Bob Boone ( 107 ) and Gary Carter ( 106 ) , the only catchers with over 100 on the list . He was the season leader in the NL every year from 2005 – 14 , except 2008 and 2011 – 12 . Fangraphs tallied his career DRS at 106 , with a career @-@ high of 20 in 2010 . The sabremetric stat defensive wins above replacement ( DWAR ) has also ranked Molina 's defense highly ; he has never had a full season with a negative DWAR , and he had a career @-@ high 2 @.@ 9 DWAR in 2010 .
Molina is known for his in @-@ game pitch @-@ calling skills , and pitchers rarely reject signs that he shows for the next pitch . Matheny stated , " We tell all our young pitchers when they come up to pitch their game . Yadi needs to find out how they work . He 's a quick study . But at the same time , they tend to just follow him . We do put them in Yadi 's hands . " Molina reads opposing hitters and will move fielders with subtle signs and gestures to align them with his pitch calling . La Russa commented that " it 's not just instinct . It 's sense , based on how a hitter 's standing , how he responds to the pitch or two before , and he 's very creative in how he makes his adjustment based on what he sees with the hitter and knowing what his pitcher can do . "
" You don 't ever have to worry about bouncing a ball to Yadier " , said Cardinals starter Adam Wainwright . " He 's a human vacuum behind the plate . The only thing you have to think about is making the pitch , because you know Yadi 's going to catch whatever you throw . " Former Cardinals pitching coach Dave Duncan remarked , " During the course of games , he would do something and I 'd go , ' I can 't believe he did that . ' But it worked . His pitch calling , sometimes you 're thinking he 's doing something so out of the norm , yet it was the right thing to do at the time . "
Baseball Prospectus estimated in 2013 that Molina saved 35 defensive runs per season through his pitch framing and had moved 301 out @-@ of @-@ zone pitches that were called strikes between April 1 and June 30 , 2013 . As of July 2013 , Molina had also thrown out 45 % of would @-@ be base stealers . At one time , an Arizona Diamondbacks official stated a team policy existed not to run on Molina . With pickoffs , Molina throws from behind left @-@ handed batters to obfuscate the runner 's view of his motion to first base . Besides studying hitters at the plate , Molina also studies base runners to watch their decision @-@ making process about stealing bases or when they are less guarded against a pickoff . He practices pickoff moves and coordinates signals with the first basemen to indicate when he is primed to move for a pickoff throw . In 2012 , a Sports Illustrated poll of 306 players found that Molina was the " toughest catcher to run on . "
= = = Batting = = =
As the publication Viva El Birdos wrote , " Yadier Molina broke into the majors as a light @-@ hitting defensive specialist " , who hit mostly singles . Molina pushed to shed the light @-@ hitter label he had in common with his brothers . A fidgeter with his batting stance early in his career , Molina mimicked and vacillated between more accomplished hitters such as Andrés Galarraga and Albert Pujols . However , it was a dip in his swing and an inability to get around on fastballs that sapped his efforts . Over time , with assistance of teammates such as Pujols , Molina found his comfortable stance , sounder mechanics and adopted a line @-@ drive style of swing that eliminated the dip and helped him hit fastballs with more authority .
Thus , he became a more consistent hitter as his career progressed , defying the scouting reports that he would have a weak bat . In combination with an improved his ability to pull the ball and hit it up the middle , he improved his batting average , batting .293 or higher in five of his last six seasons . His line @-@ drive pull percentage of 2009 – 11 increased by about 6 % in 2012 – 13 ; BABIP increased from .280 in 2005 – 10 to .327 in 2011 – 13 and pull weighted on @-@ base average ( wOBA ) has increased from .290 in 2009 to over .520 in 2013 . To keep his bat in the lineup but allow respite from the rigors of his in @-@ game catching duties , Molina has occasionally started at first base .
Aside from swinging with increased line @-@ drive contact and hitting fastballs with more authority , very little has actually changed in the catcher 's approach . One trait that has always persisted is that Molina is an aggressive and free @-@ swinging – but high @-@ contact – hitter . Through 2012 , he swung at more than 51 % percent of the pitches he saw – he has a reputation for swinging at pitches in and out of the strike zone , low and away and even in toward his hands . Because of his free @-@ swinging tendency , he naturally has a walk rate ( 7 @.@ 1 % ) below the Major League average ( 8 @.@ 4 % ) . Combined with his ability to put the bat on the ball quite frequently ( 87 % ) and his improved approach at the plate , he increased his career @-@ high single @-@ season batting average five times between 2006 and 2013 .
Despite batting just .238 in his first three seasons and .240 after 1 @,@ 000 at @-@ bats , Molina increased his average to .284 average after 3 @,@ 983 at @-@ bats ( 1 @,@ 132 hits ) as of 2013 due in part to having only one season lower than .293 from 2009 – 13 . He hit into 27 double plays in 2009 , but in 2012 reduced that figure to ten . Molina 's home run and doubles rates also increased ; from 2011 – 13 , he hit 104 of his 226 career doubles .
= = Awards and accomplishments = =
= = = Records = = =
MLB records
Consecutive playoff games started , 83
Platinum Glove awards won , 4
St. Louis Cardinals records
Consecutive Opening Day starts at catcher , 11 ( 2005 – 15 )
Consecutive seasons leading the team in batting average as catcher , 2
Gold Gloves won as catcher , 8
Defensive runs saved as catcher , 120
Playoff appearances as catcher , 8
Playoff hits for career , 89
= = = Statistical achievements = = =
Note : Per Baseball @-@ Reference.comBold : league leader
= = Personal life = =
Molina lives in Vega Alta , Puerto Rico , and stays in Caseyville , Illinois , during the baseball season . He married his wife Wanda Torres in 2007 . On September 4 , 2008 , he had a son named Yanuell , and on July 4 , 2010 , a daughter named Arianna . After signing his $ 75 million contract in 2012 , Molina purchased a home on a four @-@ acre property located in Jupiter , Florida for $ 7 @.@ 15 million . His agent is Melvin Roman of MDR Sports Management , who has represented him since he signed his first professional contract with the Cardinals shortly after being drafted in 2000 . Molina 's charitable organization , named Foundation 4 , has helped to raise donations for childhood cancer patients in Puerto Rico.A restaurant in St.Louis named a milk shake called the yadi gold glove
Molina 's two older brothers , Bengie and José Molina , have played a combined 28 seasons in the Major Leagues . Each of the three brothers has won at least one World Series ring , making them the only trio of brothers with such a distinction ( Bengie and José both won their first while with the Anaheim Angels in 2002 ) . They are also the only trio of brothers to play as catchers in the major leagues . Of a total of nineteen trios of brothers who have played in the Major Leagues – including the DiMaggios and the Cruzes – only one other trio of brothers has all appeared in a World Series : Matty , Félipe and Jesús Alou .
Even while the Molina brothers still lived in the United States playing professional baseball , their parents stayed in the same home near the park where the brothers grew up playing ball , Jesús Rivera Park . Benjamín Molina organized youth teams . On October 11 , 2008 , Molina 's father died from a heart attack . At the moment it occurred , he was tending to a baseball field that he had built for the youth in Bayamón .
Spurred by absences from autograph shows for which he was paid to appear , Steiner Sports Marketing filed a lawsuit for $ 175 @,@ 000 against Molina in the New York state supreme court in Manhattan on October 2 , 2009 . Steiner Sports paid Molina $ 90 @,@ 640 in advance when they renewed their contract in July 2008 . However , the firm stated that he ignored their agreement to make public and private appearances to sign autographs and did not return the money .
= = = Source notes = = =
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= Long , Long , Long =
" Long , Long , Long " is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1968 album The Beatles ( also known as " the White Album " ) . It was written by George Harrison following the group 's attendance at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's Transcendental Meditation course in India in early 1968 . Although Harrison later stated that he was addressing God in the lyrics , it is the first of his compositions that invites interpretation as both a standard love song and a paean to his deity .
Harrison wrote " Long , Long , Long " during a period that marked his emergence as a prolific songwriter , coinciding with his return to the guitar after two years of studying the Indian sitar . His musical inspiration for the song was " Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " by Bob Dylan , while the understated arrangement reflects the influence of the Band 's 1968 album Music from Big Pink . The Beatles recorded the song in London towards the end of the troubled sessions for the White Album . Sequenced to follow the heavy rock @-@ styled " Helter Skelter " , the otherwise gentle and meditative track ends with a partly improvised segment , which was inspired by the eerie sound of a wine bottle vibrating on a speaker in the recording studio .
" Long , Long , Long " has received praise from many music critics for its lilting , expressive qualities . Ian MacDonald described it as Harrison 's " touching token of exhausted , relieved reconciliation with God " and considered it to be his " finest moment on The Beatles " . Elliott Smith and Jim James are among the other artists who have recorded or performed the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison wrote " Long , Long , Long " in August 1968 , while the Beatles were part @-@ way through the recording of their eponymous double album , also known as " the White Album " . It was one of many songs that marked Harrison 's return to the guitar as his principal musical instrument , after he had dedicated himself to mastering the Indian sitar in 1966 . This period coincided with a new , prolific period in his songwriting , which musicologist Walter Everett likens to the arrival of John Lennon and Paul McCartney as composers in 1963 .
According to author and critic Kenneth Womack , the " origins " of " Long , Long , Long " date from the Beatles ' stay in Rishikesh , India , between February and April 1968 . Led by Harrison 's commitment , the four band members studied Transcendental Meditation there under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . They departed for England separately , however , between 1 March and 12 April , and their mixed experiences on the course contributed to the divisiveness that pervaded the group upon their return . Alone among the Beatles , Harrison continued to espouse the Maharishi 's teachings , a position that left him isolated within the band . Author Simon Leng describes " Long , Long , Long " as the first song in which Harrison " share [ d ] the spiritual refuge he 'd found " through meditation , as well as " a confluence of the Indian , folk , and spiritual influences " that had preoccupied him since 1966 .
In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison states that " the ' you ' in ' Long Long Long ' is God . " He also says that his musical inspiration for the composition was Bob Dylan 's " Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " – specifically , " D to E minor , A and D – those three chords and the way they moved " . As a further influence in " Long , Long , Long " , Leng cites the release of the Band 's debut album , Music from Big Pink , which " signaled the rebirth of ' the song ' " as an alternative to the excesses of 1967 @-@ era psychedelia .
= = Composition = =
According to musicologist Alan Pollack , " Long , Long , Long " is " an off @-@ beat mixture " of contemporary musical styles ; he identifies it as " a three @-@ way cross between jazz waltz , folk song , and late sixties psychedelia " . The song is in the key of F , played with a capo on the guitar 's third fret , so allowing for the chord shapes that Harrison admired in " Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " . The melody appears to fluctuate from the home key , however , due to its avoidance of perfect cadences , as the dominant , C7 chord resists anchoring on the tonic I chord of F major . In addition , all plagal changes ( in this case , B ♭ to F major ) are fleeting . The composition also makes use of jazz @-@ style ninth chords .
Lyrically , the song takes the form of a reconciliation with a loved one after a long period of estrangement . Theologian Dale Allison considers that , given the " cryptic " nature of the lyrics , it is only through Harrison 's subsequent comments that the listener knows that he is addressing God rather than a woman . Allison likens the song 's message to that of later Harrison compositions such as " Try Some , Buy Some " and " Heading for the Light " , through its conveying of a " conversion experience " .
The lyrics ' reference to an extreme length of time is accentuated by the stretching out of an already slow 6 / 8 metre into 9 / 8 , and , during the verses , by the appending of a measure @-@ long instrumental tag after each two bars of vocal melody . Partly as a result of the absence of resolution in the home key , the descending bassline in the verses – a 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 sequence of notes mirroring the IV @-@ iii @-@ ii @-@ I chord pattern – establishes an almost subliminal tonic .
The mood of the song is gentle and meditative , with the more strident middle eight providing a brief departure from the calmness . In this section , Harrison sings of " So many tears I was searching / So many tears I was wasting " , a statement that , according to author Ian Inglis , reflects the singer 's " rejoicing in his discovery of a deity to guide him through the vicissitudes of life " . Everett remarks on the close similarity between " Long , Long , Long " and " Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " , as well as an understated musical mood akin to the Band 's early work . The song 's ending , which would come about through happenstance while the Beatles were working in the recording studio , is marked by Harrison playing a final , G minor 7th chord , which author Ian MacDonald considers " one of the most resonant [ chords ] in The Beatles ' discography " .
= = Recording = =
Under the working title " It 's Been a Long , Long , Long Time " , recording for the song began at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London on 7 October 1968 , during the final week of sessions for the White Album . Since the start of the project , in late May , the album sessions had been fraught with disharmony , partly as a result of the constant presence of Yoko Ono , Lennon 's new partner , and disagreements within the band over their new business venture , Apple Corps . While noting the context of the song 's recording , MacDonald describes " Long , Long , Long " as Harrison 's " touching token of exhausted , relieved reconciliation with God " .
The session for " Long , Long , Long " was a relaxed occasion , with the burning of Indian incense helping to create the requisite atmosphere in the studio . The Beatles recorded 67 takes of the rhythm track , with Harrison on vocals and acoustic guitar , McCartney playing Hammond organ , and Ringo Starr on drums .
In his book on the history of ambient music , Mark Prendergast cites " Long , Long , Long " as a ballad " noteworthy for its Ambient production " . The idea for the end of the song was inspired by the sound created by a wine bottle sitting on a Leslie speaker , through which the organ was connected . Whenever McCartney played a certain note on the keyboard , the bottle began to vibrate , producing an eerie clattering sound that the Beatles decided to incorporate in their subsequent performances of the track . To compound the effect on the selected take , Starr played a fast snare drum roll and Harrison vocalised a prolonged , high @-@ pitched wail . While noting the " palpable spiritual longing " conveyed in the song , Chris Gerard of PopMatters describes this coda as a " weird spectral ending , with Harrison wailing like a wounded ghost while the band members rattle their instruments ominously " .
Nine hours after this all @-@ night session , the band returned to Abbey Road to carry out overdubs . Harrison added a second vocal and another acoustic guitar part , the latter consisting of riffs that recall the sound of a sitar , due to the strings buzzing against the frets . During the same session , McCartney overdubbed bass guitar onto the track . The recording was finished on 9 October , with the addition of a brief harmony vocal from McCartney and piano , over the middle eight , played by Chris Thomas .
Mixing on " Long , Long , Long " was completed on 14 October , with Starr 's drum fills given prominence in the mix . Relative to the stereo version , the contrast between the song 's quiet and louder moments is less pronounced in the mono mix , where Harrison 's second vocal part also arrives earlier on the opening line .
= = Release and reception = =
Apple Records released The Beatles on 22 November 1968 , with " Long , Long , Long " appearing as the final track on side three of the double LP . The sequencing ensured that the song provided what author Mark Hertsgaard terms " a calm landing pad " after McCartney 's heavy rock @-@ styled " Helter Skelter " . Shortly after the album 's release , Harrison spent time with Dylan and the Band in Woodstock , in upstate New York . In addition to co @-@ writing " I 'd Have You Anytime " with Dylan , Harrison further established his independence from the Beatles during this visit , which music critic John Harris views as the foundation for his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass .
Among contemporary reviews of The Beatles , Alan Walsh of Melody Maker admired the song as " a gentle , lilting track " while , less impressed , Record Mirror considered it " not a strong tune " , with drums " monopolising the sound " . In his review for The Times , William Mann described " Long , Long , Long " as " a melting love song in slow waltz tempo " and rated it the equal of the nine best , " superbly inventive " compositions credited to Lennon – McCartney .
Recalling the release in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner said that in departing from the overtly Indian style of his previous compositions for the Beatles , Harrison had provided " a quartet of more conventionally accessible pop songs that many felt were among the finest on the [ White Album ] " . While acknowledging Harrison 's limitations as a singer compared with Lennon and McCartney , Schaffner added : " but when he tones his voice down to an ethereal near @-@ whisper , as in ' Long Long Long , ' he can evoke as well as anyone the magic and the mystery of what [ music journalist ] Jonathan Cott has called ' the music of deep silence . ' "
= = Retrospective assessment and legacy = =
AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine views " Long , Long , Long " as " haunting " and , along with its composer 's three other White Album tracks – " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , " Savoy Truffle " and " Piggies " – evidence that Harrison 's songwriting " deserved wider exposure " than his typical quota of two songs on each Beatles LP . Less impressed with Harrison 's other contributions to the album , Ian MacDonald welcomes " Long , Long , Long " with the words : " at last – the real George . " MacDonald considers it to be " Harrison 's finest moment on The Beatles : simple , direct , and , in its sighing , self @-@ annihilating coda , devastatingly expressive " . Conversely , although he acknowledges its effectiveness in following " Helter Skelter " , Tim Riley identifies " Long , Long , Long " as the weakest of the four Harrison songs , which are otherwise all " essentials " and " regain [ ed ] the promise " shown by his three compositions on the Beatles ' Revolver album . Author Jonathan Gould praises the track as a " dark beautiful ballad " and a " breakthrough " for Harrison as a vocalist and composer , since it represents " the first time he ever allowed himself to sound humbled by his emotions in a song " . Music critic Chris Ingham , writing for Rough Guides , similarly includes it among " a new phase " of Harrison compositions , along with " Something " and " Here Comes the Sun " , in which " warmth and sweetness " replaced the dissonant qualities of his Indian @-@ inspired melodies .
In a 1998 review , the NME described " Long , Long , Long " as " redemptive " and " one of many hidden delights " on The Beatles , in addition to citing it as an example of how , even when relations within the band were at their most disharmonious , " the Beatles ' riches were manifold " . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot deemed the song to be " quintessential Harrison , summarizing the impending exhaustion of the Beatles and the era they defined , while pointing the way toward the spiritual heights achieved by his solo debut masterpiece , All Things Must Pass " . In his obituary of the former Beatle , for Rock 's Backpages , Mat Snow included " Long , Long , Long " among his favourite Harrison compositions , saying : " for my money the music of George Harrison is most compelling when dwelling in those strange shadows of elusive regret and longing , even fear ... " David Quantick of Uncut admires the track as " a yearning , beautiful song ... an oasis of calm and faith " .
" Long , Long , Long " was ranked 80th in Mojo magazine 's 2006 list " The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs " , where musician Colin Newman described it as " achingly beautiful " and " like the album in microcosm ... A lament for a long @-@ lost love which ends with a ghostly freakout . " In a similar list , in 2011 , Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 98 . Conversely , in 2012 , readers of The Daily Telegraph voted " Long , Long , Long " as the fifth worst Beatles track . The following year , Mojo listed it at number 9 in a poll to determine " the ultimate list of connoisseurs ' Beatles ' songs " , as defined by any track not included on the band 's greatest @-@ hits compilations 1962 – 1966 and 1967 – 1970 .
= = Cover versions = =
In 1987 , Daniel Amos vocalist Terry Scott Taylor recorded what Trouser Press admired as a " first @-@ rate cover " of " Long , Long , Long " for his album A Briefing for the Ascent . Conversely , Sean Carruthers of AllMusic considers singer Tom Hooper 's 2002 cover to be a version that " manages to drain the life " out of the composition . Elliott Smith included " Long , Long , Long " in his live performances . His biographer Benjamin Nugent writes that the song appealed to Smith amid his struggles with depression and drug addiction , as " a ballad about trying to get rid of self @-@ imposed suffering and returning to a place where you can relate to other people " .
A recording by Tanya Donelly appeared on her 2006 album This Hungry Life and later on a CD accompanying Uncut 's feature article on Harrison 's career , in the August 2008 issue of the magazine . My Morning Jacket lead singer Jim James opened his 2009 EP of Harrison compositions , Tribute To , with the song – a cover that Drowned in Sound praised as " not only the standout moment , but also one of the most beautiful and arresting songs of the year " . Having recorded the EP within days of Harrison 's death in November 2001 , James said he decided to release it eight years later partly as a result of attending the David Lynch Foundation 's Transcendental Meditation awareness concert , " Change Begins Within " , where " [ Harrison ] ' s name came up a lot ... his spirit was very big at that event . "
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – double @-@ tracked lead vocal , acoustic guitars
Paul McCartney – harmony vocal , Hammond organ , bass guitar
Ringo Starr – drums
Chris Thomas – piano
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= Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter =
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 75th overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ producer Kay Cannon and series creator Tina Fey . The episode was directed by series producer Don Scardino . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on April 22 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Elizabeth Banks , Will Ferrell , Steve Hely , Julianne Moore , and Ariel Shafir .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Fey ) starts making an effort to date by attending singles events with her friend Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) . At the same time , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) feels forced to choose between his high school sweetheart , Nancy Donovan ( Moore ) , and news anchor Avery Jessup ( Banks ) . Meanwhile , a racist comment sparks an office @-@ wide debate on affirmative action and leaves James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) with a big decision to make regarding his future at the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) .
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 216 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . Kay Cannon and Tina Fey were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for their work in this episode .
= = Plot = =
On the weekend of Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) 51st birthday , his advances with CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) are called into question when he learns that his high school sweetheart , Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) , has finally been divorced from her husband . Jack spends evenings having dinner and wine with both , against Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) suggestion that it is a bad idea . He compares Nancy to actor Lee Marvin , after watching a movie marathon starring Marvin , and Avery to baseball player Derek Jeter , after he spends time with Avery at Jeter 's home . He is moved by the thoughtful birthday gifts both women give him . Jack is torn between the easygoing , middle @-@ class Nancy and his successful , wealthy counterpart Avery , and does not know whom to choose .
Meanwhile , Liz attends singles activities at the YMCA and her friend , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) , joins her as her wingman . Nancy accompanies Liz to one of the activities , and is concerned when Liz speaks critically of everyone there and rebuffs a man whom Nancy has drawn into conversation . Nancy encourages Liz to focus not on the negative , but on what she does want from a man . Liz tries to follow Nancy 's advice the next day at a dodgeball game , and she tells a man ( Ariel Shafir ) , whom she hit in the face during a previous dodgeball game , what traits she wants from a man . However , the man does not speak English , and a disappointed Liz hits him with another ball .
Finally , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) learns he may have been hired as a writer on TGS with Tracy Jordan because of affirmative action and quits . Liz — the show 's head writer — is reluctant to rehire him until TGS producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) reveals to Liz that she is also a beneficiary of affirmative action , having attended college on a Title IX scholarship and having her project The Glrlie Show picked up as a mid @-@ season replacement for a misogynistic show that received complaints . When Toofer returns , he demands that no one call him " Toofer " anymore , but when everyone comes up with more insulting nicknames , he gives up .
= = Production = =
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by co @-@ producer Kay Cannon and series creator Tina Fey . This was Cannon and Fey 's fourth script collaboration , having written the episodes " Black Tie " , " Somebody to Love " , and " Christmas Special " , for season one , season two , and season three , respectively . " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 22 , 2010 , as the seventeenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 75th overall episode of the series .
" Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was filmed on February 8 , 2010 . In November 2009 , it was announced that actress Julianne Moore would guest star on 30 Rock as a love interest for Alec Baldwin 's character , Jack Donaghy . She made her debut as the character Nancy Donovan in the December 10 , 2009 , episode " Secret Santa " , and later guest starred in the episode " Winter Madness " . In December 2009 , it was confirmed that actress Elizabeth Banks would guest star , and in the February 11 , 2010 , episode " Anna Howard Shaw Day " she made her debut as Avery Jessup , a CNBC correspondent . Banks later guest starred in the episode " Future Husband " . 30 Rock writer and producer Steve Hely appeared in this episode as a man who ignores Jenna Maroney . Keith Powell , who plays Toofer Spurlock , was asked about his reaction towards his storyline in the " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " script , in which he said " They kind of warned me about that one – I thought it was a really fun thing because Affirmative Action has permeated corporate culture . It didn 't freak me out that much " .
Comedian actor Will Ferrell had a brief appearance in " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " . In a scene , Pete reveals to Liz that the only reason The Girlie Show — before being renamed to TGS with Tracy Jordan — was green @-@ lighted by NBC was due to criticism from women 's groups after the network aired the action drama Bitch Hunter . In a clip , Ferell , as the character Shane Hunter , is seen with a gun , and entering a woman 's bathroom , and shouting " Happy birthday , bitches ! " . 30 Rock writer Jack Burditt and former co @-@ chairman of NBC Entertainment and Universal Media Studios Ben Silverman are credited as executive producers of Bitch Hunter . Ferrell has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Ferrell would later appear as Shane Hunter in the May 6 , 2010 , 30 Rock episode " The Moms " .
= = Cultural references = =
Jenna tells Liz that she wants to accompany her to her singles activities as her wingman since she is up for a role in National Lampoon 's Van Wilder 's Wingman , Incorporated , a reference to the National Lampoon 's Van Wilder film series . Avery and Jack attend a gala opening at a museum , and upon seeing the decorations and well dressed patrons , Avery remarks that " You always know you 're at the right party when it feels like the Riddler is about to attack " , the Riddler is a comic book villain who leaves behind riddles , puzzles , and word games so that they can be solved . While posing for pictures at the gala , a photographer mistakes Avery for stand @-@ up comedian Chelsea Handler , which has been based on real life experience for Elizabeth Banks , who portrays Avery , as she has been mistaken for Handler . When Liz tells Jack that he cannot date both Avery and Nancy at the same time , she says " Mrs. Doubtfire shimself could not do this " , a reference to actor Robin Williams ' role in the movie Mrs. Doubtfire , in which he plays two roles , one as a man and the other as a woman named Mrs. Doubtfire .
During their dinner , Avery tells Jack some day he will be as great as a man as former U.S. President Ronald Reagan , to which Jack replies " I do like jelly beans " , a reference to Reagan 's real @-@ life love of the candy . During one scene of " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tells the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff " I know you 're all secretly mad , because we finally have a black Disney princess " , which is a reference to the 2009 Disney animated film The Princess and the Frog in which the princess character , Tiana , is the first black princess in the Disney Princess franchise . In her speech , Liz says that she wants to be with a man who " will just shut their mouth " when watching the ABC show Lost .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was watched by 4 @.@ 216 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It achieved a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 6 share in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Floyd " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 252 million American viewers . In the 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot on April 22 , in which this episode aired out of its usual timeslot , 30 Rock was outperformed by CBS ' reality show Survivor : Heroes vs. Villains , Fox 's crime drama Bones , and ABC 's FlashForward . Nonetheless , " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " outperformed The CW 's supernatural @-@ fantasy horror program The Vampire Diaries , which drew 3 @.@ 155 million viewers . Kay Cannon and Tina Fey received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for their work on " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost it to Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for their work on the pilot episode . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics .
IGN contributor Robert Canning reported that " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " was a " stellar episode that was hitting all the right beats " , and commented that " [ e ] ven the tired , formulaic structure of Jack 's two women scenario was given some great new lines " from Fey and Cannon , who developed the script . He opined that if the episode centered only around Jack 's two women dilemma it " would have been just fine . " Canning appreciated Elizabeth Banks ' and Julianne Moore 's appearances , writing that the two " exhibited the charms that have made them welcome additions to this season " . In conclusion , Canning gave the episode a 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 rating . Jane Boursaw of AOL 's TV Squad said that the Toofer story was " funny , without being ( too ) offensive . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin said that he enjoyed " just about every minute " of this episode , and praised Liz 's speech citing it as the " crowning moment " from " Lee Marvin vs. Derek Jeter " . Rabin also liked the Toofer quitting storyline writing that it " could easily have gone nowhere but the show made it both funny and surprisingly thoughtful by using it as a springboard to discuss Affirmative Action and our society 's defiantly uneven playing field . " Time contributor James Poniewozik noted that this episode was stronger than " Khonani " , which aired the same day of the week as this episode . Sean Gandert of Paste wrote that Toofer 's plot was not " given more than a few minutes of screen time [ but ] it also doesn 't wear out its welcome ... The show doesn 't address race , gender , or affirmative action in a particularly enlightened manner , but who cares , it 's funny . " TV Guide 's Adam Mersel wrote that he found the most enjoyment in Liz 's story , writing that he found it " endearing " . In regards to Jack 's plot , Mersel said that Jack is able to play off Nancy and Avery so well that " I am going back and forth on whether or not to scold the NBC boss or give him a pat on the back . Avery and Nancy both have their shining moments , but I feel that he must choose quite soon , or he will be loosing [ sic ] both . "
Will Ferrell 's ten second cameo was well @-@ received , with Canning concluding , " ... the cherry on the top was discovering that The Girlie Show was only picked up to offset the complaints raised by the series Bitch Hunter . The ten @-@ second clip of this series , with a cameo from Will Ferrell , was phenomenal and I hope the web will soon produce more clips . "
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= MS West Grama =
MS West Grama , sometimes spelled as West Gramma , was a diesel @-@ powered cargo ship of the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) that was sunk as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion . Prior to her diesel conversion , she was known as SS West Grama . In 1919 , she was briefly taken up by the United States Navy under the name USS West Grama ( ID @-@ 3794 ) .
SS West Grama was built as a steam @-@ powered cargo ship in 1918 for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , a predecessor of the USMC . She was part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the 9th ship built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in San Pedro , California . She was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) of the United States Navy as USS West Grama ( ID @-@ 3794 ) in January 1919 . She became the first American @-@ flagged vessel to enter Bulgarian waters when she delivered a load of wheat flour to Varna in early 1919 . After her one overseas trip for the Navy , she was decommissioned in June 1919 and returned to the USSB .
SS West Grama sailed between Genoa and New York early in her civilian career . In 1927 , West Grama was outfitted with a diesel engine that replaced her original steam engine as part of a pilot program by the USSB . After her conversion , she sailed primarily between East Coast ports and South America . By the late 1930s , she had been laid up , but was reactivated for merchant service during World War II . She sailed primarily in the Caribbean until March 1944 when she sailed from the United States for the final time . She was scuttled in June as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Omaha Beach during the Normandy invasion , earning a battle star in the process .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the west coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Grama , the ninth of some 40 West ships built by the Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Los Angeles . West Grama ( Los Angeles Shipbuilding yard number 9 ) was one of three Los Angeles Shipbuilding ships launched on 4 July 1918 , and was completed in December .
West Grama was 5 @,@ 445 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 1 inch ( 124 @.@ 99 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull that displaced 12 @,@ 225 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) . Her hold was 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep and she had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 028 DWT . West Grama 's power plant , as built , consisted of a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine driving a single screw propeller , which moved the ship at up to 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
= = Military career = =
West Grama was taken over by the U.S. Navy on 9 January 1919 at San Pedro , California , and was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) the same day with Lieutenant Commander Eugene McCarthy , USNRF , in command . West Grama headed north to San Francisco to take on a load of wheat flour for delivery to Europe . After undergoing boiler repairs at Union Iron Works , she departed San Francisco for Norfolk , Virginia , on 28 January . West Grama transited the Panama Canal on 14 February and got underway again on 19 February , after a four @-@ day layover in the Canal Zone .
On 25 February , a half @-@ submerged ship was spotted some 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) east @-@ northeast of Nassau , Bahamas . Upon investigation , it was determined to be the wreck of the American schooner Nettie Shipman , but , with no signs of life aboard the hulk , West Grama continued on to Virginia , where she arrived three days later .
After general repairs and fuel replenishment , West Grama got underway for the Mediterranean on 13 March . Touching at Gibraltar , she next headed to Constantinople , Turkey , to unload part of her cargo , and then proceeded into the Black Sea . She arrived at Varna , Bulgaria , to unload the remainder of the flour , and , in the process , became the first American @-@ flagged vessel to enter Bulgarian waters . After departure from Varna , West Grama returned to the United States via Gibraltar . She carried a mixed load of 13 depth charges and 218 long tons ( 221 t ) of general cargo . In early June , during her return voyage , West Grama was disabled by some unspecified problem while west of Bermuda . The U.S. Navy cargo ship Eastport , en route from New Orleans to Cardiff , assisted West Grama , and the Navy dispatched the icebreaker Rogday from Boston to aid West Grama . It 's not known what assistance was provided or if West Grama was even able to proceed on her own , but she arrived at Norfolk on 11 June . Five days later , West Grama was decommissioned and returned to the USSB for civilian service .
= = Civilian career = =
After her return to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , West Grama sailed on a Genoa – Gibraltar – New York route through 1920 . In April 1920 , West Grama carried some 52 passengers from Genoa and Gibraltar to New York . There is no mention in sources of the ship 's activities over the next seven years , but in June 1927 , the Los Angeles Times reported that West Grama had been selected for a $ 400 @,@ 000 conversion from steam @-@ power to diesel @-@ power . By late November , the conversion , undergoing at the Fore River Shipyard near Boston , was nearly complete . The new engine was a McIntosh & Seymour double @-@ acting diesel , the first of its type built in America . On 8 December , during successful sea trials of West Grama 's new diesel power plant , a malfunction in a steam boiler used to heat the crew quarters caused minor damage to the ship .
Allocated to the American Republics Line for service to the east coast of South America , West Grama sailed for Buenos Aires , Argentina , where she had arrived by late January 1928 , and back to New York by late March . In October 1929 , West Grama was reportedly assigned to the new Pacific – South Africa Line by the USSB , an around @-@ the @-@ world venture under the management of J. J. Moore & Company . The Pacific – South Africa Line — the world 's only all @-@ diesel around @-@ the @-@ world service , as described by the Los Angeles Times — sailed from Los Angeles to South Africa via the Straits of Magellan , across the Indian Ocean to Japan and China , across the Pacific to San Francisco , and back to Los Angeles . It 's not clear how long , if at all , West Grama sailed for this line . In July 1929 , a report in The New York Times shows that West Grama was still in South American service , sailing to Santos , Brazil .
Sources are not clear as to all of West Grama 's movements over the next years . Hints can be gleaned from contemporary news accounts . In March 1930 , the Los Angeles Times reported that West Grama was en route from Balboa to San Francisco . The New York Times reported West Grama 's arrival from Portland , Oregon in September , her departure for Fremantle , Western Australia in October 1933 , and her arrival from Baltimore in March the following year . After these mentions , West Grama disappears from contemporary news accounts , and by 1939 , West Grama had been laid up in a reserve fleet .
= = World War II = =
In December 1940 , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) , a successor to the USSB , announced that it was seeking bids for the sale of 24 ships from its reserve fleet , including West Grama . In January 1941 , the USMC announced that a consortium of Commonwealth shipping lines had been the high bidders for 19 of the 20 ships still offered . The highest bid for West Grama was $ 80 @,@ 000 , but it is not clear if the bid was , in fact , accepted ; by November , West Grama was sailing between Antofagasta , Chile , and New York , but remained under the American flag . From July 1942 through February 1944 , West Grama sailed between the United States and Caribbean ports , frequently traveling in convoys . The ship 's recorded movements show her calling at Cristóbal , Guantánamo Bay , Trinidad , Key West , and Pilottown , Louisiana . In mid @-@ February 1944 , West Grama sailed from Key West to New York , and from there , on to Boston .
= = Final voyage = =
West Grama had been selected to become one of the blockships for the Allied invasion of France , then in the planning stages . Though the specific modifications performed on West Grama are not revealed in sources , modifications for other ships do appear . In November 1944 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that blockships dispatched from Boston , like West Grama , had been loaded with " tons of sand and cement " and had been rigged with explosive charges before departing the port . Further , existing antiaircraft weapons had been moved higher up on the ship and supplemented by additional guns . An account by Cesar Poropat , chief engineer aboard West Honaker , another blockship dispatched from Boston , mentions that shipyard workers proceeded to cut holes in " strategic places " .
West Grama departed Boston on 25 March and arrived at Halifax two days later . Departing from that port on 29 March , she sailed in Convoy SC @-@ 156 and arrived at Barry Roads on 13 April , and by 7 May , she had arrived at Methil . West Grama 's whereabouts and movements through early June are not recorded . Other ships that had been selected as blockships assembled in a " corncob " fleet at Oban , though it 's not clear if West Grama did or not . The " corncob " fleet was the group of ships intended to be sunk to form the " gooseberries " , shallow @-@ water artificial harbors for landing craft . Poropat reports that once the ship crews were told of their mission while anchored at Oban , they were not permitted to leave the ships .
Three " corncob " convoys , consisting of what one author called the " dregs of the North Atlantic shipping pool " , departed from Poole and reached the Normandy beachhead the next day , shortly after the D @-@ Day landings . Poropat reports that the corncob ships traveled under cover of darkness and , stripped of all unnecessary equipment , carried no radios , having only a signal lamp ( with a spare bulb ) for communication . Once at the designated location , the ships were put into position and scuttled over the next days , under heavy German artillery fire . Naval Armed Guardsmen manned the guns on all the gooseberry ships to protect against frequent German air attacks All the while , harbor pilots — about half of the New York Bar Pilots Association , according to one source — carefully positioned the ships . West Grama was sunk off Omaha Beach on 8 June , though she continued to serve as an antiaircraft platform manned by Navy gun crews . On 9 June , West Grama 's gunners fired 19 times and were credited with assisting in the downing one German airplane ; only one of West Grama 's Navy gunners was wounded during the attack . On 14 June , West Grama escaped serious damage when a bomb landed near the ship . By the time her Naval Armed Guardsmen were replaced by Army crews on 18 June , they had received credit for a second assist , and had been awarded a battle star for their participation in the Normandy Landings .
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= American game show winnings records =
In the United States , a game show is a type of radio , television , or internet program in which contestants , television personalities or celebrities , sometimes as part of a team , play a game which involves answering questions or solving puzzles , usually for money and / or prizes . Since the genre began , many shows have offered prizes of large sums of money to contestants ; Teddy Nadler set the original monetary winnings record of $ 264 @,@ 000 during his appearance on The $ 64 @,@ 000 Challenge in 1957 .
Nadler was not surpassed until 1980 , when Thom McKee won $ 312 @,@ 700 on Tic @-@ Tac @-@ Dough . In 1999 , John Carpenter won $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire , becoming the first person to win a seven @-@ figure prize on an American game show . Since then , many players have gone on to win that amount and even surpassed it . As of 2015 , Brad Rutter is the highest @-@ earning American game show contestant of all time , having accumulated a total of $ 4 @,@ 555 @,@ 102 . He succeeded Ken Jennings as the highest @-@ earning contestant by virtue of his victory on May 16 , 2014 , in the Jeopardy ! Battle of the Decades tournament .
= = Daytime game shows = =
The single day record for shows in daytime television was set by Michael Larson in 1984 , who won $ 110 @,@ 237 ( equivalent to $ 251 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) on Press Your Luck . Larson achieved his record by memorizing the show 's board patterns . He repeatedly hit the board 's squares that awarded contestants money and an additional spin . That spin would in turn replace the spin he had just used , effectively allowing him to spin the board in the second round as long as wanted . Because of this , his game had to be split into two episodes ( which aired June 8 and June 11 , 1984 ) , as his turn caused the game to go well over the show 's half @-@ hour allotted time . In 2003 , Game Show Network produced a documentary about the event .
In 2006 , Larson was succeeded by Vickyann Chrobak @-@ Sadowski , who set the record by winning $ 147 @,@ 517 on the 35th season premiere of The Price Is Right in 2006 . Chrobak @-@ Sadowski 's record has since been broken by Sheree Heil from her appearance on The Price Is Right in 2013 . She won $ 170 @,@ 345 in cash and prizes on the episode that aired December 30 , 2013 , including an Audi R8 won in the pricing game " Gas Money " , $ 10 @,@ 000 cash , and Prada shoes .
= = Overall winnings record = =
= = = 1950s – 1999 = = =
While the 1950s had multiple big winners ( Herb Stempel and Charles Van Doren of Twenty One being two of the most notable ) , Teddy Nadler set the overall record during the 1956 – 57 television season , who set a record that would stand for the next two decades by winning $ 264 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 298 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) on The $ 64 @,@ 000 Challenge .
It was not until 1980 that Nadler 's record fell . During the summer of that year , a U.S. Naval officer named Thom McKee began a run on Tic @-@ Tac @-@ Dough that carried over into the following season . Since champions on Tic Tac Dough played until they were defeated , and games on the show could end in ties with the pot carrying over , McKee was able to keep building his total as long as he kept playing and winning . McKee won $ 312 @,@ 700 ( equivalent to $ 898 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) in cash and prizes in 43 games , which included eight cars ( on Tic Tac Dough and its sister show , The Joker 's Wild , a contestant automatically won a car after every fifth game they won ) .
While McKee was the biggest solo winner until 1999 , nine couples on The $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Chance of a Lifetime won the show 's top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 083 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , in a combination of prizes and a long @-@ term annuity , during the show 's run in syndication from January 1986 to September 1987 . However , this program had no solo players .
In 1999 , McKee was passed by Michael Shutterly , who was the biggest winner in the first airing of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire in the United States . Shutterly was the first contestant on the show to get to the 15th and final question , but elected to walk instead with $ 500 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 710 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , which made him the biggest winner in American game show history at the time . Shutterly had previously won $ 49 @,@ 200 as a 4 day champion on Jeopardy ! in 1988 , making his career winnings total $ 549 @,@ 200 .
= = = 1999 – present = = =
During the second season of Millionaire in the United States , the show crowned its first million @-@ dollar winner . On November 19 , 1999 , John Carpenter won the show 's top prize without using any lifelines , save for a phone call on the final question to tell his father he was going to win the million dollars . After Carpenter answered the final question , which concerned Richard Nixon 's appearance on Laugh @-@ In in 1968 , host Regis Philbin proclaimed Carpenter the show 's ( and worldwide format 's ) first top prize winner .
Carpenter 's record remained intact until the following year . In early 2000 , Rahim Oberholtzer , a contestant on the revival of Twenty One , won four games in his appearances on the show , along with $ 120 @,@ 000 in the show 's " Perfect 21 " bonus round , for a total of $ 1 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 . For surpassing Carpenter 's mark , host Maury Povich proclaimed Oberholtzer " the TV Game Show King . "
Late in its run , the Fox show Greed brought back some of its previous winners to try for an extra $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Curtis Warren , who was part of the first team to win $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on the show ( of which his share was $ 400 @,@ 000 , plus $ 10 @,@ 000 for winning a terminator round ) , was one of the contestants brought back to do so on February 11 , 2000 . Warren was given a question about TV shows that had been made into movies , with 8 choices ( of which he had to identify the four correct answers ) . He successfully did so , giving himself $ 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 and the record for the time being .
Warren 's record was even shorter lived than Oberholtzer 's had been , lasting only four days . Three days before Warren 's win , David Legler , who also appeared on NBC 's Twenty One , began a run as champion on the show . Four days after Warren 's win , the run continued , with Legler having earned a grand total of $ 1 @,@ 765 @,@ 000 in six wins to surpass Warren 's record and become the third contestant in two months to top $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on a game show .
Legler held the record for well over a year . As 2000 ended and 2001 began , the producers of Millionaire decided that it had been too long ( 71 games over a five @-@ month period ) since their top prize had been won , and instituted an accumulating jackpot which added $ 10 @,@ 000 to the grand prize amount for each game it was not won . Kevin Olmstead claimed the top prize on April 10 , 2001 , winning a jackpot of $ 2 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 . Olmstead became the first contestant to top $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in total winnings on a game show and supplanted Legler as the all @-@ time leader . Olmstead has previously been a 2 day champion on Jeopardy ! in 1994 , winning $ 25 @,@ 901 there , making his career total $ 2 @,@ 205 @,@ 901 .
In 2004 , ABC launched an ultra high @-@ stakes version of Millionaire entitled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire , with a $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 top prize . Two separate Super Millionaire series aired , one in February and one in May of that year . However , despite the higher stakes and the potential for someone to top the all @-@ time record for winnings , the largest prize awarded was $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 won by Robert Essig .
One week after Super Millionaire came to an end , Ken Jennings of Salt Lake City , Utah , became the new champion on Jeopardy ! The episode , broadcast on June 2 , 2004 , was the first in a long winning streak for the software engineer , made possible due to a change at the beginning of that season ( the show 's twentieth on air in syndication ) , eliminating the longstanding rule limiting consecutive appearances for a champion to five . With no limit to his appearances , Jennings began to break many game show records . As his streak continued deeper into the 21st season , Jennings was inching closer and closer to Olmstead 's record . Jennings topped Olmstead 's Millionaire winnings with his 65th consecutive win , finishing the day with $ 45 @,@ 099 and a new cumulative total of $ 2 @,@ 197 @,@ 000 , while Olmstead 's career winnings ( counting his Jeopardy wins ) were toppled in Jennings ' 66th game .
Jennings won nine more games before his streak came to an end on November 30 , 2004 . He had extended his record total to $ 2 @,@ 520 @,@ 700 at the time of his defeat , after which he was awarded an additional $ 2 @,@ 000 for finishing in second place per Jeopardy ! rules . Shortly after Jennings ' defeat , Jeopardy ! decided to see how he would fare in tournament play . On February 9 , 2005 , the show launched its Ultimate Tournament of Champions , inviting back 144 other past champions to compete over the next three months in a five @-@ round single @-@ elimination tournament with a $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 grand prize . The field included the highest @-@ winning five @-@ time champions and winners of some previous tournaments , though not all invitees were able to participate . Jennings received a bye into the finals of the tournament , where he faced semi @-@ final winners Jerome Vered and Brad Rutter in a three @-@ game , cumulative total match . Vered had set a single @-@ day scoring record during his appearance on the show in 1992 , while Rutter had won the 2001 Tournament of Champions and the 2002 Million Dollar Masters tournament and was the show 's highest @-@ earning contestant of all @-@ time before Jennings .
In the tournament 's three @-@ day final , Rutter defeated Jennings and Vered to win the tournament and $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and in the process he supplanted Jennings as the winningest all time American game show contestant . Including the $ 1 @.@ 18 million he had won in his previous Jeopardy ! appearances ( five regular season games , a Tournament of Champions win , the Million Dollar Masters win , and three matches in the earlier rounds of the Ultimate Tournament of Champions ) , Rutter 's total stood at $ 3 @,@ 255 @,@ 102 , while Jennings was now second with $ 3 @,@ 022 @,@ 700 having gained an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 for his second @-@ place finish in the tournament .
Jennings slowly began to chip away at Rutter 's record , first by winning $ 714 @.@ 29 in 2006 as part of the Mob on NBC 's 1 vs. 100 . A year later , Jennings won the Grand Slam tournament on Game Show Network and the $ 100 @,@ 000 top prize by defeating Ogi Ogas in the final round . Finally , on October 10 , 2008 , Jennings passed Rutter by winning $ 500 @,@ 000 on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? . He extended the record by winning $ 300 @,@ 000 in The IBM Challenge , where he and Rutter took on IBM supercomputer Watson in a special 2011 Jeopardy ! event . Rutter won $ 200 @,@ 000 in the challenge , in which both he and Jennings pledged half of their winnings to charity . He then added $ 100 @,@ 000 more later in 2011 when he appeared on Million Dollar Mind Game , raising his total to $ 3 @,@ 555 @,@ 102 , second only to Jennings ' $ 3 @,@ 923 @,@ 414 @.@ 29 .
In 2014 , Jennings and Rutter were both invited to play in the Jeopardy ! Battle of the Decades , a tournament conducted by the producers of Jeopardy ! to celebrate its thirtieth season in syndication . Both men advanced to the two @-@ day tournament final with Roger Craig filling the third position . Needing a win to reclaim his record , Rutter took the top prize in the tournament after Jennings , who needed to answer the second day 's Final Jeopardy clue correctly to win ( after making a sufficient wager ) , failed to do so . Rutter won the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 while Jennings won the $ 100 @,@ 000 second prize .
Jennings later appeared on Millionaire in November 2014 . Winning the top prize was the only way he could have reclaimed the record from Rutter ; however , Jennings finished with only $ 100 @,@ 000 , leaving him in second place .
= = Top ten winnings list = =
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= Tesco bomb campaign =
The Tesco bomb campaign was an attempted extortion against British supermarket chain Tesco which started in Bournemouth , Dorset , in August 2000 and led to one of the largest and most secretive operations ever undertaken by Dorset Police . During the campaign , a blackmailer identified by the pseudonym " Sally " sent letters to Tesco stores threatening to harm customers if his demands — for Clubcards , modified so that the holder could withdraw cash from automated teller machines — were not met .
Several months after the threat first came to light , " Sally " sent out several letter bombs , one of which was received and exploded in the face of the householder , causing her shock and minor injuries , while the Royal Mail intercepted several other packages , which had been held up because insufficient stamps had been put on them . In October 2000 , " Sally " threatened to use pipe bombs against Tesco customers and the threat was taken seriously enough that Tesco began the production of the modified Clubcards , but were unable to produce the required number before the deadline set by the blackmailer . In November , " Sally " claimed to have placed a pipe bomb in a garden in the Ferndown area of Dorset . No bomb was found .
Police eventually mounted a surveillance operation on the postbox to which several of the extortion letters had been traced and identified " Sally " as Robert Edward Dyer . Dyer was arrested in February 2001 , over six months since the beginning of the extortion attempt , and charged with several offences , including nine counts of blackmail and one of common assault , of which he was found guilty in May 2001 . He was sentenced to 16 @-@ years imprisonment on 12 June 2001 , later reduced to 12 on appeal . A number of similar extortion attempts against supermarket chains and other businesses and subsequent attacks on Tesco have since been compared to Dyer 's campaign by the media .
= = Beginnings = =
The campaign began in August 2000 , when John Purnell , director of security for Tesco , the United Kingdom 's largest supermarket chain , was telephoned by a newsagent in Bournemouth , Dorset , who had discovered a copy of an extortion letter left on his shop 's photocopier . The letter demanded that Tesco give away Clubcards , modified for use in cash machines , in the Bournemouth Daily Echo . Over the following days , Dorset Police received two other letters , threatening to send bombs to Tesco customers if the demands were not met .
= = Investigation = =
The police investigation into the campaign , codenamed Operation Hornbill , was one of the most secretive ever undertaken by Dorset Police and one of the largest in British policing history . After receiving the second letter , which had been damaged by fire , police made enquiries with the Royal Mail and discovered that a fire had been reported in a postbox on Bradpole Road , Bournemouth , leading to speculation that " Sally " — the alias by which all the letters were signed — had changed his mind and attempted to destroy the letter . They received a third letter on 29 August 2000 , in which " Sally " claimed to have prepared letter bombs to send to Tesco 's customers .
After receiving the third letter , the police attempted to communicate with " Sally " by covertly taking out a classified advert in the Bournemouth Daily Echo to buy more time . After receiving no response in three weeks , the senior investigating officer , Detective Superintendent Phil James convened a meeting with other senior officers from across the United Kingdom to assess the threat posed .
= = Bombings = =
During James ' meeting , he was informed that a letter bomb had exploded in a suburb of Bournemouth . In a documentary about the investigation in 2009 , James said " There was a knock at the door and I was told by one of my officers that an incendiary device had just gone off . The atmosphere of the meeting changed . Clearly there was a risk and the threat was very real " . Jean Evans , the woman who opened the letter bomb , was taken to hospital with minor injuries and a bomb disposal team from the British Army was despatched to the scene . The device had used a party popper to detonate gunpowder inside the envelope . Immediately after the first letter bomb , Dorset Police alerted Royal Mail to look out for similar packages and several were found in a sorting office , having been delayed because insufficient stamps had been placed on them , and defused by the Army . A further seven of the packages were delivered to the homes of Tesco customers . Following the spate of letter bombs , the Army 's bomb disposal team was stationed in Bournemouth — something that only usually happens when political party conferences are held in the town — and placed on stand @-@ by .
Another threatening letter was sent in October , threatening to attack Tesco customers with pipe bombs if the demands were not met . The letter contained a cipher which allowed the police to communicate with " Sally " in code through cryptic adverts in the Bournemouth Daily Echo . James contacted the editor of the Echo and the police were allowed to place the messages in the Echo , disguised as Mensa puzzles and made to look like wordsearches . By this time , the police had narrowed the focus of their investigation on a square @-@ mile area of Bournemouth and James became convinced that they would find " Sally " through the postbox on Bradpole Road , through which the fire @-@ damaged letter had passed in August . The box was placed under surveillance and , eventually , the October letter was traced back to that box . The footage from the surveillance operation was reviewed , but the image was of poor quality .
In November 2000 , " Sally " lost patience and sent a letter in which he said he would place a pipe bomb in the garden of a Tesco customer if his demands were not met , prompting the police to seriously consider producing the modified Clubcards . They discovered that they could not produce sufficient cards by 12 December , the deadline " Sally " had set . Approximately 100 @,@ 000 clubcards , modified for use in ATMs , were eventually produced , but none were distributed . At the end of November , " Sally " sent another letter , telling the police that he had planted a bomb in a garden in the Ferndown area , giving a grid reference which included over 500 houses . The claim prompted the mobilisation of hundreds of police officers to the area , but no bomb was found .
= = Arrest = =
The police received another letter from " Sally " on 7 December . Once again , the letter was traced back to the Bradpole road postbox , where the surveillance operation had continued . The operation had captured good @-@ quality footage of all the users of the postbox that day , but , as it was close to Christmas , the postbox was busier than normal , with 172 items posted by 38 people . Royal Mail regulations meant that detectives could not open or delay the letters , so they made enquiries with the recipients to identify the senders . They eventually managed to identify all but a small number of the senders .
On 17 February 2001 — over six months after the receipt of the first demand and three months since the last letter from " Sally " — the police made a major breakthrough . Detective Constable Alan Swanton , a junior detective on the case , spotted one of the people caught by the surveillance of the postbox who had yet to be identified . The man was carrying a fuel container , which Swanton believed had come from a nearby filling station . Officers obtained CCTV footage from the filling station , where their suspect had paid by cheque , and identified the man as Robert Edward Dyer .
Dyer , who , at the time , was a 51 @-@ year @-@ old widower and unsuccessful businessman living with his two teenage daughters , was placed under surveillance . The surveillance operation did not yield any results , so the police decided to confront Dyer and visited him at his home on 19 February , where they found an extortion note on his computer and cryptic notes in his handwriting . Dyer was arrested and interviewed . The police later intercepted the final letter from " Sally " , which surveillance footage showed Dyer posting the day before he was arrested and which was an exact match to the letter found on Dyer 's computer . Detective Superintendent James later revealed that Dyer " was an individual in desperate need of money and believing that Tesco was the answer to all his problems . "
= = Conviction = =
Dyer was charged and , in May 2001 , pleaded guilty on nine counts of blackmail , as well as a sole count of common assault against Jean Evans , the woman who opened the letter bomb . On 12 June 2001 , he was sentenced to 16 @-@ years imprisonment by a judge at Dorchester Crown Court . The sentence was reduced to 12 @-@ years imprisonment on appeal and Dyer was released from prison in 2007 .
During the trial , it emerged that Dyer had worn gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints on the letters and used water to stick the stamps rather than licking them , but that he had made errors , such as leaving a copy of an extortion demand on a newsagent 's photocopier . Although Dyer initially demanded only £ 200 @,@ 000 , Tesco would have lost an estimated £ 5 million had they complied with Dyer 's demand to place cards in every copy of the Bournemouth Echo .
= = Aftermath = =
The investigation was one of the largest and most secretive that had ever been undertaken by Dorset Police . The campaign was compared in the media to other similar extortion attempts against Tesco and other British businesses . Dyer got inspiration for the campaign from an article he read about Rodney Witchelo , who attempted to extort £ 4 million from H.J. Heinz Company by spiking jars of baby food . Witchelo was sentenced to 17 @-@ years imprisonment in 1990 . Dyer 's campaign was also compared to that of Edgar Pearce , dubbed the " Mardi Gras bomber " by the media . Over three years , Pearce had used bombs in an attempt to extort money from Barclays Bank and Sainsbury 's supermarkets . He was sentenced to 21 @-@ years imprisonment in 1999 . Later incidents have also been compared to Dyer 's campaign , including another against Tesco in 2007 .
A documentary about the campaign was made in 2009 and broadcast by ITV . The documentary featured interviews with Neal Butterworth , then @-@ editor of the Bournemouth Daily Echo and DSI James , the police officer who led the investigation .
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= Magnetosphere of Jupiter =
The magnetosphere of Jupiter is the cavity created in the solar wind by the planet 's magnetic field . Extending up to seven million kilometers in the Sun 's direction and almost to the orbit of Saturn in the opposite direction , Jupiter 's magnetosphere is the largest and most powerful of any planetary magnetosphere in the Solar System , and by volume the largest known continuous structure in the Solar System after the heliosphere . Wider and flatter than the Earth 's magnetosphere , Jupiter 's is stronger by an order of magnitude , while its magnetic moment is roughly 18 @,@ 000 times larger . The existence of Jupiter 's magnetic field was first inferred from observations of radio emissions at the end of the 1950s and was directly observed by the Pioneer 10 spacecraft in 1973 .
Jupiter 's internal magnetic field is generated by electrical currents in the planet 's outer core , which is composed of liquid metallic hydrogen . Volcanic eruptions on Jupiter 's moon Io eject large amounts of sulfur dioxide gas into space , forming a large torus around the planet . Jupiter 's magnetic field forces the torus to rotate with the same angular velocity and direction as the planet . The torus in turn loads the magnetic field with plasma , in the process stretching it into a pancake @-@ like structure called a magnetodisk . In effect , Jupiter 's magnetosphere is shaped by Io 's plasma and its own rotation , rather than by the solar wind like Earth 's magnetosphere . Strong currents in the magnetosphere generate permanent aurorae around the planet 's poles and intense variable radio emissions , which means that Jupiter can be thought of as a very weak radio pulsar . Jupiter 's aurorae have been observed in almost all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum , including infrared , visible , ultraviolet and soft X @-@ rays .
The action of the magnetosphere traps and accelerates particles , producing intense belts of radiation similar to Earth 's Van Allen belts , but thousands of times stronger . The interaction of energetic particles with the surfaces of Jupiter 's largest moons markedly affects their chemical and physical properties . Those same particles also affect and are affected by the motions of the particles within Jupiter 's tenuous planetary ring system . Radiation belts present a significant hazard for spacecraft and potentially to human space travellers .
= = Structure = =
Jupiter 's magnetosphere is a complex structure comprising a bow shock , magnetosheath , magnetopause , magnetotail , magnetodisk , and other components . The magnetic field around Jupiter emanates from a number of different sources , including fluid circulation at the planet 's core ( the internal field ) , electrical currents in the plasma surrounding Jupiter and the currents flowing at the boundary of the planet 's magnetosphere . The magnetosphere is embedded within the plasma of the solar wind , which carries the interplanetary magnetic field .
= = = Internal magnetic field = = =
The bulk of Jupiter 's magnetic field , like Earth 's , is generated by an internal dynamo supported by the circulation of a conducting fluid in its outer core . But whereas Earth 's core is made of molten iron and nickel , Jupiter 's is composed of metallic hydrogen . As with Earth 's , Jupiter 's magnetic field is mostly a dipole , with north and south magnetic poles at the ends of a single magnetic axis . However , on Jupiter the north pole of the dipole is located in the planet 's northern hemisphere and the south pole of the dipole lies in its southern hemisphere , opposite to the Earth , whose north pole lies in the southern hemisphere and south pole lies in the northern hemisphere . Jupiter 's field also has quadrupole , octupole and higher components , though they are less than one tenth as strong as the dipole component .
The dipole is tilted roughly 10 ° from Jupiter 's axis of rotation ; the tilt is similar to that of the Earth ( 11 @.@ 3 ° ) . Its equatorial field strength is about 428 μT ( 4 @.@ 28 G ) , which corresponds to a dipole magnetic moment of about 1 @.@ 56 × 1020 T · m3 . This makes Jupiter 's magnetic field 10 times stronger than Earth 's , and its magnetic moment about 18 @,@ 000 times larger . Jupiter 's magnetic field rotates at the same speed as the region below its atmosphere , with a period of 9 h 55 m . No changes in its strength or structure have been observed since the first measurements were taken by the Pioneer spacecraft in the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = = Size and shape = = =
Jupiter 's internal magnetic field prevents the solar wind , a stream of ionized particles emitted by the Sun , from interacting directly with its atmosphere , and instead diverts it away from the planet , effectively creating a cavity in the solar wind flow , called a magnetosphere , composed of a plasma different from that of the solar wind . The Jovian ( i.e. pertaining to Jupiter ) magnetosphere is so large that the Sun and its visible corona would fit inside it with room to spare . If one could see it from Earth , it would appear five times larger than the full moon in the sky despite being nearly 1700 times farther away .
As with Earth 's magnetosphere , the boundary separating the denser and colder solar wind 's plasma from the hotter and less dense one within Jupiter 's magnetosphere is called the magnetopause . The distance from the magnetopause to the center of the planet is from 45 to 100 RJ ( where RJ = 71 @,@ 492 km is the radius of Jupiter ) at the subsolar point — the unfixed point on the surface at which the Sun would appear directly overhead to an observer . The position of the magnetopause depends on the pressure exerted by the solar wind , which in turn depends on solar activity . In front of the magnetopause ( at a distance from 80 to 130 RJ from the planet 's center ) lies the bow shock , a wake @-@ like disturbance in the solar wind caused by its collision with the magnetosphere . The region between the bow shock and magnetopause is called the magnetosheath .
At the opposite side of the planet , the solar wind stretches Jupiter 's magnetic field lines into a long , trailing magnetotail , which sometimes extends well beyond the orbit of Saturn . The structure of Jupiter 's magnetotail is similar to Earth 's . It consists of two lobes ( blue areas in the figure ) , with the magnetic field in the southern lobe pointing toward Jupiter , and that in the northern lobe pointing away from it . The lobes are separated by a thin layer of plasma called the tail current sheet ( orange layer in the middle ) . Like Earth 's , the Jovian tail is a channel through which solar plasma enters the inner regions of the magnetosphere , where it is heated and forms the radiation belts at distances closer than 10 RJ from Jupiter .
The shape of Jupiter 's magnetosphere described above is sustained by the neutral sheet current ( also known as the magnetotail current ) , which flows with Jupiter 's rotation through the tail plasma sheet , the tail currents , which flow against Jupiter 's rotation at the outer boundary of the magnetotail , and the magnetopause currents ( or Chapman @-@ Ferraro currents ) , which flow against rotation along the dayside magnetopause . These currents create the magnetic field that cancels the internal field outside the magnetosphere . They also interact substantially with the solar wind .
Jupiter 's magnetosphere is traditionally divided into three parts : the inner , middle and outer magnetosphere . The inner magnetosphere is located at distances closer than 10 RJ from the planet . The magnetic field within it remains approximately dipole , because contributions from the currents flowing in the magnetospheric equatorial plasma sheet are small . In the middle ( between 10 and 40 RJ ) and outer ( further than 40 RJ ) magnetospheres , the magnetic field is not a dipole , and is seriously disturbed by its interaction with the plasma sheet ( see magnetodisk below ) .
= = = Role of Io = = =
Although overall the shape of Jupiter 's magnetosphere resembles that of the Earth 's , closer to the planet its structure is very different . Jupiter 's volcanically active moon Io is a strong source of plasma in its own right , and loads Jupiter 's magnetosphere with as much as 1 @,@ 000 kg of new material every second . Strong volcanic eruptions on Io emit huge amounts of sulfur dioxide , a major part of which is dissociated into atoms and ionized by the solar ultraviolet radiation , producing ions of sulfur and oxygen : S + , O + , S2 + and O2 + . These ions escape from the satellite 's atmosphere and form the Io plasma torus : a thick and relatively cool ring of plasma encircling Jupiter , located near Io 's orbit . The plasma temperature within the torus is 10 – 100 eV ( 100 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K ) , which is much lower than that of the particles in the radiation belts — 10 keV ( 100 million K ) . The plasma in the torus is forced into co @-@ rotation with Jupiter , meaning both share the same period of rotation . The Io torus fundamentally alters the dynamics of the Jovian magnetosphere .
As a result of several processes — diffusion and interchange instability being the main escape mechanisms — the plasma slowly leaks away from Jupiter . As the plasma moves further from the planet , the radial currents flowing within it gradually increase its velocity , maintaining co @-@ rotation . These radial currents are also the source of the magnetic field 's azimuthal component , which as a result bends back against the rotation . The particle number density of the plasma decreases from around 2 @,@ 000 cm − 3 in the Io torus to about 0 @.@ 2 cm − 3 at a distance of 35 RJ . In the middle magnetosphere , at distances greater than 20 RJ from Jupiter , co @-@ rotation gradually breaks down and the plasma begins to rotate more slowly than the planet . Eventually at the distances greater than 40 RJ ( in the outer magnetosphere ) this plasma escapes the magnetic field completely and leaves the magnetosphere through the magnetotail . As cold , dense plasma moves outward , it is replaced by hot , low @-@ density plasma ( temperature 20 keV ( 200 million K ) or higher ) moving from the outer magnetosphere . This plasma , adiabatically heated as it approaches Jupiter , forms the radiation belts in Jupiter 's inner magnetosphere .
= = = Magnetodisk = = =
While Earth 's magnetic field is roughly teardrop @-@ shaped , Jupiter 's is flatter , more closely resembling a disk , and " wobbles " periodically about its axis . The main reasons for this disk @-@ like configuration are the centrifugal force from the co @-@ rotating plasma and thermal pressure of hot plasma , both of which act to stretch Jupiter 's magnetic field lines , forming a flattened pancake @-@ like structure , known as the magnetodisk , at the distances greater than 20 RJ from the planet . The magnetodisk has a thin current sheet at the middle plane , approximately near the magnetic equator . The magnetic field lines point away from Jupiter above the sheet and towards Jupiter below it . The load of plasma from Io greatly expands the size of the Jovian magnetosphere , because the magnetodisk creates an additional internal pressure which balances the pressure of the solar wind . In the absence of Io the distance from the planet to the magnetopause at the subsolar point would be no more than 42 RJ , whereas it is actually 75 RJ on average .
The configuration of the magnetodisk 's field is maintained by the azimuthal ring current ( not an analog of Earth 's ring current ) , which flows with rotation through the equatorial plasma sheet . The Lorentz force resulting from the interaction of this current with the planetary magnetic field creates a centripetal force , which keeps the co @-@ rotating plasma from escaping the planet . The total ring current in the equatorial current sheet is estimated at 90 – 160 million amperes .
= = Dynamics = =
= = = Co @-@ rotation and radial currents = = =
The main driver of Jupiter 's magnetosphere is the planet 's rotation . In this respect Jupiter is similar to a device called a Unipolar generator . When Jupiter rotates , its ionosphere moves relatively to the dipole magnetic field of the planet . Because the dipole magnetic moment points in the direction of the rotation , the Lorentz force , which appears as a result of this motion , drives negatively charged electrons to the poles , while positively charged ions are pushed towards the equator . As a result , the poles become negatively charged and the regions closer to the equator become positively charged . Since the magnetosphere of Jupiter is filled with highly conductive plasma , the electrical circuit is closed through it . A current called the direct current flows along the magnetic field lines from the ionosphere to the equatorial plasma sheet . This current then flows radially away from the planet within the equatorial plasma sheet and finally returns to the planetary ionosphere from the outer reaches of the magnetosphere along the field lines connected to the poles . The currents that flow along the magnetic field lines are generally called field @-@ aligned or Birkeland currents . The radial current interacts with the planetary magnetic field , and the resulting Lorentz force accelerates the magnetospheric plasma in the direction of planetary rotation . This is the main mechanism that maintains co @-@ rotation of the plasma in Jupiter 's magnetosphere .
The current flowing from the ionosphere to the plasma sheet is especially strong when the corresponding part of the plasma sheet rotates slower than the planet . As mentioned above , co @-@ rotation breaks down in the region located between 20 and 40 RJ from Jupiter . This region corresponds to the magnetodisk , where the magnetic field is highly stretched . The strong direct current flowing into the magnetodisk originates in a very limited latitudinal range of about 16 ± 1 ° from the Jovian magnetic poles . These narrow circular regions correspond to Jupiter 's main auroral ovals . ( See below . ) The return current flowing from the outer magnetosphere beyond 50 RJ enters the Jovian ionosphere near the poles , closing the electrical circuit . The total radial current in the Jovian magnetosphere is estimated at 60 million – 140 million amperes .
The acceleration of the plasma into the co @-@ rotation leads to the transfer of energy from the Jovian rotation to the kinetic energy of the plasma . In that sense , the Jovian magnetosphere is powered by the planet 's rotation , whereas the Earth 's magnetosphere is powered mainly by the solar wind .
= = = Interchange instability and reconnection = = =
The main problem encountered in deciphering the dynamics of the Jovian magnetosphere is the transport of heavy cold plasma from the Io torus at 6 RJ to the outer magnetosphere at distances of more than 50 RJ . The precise mechanism of this process is not known , but it is hypothesized to occur as a result of plasma diffusion due to interchange instability . The process is similar to the Rayleigh @-@ Taylor instability in hydrodynamics . In the case of the Jovian magnetosphere , centrifugal force plays the role of gravity ; the heavy liquid is the cold and dense Ionian ( i.e. pertaining to Io ) plasma , and the light liquid is the hot , much less dense plasma from the outer magnetosphere . The instability leads to an exchange between the outer and inner parts of the magnetosphere of flux tubes filled with plasma . The buoyant empty flux tubes move towards the planet , while pushing the heavy tubes , filled with the Ionian plasma , away from Jupiter . This interchange of flux tubes is a form of magnetospheric turbulence .
This highly hypothetical picture of the flux tube exchange was partly confirmed by the Galileo spacecraft , which detected regions of sharply reduced plasma density and increased field strength in the inner magnetosphere . These voids may correspond to the almost empty flux tubes arriving from the outer magnetosphere . In the middle magnetosphere , Galileo detected so @-@ called injection events , which occur when hot plasma from the outer magnetosphere impacts the magnetodisk , leading to increased flux of energetic particles and a strengthened magnetic field . No mechanism is yet known to explain the transport of cold plasma outward .
When flux tubes loaded with the cold Ionian plasma reach the outer magnetosphere , they go through a reconnection process , which separates the magnetic field from the plasma . The former returns to the inner magnetosphere in the form of flux tubes filled with hot and less dense plasma , while the latter are probably ejected down the magnetotail in the form of plasmoids — large blobs of plasma . The reconnection processes may correspond to the global reconfiguration events also observed by the Galileo probe , which occurred regularly every 2 – 3 days . The reconfiguration events usually included rapid and chaotic variation of the magnetic field strength and direction , as well as abrupt changes in the motion of the plasma , which often stopped co @-@ rotating and began flowing outward . They were mainly observed in the dawn sector of the night magnetosphere . The plasma flowing down the tail along the open field lines is called the planetary wind .
The reconnection events are analogues to the magnetic substorms in the Earth 's magnetosphere . The difference seems to be their respective energy sources : terrestrial substorms involve storage of the solar wind 's energy in the magnetotail followed by its release through a reconnection event in the tail 's neutral current sheet . The latter also creates a plasmoid which moves down the tail . Conversely , in Jupiter 's magnetosphere the rotational energy is stored in the magnetodisk and released when a plasmoid separates from it .
= = = Influence of the solar wind = = =
Whereas the dynamics of Jovian magnetosphere mainly depend on internal sources of energy , the solar wind probably has a role as well , particularly as a source of high @-@ energy protons . The structure of the outer magnetosphere shows some features of a solar wind @-@ driven magnetosphere , including a significant dawn – dusk asymmetry . In particular , magnetic field lines in the dusk sector are bent in the opposite direction to those in the dawn sector . In addition , the dawn magnetosphere contains open field lines connecting to the magnetotail , whereas in the dusk magnetosphere , the field lines are closed . All these observations indicate that a solar wind driven reconnection process , known on Earth as the Dungey cycle , may also be taking place in the Jovian magnetosphere .
The extent of the solar wind 's influence on the dynamics of Jupiter 's magnetosphere is currently unknown ; however , it could be especially strong at times of elevated solar activity . The auroral radio , optical and X @-@ ray emissions , as well as synchrotron emissions from the radiation belts all show correlations with solar wind pressure , indicating that the solar wind may drive plasma circulation or modulate internal processes in the magnetosphere .
= = Emissions = =
= = = Aurorae = = =
Jupiter demonstrates bright , persistent aurorae around both poles . Unlike Earth 's aurorae , which are transient and only occur at times of heightened solar activity , Jupiter 's aurorae are permanent , though their intensity varies from day to day . They consist of three main components : the main ovals , which are bright , narrow ( less than 1000 km in width ) circular features located at approximately 16 ° from the magnetic poles ; the satellites ' auroral spots , which correspond to the footprints of the magnetic field lines connecting Jupiter 's ionosphere with those of its largest moons , and transient polar emissions situated within the main ovals . Whereas the auroral emissions were detected in almost all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to X @-@ rays ( up to 3 keV ) , they are brightest in the mid @-@ infrared ( wavelength 3 – 4 μm and 7 – 14 μm ) and deep ultraviolet spectral regions ( wavelength 80 – 180 nm ) .
The main ovals are the dominant part of the Jovian aurorae . They have stable shapes and locations , but their intensities are strongly modulated by the solar wind pressure — the stronger solar wind , the weaker the aurorae . As mentioned above , the main ovals are maintained by the strong influx of electrons accelerated by the electric potential drops between the magnetodisk plasma and the Jovian ionosphere . These electrons carry field aligned currents , which maintain the plasma 's co @-@ rotation in the magnetodisk . The potential drops develop because the sparse plasma outside the equatorial sheet can only carry a current of a limited strength without those currents . The precipitating electrons have energy in the range 10 – 100 keV and penetrate deep into the atmosphere of Jupiter , where they ionize and excite molecular hydrogen causing ultraviolet emission . The total energy input into the ionosphere is 10 – 100 TW . In addition , the currents flowing in the ionosphere heats it by the process known as Joule heating . This heating , which produces up to 300 TW of power , is responsible for the strong infrared radiation from the Jovian aurorae and partially for the heating of the thermosphere of Jupiter .
Spots were found to correspond to three Galilean moons : Io , Europa and Ganymede . They develop because the co @-@ rotation of the plasma is slowed in the vicinity of moons . The brightest spot belongs to Io , which is the main source of the plasma in the magnetosphere ( see above ) . The Ionian auroral spot is thought to be related to Alfvén currents flowing from the Jovian to Ionian ionosphere . Europa 's and Ganymede 's spots are much dimmer , because these moons are weak plasma sources , because of sublimation of the water ice from their surfaces .
Bright arcs and spots sporadically appear within the main ovals . These transient phenomena are thought to be related to interaction with the solar wind . The magnetic field lines in this region are believed to be open or to map onto the magnetotail . The secondary ovals observed inside the main oval may be related to the boundary between open and closed magnetic field lines or to the polar cusps . The polar auroral emissions are similar to those observed around Earth 's poles : both appear when electrons are accelerated towards the planet by potential drops , during reconnection of solar magnetic field with that of the planet . The regions within both main ovals emit most of auroral X @-@ rays . The spectrum of the auroral X @-@ ray radiation consists of spectral lines of highly ionized oxygen and sulfur , which probably appear when energetic ( hundreds of kiloelectronvolts ) S and O ions precipitate into the polar atmosphere of Jupiter . The source of this precipitation remains unknown .
= = = Jupiter as a pulsar = = =
Jupiter is a powerful source of radio waves in the spectral region stretching from several kilohertz to tens of megahertz . Radio waves with frequencies of less than about 0 @.@ 3 MHz ( and thus wavelengths longer than 1 km ) are called the Jovian kilometric radiation or KOM . Those with frequencies in the interval of 0 @.@ 3 – 3 MHz ( with wavelengths of 100 – 1000 m ) are called the hectometric radiation or HOM , while emissions in the range 3 – 40 MHz ( with wavelengths of 10 – 100 m ) are referred to as the decametric radiation or DAM . The latter radiation was the first to be observed from Earth , and its approximately 10 @-@ hour periodicity helped to identify it as originating from Jupiter . The strongest part of decametric emission , which is related to Io and to the Io – Jupiter current system , is called Io @-@ DAM .
The majority of these emissions are thought to be produced by a mechanism called Cyclotron Maser Instability , which develops close to the auroral regions , when electrons bounce back and forth between the poles . The electrons involved in the generation of radio waves are probably those carrying currents from the poles of the planet to the magnetodisk . The intensity of Jovian radio emissions usually varies smoothly with time ; however , Jupiter periodically emits short and powerful bursts ( S bursts ) , which can outshine all other components . The total emitted power of the DAM component is about 100 GW , while the power of all other HOM / KOM components is about 10 GW . In comparison , the total power of Earth 's radio emissions is about 0 @.@ 1 GW .
Jupiter 's radio and particle emissions are strongly modulated by its rotation , which makes the planet somewhat similar to a pulsar . This periodical modulation is probably related to asymmetries in the Jovian magnetosphere , which are caused by the tilt of the magnetic moment with respect to the rotational axis as well as by high @-@ latitude magnetic anomalies . The physics governing Jupiter 's radio emissions is similar to that of radio pulsars . They differ only in the scale , and Jupiter can be considered a very small radio pulsar too . In addition , Jupiter 's radio emissions strongly depend on solar wind pressure and , hence , on solar activity .
In addition to relatively long @-@ wavelength radiation , Jupiter also emits synchrotron radiation ( also known as the Jovian decimetric radiation or DIM radiation ) with frequencies in the range of 0 @.@ 1 – 15 GHz ( wavelength from 3 m to 2 cm ) , which is the bremsstrahlung radiation of the relativistic electrons trapped in the inner radiation belts of the planet . The energy of the electrons that contribute to the DIM emissions is from 0 @.@ 1 to 100 MeV , while the leading contribution comes from the electrons with energy in the range 1 – 20 MeV . This radiation is well @-@ understood and was used since the beginning of the 1960s to study the structure of the planet 's magnetic field and radiation belts . The particles in the radiation belts originate in the outer magnetosphere and are adiabatically accelerated , when they are transported to the inner magnetosphere .
Jupiter 's magnetosphere ejects streams of high @-@ energy electrons and ions ( energy up to tens megaelectronvolts ) , which travel as far as Earth 's orbit . These streams are highly collimated and vary with the rotational period of the planet like the radio emissions . In this respect as well , Jupiter shows similarity to a pulsar .
= = Interaction with rings and moons = =
Jupiter 's extensive magnetosphere envelops its ring system and the orbits of all four Galilean satellites . Orbiting near the magnetic equator , these bodies serve as sources and sinks of magnetospheric plasma , while energetic particles from the magnetosphere alter their surfaces . The particles sputter off material from the surfaces and create chemical changes via radiolysis . The plasma 's co @-@ rotation with the planet means that the plasma preferably interacts with the moons ' trailing hemispheres , causing noticeable hemispheric asymmetries . In addition , the large internal magnetic fields of the moons contribute to the Jovian magnetic field .
Close to Jupiter , the planet 's rings and small moons absorb high @-@ energy particles ( energy above 10 keV ) from the radiation belts . This creates noticeable gaps in the belts ' spatial distribution and affects the decimetric synchrotron radiation . In fact , the existence of Jupiter 's rings was first hypothesized on the basis of data from the Pioneer 11 spacecraft , which detected a sharp drop in the number of high @-@ energy ions close to the planet . The planetary magnetic field strongly influences the motion of sub @-@ micrometer ring particles as well , which acquire an electrical charge under the influence of solar ultraviolet radiation . Their behavior is similar to that of co @-@ rotating ions . The resonant interaction between the co @-@ rotation and the orbital motion is thought to be responsible for the creation of Jupiter 's innermost halo ring ( located between 1 @.@ 4 and 1 @.@ 71 RJ ) , which consists of sub @-@ micrometer particles on highly inclined and eccentric orbits . The particles originate in the main ring ; however , when they drift toward Jupiter , their orbits are modified by the strong 3 : 2 Lorentz resonance located at 1 @.@ 71 RJ , which increases their inclinations and eccentricities . Another 2 : 1 Lorentz resonance at 1 @.@ 4 Rj defines the inner boundary of the halo ring .
All Galilean moons have thin atmospheres with surface pressures in the range 0 @.@ 01 – 1 nbar , which in turn support substantial ionospheres with electron densities in the range of 1 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 cm − 3 . The co @-@ rotational flow of cold magnetospheric plasma is partially diverted around them by the currents induced in their ionospheres , creating wedge @-@ shaped structures known as Alfvén wings . The interaction of the large moons with the co @-@ rotational flow is similar to the interaction of the solar wind with the non @-@ magnetized planets like Venus , although the co @-@ rotational speed is usually subsonic ( the speeds vary from 74 to 328 km / s ) , which prevents the formation of a bow shock . The pressure from the co @-@ rotating plasma continuously strips gases from the moons ' atmospheres ( especially from that of Io ) , and some of these atoms are ionized and brought into co @-@ rotation . This process creates gas and plasma tori in the vicinity of moons ' orbits with the Ionian torus being the most prominent . In effect , the Galilean moons ( mainly Io ) serve as the principal plasma sources in Jupiter 's inner and middle magnetosphere . Meanwhile , the energetic particles are largely unaffected by the Alfvén wings and have free access to the moons ' surfaces ( except Ganymede 's ) .
The icy Galilean moons , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto , all generate induced magnetic moments in response to changes in Jupiter 's magnetic field . These varying magnetic moments create dipole magnetic fields around them , which act to compensate for changes in the ambient field . The induction is thought to take place in subsurface layers of salty water , which are likely to exist in all of Jupiter 's large icy moons . These underground oceans can potentially harbor life , and evidence for their presence was one of the most important discoveries made in the 1990s by spacecraft .
The interaction of the Jovian magnetosphere with Ganymede , which has an intrinsic magnetic moment , differs from its interaction with the non @-@ magnetized moons . Ganymede 's internal magnetic field carves a cavity inside Jupiter 's magnetosphere with a diameter of approximately two Ganymede diameters , creating a mini @-@ magnetosphere within Jupiter 's magnetosphere . Ganymede 's magnetic field diverts the co @-@ rotating plasma flow around its magnetosphere . It also protects the moon 's equatorial regions , where the field lines are closed , from energetic particles . The latter can still freely strike Ganymede 's poles , where the field lines are open . Some of the energetic particles are trapped near the equator of Ganymede , creating mini @-@ radiation belts . Energetic electrons entering its thin atmosphere are responsible for the observed Ganymedian polar aurorae .
Charged particles have a considerable influence on the surface properties of Galilean moons . Plasma originating from Io carries sulfur and sodium ions farther from the planet , where they are implanted preferentially on the trailing hemispheres of Europa and Ganymede . On Callisto however , for unknown reasons , sulfur is concentrated on the leading hemisphere . Plasma may also be responsible for darkening the moons ' trailing hemispheres ( again , except Callisto 's ) . Energetic electrons and ions , with the flux of the latter being more isotropic , bombard surface ice , sputtering atoms and molecules off and causing radiolysis of water and other chemical compounds . The energetic particles break water into oxygen and hydrogen , maintaining the thin oxygen atmospheres of the icy moons ( since the hydrogen escapes more rapidly ) . The compounds produced radiolytically on the surfaces of Galilean moons also include ozone and hydrogen peroxide . If organics or carbonates are present , carbon dioxide , methanol and carbonic acid can be produced as well . In the presence of sulfur , likely products include sulfur dioxide , hydrogen disulfide and sulfuric acid . Oxidants produced by radiolysis , like oxygen and ozone , may be trapped inside the ice and carried downward to the oceans over geologic time intervals , thus serving as a possible energy source for life .
= = Discovery = =
The first evidence for the existence of Jupiter 's magnetic field came in 1955 , with the discovery of the decametric radio emission or DAM . As the DAM 's spectrum extended up to 40 MHz , astronomers concluded that Jupiter must possess a magnetic field with a strength of about 1 milliteslas ( 10 gauss ) .
In 1959 , observations in the microwave part of the electromagnetic ( EM ) spectrum ( 0 @.@ 1 – 10 GHz ) led to the discovery of the Jovian decimetric radiation ( DIM ) and the realization that it was synchrotron radiation emitted by relativistic electrons trapped in the planet 's radiation belts . These synchrotron emissions were used to estimate the number and energy of the electrons around Jupiter and led to improved estimates of the magnetic moment and its tilt .
By 1973 the magnetic moment was known within a factor of two , whereas the tilt was correctly estimated at about 10 ° . The modulation of Jupiter 's DAM by Io ( the so @-@ called Io @-@ DAM ) was discovered in 1964 , and allowed Jupiter 's rotation period to be precisely determined . The definitive discovery of the Jovian magnetic field occurred in December 1973 , when the Pioneer 10 spacecraft flew near the planet .
= = Exploration after 1970 = =
As of 2009 a total of eight spacecraft have flown around Jupiter and all have contributed to the present knowledge of the Jovian magnetosphere . The first space probe to reach Jupiter was Pioneer 10 in December 1973 , which passed within 2 @.@ 9 RJ from the center of the planet . Its twin Pioneer 11 visited Jupiter a year later , traveling along a highly inclined trajectory and approaching the planet as close as 1 @.@ 6 RJ .
Pioneer provided the best coverage available of the inner magnetic field . The level of radiation at Jupiter was ten times more powerful than Pioneer 's designers had predicted , leading to fears that the probe would not survive ; however , with a few minor glitches , it managed to pass through the radiation belts , saved in large part by the fact that Jupiter 's magnetosphere had " wobbled " slightly upward at that point , moving away from the spacecraft . However , Pioneer 11 did lose most images of Io , as the radiation had caused its imaging photo polarimeter to receive a number of spurious commands . The subsequent and far more technologically advanced Voyager spacecraft had to be redesigned to cope with the massive radiation levels .
Voyagers 1 and 2 arrived to Jupiter in 1979 – 1980 and traveled almost in its equatorial plane . Voyager 1 , which passed within 5 RJ from the planet 's center , was first to encounter the Io plasma torus . Voyager 2 passed within 10 RJ and discovered the current sheet in the equatorial plane . The next probe to approach Jupiter was Ulysses in 1992 , which investigated the planet 's polar magnetosphere .
The Galileo spacecraft , which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003 , provided a comprehensive coverage of Jupiter 's magnetic field near the equatorial plane at distances up to 100 RJ . The regions studied included the magnetotail and the dawn and dusk sectors of the magnetosphere . While Galileo successfully survived in the harsh radiation environment of Jupiter , it still experienced a few technical problems . In particular , the spacecraft 's gyroscopes often exhibited increased errors . Several times electrical arcs occurred between rotating and non @-@ rotating parts of the spacecraft , causing it to enter safe mode , which led to total loss of the data from the 16th , 18th and 33rd orbits . The radiation also caused phase shifts in Galileo 's ultra @-@ stable quartz oscillator .
When the Cassini spacecraft flew by Jupiter in 2000 , it conducted coordinated measurements with Galileo . The last spacecraft to visit Jupiter was New Horizons in 2007 , which carried out a unique investigation of the Jovian magnetotail , traveling as far as 2500 RJ along its length . The coverage of Jupiter 's magnetosphere remains much poorer than for Earth 's magnetic field . Future missions ( Juno , for instance ) are important to further understand the Jovian magnetosphere 's dynamics .
In 2003 , NASA conducted a conceptual study called " Human Outer Planets Exploration " ( HOPE ) regarding the future human exploration of the outer solar system . The possibility was mooted of building a surface base on Callisto , because of the low radiation levels at the moon 's distance from Jupiter and its geological stability . Callisto is the only one of Jupiter 's Galilean satellites for which human exploration is feasible . The levels of ionizing radiation on Io , Europa and Ganymede are inimical to human life , and adequate protective measures have yet to be devised .
= = Cited sources = =
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= Schulze Baking Company Plant =
Schulze Baking Company Plant is a factory building located on the South Side of Chicago , Illinois , United States . It is located at 40 East Garfield Boulevard ( also described as 55th Street and Wabash Avenue ) in the Washington Park community area in Cook County . Built in 1914 , the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 12 , 1982 . Originally built for the Schulze Baking Company , it was the home of the Hostess Brands ' Butternut Bread until 2004 .
The building features a terra cotta exterior with ornamentation that pays tribute to Louis Sullivan . The original flooring is made of reinforced concrete . In the early 21st century , the building fell into a state of disrepair . In 2016 , however , a developer stated that the building was being rehabilitated for adaptive reuse in 2017 and following years as a data center .
= = Location and function = =
The building is located between the western edge of Washington Park and the Dan Ryan Expressway along a section of Garfield Boulevard that formerly hosted prominent businesses such as the Wanzer Milk Company and the Schulze Baking Company . The area has suffered from economic decay and crime . One of the few significant remaining businesses in the old Black Belt was the Butternut Bread Company , which occupied the building .
According to the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency , it currently functions as an Industry / Processing / Extraction - processing site , and its original historical function was as an Agriculture / Subsistence - processing site .
= = Baking company = =
Schulze with its signature Schulze Butternut Bread formed the starting company that eventually became Interstate Bakeries Corporation / Hostess Brands . The business was once Chicago 's largest wholesale business entity . Although , according to Form 10 @-@ K filings by the Interstate Bakeries Corporation with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission , the Schulze Baking Company was not formed until 1927 , many records contradict this claim . Historical accounts of Chicago claim that Paul Schulze , 1910 @-@ 11 president of the National Association of Master Bakers , started the Schulze Baking Company in 1893 with his brothers . Interstate 's own company history even confirms the 1893 beginning of Schulze .
In 1912 , prior to the construction of the plant , the company had four baking plants throughout the city of Chicago and general offices in the Chicago Stock Exchange Building on LaSalle Street in the Chicago Loop . In the 1910s , the company had extensive legal battles regarding protecting its trademarks .
In 1921 Paul Schulze sold control of the company to Ralph Leroy Nafziger . In 1930 Nafziger announced the formation of Interstate Bakeries through the merger of Schulze Baking and Western Bakeries of Los Angeles to form Interstate Bakeries . Schulze and Western continued to maintain their own separate companies under the Interstate umbrella until 1937 when Schulze formally became Interstate .
Paul Schulze went on to operate small bakeries elsewhere under the name of Schulze and Burch Biscuit Company .
= = Architecture = =
The building is a white terra cotta structure designed by John Ahlschlager in 1914 for the Schulze Baking Company . The terra cotta walls were five storeys high . The building featured blue lettering , foliated cornice ornamentation , and stringcourses of rosettes . The building uses 700 windows grouped to complement the ornamentation 's allusion to themes of nature and purity . The ornamentation is considered abstract , Sullivanesque and modern . The company used Apron conveyor manufactured by the Jeffrey Manufacturing Company of Columbus , Ohio . A lengthy low industrial complex extends northward behind the main five @-@ story building .
The structure has a flat concrete slab floor with four @-@ way reinforcement designed to support 300 pounds per square inch ( 2 @,@ 100 kPa ) . The dimensions of the building 298 feet 4 inches ( 90 @.@ 93 m ) by 160 feet ( 49 m ) and it is composed of floor space segmented into 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) by 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The second floor is 9 inches ( 23 cm ) thick except in the 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) square surrounding each column where it is 14 inches ( 36 cm ) thick .
As of late 2008 , the building was showing signs of wear , disrepair and neglect . At least one terra cotta cornice was missing , and the building had numerous walkway coverings to protect passersby from falling debris such as further terra cotta loss . One side wall was propped up with wood beams at 45 degree angles . In addition , the building had some graffiti markings . However , developer Ghian Foreman stated in February 2016 that the rehabilitation of the former Shulze Baking Company plant into a data center , to be called the Midway Technology Center , was on schedule for operation in 2017 . The adaptive reuse project allegedly involved the investment of more than $ 130 million .
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= Cliff Williams =
Clifford ' Cliff ' Williams ( born 14 December 1949 ) is a British musician who was a member of the Australian hard rock band AC / DC as their bassist and backing vocalist from 1977 until his retirement in 2016 . He had started his professional music career in 1967 and was previously in the British groups Home and Bandit . His first studio album with AC / DC was Powerage in 1978 . The band , including Williams , was inducted into the American Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2003 . Williams 's playing style is noted for basic bass lines which follow the rhythm guitar . Williams ' side projects , while a member of AC / DC , include benefit concerts and playing with Emir & Frozen Camels on their album San ( 2002 ) and a European tour . In 2016 , Williams announced he would be retiring from the music industry after AC / DC 's Rock or Bust World Tour .
= = Early career = =
Clifford Williams was born on 14 December 1949 in Romford , Essex , on the outskirts of London . The Williams family moved to Hoylake , near Liverpool , in 1961 , where he was influenced by the local Merseybeat movement and decided to become a rock musician . At the age of 13 , he and some friends formed a band . Williams has listed The Rolling Stones , The Kinks and blues musicians such as Bo Diddley as influences for his style . He mostly learned to play bass guitar by " listening to records and picking out notes " , with formal training limited to some lessons from a professional Liverpool bassist . Williams left school when he was 16 years old , becoming an engineer by day and musician by night .
In 1966 , Williams became a professional musician and moved back to London , where he worked at a demolition site and in supermarkets , and played in short @-@ lived bands . Williams met guitarist Laurie Wisefield ( later a member of Wishbone Ash ) , and the two became members of a band , Sugar , which soon broke up .
In 1970 , Williams and Wisefield joined with singer Mick Stubbs , keyboardist Clive John and drummer Mick Cook to form the progressive rock group Home . The band signed a recording deal with Epic Records and issued their debut LP , Pause for a Hoarse Horse , in 1971 . Home was a supporting act for Jeff Beck , Mott the Hoople , The Faces and Led Zeppelin . In 1972 , Jim Anderson replaced John on keyboards and Home released a self @-@ titled album , featuring their only hit single , " Dreamer " , which peaked at No. 41 in the UK album charts . Their next album , The Alchemist , followed in 1973 , but did not gain chart success . When British folk singer @-@ songwriter Al Stewart suggested that Home back him on his first American tour in March 1974 , Mick Stubbs left the group . The rest of the members became the Al Stewart Band , but split up after the tour .
Williams briefly played with the American band Stars before forming Bandit in 1974 . Bandit 's line @-@ up included vocalist Jim Diamond and drummer Graham Broad ( later in Bucks Fizz and Roger Waters 's band ) . The group signed with Arista Records and released a self @-@ titled album in 1977 . Bandit also performed as Alexis Korner 's backing band on 1977 's The Lost Album before disbanding later that year .
= = AC / DC = =
In 1977 , Williams considered retiring from music when Bandit disbanded , but one of the group 's guitarists , Jimmy Litherland , convinced him to audition for Australian heavy rockers AC / DC . They were looking for a bassist as Mark Evans had been fired shortly after recording the 1977 studio album Let There Be Rock . AC / DC had formed in Australia in 1973 and by mid @-@ 1977 the line @-@ up was Malcolm Young on rhythm guitar and backing vocals alongside his brother Angus Young on lead guitar , Phil Rudd on drums and Bon Scott on vocals . Williams said shortly after being told about AC / DC 's auditions , he saw the band on Top of the Pops and reacted positively , describing them as " outrageous " .
For his audition , Williams played four jam sessions with the band , and on 27 May 1977 , he was asked to join AC / DC . Angus declared it was partly motivated because he thought the bassist 's good looks would attract more women to their concerts . Given Williams was replacing an Australian musician , he initially had difficulties obtaining a work permit to enter the country . His first performances with AC / DC were on the tour there supporting Let There Be Rock , with two secret gigs at Sydney 's Lifesaver . The album Powerage ( 1978 ) , produced by Vanda & Young , marked Williams 's studio debut . Williams has remained in AC / DC ever since , with only a temporary departure in 1991 as he suffered a kidney infection , during which Paul Greg had to play bass for some North American concerts in the Razors Edge World Tour . The only current member who has been with the band longer is Angus Young . Along with playing bass , Williams also sings backing vocals . His favourite albums with the band are Powerage and Back in Black .
Since Williams ' introduction to the band , AC / DC has been inducted to the Australian Recording Industry Association 's Hall of Fame ( in 1988 ) , and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( in 2003 ) . In 1982 , Kerrang ! readers voted him as Best Bassist of the year .
On July 8th , 2016 , Williams announced his plans to retire following the Rock or Bust World Tour . He cited the recent departures of other band members - Malcolm could not record the album due to dementia , Phil Rudd could not tour following a house arrest , and singer Brian Johnson only performed in half the concerts before a medical leave - as a reason for his decision , feeling AC / DC " it ’ s a changed animal " .
= = Personal life = =
Williams ' wife , Georganne , is from the US state of Louisiana ( north shore ) . After they married in 1980 , he moved permanently to the United States . Initially the couple lived in Hawaii , but Williams found the islands too isolated and the school system lacking . In 1986 , they moved to Fort Myers , Florida , following a suggestion from AC / DC bandmate Brian Johnson ( Bon Scott 's replacement ) , who lived in Fort Myers Beach at the time , but has since moved to nearby Sarasota . Cliff has been known to spend time in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence among distant relatives , including local French guitar player Noah Tchenio . The couple have two children : Erin ( born 1985 ) who is a model @-@ actress under the name Erin Lucas , and Luke ( born 1986 ) . His hobbies include fishing and amateur flying .
= = Side projects = =
In 1984 , Williams played bass and backing vocals on Adam Bomb 's song " I Want My Heavy Metal " , for the album Fatal Attraction . During AC / DC 's hiatus in the 2000s , Williams joined Bosnian musician Emir Bukovica 's band Emir & Frozen Camels . The group recorded the album San in 2002 and played in some European clubs . In 2005 , Williams and AC / DC singer Johnson played in a hurricane relief event in Florida , promoted by the John Entwistle Foundation . There Williams met drummer Steve Luongo , president of the foundation and former member of the John Entwistle band . Luongo later brought Williams , Johnson , and guitarist Mark Hitt for the Classic Rock Cares charity project . The quartet composed and recorded ten tracks in the studio in 2007 , and followed that with a tour to raise funds for the foundation . In 2011 , Williams played on a benefit concert organized by Mark Farner . Williams said he also occasionally plays with a rhythm and blues band from Fort Myers called The Juice .
= = Style = =
Williams 's role in AC / DC is to provide steady but basic bass lines which follow the rhythm guitar of Malcolm Young , consisting mostly of eighth notes . His bass lines are sometimes written by Malcolm and Angus Young during composition , and at other times Williams develops them based on the other instrumental tracks . Williams said he plays " the same thing in every song , for the most part . In AC / DC 's music , the song is more important than any individual 's bit in it . " He added that " complex [ bass ] lines wouldn 't add anything to a guitar @-@ oriented band like ours , so I try to create a bottom layer that drives what our guys are doing on top . " Williams has no difficulty keeping his low profile within the band , declaring that " I don 't have any problem doing this , because I enjoy playing simply . I never feel angry or prisoner . " His playing technique is mostly centred around downpicking , with occasional use of plucking to mute the strings , which he says " adds more definition and tightens up the notes , and it gives the sound less sustain " .
= = Equipment = =
In his first appearance in 1977 , he used a Gibson ripper only for the " Let There Be Rock " music video . Cliff Williams ' trademark instrument is the StingRay and other basses by Music Man , strung with D 'Addario ( .045 , .065 , .085 , .105 ) flatwounds in the studio and roundwound XLs in concert . Williams states that despite trying other basses over the years , he always goes back to Music Man 's instruments , which he described as " a tremendous work horse of a bass " . Other basses used include the Fender Precision Bass , a Gibson Thunderbird non @-@ reverse , Fender Jazz Bass , the Steinberger L @-@ series , a Gibson EB @-@ 3 and at least two LAG Custom basses . Williams has used 3 Ampeg SVT @-@ 810E cabinets with 2 SVT @-@ 4PRO Heads . If there was any interference with the wireless systems , he has used cables in his live performances .
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= PIAT =
The Projector , Infantry , Anti Tank ( PIAT ) Mk I was a British man @-@ portable anti @-@ tank weapon developed during the Second World War . The PIAT was designed in 1942 in response to the British Army 's need for a more effective infantry anti @-@ tank weapon , and entered service in 1943 .
The PIAT was based on the spigot mortar system , that launched a 2 @.@ 5 pound ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) bomb using a powerful spring and a cartridge in the tail of the projectile . It possessed an effective range of approximately 115 yards ( 110 m ) in a direct fire anti @-@ tank role , and 350 yards ( 320 m ) in an indirect fire ' house @-@ breaking ' role . The PIAT had several advantages over other infantry anti @-@ tank weapons of the period , which included a lack of muzzle smoke to reveal the position of the user , and an inexpensive barrel ; however , the type also had some disadvantages , a difficulty in cocking the weapon , the fragility of the barrel , powerful recoil , and problems with ammunition reliability .
The PIAT was first used during the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 , and remained in use with British and Commonwealth forces until the early 1950s . PIATs were supplied to or obtained by other nations and forces , including the Soviet Union ( through Lend Lease ) , the French resistance , the Polish Underground , and the Israeli Haganah ( which used PIATs during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War ) . Six members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces received Victoria Crosses for their use of the PIAT in combat .
= = Development = =
At the beginning of the Second World War , the British Army possessed two primary anti @-@ tank weapons for its infantry : the Boys anti @-@ tank rifle and the No. 68 AT Rifle Grenade . However , neither of these was particularly effective as an anti @-@ tank weapon . The No. 68 anti @-@ tank grenade was designed to be fired from a discharger fitted onto the muzzle of an infantryman 's rifle , but this meant that the grenade was too light to deal significant damage , resulting in it rarely being used in action . The Boys was also inadequate in the anti @-@ tank role . It was heavy , which meant that it was difficult for infantry to handle effectively , and was outdated ; by 1940 it was effective only at short ranges , and then only against armoured cars and light tanks . In November 1941 during Operation Crusader , part of the North African Campaign , staff officers of the British Eighth Army were unable to find even a single instance of the Boys knocking out a German tank .
Due to these limitations , a new infantry anti @-@ tank weapon was required , and this ultimately came in the form of the Projector , Infantry , Anti @-@ Tank , commonly abbreviated to PIAT . The origins of the PIAT can be traced back as far as 1888 , when an American engineer by the name of Charles Edward Munroe was experimenting with guncotton ; he discovered that the explosive would yield a great deal more damage if there were a recess in it facing the target . This phenomenon is known as the ' Munroe effect ' . The German scientist Egon Neumann , found that lining the recess with metal enhanced the damage dealt even more . By the 1930s Henry Mohaupt , a Swiss engineer , had developed this technology even further and created hollow charge ammunition . This consisted of a recessed metal cone placed into an explosive warhead ; when the warhead hit its target , the explosive detonated and turned the cone into an extremely high @-@ speed spike . The speed of the spike , and the immense pressure it caused on impact , allowed it to create a small hole in armour plating and send a large pressure wave and large amounts of fragments into the interior of the target . It was this technology that was utilized in the No. 68 anti @-@ tank grenade .
Although the technology existed , it remained for British designers to develop a system that could deliver hollow @-@ charge ammunition in a larger size and with a greater range than that possessed by the No. 68 . At the same time that Mohaupt was developing hollow @-@ charge ammunition , Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker of the Royal Artillery was investigating the possibility of developing a lightweight platoon mortar . However , rather than using the conventional system of firing the mortar shell from a barrel fixed to a baseplate , Blacker wanted to use the spigot mortar system . Instead of a barrel , there was a steel rod known as a ' spigot ' fixed to a baseplate , and the bomb itself had a propellant charge inside its tail . When the mortar was to be fired , the bomb was pushed down onto the spigot , which exploded the propellant charge and blew the bomb into the air . By effectively putting the barrel on the inside of the weapon , the barrel diameter was no longer a limitation on the warhead size . Blacker eventually designed a lightweight mortar that he named the ' Arbalest ' and submitted it to the War Office , but it was turned down in favour of a Spanish design . Undeterred , however , Blacker continued with his experiments and decided to try to invent a hand @-@ held anti @-@ tank weapon based on the spigot design , but found that the spigot could not generate sufficient velocity needed to penetrate armour . But he did not abandon the design , and eventually come up with the Blacker Bombard , a swivelling spigot @-@ style system that could launch a 20 @-@ pound ( 9 kg ) bomb approximately 100 yards ( 90 m ) ; although the bombs it fired could not actually penetrate armour , they could still severely damage tanks , and in 1940 a large number of Blacker Bombards were issued to the Home Guard as anti @-@ tank weapons .
When Blacker became aware of the existence of hollow @-@ charge ammunition , he realized that it was exactly the kind of ammunition he was looking for to develop a hand @-@ held anti @-@ tank weapon , as it depended upon the energy contained within itself , and not the sheer velocity at which it was fired . Blacker then developed a hollow @-@ charge bomb with a propellant charge in its tail , which fitted into a shoulder @-@ fired launcher that consisted of a metal casing containing a large spring and a spigot ; the bomb was placed into a trough at the front of the casing , and when the trigger was pulled the spigot rammed into the tail of the bomb and fired it out of the casing and up to approximately 140 metres ( 150 yd ) away . Blacker called the weapon the ' Baby Bombard ' , and presented it to the War Office in 1941 . However , when the weapon was tested it proved to have a host of problems ; a War Office report of June 1941 stated that the casing was flimsy and the spigot itself did not always fire when the trigger was pulled , and none of the bombs provided exploded upon contact with the target .
At the time that he developed the Baby Bombard and sent it off the War Office , Blacker was working for a government department known as MD1 , which was given the task of developing and delivering weapons for use by guerilla and resistance groups in Occupied Europe . Shortly after the trial of the Baby Bombard , Blacker was posted to other duties , and left the anti @-@ tank weapon in the hands of a colleague in the department , Major Millis Jefferis . Jefferis took the prototype Baby Bombard apart on the floor of his office in MD1 and rebuilt it , and then combined it with a hollow @-@ charge mortar bomb to create what he called the ' Jefferis Shoulder Gun ' . Jefferis then had a small number of prototype armour @-@ piercing HEAT rounds made , and took the weapon to be tested at the Small Arms School at Bisley . A Warrant Officer took the Shoulder Gun down to a firing range , aimed it at an armoured target , and pulled the trigger ; the Shoulder Gun pierced a hole in the target , but unfortunately also wounded the Warrant Officer when a piece of metal from the exploding round flew back and hit him . Jefferis himself then took the place of the Warrant Officer and fired off several more rounds , all of which pierced the armoured target but without wounding him . Impressed with the weapon , the Ordnance Board of the Small Arms School had the faults with the ammunition corrected , renamed the Shoulder Gun as the Projector , Infantry , Anti Tank , and ordered that it be issued to infantry units as a hand @-@ held anti @-@ tank weapon . Production of the PIAT began at the end of August 1942 .
There was disagreement over the name to be given to the new weapon . A press report in 1944 gave credit for both the PIAT and the Blacker Bombard to Jefferis . Blacker took exception to this and suggested to Jefferis that they should divide any award equally after his expenses had been deducted . The Ministry of Supply had already paid Blacker £ 50 @,@ 000 for his expenses in relation to the Bombard and PIAT . Churchill himself got involved in the argument ; writing to the Secretary of State for war in January 1943 he asked " Why should the name Jefferis shoulder gun be changed to PIAT ? Nobody objected to the Boys rifle , although that had a rather odd ring . " Churchill supported Jefferis claims , but he did not get his way . For his part Blacker received £ 25 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 973 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . from the Inventions Board .
= = Design = =
The PIAT was 39 inches ( 0 @.@ 99 m ) long and weighed 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) , with an effective direct fire range of approximately 115 yards ( 110 m ) and a maximum indirect fire range of 350 yards ( 320 m ) . It could be carried and operated by one man , but was usually assigned to a two @-@ man team , the second man acting as an ammunition carrier and loader . The PIAT launcher was a tube constructed out of thin sheets of steel , and contained the trigger mechanism and firing spring . At the front of the launcher was a small trough in which the bomb was placed , and the spigot ran down the middle of the launcher and into the trough . Padding for the user 's shoulder was fitted to the other end of the launcher , and rudimentary aperture sights were fitted on top for aiming ; the bombs launched by the PIAT possessed hollow tubular tails , into which a small propellant cartridge was inserted , and hollow @-@ charge warheads .
To initiate firing the weapon the trigger mechanism , which was essentially just a large spring , had to be cocked , and to do this was a difficult and awkward process . The user had to first place the PIAT on its butt , then place two feet on the shoulder padding and turn the weapon to unlock the body and simultaneously lock the firing pin to the butt ; the user would then have to bend over and pull the body of the weapon upwards , thereby pulling the spring back until it attached to the trigger and cocking the weapon . Once this was achieved , the body was then lowered and turned to reattach it to the rest of the weapon , and the PIAT could then be fired . Users of a small stature often found the cocking sequence challenging , as they did not have the sufficient height required to pull the body up far enough to cock the weapon ; it was also difficult to do when lying in a prone position , as was often the case when using the weapon in action .
When the trigger was pulled , the spring pushed the firing pin forwards into the bomb , which ignited the propellant in the bomb and launched it out of the trough and into the air . The recoil caused by the detonation of the propellant then blew the firing pin backwards onto the spring ; this automatically cocked the weapon for subsequent shots , eliminating the need to manually re @-@ cock .
Tactical training emphasized that it was best utilized from a slit trench with surprise and concealment on the side of the PIAT team , and where possible enemy armoured vehicles should be engaged from the flank or rear . It was possible to use the PIAT as a crude mortar by placing the shoulder pad of the weapon on the ground and supporting it with a monopod , giving the weapon an approximate range of 350 yards ( 320 m ) . The PIAT was often also used in combat to knock out enemy positions located in houses and bunkers .
Despite the difficulties in cocking and firing the weapon , it did have several advantages ; its barrel did not have to be replaced or require high @-@ grade materials that were expensive to produce , there was little muzzle blast that could give the user 's position away , and the size of the barrel meant it could accommodate relatively large calibre munitions . However , the weapon did have drawbacks . It was very heavy and bulky , which meant that it was quite unpopular with the British and Commonwealth troops who were issued with it . There were also problems with its penetrative power ; although the PIAT was theoretically able to penetrate approximately 100 millimetres ( 4 in ) of armour , field experience during the Allied invasion of Sicily , which was substantiated by trials conducted during 1944 , confirmed otherwise . During these trials , a skilled user was unable to hit a target more than 60 % of the time at 100 yards ( 90 m ) , and faulty fuses meant that only 75 % of the bombs fired detonated on @-@ target .
= = Operational history = =
The PIAT entered service with British and Commonwealth units in mid @-@ 1943 , and was first used in action by Canadian troops during the Allied invasion of Sicily . The 1944 war establishment for a British platoon , which contained 36 men , had a single PIAT attached to the platoon headquarters , alongside a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) mortar detachment . Three PIATs were issued to every company at the headquarters level for issuing at the CO discretion - allowing one weapon for each platoon . British Army and Royal Marines commandos were also issued with PIATs and used them in action . The Australian Army allocated a PIAT ( which was also known as Projector Infantry Tank Attack in Australian service ) to each infantry platoon in its ' jungle divisions ' , which differed from the standard British organisation , from late 1943 .
A contemporary ( 1944 – 45 ) Canadian Army survey questioned 161 army officers , who had recently left combat , about the effectiveness of 31 different infantry weapons , in that survey the PIAT was ranked the number one most “ outstandlingly effective ” weapon , followed by the Bren gun in second place .
An analysis by British staff officers of the initial period of the Normandy campaign found that 7 % of all German tanks destroyed by British forces were knocked out by PIATs , compared to 6 % by rockets fired by aircraft . However , they also found that once German tanks had been fitted with armoured skirts that detonated hollow @-@ charge ammunition before it could penetrate the tank 's armour , the weapon became much less effective .
The PIAT was used in all theatres in which British and Commonwealth troops served , and remained in service until the early 1950s , when it was replaced by the American bazooka . The Australian Army briefly used PIATs at the start of the Korean War alongside 2 @.@ 36 @-@ inch ( 60 mm ) bazookas , but quickly replaced both weapons with 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 89 mm ) M20 " Super Bazookas " . As part of the Lend Lease agreement , between October 1941 and March 1946 the Soviet Union was supplied with 1 @,@ 000 PIATs and 100 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . The PIAT was also utilized by resistance groups in Occupied Europe . During the Warsaw Uprising , it was one of many weapons that Polish Underground resistance fighters used against German forces . And in occupied France , the French resistance used the PIAT in the absence of mortars or artillery . After the end of the Second World War , the Israeli Haganah used PIATs against Arab armour during the 1948 Israeli War of Independence .
Six Victoria Crosses were awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces for actions using the PIAT :
On 16 May 1944 , during the Italian Campaign , Fusilier Frank Jefferson used a PIAT to destroy a Panzer IV tank and repel a German counterattack launched against his unit as they assaulted a section of the Gustav Line .
On 6 June 1944 , Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis , in one of several actions that day , used a PIAT in an attack against a German field gun .
On 12 June 1944 Rifleman Ganju Lama of the 7th Gurkha Rifles used a PIAT to knock out two Japanese tanks attacking his unit at Ningthoukhong , Manipur , India ( given as Burma in the official citation ) . Despite sustaining injuries , Ganju Lama approached within thirty yards of the enemy tanks , and having knocked them out moved on to attack the crews as they tried to escape . When asked by his Army Commander , William Slim , why he went so close , he replied he was not certain of hitting with a PIAT beyond thirty yards .
Between 19 – 25 September 1944 , during the Battle of Arnhem , Major Robert Henry Cain used a PIAT to disable an Assault gun that was advancing on his company position , and to force another three German Panzer IV tanks to retreat during a later assault .
On the night of 21 / 22 October 1944 , Private Ernest Alvia ( " Smokey " ) Smith used a PIAT to destroy a German Mark V Panther tank , one of three Panthers and two self @-@ propelled guns attacking his small group . The self @-@ propelled vehicles were also knocked out . He then used a Thompson submachine gun to kill or repel about 30 enemy soldiers . His actions secured a bridgehead on the Savio River in Italy .
On 9 December 1944 , Captain John Henry Cound Brunt utilised a PIAT , amongst other weapons , to help repel an attack by the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division .
= = Users = =
Some of the users of the PIAT included :
Australia
Canada
Free French Forces
Kingdom of Greece
India
Israel
Italy ( Co @-@ Belligerent Army and partisans )
Luxembourg
New Zealand
Polish Underground
Soviet Union
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Malaysia
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= Edmund Sharpe =
Edmund Sharpe ( 31 October 1809 – 8 May 1877 ) was an English architect , architectural historian , railway engineer , and sanitary reformer . Born in Knutsford , Cheshire , he was educated first by his parents and then at schools locally and in Runcorn , Greenwich and Sedbergh . Following his graduation from Cambridge University he was awarded a travelling scholarship , enabling him to study architecture in Germany and southern France . In 1835 he established an architectural practice in Lancaster , initially working on his own . In 1845 he entered into partnership with Edward Paley , one of his pupils . Sharpe 's main focus was on churches , and he was a pioneer in the use of terracotta as a structural material in church building , designing what were known as " pot " churches , the first of which was St Stephen and All Martyrs ' Church , Lever Bridge .
He also designed secular buildings , including residential buildings and schools , and worked on the development of railways in north @-@ west England , designing bridges and planning new lines . In 1851 he resigned from his architectural practice , and in 1856 he moved from Lancaster , spending the remainder of his career mainly as a railway engineer , first in North Wales , then in Switzerland and southern France . Sharpe returned to England in 1866 to live in Scotforth near Lancaster , where he designed a final church near to his home .
While working in his architectural practice , Sharpe was involved in Lancaster 's civic affairs . He was an elected town councillor and served as mayor in 1848 – 49 . Concerned about the town 's poor water supply and sanitation , he championed the construction of new sewers and a waterworks . He was a talented musician , and took part in the artistic , literary , and scientific activities in the town . Also an accomplished sportsman , he took an active interest in archery , rowing and cricket .
Sharpe achieved national recognition as an architectural historian . He published books of detailed architectural drawings , wrote a number of articles on architecture , devised a scheme for the classification of English Gothic architectural styles , and in 1875 was awarded the Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects . He was critical of much of the restoration of medieval churches that had become a major occupation of contemporary architects . Towards the end of his career Sharpe organised expeditions to study and draw buildings in England and France . While on such an expedition to Italy in 1877 , he was taken ill and died . His body was taken to Lancaster , where he was buried . Sharpe 's legacy consists of about 40 extant churches ; railway features , including the Conwy Valley Line and bridges on what is now the Lancashire section of the West Coast Main Line ; and his archive of architectural books , articles and drawings .
= = Early life = =
Edmund Sharpe was born on 31 October 1809 at Brook Cottage , Brook Street in Knutsford , Cheshire , the first child of Francis and Martha Sharpe . His father , a peripatetic music teacher and organist at Knutsford parish church , came from Stamford in Lincolnshire . At the time of marriage his wife , Martha Whittaker , was on the staff of an academy for young ladies , Belvedere House , in Bath , Somerset . During his childhood in Knutsford , the young Edmund played with Elizabeth Stevenson , the future Mrs Gaskell . In 1812 the Sharpe family moved across town from Over Knutsford to a farm in Nether Knutsford called Heathside , when Francis Sharpe then worked as both farmer and music teacher . Edmund was initially educated by his parents , but by 1818 he was attending a school in Knutsford . Two years later he was a boarder at a school near Runcorn , and in 1821 at Burney 's Academy in Greenwich . Edmund 's father died suddenly in November 1823 , aged 48 , and his mother moved to Lancaster with her family , where she later resumed her teaching career .
Edmund continued his education at Burney 's Academy , and became head boy . In August 1827 he moved to Sedbergh School ( then in the West Riding of Yorkshire , now in Cumbria ) , where he remained for two years . In November 1829 he entered St John 's College , Cambridge as a Lupton scholar . At the end of his course in 1832 he was awarded a Worts Travelling Bachelorship by the University of Cambridge , which enabled him to travel abroad for three years ' study . At this time his friend from Lancaster at Trinity College , William Whewell , was Professor of Mineralogy . John Hughes , Edmund Sharpe 's biographer , is of the opinion that Whewell was influential in gaining this award for Sharpe . Edmund graduated BA in 1833 , and was admitted to the degree of MA in 1836 . During his time abroad he travelled in Germany and southern France , studying Romanesque and early Gothic architecture . He had intended to travel further into northern France , but his tour was curtailed in Paris owing to " fatigue and illness " . Edmund returned home to Lancaster late in 1835 , having by then decided to become an architect . In December he wrote a letter to William Whewell saying that he had " finally determined to adopt the Profession of Architecture " . Some sources state that Sharpe was articled to the architect Thomas Rickman . Sharpe did visit Rickman for a few days in 1832 and corresponded with him later . He may have been " acting as a research assistant " while on the Continent , but Hughes states " there is no evidence to suggest that Sharpe spent more time with Rickman , or served any kind of formal apprenticeship with him " .
= = Architect = =
= = = Lancaster practice = = =
Edmund Sharpe started his practice at the end of 1835 in his mother 's house in Penny Street , moving into premises in Sun Street in 1838 . In October that year he took as his pupil Edward Graham Paley , then aged 15 . Later in 1838 Sharpe took a house in St Leonard 's Gate large enough to accommodate himself and Paley ; the practice continued to use the premises in Sun Street until after Sharpe 's retirement . In 1841 Thomas Austin also joined the practice as a pupil , staying until 1852 when he left to set up on his own as an architect in Newcastle upon Tyne . In 1845 Sharpe made Paley a partner , and in 1847 effectively handed the business over to him . At about this time also , John Douglas joined the firm as Paley 's assistant , and stayed with the firm until about 1859 , when he moved to Chester to establish his own practice . Sharpe retired completely from the practice in 1851 , leaving Paley as sole principal . Also in 1851 Paley married Sharpe 's sister , Frances .
= = = Churches = = =
In his letter of December 1835 to William Whewell , Sharpe also mentioned that plans for at least one church , St Mark 's at Witton , west of Blackburn , were already well advanced , and that he was working towards another one , St Saviour 's near Bamber Bridge , south of Preston . In addition , he was in contact with the Earl of Derby with a view to designing a church for him near his seat at Knowsley , northeast of Liverpool .
Four of Sharpe 's earliest churches – St Saviour , Bamber Bridge ( 1836 – 37 ) ; St Mark , Witton ( 1836 – 38 ) ; . Christ Church , Chatburn ( 1837 – 38 ) ; and St Paul , Farington , near Leyland ( 1839 – 40 ) – were in the Romanesque style , which he chose because " no style can be worked so cheap as the Romanesque " . They " turned out to be little more than rectangular ' preaching boxes ' ... with no frills and little ornamentation ; and many of them were later enlarged " . The only subsequent churches in which Sharpe used Romanesque elements were the chapel of All Saints , Marthall , near Knutsford ( 1839 ) ; St Mary , Conistone in Wharfedale ( 1846 ) ; and St Paul , Scotforth in south Lancaster ( 1874 ) , the last built towards the end of his life .
By 1838 Sharpe had begun to experiment with elements of English Gothic architecture , initially in the Early English style and in particular the lancet window , dating from the early 12th century or earlier . The first church he built in this style was St John the Evangelist , Cowgill , Dent , ( 1837 – 38 ) , followed closely by Holy Trinity , Howgill ( 1837 – 38 ) , and then by several others in the same style . He was soon incorporating elements from later styles of English Gothic architecture , and by 1839 was designing churches using Perpendicular features , as at St Peter , Stainforth ( 1839 – 42 ) , St John the Baptist , Bretherton , and St Peter , Mawdesley ( both 1839 – 40 ) .
Sharpe was one of the architects who designed churches for the Church Building Commission , which had been established by the Church Building Acts of 1818 and 1824 . The resulting churches have been called Commissioners ' churches , and were built to provide places of worship in newly populated areas . Sharpe designed six churches for the Commission : St John , Dukinfield , St George , Stalybridge ( both 1838 – 40 ) , St John the Baptist , Bretherton , St Paul , Farington , St Catharine , Scholes ( near Wigan ; 1839 – 41 ) , and Holy Trinity , Blackburn ( 1837 – 46 ) .He is also credited with the design of St. Bridgets , Beckermet , Cumberland ( 1842 @-@ 43 ) .
Although some architects designed the earlier Commissioners ' churches in neoclassical style , most were in Gothic Revival style . The earliest of the Gothic Revival churches were based loosely on the Early English style , with single or paired lancet windows between buttresses in the sides of the church , and stepped triple lancets at the east end . Others were in a " stilted Perpendicular " style , . with " thin west towers , thin buttresses , fat pinnacles , and interiors with three galleries and plaster vaults " . These features were only loosely derived from medieval Gothic architecture , and were not true representations of it . A major influence on the subsequent development of the Gothic Revival was AWN Pugin ( 1812 – 52 ) and , influenced by him , the Cambridge Camden Society ( later named the Ecclesiological Society ) . Among other things , they argued that not only should Gothic be the only right and proper style for churches , but that their features should be accurate representations of that style ; they should be " correct " Gothic features , rather than being loosely derived from the style . The term " pre @-@ archaeological " was used to describe churches designed using features only loosely derived from true Gothic .
Sharpe 's early Gothic Revival works were pre @-@ archaeological , including Holy Trinity , Blackburn , built in 1837 – 46 for Revd JW Whittaker . Hughes expresses the opinion that this church is Sharpe 's pièce de resistance , it contains " a mongrel mix of Gothic styles " . Simultaneously Sharpe was involved in the design of about twelve more churches in Northwest England , which increasingly incorporated more " correct " Gothic features . In 1841 he obtained a contract to build three churches and associated structures ( vicarages and schools ) for the Weaver Navigation Trustees , at Weston Point , Runcorn ; Castle , Northwich ; and Winsford . All three were in Cheshire , and built between 1841 and 1844 . Between 1835 and 1842 Sharpe designed about 30 new churches in Lancashire and Cheshire , all to a low budget , and all to a degree pre @-@ archaeological . In 1843 Sharpe was able to fulfil his promise to build a church for the Earl of Derby ; this was St Mary , Knowsley , which was completed and consecrated the following year . It is described by Hughes as " one of Sharpe 's loveliest creations " . About the same time he designed a new steeple for St Michael , Kirkham ; the steeple and St Mary 's Church contained much more in the way of " correct " Gothic features , and both were praised by the Camden Society in The Ecclesiologist .
In the early 1840s Sharpe was invited by John Fletcher , his future brother @-@ in @-@ law , to build a church near Fletcher 's home in Little Bolton . Fletcher was the owner of a coal mine at Ladyshore , Little Lever , overlooking the River Irwell and the Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal . He had been using the clay which came up with the coal to make refractory bricks for furnaces , and suggested its use for building the church , as it was much cheaper than stone . Sharpe then designed the first church in England to be built , in whole or in part , from this material ( terracotta ) , St Stephen and All Martyrs , Lever Bridge ( 1842 – 44 ) . As terracotta is commonly used to make plant pots and the like , Sharpe himself called this church , and its two successors , " the pot churches " , a nickname that has stuck . The advantages of terracotta were its cheapness , its sturdiness as a building material , and the fact that it could be moulded into almost any shape . It could therefore be used for walls , towers , arches , and arcades in a church , for the detailed decoration of capitals and pinnacles , and also , as at St Stephen 's , for the furnishings , such as the altar , pulpit , font , organ case , and the pew ends . Apart from the foundations and the rubble within the walls , St Stephen and All Martyrs was constructed entirely from terracotta . The following year , a second church was built using the same material , Trinity Church , Rusholme , south of Manchester ( 1845 – 46 ) , built and paid for by Thomas Carill @-@ Worsley , who lived at nearby Platt Hall . In this case , although the exterior is in terracotta , the interior is of plastered brick . The church was consecrated in June 1846 , although at the time work on the spire had not yet started and several other features were incomplete , including the heating , seating , and floor tiling .
Towards the end of his life , Sharpe designed one more church incorporating terracotta , St Paul , Scotforth , Lancaster ( 1874 – 76 ) . For this he returned to the Romanesque style , and used terracotta as a building and a decorative material . By this time he was living in Scotforth , then a separate village to the south of Lancaster , but now absorbed into the city . The new church was built within 300 yards ( 274 m ) of his home , and again terracotta was not the only material used . It is used for the dressings , windows , doorways , the upper part of the tower , and internally for the piers and arches of the aisle arcades , but the walls are of stone .
= = = Other structures = = =
During his time as an architect Sharpe was also involved in the building , repair , and restoration of non @-@ ecclesiastic structures , including houses and bridges . In 1837 he was appointed bridgemaster for the Hundred of Lonsdale South of the Sands , and in 1839 he supervised the repair of Skerton Bridge over the River Lune in Lancaster . The following year he designed a new bridge over the River Hyndburn at Fournessford , a village to the east of Wray . He had also been appointed as architect and superintendent of works for Lancaster Castle , the Judges ' Lodgings , and the County Lunatic Asylum ( later the Lancaster Moor Hospital ) . For the asylum he designed several new wings and a chapel , followed by extensions to the union workhouse . Sharpe was also involved in designing and altering several domestic buildings . In 1843 he designed a vicarage in Cockermouth , and the following year he started to remodel Capernwray Hall , a country house northeast of Lancaster . In the same year he designed the Governor 's House for Knutsford Gaol , and in 1845 he re @-@ designed Redmarshall Old Rectory for the Revd Thomas Austin , father of Sharpe 's pupil ( also named Thomas ) . Following Paley 's becoming a partner in 1845 , the pair worked together to design Lee Bridge in Over Wyresdale ( 1847 ) , to plan the conversion of a disused manor house into the Furness Abbey Hotel ( 1847 ) , and to arrange the remodelling of Hornby Castle ( 1847 – 52 ) . In 1849 – 50 they planned the rebuilding and enlargement of the Charity School for Girls in Middle Street , Lancaster , followed in 1851 by the National School for Boys in St Leonard 's Gate . The practice then made plans for a new building at Giggleswick School , and new premises for Lancaster Grammar School in Moor Lane , but by then Sharpe was on the point of withdrawing from the practice , and it is likely that most of the designs were prepared by Paley .
= = Architectural historian = =
Sharpe studied and wrote about ecclesiastical architecture throughout his adult life , both sketching and measuring historical churches and ruins . This resulted in a systematic series of published drawings in twelve parts between 1845 and 1847 entitled Architectural Parallels , containing measured drawings of abbey churches in the early Gothic style , and reissued as a single work in 1848 . Sharpe intended to produce a further version with text , but this never transpired . Also in 1848 a Supplement to Architectural Parallels , was published , containing yet more detailed drawings . Simultaneously , Sharpe had produced the two @-@ volume work Decorated Windows , the first volume being published in 1845 , and the second in 1849 . The work , which was praised by the art critic John Ruskin in The Stones of Venice , consisted largely of drawings by Sharpe 's pupils – Paley , Austin , and R. J. Withers – with text by Sharpe describing and analysing the tracery of Gothic windows .
In 1851 Sharpe published a monograph entitled The Seven Periods of English Architecture , a small book of about 50 pages suggesting a new scheme for classifying the styles of English ecclesiastical architecture " from the Heptarchy to the Reformation " . It was intended to replace the scheme then in use , which had been proposed in 1817 by Thomas Rickman . Rickman had divided English architecture into " four distinct periods , or styles " which he termed " Norman " , " Early English " , " Decorated English " , and " Perpendicular English " . The Norman style lasting until about 1189 , was characterised by its arches usually being semicircular , although sometimes pointed ; the ornamentation was " bold and rude " . The Early English style , continuing to about 1307 , was distinguished by its pointed arches and long narrow windows without mullions . He called the characteristic ornamentation " toothed " because it resembled the teeth of the shark . The following period , the Decorated English lasted until 1377 , or possibly 10 – 15 years later , was characterised by large windows with pointed arches containing mullions , and with tracery " in flowing lines forming circles , arches and other figures " . There was much ornamentation , carved very delicately . The final period identified by Rickman , the Perpendicular English , lasted until as long as 1630 or 1640 . This was distinguished by the mullions and the " ornamental panellings " running in perpendicular lines . The ornamentation was in many cases " so crowded as to destroy the beauty of the design " . The carving was again " very delicately executed " .
In his classification , Sharpe first identified two main classes , according to whether the arches were " circular " or " pointed " . The class characterised by the circular arch was the Romanesque class ; that by the pointed arch was the Gothic . He divided the Romanesque class into two periods by date rather than by stylistic differences , the dividing date being 1066 ; this divided the " Saxon " from the " Norman " stage . Whereas Rickman allowed pointed arches when they occurred in the same building as round arches in his Norman period , Sharpe separated buildings that contained both types of arches into a separate intermediate style , the " Transitional " . When it came to the Gothic class , Sharpe identified four styles , in contrast to Rickman 's three , using the windows to differentiate between them . The earliest style was characterised by windows resembling a lancet " in its length , breadth , and principal proportions " . These windows might be single , or in groups of two , three , five , or seven . This style he termed the " Lancet Period " . During the next period , tracery appeared in the windows , and originally consisted of simple geometric forms , in particular the circle . This period he called the " Geometrical Period " . Later the tracery became more complex , including the ogee curve ; the characteristic feature being the " sinuosity of form " in the windows and elsewhere . This Sharpe termed the " Curvilinear Period " . Finally , the transom appeared in the windows , and the curved line in the tracery became replaced by straight lines , an " angularity of form " , and a " square edge was preferred " . This style he named the " Rectilinear Period " . The approximate dates Sharpe gave for his periods were , following 1066 , the Norman Period up to 1145 , the Transitional Period to 1190 , the Lancet Period to 1245 , the Geometrical Period to 1315 , the Curvilinear Period to 1360 , and the Rectilinear Period to 1550 .
In comparing the two classifications , Sharpe divides Rickman 's Norman period into two , the Norman and the Transitional periods . Then Rickman has three Gothic periods in contrast to Sharpe 's four . Comparing the descriptions of the styles and , approximately , the dates , Sharpe 's Lancet Period corresponds generally with Rickman 's Early English ; and Sharpe 's Rectilinear Period with Rickman 's Perpendicular English . This leaves Rickman 's Decorated English style divided into two periods by Sharpe according to the complexity of the tracery , the Geometrical and the Curvilinear Periods . Following the publication of the monograph , Sharpe read a paper to the Royal Institute of British Architects describing his system . The monograph and the paper led to " a bitter controversy " . The debate between Sharpe and his followers on one side and supporters of Rickman 's scheme on the other was published as a series of letters to the journal The Builder until the editor called a halt to the correspondence .
In the same year as Sharpe 's short book , An Essay on the Origin and Development of Window Tracery in England , a much larger work on essentially the same subject , was published by the distinguished historian Edward Augustus Freeman , which proposed the terms " Flowing " and " Flamboyant " ( the later already in use in France ) where Sharpe used " Curvilinear " . Although Rickman 's scheme remains in general use , despite recognition of its deficiencies , Sharpe 's terms " Geometrical " and " Curvilinear " are very often used in addition to distinguish styles or phases within Rickman 's " Decorated " . They were used by Francis Bond in his 1905 book Gothic Architecture in England , and are used in various recent works including the Pevsner Architectural Guides .
In 1869 Sharpe joined the Architectural Association , established in 1847 " by a group of dissatisfied young architects ... to provide a self @-@ directed , independent education at a time when there was no formal training available " . He then proposed and organised a series of six annual expeditions to study and draw buildings in different areas , which took place between 1870 and 1875 . In 1870 the expedition was to Lincoln , Sleaford , and Spalding ; in 1871 to Ely , Lynn , and Boston ; the following year to Stamford , Oundle , Wellingborough , and Northampton ; and in 1873 to Grantham , Newark , Southwell , Ashbourne , and Lichfield . The final two expeditions were to France : in 1874 to the northern part of the country , visiting places around Paris including Soissons , Laon , Rheims , and Chartres ; the following year it was to the Charente district of southwest France , including Angoulême . In 1876 Sharpe gave a lecture on this expedition in London , linking the architecture of the region with Byzantine architecture elsewhere . Following Sharpe 's death in 1877 the Association complied with his wish that the expeditions should be continued ; and in 1882 it published Charente : In Memory of Edmund Sharpe , 1875 .
Having been a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects since 1848 , Sharpe was awarded its Royal Gold Medal in 1875 . This was presented to him by Sir George Gilbert Scott , largely in recognition of his writings . In addition to those recorded above they include : The Architectural History of St Mary 's Church , New Shoreham ( 1861 ) , An Account of the Churches visited during the Lincoln Excursion of the Architectural Association ( 1871 ) , The Mouldings of the Six Periods of British Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation ( 1871 – 74 ) , The Ornamentation of the Transitional Period of British Architecture AD 1145 – 90 ( 1871 ) , The Ornamentation of the Transitional Period in Central Germany ( 1877 ) , and The Churches of the Nene Valley , Northamptonshire ( published posthumously in 1880 ) . Other writings by Sharpe were published in The Builder and The Architect . He also delivered papers to the Architectural Association , and to the Royal Institute of British Architects . Among other subjects , he argued for restraint in the use of colour in the decoration of churches , in the painting of walls and the stonework , and in the stained glass . He was very critical of recent restorations of medieval churches , which had been a major occupation of architects during the previous 20 years , and was particularly caustic about the removal of whitewash from the interior of churches , and the damage thus caused to the underlying stonework . Between January 1874 and February 1875 Sharpe published The Architecture of the Cistercians , which dealt in considerable detail with the design and functions of Cistercian monasteries built in the 12th and 13th centuries in Britain and in Europe , most of which he had visited . In addition , Sharpe attended several meetings of the Archaeological Institute , and was a Vice @-@ President of the British Archaeological Association .
= = Railway developer and engineer = =
= = = England = = =
While Sharpe was designing churches , he was augmenting his income by working as a sub @-@ contractor in building railways . These were the lines between Lancaster and Preston , Lancaster and Skipton , and between Liverpool and Southport . He first became involved with the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway in 1838 , two years after Joseph Locke was appointed as engineer for the line . Sharpe submitted a tender to supply the masonry work for the " Lancaster Contract " , the northern section of the line ; and Peter Perry from Durham submitted a tender for the earthwork . Locke insisted that both earthwork and masonry work should be under one contract , which Perry accepted and subcontracted the masonry work to Sharpe . Subsequently Perry reneged on his part of the contract , resulting in serious disputes between Sharpe , Locke , and the directors of the railway company concerning the costs involved and the quality of the work . The masonry for this section of the line included 15 under @-@ and @-@ over bridges and the six @-@ arch viaduct over the River Conder at Galgate . The eventual outcome of the conflict was that Sharpe was dismissed from the work in 1839 with agreed financial compensation , having built most but not all of these structures .
Sharpe 's next venture into railway building came in 1845 when , with others , he promoted the building of a cross @-@ country line from Lancaster to Skipton to join the Midland Railway in the West Riding of Yorkshire . This became known as the " Little " North Western Railway ( " L " NWR ) , with projected branches joining the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway ( then under construction ) at points near Milnthorpe and Orton . In the event the Milnthorpe branch was dropped during the committee stage of the passage through Parliament of the enabling Bill , leaving the Lancaster and Orton branches intact , parting at Ingleton and making much use of the Lune Valley .
About this time , the amount of trade handled by the Port of Lancaster was declining , largely owing to silting up of the River Lune . In May 1842 Sharpe had been elected a Port Commissioner , and later proposed what became the Morecambe Bay Harbour Project . This planned to build a new port at Poulton @-@ le @-@ Sands ( soon to become part of Morecambe ) , and link it to Lancaster by means of a ship canal . After prolonged discussion this proved to be too expensive , and it was agreed to link Lancaster and Morecambe by railway rather than by canal . An Act for the creation of the Morecambe Harbour and Railway Company ( MH & R ) received Royal assent in July 1846 , the revised plan being to link this line to the " L " NWR at Green Ayre , in the northern part of Lancaster next to the River Lune . A clause in the Act allowed the MH & R to be sold to the " L " NWR , which took place in October . The parts played by Sharpe in all of this financial manoeuvring were conflicting and complex : he was simultaneously a Port Commissioner , a Town Councillor , a member of the board of the Morecambe Bay Harbour Company , and Secretary to the " L " NWR . In 1847 , near the Morecambe terminus of the railway , Sharpe laid the first stone of the North Western Hotel ( later the Midland ) , which he ( or more probably Paley ) had designed . In April that year Sharpe had resigned as Secretary to the " L " NWR to enable him to tender for building the line from Morecambe to Wennington , a village north @-@ east of Lancaster near to the Yorkshire border . His tender of £ 100 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 8 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) for the line ( excluding the bridge over the River Lune at Green Ayre ) was accepted . He also gained the contract for building the harbour . In June 1848 the section of line from Lancaster to Morecambe was opened , and by October 1849 the ten @-@ mile section from Lancaster to Wennington was completed . In September Sharpe had also resigned as a director of the " L " NWR to become its traffic manager , and was then contracted to manufacture and supply rolling stock for the railway , something for which he had neither expertise nor previous experience . By February 1851 the line was experiencing difficulties , its traffic being less than expected and its costs rising ; and in December Sharpe was given notice that his contract with the company would be curtailed the following month .
Sharpe then turned his attention to the Liverpool , Crosby and Southport Railway ( LCSR ) and acted as its company secretary . When in 1854 the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway discontinued leasing its rolling stock to the LCSR , Sharpe arranged the manufacture of its own locomotives and carriages . Also in 1854 he submitted proposals for a branch line running from Bootle to the North Docks in Liverpool , part of which was built in March 1855 , though the project was never completed .
= = = North Wales = = =
In early 1856 Sharpe moved with his family to Llanrwst , North Wales with the intention of building a railway along the Conwy Valley . The prospectus for a line running from Conwy to Llanrwst was published in 1858 , with Sharpe named as its engineer . The intention for the full line was to build it from the Chester and Holyhead Railway to Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed , passing through Llanrwst ; it would be 15 miles ( 24 km ) long , with a gauge of 3 feet 3 inches ( 991 mm ) . A series of discussions and negotiations followed , resulting in changes to the route of the line from the west to the east side of the river , building it to the standard gauge ( 4 ft 8 ½ in ( 1,435mm ) ) , and running from Conwy only as far as Llanrwst . Construction started on 27 August 1860 , and the railway was opened on 17 June 1863 . An extension of the line to Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed was completed in 1868 , but by this time Sharpe and his family had moved to Geneva .
= = = Abroad = = =
In 1860 a horse @-@ drawn tramway had been built by Charles Burn , an Englishman , in Switzerland between Geneva and Carouge , a distance of about 4 miles ( 6 km ) . This proved to be a success , and Burn planned to build more lines . In 1863 he was joined by Sharpe as a partner , but after a short time of working together the partnership was dissolved , and Sharpe continued with the project alone . By March 1864 a line from the centre of Geneva to Chêne @-@ Bougeries , a distance of about 6 miles ( 10 km ) was under construction , to an innovative design . The line to Carouge had two grooved rails . Sharpe 's line had two flat rails , with a third grooved rail between them , along which ran a wheel allowing the tram to be steered . The wheel could also be raised to permit the tram to deviate from the track to pass around obstacles , or come to the pavement . This line was Sharpe 's sole venture in Switzerland .
In August 1863 Sharpe was granted the concession for building a railway line in southern France from Perpignan to Prades in the Pyrenees , a distance of 26 miles ( 42 km ) . Work on the line began in 1865 , but proceeded very slowly ; progress was blocked by local landowners , legal processes , and financial problems . Sharpe was managing the project largely from Paris , through a series of agents . By the latter part of 1864 the stress was adversely affecting his health , so in 1865 he spent some time in Italy to recuperate . Following his return the difficulties continued to mount , and in 1867 he renounced his concession . The line was eventually taken over by the State , and was not fully completed until about 1877 . At some point Sharpe bought property and iron ore mines along the route of the line .
= = Civic life and sanitary reform = =
Concurrently with designing churches and building railways , Sharpe was heavily involved in the civic life of Lancaster , particularly in pioneering sanitary reform . By political persuasion he was a Conservative , and in 1837 he joined the local Heart of Oak Club , the core of the Lancaster Conservative Association . He was elected a town councillor for Castle Ward in 1841 , a post he held for ten years , and in 1843 was appointed the town council 's representative on the local Police Commission . He was also a visitor to the national schools , and in November 1848 he was elected as mayor for year , at that time a position more like that of a " chief magistrate " . Through these offices he became aware of the unsatisfactory state of sanitation in the town , and resolved to improve it . The town was overcrowded , it suffered from poor housing , open sewers , overflowing cesspits , and a very poor water supply , mainly from wells polluted by infiltration . Many people suffered from typhus , and in 1848 there was an outbreak of cholera . The Police Commission had been established in Lancaster in 1825 with a wider role than suggested by its title , including " cleansing , lighting and watching " the town . However , there was constant friction between the Police Commission and the Town Council , the former tending to block any necessary reforms on the grounds of cost to the ratepayers . The conflict was unresolved until the two bodies merged in 1849 . The functions of the new body included the establishment of the first Lancaster Board of Health .
Before , during and after his mayoralty , Sharpe played a major role in promoting sanitary reform , often meeting considerable opposition and needing to use his oratorical , political and persuasive skills to the full . A campaign to deal with the problems had been initiated in 1847 by two Lancaster doctors , Thomas Howitt and Edward Denis de Vitre . Sharpe joined them , drawing extensively on his experience of having accompanied Professor Richard Owen ( born and educated in Lancaster ) on his tour of inspection of the town in 1844 . In 1848 Robert Rawlinson , also from Lancaster , was appointed as local surveyor , and published a further report that recommended new sewers and drains and the construction of a waterworks . Although Sharpe agreed in principle with the report , he was not satisfied with its details . Later that year , which was during his mayoralty , he travelled to London with the town clerk and a former mayor to meet representatives of the General Board of Health , including its chairman , Lord Morpeth , and its secretary Edwin Chadwick . As a result of this meeting , the Board of Health appointed James Smith from Scotland as an inspector , and commissioned him to produce a further report on Lancaster 's problems . Smith 's investigation took place in January 1849 , and his report was received in July . In his conclusions , Smith noted that Lancaster was favourably situated to provide a healthy environment for its inhabitants , and that this could be achieved by " a complete and constant supply of pure and soft water , and ... a thorough system of drainage and sewerage " . Subsequently , an Act of Parliament gave approval for these measures to be carried out , and in 1852 royal assent was given for the waterworks to be constructed . Delays , disputes and controversies continued , until the waterworks was eventually opened in 1855 , when work on the drainage and sewage systems was already under way . This enabled underground pipes for the two systems to be laid simultaneously . Sharpe had played a significant part in arranging Queen Victoria 's visit to Lancaster in October 1851 , and with Paley designed four triumphal arches for the occasion . He also took part in the proceedings on the day , escorting the Queen , Prince Albert , and the Prince of Wales ( the future King Edward VII ) to the top of the castle tower .
In 1859 Sharpe was appointed as a Justice of the Peace for Lancashire and for Denbighshire . Shortly after his return to Lancaster in 1866 he again became involved in local politics . In 1867 the constituency of Lancaster was disfranchised because of corruption , and so lost its two members of parliament . Sharpe wrote a long letter to Benjamin Disraeli ( Chancellor of the Exchequer , and responsible for the Reform Act of that year ) , arguing the case for reinstating Lancaster as a parliamentary constituency , and putting forward his own proposals for electoral reform . His letter received no reply , and Lancaster remained without parliamentary representation for the next 20 years .
= = Personal and family life = =
On 27 July 1843 Sharpe married Elizabeth Fletcher , second sister of John Fletcher , at Bolton Parish Church . The couple had five children : Francis in 1845 , Edmund junior ( known as Ted ) in 1847 , Emily in 1849 , Catherine ( known as Kate ) in 1850 , and Alfred in 1853 .
When Sharpe moved his family from Lancaster to live in North Wales in early 1856 he was aged 47 . The seven years he spent there were later described , in a Memoir published in 1882 by the Architectural Association , as " perhaps the happiest years of his life " . The family initially lived in a semi @-@ detached house called Bron Haul near Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed , on what is now the A5 road . Two years later he bought a larger property called Coed @-@ y @-@ Celyn on the east bank of the River Lledr , about a mile south of Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed . After moving to Geneva , the family lived for about three years in a rented property called Richemont on the road from Geneva to Chêne @-@ Bougeries . Finally in 1866 the family moved back to Lancaster to live in Scotforth , then a small village to the south of the town .
Elizabeth Sharpe died on 15 March 1876 , a month after the consecration of St Paul , Scotforth where a plaque to her memory can be found in the chancel of the church . A year later , Sharpe travelled to northern Italy with his two daughters , his youngest son Alfred , and three research assistants , to make drawings of 12th @-@ century churches in the region . During the trip he became seriously ill with a chest infection and died on 8 May , in or near Milan . His body was taken to Lancaster , where he was buried on 19 May , alongside his wife , in the municipal cemetery . " Glowing obituaries " were carried by the local newspapers and the architectural press , including The Builder , The Building News , and The Architect . His estate was valued at " under £ 14 @,@ 000 " ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) . A plaque to his memory was placed in the chancel of St Paul 's , next to that of his wife .
= = Other interests = =
Throughout his life , Sharpe took an interest in sport , as an active participant and as an organiser . At Cambridge , he was a member of the Lady Margaret Boat Club , and coxed the college boat . Back in Lancaster , he took up archery , joined the John O 'Gaunt Bowmen , played cricket and coxed . In June 1841 he helped to found the Lancaster Lunesdale Cricket Club and the Lancaster Rowing Club . Sharpe was also an accomplished musician , and a member of the committee that organised the Lancaster Choral Society 's first concert in September 1836 . The society thrived for a number of years , and for a time Sharpe was its conductor . By the beginning of 1837 he was a member of the Lancaster Literary , Scientific , and Natural History Society , giving a number of talks to the society , and eventually becoming a committee member . That same year he became the secretary and treasurer of the Lancaster Institution for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts , and in April 1840 he joined the committee of Lancaster 's Protestant Association . In 1842 he was part of a committee promoting congregational singing , and he gave an illustrated series of lectures on its history and merits . His love of music continued throughout his life , and included training choirs , composing hymn tunes , and manufacturing musical instruments similar to small harmoniums .
In early 1843 Sharpe bought Lancaster 's Theatre Royal ( now the Grand Theatre ) , the third @-@ oldest extant provincial theatre in Britain , which had opened in 1782 . He spent £ 680 ( equivalent to £ 60 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) on converting it into the Music Hall and Museum . It was the only place in Lancaster , other than the churches , able to accommodate 400 or more people , and so was used for a variety of purposes , including concerts , lectures , and religious meetings . In 1848 Sharpe founded the Lancaster Athenaeum , a private society for " the promotion of public entertainment and instruction " , to which end it organised lectures on literary and scientific subjects , concerts and exhibitions . It held its meetings in the Music Hall , which was at one period renamed the Athenaeum . In 1852 Sharpe became the proprietor of the Phoenix Foundry on Germany Street , which among other things supplied cast iron pipes for the Lancaster waterworks , sewers and drains , and shells for the Crimean War .
= = Appraisal = =
Hughes considers that Sharpe was never in the " first division " of 19th @-@ century church architects ; his designs were " basic , workmanlike , and occasionally imaginative , though hardly inspiring " . There is no such thing as a " typical " church designed by Sharpe . He was an innovator and experimenter , and throughout his life a student of architecture . The architectural styles he used started with the Romanesque , passed through " pre @-@ archaeological " Gothic to " correct " Gothic , and then back to Romanesque for his last church . The sizes of the churches varied , from the small simple chapels at Cowgill and Howgill to the large and splendid church of Holy Trinity , Blackburn . During Sharpe 's earlier years in practice , between 1838 and 1842 , Britain was going through a period of severe economic recession , which may have been why he designed many of his churches to be built as cheaply as possible .
As an architectural historian , Hughes considers Sharpe to be " in the top rank " . His drawings of authentic Gothic buildings were still in use a century after his death . The architectural historian James Price states that Sharpe was " considered the greatest authority on Cistercian Abbeys in England " . Some writers have regarded Sharpe as an early pioneer of the Gothic Revival , although in Hughes ' opinion this is " probably more for his books than for his buildings " . In 1897 , 20 years after his death , Sharpe was considered to be sufficiently notable to merit an entry in the Dictionary of National Biography . In the article , the author refers to his being " an enthusiastic and profound student of medieval architecture " . As a railway engineer he was " hardly an unqualified success " ; but his administrative and persuasive skills were considerable , as is shown in his planning of railways in Northwest England , and in the sanitary reform and water supply of Lancaster . As an amateur musician his " gifts were prodigious " . Hughes considers that Sharpe " used his talents to the full " , and in view of the ways in which he employed his many gifts , Price describes him as Lancaster 's " Renaissance man " .
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= Haiti at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Haiti sent a delegation to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics , held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from August 8 to August 24 , 2008 . Its participation in Beijing marked its seventh consecutive appearance at the summer Olympics and its fourteenth appearance overall , with its first being at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris . The Haitian Olympic team included seven athletes ( three men and four women ) participating in track and field ( Barbara Pierre , Ginou Etienne , Nadine Faustin @-@ Parker , and Dudley Dorival ) , boxing ( Azea Austinama ) , and judo ( Joel Brutus and Ange Jean Baptiste ) . More women participated for Haiti in 2008 than at any single Olympic games prior . Although Pierre and Dorival advanced to quarterfinals in their events , there were no Haitian medalists in Beijing . Brutus carried his countries flag at the ceremonies .
= = Background = =
For Haiti , the 2008 Beijing Olympics marked its fourteenth appearance at any Olympic games and its seventh consecutive appearance since the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . Between that and its debut at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris , Haitian teams competed at the Olympics that took place during 1924 ( Paris ) , 1928 ( Amsterdam ) , 1932 ( Los Angeles ) , 1960 ( Rome ) , 1972 ( Munich , West Germany ) , and 1976 ( Montreál , Canada ) . As of 2008 , Haiti had not participated at a Winter Olympics . The delegation that Haiti sent to Beijing included seven athletes across three sports . With four female athletes , more women participated for Haiti in Beijing than at any single Olympic games before . Prior to Beijing , athletes from Haiti had won one silver medal ( by Silvio Cator in 1928 ) and one bronze medal ( by five athletes in 1924 ) . Between then and including the 2008 Olympics , Haitian athletes had not won medals in any event . Moise Joseph , an athlete of the University of Florida , was destined to participate for Haiti in Beijing , but did not compete .
Joel Brutus , a heavyweight judoka , was the flag bearer for Haiti at both the opening and closing ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Women 's competition = = =
= = = = Women 's 100 meters = = = =
Then 21 @-@ year @-@ old athlete of Raleigh 's St. Augustine 's College Barbara Pierre participated in the women 's 100 meters dash on Haiti 's behalf in Beijing , marking her first appearance at any Olympic games . She was the only Haitian participating in the event . Pierre competed during the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 15 , where she was placed in the tenth heat . Pierre placed fourth with a time of 11 @.@ 52 seconds , placing directly behind Laverne Jones of the United States Virgin Islands ( 11 @.@ 41 seconds ) and ahead of Russia 's Natalia Murinovich ( 11 @.@ 55 seconds ) . The leaders of Pierre 's heat were Jamaica 's Kerron Stewart ( 11 @.@ 28 seconds ) and Norway 's Ezinne Okparaebo ( 11 @.@ 32 seconds ) . Overall , Pierre placed 30th out of the 85 athletes who participated in the qualification round . She advanced to quarterfinals , which took place on August 16 .
During quarterfinals , Pierre participated in the fifth heat , where she ran her event in a time of 11 @.@ 56 seconds . In doing so , Pierre placed fifth , ahead of Italy 's Anita Pistone ( 11 @.@ 56 seconds ) and behind Okparaebo ( 11 @.@ 45 seconds ) . The heat 's leaders were Torri Edwards of the United States ( 11 @.@ 31 seconds ) and Lithuania 's Lina Grincikaite ( 11 @.@ 33 seconds ) . Pierre did not advance to semifinals .
= = = = Women 's 400 meters = = = =
Ginou Etienne , who was 23 years old at the time of her participation in the Beijing Olympics , participated in the women 's 400 meters event . She was the only Haitian participating in the event . Etienne had not previously appeared at any Olympic games . Etienne participated in the August 16 qualification round , where she was placed in the third heat . Etienne completed the event in 53 @.@ 94 seconds , placing sixth in an event of seven participants . She defeated Rachidatou Seini Maikido of Niger ( 1 : 03 @.@ 19 ) but fell behind the fifth @-@ place finalist , Puerto Rico 's Carol Rodriguez ( 53 @.@ 08 seconds ) . The leaders of Etienne 's heat were Russia 's Anastasia Kapachinskaya ( 51 @.@ 32 seconds ) and the United States ' Mary Wineberg ( 51 @.@ 46 seconds ) . Out of the 50 athletes who participated in the qualification round , Etienne placed 41st . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Women 's 100 meters hurdles = = = =
Brussels @-@ born Haitian athlete Nadine Faustin @-@ Parker participated on Haiti 's behalf at the Beijing Summer Olympics . She was 32 years old at the time , and was the only Haitian participating in the women 's 100 meters hurdles . Faustin @-@ Parker previously competed in the same event at both the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney and at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens . Faustin @-@ Parker participated in the fifth heat during the August 17 preliminary round , completing her event in 13 @.@ 25 seconds . She finished sixth out of eight athletes , ahead of Indonesia 's Dedeh Erawati ( 13 @.@ 49 seconds ) and behind the Ukraine 's Yevgeniya Snihur ( 13 @.@ 06 seconds ) . Faustin @-@ Parker finished in 29th place out of the 40 participating athletes . She did not advance to further rounds .
= = = Men 's competition = = =
= = = = Men 's 110 meters hurdles = = = =
New Jersey @-@ born Dudley Dorival was the only male track athlete to participate on Haiti 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics , where he participated in the men 's 110 meters hurdles . His appearance at Beijing marked his third appearance ; he previously participated in the Sydney Olympics in 2000 and the Athens Olympics in 2004 , reaching the finals round and ranking seventh in the 110 meters hurdles in Sydney . Dorival participated in the third heat of the August 17 qualification round , completing his event in 13 @.@ 78 seconds ahead of Pakistan 's Abdul Rashid ( 14 @.@ 52 seconds ) and behind Puerto Rico 's Héctor Cotto ( 13 @.@ 72 seconds ) . The leaders of Dorival 's heat were Colombia 's Paulo Villar ( 13 @.@ 37 seconds ) and Barbados ' Ryan Brathwaite ( 13 @.@ 38 seconds ) . Overall , Dorival ranked 30th out of the 43 athletes who participated in the qualification round . Dorival advanced to quarterfinals .
At the August 19 quarterfinals , Dorival participated in the third heat and finished last out of seven finishing athletes , completing his event in 13 @.@ 71 seconds . The eighth athlete in his heat , Mohamed Issa Al @-@ Thawadi of Qatar , was disqualified . Dorival finished behind British athlete Allan Scott ( 13 @.@ 66 seconds ) . The heat leaders of Dorival 's quarterfinals heat were Jamaica 's Maurice Wignall ( 13 @.@ 36 seconds ) and Brathwaite ( 13 @.@ 44 seconds ) . Dorival finished 25th out of the 32 remaining athletes . He did not advance to semifinals .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Boxing = =
Haiti qualified one boxer for the Olympic boxing tournament . Azea Austinama qualified for the light heavyweight class at the second Americas ' qualifying tournament .
The then 25 @-@ year @-@ old , Miami @-@ based , Augustama 's appearance at Beijing was his first at any Olympic games . Augustama participated in the preliminary round of the light heavyweight class ( maximum of 81 kilograms in weight ) , which took place on August 9 . Over the four rounds in which Augustama faced Brazil 's Washington Silva , Augustama scored two points – both in the third round . Silva scored a total of six points on Augustama across all rounds to win the bout and advance to the next round .
= = Judo = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Then 37 @-@ year @-@ old Joel Brutus was the only male judoka to represent Haiti at Beijing . As a result of his weight , which exceeded 100 kilograms , he was placed in the heavyweight class . Brutus ' appearance at Beijing marked his second Olympic appearance ; he previously competed on Haiti 's behalf as a heavyweight at the Athens Olympics in 2004 . On August 15 , Brutus participated in the twenty @-@ sixth match of the Round of 64 , the first round in which the judokas competed . Facing Kim Sung @-@ Bum of South Korea , Brutus was defeated by Kim when he performed a seoi nage , scoring ippon . Brutus did not progress to further rounds .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Then 23 @-@ year @-@ old Ange Jean Baptiste was the only female judoka to participate on Haiti 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics . Her appearance at Beijing was her first at an Olympic games . Baptiste participated in the lightweight class , placing her against athletes under 57 kilograms in weight . In the August 11 Round of 32 , the first round in which the judokas competed , Baptiste was set against Cuban judoka Yurisleydis Lupetey . Baptiste was defeated by Lupetey by a kuchiki @-@ taoshi , receiving a score of waza @-@ ari . As a result , she did not advance .
= = = Summary = = =
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= Temple Israel ( Memphis , Tennessee ) =
Temple Israel is a Reform Jewish congregation in Memphis , Tennessee , in the United States . It is the only Reform synagogue in Memphis , the oldest and largest Jewish congregation in Tennessee , and one of the largest Reform congregations in the U.S. It was founded in 1853 by mostly German Jews as Congregation B 'nai Israel ( Hebrew for " Children of Israel " ) . Led initially by cantors , in 1858 it hired its first rabbi , Jacob Peres , and leased its first building , which it renovated and eventually purchased .
Peres was fired in 1860 because he opened a store that conducted business on Saturdays , the Jewish Sabbath . He was replaced by Simon Tuska , who moved the congregation from Orthodox to Reform practices . Tuska died in 1871 , and was succeeded by Max Samfield ; under his leadership , the synagogue was one of the founding members of the Union for Reform Judaism . In 1884 , Children of Israel completed a new building , and membership grew rapidly . Samfield died in 1915 , and was succeeded by Bill Fineshriber , an outspoken supporter of women 's suffrage and equal rights for African Americans . The following year the congregation moved to a new building , where membership continued to grow . Fineshriber left in 1924 , and was succeeded by Harry Ettelson .
The synagogue experienced difficulty during the Great Depression — membership dropped , the congregational school was closed , and staff had their salaries reduced — but conditions had improved by the late 1930s . In 1943 the synagogue changed its name to Temple Israel , and by the late 1940s membership had almost doubled from its low point in the 1930s . Ettelson retired in 1954 , and was succeeded by Jimmy Wax .
Wax became known for his activism during the Civil Rights era . Though some members — particularly those whose families had lived in the South for generations — had segregationist views , others were prominent in the fight for black civil rights . During Wax 's tenure , most of Temple Israel 's members moved far from the existing synagogue , and in 1976 the congregation constructed its current building , closer to where most members lived . Wax retired in 1978 , and was succeeded by Harry Danziger , who brought traditional practices back to the congregation . He retired in 2000 , and was succeeded by Micah Greenstein . As of 2010 , Temple Israel has almost 1 @,@ 600 member families . Greenstein is the senior rabbi , and the cantor is John Kaplan .
= = Early history ( 1853 – 1857 ) = =
Temple Israel was established as the Orthodox Congregation B 'nai Israel in 1853 by 36 heads of families , and granted a charter by the state legislature on March 2 , 1854 . It grew out of Memphis 's Hebrew Benevolent Society , established in 1850 by German Jews . The Benevolent Society managed Memphis 's Jewish cemetery , supported poor Jews , and conducted High Holy Day services . The congregation was initially led by part @-@ time cantors . The first was Jonas Levy , who had been hired as cantor and ritual slaughterer . Levy was succeeded by H. Judah and then J. Sternheimer . A Hebrew school was also created , directed by Sternheimer . In 1857 , B 'nai Israel hired as organist Christopher Philip Winkler , described by Tim Sharp ( Dean of Fine Arts at Rhodes College in Memphis ) as the " Dean of Memphis Musicians " . Born in Germany in 1824 , he had emigrated to the United States at age 16 , and moved to Memphis in 1854 . There he taught music , performed , and composed works for B 'nai Israel 's services ; by 1894 he had completed over 850 pieces for the congregation .
In its first decades , the congregation worshiped in various locations in downtown Memphis , near the Mississippi River waterfront . It received a $ 2 @,@ 000 ( today $ 57 @,@ 000 ) bequest from the estate of New Orleans philanthropist Judah Touro , and used it to purchase a lot on Second Street , but did not feel financially secure enough to build a synagogue , and eventually sold the property . The congregation instead held services in members ' homes in 1853 , and subsequently ( until 1857 ) rented various premises on Front Street . The Touro funds eventually enabled the members to lease the Farmers and Merchants Bank building at Main and Exchange streets in late 1857 , which they converted to a synagogue . Funds for the renovation were raised by two committees ; one solicited donations from " all the Israelites in this city " , while the other 's task was " to receive subscriptions from Gentiles " . Additional funds were raised by selling members reserved seats in the new sanctuary . An auction was held on March 18 , 1858 , in which 50 men 's seats were sold for $ 343 ( today $ 9 @,@ 400 ) , and 44 women 's ' seats for $ 158 ( today $ 4 @,@ 300 ) . The renovated premises had seating for 150 men and approximately 50 women . In 1860 , the congregation contracted to purchase the property ; by 1865 , it owned it outright and was debt @-@ free . On March 2 , 2007 , 153 years to the day after the congregation received its charter from the State of Tennessee , a historical marker was erected by the Shelby County Historical Commission , the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation , and Temple Israel , on the corner where the synagogue had once stood . It described the building as the " First Permanent Jewish House of Worship in Tennessee " .
Membership in B 'nai Israel was restricted to men , and attendance at the ( at least ) quarterly meetings was mandatory . Men who missed a meeting without a reasonable excuse were fined . The members also instituted rules intended to guard the image of the small Jewish congregation in the eyes of the much larger Christian community . New members had to be approved by a secret ballot , and existing members could blackball candidates . A member could also be suspended or expelled if he acted in a disreputable manner .
B 'nai Israel was the only Jewish congregation in Memphis , and from the time it was established members were split between traditionalists and reformers . When remodeling their new building , the congregation voted eighteen to fourteen to maintain traditional separate seating for men and women . By 1858 , with enough funds to hire a full @-@ time spiritual leader , they consulted Rabbi Isaac Leeser , the leader of America 's Orthodox Jewish community , but were also in contact with Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise , the leader of America 's fledgling Reform movement , who had dedicated B 'nai Israel 's sanctuary earlier that year . The members had advertised for their first spiritual leader in Wise 's newspaper , The Israelite ( along with other English @-@ language Jewish newspapers ) at the same time they advertised for a kosher butcher . Leeser recommended Jacob J. Peres , an Orthodox rabbi .
= = Peres era ( 1858 – 1860 ) = =
Born and raised in the Netherlands , Peres had been a child prodigy who , before turning eighteen , had edited a Hebrew grammar , as well as a volume of proverbs written in five languages . Upon graduation from high school , he had been given a stipend by William I of the Netherlands to attend the Netherlands Israelitish Seminary , where he pursued both secular and rabbinic studies . He was well @-@ versed in mathematics , language , literature and law , and co @-@ founded Peres and Micou , a legal firm .
B 'nai Israel hired Peres in December 1858 as cantor and teacher , in English and German , at an annual salary of $ 600 ( today $ 16 @,@ 000 ) with perquisites of $ 400 . By comparison , the kosher butcher 's salary was $ 300 , not including what he earned killing poultry . Peres also ran the Hebrew school and the choir , and was in effect the rabbi . Under his leadership , the membership took a serious interest in the plight of Jews around the world . For example , at a congregational meeting in January 1860 , they gathered money from the members present and B 'nai Israel 's treasury to assist suffering Moroccan Jews , and created a committee to raise funds throughout Memphis on their behalf . The congregation also moved more towards Orthodoxy , and passed a rule stating that only those members who were Sabbath observant could receive Torah honors on the High Holy Days .
Peres did not find his wages sufficient to support himself , his wife , and his four children . To supplement his income , he opened a grocery store and a commission business ( selling others ' goods on consignment ) with his brother . As Saturday ( the Jewish Sabbath ) was also the busiest day for commerce , he decided to keep his business open on that day — something forbidden by Jewish law , and at odds with the rule he had championed . Some of congregants objected , and at B 'nai Israel 's April 1860 quarterly meeting , charges were brought against him ; at a subsequent trial at a Jewish court , he was convicted and fired . In response , he sued the congregation in a civil court for lost wages and libel . The precedent @-@ setting case , which reached the Tennessee Supreme Court , was decided in his favor as regards the lost income , but against him regarding libel . The court 's ruling was that " a religious institution is sovereign ; that its laws and regulations are supreme ; and that its policies and practices may not be challenged by a legal action in a court of law " . In a letter to Rabbi Isaac Leeser in 1862 , Peres claimed that he had been framed and that the store was actually run by his brother , just under his name . He writes that the synagogue had accused him of opening on the Sabbath " in order to get rid of me . "
After Peres 's dismissal , the members began a search for what they called a " Moderate Reform " rabbi . This time , they consulted Wise , not Leeser . The position was advertised in Wise 's newspaper as a " Teacher , Preacher , and Reader " , paying $ 1 @,@ 000 ( today $ 26 @,@ 000 ) per year . Qualifications included the ability to " instruct children in Hebrew , lecture once a week in German or English and read the Prayers properly . " In 1860 , they hired Simon Tuska . Peres stayed in Memphis , and the theological tensions within the congregation were resolved when forty of the more traditional members departed ; with Peres as their spiritual leader , they formed the Orthodox Beth El Emeth congregation in the early 1860s . This division process was common to many American congregations of the time .
= = Tuska era ( 1860 – 1870 ) = =
Born in Veszprém , Hungary in 1835 , Tuska was raised in Rochester , New York , where his father was a rabbi . Simon attended the Rochester Theological Seminary , and upon completion of his studies there in 1858 , was sent to the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau to get rabbinic training . He did not graduate from the seminary , instead returning to the United States in 1860 to apply for a position at Congregation Emanu @-@ El of New York , but he was turned down because of his small size and weak voice . He then applied to Temple Israel , where on July 1 , 1860 , he was unanimously elected and signed a three @-@ year contract at $ 800 ( today $ 21 @,@ 000 ) per year . He proved to be very popular with the congregation ; in January 1863 , six months before the three @-@ year contract was up for renewal , he was re @-@ elected as rabbi for a ten @-@ year term , and his salary rose to $ 1 @,@ 500 per year .
Tuska reformed services at B 'nai Israel , removing piyyutim ( liturgical poems ) in 1861 , adding an organ and mixed @-@ gender choir in 1862 , and confirmation ceremonies in 1863 . He also shortened the prayer book ( adopting Wise 's Minhag America version ) , added a late Friday night service , and created patriotically themed services for Thanksgiving and National Fast Day . When more pews were required to accommodate the worshipers , they were first added to the men 's and women 's sections , then family pews were added where men and women could sit together . In May 1864 , as rabbi of B 'nai Israel , he officiated at what may have been the first Jewish wedding in Tennessee ; until that year , Tennessee did not authorize rabbis to perform marriages . He was also involved in the broader Memphis community , and participated in interfaith services .
Tuska supported slavery , describing the abolitionist views of Henry Ward Beecher and others as " rabid " , and like most members of B 'nai Israel , after hostilities broke out between the Union and the Confederacy , he supported secession from the Union . More than ten members of the congregation volunteered for the Confederate Army after war broke out , and they were given special honors and blessings at a ceremony during Sabbath services . Many Memphis schools were forced to close because of the Civil War ; in response , B 'nai Israel established the Hebrew Educational Institute in 1864 . A secular school , it had 100 students , and taught English , Hebrew , German , and French as well as geography and music . Tuska was one of the school 's language teachers . Insufficient funding forced its closure in 1868 .
B 'nai Israel had 83 members in 1864 . The mortgage on the synagogue building had been paid off by 1865 , but by 1867 the synagogue 's expenses were exceeding its income . Dues were raised to $ 4 ( today $ 70 ) per member per month , and the congregation took out a new mortgage . In January 1870 , the congregation moved Friday night services to 7 : 30 p.m. ; previously the services had been held just after sunset , in accordance with Jewish law , which had meant late @-@ night services in mid @-@ summer , and late @-@ afternoon services in mid @-@ winter . ( Several years later High Holy Day services were moved to the same time ) . That year Tuska began giving his Friday night sermons in English , rather than German . At the end of 1870 , Tuska died of a heart attack .
= = Samfield era ( 1871 – 1915 ) = =
In 1871 , the congregation , whose membership by this time had reached 100 , elected Max Samfield to succeed Tuska . The son of a rabbi , he was born in 1846 in Marktsteft , Bavaria , and was ordained in Germany . He left for the United States in 1867 to be rabbi of B 'nai Zion Congregation of Shreveport , Louisiana , where he served for four years . He had significant competition for the role at B 'nai Israel , with at least ten rabbis applying . Samfield had , however , preached there the Sabbath before the election for rabbi , and was hired for a one @-@ year term . A strong proponent of Reform Judaism , he was associated with Wise in founding the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( now Union for Reform Judaism ) , and under his leadership , B 'nai Israel became one of its founding members in 1873 . He was also president of the Board of Governors of Hebrew Union College ( HUC ) in Cincinnati , Ohio , and was supervisor of the Central Conference of American Rabbis . In 1875 , he asked the congregation if he could abandon wearing the traditional head covering while leading the prayers ; in response , the members resolved that all men would be required to remove their hats during services . He led the congregation to adopt the Reform movement 's new Union Prayer Book in 1896 , but resisted moving Sabbath services to Sunday . Like most Reform rabbis at that time , he was strongly anti @-@ Zionist , writing that Zionism was " an abnormal eruption of perverted sentiment " .
A Scottish Mason , Samfield was committed to public service . When Tennessee 's first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and Children was formed in 1880 , he became its first vice @-@ president , and in 1889 , he led the fundraising for Memphis 's first civilian hospital , St. Joseph 's , a Catholic institution . He founded Memphis 's Hebrew Relief Association , and the non @-@ sectarian United Charities , and was a director of the New Orleans Jewish Orphans ' Home , Denver 's Jewish Consumptive House , and New York 's Sheltering House Association . For the last fifteen years of his life he worked to create a home for elderly and infirm Southern Jews , completed in 1927 .
During Memphis 's 1873 yellow fever epidemic , he — along with other Memphis rabbis and leading Jews — remained in the city rather than fleeing . During the seven weeks the epidemic lasted , 51 people were buried in B 'nai Israel 's cemetery , almost twice the number typically buried there in a whole year . When another yellow fever epidemic broke out in 1878 , Samfield stayed again , ministering to the dead and dying of all faiths . During that epidemic 78 people were buried in the congregation 's cemetery . The city 's frequent yellow fever epidemics decimated its Jewish community , which dropped from 2 @,@ 100 to 300 . They also hurt B 'nai Israel 's finances ; members did not pay their dues , and for a time the congregation could not afford to pay Samfield . By 1880 , however , membership had increased to 124 families , and finances had improved . By this time , the synagogue was more typically called Children of Israel . Beth El Emeth was affected more severely than Children of Israel by the epidemics ; its rabbi ( Peres ) died of yellow fever in 1879 . In 1882 , Beth El Emeth disbanded , and transferred its property to Children of Israel , though most Beth El Emeth members joined the Orthodox Baron Hirsch Synagogue . The property included land on Second Street , and Beth El Emeth 's cemetery .
In 1872 , Children of Israel purchased land on Adams Avenue , with the intent of building a new synagogue there , but financial pressures delayed the project , and in 1880 the congregation decided to sell the property and find a better one . They sold the lot in 1882 , and instead purchased land on Poplar Avenue between Second and Third Streets . By 1884 , they had completed a new synagogue building there , at a cost of $ 39 @,@ 130 ( today $ 1 @,@ 031 @,@ 000 ) . The Byzantine Revival structure had an impressive façade featuring twin tall spires and a large round window containing a Star of David . The building helped attract new members ; by 1885 an additional 45 had joined , for a total of 173 member families , and the congregation was again debt @-@ free . That year , the synagogue acquired a cemetery on Hernando Road .
Though the congregation continued to grow , most new Jewish immigrants to Memphis were from Eastern Europe , and more traditional than the members of Children of Israel . As a result , they typically formed their own Orthodox synagogues , the oldest and longest @-@ lasting of which was the Baron Hirsch Synagogue . Members of Children of Israel worked to assist the Eastern European Jews in assimilating into American society , providing financial assistance , free education on topics such as English , civics , and even hygiene , and from 1897 to 1907 they held a Sunday School for children of the Baron Hirsch congregation . In 1890 , the membership of Children of Israel was 186 families , and the religious school had 148 students . To deal with persistent financial issues and attract younger members , in 1897 the congregation created a new class of member , the " seatholder " , who could not be elected to any office , but paid less in return . This innovation was successful ; 47 new members joined in 1898 , and the congregation 's total membership reached 222 families . Combined with cost cuts in other areas ( primarily reducing the amount paid to the choir ) , this pulled the synagogue out of a four @-@ year financial deficit .
At the end of the nineteenth century , the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 7 @,@ 500 ( today $ 213 @,@ 000 ) . Around this time the congregation stopped hiring cantors , relying instead on the organist and choir to lead prayer @-@ singing . By 1905 , congregational membership had increased to 262 , and by 1907 it was 285 , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 8 @,@ 500 . The congregational school , which held classes once a week , had fifteen teachers and 220 students . That year the congregation added 56 seats to the sanctuary , primarily to handle the increased attendance on the High Holy Days . Despite the congregation 's growth and the expansion of the sanctuary , attendance at regular services was sparse , particularly on Friday nights . From 1892 onward , Samfield publicly admonished the members for their poor Sabbath attendance , and in 1907 , he insisted that board members attend Friday night services . The board agreed on condition that Samfield ensured his sermons were no longer than 25 minutes . Notwithstanding these issues , in 1904 Children of Israel purchased him a house , and in 1910 voted him " rabbi for life " , at an annual salary of $ 4 @,@ 200 ( today $ 107 @,@ 000 ) . That year membership reached 305 families . In September 1911 , William H. " Bill " Fineshriber became the congregation 's first associate rabbi . By 1912 , the congregation had again grown too large for its building . Family membership was now 340 , and the religious school had 260 children enrolled . The congregation acquired land on Poplar Avenue at Montgomery Street , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of their existing location , and began constructing a new synagogue there .
In addition to his other activities , in 1885 Samfield founded The Jewish Spectator , a weekly journal on Southern Jewish life and culture . He was its editor until his death in September 1915 , just days before his planned retirement . His death was announced with banner headlines , and to commemorate his passing , Memphis 's streetcars were stopped for ten minutes .
= = Fineshriber era ( 1915 – 1924 ) = =
Fineshriber succeeded Samfield in 1915 . Born in St. Louis , Missouri , in 1878 , his father had been a Reform rabbi , who died at the age of 37 . When Fineshriber was 13 , he moved to Cincinnati on his own , where he attended high school . After graduating , he attended the University of Cincinnati and entered HUC 's eight @-@ year program . By 1900 he had graduated from both and been ordained . He accepted his first pulpit that year at Temple Emanuel in Davenport , Iowa , and joined Children of Israel in 1911 as associate rabbi . He was the synagogue 's first HUC graduate , and its first American @-@ born rabbi . He had a quick wit , and was able to speak eloquently and extemporaneously on almost any topic . Often quoted in the newspapers , he was active in the Memphis community , and was a Rotarian , Shriner , and Freemason . He was also an early suffragist , and took up the cause at Children of Israel . At a 1913 women 's day event , featuring speakers from Louisiana , Arkansas , Mississippi and Tennessee , he was the only male speaker . At a 1914 rally he stated " Taxation without representation is tyranny ... [ The ] purpose of this meeting ... is to shock the people of Memphis into a realization that the question of equal suffrage is not child 's play . "
He spoke out strongly against the lynching of Ell Persons in 1917 . Persons , a black man accused of raping and decapitating a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old white girl , had been burned alive in front of a crowd of thousands in Memphis , and his remains dismembered , scattered , and displayed . Fineshriber called a congregational meeting to protest the lynching , convinced the membership to endorse a public condemnation of it , and acted as secretary to a group of clergymen who issued a statement decrying the practice . He also convinced the editor of Memphis 's largest newspaper , The Commercial Appeal , to write an editorial criticizing the lynching . Fineshriber supported other causes affecting African @-@ Americans ; he worked to improve their housing , spoke at black churches , and helped raise funds for them . He criticized the Ku Klux Klan from his pulpit , the only clergyman in Memphis to do so . In 1921 he publicized his intention to " preach on the Ku Klux Klan " at Children of Israel at an event which , it was hoped , would attract many non @-@ members . The Klan had re @-@ organized in Memphis that year , and less than a month after Fineshriber 's speech , marched publicly in Nashville 's Armistice Day parade . Despite threats against him , his wife , and children , Fineshriber continued to preach against the Klan at the temple and other venues .
In 1922 , in response to the attempt by William Jennings Bryan and his followers to ban the teaching of evolution in universities and public schools , Fineshriber devoted three Friday night sermons to discussing it . He emphasized to packed audiences the " inalienable right of free thought and free speech , guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States " , and argued that " [ t ] he majority of thoughtful and liberal preachers of the world have found no difficulty in accepting the theory of evolution without discarding their Bibles or their religion . You can worship God only in the light of truth " . Nevertheless , in 1925 Tennessee became the first state to ban the teaching of evolution in public schools , a law not repealed until 1967 .
During Fineshriber 's early years the congregation continued to modify its religious practices . At funerals , it encouraged mourners to leave the graveside , rather than having them wait until the coffin was lowered and cover it with earth themselves ( as was the traditional practice ) . By this time , few members had bar mitzvah ceremonies for their 13 @-@ year @-@ old boys ; instead , boys and girls participated in the Reform Confirmation ceremony ( though the synagogue still allowed those who wanted bar mitzvah ceremonies to have them ) . In 1916 , the congregation eliminated the observance of the eighth days of Passover and Sukkot , required all worshipers to stand when mourners stood to recite the kaddish , and restored the Orthodox practice of blessing and naming babies in the synagogue as part of the services .
Children of Israel dedicated its new synagogue building in 1916 . Designed by local architects Walk C. Jones , Sr. and Max Furbringer , it featured a large central dome and two smaller flanking domes , and was designed to resemble Istanbul 's Hagia Sophia . Entrance was through three sets of double @-@ doors , and carved into the entablature was the biblical verse fragment " THOU SHALT LOVE THY NEIGHBOR AS THYSELF " ( Leviticus 19 : 18 ) . The building 's sanctuary seated 1 @,@ 200 , and had a huge $ 10 @,@ 000 ( today $ 220 @,@ 000 ) organ . The money for the latter had been raised by the recently formed Ladies Auxiliary , whose most effective fund @-@ raising activity involved selling home @-@ cooked meals . The building also had an auditorium with a stage , and fourteen classrooms for the religious school . Children of Israel 's vacated building was purchased by a new Orthodox congregation that had adopted the name of the disbanded Beth El Emeth .
After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , 131 men from Children of Israel enlisted or were drafted ; one was killed . By 1919 , the congregation 's family membership had reached 450 , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 18 @,@ 000 ( today $ 250 @,@ 000 ) . The congregational school , which still held classes once a week , had 14 teachers and 388 students . The following year , women were given the right to vote at all congregational meetings . Fineshriber left in 1924 to become head rabbi of Congregation Keneseth Israel in Philadelphia . During his tenure , Children of Israel 's membership doubled , and the religious school grew from 100 to 550 students . He died in 1968 , and is the congregation 's only deceased senior rabbi not buried in its cemetery .
= = Ettelson era ( 1925 – 1954 ) = =
Harry William Ettelson succeeded Fineshriber in 1925 , the first Southerner to lead the congregation . Born in 1883 , he was raised in Mobile , Alabama . He had a B.A. from the University of Cincinnati ( graduating in 1900 when he was seventeen ) , an M.A. from the University of Chicago , and a Ph.D. from Yale University . Ordained at HUC in 1904 , he first served Congregation Achduth Vesholom in Fort Wayne , Indiana , from 1904 to 1910 , then Congregation Beth Israel of Hartford , Connecticut , from 1911 to 1919 . From 1919 to 1925 he was associate rabbi , then head rabbi at Congregation Rodeph Shalom in Philadelphia .
Ettelson was a strong supporter of the Pittsburgh Platform and its principles , which became the basis for what was later known as " classical " Reform Judaism . The services he led reflected that : member participation in the services ( which were mostly in English ) was limited . While at Achduth Vesholom he moved services from Saturday to Sunday for a period , in an attempt to improve attendance . Even before his joining Children of Israel , the congregation had already substantially reformed its services ; it no longer held bar mitzvahs , observed the laws of kashrut , or allowed congregants to participate in the Torah reading . Aside from the Shema Yisrael and Kaddish , Hebrew or Aramaic prayers had been almost totally eliminated . Though he made few ritual changes himself , Ettelson continued this tradition , and emphasized community service over ritual practice , promoting Judaism as a universalist religion with a mission of justice and peace . The year he arrived he organized the Cross Cut Club , an inter @-@ faith group intended to counter religious prejudice . He served as its first president , and was its president again in 1950 . One of his initiatives there was the Union Civic Thanksgiving Service , an interdenominational eve @-@ of @-@ Thanksgiving service that was held for a number of years . In the 1930s it held an integrated meeting , and , as a result , was not invited back to the venue the following year .
When Ettelson joined the congregation , it had 650 member families . To accommodate growth , in 1926 the synagogue built an annex for the children 's religious school . That year the congregation also established the " Temple Men 's Club " , which had over 200 members , and joined the National Federation of Temple Brotherhoods . In 1928 , the congregation purchased an adjoining house south of the synagogue , for Junior Congregation meetings , and began broadcasting its Friday evening services on the radio . The costs for both endeavors were donated anonymously by synagogue member Abe Plough , founder and chairman of Schering @-@ Plough . The synagogue was hard @-@ hit by the Great Depression . Income from dues dropped from $ 47 @,@ 000 in 1928 ( today $ 650 @,@ 000 ) to $ 23 @,@ 000 in 1932 , and membership fell from 750 families in 1929 to as low as 629 families . The Talmud Torah was closed due to lack of funds , and board meetings focused on finding ways to keep the congregation going financially . Ettelson requested a pay reduction of $ 1 @,@ 000 ( today $ 16 @,@ 000 ) in 1931 , and a further 10 percent cut in 1933 , and the salaries of other synagogue employees were also cut . The Junior Congregation did well , though ; it had 189 paid members by 1933 , held Saturday morning and High Holy Days services , and conducted a number of other programs . The congregation eventually recovered as a whole , assisted by members who were leaders in the civic and business worlds . By 1936 , membership had increased to 650 , and the synagogue paid off the remaining mortgage on the Poplar and Montgomery synagogue building .
In 1932 , Ettelson became locally famous for a debate he had at Nashville 's Ellis Auditorium with Scopes Trial lawyer Clarence Darrow on whether or not religion was necessary . Ettelson argued in favor , Darrow against . Friction between Ettelson and some board members came to a head in 1937 , when the board discussed the issue of whether to retain him as rabbi ; when invited to the meeting , he spoke briefly , then resigned . The board recommended that his tenure be put to a congregational vote at the next annual meeting , where he was re @-@ elected in a secret ballot by a vote of 303 to 31 . He took an eight @-@ month medical leave in 1938 , and Children of Israel hired Morton Cohn as assistant rabbi .
The congregation was heavily involved in World War II , with many members serving in the armed forces , including Dudley Weinberg , who had succeeded Cohn as assistant rabbi . Children of Israel published a special newsletter for overseas members ; by the end of the war , approximately four hundred congregants had served — and fourteen had died — in the U.S. military . As with many other Reform congregations , the members of Temple Israel were split on the issue of Zionism . It is likely that a majority were anti @-@ Zionist , and the synagogue president joined the anti @-@ Zionist American Council for Judaism , though other prominent members supported Zionism , and still others were simply non @-@ Zionist . Ettelson initially opposed Zionism , though he did not join the council . With the growth of antisemitism inside and outside the United States , his views changed , and he was an early member of the local chapter of the Zionist United Palestine Appeal . Nevertheless , he successfully kept the issue from becoming divisive at the temple .
In 1943 , the congregation changed its name to Temple Israel . Its membership grew rapidly , from 914 families in 1944 to over 1 @,@ 100 by late 1949 , together with an increase in the number of children in line with the post @-@ war post – World War II baby boom . In 1951 the temple added a new education building , which had 22 classrooms , offices , and a library . That year the congregation also updated the synagogue 's kitchen , added air conditioning for the vestry and auditorium , and the same for the sanctuary in 1953 . Ettelson retired the following year , and was succeeded as senior rabbi by James Wax .
= = Wax era ( 1954 – 1978 ) = =
Born in 1912 , James Aaron " Jimmy " Wax was raised in Herculaneum , Missouri , where his was usually the only Jewish family in town . While attending Washington University in St. Louis , he was inspired by Rabbi Ferdinand Isserman of Temple Israel of St. Louis to become a rabbi , as a means of achieving social justice . Because of financial constraints brought on by the Depression , Wax had to finish his undergraduate schooling at Southeast Missouri State Teachers College , where he graduated with a B.A. in 1935 . Mentored by Isserman , he then applied to HUC . Because he had little background in Hebrew , he did intensive work in the language prior to and during his admission , and was eventually ordained and achieved a Master of Hebrew Letters degree there in 1941 . Turned down as a U.S. military chaplain , from 1941 to 1945 he served at United Hebrew Congregation in St. Louis , and at North Shore Congregation Israel in Glencoe , Illinois . In 1946 , he became assistant rabbi of Temple Israel , and in 1947 was promoted to associate rabbi . In the early 1950s he was twice elected president of the Memphis and Shelby County Mental Health Society . Upon Ettelson 's retirement in 1954 , Wax became senior rabbi .
By this time the synagogue had around 1 @,@ 200 member families , and over 600 children in its religious school . Wax initiated some changes in the congregation 's religious practices . One was to have a real ram 's horn shofar blown on Rosh Hashanah starting in 1954 , rather than the trumpet that had been used for a number of years . Under his leadership a number of members also started having bar mitzvah ceremonies for their children , though this did not become common until the 1970s . By the 1970s he had also added Hebrew classes to the religious school .
In 1955 he supported and raised funds for the creation of Memphis 's first Conservative synagogue , Beth Sholom , so that Conservative Jews would have their own place to worship . By 1964 , four assistant rabbis had succeeded Wax ; Milton G. Miller , Robert Blinder , Sandford Seltzer , and Sylvin Wolf . That year Wax added Torah readings to the Friday evening service , and Temple Israel 's board began purchasing State of Israel Bonds ; in the wake of the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , the board resolved to buy Israel Bonds " to the maximum feasible extent " . By 1970 Wax had introduced services to celebrate Yom Ha 'atzmaut and commemorate Holocaust Remembrance Day . Though he initially resisted the idea of having a cantor , he eventually accepted a limited role for one , and in 1971 Thomas Schwartz was hired as Temple Israel 's first full @-@ time cantor / musical director in 80 years . Schwartz 's salary was not paid by the synagogue , but was instead paid privately by a group of its members . In 1978 , Wax received the National Human Relations Award from the Memphis Round Table of the National Conference of Christians and Jews . He retired a few weeks later , though he served as acting rabbi of Temple Beth El in Helena , Arkansas , visiting regularly from 1978 until his death in 1989 .
= = = Civil rights activism = = =
The African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement ( 1955 – 1968 ) sparked extremist antisemitism in the South , and " Communist Jews " were blamed for destroying democracy following the United States Supreme Court 's decision in Brown v. Board of Education . Southern Jews found themselves in a difficult position ; they were a vulnerable minority whose status in Southern white society was marginal and conditional on their acceptance of the status quo . Because of these concerns , particularly after the 1958 bombing of the Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple in Atlanta , the congregation did not want Wax taking a public stand on civil rights . In addition , though Wax supported racial integration , not all his congregants did ; according to Wax , " Almost all native @-@ born Southerners whose families lived in the South for two or more generations have segregationist attitudes . " Rather than getting involved in public protests , Wax worked with groups supporting integration , such as the Memphis Ministers Association . He also encouraged Temple Israel 's members to join groups like the Panel of American Women , an interfaith and inter @-@ racial group that spoke in favor of religious and racial tolerance at community events and whose Memphis chapter was founded by congregation member Jocelyn Wurzburg . Temple Israel member Myra Dreifus co @-@ founded Memphis 's Fund for Needy Schoolchildren in the 1960s . It helped provide food for hungry schoolchildren , primarily in black schools , and later expanded its efforts to include the distribution of free or discounted clothing and footwear . The group had both white and black women as members , including members of Temple Israel , and because of Dreifus 's role in the Fund , Temple Israel itself supported it . By 1968 , members of the Sisterhood were donating money so that tutors could be bussed to the majority African @-@ American Kansas Street School . According to professor of women 's and gender studies Kimberly K. Little , this " marked the first occasion where Temple Israel opened its doors to community – based programs ; its prior charitable work focused on Jewish community outreach . "
Wax was particularly involved with Memphis Committee on Community Relations ( MCCR ) . The MCCR was formed in 1958 by a group of Memphis city leaders , with a goal of ending segregation in a non @-@ violent way . Individual committees worked to desegregate various public facilities in Memphis . The MCCR also worked to get blacks representation in government ( both elected and appointed officials ) , and created programs to improve economic conditions and job opportunities for blacks . Wax served as the MCCR 's secretary from its formation until its dissolution in the 1970s . Several other Temple Israel members worked with the MCCR , and , as owners of large Memphis companies , were able to implement desegregation in their own workplaces . Other Temple Israel members supported the civil rights movement : senior business executives convinced stores to hire black salespeople , Herschel Feibelman chaired the Memphis War on Poverty Committee , and Marvin Ratner left a partnership at a prominent local law firm to form , along with two white and two black lawyers , Memphis 's first integrated law firm .
In January 1965 , Memphis mayor William B. Ingram asked Wax to join his Community Action Committee , a group which tried to get federal funding for anti @-@ poverty programs and job training for black youths . In August of that year , Wax became chair of its policy committee , a mostly black group . Though the committee created a number of helpful programs , disagreement over the mayor 's role in choosing members and controlling funds led to the group 's dissolution in January 1966 . Ingram lauded Wax 's efforts on behalf of the group . Wax was also active in other civil rights groups , including the Tennessee Council on Human Relations , the American Civil Liberties Union , the Memphis Urban League , and the Program of Progress , a group which worked to reform local government . He was elected president of the Memphis Ministers Association in May 1967 , even though he was its only Jewish member .
On January 31 , 1968 , two Memphis sanitation workers were crushed to death in a malfunctioning garbage compactor , prompting the start of the Memphis Sanitation Strike on February 12 . The mostly black sanitation workers were Memphis 's lowest paid civil servants , and received no overtime or holiday pay . Memphis 's mayor was now Henry Loeb , a former member of Temple Israel , who converted to Christianity soon after starting his term in 1968 , after marrying an Episcopalian woman . He refused to negotiate with the workers , and the strike soon came to national attention as a civil rights issue . After being contacted by black ministers , Wax arranged a meeting on February 18 between Loeb , local union leaders , and Jerry Wurf , head of the American Federation of State , County and Municipal Employees . The talks , which continued until 5 : 00 am on the 19th , and resumed later that day , resolved nothing . Temple Israel member Dreifus used her past support for Loeb in his 1967 mayoralty campaign as a means of trying to force him to resolve the strike , and act as a representative of both white and black Memphians . The strike continued through March . In an attempt to defuse tension , Wax called a meeting of Memphis 's two clergy groups , the mostly white Memphis Ministers Association and the black Interdenominational Alliance for April 3 . The meeting , if anything , had the opposite effect ; the black ministers wanted to march immediately on the mayor 's office , while most of the white clergy , including Wax , refused to join the march , which they argued would just inflame the white public .
Martin Luther King , Jr. was assassinated in Memphis the next night . The Memphis Ministers Association organized a memorial service for King on the 5th . At the service , the ministers voted to march to Loeb 's office that day and insist he address the workers ' grievances and end the strike ; led by Wax and William Dimmick , the dean of St. Mary 's Cathedral , 250 clergymen marched in pairs to Loeb 's office , where he was urged in front of television cameras to end the strike . In his sermon at Temple Israel , Wax told the congregation : " This city shall witness a new spirit and the memory of this great prophet of our time shall be honored . There will be bigots and segregationists and the so @-@ called respectable but unrighteous people who will resist . But in the scheme of history , God 's will does prevail . " The strike was settled on April 16 , with the sanitation workers getting union recognition and other benefits . The only remaining impediment was a recommended ten @-@ cent @-@ an @-@ hour raise on May 1 , followed by another raise on September 1 . The city budget did not have the estimated $ 558 @,@ 000 ( today $ 3 @.@ 8 million ) required to pay the workers . To resolve the impasse , Temple Israel member Abe Plough donated the shortfall anonymously .
= = = East Massey Road building = = =
By 1957 the synagogue sanctuary , which had been designed for 350 families , had become too small to accommodate Temple Israel 's over 1 @,@ 100 member families . In addition , since the 1950s Memphis 's Jewish community had been steadily moving from the downtown , where Temple Israel 's Poplar Avenue building was located , to the eastern suburbs ; by 1957 over half of the members , and three @-@ quarters of those with children in the congregational school , lived there . School attendance increased rapidly , and the student body soon outgrew its 1951 building . The school had to split attendance in 1959 , with the younger children attending on Saturday and the older ones on Sunday , and by 1961 , 780 children were enrolled . In the early 1960s , Temple Israel began holding weekday classes at Beth Sholom , which was closer to most members .
In 1963 , Temple Israel drew up plans for a new building , and in 1964 purchased land on White Station Road . In 1966 , the members voted against building there , as older members were attached to the existing building , and concerned about expenses , but by the early 1970s , the situation could no longer be ignored . Plough offered to donate one @-@ quarter of the $ 4 million cost of a new building . The land on White Station Road was sold , and a 30 @-@ acre ( 12 ha ) property on East Massey Road was purchased ; the congregation moved into the new building in September 1976 . The old synagogue was sold to Mid @-@ America Baptist Theological Seminary , which would occupy it for the next twenty years . The new building was designed by Francis Gassner of Gassner , Nathan and Partners , with Percival Goodman as consulting architect . It was constructed of steel and masonry , which was used for both the exterior and interior , and had copper roofing . In the front , a glass covered garden entered into a two @-@ story reception area , which led to a smaller foyer , and ultimately to the main sanctuary . It had 32 classrooms , and a 300 @-@ seat chapel , later named the Danziger Chapel in honor of rabbi Harry Danziger and his wife Jeanne . The ner tamid , Torah ark doors , and Ten Commandments wall decoration from the Poplar Road building were installed in the new chapel .
The sanctuary , which sat up to 1 @,@ 500 , was semi @-@ circular in shape , and designed so that no worshiper was more than fifteen rows from the Torah ark . It was lit by skylights , and had a balcony . Its ceiling , along with those of the entrance foyer and chapel , were of oak , as were the doors , trim , and paneling . The building 's interior art work was designed by Efrem Weitzman , including the Torah ark , most ritual objects , stained glass , mosaics , and tapestries . In the architect 's view , the compact design of the sanctuary , and the liberal use of stained glass and wood , " achieved the desired feelings of intimacy " . On the same level as the balcony was a gallery , originally designed for art and Judaica exhibits . In 1994 , upon the donation by Herta and Justin Adler of the Adler Judaica Collection , this became a permanent museum . The complex at 1376 East Massey Road had a final cost of $ 7 million ( today $ 29 @.@ 1 million ) , of which Plough donated over $ 2 million . In gratitude for his donation , Plough was named honorary president for life .
In 2003 , the congregation embarked on a significant renovation and expansion of its facility . Over 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 9 @,@ 300 m2 ) of space , including the social hall , was renovated , and a 25 @,@ 000 square foot ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) early childhood and family center addition was built , creating a U @-@ shaped wing around a courtyard . Architect Walt Reed of The Crump Firm said he kept the emphasis on " simple , geometric , contemporary forms " that existed in the original building , as well as using the same copper roofing and detailing materials . The approximately $ 15 million construction project took two years , and was completed in 2007 . " Wings to the Heavens " , David Ascalon 's 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) -high , welded aluminum and stainless steel abstract kinetic sculpture , was installed in the atrium .
= = Danziger era ( 1978 – 2000 ) , 21st century = =
Harry K. Danziger succeeded Wax as rabbi in 1978 . The son of a rabbi , Danziger was a graduate of the University of Cincinnati , and ordained by the HUC . He joined Temple Israel as assistant rabbi in 1964 , but in 1969 moved to Monroe , Louisiana , to lead Congregation B 'nai Israel . He was replaced first by Howard Schwartz , then by Richard Birnholz . Birnholz tendered his resignation in 1973 , and Wax began to think of retirement . Danziger , then at Baltimore 's Temple Oheb Shalom , was approached as Wax 's successor , and returned to Temple Israel that year as associate rabbi . Synagogue membership had been around 1 @,@ 350 families from the mid @-@ 1960s , but increased after the move to East Massey Road . By Wax 's retirement it had reached around 1 @,@ 500 , and over half Memphis 's 10 @,@ 000 Jews were members of Temple Israel .
In his first sermon as associate rabbi , Danziger said " we can afford to look Jewish after all these years and ... out of self @-@ respect alone , we cannot afford not to " . As senior rabbi he slowly brought more traditional observances back to Temple Israel , moving it away from the radicalism of " Classical Reform " Judaism . These observances included the chanting of Torah blessings , a Torah procession through the sanctuary aisles , fasting on Yom Kippur , circumcising baby boys , and saying the kaddish for the deceased . In 1979 , he gradually replaced the old Union Prayer Book with the new Gates of Prayer prayer book , and later began wearing a tallit while on the bimah . The changes were not uncontroversial , and the latter prompted one member to resign in protest . Though more traditional than his more recent predecessors , he was willing to perform intermarriages , but also counseled the couples as to the meaning of making a Jewish home . Danziger was involved in the Central Conference of American Rabbis and eventually became its president .
John Kaplan joined as cantor in 1981 , and made the services less formal and more interactive . His innovations included bringing in more modern tunes , encouraging congregational singing , and accompanying the services with a guitar , rather than the organ . By 2006 , Friday night services included a " spirit " service , at which a house band played .
During Danziger 's tenure , assistant rabbis included Alan Greenbaum ( 1977 – 1981 ) , Harry Rosenfeld ( 1981 – 1984 ) , Constance Abramson Golden — Temple Israel 's first female rabbi — ( 1984 – 1986 ) , and Marc Belgrad ( 1986 – 1991 ) . Micah D. Greenstein , the son of rabbi Howard Greenstein , succeeded Belgrad as assistant rabbi in 1991 , and was subsequently promoted to associate rabbi . A graduate of Cornell University and the John F. Kennedy School of Government , he was ordained by the HUC . On Danziger 's retirement in 2000 , he became senior rabbi . An advocate for social justice , he tried to convince the Shelby County Commission to pass a law forbidding discrimination against LGBT people , and has used the Bible to present counter @-@ arguments to those supporting such discrimination based on biblical verses . He has served twice as president of the Memphis Ministers Association , and sits on the boards of several local non @-@ profit organizations .
Valerie Cohen joined as assistant rabbi in 1999 , and served until 2003 , before becoming rabbi of Beth Israel Congregation of Jackson , Mississippi . Adam B. Grossman , a graduate of Ohio State and Xavier universities , and ordained at HUC , joined as assistant rabbi in June 2008 . He had previously served as a rabbinic intern at Dayton , Ohio 's Temple Israel . Katie M. Bauman , a graduate of Washington University in St. Louis , and ordained at HUC , joined as assistant rabbi in July 2009 . She had previously served in rabbinic roles in Natchez , Mississippi and Marion , Ohio , as a cantor in Cincinnati , Ohio 's Rockdale Temple , and in 2003 – 2004 , as Temple Israel 's Artist and Educator in Residence .
Temple Israel experienced modest fluctuations in membership during the 1990s and 2000s , and approximately half the Jews attending services in Memphis worshiped there . In 1995 , membership was over 1 @,@ 700 family units , and by 2004 , it had reached 1 @,@ 800 , and the religious school had 800 students . By 2008 , the school ( renamed the Wendy and Avron Fogelman Religious School ) had 500 students , and by 2010 membership had fallen to under 1 @,@ 600 families . It remained , nevertheless , the only Reform synagogue in Memphis , the largest and oldest synagogue in Tennessee , and one of the largest Reform synagogues in the United States . As of 2015 , Micah Greenstein is the senior rabbi , with Katie Bauman as associate rabbi , Harry Danziger as rabbi emeritus , and John Kaplan as cantor emeritus .
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= New York State Route 312 =
New York State Route 312 ( NY 312 ) is a short but important state highway located entirely within the town of Southeast in Putnam County , New York , in the United States . It allows access , albeit indirectly , to the village of Brewster from Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) via a less complicated exit than the nearby I @-@ 684 exit , and is often heavily used for this purpose at rush hour by local residents . The western terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Brewster . The eastern terminus is at NY 22 in the hamlet of Sears Corners . NY 312 was originally assigned to what is now NY 164 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York before being shifted south to its current location c . 1937 .
= = Route description = =
NY 312 begins at US 6 in Southeast , New York just northeast of Middle Branch Reservoir , one of the many reservoirs in Putnam County which supply New York City 's large need for drinking water . The route heads northeast , before veering to the north after a 0 @.@ 5 mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to bypass a hill 680 feet ( 210 m ) high . Past the hill , the route curves eastward then northeastward as it meets I @-@ 84 by way of an interchange and approaches the hamlet of Dykemans .
In Dykemans , NY 312 serves the Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Southeast station , located on the railroad 's Harlem Line . Just north of the station , NY 312 turns almost due east as it crosses the Harlem Line at @-@ grade and exits Dykemans . 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from the railroad crossing , the route intersects North Brewster Road ( County Road 58 or CR 58 ) and Farm to Market Road ( CR 62 ) in the hamlet of Brewster Hill . From here , it travels along the northern edge of Bog Brook Reservoir , another large reservoir which supplies drinking water to New York City . NY 312 proceeds east to the hamlet of Sears Corners , where it terminates at NY 22 .
= = History = =
All of modern NY 312 was originally designated as part of NY 52 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the same time , the NY 312 designation was assigned to the entirety of what is now NY 164 . The NY 312 designation was shifted 3 miles ( 5 km ) southward to its current alignment c . 1937 after NY 52 was truncated to Carmel . No changes have been made to NY 312 's alignment since that time .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Southeast , Putnam County .
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= Development of L.A. Noire =
The development of L.A. Noire began in 2004 following the founding of its developer Team Bondi . Rockstar Games published L.A. Noire on 17 May 2011 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and on 8 November 2011 for Microsoft Windows . Though Team Bondi oversaw development , the work was shared between the core team and multiple Rockstar studios around the world . L.A. Noire was delayed numerous times through its seven @-@ year development , which included a change of publisher and platforms . The working hours and managerial style of the studio during development was met with public complaints from staff members . L.A. Noire was formally announced in 2005 ; it was heavily promoted through video trailers and press demonstrations .
The game is notable for being the first to use the newly developed MotionScan technology developed by Depth Analysis . MotionScan uses 32 surrounding cameras to capture actors ' facial expressions from every angle , resulting in a highly realistic recreation of a human face . The technology is central to the game 's interrogation mechanic , as players are required to use the suspects ' reactions to questioning to judge whether or not they are lying . The game uses full motion capture actors to record the voices and movements of the characters . Over twenty hours of voice work was recorded for the game .
L.A. Noire 's open world is a recreation of 1947 Los Angeles . The development team conducted field research in Los Angeles throughout the game 's development , and compiled multiple aerial photographs to gather traffic and building information . Various plot points and investigations in the game are based on real life events , such as the Black Dahlia case . Like other games published by Rockstar , L.A. Noire uses licensed music provided by an in @-@ game radio . Over 30 licensed tracks continuously loop on one radio station . The game also features an original score composed by a group of musicians and inspired by 1940s films .
= = Production = =
= = = Overview = = =
Preliminary work on L.A. Noire began after the founding of developer Team Bondi in 2003 . Though Team Bondi oversaw development , work was shared between the core team and multiple other studios owned by publisher Rockstar Games . Unlike other games published by Rockstar , L.A. Noire uses a custom engine , which includes a combination of facial motion capture and animation software . The game also uses MotionScan to capture actor 's facial expressions . BBC News reporter Kev Geoghegan estimated that the development budget for the game exceeded US $ 50 million , making L.A. Noire one of the most expensive video games ever made .
L.A. Noire was developed for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and later ported to Microsoft Windows . Windows copies of the game are distributed on two DVD discs , while Xbox 360 copies are distributed on three ; the PlayStation 3 version fits onto one Blu @-@ Ray Disc . A total of 16 cases — the game 's form of missions that advance the game 's narrative — were removed from the final version of the game as they would not have fit on one Blu @-@ ray Disc ; while five of these cases were later released as downloadable content , eleven cases from the departments Bunko and Burglary were completely removed .
= = = Technical development = = =
While most games published by Rockstar since Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis ( 2006 ) use the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine , L.A. Noire uses a custom engine , which includes a combination of motion capture and animation software . The game also utilises Havok for the animation and physics .
L.A. Noire is notable for being the first game to use the newly developed technology MotionScan , developed by Australian company Depth Analysis . MotionScan is a motion capture technology that records the face of an actor at over 1000 frames per second . This technology is crucial to the game 's interrogation mechanic , which requires players to use suspects ' facial reactions to questioning to judge whether or not they are lying . MotionScan functions by recording actors with 32 surrounding cameras to capture facial expressions from every angle , resulting in a highly realistic recreation of a moving human face . Despite using 32 cameras , not all are required ; Oliver Bao , head of Depth Analysis R & D , said that the extra samples allow the team to " reconstruct a better 3D surface in general " and to " remove reconstruction noise a little more easily " .
Although the use of MotionScan was critically acclaimed for its highly realistic capture of faces , it was criticised for its inability to capture body movements . Many players considered that characters are " dead from the neck down " . Game director Brendan McNamara attributed this to players ' expectations of realism ; " people expect to see clothes moving and the rest of the body moving in a way we can 't replicate in video games , " he said . " We would have loved to have spent more time on fine @-@ tuning that for L.A. Noire but it wasn 't feasible due to the scope of the scripting and talent involved , " said Bao .
= = = Research and open world design = = =
For L.A. Noire , the development team recreated 1940s Los Angeles by using aerial photographs taken by daredevil Robert Spence . In a career spanning over 50 years , Spence took over 110 @,@ 000 aerial photographs of Los Angeles . The team used the photographs to create traffic patterns and public transport routes , as well as the location and condition of buildings . While striving to recreate an accurate model of 1947 Los Angeles , the team also took some artistic license , such as including the appearance of the film set for D. W. Griffith 's Intolerance ; the set had actually been dismantled in 1919 .
Los Angeles was extensively researched for the game . The team spent the first year of development researching Los Angeles by using newspapers and magazines , organising field research field trips , and capturing photographs . A total of 180 @,@ 000 photographs were available as resources throughout development , and over 1 @,@ 000 newspapers were used for research . Both the interior and exterior of multiple sets were the result of researched reference material . For example , the Barclay Hotel in Los Angeles was used as a reference point when modelling an apartment building in the game . However , some sets were originally designed , in order to meet the gameplay or the narrative script .
= = = Character development = = =
L.A. Noire has over twenty hours of voice work . To cast the characters , the team held secretive auditions . In the game , Aaron Staton portrayed Cole Phelps , Gil McKinney portrayed Jack Kelso , Rodney Scott portrayed Ralph Dunn , Sean McGowan portrayed Stefan Bekowsky , Michael McGrady portrayed Rusty Galloway , Adam Harrington portrayed Roy Earle , and Keith Szarabajka portrayed Herschel Biggs . Singer and model Erika Heynatz and actor Andrew Connolly also appear as Elsa Lichtmann and Captain James Donnelly , respectively . Many of Staton 's Mad Men co @-@ stars are also featured in the game , including Vincent Kartheiser , Rich Sommer , Michael Gladis , Patrick Fischler and Morgan Rusler . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology . During their performances , the actors attempted to appear as realistic as possible . Director Michael Uppendahl said , " I try to monitor the performances to make sure we ’ re getting the human element that ’ s going to make it compelling and interesting . " Initially , McNamara was not keen about the casting of Staton , but Rockstar Vice President for Creativity Dan Houser convinced him into agreeing . " [ Cole Phelps ] is conflicted and has quite a bit of depth and [ Staton ] is great at conveying those things , " said McNamara .
When discussing the player character change near the end of the story , from Phelps to Kelso , McNamara explained that the narrative " got to the point where [ Phelps ] couldn 't really do much more , and you have to go outside the realm of being a cop to bend the rules " . He stated that , when players performed poorly , the game was set to allow them to become a " rogue cop " , in which they must defend themselves against other police officers ; this feature was removed from the game during development as the team felt that it was " massively out of character " .
Prior to performing , Staton received a 12 @-@ page document that outlined the story , and the history of Phelps . He has said that he received the document as there wasn 't enough time to read the 2 @,@ 200 @-@ page script before filming began . Staton cumulatively worked on L.A. Noire for about eighteen months . He said , " consecutively I think I worked six months , and then for the next year here and there picking things up , adding , changing and tweaking things " . When discussing his character , McGowan felt that Bekowsky was initially jealous of Phelps , but eventually warmed up to him . " Like a good older brother he 'll always have his back but will never take shit from him , " he said . McGrady , who portrayed Rusty Galloway , said his own introverted personality helped him connect to the character . " I am a classic introvert but I can hold court when I need to . I think Rusty is that way too , " McGrady said . Harrington described Roy as " jaded , tough , mean , cruel , brutally honest and ... very funny " . He took credit for all of Roy 's facial expressions , but said that all of the dialogue was scripted , as opposed to ad @-@ lib . Many characters in the game are influenced by real people and events ; for example , Captain Donnelly is loosely based on both McNamara 's father , and LAPD Captain Jack Donahue . Additionally , many cases that Phelps solves are based off real life events , such as the Black Dahlia case .
= = = Music production = = =
L.A. Noire features an original score . The game 's score accompanies the gameplay , alerting players at specific times . Like other games published by Rockstar , L.A. Noire also contains licensed music tracks provided by an in @-@ game radio . Over thirty songs , from artists such as Billie Holiday , Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald , feature in the game . To work on the score , the team engaged Andrew Hale and Simon Hale , as well as Woody Jackson , who had previously collaborated with the team on Red Dead Redemption ( 2010 ) . Recorded at Abbey Road Studios , the score was inspired by orchestral scores from 1940s films . In addition to the original score and licensed tracks , the game also features original vocal recordings in order to create an authentic sound to suit the musical identity of the period . When The Real Tuesday Weld were commissioned to compose the original compositions , they sought vocals that could " evoke the period " , ultimately falling upon Claudia Brücken . Three vocal tracks were produced : " ( I Always Kill ) The Things I Love " , " Guilty " , and " Torched Song " .
Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich stated that Rockstar 's focus on authenticity and realism inspired the composers to reflect the focus in the music . Andrew Hale felt that composing the game 's score was a flexible process " about setting a mood " , as opposed to a " mechanical " process in which the music was specifically composed to fit with the time frames of the game ; the composers decided to focus on the latter after the music was produced . They also attempted to compose something that felt accessible to players , avoiding exclusively focusing on swing or jazz . Andrew Hale felt that the orchestral score assisted in this .
= = Business = =
= = = Announcement and delays = = =
In October 2003 , Team Soho 's director of The Getaway Brendan McNamara left the London company to form his own studio in his native Australia . The six @-@ person studio , Team Bondi , immediately announced their first project , for " a next @-@ generation Sony platform " . In 2004 , McNamara said that the project was wholly funded by Sony Computer Entertainment America . The game 's title and platform was revealed in 2005 : L.A. Noire was to be released exclusively to the PlayStation 3 . Team Bondi described the game as a " detective thriller " . In September 2006 , it was announced that Rockstar Games would be handling the publishing of the game ; Rockstar only referred to it as a " next @-@ generation crime thriller " , with no platforms specified .
In June 2007 , Rockstar 's parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive re @-@ confirmed the release of the PlayStation 3 version by listing the game amongst its " announced to date " titles for " fiscal 2008 " . A spokesperson for Take @-@ Two later implied that the game was likely to also be released on the Xbox 360 . In September 2007 , Take @-@ Two announced that the game had been delayed until their 2009 fiscal year . The March 2010 issue of Game Informer confirmed that the game would be released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in September 2010 ; L.A. Noire missed this release date , when Take @-@ Two delayed the game until the first half of 2011 , confident that the delay would help the game 's success . This was later narrowed down to March 2011 , before a final delay until 17 May 2011 .
= = = Promotion = = =
The game was extensively marketed through video trailers and press demonstrations . For its February 2010 issue , Game Informer magazine ran a cover story on L.A. Noire . On 12 November 2010 , the debut trailer was released . It depicted several scenes from the game , partly narrated by one of the characters , Herschel Biggs ( Keith Szarabajka ) . On 16 December 2010 , the first behind @-@ the @-@ scenes development video for the game was released , titled " The Technology Behind Performance " . It showcased the MotionScan technology used in the game , featuring interviews with the cast and development team . The second trailer was released on 24 January 2011 , particularly focusing on the game 's Homicide cases . A trailer released on 9 February 2011 , titled " Orientation " , featured the first gameplay footage of L.A. Noire . It demonstrated the game 's interrogation and investigation mechanics , and exhibited the game 's combat element . The game 's cover art was unveiled on 23 February 2011 , followed by the announcement of the game 's exclusive pre @-@ order content .
Trailers for the game 's exclusive pre @-@ order cases were released on 3 March and 31 March . The game 's investigation and interrogation aspects were further showcased in a gameplay trailer released on 9 March 2011 , titled " Investigation and Interrogation " . The game was exhibited at PAX in March 2011 . An exclusive theatre presentation was displayed at the L.A. Noire booth . The third trailer was released on 8 April 2011 , particularly focusing on the game 's depiction of the police department 's corruption in the Administrative Vice department . The final pre @-@ launch trailer was released on 11 May 2011 .
Viral marketing strategies were used to market the game . The official L.A. Noire website was redesigned on 27 January 2011 to show a preview of characters and cases in the game . On 25 April 2011 , L.A. Noire was honoured as an official selection at the Tribeca Film Festival , becoming the first video game to do so . Rockstar also ran a competition to win a trip to Los Angeles to attend the Festival of Film Noir Grauman 's Egyptian Theatre , and play the game a month before its official release . L.A. Noire was the focus of the 15 April 2011 episode of GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley , which featured interviews with the development team and previews of the MotionScan technology .
To encourage pre @-@ order sales of the game , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide pre @-@ order bonuses . These included the extra cases " A Slip of the Tongue " and " The Naked City " , the side quest " The Badge Pursuit Challenge " , and the bonus detective suits " The Broderick " and " The Sharpshooter " . Rockstar Games and L.A. Noire shirts were also offered as pre @-@ order bonuses . In addition to the pre @-@ order bonuses , the extra case " The Consul 's Car " was included in all North American copies of the PlayStation 3 version ; it later became available for purchase from the PlayStation Store , and as part of The Complete Edition . On 6 June 2011 , Rockstar teamed up with Mulholland Books to publish L.A. Noire : The Collected Stories , a collection of short stories from noted crime authors , all based on the L.A. Noire universe .
= = = Staff complaints = = =
Shortly after the launch of the game , a group of former Team Bondi employees launched a website called lanoirecredits.com , containing over 100 names which had been excluded or incorrectly listed in the official game credits . This was later followed by a series of claims and counter @-@ claims about working hours and company managerial style during the game 's development . Anonymous members of the development team publicly discussed the managerial style of the studio , the studio 's staff turnover rates and the working hours and conditions associated with L.A. Noire .
In July 2011 , a series of confidential emails were leaked along with further comments from staff members . They claimed the emails highlight the contentious relationship between Team Bondi and Rockstar , and indicate that the two companies are unlikely to work together again . An anonymous source from the development team claimed that " it has been quite clear that [ Rockstar ] will not publish Team Bondi 's next game " , and that " the relationship with Rockstar has been badly damaged " . The source claimed :
Part of the conflict between Team Bondi and Rockstar was due to Rockstar 's frustration with Team Bondi 's direction , and eventually Team Bondi 's management in turn resented Rockstar for taking lots of creative control . It 's also worth pointing out that Rockstar used to be very keen on making Team Bondi something like ' Rockstar Sydney ' - the more they worked with Team Bondi management , the more they came to understand that this was a terrible idea .
Team Bondi was placed into administration in August 2011 , and was wound up in October 2011 . The company 's assets were all bought by Kennedy Miller Mitchell , including McNamara 's next game , titled Whore of the Orient . Rockstar retained the L.A. Noire intellectual property . Some Team Bondi former employees went on to work for different Rockstar studios , while some went to Kennedy Miller Mitchell . Despite the allegedly difficult relationship during development , McNamara maintains an optimistic attitude towards Rockstar . " I 've no hard feelings about Rockstar and hopefully it doesn 't have any hard feelings about us , " he said .
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= William Hanna =
William Denby " Bill " Hanna ( July 14 , 1910 – March 22 , 2001 ) was an American animator , director , producer , voice actor , and cartoon artist , whose film and television cartoon characters entertained millions of people for much of the 20th century .
After working odd jobs in the first months of the Depression , Hanna joined the Harman and Ising animation studio in 1930 . During the 1930s , Hanna steadily gained skill and prominence while working on cartoons such as Captain and the Kids . In 1937 , while working at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) , Hanna met Joseph Barbera . The two men began a collaboration that was at first best known for producing Tom and Jerry and live action / animated hybrid films . In 1957 , they co @-@ founded Hanna @-@ Barbera , which became the most successful television animation studio in the business , producing programs such as The Flintstones , The Huckleberry Hound Show , The Jetsons , Scooby @-@ Doo , The Smurfs , and Yogi Bear . In 1967 , Hanna – Barbera was sold to Taft Broadcasting for $ 12 million , but Hanna and Barbera remained heads of the company until 1991 . At that time , the studio was sold to Turner Broadcasting System , which in turn was merged with Time Warner in 1996 ; Hanna and Barbera stayed on as advisors .
Hanna and Barbera won seven Academy Awards and eight Emmy Awards . Their cartoons have become cultural icons , and their cartoon characters have appeared in other media such as films , books , and toys . Hanna – Barbera 's shows had a worldwide audience of over 300 million people in their 1960s heyday , and have been translated into more than 28 languages .
= = Personal life = =
William Hanna was born to William John and Avice Joyce ( Denby ) Hanna on July 14 , 1910 in Melrose , New Mexico . He was the third of seven children and the only son . Hanna claimed there was no " war between the sexes " nor sibling rivalry in their home . Hanna described his family as " a red @-@ blooded , Irish @-@ American family " . His father was a construction superintendent for railroads as well as water and sewer systems throughout the western regions of America , requiring the family to move frequently .
When Hanna was three years old , the family moved to Baker City , Oregon , where his father worked on the Balm Creek Dam . It was here that Hanna developed his love of the outdoors . The family moved to Logan , Utah , before moving to San Pedro , California , in 1917 . During the next two years they moved several times before eventually settling in Watts , California , in 1919 .
In 1922 , while living in Watts , he joined Scouting . He attended Compton High School from 1925 through 1928 , where he played the saxophone in a dance band . His passion for music carried over into his career ; he helped write songs for his cartoons , including the theme for The Flintstones . Hanna became an Eagle Scout as a youth and remained active in Scouting throughout his life . As an adult , he served as a Scoutmaster and was recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with their Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in 1985 . Despite his numerous career @-@ related awards , Hanna was most proud of this Distinguished Eagle Scout Award . His interests also included sailing and singing in a barbershop quartet . Hanna studied both journalism and structural engineering at Compton City College , but had to drop out of college with the onset of the Great Depression .
On August 7 , 1936 , Hanna married Violet Blanch Wogatzke ( Born : July 23 , 1913 , Died July 11 , 2014 . ) , and they had a marriage lasting 64 years and they had two children , David William and Bonnie Jean , and seven grandchildren . In 1996 , Hanna , with assistance from Los Angeles writer Tom Ito , published his autobiography — Joe Barbera had published his two years earlier .
= = Early career = =
After dropping out of college , Hanna worked briefly as a construction engineer and helped build the Pantages Theatre in Hollywood . He lost that job during the Great Depression and found another at a car wash . His sister 's boyfriend encouraged him to apply for a job at Pacific Title and Art , which produced title cards for motion pictures . While working there , Hanna 's talent for drawing became evident , and in 1930 he joined the Harman and Ising animation studio , which had created the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series . Despite a lack of formal training , Hanna soon became head of their ink and paint department . Besides inking and painting , Hanna also wrote songs and lyrics . For the first several years of Hanna 's employment , the studio partnered with Pacific Title and Art 's Leon Schlesinger , who released the Harman @-@ Ising output through Warner Bros. When Hugh Harman and Rudolph Ising chose to break with Schlesinger and begin producing cartoons independently for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) in 1933 , Hanna was one of the employees who followed them .
Hanna was given the opportunity to direct his first cartoon in 1936 ; the result was To Spring , part of the Harman @-@ Ising Happy Harmonies series . The following year , MGM decided to terminate their partnership with Harman @-@ Ising and bring production in @-@ house . Hanna was among the first people MGM hired away from Harman @-@ Ising to their new cartoon studio . During 1938 – 39 , he served as a senior director on MGM 's Captain and the Kids series , based upon the comic strip of the same name ( an alternate version of the Katzenjammer Kids that had resulted from a 1914 lawsuit ) . The series did not do well ; consequently , Hanna was demoted to a story man and the series was canceled . Hanna 's desk at MGM was opposite that of Joseph Barbera , who had previously worked at Terrytoons . The two quickly realized they would make a good team . By 1939 they had solidified a partnership that would last over 60 years . Hanna and Barbera worked alongside animation director Tex Avery , who had created Daffy Duck and Bugs Bunny for Warner Bros. and directed Droopy cartoons at MGM .
= = Tom and Jerry = =
In 1940 , Hanna and Barbera jointly directed Puss Gets the Boot , which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best ( Cartoon ) Short Subject . The studio wanted a diversified cartoon portfolio , so despite the success of Puss Gets the Boot , Hanna and Barbera 's supervisor , Fred Quimby , did not want to produce more cat and mouse cartoons . Surprised by the success of Puss Gets the Boot , Hanna and Barbera ignored Quimby 's resistance and continued developing the cat @-@ and @-@ mouse theme . By this time , however , Hanna wanted to return to working for Ising , to whom he felt very loyal . Hanna and Barbera met with Quimby , who discovered that although Ising had taken sole credit for producing Puss Gets the Boot , he never actually worked on it . Quimby then gave Hanna and Barbera permission to pursue their cat @-@ and @-@ mouse idea . The result was their most famous creation , Tom and Jerry .
Modeled after the Puss Gets the Boot characters with slight differences , the series followed Jerry , the rodent who continually outwitted his feline foe , Tom . Hanna said they settled on the cat and mouse theme for this cartoon because : " We knew we needed two characters . We thought we needed conflict , and chase and action . And a cat after a mouse seemed like a good , basic thought . " The revamped characters first appeared in 1941 's The Midnight Snack . Over the next 17 years Hanna and Barbera worked almost exclusively on Tom and Jerry , directing more than 114 highly popular cartoon shorts . During World War II they also made animated training films . Tom and Jerry relied mostly on motion instead of dialog . Despite its popularity , Tom and Jerry has often been criticized as excessively violent . Nonetheless , the series won its first Academy Award for the 11th short , The Yankee Doodle Mouse ( 1943 ) — a war @-@ time adventure . Tom and Jerry was ultimately nominated for 14 Academy Awards , winning 7 . No other character @-@ based theatrical animated series has won more awards , nor has any other series featuring the same characters . Tom and Jerry also made guest appearances in several of MGM 's live @-@ action films , including Anchors Aweigh ( 1945 ) and Invitation to the Dance ( 1956 ) with Gene Kelly , and Dangerous When Wet ( 1953 ) with Esther Williams .
Quimby accepted each Academy Award for Tom and Jerry 's without inviting Hanna and Barbera onstage . The cartoons were also released with Quimby listed as the sole producer , following the same practice for which he had condemned Ising . When Quimby retired in late 1955 , Hanna and Barbera were placed in charge of MGM 's animation division . As the studio began to lose more revenue due to television , MGM soon realized that re @-@ releasing old cartoons was far more profitable than producing new ones . In 1957 , MGM ordered Hanna and Barbera 's business manager to close the cartoon division and lay off everyone by a phone call . Hanna and Barbera found the no @-@ notice closing puzzling because Tom and Jerry had been so successful .
= = Television = =
During his last year at MGM , Hanna branched out into television , forming the short @-@ lived company Shield Productions with fellow animator Jay Ward , who had created the series Crusader Rabbit . Their partnership soon ended , and in 1957 Hanna reteamed with Joseph Barbera to produce cartoons for television and theatrical release . The two brought different skills to the company ; Barbera was a skilled gag writer and sketch artist , while Hanna had a gift for timing , story construction , and recruiting top artists . Major business decisions would be made together , though each year the title of president alternated between them . A coin toss determined that Hanna would have precedence in the naming of the new company , first called H @-@ B Enterprises but soon changed to Hanna – Barbera Productions . Barbera and Hanna 's MGM colleague George Sidney , the director of Anchors Aweigh , became the third partner and business manager in the company , and arranged a deal for distribution and working capital with Screen Gems , the television division of Columbia Pictures , who took part ownership of the new studio .
The first offering from the new company was The Ruff & Reddy Show , a series which detailed the friendship between a dog and cat . Despite a lukewarm response for their first theatrical venture , Loopy De Loop , Hanna – Barbera soon established themselves with two successful television series : The Huckleberry Hound Show and The Yogi Bear Show . A 1960 survey showed that half of the viewers of Huckleberry Hound were adults . This prompted the company to create a new animated series , The Flintstones . A parody of The Honeymooners , the new show followed a typical Stone Age family with home appliances , talking animals , and celebrity guests . With an audience of both children and adults , The Flintstones became the first animated prime @-@ time show to be a hit . Fred Flintstone 's signature exclamation " yabba dabba doo " soon entered everyday usage , and the show boosted the studio to the top of the TV cartoon field . The company later produced a space @-@ age version of The Flintstones , known as The Jetsons . Although both shows reappeared in the 1970s and 1980s , The Flintstones was far more popular .
By the late 1960s , Hanna – Barbera Productions was the most successful television animation studio in the business . The Hanna – Barbera studio produced over 3000 animated half @-@ hour television shows . Among the more than 100 cartoon series and specials they produced were : Atom Ant , Augie Doggie and Doggie Daddy ( an imitation of the earlier Spike and Tyke MGM cartoons ) , Jonny Quest , Josie and the Pussycats , Magilla Gorilla , Pixie and Dixie and Mr. Jinks , Quick Draw McGraw , and Top Cat . Top Cat was based on Phil Silvers 's character Sgt. Bilko , though it has been erroneously reported that Sgt. Bilko was the basis for Yogi Bear . The Hanna – Barbera studio also produced Scooby @-@ Doo ( 1969 – 1986 ) and The Smurfs ( 1981 – 1989 ) . The company also produced animated specials based on Alice in Wonderland , Jack and the Beanstalk , Cyrano de Bergerac as well as the feature @-@ length film Charlotte 's Web ( 1973 ) .
As popular as their cartoons were with 1960s audiences , they were disliked by artists . Television programs had lower budgets than theatrical animation , and this economic reality caused many animation studios to go out of business in the 1950s and 1960s , putting many people in the industry out of work . Hanna – Barbera was key in the development of limited animation , which allowed television animation to be more cost @-@ effective , but also reduced quality . Hanna and Barbera had first experimented with these techniques in the early days of Tom and Jerry . To reduce the cost of each episode , shows often focused more on character dialogue than detailed animation . The number of drawings for a seven @-@ minute cartoon decreased from 14 @,@ 000 to nearly 2 @,@ 000 , and the company implemented innovative techniques such as rapid background changes to improve viewing . Reviewers criticized the change from vivid , detailed animation to repetitive movements by two @-@ dimensional characters . Barbera once said that their choice was to adapt to the television budgets or change careers . The new style did not limit the success of their animated shows , enabling Hanna – Barbera to stay in business , providing employment to many who would otherwise have been out of work . Limited animation became the standard for television animation , and continues to be used today in television programs such as The Simpsons and South Park .
In 1966 , Hanna – Barbera Productions was sold to Taft Broadcasting ( renamed Great American Communications in 1987 ) for $ 12 million . Hanna and Barbera remained at the head of the company until 1991 . At that point , the company was sold to the Turner Broadcasting System for an estimated $ 320 million , which itself merged with Time Warner , owners of Warner Bros. , in 1996 . This began a close association with the Cartoon Network . Hanna and Barbera continued to advise their former company and periodically worked on new Hanna – Barbera shows , including The Cartoon Cartoon Show series and hit silver screen versions of The Flintstones ( 1994 ) and Scooby @-@ Doo ( 2002 ) .
= = Death = =
Hanna died of throat cancer on March 22 , 2001 , in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , California . After his death , Cartoon Network aired a 20 @-@ second segment with black dots tracing Hanna 's portrait with the words " We 'll miss you – Cartoon Network " fading in on the right @-@ hand side . This same type of tribute was done for Chuck Jones in 2002 and Hanna 's partner , Joseph Barbera in 2006 , when each of them died . However , Barbera , unlike the other two , had an audio clip of his voice playing in his Cartoon Network tribute . Hanna is buried at Ascension Cemetery in Lake Forest , California .
= = Legacy = =
Most of the cartoons Hanna and Barbera created revolved around close friendship or partnership ; this theme is evident with Tom and Jerry , Yogi Bear and Boo Boo , Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble , Ruff and Reddy , The Jetsons family and Scooby @-@ Doo and Shaggy Rogers , as well as Cartoon Network characters that Hanna @-@ Barbera created such as Johnny Bravo and Carl , Cow and Chicken and their schoolmates Flem and Earl , I.M. Weasel and I.R. Babboon , Dexter and his supercomputers , and the Powerpuff Girls . These may have been a reflection of the close business friendship and partnership that Hanna and Barbera shared for almost 60 years . Professionally , they balanced each other 's strengths and weaknesses very well , but Hanna and Barbera traveled in completely different social circles . Hanna 's personal friends primarily included other animators ; Barbera tended to socialize with Hollywood celebrities . Their division of work roles complemented each other but they rarely talked outside of work since Hanna was interested in the outdoors and Barbera liked beaches , good food and drink . Nevertheless , in their long partnership , in which they worked with over 2000 animated characters , Hanna and Barbera rarely exchanged a cross word . Barbera said : " We understood each other perfectly , and each of us had deep respect for the other 's work . "
Hanna is considered one of the all @-@ time great animators and on a par with Tex Avery . Hanna and Barbera were among the most successful animators on the cinema screen and successfully adapted to the change television brought to the industry . Leonard Maltin says the Hanna – Barbera team " [ may ] hold a record for producing consistently superior cartoons using the same characters year after year — without a break or change in routine . Their characters are not only animated superstars , but also a very beloved part of American pop culture " . They are often considered as Walt Disney 's only rivals as cartoonists .
Hanna and Barbera had a lasting impact on television animation . Cartoons they created often make greatest lists . Many of their characters have appeared in film , books , toys , and other media . During the 1960s their TV shows had a worldwide audience of over 300 million people and have since been translated into more than 20 languages . The works of Hanna and Barbera also have been recognized for their music , such as The Cat Concerto ( 1946 ) and Johann Mouse ( 1952 ) , called " masterpieces of animation " in part due to their use of classical music .
In all , the Hanna – Barbera team won seven Academy Awards and eight Emmy Awards , including the 1960 award for The Huckleberry Hound Show , which was the first Emmy awarded to an animated series . They also won these awards : Golden Globe for Television Achievement ( 1960 ) , Golden IKE Award — Pacific Pioneers in Broadcasting ( 1983 ) , Pioneer Award — Broadcast Music Incorporated ( 1987 ) , Iris Award — NATPE Men of the Year ( 1988 ) , Licensing Industry Merchandisers ' Association Award for Lifetime Achievement ( 1988 ) , Governors Award of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences ( 1988 ) , Jackie Coogan Award for Outstanding Contribution to Youth through Entertainment Youth in Film ( 1988 ) , Frederic W. Ziv Award for Outstanding Achievement in Telecommunications — Broadcasting Division College — Conservatory of Music University of Cincinnati ( 1989 ) , stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame ( 1976 ) , several Annie Awards , several environmental awards , and were recipients of numerous other accolades prior to their induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1994 . In March 2005 the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences and Warner Bros. Animation dedicated a wall sculpture at the Television Academy 's Hall of Fame Plaza in North Hollywood to Hanna and Barbera . Hanna 's archive audio of Tom Cat 's screams have been reused recently in the new 2014 Tom and Jerry Show .
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= John Adair =
John Adair ( January 9 , 1757 – May 19 , 1840 ) was an American pioneer , soldier , and politician . He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate . A native of South Carolina , Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War , during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British . Following the War , he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina 's convention to ratify the United States Constitution .
After moving to Kentucky in 1786 , Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War , including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792 . Popular for his service in two wars , he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky 's constitutional convention . Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803 . He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803 , and was a delegate to the state 's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799 . He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson , but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr . After a long legal battle , he was acquitted of any wrongdoing ; and his accuser , General James Wilkinson , was ordered to issue an apology . The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade .
Adair 's participation in the War of 1812 , and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky 's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson 's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans , restored his reputation . He returned to the State House in 1817 , and Isaac Shelby , his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor , appointed him adjutant general of the state militia . In 1820 , Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819 , and the ensuing economic recession . His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth , but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals , touching off the Old Court – New Court controversy . Following his term as governor , Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re @-@ election .
= = Early life = =
John Adair was born January 9 , 1757 , in Chester County , South Carolina , a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [ Moore ] Adair . He was educated at schools in Charlotte , North Carolina , and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . He was assigned to the regiment of his friend , Edward Lacey , under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock . During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16 , 1780 , Battle of Camden , Adair was taken as a prisoner of war . He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months @-@ long imprisonment . Although he escaped at one point , Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days . Subsequently , he was released via a prisoner exchange . In 1781 , he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia , and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs , the war 's last major battle in the Carolinas . Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war , and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county 's justice of the peace . He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution .
In 1784 , Adair married Katherine Palmer . They had twelve children , ten of them daughters . One married Thomas Bell Monroe , who later served as Adair 's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship . In 1786 , the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky , settling in Mercer County .
= = Service in the Northwest Indian War = =
Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791 , Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson . On November 6 , 1792 , a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio . When the Miami attacked , Adair ordered Lieutenant ( and later governor of Kentucky ) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank . ( Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge , but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order . ) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair 's men to escape . They retreated to their camp and made a stand , forcing the Miamis to withdraw . Six of Adair 's men were killed ; another four were missing and five were wounded . Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor , father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor .
Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill , Adair 's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel . He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott , who would eventually serve as Kentucky 's fourth governor . He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794 , forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers .
= = Early political career = =
Popular for his military service , Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792 . Upon the state 's admission to the Union , he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives , serving from 1793 to 1795 . He remained active in the Kentucky militia , and on February 25 , 1797 , he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia . He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16 , 1799 .
Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798 . When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution , Adair was chosen as a delegate . At the convention , he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials , particularly on legislators . He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803 . A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800 , he was defeated in an overwhelming 68 – 13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge , who had been the acknowledged leader of the just @-@ concluded constitutional convention . In 1802 , Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30 – 14 over Elder David Purviance , the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard . He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House . In 1802 , the legislature formed Adair County , Kentucky , naming it after the popular Speaker .
In January 1804 , Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office . Adair 's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position ; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two @-@ month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment . Later that year , he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown . Although Henry Clay supported Brown 's re @-@ election , Adair had the support of Felix Grundy . Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government , damaging his popularity . Adair won a plurality , but not a majority , of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots . Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston , a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot . Grundy 's influence in the legislature continued to grow , and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson 's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805 , the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy .
= = Charged with disloyalty = =
Former Vice @-@ President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805 , reaching Frankfort , Kentucky , on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown . During the trip , he consulted with many prominent politicians , Adair among them , about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain . Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico . Adair believed this too , having received letters from his former commander , James Wilkinson , which appeared to confirm it . In 1806 , however , Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason . Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new , independent nation in Spanish lands .
Convinced of his innocence , Henry Clay represented Burr , while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor . Harry Innes presided over the trial , which commenced November 11 . Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd , one of his key witnesses , was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court . The court next convened on December 2 , and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement , this time because Adair , another witness , was not present . Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there . On his arrival in New Orleans , he was arrested on the order of his former commander , James Wilkinson , then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory .
Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair 's absence , and , the next day , Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co @-@ conspirator . After hearing testimony , the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as " not a true bill " and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later . After his vindication by the grand jury , Adair counter @-@ sued Wilkinson in federal court . Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years , the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $ 2 @,@ 500 in damages . Adair 's acquittal and successful counter @-@ suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career . Because of his association with Burr 's scheme , he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806 . Rather than wait for his partial term to expire , he resigned on November 18 , 1806 .
= = Service in the War of 1812 = =
Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812 . After Oliver Hazard Perry 's victory in the September 10 , 1813 , Battle of Lake Erie , William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby , a popular Revolutionary War hero , to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada . Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby 's second aide , and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary . Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign , most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5 , 1813 . Shelby praised Adair 's service and in 1814 , made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general .
In late 1814 , Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico . Adair quickly raised three regiments , but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation . James Taylor , Jr . , then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia , took out a $ 6 @,@ 000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair 's men . The number of men with Adair was later disputed ; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1 @,@ 500 . Many did not have weapons , and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles . John Thomas , to whom Adair was an adjunct , fell ill just before the battle commenced , leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle .
On January 7 , 1815 , Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city 's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen . The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry . The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair 's camp on the night of January 7 . At Adair 's suggestion , his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll . From there , they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British .
Apparently unaware of Adair 's request , that evening , Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms , then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River . When they arrived in New Orleans , they were told that the city 's arms had already been shipped to Adair . The citizens collected what weapons they had — mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair — and gave them to Davis ' men . About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered , just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans . The remainder of Davis 's men returned to the main camp , still without weapons .
As the British approached on the morning of January 8 , it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll 's Tennesseans , and Adair advanced his men to support them . The main American line held and repulsed the British attack ; in total , only six Americans were killed and seven wounded . Meanwhile , Davis ' Kentuckians on the west bank had , upon their arrival in Morgan 's camp , been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force . Outnumbered , poorly armed , and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support , they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat . Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians , Morgan 's militiamen abandoned their breastworks ; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot . The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured , but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory .
= = Controversy with Andrew Jackson = =
Jackson 's official report blamed the Kentuckians ' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses , and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair 's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory . Davis ' men insisted the report was based on Jackson 's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry , which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding . The court 's report found that " [ t ] he retreat of the Kentucky militia , which , considering their position , the deficiency of their arms , and other causes , may be excusable , " and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was " exceptional " , noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only 200 yards ( 180 m ) while Davis 's 170 Kentuckians , poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch , were expected to defend a line over 300 yards ( 270 m ) long . On February 10 , 1816 , the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson .
Jackson approved the court 's findings , but they were not the full refutation of Jackson 's report that many Kentuckians — including Adair — had wanted . In a letter that was quickly made public , Adair — formerly one of Jackson 's close friends — insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report , but Jackson refused . This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm , secretary to John Thomas , forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from " the general " that had been annexed to the official report . " The remarks " stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis 's men " had been misrepresented " and that their retreat had been " not only excusable , but absolutely justifiable . " The remarks , popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair 's letter , were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky . The " general " referenced was in fact General John Thomas ; Jackson had never seen them . Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks , but it was never printed .
Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper 's criticism of Kentucky militiamen . He wrote to the Kentucky Reporter at that time , denouncing the remarks as a forgery . The Reporter investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas 's remarks had been attributed to Jackson . They did not reprint Jackson 's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged — a charge which was now found to be false — was too inflammatory . The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson , they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject . In Jackson 's April 1817 response , he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks , and reasserted that they had been forged , possibly by Adair himself . Adair believed Jackson 's references to the remarks as a " forged dish , dressed in the true Spanish style " was a thinly veiled reference to Adair 's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy . As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians , Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle . This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis 's men and refute Jackson 's charges of conspiracy . In his May 1817 response , he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson 's allegations as unimportant and untrue . He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy , and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence . Responding to Jackson 's allusion to Spain , Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr .
Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair 's alleged misdeeds , Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible . His response , delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee , was printed September 3 , 1817 , and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance , to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans . Further , he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair 's command . Either Adair had given a foolish order , or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed . He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter . Adair 's October 29 , 1817 , response was delayed , he said , because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came . In it , he quoted from a letter to Jackson 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp — cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence — showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas 's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them . He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command , which he had consistently reported as being near 1 @,@ 000 , and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now . Finally , he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson 's orders , but he rode Jackson 's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction . Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel , but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch ; no written evidence of the event exists . Tensions between the two eventually eased , and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel 's death in 1828 . Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824 , 1828 , and 1832 . Jackson 's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
Adair 's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation . He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817 , when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives . He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term , and , although he was not elected , he drew support from members of both parties , largely because of his correspondence with Jackson .
In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 — the first major financial crisis in United States history — the primary political issue of the day was debt relief . The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817 , and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky 's large debtor class hard . Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state 's debtors , particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington . The Second Party System had not yet developed , but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue . The first — primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis — was dubbed the Relief Party ( or " faction " ) and favored more legislation favorable to debtors . Opposed to them was the Anti @-@ Relief Party ; it was composed primarily of the state 's aristocracy , many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government . They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression .
Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction , and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson . In the 1820 gubernatorial election , he was elected as Kentucky 's chief executive over three fellow Democratic @-@ Republicans . Adair garnered 20 @,@ 493 votes ; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19 @,@ 497 , fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12 @,@ 419 , and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9 @,@ 567 votes . Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly .
= = = Debt relief = = =
Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair 's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820 . The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money . Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par , creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin . To inspire confidence in the devalued notes , Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth .
The state 's other bank , the Bank of Kentucky , adhered to more conservative banking practices . While this held the value of its notes closer to par , it also rendered loans less available , which angered relief @-@ minded legislators ; consequently , they revoked the bank 's charter in December 1822 . Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt , and sanctioned rigorous anti @-@ gambling legislation . Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living — a horse , a plow , a hoe , and an ax .
The Kentucky Court of Appeals , then the state 's court of last resort , struck down the law ordering a two @-@ year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts . At about the same time , the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of Green v. Biddle , holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict . Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature , warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people , expressed through the legislature . Emboldened by Adair 's message , Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals , as well as James Clark , a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling , from the bench . The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two @-@ thirds majority required for removal .
= = = Other matters of Adair 's term = = =
Adair urged legislators to create a public school system . In response , the General Assembly passed an act creating a state " Literary Fund " which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth . The fund was to be available , proportionally , to each of the state 's counties for the establishment of " a system of general education " . In the tumultuous economic environment , however , legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities , chiefly the construction of internal improvements .
Adair 's lieutenant governor , William T. Barry , and John Pope , Secretary of State under Adair 's predecessor , headed a six @-@ man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools . The " Barry Report , " delivered to the legislature in December 1822 , was lauded by such luminaries as John Adams , Thomas Jefferson , and James Madison . Authored by committee member Amos Kendall , it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns . It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools . The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system . Legislators largely ignored the report , a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called " one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history " .
Adair 's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators . He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane . He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements , including improved navigation on the Ohio River .
= = Later life = =
Barred from seeking immediate re @-@ election by the state constitution , Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor . Shortly after returning to private life , he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes — then worth about half par — and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation . The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro @-@ relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti @-@ Relief faction .
Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831 . During the 22nd Congress , he served on the Committee on Military Affairs . During his term , he made only one speech , and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating . The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback . He did not run for re @-@ election in 1833 , and left public life for good .
= = Death and legacy = =
He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19 , 1840 , and was buried on the grounds of his estate , White Hall . In 1872 , his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery , by the state capitol , and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there .
In addition to Adair County in Kentucky , Adair County , Missouri , Adair County , Iowa , and the towns of Adairville , Kentucky , and Adair , Iowa , were named in his honor .
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= Palazzo Pitti =
The Palazzo Pitti ( Italian pronunciation : [ paˈlattso ˈpitti ] ) , in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace , is a vast , mainly Renaissance , palace in Florence , Italy . It is situated on the south side of the River Arno , a short distance from the Ponte Vecchio . The core of the present palazzo dates from 1458 and was originally the town residence of Luca Pitti , an ambitious Florentine banker .
The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549 and became the chief residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany . It grew as a great treasure house as later generations amassed paintings , plates , jewelry and luxurious possessions .
In the late 18th century , the palazzo was used as a power base by Napoleon , and later served for a brief period as the principal royal palace of the newly united Italy . The palace and its contents were donated to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919 .
The palazzo is now the largest museum complex in Florence . The principal palazzo block , often in a building of this design known as the corps de logis , is 32 @,@ 000 square metres . It is divided into several principal galleries or museums detailed below .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The construction of this severe and forbidding building was commissioned in 1458 by the Florentine banker Luca Pitti , a principal supporter and friend of Cosimo de ' Medici . The early history of the Palazzo Pitti is a mixture of fact and myth . Pitti is alleged to have instructed that the windows be larger than the entrance of the Palazzo Medici . The 16th @-@ century art historian Giorgio Vasari proposed that Brunelleschi was the palazzo 's architect , and that his pupil Luca Fancelli was merely his assistant in the task but today it is Fancelli that is generally credited . Besides obvious differences from the elder architect 's style , Brunelleschi died 12 years before construction of the palazzo began . The design and fenestration suggest that the unknown architect was more experienced in utilitarian domestic architecture than in the humanist rules defined by Alberti in his book De Re Aedificatoria .
Though impressive , the original palazzo would have been no rival to the Florentine Medici residences in terms of either size or content . Whoever the architect of the Palazzo Pitti was , he was moving against the contemporary flow of fashion . The rusticated stonework gives the palazzo a severe and powerful atmosphere , reinforced by the three @-@ times @-@ repeated series of seven arch @-@ headed apertures , reminiscent of a Roman aqueduct . The Roman @-@ style architecture appealed to the Florentine love of the new style all 'antica . This original design has withstood the test of time : the repetitive formula of the façade was continued during the subsequent additions to the palazzo , and its influence can be seen in numerous 16th @-@ century imitations and 19th @-@ century revivals . Work stopped after Pitti suffered financial losses following the death of Cosimo de ' Medici in 1464 . Luca Pitti died in 1472 with the building unfinished .
= = = The Medici = = =
The building was sold in 1549 by Buonaccorso Pitti , a descendant of Luca Pitti , to Eleonora di Toledo . Raised at the luxurious court of Naples , Eleonora was the wife of Cosimo I de ' Medici of Tuscany , later the Grand Duke . On moving into the palace , Cosimo had Vasari enlarge the structure to fit his tastes ; the palace was more than doubled by the addition of a new block along the rear . Vasari also built the Vasari Corridor , an above @-@ ground walkway from Cosimo 's old palace and the seat of government , the Palazzo Vecchio , through the Uffizi , above the Ponte Vecchio to the Palazzo Pitti . This enabled the Grand Duke and his family to move easily and safely from their official residence to the Palazzo Pitti . Initially the Palazzo Pitti was used mostly for lodging official guests and for occasional functions of the court , while the Medicis ' principal residence remained the Palazzo Vecchio . It was not until the reign of Eleonora 's son Ferdinando I and his wife Johanna of Austria that the palazzo was occupied on a permanent basis and became home to the Medicis ' art collection .
Land on the Boboli hill at the rear of the palazzo was acquired in order to create a large formal park and gardens , today known as the Boboli Gardens . The landscape architect employed for this was the Medici court artist Niccolò Tribolo , who died the following year ; he was quickly succeeded by Bartolommeo Ammanati . The original design of the gardens centred on an amphitheatre , behind the corps de logis of the palazzo . The first play recorded as performed there was Andria by Terence in 1476 . It was followed by many classically inspired plays of Florentine playwrights such as Giovan Battista Cini . Performed for the amusement of the cultivated Medici court , they featured elaborate sets designed by the court architect Baldassarre Lanci .
= = The cortile and extensions = =
With the garden project well in hand , Ammanati turned his attentions to creating a large courtyard immediately behind the principal façade , to link the palazzo to its new garden . This courtyard has heavy @-@ banded channelled rustication that has been widely copied , notably for the Parisian palais of Maria de ' Medici , the Luxembourg . In the principal façade Ammanati also created the finestre inginocchiate ( " kneeling " windows , in reference to their imagined resemblance to a prie @-@ dieu , a device of Michelangelo 's ) , replacing the entrance bays at each end . During the years 1558 – 70 , Ammanati created a monumental staircase to lead with more pomp to the piano nobile , and he extended the wings on the garden front that embraced a courtyard excavated into the steeply sloping hillside at the same level as the piazza in front , from which it was visible through the central arch of the basement . On the garden side of the courtyard Amannati constructed a grotto , called the " grotto of Moses " on account of the porphyry statue that inhabits it . On the terrace above it , level with the piano nobile windows , Ammanati constructed a fountain centered on the axis ; it was later replaced by the Fontana del Carciofo ( " Fountain of the Artichoke " ) , designed by Giambologna 's former assistant , Francesco Susini , and completed in 1641 .
In 1616 , a competition was held to design extensions to the principal urban façade by three bays at either end . Giulio Parigi won the commission ; work on the north side began in 1618 , and on the south side in 1631 by Alfonso Parigi . During the 18th century , two perpendicular wings were constructed by the architect Giuseppe Ruggeri to enhance and stress the widening of via Romana , which creates a piazza centered on the façade , the prototype of the cour d 'honneur that was copied in France . Sporadic lesser additions and alterations were made for many years thereafter under other rulers and architects .
To one side of the Gardens is the bizarre grotto designed by Bernardo Buontalenti . The lower façade was begun by Vasari but the architecture of the upper storey is subverted by " dripping " pumice stalactites with the Medici coat of arms at the centre . The interior is similarly poised between architecture and nature ; the first chamber has copies of Michelangelo 's four unfinished slaves emerging from the corners which seem to carry the vault with an open oculus at its centre and painted as a rustic bower with animals , figures and vegetation . Figures , animals and trees made of stucco and rough pumice adorn the lower walls . A short passage leads to a small second chamber and to a third which has a central fountain with Giambologna 's Venus in the centre of the basin , peering fearfully over her shoulder at the four satyrs spitting jets of water at her from the edge .
= = = Houses of Lorraine and Savoy = = =
The palazzo remained the principal Medici residence until the last male Medici heir died in 1737 . It was then occupied briefly by his sister , the elderly Electress Palatine ; on her death , the Medici dynasty became extinct and the palazzo passed to the new Grand Dukes of Tuscany , the Austrian House of Lorraine , in the person of Francis I , Holy Roman Emperor . The Austrian tenancy was briefly interrupted by Napoleon , who used the palazzo during his period of control over Italy .
When Tuscany passed from the House of Lorraine to the House of Savoy in 1860 , the Palazzo Pitti was included . After the Risorgimento , when Florence was briefly the capital of the Kingdom of Italy , Victor Emmanuel II resided in the palazzo until 1871 . His grandson , Victor Emmanuel III , presented the palazzo to the nation in 1919 . The palazzo and other buildings in the Boboli Gardens were then divided into five separate art galleries and a museum , housing not only many of its original contents , but priceless artefacts from many other collections acquired by the state . The 140 rooms open to the public are part of an interior , which is in large part a later product than the original portion of the structure , mostly created in two phases , one in the 17th century and the other in the early 18th century . Some earlier interiors remain , and there are still later additions such as the Throne Room . In 2005 the surprise discovery of forgotten 18th @-@ century bathrooms in the palazzo revealed remarkable examples of contemporary plumbing very similar in style to the bathrooms of the 21st century .
= = Palatine Gallery = =
See a partial list of work at Collections of Palazzo Pitti
The Palatine Gallery , the main gallery of Palazzo Pitti , contains a large ensemble of over 500 principally Renaissance paintings , which were once part of the Medicis ' and their successors ' private art collection . The gallery , which overflows into the royal apartments , contains works by Raphael , Titian , Perugino ( Lamentation over the Dead Christ ) , Correggio , Peter Paul Rubens , and Pietro da Cortona . The character of the gallery is still that of a private collection , and the works of art are displayed and hung much as they would have been in the grand rooms for which they were intended rather than following a chronological sequence , or arranged according to school of art .
The finest rooms were decorated by Pietro da Cortona in the high baroque style . Initially Cortona frescoed a small room on the piano nobile called the Sala della Stufa with a series depicting the Four Ages of Man which were very well received ; the Age of Gold and Age of Silver were painted in 1637 , followed in 1641 by the Age of Bronze and Age of Iron . They are regarded among his masterpieces . The artist was subsequently asked to fresco the grand ducal reception rooms ; a suite of five rooms at the front of the palazzo . In these five Planetary Rooms , the hierarchical sequence of the deities is based on Ptolomeic cosmology ; Venus , Apollo , Mars , Jupiter ( the Medici Throne room ) and Saturn , but minus Mercury and the Moon which should have come before Venus . These highly ornate ceilings with frescoes and elaborate stucco work essentially celebrate the Medici lineage and the bestowal of virtuous leadership . Cortona left Florence in 1647 , and his pupil and collaborator , Ciro Ferri , completed the cycle by the 1660s . They were to inspire the later Planet Rooms at Louis XIV 's Versailles , designed by Le Brun .
The collection was first opened to the public in the late 18th century , albeit rather reluctantly , by Grand Duke Leopold , Tuscany 's first enlightened ruler , keen to obtain popularity after the demise of the Medici .
= = = Rooms of Palatine Gallery = = =
The Palatine Gallery has 28 rooms , among them :
Room of Castagnoli : named after the painter of the ceiling frescoes . In this room are exposed Portraits of the Medici and Lorraine ruling families , and the Table of the Muses , a masterwork of stone @-@ inlaid table realized by the Opificio delle Pietre Dure between 1837 and 1851 .
Room of the Ark : contains a painting by Giovan Battista Caracciolo ( 17th century ) . In 1816 , the ceiling was frescoed by Luigi Ademollo with Noah entering Jerusalem with the Ark .
Room of Psyche : was named after ceiling frescoes by Giuseppe Collignon ; it contains paintings by Salvator Rosa from 1640 – 1650 .
Hall of Poccetti : The frescoes on the vault were once ascribed to Bernardino Poccetti , but now attributed to Matteo Rosselli . In the center of the hall is a table ( 1716 ) commissioned by Cosimo III . In the hall are also some works by Rubens and Pontormo .
Room of Prometheus : was named after the subject of the frescoes by Giuseppe Collignon ( 19th century ) and contains a large collection of round @-@ shaped paintings : among them is the Madonna with the Child by Filippino Lippi ( 15th century ) , two portraits by Botticelli and paintings by Pontormo and Domenico Beccafumi .
Room of Justice : has a ceiling frescoed by Antonio Fedi ( 1771 – 1843 ) , and displays portraits ( 16th century ) by Titian , Tintoretto and Paolo Veronese .
Room of Ulysses : was frescoed in 1815 by Gaspare Martellini , it contains early works by Filippino Lippi and Raphael .
Room of Iliad : contains the Madonna of the Family Panciatichi and the Madonna Passerini ( c- 1522 @-@ 1523 and 1526 respectively ) by Andrea del Sarto , and paintings by Artemisia Gentileschi ( 17th century ) .
Room of Saturn : contains a Portrait of Agnolo Doni ( 1506 ) , the Madonna of the chair ( 1516 ) , and Portrait of Cardinal Inghirami ( 1516 ) by Raphael ; it also contains an Annunciation ( 1528 ) by Andrea del Sarto , and Jesus and the Evangelists ( 1516 ) by Fra Bartolomeo .
Room of Jupiter : contains the Veiled Lady , the famous portrait by Raphael ( 1516 ) that , according to Vasari , represents the woman loved by the artist . Among the other works in the room , Paintings by Rubens , Andrea del Sarto and Perugin
Room of Mars : is characterized by works by Rubens : the allegories representing the Consequences of War ( hence the name of the room ) and the Four Philosophers ( among them Rubens portrayed himself , on the left ) . On the vault is a fresco by Pietro da Cortona , Triumph of the Medici .
Room of Apollo : contains a Madonna with Saints ( 1522 ) by Il Rosso , originally from the Church of Santo Spirito , and two paintings by Titian : a Magdalen and Portrait of an English Nobleman ( between 1530 and 1540 ) .
Room of Venus : contains the Venere Italica ( 1810 ) by Canova commissioned by Napoleon . On the walls are landscapes ( 1640 – 50 ) by Salvator Rosa and four paintings by Titian , 1510 – 1545 . Among the Titian paintings is a Portrait of Pope Julius II ( 1545 ) and La Bella ( 1535 ) .
White Hall : once the ball room of the palace , is characterized by the white decorations and is often used for temporary exhibitions .
The Royal Apartments include 14 rooms . Their decoration has been changed to Empire style by the Savoy , but there are still some rooms maintaining decorations and furniture from the age of the Medici .
The Green Room , was frescoed by Giuseppe Castagnoli in early 19th Century . It exhibits an Intarsia Cabinet from the 17th century and a Collection of Gilded Bronzes ; the Throne Room was decorated for King Vittorio Emanuele II of Savoy and is characterized by the red brocate on the walls and by the Japanese and Chinese Vases ( 17th @-@ 18th century ) .
The Blue Room contains collected Furniture ( 17th @-@ 18th century ) and the Portraits of members of the Medici Family painted by Justus Sustermans ( 1597 – 1681 ) .
= = = Principal works of art = = =
= = Other Galleries = =
= = = Royal Apartments = = =
This is a suite of 14 rooms , formerly used by the Medici family , and lived in by their successors . These rooms have been largely altered since the era of the Medici , most recently in the 19th century . They contain a collection of Medici portraits , many of them by the artist Giusto Sustermans . In contrast to the great salons containing the Palatine collection , some of these rooms are much smaller and more intimate , and , while still grand and gilded , are more suited to day @-@ to @-@ day living requirements . Period furnishings include four @-@ poster beds and other necessary furnishings not found elsewhere in the palazzo . The Kings of Italy last used the Palazzo Pitti in the 1920s . By that time it had already been converted to a museum , but a suite of rooms ( now the Gallery of Modern Art ) was reserved for them when visiting Florence officially .
= = = Gallery of Modern Art = = =
This gallery originates from the remodeling of the Florentine academy in 1748 , when a gallery of Modern Art was established . The gallery was intended to hold those art works which were prize @-@ winners in the academy 's competitions . The Palazzo Pitti was being redecorated on a grand scale at this time and the new works of art were being collected to adorn the newly decorated salons . By the mid @-@ 19th century so numerous were the Grand Ducal paintings of modern art that many were transferred to the Palazzo della Crocetta , which became the first home of the newly formed " Modern Art Museum " .
Following the Risorgimento and the expulsion of the Grand Ducal family from the palazzo , all the Grand Ducal modern art works were brought together under one roof in the newly titled " Modern gallery of the Academy " . The collection continued to expand , particularly so under the patronage of Vittorio Emanuele II . However it was not until 1922 that this gallery was moved to the Palazzo Pitti where it was complemented by further modern works of art in the ownership of both the state and the municipality of Florence . The collection was housed in apartments recently vacated by members of the Italian Royal family . The gallery was first opened to public viewing in 1928 .
Today , further enlarged and spread over 30 rooms , this large collection includes works by artists of the Macchiaioli movement and other modern Italian schools of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The pictures by the Macchiaioli artists are of particular note , as this school of 19th @-@ century Tuscan painters led by Giovanni Fattori were early pioneers and the founders of the impressionist movement . The title " gallery of modern art " to some may sound incorrect , as the art in the gallery covers the period from the 18th to the early 20th century . No examples of later art are included in the collection since In Italy , " modern art " refers to the period before World War II ; what has followed is generally known as " contemporary art " ( arte contemporanea ) . In Tuscany this art can be found at the Centro per l 'arte contemporanea Luigi Pecci at Prato , a city about 15 km ( 9 mi ) from Florence .
= = = Silver Museum = = =
The Silver Museum , sometimes called " The Medici Treasury " , contains a collection of priceless silver , cameos , and works in semi @-@ precious gemstones , many of the latter from the collection of Lorenzo de ' Medici , including his collection of ancient vases , many with delicate silver gilt mounts added for display purposes in the 15th century . These rooms , formerly part of the private royal apartments , are decorated with 17th @-@ century frescoes , the most splendid being by Giovanni da San Giovanni , from 1635 to 1636 . The Silver Museum also contains a fine collection of German gold and silver artefacts purchased by Grand Duke Ferdinand after his return from exile in 1815 , following the French occupation .
= = = Porcelain Museum = = =
First opened in 1973 , this museum is housed in the Casino del Cavaliere in the Boboli Gardens . The porcelain is from many of the most notable European porcelain factories , with Sèvres and Meissen near Dresden being well represented . Many items in the collection were gifts to the Florentine rulers from other European sovereigns , while other works were specially commissioned by the Grand Ducal court . Of particular note are several large dinner services by the Vincennes factory , later renamed Sèvres , and a collection of small biscuit figurines .
= = = Costume Gallery = = =
Situated in a wing known as the " Palazzina della Meridiana " , this gallery contains a collection of theatrical costumes dating from the 16th century until the present . It is also the only museum in Italy detailing the history of Italian fashions . One of the newer collections to the palazzo , it was founded in 1983 by Kirsten Aschengreen Piacenti ; a suite of fourteen rooms , the Meridiana apartments , were completed in 1858 .
In addition to theatrical costumes , the gallery displays garments worn between the 18th century and the present day . Some of the exhibits are unique to the Palazzo Pitti ; these include the 16th @-@ century funeral clothes of Grand Duke Cosimo I de ' Medici , and Eleonora of Toledo and her son Garzia , both of whom died of malaria . Their bodies would have been displayed in state wearing their finest clothes , before being reclad in plainer attire before interment . The gallery also exhibits a collection of mid @-@ 20th century costume jewellery . The Sala Meridiana originally sponsored a functional solar meridian instrument , built into the fresco decoration by Anton Domenico Gabbiani .
= = = Carriages Museum = = =
This ground floor museum exhibits carriages and other conveyances used by the Grand Ducal court mainly in the late 18th and 19th century . The extent of the exhibition prompted one visitor in the 19th century to wonder , " In the name of all that is extraordinary , how can they find room for all these carriages and horses " . Some of the carriages are highly decorative , being adorned not only by gilt but by painted landscapes on their panels . Those used on the grandest occasions , such as the " Carrozza d 'Oro " ( golden carriage ) , are surmounted by gilt crowns which would have indicated the rank and station of the carriage 's occupants . Other carriages on view are those used by the King of the Two Sicilies , and Archbishops and other Florentine dignitaries .
= = The Palazzo today = =
Today , transformed from royal palace to museum , the Palazzo is in the hands of the Italian state through the " Polo Museale Fiorentino " , an institution which administers twenty museums , including the Uffizi Gallery , and has ultimate responsibility for 250 @,@ 000 catalogued works of art . In spite of its metamorphosis from royal residence to a state @-@ owned public building , the palazzo , sitting on its elevated site overlooking Florence , still retains the air and atmosphere of a private collection in a grand house . This is to a great extent due to the " Amici di Palazzo Pitti " ( Friends of the Palazzo Pitti ) , an organisation of volunteers and patrons founded in 1996 , which raises funds and makes suggestions for the ongoing maintenance of the palazzo and the collections , and for the continuing improvement of their visual display .
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= Æthelhere of East Anglia =
Æthelhere ( died 15 November 655 ) was King of East Anglia from 653 or 654 until his death . He was a member of the ruling Wuffingas dynasty and one of three sons of Eni to rule East Anglia as Christian kings . He was a nephew of Rædwald , who was the first of the Wuffingas of which more than a name is known .
Rædwald and his son Eorpwald both ruled as pagans before being converted to Christianity . After Eorpwald 's murder in around 627 , the East Angles briefly reverted to heathenism , before Christianity was re @-@ established by Sigeberht . Sigeberht eventually abdicated in favour of his co @-@ ruler Ecgric , after which the East Angles were defeated in battle by the Mercians , led by their king Penda , during which both Ecgric and Sigeberht were slain . The monks at Cnobheresburg were driven out by Penda in 651 and Ecgric 's successor Anna was forced into temporarily exile . In 653 Penda once again attacked East Anglia and at the Battle of Bulcamp , Anna and his son were slain and the East Anglian army was defeated . Æthelhere then became king of the East Angles , possibly ruling jointly with his surviving brother , Æthelwold . During Æthelhere 's brief reign , it is known that Botolph 's monastery at Iken was built .
In 655 , Æthelhere was one of thirty noble warlords who joined with Penda in an invasion of Northumbria , laying siege to Oswiu and the much smaller Northumbrian army . The battle was fought on 15 November 655 , near the Winwæd , an unidentified river . The Northumbrians were victorious and many of the Mercians and their allies were killed or drowned . In the battle , Penda and nearly all his warlords , including Æthelhere , were killed .
= = Background = =
After the end of Roman rule in Britain , the region now known as East Anglia was settled by a North Germanic group known as the Angles , although there is evidence of early settlement of the region by a minority of other peoples , for instance the Swabians , who settled in the area around the modern town of Swaffham . By 600 , a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the territories of southern Britain conquered by the Angles , Saxons , Jutes and Frisians . The ruling dynasty of East Anglia was the Wuffingas , named from Wuffa , an early king . The first king known to have ruled is Rædwald , whose reign spanned a quarter of a century from about 599 .
Æthelhere was probably the second of the sons of Eni , the brother of Rædwald . Four sons are certainly known : Æthilric , the father of Ealdwulf , Anna , Æthelhere and Æthelwold , his successor . The brothers all appear to have been firmly committed to Christian rule : Æthilric married the Christian Hereswith , the great @-@ niece of Edwin of Northumbria . Anna is described by Bede as almost a saintly figure and the father of a most religious family , who brought about the conversion of Cenwalh of Wessex , and Æthelwold was the sponsor of Swithelm of Essex during his baptism .
Æthelhere witnessed the fortunes of his dynasty during the years of Rædwald 's rule and afterwards . The East Angles under Rædwald had been converted to Christianity , but in around 627 , during the reign of his son Eorpwald , they reverted to heathenism . This occurred after Eorpwald was killed by a pagan soon after his succession and baptism . The assassin , Ricberht , may then have ruled the kingdom for a few years , to be succeeded by Sigeberht , who re @-@ established Christianity in the kingdom and became the first East Anglian king to act as a patron of the Church .
= = Mercian destabilisation of the East Angles = =
Sigeberht abdicated in favour of his co @-@ ruler Ecgric and retired to lead a monastic life , but soon afterwards the East Angles were attacked by Mercian forces , led by their king , Penda . Ecgric and his army appealed to Sigeberht to lead them into battle against the Mercians , but he refused to participate . He was dragged from his monastery to the battlefield , where , still refusing to bear arms or fight , he and Ecgric were slain and the defeated East Anglian army was destroyed .
Ecgric 's successor , Anna , acted as a challenge to the increasing power of Penda throughout his reign . In 645 , after Cenwalh of Wessex had renounced his wife , who was Penda 's sister , Penda drove him from his kingdom and into exile . Anna was strong enough to offer protection to Cenwalh when he sought refuge at the East Anglian court : whilst there he was converted to Christianity , returning in 648 to rule Wessex as a Christian king . Anna probably provided military support for Cenwalh 's return to his throne .
During the late 640s , the Irish monk Fursey , having spent a year as a hermit , left East Anglia for Gaul . His monastery at Cnobheresburg ( identified by some with Burgh Castle ) was left in the hands of his half @-@ brother , Foillan . In 651 , shortly after his departure , the heathen threat he had foreseen became a reality , when Foillan and his community were driven out by Penda 's forces and Anna , who encountered Penda at Cnobheresburg , was exiled .
= = Reign = =
In 653 or early 654 , after Anna had returned from exile , Penda was able to direct a military assault upon the East Angles . The Mercian and East Anglian armies fought at Bulcamp ( near Blythburgh in Suffolk ) , where Anna and his son were slain and the East Anglian army was slaughtered in large numbers . Æthelhere then succeeded his brother as Penda 's client @-@ king , although Barbara Yorke has suggested that Æthelhere and his surviving brother Æthelwold may have reigned jointly , as Bede separately refers to both men as Anna 's successor .
Æthelhere 's short reign , during which Brigilsus remained bishop of the see of Dommoc , witnessed the construction of Botolph 's monastery at Iken . The site lay within the sphere of Rendlesham and Sutton Hoo . Æthelhere would have arranged his brother 's funeral , whose reputed burial @-@ site was at Blythburgh .
= = Battle of the Winwæd = =
During 655 , Æthelhere joined with Penda in an assault on Northumbria . Steven Plunkett asserts that Æthelhere 's motive for changing sides was to deflect Penda 's attention from East Anglia and the destruction of his kingdom that would have ensued . Penda invaded Northumbria with a force of thirty duces regii ( or royal commanders ) under his command that included a large contingent of Britons . He laid siege to Oswiu at Maes Gai , in the district of Loidis , which was probably at that time within the sphere of influence of the British kingdom of Rheged . Oswiu offered him a great ransom of treasure which , according to Bede , was refused ( or according to the Historia Brittonum , was accepted and distributed ) — in either case Penda resolved on battle and the destruction of the Northumbrians . Oswiu had a much smaller force , but in the event the Welsh armies of King Cadfæl of Gwynedd decamped on the eve of battle and Penda 's ally Œthelwald of Deira stood aside to await the outcome .
The " major setpiece battle " , according to Barbara Yorke , was fought on 15 November 655 , on the banks of the River Winwæd , the location of which has not been identified . The waters of the Winwæd were in spate owing to heavy rains and had flooded the land . The Northumbrians were victorious , the Mercian forces were slaughtered and many of them drowned in flight . Penda himself was killed , together with nearly all his allies , including Æthelhere of East Anglia , who was leading the East Anglian part of the forces ranged against Oswiu :
Among whom was Ethelhere , brother and successor to Anna , king of the East Angles . He had been the occasion of the war , and was now killed , having lost his army and auxiliaries .
Although the passage from Bede suggests that Æthelhere was the cause of the war — auctor ipse belli — it has been argued that an issue of punctuation in later manuscripts confused Bede 's meaning on this point , and that he in fact meant to refer to Penda as being responsible for the war . According to the 12th century Historia Anglorum , the deaths of five Anglo @-@ Saxon kings were avenged :
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= 1994 European Super Cup =
The 1994 European Super Cup was a football match played over two legs between Arsenal of England and Milan of Italy . It was the 20th staging of the European Super Cup , a fixture between the winners of the UEFA Champions League and European Cup Winners ' Cup . The first leg was played at Highbury , London on 1 February 1995 and at the San Siro , Milan a week later for the second leg . Milan won the Super Cup 2 – 0 on aggregate .
The teams qualified for the competition by separately winning the 1993 – 94 UEFA Champions League and 1993 – 94 European Cup Winners ' Cup . Milan won the former , beating Barcelona 4 – 0 in the final . Arsenal qualified as winners of the Cup Winners ' Cup ; in the final of the competition they defeated Parma by a single goal . This was the first official meeting between both clubs in European football .
Milan 's preparations for the Super Cup were blighted by the death of Vincenzo Spagnolo , a Genoa supporter who was stabbed on his way to watch the two teams play . Once news of his death had arrived , the match was abandoned and the Italian football calendar was suspended for a week . Milan and Arsenal paid respect to Spagnolo by observing a minute 's silence before the first leg . A crowd of 38 @,@ 044 witnessed both clubs play out a goalless draw at Highbury ; the first leg marked the return of Paul Merson , who spent time away from football in order to seek treatment for various addictions . A significantly lower crowd at the San Siro saw Milan dominate in large periods and win courtesy of goals from Zvonomir Boban and Daniele Massaro .
= = Background = =
The European Super Cup was founded in the early 1970s , as a means to determine the best team in Europe and serve as a challenge to Ajax , the strongest club side of its day . The proposal by Dutch journalist Anton Witkamp , a football match between the holders of the European Cup and Cup Winners ' Cup , failed to receive UEFA 's backing , given the recent Cup Winners ' Cup winners Rangers had been banned from European competition . Witkamp nonetheless proceeded with his vision , a two @-@ legged match played between Ajax and Rangers in January 1973 . The competition was endorsed and recognised by UEFA a year later .
Arsenal qualified for the Super Cup as the reigning European Cup Winners ' Cup winners . It marked their debut in the event . Arsenal had conceded only three goals throughout the 1993 – 94 staging of the Cup Winners ' Cup , and beat Italian side Parma by a single goal to win the final . The other Super Cup place went to Milan , winners of the 1993 – 94 UEFA Champions League . Milan defeated pre @-@ match favourites Barcelona 4 – 0 in the final , a result which earnt the club their third top European honour in six years . Milan were appearing in the event for the fifth time ; prior to the game against Arsenal , they had won the Super Cup in consecutive years ( in 1989 and 1990 ) , and were on the losing side twice ( in 1973 and 1993 ) . This was first meeting between the two sides in competitive European football .
Neither match was televised live in the United Kingdom , though highlights were shown on Carlton ( the London @-@ based ITV company ) , Channel 4 's Football Italia and Sky Sports . Live radio commentary of the second leg was broadcast during Trevor Brooking 's Football Night on BBC Radio 5 Live .
= = First leg = =
The first leg was held at Highbury on 1 February 1995 . Milan 's preparations were overshadowed by the violence that occurred in their last domestic fixture , against Genoa three days ago . Clashes between both sets of supporters resulted in police intervention and the use of tear gas . Vincenzo Spagnolo , a Genoa supporter , was stabbed prior to kick @-@ off and subsequently died while receiving treatment . The match was later abandoned once word was sent to the players and staff during half @-@ time . Milan manager Fabio Capello admitted his players were deeply affected by the incident and struggled to focus on the Super Cup match . He told reporters : " I believe that the psychological balance of each player has been damaged by Sunday 's tragedy . Our team was in great condition until Sunday . But in the past few days I have had to wake up the players . So I 'm not able to anticipate which kind of Milan you will see . " 800 Milan supporters travelled to London , and Capello denied reports a section of them intended to cause trouble .
Paul Merson returned to the Arsenal squad , after his much @-@ publicised cocaine , alcohol and drug addiction . The England international , who was admitted to a rehabilitation clinic for treatment during his absence , started on the substitutes ' bench . Arsenal lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation , with Ian Wright paired alongside John Hartson upfront and Kevin Campbell shifted on the right of midfield . Milan lined up in a similar formation , with Marcel Desailly and Demetrio Albertini anchoring the midfield .
A minute 's silence was observed before kick @-@ off in memory of Spagnolo ; as is tradition in Italian football , the Milanese supporters clapped throughout to pay their respect . The game itself was lacklustre and was described as a " training match , " lacking in " fervour and commitment " by The Times football correspondent Rob Hughes . There were few clear @-@ cut chances created by both teams , and neither managed to score over the 90 minutes . Both however looked assured defending ; Milan triggered the offside trap on several occasions , while Arsenal were boosted by club captain Tony Adams playing his first full match in two months . Manager George Graham assessed afterwards : " It was back to the Arsenal of old . We were very solid . " Glenn Moore , of The Independent felt Milan would have won had they finished better , noting Dejan Savićević 's tame volley in the 75th minute . Marco Simone twice hit the ball wide , while a free @-@ kick from Albertini forced Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman to action . The home side 's best chance came from Wright in the 36th minute . He picked up the ball from Arsenal 's half and proceeded to run , evading the challenges of several Milan players . His shot at goal was smartly saved by Sebastiano Rossi . Further chances went to Hartson , who headed from a Stefan Schwarz 's corner , and Steve Bould , before Campbell broke forward and had his effort blocked by the Milan goalkeeper .
Merson 's introduction in the 74th minute was cheered by the Arsenal supporters , as was his every touch of the ball . He admitted he was overwhelmed by the occasion , adding post @-@ match : " It was a great feeling to be in action again and I thank all those who 've made it easier for me . This is the first step back . "
= = = Details = = =
= = Second leg = =
The second leg was held at the San Siro on 8 February 1995 . It marked the resumption of football in Italy , as play was abandoned for a week in memory of Spagnolo . The incident at the San Siro prompted Milan to use security measures usually reserved for high @-@ profile matches . Ugo Allevi , the club spokesman however downplayed reports security was heightened : " There won 't be any special security measures for them . They will all be housed in a special sector of the stadium , segregated from the Milan fans . What we 're most concerned about is how our fans behave . " 15 @,@ 800 tickets were sold the night before the match , 13 @,@ 600 of which were purchased by Milan supporters . Allevi admitted this was a repercussion of the violence in their last home game ; " People are scared to come to football at the moment . "
Milan entered the match the fresher of the two teams , but Simon Barnes commented in his Times match preview that Arsenal 's biggest asset was their " sheer bloody mindedness . " The club 's indiscipline was a major talking point before the game , as two players were sent off in defeat to Sheffield Wednesday the previous Saturday . Graham 's future was also called in question , after claims that he received illegal payments from transfer deals ( bungs ) , which he dismissed . In his pre @-@ match news conference , the Arsenal manager spoke highly of European football and was eager to win another trophy for the club : " We are having a bad season by our standards and any win in any cup is worth something . "
Merson came in place of John Jensen in Arsenal 's starting XI , while for Milan Zvonimir Boban replaced the suspended Simone , and Christian Panucci was chosen to stand in for Paolo Maldini . Graham deployed a 4 – 1 – 4 – 1 formation , with Schwarz acting as the lone defensive midfielder and Hartson positioned the furthest forward . Watched by a crowd of 23 @,@ 953 , Milan eased to a 2 – 0 win and in the process ended Arsenal 's 15 @-@ match unbeaten run in Europe . The home side 's first goal came minutes before half @-@ time , when Daniele Massaro 's defensive @-@ splitting pass found Boban , who scored , despite Schwarz 's attempts to hold him back by tugging his shirt . The Croatian forward nearly scored a second , but for Seaman 's quick intervention . Up until then , Arsenal had briefly threatened ; from a long ball in the 19th minute , Hartson managed to turn Franco Baresi , but scuffed his shot wide . Milan found it easy to contain the opposition , given Desailly and Savićević influenced the tempo of the match . The latter came close to doubling Milan 's lead when he broke forward and hit a shot goalwards , only for Seaman to divert the ball round the post . In the second half , Wright thought he had equalised for Arsenal when he tapped the ball in , but the referee disallowed the goal as there was infringement in the build @-@ up . Milan continued to attack and extended their lead soon after ; from Savićević 's corner , Massaro jumped higher than his marker Lee Dixon and headed the ball into the Arsenal goal . Dixon , who required treatment early in the second half , was substituted for Martin Keown right away as he struggled to play on .
The home side 's performance was lauded by journalist Russell Thomas , who opened his match report in The Guardian with the line " Milan produced football of ease and elegance way beyond the English capabilities . " By contrast , Moore noted Arsenal had " looked a different side from the sterile and nervous one seen in domestic matches . " Graham described Milan as " ... the best team in Europe , or in the world . We 've learnt a lot . But we could have given them a better game , though , and I am disappointed . " Capello was content with Milan 's win , and believed his team were " still about two months where we should be . " It was his eighth trophy as manager of the club , one better than his predecessor Arrigo Sacchi . He said of the achievement : " The mentality of this great club is passed on from the older players to the younger players , so they learn self @-@ sacrifice and how to fight for every trophy they go for . "
Arsenal and Milan went on to reach the 1995 finals of the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup and UEFA Champions League respectively , though failed to retain their titles . Arsenal lost in extra time to Real Zaragoza , while Ajax beat Milan by a single goal .
= = = Details = = =
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= John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland =
John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland KG ( 1504 – 22 August 1553 ) was an English general , admiral , and politician , who led the government of the young King Edward VI from 1550 until 1553 , and unsuccessfully tried to install Lady Jane Grey on the English throne after the King 's death . The son of Edmund Dudley , a minister of Henry VII executed by Henry VIII , John Dudley became the ward of Sir Edward Guildford at the age of seven . He grew up in Guildford 's household together with his future wife , Guildford 's daughter Jane , with whom he was to have 13 children . Dudley served as Vice @-@ Admiral and Lord Admiral from 1537 until 1547 , during which time he set novel standards of navy organisation and was an innovative commander at sea . He also developed a strong interest in overseas exploration . Dudley took part in the 1544 campaigns in Scotland and France and was one of Henry VIII 's intimates in the last years of the reign . He was also a leader of the religious reform party at court .
In 1547 Dudley was created Earl of Warwick and , with the Duke of Somerset , England 's Lord Protector , distinguished himself in the renewed Scottish war at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh . During the country @-@ wide uprisings of 1549 Dudley put down Kett 's Rebellion in Norfolk . Convinced of the Protector 's incompetence , he and other privy councillors forced Somerset out of office in October 1549 . Having averted a conservative reaction in religion and a plot to destroy him alongside Somerset , Dudley emerged in early 1550 as de facto regent for the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Edward VI . He reconciled himself with Somerset , who nevertheless soon began to intrigue against him and his policies . Somerset was executed on largely fabricated charges , three months after Dudley had been raised to the Dukedom of Northumberland in October 1551 .
As Lord President of the Council , Dudley headed a distinctly conciliar government and sought to introduce the adolescent King into business . Taking over an almost bankrupt administration , he ended the costly wars with France and Scotland and tackled finances in ways that led to some economic recovery . To prevent further uprisings he introduced countrywide policing on a local basis , appointing Lords Lieutenants who were in close contact with the central authority . Dudley 's religious policy was — in accordance with Edward 's proclivities — decidedly Protestant , further enforcing the English Reformation and promoting radical reformers to high Church positions .
The 15 @-@ year @-@ old King fell ill in early 1553 and excluded his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth , whom he regarded as illegitimate , from the succession , designating non @-@ existent , hypothetical male heirs . As his death approached , Edward changed his will so that his Protestant cousin Jane Grey , Northumberland 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law , could inherit the Crown . To what extent the Duke influenced this scheme is uncertain . The traditional view is that it was Northumberland 's plot to maintain his power by placing his family on the throne . Many historians see the project as genuinely Edward 's , enforced by Dudley after the King 's death . The Duke did not prepare well for this occasion . Having marched to East Anglia to capture Princess Mary , he surrendered on hearing that the Privy Council had changed sides and proclaimed Mary as Queen . Convicted of high treason , Northumberland returned to Catholicism and abjured the Protestant faith before his execution . Having secured the contempt of both religious camps , popularly hated , and a natural scapegoat , he became the " wicked Duke " — in contrast to his predecessor Somerset , the " good Duke " . Only since the 1970s has he also been seen as a Tudor Crown servant : self @-@ serving , inherently loyal to the incumbent monarch , and an able statesman in difficult times .
= = Career under Henry VIII = =
John Dudley was the eldest of three sons of Edmund Dudley , a councillor of King Henry VII , and his second wife Elizabeth Grey , daughter of Edward Grey , 4th Viscount Lisle . His father was attainted and executed for high treason in 1510 , having been arrested immediately after Henry VIII 's accession because the new King needed scapegoats for his predecessor 's unpopular financial policies . In 1512 the seven @-@ year @-@ old John became the ward of Sir Edward Guildford and was taken into his household . At the same time Edmund Dudley 's attainder was lifted and John Dudley was restored " in name and blood " . The King was hoping for the good services " which the said John Dudley is likely to do " . At about age 15 John Dudley probably went with his guardian to the Pale of Calais to serve there for the next years . He took part in Cardinal Wolsey 's diplomatic voyages of 1521 and 1527 , and was knighted by Charles Brandon , 1st Duke of Suffolk during his first major military experience , the 1523 invasion of France . In 1524 Dudley became a Knight of the Body , and from 1534 he was responsible for the King 's body armour as Master of the Tower Armoury . Being " the most skilful of his generation , both on foot and on horseback " , he excelled in wrestling , archery , and the tournaments of the royal court , as a French report stated as late as 1546 .
In 1525 Dudley married Guildford 's daughter Jane , who was four years his junior and his former class @-@ mate . The Dudleys belonged to the new evangelical circles of the early 1530s , and their 13 children were educated in Renaissance humanism and science . Sir Edward Guildford died in 1534 without a written will . His only son having predeceased him , Guildford 's nephew , John Guildford , asserted that his uncle had intended him to inherit . Dudley and his wife contested this claim . The parties went to court and Dudley , who had secured Thomas Cromwell 's patronage , won the case . In 1532 he lent his cousin , John Sutton , 3rd Baron Dudley , over ₤ 7 @,@ 000 on the security of the baronial estate . Lord Dudley was unable to pay off any of his creditors , so when the mortgage was foreclosed in the late 1530s Sir John Dudley came into possession of Dudley Castle .
Dudley was present at Henry VIII 's meeting with Francis I of France at Calais in 1532 . Another member of the entourage was Anne Boleyn , who was soon to be queen . Dudley took part in the christenings of Princess Elizabeth and Prince Edward and , in connection with the announcement of the Prince 's birth to the Emperor , travelled to Spain via France in October 1537 . He sat in the Reformation parliament for Kent , in place of his deceased father @-@ in @-@ law , in 1534 – 1536 , and led one of the contingents sent against the Pilgrimage of Grace in late 1536 . In January 1537 Dudley was made Vice @-@ Admiral and began to apply himself to naval matters . He was Master of the Horse to Anne of Cleves and Katherine Howard , and in 1542 returned to the House of Commons as MP for Staffordshire but was soon promoted to the House of Lords when he became Viscount Lisle after the death of his stepfather Arthur Plantagenet and " by the right of his mother " . Being now a peer , Dudley became Lord Admiral and a Knight of the Garter in 1543 ; he was also admitted to the Privy Council . In the aftermath of the Battle of Solway Moss in 1542 he served as Warden of the Scottish Marches , and in the 1544 campaign the English force under Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford was supported by a fleet which Dudley commanded . Dudley joined the land force that destroyed Edinburgh , after he had blown the main gate apart with a culverin . In late 1544 he was appointed Governor of Boulogne , the siege of which had cost the life of his eldest son , Henry . His tasks were to rebuild the fortifications to King Henry 's design and to fend off French attacks by sea and land .
As Lord Admiral , Dudley was responsible for creating the Council for Marine Causes , which for the first time co @-@ ordinated the various tasks of maintaining the navy functioning and thus made English naval administration the most efficient in Europe . At sea , Dudley 's fighting orders were at the forefront of tactical thinking : Squadrons of ships , ordered by size and firepower , were to manoeuvre in formation , using co @-@ ordinated gunfire . These were all new developments in the English navy . In 1545 he directed the fleet 's operations before , during , and after the Battle of the Solent and entertained King Henry on the flagship Henri Grace a Dieu . A tragic loss was the sinking of the Mary Rose with 500 men aboard . In 1546 John Dudley went to France for peace negotiations . When he suspected the Admiral of France , Claude d 'Annebault , of manoeuvres which might have led to a renewal of hostilities , he suddenly put to sea in a show of English strength , before returning to the negotiating table . He then travelled to Fontainebleau , where the English delegates were entertained by the Dauphin Henri and King Francis . In the Peace of Camp , the French king acknowledged Henry VIII 's title as " Supreme Head of the Church of England and Ireland " , a success for both England and her Lord Admiral .
John Dudley , popularly fêted and highly regarded by King Henry as a general , became a royal intimate who played cards with the ailing monarch . Next to Edward Seymour , Prince Edward 's maternal uncle , Dudley was one of the leaders of the Reformed party at court , and both their wives were among the friends of Anne Askew , the Protestant martyr destroyed by Bishop Stephen Gardiner in July 1546 . Dudley and the Queen 's brother , William Parr , tried to convince Anne Askew to conform to the Catholic doctrines of the Henrician church , yet she replied " it was great shame for them to counsel contrary to their knowledge " . In September Dudley struck Gardiner in the face during a full meeting of the Council . This was a grave offence , and he was lucky to escape with a month 's leave from court in disgrace . In the last weeks of the reign Seymour and Dudley played their parts in Henry 's strike against the conservative House of Howard , thus clearing the path for a Protestant minority rule . They were seen as the likely leaders of the impending regency — " there are no other nobles of a fit age and ability for the task " , Eustache Chapuys , the former Imperial ambassador , commented from his retirement .
= = From Earl of Warwick to Duke of Northumberland = =
The 16 executors of Henry VIII 's will also embodied the Regency Council that had been appointed to rule collectively during Edward VI 's minority . The new Council agreed on making Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford Lord Protector with full powers , which in effect were those of a prince . At the same time the Council awarded themselves a round of promotions based on Henry VIII 's wishes ; the Earl of Hertford became the Duke of Somerset and John Dudley was created Earl of Warwick . The new Earl had to pass on his post of Lord Admiral to Somerset 's brother , Thomas Seymour , but advanced to Lord Great Chamberlain . Perceived as the most important man next the Protector , he was on friendly terms with Somerset , who soon reopened the war with Scotland . Dudley accompanied him as second @-@ in @-@ command with a taste for personal combat . On one occasion he fought his way out of an ambush and , spear in hand , chased his Scottish counterpart for some 250 yards ( 230 m ) , nearly running him through . In the Battle of Pinkie Dudley led the vanguard , being " one of the key architects of the English victory " .
The Protector 's agrarian policy and proclamations were inspired by a group of intellectuals sometimes called " the commonwealth men " . These were highly critical of landlords and left many commoners with the impression that enclosures were unlawful . As one of England 's major landowners , Dudley soon feared that this would lead to serious trouble and discreetly tried to warn Somerset . By the summer of 1549 there was widespread unrest or even rebellion all over England . The Marquess of Northampton had been unable to restore order in and around Norwich , so John Dudley was sent to get hold of Kett 's Rebellion . Dudley offered Robert Kett a pardon on the condition that the peasant army disband at once . This was rejected and the next night Dudley stormed the rebel @-@ held city with a small mercenary contingent and drove the rebels out after fierce street fighting ; 49 prisoners he had immediately hanged . Two days later Kett , who had his main camp outside the city , confronted the royal army , resulting in a slaughter of over 2 @,@ 000 peasants . In the following weeks Dudley conducted courts @-@ martial which executed many rebels , perhaps up to 300 . For the enraged and humiliated local gentry this was still not enough punishment , so Dudley warned them : " Is there no place for pardon ? ... What shall we then do ? Shall we hold the plough ourselves , play the carters and labour the ground with our own hands ? "
The Lord Protector , in his proclamations , appealed to the common people . To his colleagues , whom he hardly consulted , he displayed a distinctly autocratic and " increasingly contemptuous " face . By autumn 1549 the same councillors who had made him Protector were convinced that he had failed to exercise proper authority and was unwilling to listen to good counsel . Dudley still had the troops from the Norfolk campaign at his disposal , and in October 1549 he joined the Earl of Southampton and the Earl of Arundel , prominent religious conservatives , to lead a coup of councillors to oust the Protector from office . They withdrew from court to London , meeting in Dudley 's residence . Starting with the Protector , each side issued proclamations accusing the other of treason and declared to act in defence of the King 's safety . Somerset tried in vain to raise a popular force and entrenched himself with the King at the fortress Windsor Castle . Military force near Edward 's presence was unthinkable and , apparently , Dudley and Archbishop Cranmer brokered an unofficial deal with Somerset , who surrendered . To keep appearances , the 12 @-@ year @-@ old King personally commanded his uncle 's arrest . For a moment there was hope of a conservative restoration in some quarters . However , Dudley and Cranmer secured the Reformed agenda by persuading Edward to appoint additional Reformed @-@ minded members to the Council and Privy Chamber . In December 1549 Southampton tried to regain predominance by charging Dudley with treason , alongside Somerset , for having been an original ally of the Protector . The scheme misfired when Dudley invited the Council to his house and baffled the plotters by exclaiming , with his hand at his sword and " a warlike visage " : " my lord , you seek his [ Somerset 's ] blood and he that seeketh his blood would have mine also " .
Dudley consolidated his power through institutional manoeuvres and by January 1550 was in effect the new regent . On 2 February 1550 he became Lord President of the Council , with the capacity to debar councillors from the body and appoint new ones . He excluded Southampton and other conservatives , but arranged Somerset 's release and his return to the Privy Council and Privy Chamber . In June 1550 Dudley 's heir John married Somerset 's daughter Anne as a mark of reconciliation . Yet Somerset soon attracted political sympathizers and hoped to re @-@ establish his power by removing Dudley from the scene , " contemplating " , as he later admitted , the Lord President 's arrest and execution . Relying on his popularity with the masses , he campaigned against and tried to obstruct Dudley 's policies . His behaviour increasingly threatened the cohesion vital within a minority regime . In that respect Warwick would take no chances , and he now also aspired to a dukedom . He needed to advertise his power and impress his followers ; like his predecessor , he had to represent the King 's honour . His elevation as Duke of Northumberland came on 11 October 1551 with the Duke of Somerset participating in the ceremony . Five days later Somerset was arrested , while rumours about supposed plots of his circulated . He was accused of having planned a " banquet massacre " , in which the Council were to be assaulted and Dudley killed . Somerset was acquitted of treason , but convicted of felony for raising a contingent of armed men without a licence . He was executed on 22 January 1552 . While technically lawful , these events contributed much to Northumberland 's growing unpopularity . Dudley himself , according to a French eyewitness , confessed before his own end that " nothing had pressed so injuriously upon his conscience as the fraudulent scheme against the Duke of Somerset " .
= = Ruling England = =
Instead of taking the title of Lord Protector , John Dudley set out to rule as primus inter pares , the working atmosphere being more conciliar and less autocratic than under Somerset . The new Lord President of the Council reshuffled some high offices , becoming Grand Master of the Household himself and giving Somerset 's former office of Lord Treasurer to William Paulet , 1st Marquess of Winchester . The office of Grand Master entailed supervising the Royal Household , which gave Dudley the means to control the Privy Chamber and thus the King 's surroundings . This was done via his " special friends " ( as he called them ) , Sir John Gates and Lord Thomas Darcy . Dudley also placed his son @-@ in @-@ law Sir Henry Sidney and his brother Sir Andrew Dudley near the King . William Cecil was still in the Duke of Somerset 's service when he gradually shifted his loyalty to John Dudley , who made him Secretary of State and thought him " a most faithful servant and by that term most witty [ wise ] councillor ... as was scarce like in this realm " . In this position Cecil was Dudley 's trusted right hand , who primed the Privy Council according to the Lord President 's wishes . At the same time Cecil had intimate contact with the King because Edward worked closely with the secretaries of state .
Dudley organised Edward 's political education so that he should take an interest in affairs and at least appear to influence decisions . He wanted the King to grow into his authority as smoothly as possible . Disruptive conflicts when Edward took over government could thus be minimised , while Dudley 's chances to continue as principal minister would be good . From the age of about 14 Edward 's signature on documents no longer needed the Council 's countersignatures , and the King was regularly debriefed in meetings with a Council of his own choosing — the principal administrators and the Duke of Northumberland were among the chosen . Dudley had a warm if respectful relationship with the teenager , who " loved and feared " him according to Jehan de Scheyfye , the Imperial ambassador . At a dinner Edward discussed with the envoy at length until Northumberland discreetly indicated to the King that he had said enough . Yet the Duke did not necessarily have his way in all things . In 1552 – 1553 the King 's hand can be discerned behind decisions ( and omissions ) that directly contravened Dudley 's wishes . At court , complex networks of influence were at work and Edward listened to more than one voice . Regarding the question to what extent Edward played a role in his own government , Stephen Alford writes :
It is possible to endorse Edward 's developing grasp of the business of kingship and accept the still powerful political presence of John Dudley and his colleagues . The structures of ... the ... Council and the royal household began to adapt themselves to the implications of the king 's age ... the dynamics of power at the centre were capable of reshaping themselves because the men around the king accepted that , in the circumstances , they should .
= = = Social and economic policy = = =
Dudley set out to restore administrative efficiency and maintain public order to prevent renewed rebellion as seen in 1549 . Equipped with a new law " for the punishment of unlawful assemblies " , he built a united front of landholders and Privy Council , the government intervening locally at any sign of unrest . He returned to the ancient practice of granting licences to retain liveried followers and installed Lord Lieutenants that represented the central government and were to keep ready small bands of cavalry . These measures proved effective and the country was calm for the rest of the reign . In fact , in the summer of 1552 — a year before the succession crisis — the cavalry bands were disbanded to save money .
John Dudley also strove to alleviate the social situation . The 1547 " Act for the Punishment of Vagabonds " , which had enacted that any unemployed man found loitering was to be branded and given to the " presentor " as a slave , was abolished as too harsh in 1550 . In 1552 Northumberland pushed a novel Poor Law through parliament which provided for weekly parish @-@ based collections for the " relief of the poor " . Parishes were to register their needy inhabitants as well as the amounts people agreed to give for them , while unwilling contributors were to be " induced " by the parson and , if need be , by the bishop . The years 1549 – 1551 saw poor harvests and , accordingly , soaring food prices . Dudley tried to intervene against the malpractices of middlemen by official searches for hidden corn and by fixing maximum prices for grain , meat , and other victuals . However , the set prices were so unrealisitic that farmers stopped to sell their produce at the open market and the regulations had to be rescinded . The regime 's agrarian policy , while giving landlords much freedom to enclose common land , also distinguished between different forms of enclosure . Landlords guilty of illegal enclosures were increasingly prosecuted .
The financial legacy of the Protectorate consisted , apart from crippling Crown debts , of an unprecedentedly debased coinage . On the second day as Lord President of the Council , Dudley began a process to tackle the problems of the mint . He set up a committee that looked into the peculation by the officers of the mint and other institutions . In 1551 the government at the same time tried to yield profit and restore confidence in the coin by issuing yet further debased coinage and " crying it down " immediately afterwards . The result was panic and confusion and , to get hold of the situation , a coin of 92 @.@ 3 % silver content ( against 25 % silver content in the last debasement ) was issued within months . The bad coin prevailed over the good , however , because people had lost confidence . Northumberland admitted defeat and recruited the financial expert Thomas Gresham . After the first good harvest in four years , by late 1552 the currency was stable , prices for foodstuffs had dropped , and a basis for economic recovery had been laid . A process to centralise the administration of Crown revenue was underway and foreign debt had been eliminated .
= = = Religious policy = = =
The use of the Book of Common Prayer became law in 1549 . King Edward 's half @-@ sister , Mary Tudor , de facto had licence to continue hearing mass in private . So soon as he was in power , Dudley put pressure on her to stop her from allowing her entire household and flocks of visitors to attend . Mary , who in her turn did not tolerate the Book of Common Prayer in any of her residences , was not prepared to make any concessions . She planned to flee the country but then could not make up her mind in the last minute . Mary denied Edward 's personal interest in the issue and entirely blamed John Dudley for her troubles . After a meeting with King and Council , in which she was told that what mattered was not her faith but her disobedience to the law , she sent the Imperial ambassador de Scheyfye to threaten war on England . The English government could not swallow a war threat from an ambassador who had stepped out of his commission , but at the same time would not risk all @-@ important commercial ties with the Habsburg Netherlands , so an embassy was sent to Brussels and some of Mary 's household officers were arrested . On his next visit to the Council , de Scheyfye was informed by the Earl of Warwick that the King of England had as much authority at 14 as he had at 40 — Dudley was alluding to Mary 's refusal to accept Edward 's demands on grounds of his young age . In the end a silent compromise came into effect : Mary continued to hear mass in a more private manner , while augmenting her landed property by exchanges with the Crown .
Appealing to the King 's religious tastes , John Dudley became the chief backer of evangelical Protestants among the clergy , promoting several to bishoprics — for example John Hooper and John Ponet . The English Reformation went on apace , despite its widespread unpopularity . The 1552 revised edition of the Book of Common Prayer rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation , and the Forty @-@ two Articles , issued in June 1553 , proclaimed justification by faith and denied the existence of purgatory . Despite these being cherished projects of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , he was displeased with the way the government handled their issue . By 1552 the relationship between the primate and the Duke was icy . To prevent the Church from becoming independent of the state , Dudley was against Cranmer 's reform of canon law . He recruited the Scot John Knox so that he should , in Northumberland 's words , " be a whetstone to quicken and sharp the Bishop of Canterbury , whereof he hath need " . Knox refused to collaborate , but joined fellow reformers in a concerted preaching campaign against covetous men in high places . Cranmer 's canon law was finally wrecked by Northumberland 's furious intervention during the spring parliament of 1553 . On a personal level , though , the Duke was happy to help produce a schoolchildren 's cathechism in Latin and English . In June 1553 he backed the Privy Council 's invitation of Philip Melanchthon to become Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge University . But for the King 's death , Melanchthon would have come to England — his high travel costs had already been granted by Edward 's government .
At the heart of Northumberland 's problems with the episcopate lay the issue of the Church 's wealth , from the confiscation of which the government and its officials had profited ever since the Dissolution of the Monasteries . The most radical preachers thought that bishops , if needed at all , should be " unlorded " . This attitude was attractive to Dudley , as it conveniently allowed him to fill up the Exchequer or distribute rewards with Church property . When new bishops were appointed — typically to the sees of deprived conservative incumbents — they often had to surrender substantial land holdings to the Crown and were left with a much reduced income . The dire situation of the Crown finances made the Council resort to a further wave of Church expropriation in 1552 – 1553 , targeting chantry lands and Church plate . At the time and since , the break @-@ up and reorganisation of the Prince @-@ Bishopric of Durham has been interpreted as Dudley 's attempt to create himself a county palatine of his own . However , as it turned out , Durham 's entire revenue was allotted to the two successor bishoprics and the nearby border garrison of Norham Castle . Dudley received the stewardship of the new " King 's County Palatine " in the North ( worth £ 50 p.a. ) , but there was no further gain for him . Overall , Northumberland 's provisions for reorganised dioceses reveal a concern in him that " the preaching of the gospel " should not lack funds . Still , the confiscation of Church property as well as the lay government 's direction of Church affairs made the Duke disliked among clerics , whether Reformed or conservative . His relations with them were never worse than when the crisis of Edward 's final illness approached .
= = = Peace policy = = =
The war policy 1547 – 1549 had entailed an extraordinary expenditure of about £ 350 @,@ 000 p.a. against a regular Crown income of £ 150 @,@ 000 p.a. It was impossible to continue in this way , and Dudley quickly negotiated a withdrawal of the besieged English garrison at Boulogne . The high costs of the garrison could thus be saved and French payments of redemption of roughly £ 180 @,@ 000 were a most welcome cash income . The peace with France was concluded in the Treaty of Boulogne in March 1550 . There was both public rejoicing and anger at the time , and some historians have condemned the peace as a shameful surrender of English @-@ held territory . A year later it was agreed that King Edward was to have a French bride , the six @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth of Valois . The threat of war with Scotland was also neutralised , England giving up some isolated garrisons in exchange . In the peace treaty with Scotland of June 1551 , a joint commission , one of the first of its kind in history , was installed to agree upon the exact boundary between the two countries . This matter was concluded in August 1552 by French arbitration . Despite the cessation of hostilities , English defences were kept on a high level : nearly £ 200 @,@ 000 p.a. were spent on the navy and the garrisons at Calais and on the Scottish border . In his capacity as Warden @-@ General of the Scottish Marches , Northumberland arranged for the building of a new Italianate fortress at Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed .
The war between France and the Emperor broke out once again in September 1551 . In due course Northumberland rejected requests for English help from both sides , which in the case of the Empire consisted of a demand for full @-@ scale war based on an Anglo @-@ Imperial treaty of 1542 . The Duke pursued a policy of neutrality , a balancing act that made peace between the two great powers attractive . In late 1552 he undertook to bring about a European peace by English mediation . These moves were taken seriously by the rival resident ambassadors , but were ended in June 1553 by the belligerents , the continuance of war being more advantageous to them .
= = = Overseas interest = = =
John Dudley recovered the post of Lord Admiral immediately after the Protector 's fall in October 1549 , Thomas Seymour having been executed by his brother in March 1549 . Dudley passed on the office to Edward Lord Clinton in May 1550 , yet never lost his keen interest in maritime affairs . Henry VIII had revolutionised the English navy , mainly in military terms . Dudley encouraged English voyages to far @-@ off coasts , ignoring Spanish threats . He even contemplated a raid on Peru with Sebastian Cabot in 1551 . Expeditions to Morocco and the Guinea coast in 1551 and 1552 were actually realised . A planned voyage to China via the Northeast passage under Hugh Willoughby sailed in May 1553 — King Edward watched their departure from his window . Northumberland was at the centre of a " maritime revolution " , a policy in which , increasingly , the English Crown sponsored long @-@ distance trade directly .
= = 1553 = =
= = = Changing the succession = = =
The 15 @-@ year @-@ old King fell seriously ill in February 1553 . His sister Mary was invited to visit him , the Council doing " duty and obeisance to her as if she had been Queen of England " . The King recovered somewhat , and in April Northumberland restored Mary 's full title and arms as Princess of England , which she had lost in the 1530s . He also kept her informed about Edward 's condition . About this time a set of drawn @-@ out marriage negotiations came to conclusion . On 21 May 1553 Guildford Dudley , Northumberland 's second youngest son , married Lady Jane Grey , the fervently Protestant daughter of the Duke of Suffolk and , through her mother Frances Brandon , a grandniece of Henry VIII . Her sister Catherine was matched with the heir of the Earl of Pembroke , and another Katherine , Guildford 's younger sister , was promised to Henry Hastings , heir of the Earl of Huntingdon . Within a month the first of these marriages turned out to be highly significant . Although marked by magnificent festivities , at the time they took place the alliances were not seen as politically important , not even by the Imperial ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye , who was the most suspicious observer . Often perceived as proof of a conspiracy to bring the Dudley family to the throne , they have also been described as routine matches between aristocrats .
At some point during his illness Edward wrote a draft document headed " My devise for the Succession " . Due to his ardent Protestantism Edward did not want his Catholic sister Mary to succeed , but he was also preoccupied with male succession and with legitimacy , which in Mary 's and Elizabeth 's case was questionable as a result of Henry VIII 's legislation . In the first version of his " devise " , written before he knew he was mortally ill , Edward bypassed his half @-@ sisters and provided for the succession of male heirs only . Around the end of May or early June Edward 's condition worsened dramatically and he corrected his draft such that Lady Jane Grey herself , not just her putative sons , could inherit the Crown . To what extent Edward 's document — especially this last change — was influenced by Northumberland , his confidant John Gates , or still other members of the Privy Chamber like Edward 's tutor John Cheke or Secretary William Petre , is unclear .
Edward fully endorsed it . He personally supervised the copying of his will and twice summoned lawyers to his bedside to give them orders . On the second occasion , 15 June , Northumberland kept a watchful eye over the proceedings . Days before , the Duke had intimidated the judges who were raising legal objections to the " devise " . The next step was an engagement to perform the King 's will after his death , signed in his presence by Northumberland and 23 others . Finally , the King 's official " declaration " , issued as letters patent , was signed by 102 notables , among them the whole Privy Council , peers , bishops , judges , and London aldermen . Edward also announced to have it passed in parliament in September , and the necessary writs were prepared .
It was now common knowledge that Edward was dying . The Imperial ambassador , Jehan de Scheyfye , had been convinced for years that Dudley was engaged in some " mighty plot " to settle the Crown on his own head . As late as 12 June , though , he still knew nothing specific , despite having inside information about Edward 's sickness . France , which found the prospect of the Emperor 's cousin on the English throne disagreeable , gave indications of support to Northumberland . Since the Duke did not rule out an armed intervention from Charles V , he came back on the French offer after the King 's death , sending a secret and non @-@ committal mission to King Henry II . After Jane 's accession in July the ambassadors of both powers were convinced she would prevail , although they were in no doubt that the common people backed Mary . Antoine de Noailles wrote of Guildford Dudley as " the new King " , while the Emperor instructed his envoys to arrange themselves with the Duke and to discourage Mary from undertaking anything dangerous .
Whether altering the succession was Edward 's own idea or not , he was determinedly at work to exclude his half @-@ sisters in favour of what he perceived as his jeopardised legacy . The original provisions of the " devise " have been described as bizarre and obsessive and as typical of a teenager , while incompatible with the mind and needs of a pragmatical politician . Mary 's accession could cost Northumberland his head , but not necessarily so . He tried hard to please her during 1553 , and may have shared the general assumption that she would succeed to the Crown as late as early June . Faced with Edward 's express royal will and perseverance , John Dudley submitted to his master 's wishes — either seeing his chance to retain his power beyond the boy 's lifetime or out of loyalty .
= = = Downfall = = =
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553 . The next morning Northumberland sent his son Robert into Hertfordshire with 300 men to secure the person of Mary Tudor . Aware of her half @-@ brother 's condition , the Princess had only days before moved to East Anglia , where she was the greatest landowner . She began to assemble an armed following and sent a letter to the Council , demanding to be recognised as queen . It arrived on 10 July , the day Jane Grey was proclaimed as queen . The Duke of Northumberland 's oration , held before Jane the previous day , did not move her to accept the Crown — her parents ' assistance was required for that . Dudley had not prepared for resolute action on Mary 's part and needed a week to build up a larger force . He was in a dilemma over who should lead the troops . He was the most experienced general in the kingdom , but he did not want to leave the government in the hands of his colleagues , in some of whom he had little confidence . Queen Jane decided the issue by demanding that her father , the Duke of Suffolk , should remain with her and the Council . On 14 July Northumberland headed for Cambridge with 1 @,@ 500 troops and some artillery , having reminded his colleagues of the gravity of the cause , " what chance of variance soever might grow amongst you in my absence " .
Supported by gentry and nobility in East Anglia and the Thames Valley , Mary 's military camp was gathering strength daily and , through luck , came into possession of powerful artillery from the royal navy . In the circumstances the Duke deemed fighting a campaign hopeless . The army proceeded from Cambridge to Bury St Edmunds and retreated again to Cambridge . On 20 July a letter from the Council in London arrived , declaring that they had proclaimed Queen Mary and commanding Northumberland to disband the army and await events . Dudley did not contemplate resistance . He explained to his fellow @-@ commanders that they had acted on the Council 's orders all the time and that he did not now wish " to combat the Council 's decisions , supposing that they have been moved by good reasons ... and I beg your lordships to do the same . " Proclaiming Mary Tudor at the market place , he threw up his cap and " so laughed that the tears ran down his cheeks for grief . " The next morning the Earl of Arundel arrived to arrest him . A week earlier Arundel had assured Northumberland of his wish to spill his blood even at the Duke 's feet ; now Dudley went down on his knees as soon as he caught sight of him .
Northumberland rode through the City of London to the Tower on 25 July , with his guards struggling to protect him against the hostile populace . A pamphlet appearing shortly after his arrest illustrated the general hatred of him : " the great devil Dudley ruleth , Duke I should have said " . He was now commonly thought to have poisoned King Edward while Mary " would have been as glad of her brother 's life , as the ragged bear is glad of his death " . Dumbfounded by the turn of events , the French ambassador Noailles wrote : " I have witnessed the most sudden change believable in men , and I believe that God alone worked it . " David Loades , biographer of both Queen Mary and John Dudley , concludes that the lack of fighting clouds the fact that this outcome was a close @-@ run affair , and warns
to explain Mary 's triumph over Jane simply in terms of overwhelming spontaneous support . Northumberland ... was completely unprepared for the crisis which eventually overtook him . He was already losing his grip upon the situation before the council defected , and that was why they did it .
= = = Trial and execution = = =
Northumberland was tried on 18 August 1553 in Westminster Hall . The panels of the jury and judges were largely made up of his former colleagues . Dudley hinted that he had acted on the authority of Prince and Council and by warrant of the Great Seal . Answered that the Great Seal of a usurper was worth nothing , he asked " whether any such persons as were equally culpable of that crime ... might be his judges " . After sentence was passed , he begged the Queen 's mercy for his five sons , the eldest of whom was condemned with him , the rest waiting for their trials . He also asked to " confess to a learned divine " and was visited by Bishop Stephen Gardiner , who had passed most of Edward 's reign in the Tower and was now Mary 's Lord Chancellor . The Duke 's execution was planned for 21 August at eight in the morning ; however , it was suddenly cancelled . Northumberland was instead escorted to St Peter ad Vincula , where he took the Catholic communion and professed that " the plagues that is upon the realm and upon us now is that we have erred from the faith these sixteen years . " A great propaganda coup for the new government , Dudley 's words were officially distributed — especially in the territories of the Emperor Charles V. In the evening the Duke learnt " that I must prepare myself against tomorrow to receive my deadly stroke " , as he wrote in a desperate plea to the Earl of Arundel : " O my good lord remember how sweet life is , and how bitter ye contrary . " On the scaffold , before 10 @,@ 000 people , Dudley confessed his guilt but maintained :
And yet this act wherefore I die , was not altogether of me ( as it is thought ) but I was procured and induced thereunto by other [ s ] . I was I say induced thereunto by other [ s ] , howbeit , God forbid that I should name any man unto you , I will name no man unto you , and therefore I beseech you look not for it . ... And one thing more good people I have to say unto you ... and that is to warn you and exhort you to beware of these seditious preachers , and teachers of new doctrine , which pretend to preach God 's word , but in very deed they preach their own fancies , ... they know not today what they would have tomorrow , ... they open the book , but they cannot shut it again . ... I could good people rehearse much more ... but you know I have another thing to do , whereunto I must prepare me , for the time draweth away . ... And after he had thus spoken he kneeled down ... and bowing toward the block he said , I have deserved a thousand deaths , and thereupon he made a cross upon the straw , and kissed it , and laid his head upon the block , and so died .
= = Assessments = =
= = = Historical reputation = = =
A black legend about the Duke of Northumberland was already in the making when he was still in power , the more after his fall . From the last days of Henry VIII he was to have planned , years in advance , the destruction of both King Edward 's Seymour uncles — Lord Thomas and the Protector — as well as Edward himself . He also served as an indispensable scapegoat : It was the most practical thing for Queen Mary to believe that Dudley had been acting all alone and it was in nobody 's interest to doubt it . Further questions were unwelcome , as Charles V 's ambassadors found out : " it was thought best not to inquire too closely into what had happened , so as to make no discoveries that might prejudice those [ who tried the duke ] " . By renouncing the Protestantism he had so conspicuously stood for , Northumberland lost every respect and became ineligible for rehabilitation in a world dominated by thinking along sectarian lines . Protestant writers like John Foxe and John Ponet concentrated on the pious King Edward 's achievements and reinvented Somerset as the " good Duke " — it followed that there had also to be a " wicked Duke " . This interpretation was enhanced by the High and Late Victorian historians , James Anthony Froude and A. F. Pollard , who saw Somerset as a champion of political liberty whose desire " to do good " was thwarted by , in Pollard 's phrase , " the subtlest intriguer in English History " .
As late as 1968 / 1970 , W.K. Jordan embraced this good duke / bad duke dichotomy in a two @-@ volume study of Edward VI 's reign . However , he saw the King on the verge of assuming full authority at the beginning of 1553 ( with Dudley contemplating retirement ) and ascribed the succession alteration to Edward 's resolution , Northumberland playing the part of the loyal and tragic enforcer instead of the original instigator . Many historians have since seen the " devise " as Edward 's very own project . Others , while remarking upon the plan 's sloppy implementation , have seen Northumberland as behind the scheme , yet in concord with Edward 's convictions ; the Duke acting out of despair for his own survival , or to rescue political and religious reform and save England from Habsburg domination .
Since the 1970s , critical reassessments of the Duke of Somerset 's policies and government style led to acknowledgment that Northumberland revitalised and reformed the Privy Council as a central part of the administration , and that he " took the necessary but unpopular steps to hold the minority regime together " . Stability and reconstruction have been made out as the mark of most of his policies ; the scale of his motivation ranging from " determined ambition " with Geoffrey Rudolph Elton in 1977 to " idealism of a sort " with Diarmaid MacCulloch in 1999 . Dale Hoak concluded in 1980 : " given the circumstances which he inherited in 1549 , the duke of Northumberland appears to have been one of the most remarkably able governors of any European state during the sixteenth century . "
= = = Personality = = =
John Dudley 's recantation of his Protestant faith before his execution delighted Queen Mary and enraged Lady Jane Grey . The general opinion , especially among Protestants , was that he tried to seek a pardon by this move . Historians have often believed that he had no faith whatsoever , being a mere cynic . Further explanations — both contemporary and modern — have been that Northumberland sought to rescue his family from the axe , that , in the face of catastrophe , he found a spiritual home in the church of his childhood , or that he saw the hand of God in Mary 's success . Although he endorsed the Reformation from at least the mid @-@ 1530s , Dudley may not have understood theological subtleties , being a " simple man in such matters " . The Duke was stung by an outspoken letter he received from John Knox , whom he had invited to preach before the King and in vain had offered a bishopric . William Cecil was informed :
I love not to have to do with men which be neither grateful nor pleasable . I assure you I mind to have no more to do with him but to wish him well ... he cannot tell whether I be a dissembler in religion or not ... for my own part , if I should have passed more upon the speech of the people than upon the service of my master ... I needed not to have had so much obloquy of some kind of men ; but the living God , that knoweth the hearts of all men , shall be my judge at the last day with what zeal , faith , and truth I serve my master .
Northumberland was not an old @-@ style peer , despite his aristocratic ancestry and existence as a great lord . He acquired , sold , and exchanged lands , but never strove to build himself a territorial power base or a large armed force of retainers ( which proved fatal in the end ) . His maximum income of £ 4 @,@ 300 p.a. from land and a £ 2 @,@ 000 p.a. from annuities and fees , was appropriate to his rank and figured well below the annuity of £ 5 @,@ 333 p.a. the Duke of Somerset had granted himself , thus reaching an income of over £ 10 @,@ 000 p.a. while in office . John Dudley was a typical Tudor Crown servant , self @-@ interested but absolutely loyal to the incumbent sovereign : The monarch 's every wish was law . This uncritical stance may have played a decisive role in Northumberland 's decision to implement Edward 's succession device , as it did in his attitude towards Mary when she had become Queen . The fear his services could be inadequate or go unacknowledged by the monarch was constant in Dudley , who also was very sensitive on what he called " estimation " , meaning status . Edmund Dudley was unforgotten : " my poor father 's fate who , after his master was gone , suffered death for doing his master 's commandments " , the Duke wrote to Cecil nine months before his own end .
John Dudley was an imposing figure with a strong temperament who could also charm people with his courtesy and a graceful presence . He was a family man , an understanding father and husband who was passionately loved by his wife . Frequent phases of illness , partly due to a stomach ailment , occasioned long absences from court but did not reduce his high output of paperwork , and may have had an element of hypochondria in them . The English diplomat Richard Morrison wrote of his onetime superior : " This Earl had such a head that he seldom went about anything but he had three or four purposes beforehand . " A French eyewitness of 1553 described him as " an intelligent man who could explain his ideas and who displayed an impressive dignity . Others , who did not know him , would have considered him worthy of a kingdom . "
= = Ancestry = =
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= A Little More Personal ( Raw ) =
A Little More Personal ( Raw ) is the second studio album by American singer and actress Lindsay Lohan , released on December 5 , 2005 by Casablanca Records . Initially titled There 's Only One Angel In Heaven , the album , produced by Kara DioGuardi , Greg Wells , Ben Moody and Butch Walker , features darker material than Lohan 's previous album , Speak ( 2004 ) . Recording sessions took place in several locations , including at Lohan 's trailer during the shoot of Herbie : Fully Loaded , where she recorded the first and only single of the album , " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " .
A Little More Personal ( Raw ) received mixed reviews from music critics , who praised Lohan 's ambition , despite considering it a weak album . The album charted mildly compared to Speak , debuting ( and also peaking ) at number twenty on United States ' Billboard 200 with first week sales of 82 @,@ 000 copies , and also peaking at the same position on the Digital Albums chart . However , A Little More Personal ( Raw ) was certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . It was also certified Gold in Taiwan . Lohan promoted the album with a few television appearances , including at MTV 's Total Request Live , The Ellen DeGeneres Show and the 2005 American Music Awards .
= = Background and recording = =
During the shoot of the music video for " First " ( 2005 ) , Lohan revealed in an interview with MTV that she was preparing her sophomore studio album . " When you get into the studio , everything just comes out , " she said . " All your creative juices are there . I don 't [ want to ] leave . I 'll still be in there until all hours , and it 's nice to be able to do that . " Lohan began writing lyrics for the album in June 2005 , after the last single from her previous album had been released . " I 've been writing a lot , almost every night , " she said . " There 's been a lot going on [ in my life lately ] , and I think people can find that escape in hobbies that they do . I don 't do yoga or anything , but some people use that . Everyone has their own thing , and I use writing . " Initially titled There 's Only One Angel In Heaven , the pop rock album features a darker theme when compared to Lohan 's previous album , Speak ( 2004 ) .
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " , the lead single and first track of the album , was mainly written by Lohan as a letter to her father , Michael Lohan , who was incarcerated in June 2005 after surviving a car crash for which he was charged with driving under the influence of alcohol . Additional writing and song production was done by Greg Wells and Kara DioGuardi , who revealed , " If you solo the vocals you 'll hear race cars , because we brought the studio to [ Lindsay 's ] trailer on Herbie : Fully Loaded . I 'm not kidding ! She had no time to do the record , so she would be on her lunch break , and I 'd be like , ' Throw that thing down your throat and get over here , ' cause we got to finish these vocals ! ' So I sat for 14 hours on the set and would grab her for , like , 10 minutes at a time . The poor girl . That 's the reality of young Hollywood . When they 're hot , they 're worked to death . It was 18 / 20 @-@ hour days . ... And I swear : ' Vroom ! Vroom ! ' You can hear it in the back . " " My Innocence " is also about the singer 's father . Lohan also covered " I Want You to Want Me " by Cheap Trick and " Edge of Seventeen " by Stevie Nicks for the album .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
A Little More Personal ( Raw ) received mixed reviews from critics . The album holds a score of 50 out of 100 based on 9 critical reviews , according to the music review aggregator Metacritic . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album three stars out of five , saying , " Lindsay Lohan clearly spells out her ambition in the title to her second album , A Little More Personal ( Raw ) -- she 's going to shed the glitzy trappings of her debut , Speak , and dig down deep in her heart , letting feelings flood onto the page " . Erlewine also stated that the album " is far from being totally successful , it is an intriguing mash @-@ up of heart and commerce . And it does suggest one thing that Speak never did : Lindsay Lohan may have an artistic vision as a recording artist , which is indeed a huge step forward " . Entertainment Weekly ' s Leah Greenblatt said , " like so many pop records today , Personal has more than its share of filler , and like all teenagers , Lohan contradicts herself . [ ... ] Perhaps Personal ' s vulnerability is calculated , and its rawness a misnomer , or maybe she 's really opening up . We 'll probably never know . Lindsay may no longer be on the edge of 17 , but being 19 , troubled , and ridiculously famous can cut pretty deep , so props to her for letting us see her bleed — just a little " .
Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone said Lohan " makes a fatal mistake on her second album : She tries to , like , express herself " , while a Los Angeles Times critic also gave the album a negative review , claiming that , " for most of the album , [ Lohan ] sounds like any other self @-@ absorbed teen , yearning to be Alanis , Gwen and even Stevie Nicks . " Whitney Strub of PopMatters stated , " what can one expect from an album that promises to get more personal but includes lyrics declaring , “ no one knows how I feel inside / And I ’ m keeping it that way ” ( from “ Fastlane ” ) ? " , and commenting that " with A Little More Personal , Lindsay Lohan reminds us that , despite such blossoms , pop still has the potential to climb the charts while combining blandness , banality and vapidity " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine considered A Little More Personal ( Raw ) " more consistent than its predecessor , and it 's not a bad listen by any means , but for all the so @-@ called weighty subject matter , there 's not much meat on these bones " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
A Little More Personal ( Raw ) debuted at number twenty on the Billboard 200 on the week of December 24 , 2005 with first week sales of 82 @,@ 000 copies , and stayed on the chart for seven weeks . The album debuted in the same week at the same position on the Billboard Digital Albums chart , dropping off the chart on the following week . A Little More Personal ( Raw ) was certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies . It was also certified Gold in Taiwan .
= = Promotion = =
Following the album 's release , it was reported that A Little More Personal ( Raw ) was certified Gold in Taiwan , and that Lohan was going on tour with the album in the country . " I just found this out today - my album went gold there . It was a great feeling because it was very unexpected " , the singer revealed . " I would love to ( tour Taiwan ) . I haven 't toured at all at this point , but I would really love to do that . It 's a great feeling to know that people in other places and other countries are aware of my music and what I do " . The tour , however , didn 't happen for unknown reasons . Lohan promoted the album in a few television appearances , including at MTV 's Total Request Live on the day of the album 's release , and at The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 14 , 2005 . The singer performed " Confessions of a Broken Heart " and her cover of " Edge of Seventeen " in the 2005 American Music Awards .
= = = Singles = = =
" Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " was previewed before the album 's release at AOL Music 's First Listen on September 30 , 2005 , . It was made available for purchase as a digital download and was sent to U.S. radio in October 2005 . A music video for the song , directed by Lohan herself , references her father Michael 's drunkenness and alleged domestic abuse , and was released on October 25 , 2005 . As a response to the music video , Michael Lohan wrote a letter to the New York Daily News , saying , " while I always considered and expressed how truly blessed Lindsay , as well as my other children are , I never realized how blessed I am to have a daughter as amazing as Lindsay . Hold onto my shirt honey , soon enough you 'll be able to hold on to me ! " " Confessions of a Broken Heart ( Daughter to Father ) " achieved moderate success , reaching number seven in Australia on the week of its debut on chart . The song spent thirteen weeks on the chart , peaking at number forty @-@ five on the last . In Austria , the song reached number seventy @-@ four on the week of March 24 , 2006 , dropping the chart in the following . In the United States , the song peaked at number fourteen on Hot Digital Songs on the week of December 3 , 2005 , while reaching number fifty @-@ seven on Billboard Hot 100 on the week of December 24 , 2005 . The song was Lohan 's first and only entry on the official Hot 100 .
" I Live for the Day " was planned as the second single , and a promotional CD was issued to radio stations in 2005 ; however , the plans were scrapped .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from the album 's liner notes .
Performance credits
Technical credits
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Olympic Games ceremony =
Olympic Games ceremonies of the Ancient Olympic Games were an integral part of these Games ; the modern Olympic games have opening , closing and medal ceremonies . Some of the elements of the modern ceremonies harken back to the Ancient Games from which the Modern Olympics draw their ancestry . An example of this is the prominence of Greece in both the opening and closing ceremonies . During the 2004 Games , the medal winners received a crown of olive branches , which was a direct reference to the Ancient Games , in which the victor 's prize was an olive wreath . The various elements of the ceremonies are mandated by the Olympic Charter and cannot be changed by the host nation . Even the artistic portion of the opening and closing ceremonies must meet the approval of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) .
The ceremonies have evolved over the centuries . Ancient Games incorporated ceremonies to mark the beginning and ending of each successive game . There are both similarities and differences between the ancient Olympic ceremonies and their modern counterparts . While the presentation of the Games has evolved with improvements in technology and the desire of the host nations to showcase their own artistic expression , the basic events of each ceremony have remained unchanged . The presentation of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies continue to increase in scope , scale and expense with each successive celebration of the Games , but they are still steeped in tradition .
= = Ancient forerunners = =
The Ancient Games , held in Greece from ca . 776 BC to ca . 393 AD , provide the first examples of Olympic ceremonies . The victory celebration , elements of which are in evidence in the modern @-@ day medal and closing ceremonies , often involved elaborate feasts , drinking , singing , and the recitation of poetry . The wealthier the victor the more extravagant the celebration . The victors were presented with an olive wreath or crown harvested from a special tree in Olympia by a boy , specially selected for this purpose , using a golden sickle . The festival would conclude with the victors making solemn vows and performing ritual sacrifices to the various gods to which they were beholden .
There is evidence of dramatic changes in the format of the Ancient Games over the nearly 12 centuries that they were celebrated . Eventually , by roughly the 77th Olympiad , a standard 18 @-@ event program was established . In order to open a Games in ancient Greece the organizers would hold an Inauguration Festival . This was followed by a ceremony in which athletes took an oath of sportsmanship . The first competition , an artistic competition of trumpeters and heralds , concluded the opening festivities .
= = Opening = =
The Olympic opening ceremonies represent the official commencement of an Olympic Games . In recent Olympics , athletic competition began prior to the opening ceremonies . For example , the football competitions for both men and women at the 2008 Summer Olympics began two days prior ( August 6 ) to the opening ceremonies . As mandated by the Olympic Charter , various elements frame the Opening Ceremonies of a celebration of the Olympic Games . Most of these rituals were canonized at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium .
= = = Artistic program = = =
The artistic program is what creates the idiosyncratic element of each ceremony . Coubertin 's initial vision of the Modern Olympics featured both athletic competitions and artistic achievements . As the modern Olympics have evolved into a celebration of sport , it is in the opening ceremonies that one can see the most of Coubertin 's ideal . The opening ceremonies are an important ritual of the Olympic games . They represent a wide variety of features such as similar qualities and messages that link together local and global issues , as well as cultural similarities at the same scopes . The artistic program of the ceremonies allows the host country to showcase its past and future in a comprehensive way . The ceremonies typically start with the raising of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . The host nation then presents artistic displays of music , singing , dance , and theater representative of its culture , history , and the current Olympic game motto . Since the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , the artistic presentations have continued to grow in scale and complexity . The opening ceremony at the Beijing Games , for example , reportedly cost US $ 100 million , with much of the cost incurring in the artistic portion of the ceremony .
= = = Parade of Nations = = =
The traditional part of the ceremonies starts with a " Parade of Nations " , during which most participating athletes march into the stadium , country by country . It is not compulsory for athletes to participate in the opening ceremonies . Due to the short time interval between the ceremonies and the first events of the Games , many athletes competing in these early events elect not to participate . It is most common for swimmers to forgo the Opening Ceremony because their events are early on the first day of competition .
For every Opening Ceremony , each host country has a theme . During the " Parade of Nations " , the host country ’ s goal is to represent their cultural identity and to show the world their place in society . For example , in the 2008 Beijing Olympics the theme was “ unity ” . On May 12 , 2008 , a devastating earthquake erupted in Sichuan . As the host country , China wanted to remember this tragic event by having Yao Ming , a Chinese basketball legend , walk hand @-@ in @-@ hand with Lin Hao , a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy who saved some of his classmates during the earthquake .
Each country 's delegation is led by a sign with the name of their country and by their nation 's flag . Traditionally ( starting at the 1928 Summer Olympics ) , Greece enters first , because of its historical status as the progenitor of the Olympics , while the host nation marches last . In the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , the Greek flag led the parade , while the Greek team marched in last , as the host nation .
All other participating teams march after Greece and before the host nation , in order according to a language selected by the organizing committee for those games , which is usually the dominant language in the area of the host city . Announcers announce each country 's name in English and French , as they both are the official languages of the Olympics , and the dominant language of the area of the host city , if neither English nor French are the dominant languages .
In the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , both Spanish and Catalan were official languages of the games , but due to the political sensitivity surrounding the use of Catalan , the nations entered in French alphabetical order . For unknown reasons , both the 1964 Summer Olympics ( held in Tokyo ) and the 1998 Winter Olympics ( held in Nagano ) had the nations enter in English alphabetical order instead of Japanese characters . In the 2008 Summer Olympics , teams were ordered by the number of strokes in the Chinese translation of the team name . In the 2010 Winter Olympics , teams entered in English alphabetical order , although the languages of the Olympics are also the languages of the host country , Canada , because English is the more dominant of the two in Vancouver and in the host province of British Columbia . In the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2014 Winter Olympics , the countries entered in the Cyrillic alphabetical order , which is the Russian language 's official script .
= = = Traditional events = = =
After all nations have entered , the President of the Organizing Committee makes a speech , followed by the IOC president . At the end of his speech , he introduces the representative of the host country who officially declares the opening of the Games . Despite the Games having been awarded to a particular city and not to the country in general , the Olympic Charter presently requires the opener to be the host country 's head of state . However , there have been many cases where someone other than the host country 's head of state opened the Games . The first example was at the Games of the II Olympiad in Paris in 1900 , which had no opening ceremony before as part of the 1900 World 's Fair . There are five examples from the United States alone in which the Games were not opened by the head of state .
The Olympic Charter provides that the person designated to open the Games should do so by reciting whichever of the following lines is appropriate :
If at the Games of the Olympiad ( Summer Olympics ) : I declare open the Games of [ name of the host city ] celebrating the [ ordinal number of the Olympiad ] Olympiad of the modern era .
If at the Winter Games : I declare open the [ ordinal number ] Olympic Winter Games of [ name of the host city ] .
Before 1936 , the opening official would often make a short welcoming speech before declaring the Games open . However , since 1936 , when Adolf Hitler opened both the Garmisch Partenkirchen Winter Olympics and the Berlin Summer Olympics , the openers have used the standard formula . Recent editions of the Winter Games have seen a trend of using the first version instead of the second , which happened in both the 2002 and 2010 Winter Games . There have been four further exceptions to the rule :
In 1976 , Elizabeth II , as Queen of Canada , opened the Montreal Olympics ( first in French followed by the English ) with :
I declare open the Olympic Games of 1976 , celebrating the XXI Olympiad of the modern era .
In 1984 , U.S. President Ronald Reagan opened the Los Angeles Summer Olympics with :
Celebrating the XXIII Olympiad of the modern era , I declare open the Olympic Games of Los Angeles .
In 2002 , U.S. President George W. Bush opened the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , which took place five months after the September 11 attacks , with :
On behalf of a proud , determined and grateful nation ... , then the standard opening formula followed .
In 2012 , Elizabeth II , as Queen of the United Kingdom , opened the London Summer Olympics with the same fashion in English , making it the second time that she opened the Games .
Next , the Olympic flag is carried horizontally ( since the 1960 Summer Olympics ) into the stadium and hoisted as the Olympic Hymn is played . The Olympic Charter states that the Olympic flag must " fly for the entire duration of the Olympic Games from a flagpole placed in a prominent position in the main stadium " . At most games , the flag has been carried into the stadium by prominent athletes of the host nation , but in 2012 , it was carried by an international group of athletes and non @-@ athletes famous for promoting Olympic values , including Muhammad Ali as a symbolic flag @-@ bearer .
The flag bearers of all countries then circle a rostrum , where one athlete of the host nation ( since the 1920 Summer Olympics ) , and one judge of the host nation ( since the 1972 Summer Olympics ) speak the Olympic Oath , declaring they will compete and judge according to the rules of their respective sport . Starting with the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , and continuing with the tradition started at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics a coach from the host nation also speaks the Olympic Oath .
= = = Olympic flame = = =
Finally , the Torch is brought into the stadium , passed from athlete to athlete during the torch relay , until it reaches the last carrier ; often a well @-@ known athlete from the host nation , who lights the fire in the stadium 's cauldron . Under IOC rules , the lighting of the Olympic cauldron must be witnessed by those attending the opening ceremony , implying that it must be lit at the location where the ceremony is taking place . Another IOC rule states that the cauldron should be witnessed outside by the entire residents of the entire host city . This was made evident during the opening ceremony for the 2010 Games in Vancouver . The venue chosen as the Olympic Stadium was BC Place , which at the time was an air @-@ supported domed stadium . Since there was no way the cauldron could be displayed outside and also be seen at the stadium , two cauldrons were used . For the first torch lighting inside the stadium the organizers chose three @-@ time speed skating medalist Catriona Le May Doan , Canadian Senator Nancy Greene , who won two medals for Canada at the 1968 Games , NBA star Steve Nash , a native of nearby Victoria , and hockey legend Wayne Gretzky , to each light one of four arms of the torch . Notably , Le May Doan 's arm refused to light ; this was later rectified during the closing ceremony when she got a second chance to light her part of the torch and succeeded .
After the official conclusion of the Opening Ceremony , Gretzky was whisked away to a waiting car which took him to the secondary cauldron . Once there , he lit it to correspond with the tradition of Olympics past .
During the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , the cauldron located inside Olympic Stadium ( London ) was not visible from outside of the stadium . The image of the lit cauldron was projected on the stadiums rooftop screens during the first week of competition , and live footage was available to all broadcast right holders . See List of 2012 Summer Olympics broadcasters .
= = = Doves = = =
Beginning at the post – World War I 1920 Summer Olympics , the lighting of the Olympic Flame was followed by the release of doves , symbolizing peace . ( Experienced athletes brought newspapers to cover themselves because of the birds ' droppings . ) The release was discontinued after several doves were burned alive in the Olympic Flame during the opening ceremony of the 1988 Summer Olympics . It was later replaced with a symbolic release of doves after the flame has been lit .
In the 2000 ceremony , a dove image was projected on an enormous white cloth held by the athletes on the stadium floor . In 2004 , an LED screen was used . In 2006 , acrobats formed the shape of a dove . The 2008 ceremony had fireworks representing doves . In 2010 , dove figures were projected on the stage floor . The 2012 ceremony had bicyclists with dove @-@ wings , lit by LEDs . In the 2014 ceremony several dancers , holding strands of blue LED lights , danced on the shape of a dove projected on the stadium floor .
= = Medal presentation = =
After each Olympic event is completed , a medal ceremony is held . The Summer Games would usually conduct the ceremonies immediately after the event at the respective venues , whereas the Winter editions would present the medals at a nightly victory ceremony held at a medal plaza , excluding the curling , figure skating , speed skating ( starting in 1994 ) , short track speed skating , and ice hockey events , in which medals are presented immediately after those events . A three – tiered rostrum is used for the three medal winners , with the gold medal winner ascending to the highest platform . The medals are awarded by a member of the IOC . The IOC member is usually accompanied by a person from sports federation governing the sport ( such as IAAF in athletics or FINA in swimming ) , who presents each athlete with a small bouquet of flowers . When the Games were held in Athens in 2004 , the medal winners also received olive wreaths in honor of the tradition at the Ancient Olympics . After medals are distributed , the flags of the nations of the three medalists are raised . The flag of the gold medalist 's country is in the center and raised the highest while the flag of the silver medalist 's country is on the left facing the flags and the flag of the bronze medalist 's country is on the right , both at lower elevations than the gold medalist 's country 's flag . The flags are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist 's country plays . Citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies . They aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag bearers .
Strict rules govern the conduct of athletes during the medal ceremony . For example , they are required to wear only pre @-@ approved outfits that are standard for the athlete 's national Olympic team . They are not allowed to display any political affiliation or make a political statement while on the medal stand . The most famous violation of this rule was the Black Power salute of Tommie Smith and John Carlos at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City . For their actions , IOC president Avery Brundage demanded their expulsion from the Olympics . If the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) did not comply , then Brundage demanded the removal of the entire track and field team of the United States . The USOC complied with his demands and Smith and Carlos were expelled .
As is customary , the men 's marathon medals ( at the Summer Olympics ) or the men 's 50 km cross @-@ country skiing medals ( at the Winter Olympics ) are presented as part of the Closing Ceremony , which take place later that day , in the Olympic Stadium , and are thus the last medal presentation of the Games .
= = Closing = =
In contrast to the opening ceremonies , many elements of the Olympic closing ceremonies gradually developed more by tradition than official mandate .
Like the opening ceremonies , the closing ceremonies begins with the raising of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . The traditional part of the closing ceremonies starts with the " Parade of Flags " , where flag bearers from each participating country enter the stadium in single file . Behind them march all of the athletes without any distinction or grouping by nationality . This " Parade of Athletes " , the blending of all the athletes , is a tradition that began during the 1956 Summer Olympics at the suggestion of Melbourne schoolboy John Ian Wing , who thought it would be a way of bringing the athletes of the world together as " one nation . " Prior to the 1956 Games , no Olympic Team had ever marched in the closing ceremony of the Modern or the Ancient Games . It was the very first International Peace March ever to be staged . ( In 2006 , the athletes marched in with their countrymen , then dispersed and mingled as the ceremonies went on . )
After all the athletes enter the stadium , the final medals ceremony of the Games is held . The organizing committee of the respective host city , after consulting with the IOC , determines which event will have its medals presented . During the Summer Olympics , this is usually the men 's marathon . Traditionally , the men 's marathon is held in the last hours of competition on the last day of the Olympics , and the race is won just before the start of the closing ceremony . However , recent Summer Olympiads in Atlanta , Beijing , and London staged the marathon in the early morning due to heat problems in the host city . Since the 2006 Winter Olympics , the medals for the men 's 50 km cross @-@ country skiing event were presented at the closing ceremony . The medallist 's national flags are then hoisted and the national anthem of the gold medallist 's country is played .
Next , two other national flags are hoisted on flagpoles one at a time while the corresponding national anthems are played : the flag of Greece to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games , and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games . In Moscow during the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott , the flag raised to represent the next games host was that of the City of Los Angeles instead of the flag of the boycotting @-@ United States . In Sydney and Athens , two Greek flags were raised because Greece was the next games host ( in 2000 ) and in 2004 , because Greece was hosting the games . Then , while the Olympic Hymn is played , the Olympic Flag that was hoisted during the opening ceremonies is lowered from the flagpole and carried from the stadium .
In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony ( because the tradition began at the Antwerp Games ) , the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic Flag to the president of the IOC , who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games . The receiving mayor then waves the flag eight times . There are three such flags :
The Antwerp flag was presented to the IOC at the 1920 Summer Olympics by the city of Antwerp , Belgium , and was passed on to the next organising city of the Summer Olympics until the 1988 Games in Seoul .
The Oslo flag was presented to the IOC at the 1952 Winter Olympics by the city of Oslo , Norway , and is passed on to the next organising city of the Winter Olympics .
The Seoul flag was presented to the IOC at the 1988 Summer Olympics by the city of Seoul , South Korea as a replacement for the Antwerp flag . This flag is passed on to the next organizing city of the Summer Olympics .
This tradition posed a particular challenge at the 2006 Winter Games in Turin , Italy . The flag was passed from Sergio Chiamparino , the mayor of Turin , to Sam Sullivan , the mayor of Vancouver , Canada . Mayor Sullivan , who is a quadriplegic , waved the flag by holding it in one hand and swinging his motorized wheelchair back and forth eight times .
The next host nation then introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of that country or city . This tradition began with the 1976 Games .
Afterwards , the president of the Organizing Committee makes a speech . The IOC president then makes a speech before closing the Olympics by saying :
And now , in accordance with tradition , I declare the Games of the [ ordinal number of Summer Olympics ] Olympiad / [ ordinal number of Winter Olympics ] Olympic Winter Games closed , and I call upon the youth of the world to assemble four years from now in [ name of next host city ] to celebrate the Games of the [ subsequent ordinal number of Summer Olympics ] Olympiad / [ subsequent ordinal number of Winter Olympics ] Olympic Winter Games .
Finally , the Olympic Flame is extinguished , marking the end of the Games .
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= Forest Park ( Portland , Oregon ) =
Forest Park is a public municipal park in the Tualatin Mountains west of downtown Portland , Oregon , United States . Stretching for more than 8 miles ( 13 km ) on hillsides overlooking the Willamette River , it is one of the country 's largest urban forest reserves . The park , a major component of a regional system of parks and trails , covers more than 5 @,@ 100 acres ( 2 @,@ 064 ha ) of mostly second @-@ growth forest with a few patches of old growth . About 70 miles ( 110 km ) of recreational trails , including the Wildwood Trail segment of the city 's 40 Mile Loop system , crisscross the park .
As early as the 1860s , civic leaders sought to create a natural preserve in the woods near Portland . Their efforts led to the creation of a municipal park commission that in 1903 hired the Olmsted Brothers landscape architectural firm to develop a plan for Portland 's parks . Acquiring land through donations , transfers from Multnomah County , and delinquent tax foreclosures , the city eventually acted on a proposal by the City Club of Portland and combined parcels totaling about 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) to create the reserve . Formally dedicated in 1948 , it ranks 19th in size among parks within U.S. cities , according to The Trust for Public Land .
More than 112 bird species and 62 mammal species frequent the park and its wide variety of trees and shade @-@ loving plants . About 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain falls on the forest each year . Many small tributaries of the Willamette River flow northeast through the woods to pipes or culverts under U.S. Route 30 at the edge of the park . One of them , Balch Creek , has a resident trout population , and another , Miller Creek , supports sea @-@ run species , including salmon .
Threats to the park include overuse , urban traffic , encroaching development , invasive flora , and lack of maintenance money . Occasional serious crimes and more frequent minor crimes occur in the park .
= = Geology and geography = =
Solidified lava from Grande Ronde members of the Columbia River Basalt Group underlie Forest Park . About 16 million years ago during the Middle Miocene , the Columbia River ran through a lowland south of its modern channel . Eruptions from linear vents in eastern Oregon and Washington flowed down this channel through what later became the Willamette Valley . These flows , some of which reached the Pacific Ocean , recurred at intervals between 16 @.@ 5 and 15 @.@ 6 million years ago and covered almost 60 @,@ 000 square miles ( 160 @,@ 000 km2 ) . About eight separate Grande Ronde Basalt flows have been mapped in the Tualatin Mountains ( West Hills ) , where they underlie the steepest slopes of Forest Park and form the columned rocks visible along Balch Creek Canyon and Northwest Cornell Road . The West Hills were later covered by wind @-@ deposited silts that become unstable when saturated with water . Stream bank instability and siltation are common , and landslides deter urban development at higher elevations .
Roughly 8 miles ( 13 km ) long , the park is less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide near downtown Portland and about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide at its northwestern end . It extends along the West Hills from West Burnside Street near downtown Portland to where the Willamette River divides to flow around Sauvie Island . Covering most of the east face of the ridge above the Willamette River , it is bounded by West Burnside Street on the south , Northwest Skyline Boulevard on the west , Northwest Newberry Road on the north , and Northwest St. Helens Road ( U.S. Route 30 ) on the east . Elevations above sea level vary from 50 feet ( 15 m ) near U.S. Route 30 at the base of the ridge to about 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) near the crest of the ridge along Northwest Skyline Boulevard .
In 2008 Forest Park ranked 19th in size among the largest city parks in the United States , according to The Trust for Public Land . The trust 's list included state parks , national parks , county parks , regional parks , and national wildlife refuges , as well as municipally owned parks located within cities . Chugach State Park in Anchorage , Alaska , was in first place with 490 @,@ 125 acres ( 1 @,@ 983 km2 ) .
Portland author Marcy Houle says that the park " captures the essence of what is natural and wild and beautiful about the Northwest ... From this forest sanctuary , panoramic views of the city of Portland , the Willamette and Columbia rivers , and five major peaks of the Cascade Range ... can be seen through the tall fir trees . From its inception ... , Forest Park has been a refuge for both people and wildlife , and an integral part of the environment of Portland . "
= = History = =
Before settlers arrived , the land that became known as Forest Park was covered by a Douglas @-@ fir forest . By 1851 , its acreage had been divided into donation land claims filed by settlers with plans to clear the forest and build upon the property . After logging , the steep slopes and unstable silt loosened by heavy rains caused landslides that defeated construction plans , and claims were defaulted or donated to the city .
Civic leaders beginning with the Reverend Thomas Lamb Eliot , a minister who moved to Portland in 1867 , sought to create a natural preserve in the woods that eventually became Forest Park . By 1899 , Eliot 's efforts led to the formation of the Municipal Park Commission of Portland , which in 1903 hired the highly regarded landscape architecture firm , the Olmsted Brothers of Brookline , Massachusetts , to study the city 's park system and recommend a plan . John Charles Olmsted , the stepson of Frederick Law Olmsted , spent May 1903 in Portland . The Olmsted Report , received in December , emphasized creation of a system of parks and linking parkways that would take advantage of natural scenery . It proposed a formal square for Union Station , squares along the downtown waterfront , and parks in places later known as Forest Park , Sellwood Park , Mount Tabor Park , Rocky Butte , and Ross Island , as well as Terwilliger Parkway , the 40 Mile Loop , and other connecting parkways . Proposed parks for Swan Island , in the Willamette River , and other places in Portland did not develop . Others like Forest Park came into being only many years later .
The city acquired land for Forest Park bit by bit over several decades . In 1897 , Donald Macleay , a Portland merchant and real @-@ estate developer , deeded a 108 @-@ acre ( 44 ha ) tract of land along Balch Creek to the city to provide an outdoor space for patients from nearby hospitals . In the 1890s , Frederick Van Voorhies Holman , a Portland lawyer and a president of the Oregon Historical Society , proposed a gift of 52 acres ( 21 ha ) of nearby land that was added to the city 's holdings in 1939 when his siblings , George F. and Mary Holman , completed the donation . Clark and Wilson Timber Company donated 17 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ) in 1927 to create a Western Oregon timber park near Northwest Germantown Road . Nine years later , the estate of Aaron Meier , one of the founders of the Meier & Frank chain of department stores , donated land for Linnton Park near Portland 's Linnton neighborhood along Highway 30 . These smaller parks became part of the larger park when it was finally created . Some of them , such as Macleay Park , are still referred to by their original names even though they are part of Forest Park .
Other parcels were acquired through government action . In 1928 , the City Council 's Delinquent Tax Committee transferred land to the Parks Bureau for a wildflower garden along Balch Creek . Multnomah County in that year gave the bureau perpetual use of about 145 acres ( 59 ha ) of land north of Washington Park . Encouraged by the City Club of Portland , which conducted a park feasibility study in 1945 , civic leaders supported the Forest Park project . In 1948 , Multnomah County transferred to the city another 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) acquired through delinquent tax foreclosures . On September 23 , 1948 , the city formally dedicated 4 @,@ 200 acres ( 17 km2 ) of land as Forest Park , which as of 2009 covered more than 5 @,@ 100 acres ( 21 km2 ) . It is one of the largest urban forest reserves in the U.S , though its exact ranking has been questioned . The city 's Parks and Recreation Department claims it is the " largest forested natural area within city limits in the United States " . However , an article in the Portland Tribune said Forest Park ranked no higher than third among U.S. urban forests in 2006 .
In 1991 , Metro , the regional governmental agency for the Oregon portion of the Portland metropolitan area , began budgeting for what became its Natural Areas Program aimed at protecting these areas in Multnomah , Washington , and Clackamas counties . By 1995 , the program had targeted 320 acres ( 130 ha ) next to or within Forest Park for acquisition . A 2006 bond measure allowed for the purchase of more land to expand the park , to protect its creeks ' headwaters and those of nearby streams in Washington County , and to link Forest Park to other public lands to the northwest .
= = Recreational network = =
Forest Park is a major component of a regional network of parks , trails , and natural areas managed by Metro . At the southeastern end of the park , Wildwood Trail , the centerpiece of the Forest Park trail system , passes through Macleay Park . This part of the larger park , which includes the Forest Park field headquarters , is heavily used by pedestrians entering Balch Creek Canyon from nearby city streets . Further southeast , Wildwood Trail , while still in Forest Park , passes Pittock Mansion and its panoramic views of Portland and five volcanic peaks : Mounts Rainier , Adams , St. Helens , Hood , and Jefferson . Shortly thereafter , the trail connects to adjoining Washington Park and attractions such as the Oregon Zoo . From this point and from more remote Forest Park trailheads near the St. Johns Bridge , other components of the 40 Mile Loop system of trails encircle the city . They follow the Willamette and Columbia rivers , the Columbia Slough and the Springwater Corridor along Johnson Creek and extend to the eastern suburbs of Fairview , Gresham and Boring . This trail network links more than 30 separate parks that offer diverse recreational opportunities , such as horse @-@ back riding , in @-@ line skating , canoeing , and viewing of wetland wildlife , in addition to hiking and biking . It connects to other trail systems such as Discovery Trail in Clark County , Washington , and the Terwilliger Trail running through Tryon Creek State Natural Area to Lake Oswego .
As of 2015 , this network of parks and trails is still expanding . Metro , the regional government , plans to link the 40 Mile Loop to trails along the Willamette River to Wilsonville , south of Lake Oswego . The regional government has also proposed connecting Wildwood Trail to the partly completed Westside Trail running north – south through Washington County to the Tualatin River . Another planned trail would extend the Springwater Corridor along a proposed Cazadero Trail to Barton on the Clackamas River . Longer @-@ term goals include trail links to the Sandy River Gorge Trail east of Gresham and the Pacific Crest Trail , which runs from Mexico to Canada and follows the Cascade Range through Oregon .
= = = Wildwood Trail = = =
More than 70 miles ( 110 km ) of trails and firelanes cut through the park . The longest trail in the park is the Wildwood Trail , of which about 27 miles ( 43 km ) is in Forest Park and about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) in Washington Park . It is also the longest section of the 40 Mile Loop , a trail network of roughly 150 miles ( 240 km ) reaching many parts of the Portland metropolitan area . The trail runs southeast to northwest from trail marker 0 in Washington Park to Northwest Newberry Road , just beyond trail marker 30 on the ridge above the southeastern end of Sauvie Island . The straight @-@ line distance from beginning to end is about 9 miles ( 14 km ) , but because the trail includes many switchbacks and hairpin turns , it is 30 @.@ 2 miles ( 48 @.@ 6 km ) long .
Wildwood Trail begins in Washington Park near the Oregon Zoo , a light rail stop , the Oregon Vietnam Veterans Memorial , the World Forestry Center and the Hoyt Arboretum . Blue diamonds placed about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above the ground appear on trees along the trail every 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) . The diamonds and the mileage markers above them are visible to hikers traveling in either direction on the path . In its first 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , the trail passes near the Portland Japanese Garden , Pittock Mansion , the Audubon Society of Portland wildlife sanctuary , and the Stone House in Balch Creek Canyon . From this point west , Wildwood Trail runs through forest generally uninterrupted by buildings but crisscrossed by shorter trails , small streams , roads , and firelanes .
= = = Other paths , streets , easements = = =
Many shorter Forest Park trails , roads , and firelanes intersect the Wildwood Trail . Most of the trails are open only to hikers and runners , but several roads and firelanes are open to bicycles or horses or both . Leif Erickson Drive , a road closed to motorized traffic , runs at lower elevation than and roughly parallel to the Wildwood Trail for about 11 miles ( 18 km ) from the end of Northwest Thurman Street to Northwest Germantown Road . Originally called Hillside Drive , it was renamed in 1933 at the request of the Sons of Norway , a fraternal organization . Easements for an oil line , a gas line , and electric transmission lines for the Bonneville Power Administration ( BPA ) cross the park . Paved roads surround the park , which is crossed or entered by other roads including Northwest Pittock Drive , Northwest Cornell Road , Northwest 53rd Drive , Northwest Saltzman Road , Northwest Springville Road , Northwest Germantown Road , Northwest Newton Road , and BPA Road .
= = Vegetation = =
Forest Park lies in the Coast Range ecoregion designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . In its natural state , the forest consists mainly of three tree species , Douglas @-@ fir , western hemlock , and western red cedar , and smaller numbers of grand fir , black cottonwood , red alder , bigleaf maple , madrone , and western yew . Much of the forest that existed here before 1850 was gone by 1940 . The stage of re @-@ growth in the forest depends on when it was last logged or burned .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , about one percent of the total vegetation in the park consisted of grasses , bracken , thistle , and fireweed in sections of the forest cleared two to five years earlier . Another two percent had reached the shrub stage , between three and thirty years old , with small trees dominated by such plants as thimbleberry , salmonberry , and blackberry . Forest areas 10 to 30 years old that contained tall alder and maple trees and smaller conifers accounted for about 20 percent of the park .
Larger areas were occupied by forests in which conifers had grown taller than the alders and maples . About 50 percent of Forest Park consists of these areas , which are between 30 and 80 years old and in which Douglas @-@ firs have begun to dominate . Another 25 percent of the park contains forests dominated by middle @-@ aged conifers , 80 to 250 years old . In these areas , red alders , which live for about 100 years , have begun to die , and the Douglas @-@ firs , which can live for 750 years , attain heights up to about 240 feet ( 73 m ) . Under the big trees are shade @-@ tolerant trees such as western red cedar , western hemlock , and grand fir and smaller plants such as Oregon @-@ grape , vine maple , and salal .
The last forest stage , old growth , is reached after 250 years and includes many snags , downed and dead trees , and fallen logs . Timber @-@ cutting and fires reduced old growth in Forest Park to " almost nothing " by 1940 , and most of the forest has not yet attained this stage . Patches exist near Macleay Park and further west near Germantown Road and Newton Road . The largest tree in Forest Park is a Douglas @-@ fir near the Stone House , the remains of a former public restroom near Balch Creek . It is 242 feet ( 74 m ) high , and the trunk is 18 @.@ 6 feet ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) in circumference .
Among the prominent wildflowers are Hooker 's fairy bells , vanilla leaf , evergreen violet , and trillium . Invasive species include English ivy , European holly , clematis , morning glory , and Himalayan blackberry . Citizen groups such as the No Ivy League. and The Forest Park Conservancy engage in projects to remove ivy , maintain trails , and plant native species .
= = Wildlife = =
Wildlife in Forest Park is strongly affected by contiguous tracts of nearby habitat that make the park accessible to birds and animals from the Tualatin River valley , the Oregon Coast Range , the Willamette River , Sauvie Island , the Columbia River , and the Vancouver , Washington , lowlands . Sixty @-@ two mammal species , including the northern flying squirrel , black @-@ tailed deer , creeping vole , bobcat , coyote , Mazama pocket gopher , little brown bat , Roosevelt elk , and Pacific jumping mouse frequent Forest Park . Blue grouse , great horned owl , hairy woodpecker , Bewick 's wren , orange @-@ crowned warbler , osprey , northern pygmy @-@ owl , and hermit thrush are among the more than 112 species of birds that have been observed in the park . In Balch Creek Canyon adjacent to Forest Park , the Audubon Society of Portland maintains a wildlife sanctuary with more than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of trails , a wildlife care center , and avian exhibits . Amphibian species frequenting the Audubon Society pond include rough @-@ skinned newts , Pacific tree frogs , and salamanders .
Pressure from habitat loss , pollution , hunting , and urban development has reduced or eliminated the presence of wolves , bears , and wild cats and has led to increased numbers of weasels , raccoons , and other small predators . Invasive plant species such as English ivy have made the habitat simpler and less supportive of native insects and the salamanders and other amphibians that feed on them . Roads in the area severely hamper the movement of large animals . Multnomah County has designated Northwest Cornell Road and Northwest Germantown Road as " rural collector " streets , carrying traffic of less than 3 @,@ 000 vehicles per day but more than streets designated as " local roads " . Dogs allowed to run ( illegally ) off @-@ leash in the park pose threats to birds , fish , and other wildlife .
= = Creeks = =
About 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain falls on Forest Park each year . Many small creeks , only a few of which are named , flow northeast through the park from the ridge at the top of the West Hills to the base of the hills near U.S. Route 30 . The five named streams from east to west are Balch Creek , Rocking Chair Creek , Saltzman Creek , Doane Creek , and Miller Creek . Rocking Chair Creek is a tributary of Saltzman Creek . After leaving the park , the streams pass through culverts and other conduits before reaching the Willamette River . These conduits block fish migration to and from the Willamette River except on Miller Creek , where the conduits are short and have been modified to assist the fish .
Near the east end of the park , the free @-@ flowing reaches of Balch Creek support a population of resident cutthroat trout . Near the west end , furthest from the city center , Miller Creek retains much of its historic nature and supports a greater diversity of aquatic organisms than other Forest Park streams . Biological field surveys of Miller Creek in 1990 noted sea @-@ run cutthroat trout , coho salmon , and short @-@ head cottid , as well as abundant macroinvertebrate species including stoneflies , mayflies , caddisflies , water striders , and crayfish .
= = Crime and other trouble = =
Multiple crimes have occurred in Forest Park , including two murders . In 2001 , a man who preyed on heroin addicts and prostitutes pleaded guilty to the 1999 murder of three women whose bodies were found in Forest Park near Northwest Saltzman Road , though forensic analysis showed the murders took place elsewhere and the bodies were brought to Forest Park . In 2003 , jurors convicted another man of the 1996 murder of his ex @-@ girlfriend on a Forest Park trail . Less serious crimes have included assault ( rarely ) , car break @-@ ins and petty theft ( frequently at trail heads ) , rare arsons , rare indecent exposure , and marijuana cultivation . Multnomah County Sheriff 's deputies in 2007 seized 114 mature marijuana plants found growing in the park on a hillside near Portland 's Linnton neighborhood . Deputies had seized another small grow operation in the park in 2005 . More common has been illegal camping by homeless transients and others . An illegal bicycling trail , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long , was discovered in a remote part of the park in February 2010 . In 2014 , hikers found a booby trap meant to fire a shotgun shell across a path leading to the park . Portland police removed the device .
In 2004 , authorities found a 53 @-@ year @-@ old man and his 12 @-@ year @-@ old daughter living in the park in a tarp @-@ covered structure stocked with encyclopedias for homeschooling . They told police they had been living in the park for four years . My Abandonment , a novel by Peter Rock , tells a story built around the incident .
In 1951 , a drought @-@ related blaze started by a campfire burned 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 650 ha ) near the western end of the park . In 2005 , a reporter for The Oregonian newspaper interviewed biologists , conservationists , Parks and Recreation officials , and others about the health of Forest Park and its future prospects . Collectively they identified threats to the park : urban development that restricts the movement of wild animals and birds ; overuse ; invasive plants ; loose dogs ; fire risk ; increasing rates of tree death ; lack of rule enforcement , and lack of money . In 2010 , the city hired a full @-@ time ranger assigned to Forest Park .
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= Orangutan =
The orangutans ( also spelled orang @-@ utan , orangutang , or orang @-@ utang ) are the two exclusively Asian species of extant great apes . Native to Indonesia and Malaysia , orangutans are currently found in only the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra . Classified in the genus Pongo , orangutans were considered to be one species . Since 1996 , they have been divided into two species : the Bornean orangutan ( P. pygmaeus ) and the Sumatran orangutan ( P. abelii ) . In addition , the Bornean species is divided into three subspecies .
Based on genome sequencing , the two extant orangutan species evidently diverged around 400 @,@ 000 years ago . The orangutans are also the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae , which also included several other species , such as the three extinct species of the genus Gigantopithecus , including the largest known primate Gigantopithecus blacki . The ancestors of the Ponginae subfamily split from the main ape line in Africa 16 to 19 million years ago ( mya ) and spread into Asia .
Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes and spend most of their time in trees . Their hair is typically reddish @-@ brown , instead of the brown or black hair typical of chimpanzees and gorillas . Males and females differ in size and appearance . Dominant adult males have distinctive cheek pads and produce long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals . Younger males do not have these characteristics and resemble adult females . Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes , with social bonds occurring primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring , who stay together for the first two years . Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan 's diet ; however , the apes will also eat vegetation , bark , honey , insects and even bird eggs . They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity .
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates ; they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage . The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities . There may even be distinctive cultures within populations . Field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Birutė Galdikas . Both orangutan species are considered to be endangered , with the Sumatran orangutan being critically endangered . Human activities have caused severe declines in the populations and ranges of both species . Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching , habitat destruction , and the illegal pet trade . Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild .
= = Etymology = =
The name " orangutan " ( also written orang @-@ utan , orang utan , orangutang , and ourang @-@ outang ) is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words orang meaning " person " and hutan meaning " forest " , thus " person of the forest " . Orang Hutan was originally not used to refer to apes , but to forest @-@ dwelling humans .
The Malay words used to refer specifically to the ape are maias and mawas , but it is unclear if those words refer to just orangutans , or to all apes in general . The first attestation of the word to name the Asian ape is in Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius ' 1631 Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis – he reported that Malays had informed him the ape was able to talk , but preferred not to " lest he be compelled to labour " . The word appeared in several German @-@ language descriptions of Indonesian zoology in the 17th century . The likely origin of the word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay .
Cribb et al . ( 2014 ) suggest that Bontius ' account referred not to apes ( which were not known from Java ) but rather to humans suffering some serious medical condition ( most likely endemic cretinism ) and that his use of the word was misunderstood by Nicolaes Tulp , who was the first to use the term in a publication .
The word was first attested in English in 1691 in the form orang @-@ outang , and variants with -ng instead of -n as in the Malay original are found in many languages . This spelling ( and pronunciation ) has remained in use in English up to the present , but has come to be regarded as incorrect . The loss of " h " in Utan and the shift from n to -ng has been taken to suggest that the term entered English through Portuguese . In 1869 , British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace , co @-@ creator of modern evolutionary theory , published his account of Malaysia 's wildlife : The Malay Archipelago : The Land of the Orang @-@ Utan and the Bird of Paradise .
The name of the genus , Pongo , comes from a 16th @-@ century account by Andrew Battell , an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in Angola , which describes two anthropoid " monsters " named Pongo and Engeco . He is now believed to have been describing gorillas , but in the 18th century , the terms orangutan and pongo were used for all great apes . Lacépède used the term Pongo for the genus following the German botanist Friedrich von Wurmb who sent a skeleton from the Indies to Europe .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny and genetics = =
The two orangutan species are the only extant members of the subfamily Ponginae . This subfamily also included the extinct genera Lufengpithecus , which lived in southern China and Thailand 2 – 8 mya , and Sivapithecus , which lived India and Pakistan from 12 @.@ 5 mya until 8 @.@ 5 mya . These apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today . Khoratpithecus piriyai , which lived in Thailand 5 – 7 mya , is believed to have been the closest known relative of the orangutans . The largest known primate , Gigantopithecus , was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China , India and Vietnam from 5 mya to 100 @,@ 000 years ago .
Within apes ( superfamily Hominoidea ) , the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene ( between 19 @.@ 7 and 24 @.@ 1 mya , according to molecular evidence ) and the orangutans split from the African great ape lineage between 15 @.@ 7 and 19 @.@ 3 mya .
= = = History of orangutan taxonomy = = =
The orangutan was first described scientifically in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus as Simia satyrus . The populations on the two islands were classified as subspecies until 1996 , when they were elevated to full species status , and the three distinct populations on Borneo were elevated to subspecies . The population currently listed as P. p. wurmbii may be closer to the Sumatran orangutan than the other Bornean orangutan subspecies . If confirmed , abelii would be a subspecies of P. wurmbii ( Tiedeman , 1808 ) .
Regardless , the type locality of P. pygmaeus has not been established beyond doubts , and may be from the population currently listed as P. wurmbii ( in which case P. wurmbii would be a junior synonym of P. pygmaeus , while one of the names currently considered a junior synonym of P. pygmaeus would take precedence for the northwest Bornean taxon ) . To further confuse , the name P. morio , as well as some suggested junior synonyms , may be junior synonyms of the P. pygmaeus subspecies , thus leaving the east Bornean populations unnamed .
In addition , some fossils described under the name P. hooijeri have been found in Vietnam , and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia . It is unclear if these belong to P. pygmaeus or P. abelii or , in fact , represent distinct species .
= = = Genomics = = =
The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011 . Following humans and chimpanzees , the Sumatran orangutan has become the third species of hominid to have its genome sequenced . Subsequently , the Bornean species would have its genome sequenced . Genetic diversity was found to be lower in Bornean orangutans ( P. pygmaeus ) than in Sumatran ones ( P. abelii ) , despite the fact that Borneo is home to six or seven times as many orangutans as Sumatra .
The comparison has shown these two species diverged around 400 @,@ 000 years ago , more recently than was previously thought . Also , the orangutan genome was found to have evolved much more slowly than chimpanzee and human DNA . Previously , the species was estimated to have diverged 2 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 9 mya . The researchers hope these data may help conservationists save the endangered ape , and also prove useful in further understanding of human genetic diseases .
Bornean orangutans have 48 diploid chromosomes .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
An orangutan has a large , bulky body , a thick neck , very long , strong arms , short , bowed legs , and no tail . It is mostly covered with long , reddish @-@ brown hair and grey @-@ black skin . Sumatran orangutans have more sparse and lighter @-@ coloured coats . The orangutan has a large head with a prominent mouth area . Though largely hairless , their faces can develop some hair in males , giving them a moustache .
Adult males have large cheek flaps to show their dominance to other males . The cheek flaps are made mostly of fatty tissue and are supported by the musculature of the face . Mature males ' throat pouches allow them to make loud calls . The species display significant sexual dimorphism ; females typically stand 115 cm ( 3 ft 9 in ) tall and weigh around 37 kg ( 82 lb ) , while flanged adult males stand 136 cm ( 4 ft 6 in ) tall and weigh 75 kg ( 165 lb ) . A male orangutan has an arm span of about 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) .
Orangutan hands are similar to human hands ; they have four long fingers and an opposable thumb . However , the joint and tendon arrangement in the orangutans ' hands produces two adaptations that are significant for arboreal locomotion . The resting configuration of the fingers is curved , creating a suspensory hook grip . Additionally , without the use of the thumb , the fingers and hands can grip tightly around objects with a small diameter by resting the tops of the fingers against the inside of the palm , creating a double @-@ locked grip .
Their feet have four long toes and an opposable big toe . Orangutans can grasp things with both their hands and their feet . Their fingers and toes are curved , allowing them to get a better grip on branches . Since their hip joints have the same flexibility as their shoulder and arm joints , orangutans have less restriction in the movements of their legs than humans have . Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees , orangutans are not true knuckle @-@ walkers , and are instead fist @-@ walkers .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Orangutans live in primary and old secondary forests , particularly dipterocarp forests and peat swamp forests . Both species can be found in mountainous and lowland swampy areas . Sumatran orangutans live at elevations as high as 1500 m ( 4921 ft ) , while Bornean orangutans live no higher than 1000 m ( 3281 ft ) . Other habitats used by orangutans include grasslands , cultivated fields , gardens , young secondary forest , and shallow lakes . Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes , spending nearly all their time in the trees .
Most of the day is spent feeding , resting , and travelling . They start the day feeding for 2 – 3 hours in the morning . They rest during midday then travel in the late afternoon . When evening arrives , they begin to prepare their nests for the night . Orangutans do not swim , although they have been recorded wading in water . The main predators of orangutans are tigers . Other predators include clouded leopards , wild dogs and crocodiles . The absence of tigers on Borneo may explain why Bornean orangutans can be found on the ground more often than their Sumatran relatives .
= = = Diet = = =
Orangutans are opportunistic foragers , and their diets vary markedly from month to month . Fruit makes up 65 – 90 % of the orangutan diet , and those with sugary or fatty pulp are favoured . Ficus fruits are commonly eaten and are easy to harvest and digest . Lowland dipterocarp forests are preferred by orangutans because of their plentiful fruit . Bornean orangutans consume at least 317 different food items that include young leaves , shoots , bark , insects , honey and bird eggs .
A decade @-@ long study of urine and faecal samples at the Gunung Palung Orangutan Conservation Project in West Kalimantan has shown that orangutans give birth during and after the high fruit season ( though not every year ) , during which they consume various abundant fruits , totalling up to 11 @,@ 000 calories per day . In the low @-@ fruit season , they eat whatever fruit is available in addition to tree bark and leaves , with daily intake at only 2 @,@ 000 calories . Together with a long lactation period , orangutans also have a long birth interval .
Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the climber species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine . It does not appear to have any effect on orangutans except for excessive saliva production .
Geophagy , the practice of eating soil or rock , has been observed in orangutans . There are three main reasons for this dietary behaviour : for the addition of mineral nutrients to their diet ; for the ingestion of clay minerals that can absorb toxic substances ; or to treat a disorder such as diarrhoea . Orangutans also use plants of the genus Commelina as an anti @-@ inflammatory balm .
= = = Social life = = =
Orangutans live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes . Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring . Adult males and independent adolescents of both sexes tend to live alone . Orangutan societies are made up of resident and transient individuals of both sexes . Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females , which may be their immediate relatives . One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male , who is their main mating partner .
Transient males and females move widely . Orangutans usually travel alone , but they may travel in small groups in their subadult years . However , this behaviour ends at adulthood . The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as solitary but social . Interactions between adult females range from friendly to avoidance to antagonistic . Resident males may have overlapping ranges and interactions between them tend to be hostile .
During dispersal , females tend to settle in home ranges that overlap with their mothers . However , they do not seem to have any special social bonds with them . Males disperse much farther from their mothers and enter into a transient phase . This phase lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant , resident male from his home range . Adult males dominate sub @-@ adult males .
Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed . The fruits tend to be abundant , so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions . Orangutans will also form travelling groups with members moving between different food sources . These groups tend to be made of only a few individuals . They also tend to be consortships between an adult male and female .
= = = Communication = = =
Orangutans communicate with various sounds . Males will make long calls , both to attract females and advertise themselves to other males . Both sexes will try to intimidate conspecifics with a series of low guttural noises known collectively as the " rolling call " . When annoyed , an orangutan will suck in air through pursed lips , making a kissing sound that is hence known as the " kiss squeak " . Infants make soft hoots when distressed . Orangutans are also known to blow raspberries .
= = = Nesting = = =
Orangutans build nests specialized for both day or night use . These are carefully constructed ; young orangutans learn from observing their mother 's nest @-@ building behaviour . In fact , nest @-@ building is a leading cause in young orangutans leaving their mother for the first time . From six months of age onwards , orangutans practice nest @-@ building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old .
Construction of a night nest is done by following a sequence of steps . Initially , a suitable tree is located , orangutans being selective about sites though many tree species are used . The nest is then built by pulling together branches under them and joining them at a point . After the foundation has been built , the orangutan bends smaller , leafy branches onto the foundation ; this serves the purpose of and is termed the " mattress " . After this , orangutans stand and braid the tips of branches into the mattress . Doing this increases the stability of the nest and forms the final act of nest @-@ building . In addition , orangutans may add additional features , such as " pillows " , " blankets " , " roofs " and " bunk @-@ beds " to their nests .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
Males mature at around 15 years of age , by which time they have fully descended testicles and can reproduce . However , they exhibit arrested development by not developing the distinctive cheek pads , pronounced throat pouches , long fur , or long @-@ calls until they are between 15 and 20 years old . The development of these characteristics depends largely on the absence of a resident male .
Males without them are known as unflanged males in contrast to the more developed flanged males . The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur very quickly . Unflanged and flanged males have two different mating strategies . Flanged males attract oestrous females with their characteristic long calls . Those calls may also suppress development in younger males . Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one , will force copulation on her . While both strategies are successful , females prefer to mate with flanged males and seek their company for protection against unflanged males . Resident males may form consortships with females that can last days , weeks or months after copulation .
Female orangutans experience their first ovulatory cycle around 5 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 1 years . These occur earlier in females with more body fat . Like other great apes , female orangutans enter a period of infertility during adolescence which may last for 1 – 4 years . Female orangutans also have a 22 – to 30 @-@ day menstrual cycle . Gestation lasts for 9 months , with females giving birth to their first offspring between the ages of 14 and 15 years .
Female orangutans have eight @-@ year intervals between births , the longest interbirth intervals among the great apes . Unlike many other primates , male orangutans do not seem to practice infanticide . This may be because they cannot ensure they will sire a female 's next offspring because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies .
Male orangutans play almost no role in raising the young . Females do most of the caring and socializing of the young . A female often has an older offspring with her to help in socializing the infant . Infant orangutans are completely dependent on their mothers for the first two years of their lives . The mother will carry the infant during travelling , as well as feed it and sleep with it in the same night nest . For the first four months , the infant is carried on its belly and never relieves physical contact . In the following months , the time an infant spends with its mother decreases .
When an orangutan reaches the age of two , its climbing skills improve and it will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans , a behaviour known as " buddy travel " . Orangutans are juveniles from about two to five years of age and will start to temporarily move away from their mothers . Juveniles are usually weaned at about four years of age . Adolescent orangutans will socialize with their peers while still having contact with their mothers . Typically , orangutans live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity .
= = Intelligence = =
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates . Experiments suggest they can figure out some invisible displacement problems with a representational strategy . In addition , Zoo Atlanta has a touch @-@ screen computer where their two Sumatran orangutans play games . Scientists hope the data they collect will help researchers learn about socialising patterns , such as whether the apes learn behaviours through trial and error or by mimicry , and point to new conservation strategies .
A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed orangutans can use " calculated reciprocity " , which involves weighing the costs and benefits of gift exchanges and keeping track of these over time . Orangutans are the first nonhuman species documented to do so . Orangutans are very technically adept nest builders , making a new nest each evening in only in 5 to 6 minutes and choosing branches which they know can support their body weight .
= = = Tool use and culture = = =
Tool use in orangutans was observed by primatologist Birutė Galdikas in ex @-@ captive populations . In addition , evidence of sophisticated tool manufacture and use in the wild was reported from a population of orangutans in Suaq Balimbing ( Pongo abelii ) in 1996 . These orangutans developed a tool kit for use in foraging that consisted of both insect @-@ extraction tools for use in the hollows of trees and seed @-@ extraction tools for harvesting seeds from hard @-@ husked fruit . The orangutans adjusted their tools according to the nature of the task at hand , and preference was given to oral tool use . This preference was also found in an experimental study of captive orangutans ( P. pygmaeus ) .
Primatologist Carel P. van Schaik and biological anthropologist Cheryl D. Knott further investigated tool use in different wild orangutan populations . They compared geographic variations in tool use related to the processing of Neesia fruit . The orangutans of Suaq Balimbing ( P. abelii ) were found to be avid users of insect and seed @-@ extraction tools when compared to other wild orangutans . The scientists suggested these differences are cultural . The orangutans at Suaq Balimbing live in dense groups and are socially tolerant ; this creates good conditions for social transmission . Further evidence that highly social orangutans are more likely to exhibit cultural behaviours came from a study of leaf @-@ carrying behaviours of ex @-@ captive orangutans that were being rehabilitated on the island of Kaja in Borneo .
Wild orangutans ( P. pygmaeus wurmbii ) in Tuanan , Borneo , were reported to use tools in acoustic communication . They use leaves to amplify the kiss squeak sounds they produce . The apes may employ this method of amplification to deceive the listener into believing they are larger animals .
In 2003 , researchers from six different orangutan field sites who used the same behavioural coding scheme compared the behaviours of the animals from the different sites . They found the different orangutan populations behaved differently . The evidence suggested the differences were cultural : first , the extent of the differences increased with distance , suggesting cultural diffusion was occurring , and second , the size of the orangutans ' cultural repertoire increased according to the amount of social contact present within the group . Social contact facilitates cultural transmission .
= = = Possible linguistic capabilities = = =
A study of orangutan symbolic capability was conducted from 1973 to 1975 by zoologist Gary L. Shapiro with Aazk , a juvenile female orangutan at the Fresno City Zoo ( now Chaffee Zoo ) in Fresno , California . The study employed the techniques of psychologist David Premack , who used plastic tokens to teach linguistic skills to the chimpanzee , Sarah . Shapiro continued to examine the linguistic and learning abilities of ex @-@ captive orangutans in Tanjung Puting National Park , in Indonesian Borneo , between 1978 and 1980 .
During that time , Shapiro instructed ex @-@ captive orangutans in the acquisition and use of signs following the techniques of psychologists R. Allen Gardner and Beatrix Gardner , who taught the chimpanzee , Washoe , in the late 1960s . In the only signing study ever conducted in a great ape 's natural environment , Shapiro home @-@ reared Princess , a juvenile female , which learned nearly 40 signs ( according to the criteria of sign acquisition used by psychologist Francine Patterson with Koko , the gorilla ) and trained Rinnie , a free @-@ ranging adult female orangutan , which learned nearly 30 signs over a two @-@ year period . For his dissertation study , Shapiro examined the factors influencing sign learning by four juvenile orangutans over a 15 @-@ month period .
= = Orangutans and humans = =
Orangutans were known to the native people of Sumatra and Borneo for millennia . While some communities hunted them for food and decoration , others placed taboos on such practices . In central Borneo , some traditional folk beliefs consider it bad luck to look in the face of an orangutan . Some folk tales involve orangutans mating with and kidnapping humans . There are even stories of hunters being seduced by female orangutans .
Europeans became aware of the existence of the orangutan possibly as early as the 17th century . European explorers in Borneo hunted them extensively during the 19th century . The first accurate description of orangutans was given by Dutch anatomist Petrus Camper , who observed the animals and dissected some specimens .
Little was known about their behaviour until the field studies of Birutė Galdikas , who became a leading authority on the apes . When she arrived in Borneo , Galdikas settled into a primitive bark and thatch hut , at a site she dubbed Camp Leakey , near the edge of the Java Sea . Despite numerous hardships , she remained there for over 30 years and became an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat , which is rapidly being devastated by loggers , palm oil plantations , gold miners , and unnatural forest fires .
Galdikas 's conservation efforts have extended well beyond advocacy , largely focusing on rehabilitation of the many orphaned orangutans turned over to her for care . Galdikas is considered to be one of Leakey 's Angels , along with Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey . According to the World Wildlife Fund , half of the habitat of the Bornean orangutan has been lost since 1994 .
A persistent folktale on Sumatra and Borneo and in popular culture , is that male orangutans display sexual attraction to human women , and may even forcibly copulate with them . The only serious , but anecdotal , report of such an incident taking place , is primatologist Birutė Galdikas ' report that her cook was sexually assaulted by a male orangutan . This orangutan , though , was raised in captivity and may have suffered from a skewed species identity , and forced copulation is a standard mating strategy for low @-@ ranking male orangutans .
A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village , Central Kalimantan , in 2003 . The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes . Since being freed , the orangutan , named Pony , has been living with the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation . She has been re @-@ socialised to live with other orang @-@ utans .
= = = Legal status = = =
In December 2014 , Argentina became the first country to recognize a non @-@ human primate as having legal rights when it ruled that an orangutan named Sandra at the Buenos Aires Zoo must be moved to a sanctuary in Brazil in order to provide her " partial or controlled freedom " . Although animal rights groups interpreted the ruling as applicable to all species in captivity , legal specialists considered the ruling only applicable to hominid apes due to their genetic similarities to humans .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Conservation status = = =
The Sumatran species is critically endangered and the Bornean species is endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals , and both are listed on Appendix I of CITES . The Bornean orangutan population declined by 50 % in the past 60 years . Its range has become patchy throughout Borneo , being largely extirpated from various parts of the island , including the southeast . The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River , but this environment is at risk .
Sumatran orangutan populations declined by 80 % in 75 years . This species is now found only in the northern part of Sumatra , with most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem . In late March 2012 , some of the last Sumatran orangutans in northern Sumatra were reported to be threatened with approaching forest fires and might be wiped out entirely within a matter of weeks .
Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7 @,@ 300 Sumatran orangutans and between 45 @,@ 000 and 69 @,@ 000 Bornean orangutans remain in the wild . A 2007 study by the Government of Indonesia noted a total wild population of 61 @,@ 234 orangutans , 54 @,@ 567 of which were found on the island of Borneo in 2004 . The table below shows a breakdown of the species and subspecies and their estimated populations from the report :
During the early 2000s , orangutan habitat has decreased rapidly due to logging and forest fires , as well as fragmentation by roads . A major factor in that period of time has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand . Palm oil is used for cooking , cosmetics , mechanics , and biodiesel . Hunting is also a major problem as is the illegal pet trade .
Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade , crop protection , or for use for traditional medicine . Orangutan bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Kalimantan , Indonesia . Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets , and many of these infants die without the help of their mother . Since 2004 , several pet orangutans were confiscated by local authorities and sent to rehabilitation centres .
= = = Conservation centres and organisations = = =
A number of organisations are working for the rescue , rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans . The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation , founded by conservationist Willie Smits . It is audited by a multinational auditor company and operates a number of large projects , such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Drøscher Nielsen .
Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park and Sebangau National Park in Central Kalimantan , Kutai in East Kalimantan , Gunung Palung National Park in West Kalimantan , and Bukit Lawang in the Gunung Leuser National Park on the border of Aceh and North Sumatra . In Malaysia , conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre in Sarawak and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak , and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary near Sandakan in Sabah . Major conservation centres that are headquartered outside of the orangutan 's home countries ; include Frankfurt Zoological Society , Orangutan Foundation International , which was founded by Birutė Galdikas , and the Australian Orangutan Project .
Conservation organisations such as Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans . It works to bring different stakeholders together to achieve conservation of the species and its habitat .
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= 1857 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1857 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season documented by HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – to feature no major hurricane . A total of four tropical cyclones were observed during the season , three of which strengthened into hurricanes . However , in the absence of modern satellite and other remote @-@ sensing technologies , only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea are known , so the actual total could be higher . An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated . Additionally , documentation by Jose Fernandez @-@ Partagas and Henry Diaz included a fifth tropical cyclone near Port Isabel , Texas ; this storm has since been removed from HURDAT as it was likely the same system as the fourth tropical cyclone .
The first storm was tracked beginning on June 30 offshore North Carolina . It moved eastward and was last noted on the following day . However , no tropical cyclones were reported in the remainder of July or August . Activity resume when another tropical storm was located southeast of the Bahamas on September 6 . It intensified into a hurricane before making landfall in North Carolina and was last noted over the north Atlantic Ocean on September 17 . The SS Central America sank offshore , drowning 424 passengers and crew members . Another hurricane may have existed east of South Carolina between September 22 and October 26 , though little information is available . The final documented tropical cyclone was initially observed east of Lesser Antilles on September 24 . It traversed the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico , striking the Yucatán Peninsula and later Port Isabel , Texas . The storm dissipated on September 30 . In Texas , damage was reported in several towns near the mouth of the Rio Grande River .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 43 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The ship Star of the South experienced heavy gales offshore the East Coast of the United States on June 30 . HURDAT lists the first tropical cyclone of the season beginning at 0000 UTC , while located about 100 miles ( 160 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The storm moved slightly north of due east with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . It was last noted about 265 miles ( 425 km ) north @-@ northwest of Bermuda by the bark Virginia late on July 1 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A tropical storm was first observed east of the Bahamas on September 6 . It moved slowly northwestward towards the coast of the United States and attained hurricane strength early on September 9 . The cyclone continued travelling northwest along the US coast , becoming a Category 2 hurricane whilst off the coast of Georgia on September 11 . On September 13 the cyclone made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina , but then quickly weakened to a tropical storm and turned eastward into the Atlantic on September 14 . Throughout September 15 , whilst over water , the storm regained hurricane strength and continued northward before becoming extratropical in the mid @-@ Atlantic on September 17 .
The hurricane caused much coastal damage particularly in the Cape Hatteras area during September 9 and September 10 and then to other parts of the North Carolina coast . Flooding was reported at New Bern . Considerable wind damage also occurred . An article from the Wilmington Journal reported that , " It looked as though everything that could be blown down , was down . Fences were prostrated in all directions , and the streets filled with the limbs and bodies of trees up @-@ rooted or twisted off . " . Several ships were caught in rough seas of the East Coast of the United States . The Norfolk was abandoned in pieces ten miles south of Chincoteague early on the morning of September 14 . Further south , on September 11 , the hurricane struck the steamer Central America which sprung a leak and eventually sunk on the night of September 12 with the loss of 424 passengers and crew . Also on board the ship were 30 @,@ 000 pounds of gold , the loss of which contributed to the financial Panic of 1857 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Based on reports bark Aeronaut and the schooner Alabama indicating a severe gale , Partagas and Diaz identified a Category 1 hurricane about 405 miles ( 650 km ) east of Charleston , South Carolina between September 22 and September 26 . Sustained wind speeds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) were observed . No evidence was found for a storm track so the hurricane was assigned a stationary position , at latitude 32 @.@ 5 ° N , 3 @.@ 5 ° W. Among the ships which encountered the hurricane was the brig Jerome Knight , which sprung a leak and sunk on the night of September 22 .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The final tropical cyclone was first observed at 0000 UTC on September 24 , while located about 420 miles ( 680 km ) east of Guadeloupe . Initially a tropical storm , it strengthened slightly before crossing the Leeward Islands on September 25 . In Guadeloupe , several ships at the port in Basseterre were swept out to sea . Continuing eastward , the storm soon entered the Caribbean Sea . Early on September 26 , the system strengthened into a hurricane . By September 28 , it was west of the Cayman Islands and had reached Category 2 strength . The storm weakened to a tropical storm after passing Cancun early on September 29 and impacted the Gulf coastline , near the United States – Mexico border , at that strength the next day before dissipating . At Port Isabel , Texas , several hundred homes were swept away , and several towns near the mouth of the Rio Grande also sustained damage .
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= Bolliger & Mabillard =
Bolliger & Mabillard , abbreviated B & M and formally known as Bolliger & Mabillard Consulting Engineers Inc . , is a roller coaster design consultancy based in Monthey , Switzerland . The company was founded in 1988 by Walter Bolliger and Claude Mabillard , with Bolliger as president and Mabillard as vice @-@ president . Since 1988 , B & M has built 100 roller coasters around the world and have pioneered several new ride technologies , most notably the inverted roller coaster . Since 1990 , all coasters designed by B & M that have been built within North America have been manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators which is located in Batavia , Ohio , United States . B & M started with four employees and has since grown ; as of 2012 it employs 37 people , mostly engineers and draftsmen . In 2016 the company completed its 100th coaster .
= = History = =
Walter Bolliger and Claude Mabillard starting working for Giovanola , a manufacturing company who supplied rides to Intamin , in the 1970s . During their time at Giovanola , they helped design the company 's first stand @-@ up roller coaster , Shockwave at Six Flags Magic Mountain . They also worked on other projects , such as Z @-@ Force at Six Flags Great America . Bolliger & Mabillard left Giovanola , but the company continued to use their track design , so the company 's roller coasters , Goliath at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Titan at Six Flags Over Texas , use a track style very similar to B & M 's .
In 1987 , Giovanola underwent a change of management ; Bolliger & Mabillard decided to leave , and founded their own company . At the time , B & M employed four people ; two draftsmen , Bolliger , and Mabillard . When B & M was created , the pair had agreed not to make any more amusement attractions . However , Six Flags contacted the new company and asked it to build a roller coaster . B & M accepted the offer and hired two more draftsmen . But B & M had a problem regarding how and where to manufacture the track pieces for the roller coaster . With the impression of the work done by Clermont Steel Fabricators on Vortex at Kings Island and Shockwave Six Flags Great America , Walter Bolliger went to the steel plant and asked if they would be interested in manufacturing the track . Clermont Steel Fabricators accepted and currently manufactures all Bolliger and Mabillard roller coaster track pieces for all of North America . Now with a company to manufacture the track , B & M built its first roller coaster , a stand @-@ up roller coaster , Iron Wolf , which opened in 1990 at Six Flags Great America . Two years later , Bolliger & Mabillard built another project for Six Flags Great America , Batman : The Ride , the world 's first Inverted Coaster , which brought them to prominence in the industry .
Bolliger & Mabillard also invented the Floorless Coaster , and the Dive Coaster . The company also built its first launched roller coaster , the The Incredible Hulk , which is at Universal 's Islands of Adventure . Although The Incredible Hulk uses a launch system , B & M classifies it as a " Sitting Coaster " . In 2010 , B & M unveiled its new Wing Coaster and premiered the prototype model , named Raptor , at Gardaland in 2011 . It has two seats on each side on the car that hang riders over the sides of the track . There are currently only five in operation . In 2015 , B & M constructed Thunderbird at Holiday World & Splashin ' Safari , its first in @-@ house launched coaster .
By 2010 , B & M employed twelve engineers , twelve draftsman , and two draftswomen . The company has made other contributions to the roller coaster industry . The company built the trains for the Psyclone , a now @-@ demolished wooden roller coaster at Six Flags Magic Mountain . The trains were later used on the park 's Colossus wooden roller coaster ( until it was refurbished by Rocky Mountain Construction ) , but were only used during October each year . The trains faced backward and usually raced against trains on the second track , which ran forward . In 2013 , B & M supplied new trains for Steel Dragon 2000 , built by D. H. Morgan Manufacturing in 2000 . As of 2012 , Bolliger & Mabillard has 85 operating roller coasters worldwide , twenty @-@ two of which are listed among the Amusement Today Golden Ticket Awards Top 50 Steel Coasters List for 2012 , and five are in the top 10 . The company has built more roller coasters than any other manufacturer on the list .
= = Features = =
Bolliger & Mabillard currently manufactures nine different roller coaster styles : Stand @-@ Up Coaster , Inverted Coaster , Floorless Coaster , Flying Coaster , Hyper Coaster , Dive Coaster , Sitting Coaster , Wing Coaster and Family Coaster . Bolliger & Mabillard has been involved in developing new technologies and concepts in roller coasters almost since its inception . It has often worked with engineer Werner Stengel , and with designers and management of client theme parks .
= = = Lift hills = = =
Many Bolliger & Mabillard coasters feature an element known as a " pre @-@ drop " , a short drop after the top of the lift hill and before the start of the first drop , designed to reduce tension on the lift chain . The flat section between the pre @-@ drop and the first drop serves as a shelf to support the weight of the train , reducing related stresses on the chain . On most coasters without a pre @-@ drop , the weight of the train tends to pull on the lift chain as it begins its descent because the latter half of the train is still being lifted by the chain . Pre @-@ drops have not been used on the company 's Dive or Flying coasters , or on hyper coasters built after 1999 . More recently , the pre @-@ drop is only used on coasters with curved drops , whereas coasters with straight drops – such as Hydra the Revenge at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom and Goliath at Six Flags Over Georgia – do not have pre @-@ drops . OzIris at Parc Astérix was the first B & M inverted roller coaster that does not feature a pre @-@ drop .
= = = Trains = = =
Most of Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coaster trains use four @-@ abreast seating . Each car has one row of four seats , while the train length can vary between coasters . All of the company 's coaster models , except the Dive Coaster and Wing Coaster use this configuration . The Dive Coaster uses six , eight or ten @-@ abreast seating , with two or three rows of seats . For example , Griffon at Busch Gardens Williamsburg , uses ten seats in three rows , while Krake at Heide Park uses six @-@ across seating in three rows . On recent hyper coaster projects , B & M has used a new car design that has two rows of two seats ; the two seats in the rear of the car pushed out from the centerline so that the four seats resemble a V formation . This formation has only been used on Behemoth at Canada 's Wonderland , Diamondback at Kings Island , Intimidator at Carowinds and Shambhala : Expedición al Himalaya at PortAventura . In 2013 , B & M introduced a new car design that has two rows of two seats , however , they are not in a V formation .
All B & M hyper coasters use a type of restraint called a " T @-@ bar " restraint , which consists of bar with a cushioned lap bar with two handles for riders to hold on to . This type of restraint generally does not use a seat belt , however seat belts have been added to Behemoth at Canada 's Wonderland , Diamondback at Kings Island , and Intimidator at Carowinds , all of which have the stadium style seating . Bolliger & Mabillard also uses over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints , in that the restraint is placed over the riders ' shoulders and sits and extends to the riders ' laps . This type of restraint is used on Dive , Inverted , Sitting , Flying , Floorless , Stand @-@ up , and Wing Coasters .
= = = Track = = =
A notable feature of Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters is the box @-@ section track . The running rails are connected to a box @-@ section spine , instead of the circular spine used by other manufacturers . When a train travels around a box @-@ section track , it creates a distinctive roaring sound , which is unique to this style of track . However , on some Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters , such as Talon at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom , the track is filled with sand to reduce this noise .
Also , depending on the model of the roller coaster , the track size can vary . Models such as the Flying , Wing , and Dive Coaster have heavier trains which require a larger track size while models with lighter trains , such as the Stand @-@ Up and Hyper Coaster , do not and use a smaller sized track .
= = = Brakes = = =
As of 2016 , Bolliger & Mabillard uses three types of braking system ; friction , magnetic , and water .
= = = = Friction brakes = = = =
When B & M was first founded , the linear magnetic eddy brake had yet to be developed , so it used friction brakes as its main braking system . On the train , pads are fitted beneath the seating areas . On the brakes , similar pads are connected to steel supports . When the pads on the train come into contact with the brakes , friction is created which slows the train . Beginning with Kumba in 1993 , friction brakes have also been used as trim brakes that regulate the speed of the train while it is still navigating the course .
= = = = Magnetic brakes = = = =
Magnetic brakes were first used on Nitro at Six Flags Great Adventure in 2001 . Magnetic brakes slow down trains much faster than friction brakes ; most B & M roller coaster built in or after 2001 have at least one set of magnetic brakes . Magnetic brakes do not make contact with the train . Fins that run parallel to the train are fitted beneath the seats . As the fins pass through the brakes , the magnetic field created by the brakes slows the train . Magnetic brakes have also been used as an alternate type of trim brake on B & M roller coasters such as Leviathan at Canada 's Wonderland .
= = = = Water brakes = = = =
Water brakes were first introduced on SheiKra at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay in 2005 . Water brakes can only be used when a splashdown element , in which a body of water surrounds a section of track , is present within the layout of the roller coaster . When scoops on the last car of each train come in contact with the surrounding water , the train slows down and the water is sprayed several feet into the air behind it .
= = List of roller coasters = =
Bolliger & Mabillard has built over 100 roller coasters as of 2015 . All are still in operation , except the original Incredible Hulk which was dismantled in 2015 and completely replaced in 2016 . Some have been relocated and renamed .
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= Stephen Breyer =
Stephen Gerald Breyer ( / ˈbraɪər / ; born August 15 , 1938 ) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1994 , and known for his pragmatic approach to constitutional law , Breyer is generally associated with the more liberal side of the Court .
Following a clerkship with Supreme Court Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg in 1964 , Breyer became well known as a law professor and lecturer at Harvard Law School , starting in 1967 . There he specialized in administrative law , writing a number of influential textbooks that remain in use today . He held other prominent positions before being nominated for the Supreme Court , including special assistant to the United States Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust , assistant special prosecutor on the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973 , and serving on the First Circuit Court of Appeals from 1980 to 1994 .
In his 2005 book Active Liberty , Breyer made his first attempt to systematically lay out his views on legal theory , arguing that the judiciary should seek to resolve issues in a manner that encourages popular participation in governmental decisions .
= = Early life and education = =
Breyer was born in San Francisco , California , the son of Anne A. ( née Roberts ) and Irving Gerald Breyer , and raised in a middle @-@ class Jewish family . Irving Breyer was legal counsel for the San Francisco Board of Education . Both Breyer and his younger brother , Charles , who is a federal district judge , are Eagle Scouts of San Francisco 's Troop 14 . Breyer 's paternal great @-@ grandfather emigrated from Romania to the United States , settling in Cleveland , where Breyer 's grandfather was born . In 1955 , Breyer graduated from Lowell High School . At Lowell , he was a member of the Lowell Forensic Society and debated regularly in high school tournaments , including against future California governor Jerry Brown and future Harvard Law School professor Laurence Tribe .
Breyer received a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy from Stanford University , a Bachelor of Arts from Magdalen College at Oxford University as a Marshall Scholar , and a Bachelor of Laws ( LL.B ) from Harvard Law School . He is also fluent in French .
In 1967 , he married the Hon. Joanna Freda Hare , a psychologist and member of the British aristocracy , as the youngest daughter of John Hare , 1st Viscount Blakenham . The Breyers have three adult children : Chloe , an Episcopal priest and author of The Close ; Nell , and Michael .
= = Legal career = =
Breyer served as a law clerk to Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg during the 1964 term ( list ) , and served briefly as a fact @-@ checker for the Warren Commission . He was a special assistant to the United States Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust from 1965 to 1967 and an assistant special prosecutor on the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973 . Breyer was a special counsel to the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary from 1974 to 1975 and served as chief counsel of the committee from 1979 to 1980 . He worked closely with the chairman of the committee , Senator Edward M. Kennedy , to pass the Airline Deregulation Act that closed the Civil Aeronautics Board .
Breyer was a lecturer , assistant professor , and law professor at Harvard Law School starting in 1967 . He taught there until 1994 , also serving as a professor at Harvard 's Kennedy School of Government from 1977 to 1980 . At Harvard , Breyer was known as a leading expert on administrative law . While there , he wrote two highly influential books on deregulation : Breaking the Vicious Circle : Toward Effective Risk Regulation and Regulation and Its Reform . In 1970 , Breyer wrote " The Uneasy Case for Copyright " , one of the most widely cited skeptical examinations of copyright . Breyer was a visiting professor at the College of Law in Sydney , Australia , the University of Rome , and the Tulane University Law School .
= = Judicial career = =
From 1980 to 1994 , Breyer was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit ; he was the court 's Chief Judge from 1990 to 1994 . In the last days of President Jimmy Carter 's administration , on November 13 , 1980 , Carter nominated Breyer to the First Circuit , and the U.S. Senate confirmed him on December 9 , 1980 , by an 80 – 10 vote . He served as a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States between 1990 and 1994 and the United States Sentencing Commission between 1985 and 1989 . On the sentencing commission , Breyer played a key role in reforming federal criminal sentencing procedures , producing the Federal Sentencing Guidelines , which were formulated to increase uniformity in sentencing .
In 1993 , President Bill Clinton considered him for the seat vacated by Byron White that ultimately went to Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg . Breyer 's appointment came shortly thereafter , however , following the retirement of Harry Blackmun in 1994 , when Clinton nominated Breyer as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court on May 13 of that year . Breyer was confirmed by the U.S. Senate in an 87 to 9 vote and took his seat August 3 , 1994 . Breyer was the second @-@ longest @-@ serving junior justice in the history of the Court , close to surpassing the record set by Justice Joseph Story of 4 @,@ 228 days ( from February 3 , 1812 , to September 1 , 1823 ) ; Breyer fell 29 days short of tying this record , which he would have reached on March 1 , 2006 , had Justice Samuel Alito not joined the Court on January 31 , 2006 .
= = Judicial philosophy = =
= = = In general = = =
Breyer 's pragmatic approach to the law " will tend to make the law more sensible " ; according to Cass Sunstein , Breyer 's " attack on originalism is powerful and convincing " . In 2006 , Breyer said that in assessing a law 's constitutionality , while some of his colleagues " emphasize language , a more literal reading of the [ Constitution 's ] text , history and tradition " , he looks more closely to the " purpose and consequences " .
Breyer has consistently voted in favor of abortion rights , one of the most controversial areas of the Supreme Court 's docket . He has also defended the Supreme Court 's use of foreign law and international law as persuasive ( but not binding ) authority in its decisions . However , Breyer is also recognized to be deferential to the interests of law enforcement and to legislative judgments in the Supreme Court 's First Amendment rulings . Breyer has also demonstrated a consistent pattern of deference to Congress , voting to overturn congressional legislation at a lower rate than any other Supreme Court justice since 1994 .
Breyer 's extensive experience in administrative law is accompanied by his staunch defense of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines . Breyer rejects the strict interpretation of the Sixth Amendment espoused by Justice Scalia that all facts necessary to criminal punishment must be submitted to a jury and proved beyond a reasonable doubt . In many other areas on the Court , too , Breyer 's pragmatism is considered the intellectual counterweight to Scalia 's textualist philosophy .
In describing his interpretive philosophy , Breyer has sometimes noted his use of six interpretive tools : text , history , tradition , precedent , the purpose of a statute , and the consequences of competing interpretations . Breyer notes that only the last two differentiate him from textualists on the Supreme Court such as Scalia . Breyer argues that these sources are necessary , however , and in the former case ( purpose ) , can in fact provide greater objectivity in legal interpretation than looking merely at what is often ambiguous statutory text . With the latter ( consequences ) , Breyer argues that considering the impact of legal interpretations is a further way of ensuring consistency with a law 's intended purpose .
= = = Active Liberty = = =
Breyer expounded on his judicial philosophy in 2005 in Active Liberty : Interpreting Our Democratic Constitution . In it , Breyer urges judges to interpret legal provisions ( of the Constitution or of statutes ) in light of the purpose of the text and how well the consequences of specific rulings will fit those purposes . The book is considered a response to the 1997 book A Matter of Interpretation , in which Antonin Scalia emphasized adherence to the original meaning of the text alone .
In Active Liberty , Breyer argues that the Framers of the Constitution sought to establish a democratic government involving the maximum liberty for its citizens . Breyer refers to Isaiah Berlin ’ s Two Concepts of Liberty . The first Berlinian concept , being what most people understand by liberty , is " freedom from government coercion " . Berlin termed this " negative liberty " and warned against its diminution ; Breyer calls this " modern liberty " . The second Berlinian concept – " positive liberty " – is the " freedom to participate in the government " . In Breyer 's terminology , this is the " active liberty " which the judge should champion . Having established what " active liberty " is , and positing the primary importance ( to the Framers ) of this concept over the competing idea of " negative liberty " , Breyer argues a predominantly utilitarian case for judges making rulings that give effect to the democratic intentions of the Constitution .
Both of the books ' historical premises and practical prescriptions have been challenged . For example , according to Peter Berkowitz , the reason that " [ t ] he primarily democratic nature of the Constitution 's governmental structure has not always seemed obvious " , as Breyer puts it , is " because it 's not true , at least in Breyer 's sense that the Constitution elevates active liberty above modern [ negative ] liberty " . Breyer 's position " demonstrates not fidelity to the Constitution " , Berkowitz argues , " but rather a determination to rewrite the Constitution 's priorities " . Berkowitz suggests that Breyer is also inconsistent , in failing to apply this standard to the issue of abortion , instead preferring decisions " that protect women 's modern liberty , which remove controversial issues from democratic discourse " . Failing to answer the textualist charge that the Living Documentarian Judge is a law unto himself , Berkowitz argues that Active Liberty " suggests that when necessary , instead of choosing the consequence that serves what he regards as the Constitution ’ s leading purpose , Breyer will determine the Constitution ’ s leading purpose on the basis of the consequence that he prefers to vindicate " .
Against the last charge , Cass Sunstein has defended Breyer , noting that of the nine justices on the late Rehnquist Court , Breyer showed the highest percentage of votes to uphold acts of Congress and also to defer to the decision of the executive branch . However , according to Jeffrey Toobin in The New Yorker , " Breyer concedes that a judicial approach based on ' active liberty ' will not yield solutions to every constitutional debate , " and that , in Breyer 's words , " Respecting the democratic process does not mean you abdicate your role of enforcing the limits in the Constitution , whether in the Bill of Rights or in separation of powers . "
To his point , and from a discussion at the New York Historical Society in March 2006 , Breyer has noted that " democratic means " did not bring about an end to slavery , or the concept of " one man , one vote " , which allowed corrupt and discriminatory ( but democratically @-@ inspired ) state laws to be overturned in favor of civil rights .
= = = Other books = = =
In 2010 , Breyer released a second book , Making Our Democracy Work : A Judge 's View ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0307269911 ) .
In 2015 , Breyer released a third book , The Court and the World : American Law and the New Global Realities , examining the interplay between US and international law and how the realities of a globalized world need to be considered in US cases .
= = = Other views = = =
In an interview on Fox News Sunday on December 12 , 2010 , Breyer stated that based on the values and the historical record , the Founding Fathers of the United States never intended guns to go unregulated and that history supports his and the other dissenters ' views in District of Columbia v. Heller . He summarized :
We 're acting as judges . If we 're going to decide everything on the basis of history – by the way , what is the scope of the right to keep and bear arms ? Machine guns ? Torpedoes ? Handguns ? Are you a sportsman ? Do you like to shoot pistols at targets ? Well , get on the subway and go to Maryland . There is no problem , I don 't think , for anyone who really wants to have a gun .
In the wake of the controversy over Justice Samuel Alito 's reaction to President Barack Obama 's criticism of the Court 's Citizens United v. FEC ruling in his 2010 State of the Union Address , Breyer said he would continue to attend the address :
I think it 's very , very , very important – very important – for us to show up at that State of the Union , because people today are more and more visual . What [ people ] see in front of them at the State of the Union is that federal government . And I would like them to see the judges too , because federal judges are also a part of that government .
= = = Honors = = =
In 2007 , Breyer was honored with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America .
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= 1949 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1949 Atlantic hurricane season was the last season that tropical cyclones were not publicly named by the United States Weather Bureau . It officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The first storm , Hurricane One , developed north of the Lesser Antilles on August 21 . The final system , Tropical Storm Sixteen , dissipated in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 5 . It was a fairly active season , featuring 16 tropical storms and seven hurricanes . Two of these strengthened into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Two . It caused up to $ 52 million ( 1949 USD ) and two deaths after making landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane . Another storm inflicting severe impact was Hurricane Ten . Striking Texas as a Category 2 hurricane , this storm brought heavy rainfall , strong winds , and storm surge to the state , with damage reaching about $ 6 @.@ 7 million . In late September , Hurricane Nine caused 15 deaths and over $ 1 million in damage in Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic . The third tropical storm caused seven fatalities from drowning on Barbados . Several other systems brought minor impacts to land . Overall , storms during this season caused about $ 59 @.@ 8 million in damage and 26 fatalities .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1949 . However , tropical cyclogenesis did not begin until August 21 , over two months after the start of the season . Overall , there were 16 tropical storms , seven of which strengthened into hurricanes . Three of these intensified into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) . Four hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing 26 deaths and $ 59 @.@ 8 million in damage . The last storm of the season , Tropical Storm Sixteen , dissipated on November 5 , about 10 days before the official end of the season on November 15 .
No activity was observed until the first system was located north of the Lesser Antilles on August 21 . The hurricane later threatened the Outer Banks of North Carolina , where it caused two deaths and about $ 50 @,@ 000 in damage . By August 23 , the Florida hurricane developed near the Lesser Antilles . It later peaked as a low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale and struck South Florida at that intensity . The storm severely impacted the Florida peninsula and left two deaths and approximately $ 52 million in losses . On August 30 , the third system of the season struck the Leeward Islands , causing some impact and seven deaths by drowning on Barbados . A fourth system was first observed near Puerto Rico on September 3 . It peaked as a Category 3 hurricane while passing east on Bermuda . After becoming extratropical , the remnants of this storm struck Newfoundland . Tropical Storm Five also developed on September 3 , in the southern Gulf of Mexico and struck Louisiana on September 4 . It caused minor damage in Mississippi and Louisiana , totaling less than $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Neither the sixth or seventh tropical systems impacted land . The eighth hurricane was initially observed in the Gulf of Mexico on September 20 . It meandered erratically for several days , until eventually making landfall in Veracruz . The system produced above normal tides and locally heavy rains in Texas and Louisiana . Hurricane Nine was initially spotted near the Leeward Islands on September 20 . It struck Dominican Republic on September 22 , shortly before dissipating . The storm left over $ 1 million in damage and 15 deaths in Dominican Republican and Puerto Rico . On September 27 , the tenth hurricane developed in the Pacific Ocean offshore Guatemala . The system eventually reached the Gulf of Mexico and struck Texas as a Category 2 hurricane on October 4 . The adverse effects of this storm resulted in two deaths and $ 6 @.@ 7 million in damage . No impact was reported from the final three storms , the last of which dissipated on November 5 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 98 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
A tropical storm was first observed about a few hundred miles north of the Lesser Antilles on August 21 . The storm moved west @-@ northwestward and was upgraded to a hurricane 12 hours later , after various surface vessels reported winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It paralleled The Bahamas and turned northward on August 23 . Further intensification continued until August 24 , with the storm approaching major hurricane status . At 00 : 00 UTC it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The eye of the cyclone later passed over the Diamond Shoals Lightship , which recorded a minimum central barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) while located offshore of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The cyclone became extratropical on August 25 and dissipated near Iceland on August 30 .
In the Hatteras area , sustained winds reached 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) , while rainfall up to 4 in ( 100 mm ) was observed . Thousands of trees were destroyed in Buxton . Damage was estimated at $ 50 @,@ 000 , mostly in the Buxton area . Additionally , the storm was attributed to two fatalities . Later on August 24 , the storm curved east @-@ northeastward and began to slowly weaken . By 00 : 00 UTC on August 26 , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located well south of Newfoundland . It was known as Hurricane Harry in newspapers .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A tropical storm developed east of the northernmost Lesser Antilles on August 23 . It moved west @-@ northwestward and strengthened , becoming a hurricane on August 24 . Moving through the Bahamas , the storm rapidly strengthened over the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf Stream . It became a major hurricane on August 26 and then passed just north of Nassau . At 18 : 00 UTC on that day , it peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) . Five hours later , the storm made landfall in Lake Worth , Florida , at the same intensity . On August 27 , the hurricane weakened quickly after moving inland over Lake Okeechobee , but otherwise maintained hurricane intensity as it curved northward into southern Georgia . At 00 : 00 UTC on August 28 , it degenerated into a tropical storm . It later ejected northeastward and tracked rapidly across the Southeastern United States , Mid @-@ Atlantic , and New England . On August 29 , the storm became extratropical over New Hampshire .
In Florida , the storm produced strong winds , with highest official observations being sustained winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) at the Palm Beach International Airport and gusts of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) in Palm Beach . The most severe damage in South Florida occurred in Palm Beach , Jupiter , and Stuart ; hundreds of homes , apartment buildings , stores , and warehouse buildings lost roofs and windows . Interior furnishings were blown through broken glass into the streets . Approximately 90 % of homes and buildings were damaged in Stuart , leaving about 500 people homeless . Additionally , heavy rainfall caused water to enter numerous homes in Martin and Palm Beach Counties . Significant damage to crops also occurred , particularly to citrus . In Florida alone , the hurricane caused two deaths and at least $ 52 million in damage , $ 20 million of which was to agriculture . Minor impact was reported in other states , with local flooding and light wind damage in Georgia , The Carolinas , and Maryland .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
A tropical depression formed to the east of the Lesser Antilles on August 30 . It moved steadily west @-@ northwestward , passing over Barbados as a weak tropical storm . Seven people drowned on the island and 27 houses were destroyed in Bridgetown . After entering the Caribbean Sea on September 1 , hostile conditions weakened the storm , and the third tropical cyclone of the season degenerated into a tropical wave on September 3 to the south of the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical storm east of Puerto Rico on September 3 . It moved northward and strengthened to a hurricane later that day , but then weakened to a strong tropical storm the next day . At the same time , the system halted its forward motion and began to drift eastward . Early on September 5 , it re @-@ intensified into a hurricane , and it became a major hurricane on September 6 . The storm turned to the north on September 7 and passed about 65 mi ( 105 km ) east of Bermuda on September 8 . The hurricane weakened as it accelerated northeastward over cooler waters , and became extratropical on September 10 near Atlantic Canada . Shortly after becoming extratropical , it passed over Newfoundland , and ultimately dissipated on September 11 near southwestern Greenland .
The hurricane produced gale force winds on Bermuda , though overall , no damage was reported . In Newfoundland , the storm brought rainfall up to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in many areas . The Bayfield was smashed into pieces along the rocky shores , though the all of the crewmen swam to safety .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
Early on September 3 , a tropical storm developed in the south @-@ central Gulf of Mexico . Throughout much of its duration , the storm headed north @-@ northwestward , gradually intensifying into a moderate tropical storm . At around 12 : 00 UTC on September 4 , the storm made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana , while at its peak intensity . While moving inland , it passed west of New Orleans and east of Vicksburg , Mississippi . The storm curved northeastward and slowly weakened across the Southern United States . Late on September 5 , it dissipated over Tennessee . Damage was minimal in Louisiana and Mississippi , likely amounting to less than $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
The sixth tropical storm of the season was first observed on September 5 , while located about half @-@ way between the northern Lesser Antilles and the Azores . The storm moved to the northwest and reached its peak intensity early on September 12 . It then became extratropical , turning to the northeast before curving southeastward . It dissipated on September 16 .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
An extratropical system developed into a tropical storm offshore The Carolinas on September 11 . The storm moved west @-@ northwestward and strengthened slightly , peaking with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . It then weakened somewhat before making landfall near Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina on September 13 with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm soon weakened to a tropical depression and curved northeastward . It dissipated over southeastern Virginia on September 14 .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
A tropical storm developed early on September 13 , while located about 595 miles ( 960 km ) west of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde . The storm slowly strengthened while moving north @-@ northeastward across the eastern Atlantic Ocean for much of its duration . Late on September 14 , the system attained its peak intensity . Thereafter , it began to weakened and fell to tropical depression intensity on September 17 . Later that day , the storm dissipated about 475 miles ( 765 km ) south of the central Azores .
= = = Hurricane Nine = = =
A tropical wave entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 18 . It moved northwestward and developed into a tropical storm on September 20 , while offshore Louisiana . The storm continued northwestward , then turned to the southwest , and erratically looped to the south on September 22 . Steadily strengthening as it tracked south @-@ southwestward , the storm intensified into a hurricane on September 24 . After turning to the southwest , it reached its peak intensity on September 25 . The hurricane weakened as it turned to the south @-@ southeast then south and fell to tropical storm intensity shortly before making landfall between Veracruz and Nautla . The system dissipated by September 26 . Operationally , the storm was treated as two separate storms , due to reconnaissance aircraft being unable to report a center of circulation on September 23 . The storm produced 2 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher than normal tides along the coast of Texas and Louisiana , while its outer rainbands produced locally heavy rainfall .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
A strong tropical wave approached the Lesser Antilles on September 20 . Reconnaissance aircraft reports indicated the system initially lacked a circulation . However , based on a ship report of westerly winds , it is estimated the system developed into a tropical storm late on September 20 , while located about 100 miles ( 160 km ) south @-@ southeast of Saint Croix . A small storm , it quickly strengthened as it traversed west @-@ northwestward , and became a hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC on September 21 . After reaching peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) the hurricane weakened , and it made landfall on September 22 on the southeastern Dominican Republic as a tropical storm . The storm rapidly dissipated after moving inland .
Strong winds resulted in heavy damage in Saint Croix . In Puerto Rico , where it was known as the San Mateo Hurricane , wind gusts from the hurricane peaked at 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) in Ramey . Gusty winds disrupted electrical and telephone services between Ponce and Mayagüez . In the latter , residents were evacuated inland to Red Cross shelters . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall of up to 13 @.@ 56 in ( 344 mm ) in San Lorenzo , which caused flooding in several rivers in the northern portion of the island . Damage in Puerto Rico totaled to over $ 1 million , mainly to coffee crops and buildings . In the Dominican Republic , the hurricane killed 15 people , while damage amounted to $ 12 @,@ 000 .
= = = Hurricane Eleven = = =
A tropical depression formed in the eastern Pacific Ocean just offshore Guatemala on September 27 . The depression drifted northwestward and made landfall in Guatemala on September 28 . It crossed southeastern Mexico and entered the Gulf of Mexico near Ciudad del Carmen on October 1 . Shortly after entering the Gulf of Mexico , the system strengthened into a tropical storm and became a hurricane on October 2 . It turned more to the north and intensified to a strong Category 2 hurricane on October 3 . Subsequently , the storm made landfall near Freeport , Texas , on October 4 at the same intensity . The hurricane rapidly weakened to a tropical storm as it turned northeastward over land . On October 6 , it weakened to a tropical depression over Missouri and later became extratropical . The storm accelerated northeastward and dissipated near Chicago .
The hurricane produced high tides along the Texas coast , peaking at 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in Velasco . Galveston was temporarily cut off from the mainland when water surpassed the city 's seawall . Several streets were flooded in Galveston and the city pier was damaged . Another pier in Port Aransas was nearly destroyed . Freeport sustained the most damage , totaling about $ 150 @,@ 000 . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall in Texas , peaking at 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 370 mm ) in Goodrich . A tornado was also spawned in Riceville , which injured two children . Damage totaled approximately $ 6 @.@ 7 million , primarily to crops . The hurricane also caused two deaths , one from electrocution in Port Neches and another due to drowning in Matagorda Bay . Outside of Texas , impact was mainly limited to minor damage to cars in five other states .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
Another tropical storm developed northeast of Puerto Rico on October 2 . The system initially moved northward , before curving to the east @-@ northeast on the following day . It slowly strengthened and later peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . By early on October 6 , the storm began to weaken and became extratropical the next day . Its remnants continued east @-@ northeastward for about 12 hours , before dissipating on October 7 .
= = = Hurricane Thirteen = = =
Beginning on October 11 , an area of disturbed weather moved through the western Caribbean Sea . Early on October 13 , a tropical depression made landfall in Guantánamo Province , Cuba . Continuing northeastward , the storm emerged into the Atlantic over the Bahamas . While located over the southeastern Bahamas , the system intensified into a tropical storm . Further intensification occurred and it became a hurricane on October 14 , after exiting the Bahamas . Late on the following day , the hurricane reached its peak intensity . Thereafter , the storm began to deteriorate , weakening to a tropical storm on October 17 . It became transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 19 .
= = = Tropical Storm Fourteen = = =
A tropical storm was first observed about 865 miles ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbuda . The storm initially moved west @-@ northwestward , until re @-@ curving northwestward on October 14 . It strengthened slowly and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Thereafter , the storm began to weakened and fell to tropical depression intensity on October 17 . Several hours later , it dissipated while located about 620 miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) south of Cape Race , Newfoundland .
= = = Tropical Storm Fifteen = = =
A tropical storm developed over the central Atlantic Ocean on November 1 . The system moved southwestward and then west @-@ southwestward , strengthening slowly during this time . On November 2 , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . The storm began to weaken while appearing to threaten the Lesser Antilles , but later curved northwestward . On November 4 , the system turned northward and weakened to a tropical depression . Early the next day , it became extratropical . The remnants continued northward before dissipating on November 6 .
= = = Tropical Storm Sixteen = = =
The final storm developed from a persistent low pressure area in the northwestern Caribbean Sea near Swan Island on November 3 . A reconnaissance aircraft reported a well @-@ defined eye feature as the storm reached its peak intensity . The storm drifted south @-@ southwestward and began weakening on November 4 . Later that day , it made landfall over northeastern Honduras as a tropical depression . Shortly after moving inland , the system dissipated .
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= HMS Neptune ( 1874 ) =
HMS Neptune was an ironclad turret ship originally designed and built in Britain for Brazil , but acquired for the Royal Navy in 1878 . Modifications to suit the Royal Navy took three years to complete and the ship did not begin her first commission until 1883 with the Channel Fleet . She was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1885 , but refitted in Portsmouth in 1886 – 87 . Neptune then became the coastguard ship for the 1st Class Reserve at Holyhead until 1893 when she was placed in reserve in Portsmouth . While she was being towed to the breakers in 1903 , Neptune unintentionally rammed HMS Victory , then serving as a training hulk for the Naval Signal School , collided with HMS Hero , and narrowly missed several other ships . She was scrapped in Germany in 1904 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Neptune was designed by Sir Edward Reed for the Brazilian Navy in 1872 as a masted version of HMS Devastation , a larger , sea @-@ going version of the Cerberus @-@ class breastwork monitors , and was given the provisional name Independencia . Adding masts , however , meant adding a forecastle at the bow and a poop deck at the stern to provide the space required for the masts and rigging . These blocked the firing arcs of the gun turrets so that they were deprived of the axial fire which was the original design 's greatest virtue . The ship resembled , instead , an enlarged version of HMS Monarch .
During the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 tensions dramatically escalated between Russia and Great Britain as the latter feared that the victorious Russian armies would occupy the Turkish capital of Constantinople , something that the British were not prepared to tolerate . They mobilized much of the Royal Navy in case war did break out and purchased a number of ironclads under construction , including Independencia , in 1878 . The Brazilians sold the ship for £ 600 @,@ 000 , nearly twice as much as the £ 370 @,@ 000 paid for Devastation a few years earlier . Another £ 89 @,@ 172 was spent to bring her up to the standards of the Royal Navy . In British service she was deemed " a white elephant , being a thoroughly bad ship in most respects — unlucky , full of inherent faults and small vices , and at times a danger to her own consorts " .
Neptune was 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 4 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 63 feet ( 19 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . The ship normally displaced 8 @,@ 964 long tons ( 9 @,@ 108 t ) and 9 @,@ 311 long tons ( 9 @,@ 460 t ) at deep load .
Neptune proved a poor seakeeper as she was wet , difficult to manoeuvre and a heavy roller . She had a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) skylight over the wardroom , which as a result often flooded while the ship was at sea .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Neptune had one 2 @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine , made by John Penn and Sons , driving a single 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) propeller . Eight rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 32 psi ( 221 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine had a total designed output of 8 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , but produced a total of 8 @,@ 832 ihp ( 6 @,@ 586 kW ) during sea trials in February 1878 which gave Neptune a maximum speed of 14 @.@ 65 knots ( 27 @.@ 13 km / h ; 16 @.@ 86 mph ) . The ship carried 670 long tons ( 680 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 480 nmi ( 2 @,@ 740 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) even though Sir George Tryon described her as " a weak ship in her engines and consuming a coal @-@ mine daily " .
Neptune was barque @-@ rigged , but her twin funnels were so close to the mainmast that the sails and rigging rapidly deteriorated in service . The mast was eventually stripped of sails and yards so that the ship only used the fore and mizzen masts ; an unsightly combination described as " like a half @-@ dressed harlot " . During her 1886 refit the ship 's masts and rigging were replaced by simple pole masts with fighting tops at the fore and mizzen positions only .
= = = Armament = = =
The Brazilians had ordered four Whitworth 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) for the gun turrets and a pair of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns as chase guns , but these were replaced in British service . HMS Neptune mounted a pair of 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 317 mm ) muzzle @-@ loading rifles in each turret and two 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns in the forecastle as chase guns . These guns only traverse 45 ° to the side . The ship also had six 20 @-@ pounder Armstrong guns for use as saluting guns . Two 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes were mounted on the main deck , one on each side , for Whitehead torpedoes .
The shell of the 16 @-@ calibre 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun weighed 809 pounds ( 367 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 38 long tons ( 39 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 480 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 18 @.@ 4 inches ( 467 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 14 @-@ calibre 9 @-@ inch gun weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) and fired a 254 @-@ pound ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 11 @.@ 3 @-@ inch ( 287 mm ) armour . The muzzle blast of the main guns was more than the deck immediately below the muzzles could stand and the full charge for the guns was reduced from 200 to 180 pounds ( 90 @.@ 7 to 81 @.@ 6 kg ) of powder to minimize the damage .
= = = Armour = = =
Neptune had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) and then to 9 inches ( 229 mm ) in steps at the ends of the ship . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) above the waterline and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) below it . An armoured citadel 112 feet ( 34 @.@ 1 m ) long protected the bases of the gun turrets , the funnel uptakes and the ventilation shafts for the engines and boilers . The sides of the citadel were 10 inches thick and it was closed off by transverse bulkheads 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick . The chase guns at the bow were protected by a patch of 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) armour .
The faces of the turrets were 13 inches ( 330 mm ) thick while the sides were 11 inches ( 279 mm ) thick . They were backed by 13 – 15 inches ( 330 – 381 mm ) of teak . The armoured deck was 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) outside the citadel and 2 inches thick inside it . Neptune was provided with an conning tower protected by 6 – 8 inches of armour situated right in front of the foremast . It could " be regarded as the first adequately installed conning position installed in a British " ironclad .
= = Service = =
HMS Neptune was laid down in 1873 for the Brazilian Navy under the name of Independencia by J & W Dudgeon in Cubitt Town , London . The shipyard attempted to launch her on 16 July 1874 , but she stuck fast and did not budge . A second attempt was made on 30 July during which the ship got about one @-@ third down the slipway and stuck , extensively damaging her bottom plating . She was finally launched on 10 September , after she had been lightened , and she was towed to Samuda Brothers for repairs and fitting out . The cost of the accident resulted in the bankruptcy of Dudgeons in 1875 .
Independencia ran her sea trials in December 1877 and purchased by the Royal Navy in March 1878 and renamed Neptune , after the Roman god of the sea . She was then taken to Portsmouth for alterations to her armament and other equipment that took until 3 September 1881 to complete .
Neptune was commissioned on 28 March 1883 for service with the Channel Fleet . She was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1885 , but returned to Portsmouth in July 1886 for a refit . The ship was assigned as the guard ship for the 1st Class Reserve at Holyhead in May 1887 . Neptune paid off into reserve in November 1893 in Portsmouth . In April 1902 she was transferred from Fleet reserve to Dockyard Reserve . The ship was sold for £ 18 @,@ 000 on 15 September 1903 for scrap .
While under tow by the tug Rowland and another at her side out of Portsmouth on 23 October 1903 , Neptune broke the cables connecting her to the tugs in a storm . With the winds and a strong flood tide pushing her , she was pushed back into the harbour and narrowly missed the training ship for Osborne College , HMS Racer . Neptune struck the training brig Sunflower anchored beside Racer a glancing blow and then hit the port side of HMS Victory , making a hole at her orlop deck . Neptune then was pushed by the tides and winds toward HMS Hero and came to rest against the bow ram of Hero . She was finally broken up in Lemwerder , Germany , in 1904 .
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= Tropical Storm Dottie =
Tropical Storm Dottie was the ninth tropical cyclone and fourth named storm of the 1976 Atlantic hurricane season . The precursor to Dottie formed in the Gulf of Mexico on August 17 and organized into a tropical depression on August 18 . The storm drifted towards the east , and , after peaking as a moderate tropical storm , it accelerated northeastward and made landfall on Florida . Upon re @-@ emerging in the Atlantic , Dottie turned northward and moved ashore near Charleston , South Carolina . Damage from the storm was primarily insignificant and limited to gusty winds , heavy rainfall , and high tides ; however , a fishing boat capsized in the Bahamas , resulting in the deaths of four people .
= = Meteorological history = =
Dottie originated in an area of low pressure that formed on August 17 , about 150 mi ( 240 km ) northwest of Key West , Florida . The center of the disturbance soon began to consolidate while barometric pressure fell 8 mbar in 24 hours ; it was declared a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on August 18 . The depression drifted east and northeastward over the next day , though it began to accelerate on August 19 . The cyclone further intensified to tropical storm status by 1200 UTC . Operationally , however , it was not named until later that day .
Having made landfall in southwestern Florida , Dottie quickly proceeded northeastward before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean . High pressure building to the north of the storm indicated it would turn more towards the west , but it moved nearly due northward . The cyclone attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on August 20 and subsequently began to weaken ; by the time Dottie made landfall in Charleston , South Carolina later that evening , it was barely of tropical storm intensity . It deteriorated into a tropical depression on August 21 and dissipated shortly thereafter . The remnant low pressure system turned southward and once again entered the Atlantic before turning westward and crossing the Florida peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In response to the storm , gale warnings were issued on August 19 from Jacksonville , Florida to Virginia Beach , Virginia . A hurricane watch was also posted between Savannah , Georgia and Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The hurricane watch was later extended to Jacksonville when conditions appeared more favorable for the storm 's intensification , but was soon discontinued . Flooding rains were anticipated in the Carolinas , though , in contrast , Dottie was compared to a mere thunderstorm by some local officials .
Prior to being upgraded to a tropical storm , the depression spawned heavy precipitation and high winds throughout southern Florida and portions of the Bahamas . In Fort Lauderdale , the storm dropped 10 @.@ 68 in ( 271 mm ) of rainfall , and in the Miami area , 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals reached 8 in ( 200 mm ) . The heavy rainfall caused street flooding across the region . The highest recorded wind gusts were 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Islamorada , and in the city the winds damaged a roof . The winds downed trees , and left roughly 20 neighborhoods in southern Florida without power during the passage of Dottie . Wind gusts of 40 to 50 mph ( 64 to 80 km / h ) were recorded across the northern Florida Keys and Grand Bahama . Near the latter location , a fishing boat capsized during the storm ; four of its occupants drowned . Along the Southeastern U.S. coast , tides generally ran 1 to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal , peaking at 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) in North Carolina . Moderate to heavy rainfall was reported in the Carolinas , causing flooding of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep in New Hanover County , North Carolina . Overall damage was light and primarily limited to coastal beach erosion . In some areas , Dottie helped relieve drought conditions .
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